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THE

POPULAR SCIENCE

REYIEW.

A QUABTERLY MISCELLANY OF
ENTERTAINING AND INSTBUCTIVE ARTICLES ON

SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS.

EDITED BY HENRY LAWSON, M.D.

VOLUME X.

LONDON:
ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192 PICCADILLY;

ASD ALL BOOESELLEBS.
1871

# »
'**»*<

STENTS OF VOL. X.

TT5C THE Mark ; or, CASnoit- Balls ano their STBiKiKa
Vklocttt. ByO.W.RojBton-PigoU, M.A., M.D. Plate LXVII.

hTFRAL SBLKcnoiT iNflUFFTCIBNT TO TRB DbTKLOPMKIT OP Man,

7 the R«v. Ooorge Buckle, M.A

n-TMORPHic Ffitol By M. C. Cooke, M.A. Plate LXVIU. ...
('Vbb Ecxipto ExpBDmoBn. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. ...
Vtma ox BrTTERFLiES, By the Re?. C. Hope-Robertaon, F.R.M.S.

rinte LXIX

Ox Slkep. By Dr. Ridi«rd»on, F.R.S. ^

Tas DucoFHOKBH, or Lassie MuDiraA By the Rev. Thomas

Hincki, B.A- Plate LXX

Tint IseiTBB or the late Eclipbb. By J, Carpenter, F.R,A.S, ...
GKunxe; ITS CoNSEoijeNCEs iKu ErFKOS. By Maxwell T,

MMlens M.D., F.BS. Hate LXXI

Coal as a Rebkstoir os Power. By Robert Hunt, FJL8.

Tm PLnocTB Bkeaswatsk Fobt. By S. J. Msckie, C.E. Plate

LXXU

SoiTH AnticA AKD ITS DuvosDB. By T. Rupert Jones, F.O.S. ...
Tsi Stxdctubb or Rocx Masses (Fouatioh aitb Bikiatiok).

By Dtvid Forbes, F.R.S. Plate LXXIII

BuTtRH Bkau axd Woltw. By W. Boyd Dnwlcing, 1|A., F.K.S.,

F.O.8.

T«« " Ixiim" o» thk Axctnis. By M. C. Cooke, M.A. Plate

LXXn'.

OtnuLAjra. By ■WillminPengeny,F.R.S.,F.G.S

OMlBiATiom OK JoriTKR in 1870-71. By the Rer. T, W. Weib,

M.A.. F.JtJi.a.

iv CONTENTS.

PAGE

ThB lyiERWATIONAL EXHIBITION AT SorTH RENSiySTON. By S.

J. Mackie, C.E. Plat© LXXV 284

How F18HSS Breatke. By J. C. Galton, MjV., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.

JrlaiC liA A V A» .•• ••• ••• %•• ••• >•• ••* O'xA

Mr. Ckooxss' New Psychic Forci. By J. P. Earwaker 356

The Moss World. ByR.Braithwaite,M.D.,F.L.S. Plate LXXVII. 306

Theory of a Nertous Ether. By Dr. RichardsoB, F.R.S. ... 379

Oif Plsistoceke Clihate and the Relation of the Pleistocene
Mamkaua to the Glacial Period. By W. Boyd Dawkins,
Mj^., F.R.S., F.G.a Plate LXXVm 388

Star Streaks and Star Sprats. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. 398

KsYiHWB OF Books 67, 177, 292, 413

SdEITTIFIC SmncABT: —

Astronomy ... 78, 192, 305, 424

Botany 83, 190, 313, 429

Chemistry 87, 203, 316, 433

Geology and Paleontology 92,207,319,435

Mechanical Science 96, 210, 315, 437

Medical Science 98,212,327,438

Metallurgy, Mineralogy, and Mining 102, 216, 440

Microscopy 106, 219, 332, 441

Photog^rapby ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ... ... 220

Physics 108,222,333,443

Zoology and Comparatiye Anatomy 113, 225, 337, 446

^8ton

E REVIEW.

ITTINtr THE MARK ; OR, CASSON-BALLS AND
THEIR STRIKING \'ELOCITY.

r G. WEST ROYSTON-PIQOTT, M.A., M.D., Castad. M.II.C.P.,

I**ikFkllow or St. Petee'b Colleok, CiimitiiraB, akd

Felmw 07 THE CiMBRiBOB Philosophicii, thb RoTiL Abtrosokicax,

U TD MicSMCOncAL SociBTiBs, AUTHOR oc"Tbe H.jbbooatb Spas,"

^^k {VIATE Lxni.]

^^■TVERY few years, we are now accUHtoraerl to hear of cam-
^PPj paigna on a most stupendous scale being fought, loat or
■'Von, in a great meaHme by superiority of modern artillery.
The nation which haa the beat field-pun and can strike the
most rapid, overwhelming, and hard-hitting blowa at long
range, demoraliaea the foe before he has a chauco to hit again.
H iJlectricity for conveying orders, and explosive missilea de-
^kpaifhed at tabulous distances, enable concentric masBcs tu
^Konihilate the enemy, innocent of such resources of the modem
^Bpt of killing the greatest number in the least pOBsiblo time.
^^C S0LFER150, Sadowa, and Seda» hissed a sad sarcasm, from
^^PIB vainglorious vanquished, whilst Europe rang with sym-
^ffnitlietic echoes, trembling at the fall of embattled hosts,
destroyed for lack of knowledge. Yet the philosophy of pro-
jectiles seems only just now beginning to be understood, A
practical working knowledge of the effective energy of shot
hitting a distant mark is of more impoi-tance now than ever.
In fiiire of the European dramas so recently played out before
oiir eyes, the question of striking energy, or distant velocity, is
DOW of supreme, it may be hereafter of tiemendous intt'rest, as

P^lvSng the very destinies of the country.
Bern is a question of apparent simplicity which our artil-
iRt* could not recently solve.
ff a 9-inch 250 lb. cannon-ball strikes an object 200 feet
divtant with a velocity of 1,400 feet per second (1,400 f. a.),
TOL. X. — KO. IXSnil. B

2 POPULAR SCIENCE REYTEW.

what loss of velocity would be effected by the resistance of the
air upon its reaching an iron-clad vessel a mile distant ?

To fire cannon-balls with a given charge and ascertain their
time of flight and range, or perhaps their penetrating power
at short ranges ; and to " time " the fuze of a bursting charge^
were the chief points formerly attended to.

Attempts had been made, indeed, with considerable success^
to ascertain one velocity for each ball striking a ballistic pen-
dulum, which, upon receiving the shock of the striking ball,
vibrated through a measurable arc.

Even this solution was sufficiently difficult to have engaged
the powers of Robins, Hutton, Didion, and HdU. So late
as 1865 the latter confesses ("Traits de Balistique ") 2 "Xe^
solutions les plus avancSes laissent encore fort a dSsirer.
L^eocposS de ce qui a 6tS fait montrera du moms ce qu^il reste a
/aire" (p. 2).

There still remains, however, a great desideratum — a com-
plete system which shall enable the scientific artillerist to
answer any question respecting the motio^n and behaviour of a
shot after it has left the cannxnCs mouth at any point of its
path. Such results should also be immediately practicable by
those who are without the scientific knowledge on which such
results have been obtained. "Applied science," the master
idea of the age, would, in the case of artillery students,
receive a striking illustration : and thus literally connect the
Government with technical education. The general reader will
understand the remarkable difficulties encountered in prose-
cuting this research, by presenting to him a short rSsumi of
the history of this engrossing question.

Nearly the whole system of theoretic modem gunnery is
founded on Button's "Mathematical Course" (H. £ed 1807).
Button's celebrated experiments with the ballistic pendulum
were published by the Eoyal Society in their Transactions in
1778, nearly one hundred years ago: these experiments had
an important influence.*

* Several European Goyemments took up the question. The chief
theatre of them was Metz in 1839-40, where an extensire system was deve-
loped under the direction of MM. Piohert, Morin, and Dtdion, with a laige
instrument constructed on the English plan. In 1855, a large ballistic pen-
dulum was constructed at Elswick for the English govemment, at the cost
of soTeral thousand pounds, which has not hitherto been even used, for
shortly afterwards Nayez*s electro-ballistic instrument was imported from
Belgium, which appeared to give correct initial yelocities. But when the
mathematicians began to cross-question its results, they found that no law of
resistance of the air at yarious points of the ball's path could be deduced
from its use. Since 1866 Benton's electro-ballistic machine with two pen-

K.JI

nrmsG the mark, etc. 3

a languid melancholy way we have been arriving (for a
d of 200 years' study of this question) at an inkling of
real state of the case. In gunnery our parabolic theory
all wrong. It was fancied, somehow, first of all that the
Dstaoce of the air had little power as against shot. Sir
lac Newton and Dr. Halley were both of this opinion,
ibins states (" Gunnery," Preface), that a miiaket-ball at an
ivation of 45° should range seventeen miles in vacuo, yet it
. ly flies half a mile 1 •
The great honour of mastering the complicated difficulties
stt«ndi^ the determination of successive velocities at different
points of the flight, and calculating the laws of the resistance
of the air from experiments made upon a large scale, is unques-
tionably due to our fellow-countryman, Professor Bashforth.
Thin gentleman, apparently from the tenour of the Report, re-
vived little approval or encouragement from the official mind.
The English public will no doubt appreciate these labours,
* it is a matter of congratulation that such men aa Profes-
Adams and Stokes have undertaken the onerous task of pro-
icing their verdict upon researches as profound as they were
spontaneous. An elaborate Report is now published replete
with results of the highest importance to the future defensive
jiower of this country .f Quoting from this report we read : —

I, nnder the name of Leur't>, sod itnotheT bj Bouleag^, which giv4>
le velocity, hare been much UBod in this country and on the Con-
Sir Charles ^Mieatstone, F.R.S., and Bieguet, also designed instra-
IBU for tncasurinft auccesaivu velocities, but no inromatioa is extant upon
rit experimental success, At Paris, in 1SG7, Schultz'sinBtrument was aleo
^^iUted with a similar iatentioD and no result.

' The reeiEtonce of the air ia the case Just mentioned reduces the tango
It ipftce thirty-four times less than a raciium nng«.
'~ lUuo'a law assigned it to be a function of the velxity added to its
,(..♦!.?).

n at a function of the velocity added to the cube {bv + cb*),
SolODtl Mnyewski at a higher function still —

pFkat is very remarkable is that Hulton nad Piobert (whose kws have

BODunouly employed) deduced very dilTercnl lawa from the same ci-

meaU.

t fiuthe'r information on this point see " Description of a Chronograph,

«d for Measuring the varying Velocity of a Body in Motion through

■Air, tx>i other Purposes." London : Bell & Daldy,

Tf Srporl on Brperimenta made with the Baahforth Chronograph for deUr-

mtji Iht Ttttittatict of the Air tu the lUntum of Prq/'ectileM (p. 160),

I'rinWd by Ept & Spottiowoode, November 1870, hi Her Mtyesty's Sla-

tiecwry Office.

roPtlLAR SCIEMCE liETTE^.

(March 21, 18f>4.)--«Soon aRer \m
appointment, Professor Basbforth, in his
first letter to the Ordnance Select Com-
jd mittee, recomviende the adc^tlon of a
" kind o/prmtiTig telegraph .... in order
that we may have a check upon the
tnea^ui'emffiUs of etrikliig vdoc'itiea." It
goes on to statt , page 25 : " As this sug-
gestion did not appear to meet with ap-
proval, it devolved upon JIi-, BoshfoJtii

- to carry out hia own plans, which have
now been brought to a Bucceasful termi-
nation after four years of incessant la-

- hour." (July 23, 1868.) In the same
_ ^ page the Report further declares : " The

state of our knowledge of the resistance

- of the air in 1865 was well expressed in
"" ■- Captain W. H. Noble's Report to the
' = Ordnance Select Committee dated April
-3 2, 1865:— "It is regretted that this sub-
_ "^ ject cannot he fully treated in the present
; _ Report, but the difficulties in the way of

L u. clear Boliition are so many and so great,

,. that it would he difficult with our present

' experience to assign any new law repre-
senting with accuracy the resistance of

- " the air to the motion of spherical and

3 - elongated projectiles'" {page 19).

The scientific referees thus characterise

= t the Bashforth instrument : —
r ° " We do not think that any means be-

-"i fore existed of recording a number of

", £ successive small intervals of time with the

o'!g' degree of precision and tmstworthinesa

2 attained by Professor Bjishforth's instrii-

I ment."

"__ This instrument gives records in paral-
" lei spiral lines traced on a revolving
" cylinder :■ — (1) of every alternate heat of
a a half-seconds clock ; (2) of the instants
■^ in 2,000ths of a second of the ball
~ cutting threads in ten to fifteen screena
'~'. placed 50 — 150 feet apart.
„- The accompanying diagram is a re-
duced facsimile of the record of an oh-
Berved round of firing cannon-shot through
the Bcieena.

nilTISG THE JJARK, ETC.

Throngliout the whole of these experiments, recorded per-
manently upon blue glazed paper, an elaborate system of test-
ing minute working errors, by differences of a high order of
iierutiQy, approved by the first mathematiciana of the age, has
^leen put in practice. About 400 rounds have been tabSatetl :
hen corrections for the density of the air for observed read-
p, height of the barometer and thermometer, have been in-
Kluced.
! The precision and excellence of thia mode of testing by suc-
IBEsive differences may be illustrated in the following manner.
If the velocity of the shot follows a particular law for eertjiiu
limits, the successive differences will show its existence and any

k departure from it : just as a succession of squares and culx^
r— ■■-

(lilUlOR ')

I(t differ. A,
2iKi dilTer. A,
3rd differ. A,

CrBKa. I i:kroh.+)

Noe. 1 8 37 04 ]:.j l'10 342 OI-» 7-2i) 1000
differ. A, " 10 37 01 01 12« i»o 217 271
■ difler. A.J 12 18 24 .10 95 *% *7 o4
3rd differ. A, G ij 5 9 3 7

4ih differ. A, O-i 4-fi 4 -i

Now if the squares had been all multipiied by some coustant
coefficient, the last differences would have been equally reduced
to zero. The same thing would have happened mtli the cubes.
_AJid, more complex still, if a new series were formed with terms
lasting of squares and cubes, or their constant multiples, a
i of differences would d^-tect any deviation from a fixed

I Further, the law, being ascertained by a great number of
jerimenta, slight errors of observation could be detected and
rtified by tlie principles of intei-polation,\

EThe Bashfurtli chronograph, actuated by a fly-wheel of

* An error of 1 ia purposely mtroduccd to show its exoggemted vffcct ;
^ third diflcrencen, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, being tbHnged into 0, 0, 1, - 3.

of 1 only is introduced purposely, t h. 342 iofiteod of 'MS, anil
it depHrtura from regulnrity is tliown in the tliird and founh differencvt,
Bcocseq^uence of the above error.

W\ Et«d when a progressive law b HulnowD and implied, by which a series
a rwulta uo oblnined, elill by eucces^ively differencing, by meims of tqui-
iutani arj/timeHfi, thecxJstcnce of isolated errors con be speedily discovered
ud corrected.

POFULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

nearly unifoiin velocity, and recording clock-beats as well bb
screen-striking within the 2,000th of a second (the projectile
cutting the threads of ten or fifteen successive screens, placed
50 — 150 feet apart), gives a permanent comparative record of
the instants of the passage of the ball. The following example
is expanded from " Trans, of the Eoyal Society," 1868, p. 425.

Hemispherical-headed shot. Diameter 4-7 in. ; weight 89*34 lbs.

CLOCK

Time

Beading

I^ACorrected Beading

Ai A3

4-910

+ 16-910

2''

20-820

+ 16-830 "^

+ 40

3''

36-660

+ 16-790 "^^

-60

52*440

+ 16-700 "^

+ 40

6''

68140

+ 16-660 "^

83-790

CLOCK

Time

Beading

Corrected Beading

4-91

^•OlO 15-910

70
67
64
61

20-82

20-820 15.840

3''

86-06

^■^ 15-773

4//

52*44

62-433 I6.-09

6''

68*14

«8142 i5.g^

88.79

83-790

By interpolation * the instant of passing ten screens in suc-
cession, as marked by the spiral traced on the revolving drum,
is thus given in decimals : —

Times of Passinq the ScBEEys.

Screen

9 10

Times

2"-4C92

2"fi956

2"-7288

2 '-8539

2"'98fi8

3"1196

3 -2552

8'-3925

a"-5316 8"-e722

1264 1282 13

01 1319 13.

38 13J

M 1373 13(

)0 1407

18 19 18 19 18 17 17 17

+1 -1 +1 -1-10

The length of the spiral traced on the paper cylinder is
about nine or ten inches for one second ; thus by a vernier and

* It is hardly desirable to insert the formulse of this process in an article
TO Popular Science,

HllTlKG THE MARK, ETC. 7

steel T-square and fine mark, the cylinder being removed
' from tbe machine and applied between centres as in the wood-
tut, the actual times of flight are compared with the instants
of time measured on the paper, correctly, to the 200th of an
Nejtt the velocities for tbe middle point of each interval
between the screens are calculated. Data are then obtained for

comparing the changes in velocity with those which ought to
arise from a supposed law of resistance for every ten feet of the
projectile's fiight. Tbe agreement of the calculated with tbe
experimental results is then verified.

From these researches, which, indeed, may be said to form a
new era in gimnery, it appears as the result of chronographic
experiments with some hundreds of rounds of every kind of
shot used in the service —

That the diameter being the same, the shot preserves its

Etlucity to a greater distance for bitting the mark, as tbe
right is greater.
^Hiat the resistance ia less for the same weight as the shot is
Migat^d within certain limits.

That the resistance also varies inversely aa the square of the
diameter.

That the resistance of the air for velocities used in practice
(900-1700 f. 3.) cannot be expressed by any simple power, or

* The steel T-BqiiiiTe elides along the pkte L and the mark b upon it
linng placed Bccurutel; iiptm the succcBsive records of eecondu and acreens, is

ild off by the Tcraier (h) to about the J^th of an inch, or 2,000ths of
■Mo&d. The cylinder k ia moved from the chronograph before the paper

8 FOPULAB SCIENCE nSVlKW.

simple function, of the velocity. The resistance of the air
may be taken to vary as the sixth power of the velocity &ois
950-1050 f. s., as the thiiid power from 1070 to 1400 f. s., and
as the SECOND power for higher velocities. Under these cir-
cumBtances the cubic law, with a varying coefficient, has bee&
adopted as the most convenient for calculation.

That at 1,200 feet per second velocity this coefficient of
resistance is the greatest for elongated projectiles, which rises
in value rapidly at 1,000 f. a. to 1,100, and diminishes gradu-
ally as the velocity is increased beyond 1,200.

But for spherical shot the coefficient of resistance rises more
gradually to its maximum at the same velocity of 1,200 f. s.,
and diminishes gradually for greater velocities.

BissEciED Tadlp.

3izfl and iraiglit of IS-in.

Initial velocity
Dutaoee froni gun
CorreBpoDding
locitj

diBtancs

IllQl

2100
SODO

. lOOlb. GSlb 321li.
2100 21003100
GOOO S0O0 40UO

18Lb.121b.Ulb. Gib, 31b.
2100 2100 210. .2100 3100
3GO0 3100 2700 2300 1600

t 3.i7 Sm. 874 8S1 B78

Such a table as this for every hundred feet is of high value,
being the first ever trustily obtained.*

It is remarkable that no Artillery Manuals hitherto extant
give any reliable information upon the decrease of velocity at
different ranges. The old difficulty, the unknown irrepressible
stumbUng-block, the resistance of the air, vitiated every attempt
at scientific coucludons.

* Its great vhIiio may be at ODce seen from the BoluUon of innumereble
questions like the followio^;: —

A 6-pr. and n 32-pr. are both about to be fired iviih the same initial
Telocity of 2,100 f, b. : at wbat distance will the 32-pr. hit nn object ivith
the aame Telocity as the 0-pr. at 2,300 feet P By the table we see JjOOO feet
distance has a velocity for tho 32-pr. 88i f. a., and for the fi-pr. at 2,300
feet has a velocity of 884.

Again, a ir)--i[ich Itodniim Iieeps up ils velocity at 8,000 feet equal to that
of a C8-pr. at 4,100 feet, tar^t distance.

Tables have also been ascertained for finding the velocity generated bj
different charge!<, so that the follon^ing complicated question can now b«
xdved: —

Aahotfrom aC-inchgun(2501bs.), fired at a target 200 yards' distance, is

inind to slrike with tho same velocity a> it would strike at 1,000 yards,

tt to ooaipare perforating powers : what chargea of powder must be uaed

IIITTJKG THE MAftS, KTC. 9

iea the celebrated gun of Sir William Armstrong, F.R.S.,
was first tested, the range was found to greatly eiceed what it
ought to have been by theory. Gunnery was all at sea for
" "igh velocities. The first elements, obtainable only by experi-
mtfl at successive points of the path of one and the same ball
B reaily unknown.
I It is stated in these Reports (page 20) : —
** Round 68, with 5-inch rifled bronze gun, permanently injured
egun." . . . " Nothing wrong was noticed before the eighty-
irth round. The resistance of the air was found to be three
B its proper amount." Tkia dioffnoged uneteadineae. The
shot was tilting itself in its flight, creating greater resistance.
Again they eay : " When we came to experiment with the new
2-inch M.L. gun, converted from a breech-loader, we found the
resistance of the air for shot fired from this gun less in propor-
tion tban for any other calibre. We could only ascribe this
reduced resistance to superior steadiness of the shot. The gun,
~ " I tried on long ranges, made remarkable good practice,
■nee it is manifest that any chronograph which is capable of
"ng, in a satisfactory manner, the time at which the shot
a succession of equidistant screens, affords a ready means
f testing the degree of steJidiness imparted to the shot by any
tew gun or new system of rifling."

The enormous labour of comparing each velocity at each of
the screens for a considerable number of rounds may be easily
imagined.*
The results of these beautiful experiments and researches are

Rthe utmost imiwrtance —
fl-) In the technical education of artillery officers.
(2.) In the assistance they give to the practical artillerist.
The ascertained laws of flight will now present artillerists
-.th a true guide fur the performance of their arduous duties.
The result of 18 rounds of shot through 10 screens, commenced

^^■'* If 120 fe«t be the diitanco at one Bcreea (rom another, and tlie cubic
^^Hrof reaistBnce be (ipplied, the sctunl time orcupied b;a 121b9. Ariiistrung
^^El punng over (he intprvHl t = -OOOSGajiO x 120 -t- ■00000004-J > 1^0 k 120
^Hbit, the velocity will equni unity divided hy n ij^uaotity rcpreEcuted bj
■OOOeOtWaO + -000000042 - 120. in this CMC the rtaiBtance will vnry aa the
cube oE the velocity.
When 4,000 icfiintaacea at 10 screens for 400 roiini!« bnre thus been cnl-
iftlcd, further corrvctJunB are required for tbe height of the baronietei and
toperBture, and in each ease tlie weight of the shot has t» be an element
■* cukulatioiL The Report represents about five years of ppoutaneoua
Lf, of a nature which fevr would like to undertolie,

lucceaidre difiVrencos to ascertain errors of obwrvalioa
M tbe resullB to be supple ni to led with an elaboiale ^jtocees o{ inlct^o-
(Ae rian^acl/om of tlie Jiojal Sociclj, ISl^.

J^f^emlM^sT 23i, 1^5. gatT^ soA mlicati'oges of the power of the
iKTW m^fa^vdy tLat uo mbs^jpeut CijTPXtiou or modification
ha« been foond iKee:«eaiT &> adapc them to the law of resdst-
anee ascertained in several handled r*>mMkw

The eminent referees alreadv mon^ establi^ Professor
hsiiihfonh's claim- to prioritj in the following sentence : — " By
ezperimenU made in thi« way. Captain W. H. Noble has
oUained very good resnlu, which confirm in a remarkable
manner those which had been previously obtained by Professor
Ba«hforth for high velocities, and agree approximately with
those of >L Helie for lower velocities.* A singularly interesting
result lias been obtained.

It appears that if the shot flies faster than a sound-wave, the
i^hot is preceded by an automatic wave caused by itself; fol-
lowfid as it were more slowly by the wave of the explosion.
But if the shot is behind the sound-wave, in consequence of its
vel^K'ity lx;ing less than that of sound, the shot may be travel-
ling in a medium more or less dense than the undisturbed
atmosphere; and the law of resistance may be subject to
sudden changes or leaps showing unsteadiness, detected by the
readings of the chronograph. In this case tilting of the shot
may be presumed.

There are several very valuable results obtained from the
development of the ascertained laws of flight^, and applicable
to hitting the mark with the best effect.

Hpheroidal-headed shot showed the greatest steadiness and
the least resistance of all the solid forms of elongated shot
used.

A condemned 40-pr. B. L. gun was bored out to 5 inches.
The; chronograph showed remarkable precision and steadiness
of flight. " No other gun succeeded so well." Bounds 139 —
178 were fired April 29 and 30, 1868. The co-efficient of
resiHtance was found remarkably low for this gun.

The 250 lbs. shot with -^ charge of powder appeared to
meet witli unusually great resistance of the air, and indicated
great imstoadiness for low velocities.

Tlio 9-inch gun, formed with a rifling of to 1 in 45, gave
gr<^at indications of unsteadiness.

A 10-incli projectile would strike a harder blow at 2,000
yards tliun tlie 9-inch woidd inflict at the muzzle.

Th(^ power of perforation at 1,500 yards is the same as that
of llu) 9-inch at the muzzle.

The Whitworth elongated 150 lbs. flat-headed shot appeared
to exhibit unsteadiness of flight imder the larger charge of
20 Dm. powder, but assumes an eminently true motion when fired
the U>wo8t charge, 10 lbs. of gunpowder.

HITTING THE UABK, ETC. ^^H

The new Indian bronze gun, 3-inch 9-pr., also exhibited
greater onEteadiness when fired with 1 j lb. of powder than witli
H lb. charge. It jb remarkable for both these guns, that the
reiislaace of the air is most variable when the velocities iire
the highest. It has generally been found that accurate practice,
or "beautiful hitting," has been best obtained when the charge
is exactly euited to the weight of the ball, so as to fire it with
the least irregularity of atmospheric resistance and greatest
it«adines8 of ^ght.

Thia resistance, according to Professor Bashforth's reeearch ea,
acquires enormous proportions (Report, p. 121 ). ^^M

Table (abslraftcd) ^B

Shotting the KsUtance of tbe air in tba. to spbeiiea] ehot from 1 to 15 inches
in diameter, at velocities vai; jug from 900 to :2100 f. s. (fevt per KCond),
tslcukted bv meuu of Table V. ^^

>I>1.

llD.

I in.

SIp.

tain.

um. 1 13 la.

11*

ita.

it»

Ib<

ib>

eoo

s«

153

354

620

CIS

704

900

1300

»l

41)4

817

1705

1077

2209

1300

1700

1B«

461

803

1493

3110

3613

4148

1700

SlOO

1398

2311

4828

6693

tH21

2100

TitLs 07 SiEiznto Vklootties iT differest DwriNCEs ok IIi
THE Mare.

Dinin. of shot, 8-02 inches. Weight of shol, 2!i0 lbs.

nmM

T.IoclUB,tertiw«coiid

finnpm

100

aoo

.00

700

™ ™ 1

tt.

i.i.

It.

1 1

i«.

t »

t >

, ,

1000

{.■VW

1H.1«

w>n

13«0

1H16

VMf

]-M\

v.m

l:>ic^

1287

sooo

IWl

l«7t!

1W!6

l-;iM)

1255

I25II

1244

i;^;-ii)

1234

30DO

l^Vft

1^4

i«ii)

1214

12(H)

1205

12(M)

1195

1191

1180

4000

IIKI

1177

1172

11H7

1183

iimi

1154

1160

1145

1141

1116

111?

110H

1104

1100

1088

1081

1077

1073

1070

HMMt

1062

1052

KMH

1046

1041

1(K(I

lO-'O

lOlH

mifi

101 ;i

lOOil

irnHi

1003

HXK)

9000

904

991

9MH

985

iWIl

980

977

974

9'/-^

lOOOO

907 066

962

9110

957

96/>

953

948

046

POPULAR SCIENCE EETIEW.

Table for regulating Striking Velocity by altering the Weight

OP Powder Charge.

Charge

InitiAl velocity

Charge

Initial Telocity

Charge

Initial velocity

lbs.

20
21
22
23
24
26
26
27
28

f.R. A|

959 „,

1019 + g
1046 + ^
1071 + 1^

1117 !o?
1137 + rO

lloS^JS

lbs.
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

f. 8. A,

^'^1 + 10
1187 + IK

1202 + \l

1216 + 11
1227 + }2

1238 + 11
1248 + ^X
1257 + I
1206+ I

lbs.
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

f. 8. A,

1282 1 I
1290 1 S
1298 1 o
1306+ 2
1314+ I
1322+ °
1320+ '

The following paragraph from the Pall Mall Gazette will
not form an miinteresting conclusion to my observations: "In
the recent great sortie made by the French from Paris,
General Ducrot brought into action one of those new en-
gines of destruction to the invention of which the present
war has given so great an impetus. This is an armour-
plated locomotive, furnished with two powerful mitrailleurs,
also protected by armour, and originally intended for the
railway bridge at Point du Jour, whence it was to throw
bullets on to the heights of Meudon. This novel machine,
which weighs altogether only some six tons, has been manu-
factured at Gail's, the well-known mechanical engineer of Paris,
to whose establishment the city is so much indebted for the
extraordinary efforts that have been made to supply it with
cannon and other means of defence. The Prussian invasion
has certainly contributed a great deal to develope the inventive
talents of the Frencli ; for hardly a day passes without some
new implement of destruction being submitted to the Grovem-
ment of National Defence. Under the spur of defeat they
have produced the Marekderberg mitrailleur, firing 250 balls a
minute, and the Montigny, firing 480 ; as well as the Durant
steam mitrailleur, which discharges no less than 4,500 in the
same space of time, and the Faucheuse, or ' mower,' which is
said to operate without noise, smoke, or fire, to have a range of
from 500 to 600 yards, and to cost only 35/., with all the
necessary apparatus for firing 300,000 projectiles ; so that, if
every bullet really had its billet, the French, by employing
this weapon, miglit rid themselves of the whole of their enemies
for something less than 100/. In addition to the above, many
novel descriptions of shells liave also been proposed, if not
actually tried, among which are the Gaudin fire-bomb, the
improved Menestrol shell, bombs emitting suffocating vapoiirs,
and 80 on, "

niTTlXO THE MAIIK, ETC.

This state of things renders loDg range accurately strikir
artillery of the utmoet consequence at the present time.

■ DESCRimON OF PLATE LXVII.

The Clironograph U actimted bv a fly-ivliecl ».

K i* « cjlinder covered ■wilh prepared pnper for receiving (he record mndo
eleclricallj bj the beat of ibe clock, and the cutlmg tbe tlireads of the
■evenl screens through which the ebot p&s^cs id its flight. Tbe cylinder
is about 12 inches long ; dinmcter 4".
g a toothed ■wheel, pearing with m so as to allow a string CD to be slowly
nnwmpped from ils drum, whilst the other end is attached to the sliding
platfonu L, moving about a quarter of on inch for each rt^votulion.
It' electro- magnets, dtf are frames supporting the keepers, yi/j'thp springs
acting agnini^t the magnetic nttraetion.
On interrupting the current, hr tbe deetraclion of magnetiim the spriog
/curies back the Ifeeper, ivbtcb caiues tbe arm a to strike a blow on the
leier h. Tbus tbe marker m is mode to depart from the miiform spiral it
«aa describing. But when the cunent is restored, tbe keeper being
iiltracted causes tbe marker m to be brought back, and so continue to trace
the Fpiral as if nothing had occurred to alter its course.
t' h connected with the clock, and its marker m' records seeoude.
r. is connected with tbe screens, and records tbe passage of the shot through
each of them in aucceadon.
Thus, by comparing the marks made by mm', tbe eisctvelocily of the shot
na be cakalated at all point* of its course. The slide l is fiied parallel to
p nod the cylinder K by tbo brackets o, n.

J is a slop to regulalo the distance between wheels M and s, and t draws

hack tbe wbeelwork u. The depression of the lever A nuses iJie two

springs s, which, acting as levers, bring the diamond points of the

markers mm' down upon tbe paper.

When an experiment is to be made, the fly-wheel a is set in motion by

LkbiI, so bs to revolve about three times in two seconds ; the currents are

rompleted, the markers mtn' are brought down lo tbe paper cylinder e and

rSm four or five beats of tbe clock the " signal to tire " is given, so that in

itent ten seconda tbe experiment is completed and the instrument is ready

fif inntber.

The passage of the balls tiirougb tbe fifteen screens is distinctly recog-
lii^ by the ear, a peculinr Ir-r-r-r-rup being beard before tbe sound of tbe
I, if several hundred yards away.

NATURAL SELECTION INSUFFICIENT TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.

Bf THE -Rkv. OEORGE buckle, M.A.

ra well-known passage towards the close of the " Origin of
Species," Mr. Darwin supposes the question to be put to
him, How far does jour doctrine extend, and what amount of
ground doea it cover? The answer is perfectly frank and
clear. Practically it covers the whole area of life. Every
class, at least of animals and plants, must own a commoa
ancestor, and probably these class-founders are themselves onlj.
brethren descended from some yet remoter stock. Of the
former of these two positions he speaks confidently. " I cannot
doubt," he says, "that the theory of descent, with modification,
embraces all the members of the same class. I believe that
animals have descended from at most only foui' or five pro-
genitors, and plants from an equal or lesser number." Of the
latter he speaks with more reserve. " Analogy would lead me
one step further, namely, t« the belief that all animals and
plants have descended from some one protof.ype. Rut analogy,"
he adds, "may be a deceitful guide. Nevertheless he sees
sufficient reason to justify him in following its guidance in this
instance, and finally sums up his opinion in the following
remarkable words : " Therefore I should infer from analogy
that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on
thia earth have descended from some one primordial form, into
which life was first breathed."

The natural inference from these words would be that Mr.
Darwin considered his theory of natural selection as sufficient
to account for all the varieties of life on the face of the earth.
Rut it is not a necessary inference. For he is speaking, in
this passage, not precisely of the doctrine of natural selection,
but of the doctrine of " descent with modification ; " and the
two ideas are perfectly distinct. For it is quite possible tliat
all living beings may be descended from a single primordial
form, and yet that natural selection may not be the only

KATCBAL SBLECnON DISCFnClBNT TO DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 15

fluency employed in the determiDation of tlieir actual variety.
Iftlier methods and other forces may have conspireii with it,
checked or thwarted it, in the work of educing from one common
form the boundlesa multiformity which now meets oiir eyes.
N'o doubt the whole course of Sir. Darwin's reasonings and
illustrations leads us to the conriction that in bis judgment
the unassisted action of natural selection is sufficient to pro-
duce all the necessary modifications, but so far as express words
go, he has not excluded — at any rate in the passage which I
have quoted — the possibility of the eo-operation or interference
of »ome other cause; and it is important to call attention to
this, because a very high authority on this subject, Mr, A. R.
Wallace— the independent originator, and the most able de-
fender of the theory which bears Mr. Darwin's name — has
recently proclaimed his conviction that natural selection by
itself is inadequate to the production of at least one, and that
the most important, form of life. In other words it is im-
pogaible, in Mr. Wallace's opinion, that man can have been
()e\ eloped from the inferior animals by the process of natural
selection alone. Whatever else it may have done, it is un-
equal to this, the great and crowning act of creative power."

To underetand his reasonings we must first get a clear idea
of what the doctrine of natural selection is. It does not imply,
as many will persist in assuming, any capacity in the individual
I'l .liter his own structure, and adapt himself to surrounding
ircmnstancee. The individual docs not materially change.
-iii-h as he is bom, such, in bis physical structino, he will
iimain to the end of his life. Only if his physical structure
di'CB not happen to bo well adapted to the circumstances in
which be finds himself, his life will be a short one. His
D£i|;bbour, who happens, by some small variation, to Ije
slightly better adapted to those circumstances, will live longer.
iad, moreover, since the offspring inherit the parents^ pecu-
liarities, the descendants of this latter are likely to prevail to
tfae exclusion of those of the former ; and thus, in the course of
nme generations, tho prevailing typo and character of the
whole family will be slightly modified. It is not the indivi-
dual, but the collection of similar individuals, or the Kind — a
W'ird which may be usefully employed to avoid tho technical
irii-aning attaching to class or species— that changes. And it
Jianges only by means of changing its imits, by dropping out
&nm time to time those that are unsuitable, and keeping in and
preierving those that are suitable. In this way it adapts itself

• See '*' Contributioaa to the Theory of Natural Selection." {Macmillan
k Co.) By A. R. Wallftce. Tliie paper is little more tban aa eipnn^oD
ol put of tlie argumeat in one of iheae EsESfs.

16 rOPULAR SCIESCE REVIEW.

to the perpetiLil changes of surrounding circumstances, and
keeps iteelf by its own variations in constant harmony with tha
ever-varying world around It. As eartli and seas, forest, river
and meadow, climate and temperature, are never for a. moment
stationary, but maintain a perpetual ebb and flow of ceaseleaa
interchange, so tbo general forms and types of life, which ara
affected by all these influences, are also in continual and cor-
responding flux. Both are always in a condition of instabilitj
in themselves, because both are always in perfect harmony
with each other. But it follows from this that no modificatioii
can possibly be introduced into any form or type of life, unless
it !« beneficial to the creature modified — imless it tend, in soma
way or other, to bring him more into harmony with the condi-
tions around him than he was before. If the change be merely
a matter of indifference, doing neither good nor hann to thai
possessor, it will make no impression on tho Kind. It is an
individual peculiarity which may re-appear again here and there
in other individuals, but which has no tendency to prevail ovem
other similar peculiarities in others. But }£ the change ii
actually injiu-ious, it will vanish at once, Tlie unlucky po*-
seasor of it will be inferior to his neighboiu-s in the struggle
for existence ; his life will be cut short sooner than that ol
others ; his offspring, if they inherit his peculiarity, will
inherit also his disadvantages, and will soon perish out of tha
Kind, leaving no trace behind them. Natural selection is lika
fortune ; it favours only the brave ; it helps those only who
can help themselves ; it rejects the weak, the puny, the ill-
provided, and ill-adapted ; and its effect is best described as tha
survival of the fittest.

Now let us apply these principles to the case of man. Wera
the changes by which the Kind passed — if it did pass — from
some lower type to the human typo B\ich as would be mani-
festly beneficial in the first instance to the individuals who
were affected by these changes? Because, if they were not,
that transition could never have been effected by natural select
tion. If it occurred at all, some other agency must be taken
into account. \Miat, then, were these changes ? We cannot, of
course, tell exactly, unless we knew^as we certainly do not
know — the form of life which immediately preceded tho human.
But let us assume for the moment that the anthropoid apea and
man are the extremities of divergent lines from some remoto
ancestor, imiting in himself the characteristics which they have
in common ; how would the differen'iation begin to be carried'
on ? One of the most marked peculiarities in man is tho soft,
smooth skin. Alone among the mammalia, he is unprotected
either by the hardness or the shagginess of his integument, H»
Aas neither the impenetrable armour of the rhinoceros, nor th»

KATTTBAL SELECTION ISSTTFICIEST TO DETELOrilEST OF MAX, 17

thick fur of the bear, nor the warm wool of the sheep. Was
it any advantage t« the first individual that came into the
world with this soft, smooth akin, or with any approsimation
to it, beyond his fellows? Was it a peculiarity likely to help
him in the struggle for life — to enable him to survive when
others perished? — likely, therefore, when transmitted to his
offspring, to appear in greater force in the next generation ;
and gradually, by its superior adaptation to surrounding cir-
cumstances, to supplant the tough or hairy skins which had
preceded and accompanied it? Was it likely, in short, to
become an object of natural selection? Is it not, on the
contrary, quite plain that the very reverse would be the cjise ?
The accidental possessor of thia smooth skin would clearly be
at a great disadvantage. He would succumb beneath the
attacks of enemies which his hardier fellows could successfully
resist. Rain and frost and cold would work their bitter will
upon him unchecked. Inclement seasons, which only produced
a moderate inconvenience, or none at all, to creatures with
thick or shaggy hides, would soon prove fatal to the animal we
are imagining. There is no conceivable reason why such an
animal should live and perpetuate his peculiarity, while others
which did not possess it perished ; there is, on the contrary,
every reason to suppose that such an animal, bom for the first
time, an anomaly in a shaggy world, would speedily be elimi-
nated and leave no trace behind him. That is to say, it is
impossible to picture a condition of things in which a kind of
creatures distinguished by smooth skins could have arisen by
the process of natural selection. In other words, naturni selec-
tion cannot account for the origin of this peculiarity in the-
human form.

But that is not all. The theory of natural selection not
only requires that every change promoted by it should be for
the benefit of the possessor ; it requires also that it should be
for bis direct and imtnedicUe benefit ; that it shoidd be no
greater than is necessary to give him some instant advantage,
however slight, over his fellows. For it does not act, any more
Hum Nature herself, per saltum. It rests for its motive force
n{>on the variation which always exists between a parent and
an offspring ; and this variation is, for the most part., very slight.
It is enough to distinguish one from the other, but never much
more. It is generally so small that the unpractised eye often
fails to see any difference whatever. We do not mistake oiu-
friends for their fathers, though, if we do not know thera well,
we are liable sometimes to get confused between brothers and
xisters ; but, except to the shepherd, a flock of sheep seem to
be all exactly alike. The differences between individimls of
the same kind are for the most part very smaU, aQti it V* o"c\'j
FOX, x.^xo. xxsvin. q

18 rOPl'LAIt SCIENCE BEVIKW.

on these differences that natural selection act.s. Hence i
happens that the transformation of one kind into another is g
very alow and gradual process, because it has to be accom-
plished by a series of very small steps, A long step cannot bd
taken imles3 it is more to the advantage of the individual thaa
a short step in the same direction, because it is certain th&k
many more individuals will be bom in any given generation
with the small than with the large variation; and, unless th9
largo one has some direct advantage over the small, the merft
superiority of numbers will give the victory to the latter. Let
ua illustrate this by an example. Suppose a flower, such ai
the AngraeuTii Sesquipedale of Madagascar, with a very deep
nectary, and a supply of nectar at the bottom of it. Thiff
can only be reached by a moth with a very long proboscia.
.Suppose also that this nectary has, from any cause, a continual
tendency to lengthen in successive generations. It is evident
that moths that happen to be bom with probosees longer than
the average will have an advantage over those that are bom
with them shorter. They will have at least, other things
being equal, one more flower to feed on, and so have a better'
chance for life. Natural selection will therefore operate to'
produce a Kind of moths with long probosees. But it will not
give any preference to a proboscis longer than is required for'
that special purpose. A proboscis which has an inch to spare
would not be a bit more useful than one which could jurt
drain the nectar and no more. And while many moths would
be Iwru with the sliglit additional length necessary for this,
few or none would be bom with the proboscis an inch longer..
Such moths would be monstrosities, and monstrosities are always
rare. And there would be no cause at all tending to perpetuate
such a monstrosity and to counteract the universal tendency in
all such cases to retiun, if unchecked, to the normal type — a
tendency which is, in point of fact, simply another expression
of the perpetual effort, which all life manifests, to bring itself
into ateolute harmony with all around it. The music of the
spheres will not tolerate a discord ; if a half-note too high
or too low can be caught occasionally by the listening ear, it is
soon swept out and lost in the full strong current of advancing
sound. The office of natural selection is to maintain this con- J
cord, and it does it by favouring those shght variations which, I
by bringing their possessor more into harmony with the world I
around, give him an instant advantage over his fellows. It I
does not favour any larger variations ; it has no forecasting I
eye to the possibilities of any future advantage to be derived I
from them. I

Now let lis apply this principle once more to the case of m
nuui, and in so doing let us pass from an external and super- I

NATCTR-U, SELECTION ISSinTICIByr TO DETBLOPMEST OF MAX. 19

ficial to an internal and very forcible characteristic. The
smooth skin is an obvious and striking peculiarity of man ;
but if anyone were asked what above all else made him what
he i^ he would probably reply, the brain. Let us see, then,
if it seems likely that the human brain was developed by
natural selection from the bmte brain. The size of the human
hnia is, in comparison with that of all other animals, enor-
inoas. ITiis superiority in ma;^itude, accompanied as it is by
certain other less obvious and leas indisputable marks of differ-
ence, seemed to Professor Owen sufficient to justify him in
placing man in a class by himaolf — that of Archencephala, or
chief-brained animals. The average brain of the highest an-
thropoid apes — the orang-utan or the gorilla — does not reach
above 28 or 30 cubic inches, while the average internal capacity
of the cranium in the Teutonic family of man amounts to 94
cubic inches. The difference is enormous; but if we could
trace the growth of that difference step by step from one Ifl
the other, and see how at every step the owner of the larger
brain would gain thereby an advantage over the smaller, there
would be nothing in this difference to take it out of the
ordinary action of natural selection. If the primitive flint-
chippers had brains not much larger than apes, if those of the
modem savages were a little bigger still, and if, as we travelled
towards the civilised and intellectual periods of history, we
found the brain steadily increasing, the change would be in
full accordance with other illustrations of the law. But what
i^ the case ? So far as investigation has yet gone, there is no
great difference in the average cranial capacity of man under
any circumstances. That of the Esquimaux is 91 cubic inches,
of the Negro 85, of the Australians and Tasmanians 82, while
even that of the Bushman — the lowest specimen of living
humanity with which we are acquainted — is 77. Nor do
the few skulls of the earlier races, which have yet been dis-
covered, tell any different tale. The celebrated Engis skull,
which was probably contemporary with the mammoth and the
cave hear, has been pronounced by Professor Husley to be " a
fair average skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher,
or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage."
But l^e brains of any ape would have lain in a comer of
it, and left a large vacancy. If the ape passed into the
savage, the change in the brain was made by a leap. Now is
ihere anything to make such a leap likely? Is there anything
in this enormous increase of brain which would give its pos-
sessor an advantage over smaller brains, and enable him to
survive while they perished ? No doubt a larger brain has an
advantage over a smaller one. The brain is the organ of the
greatest power that we know — the power of mind, li \a \iiQ

rorci-Ait PciEscE review.

Beat of thought, intelUgence, sensation, emotion, will. H*
who owns these mighty implements in larger measure than hia
fellows has no doubt a great advantage over them in the
struggle for existence, if lie liscs them. But they are no good
to him in thia respect wliile they lie latent or unused. A man
does not become a match for a wild beast because he has a
spear laid up in his armoury at home. The spear must be in
his hand, and driven by strong muBclea into the heart of Lis
foe, to be of any use to him. So it is with the mental facul-
ties. Just 80 much as a man uses of them would become the
object of natural selection, and no more. All the siirpltisage
goes for nothing in the battle of life. The largest gorilla
brain that has yet been measured contains 34J cubic inchea.
Probably mental power depends on some other conditions
besides tlie mere size of the brain, and therefore we should not
be justified in saying that a creature with 35 inches of brain
would certainly beat this gorilla. But we know that size is a
principal factor in the problem, and we may therefore say very
confidently that 40 inches of brain would answer this purpose.
How, then, does it happen that ttie lowest savage lias more
than 70? Natural selection might seciu-e hira tlie 40, because
apes with less brain would be crushed out to make room for
him ; but how would he get or keep the additional 30 ? If an
individual chanced to be born, a mere monstrosity, with thia
huge addition to the normal quantity of his kind, what likeli-
hood would there he of its being perpetuated? He would be
simply in the condition of the moth with its proboscis an inch
longer than was required for any useful purpose, and the sure
result — if natural selection were the only power that acted
upon it — would be the rapid reversion of his descendants to the
ordinary type.

But, it may be asked, is all this brain so much surplusage in
the savage? Are we justified in assuming that the greater
portion of it lies dormant ? Are we sure that he does not use
it all, and that, in this use of it, there does not lie the secret of
his superiority over the brutes around him, and the germ of
that dominion over the whole creation which seems to be the
goal to which he is continiially tending ? The only answer to
this can be found in the comparison of the savage as regards
the action of mind, on the one hand, with the highest of the
brutes beneath, and, on the other, with the oiriliaed man above
him. If the difference in the amount of brain coiTesponds in
these three gradations with the difference in mental develop-
ment, the inference would be that the whole brain was used in
each case. If this correspondence does not exist, it will follow
that the brain is unused in any case in the degree in which
t/je mentai development in that case falls P^ort of its required

NATCBAL SKLECTIO.V ISSCmclEST TO DBTELODIEST OV MAX. 21

proportiou. Xow the average proportioDs of the brain in the
anthropoid ape3, in the navage, and in civilised man respectively,
may he represented by the figures 10, 2fi, and 32. Is this a
tnie representation of the mental conditions of tbo three ? Is
the diflference between tlie savage and the brute really more
than twice as great as tJiat between the savage and the edu-
cated European ? Sir. Wallace bids lis think of the dlflerenee
in mathematical power between a senior wrangler and an
average Englishman, and then descend frons that to the condi-
tion of a savage who cannot connt beyond three or five — of
the mental wealth and vigour implied in forming abstract ideas,
carryingonchainsof complicated reasoning, and transacting the
manifold business of law, commerce, and politics in our modem
life on the one hand, and of the meagreness and poverty of
savage life on the other, wholly given up to the mere necessities
of providing daily food — and then say whether the intellectual
development of the savage is not much more nearly akin to that
of the lower animals around him than to that of the cultivated
European. But if so, a large part of his enormous develop-
ment of brain is simply wasted. He gets no good fiom it, and
^^tterefore there is no reason, on the principle of natural selec-
^Hon, why it should have grown so large. For natural selection
^^pn only fiivour the increase of any particular organ just so far
^^1 that increase confers an actual benefit in the struggle for
existence. If the increase of the organ outgrows its use, that
additional growth is due to some other cause ; for natural selec-
tion admits no surplusage.

Nor is the size of the brain the only characteristic in man
which presents this difficulty. Sir. Wallace applies the same
line of argument with great ingenuity to the foot, the hand,
jice, and, above all, the higher mental faculties. All
seem to be perfected and specialised far beyond their
;ual needs in savage man. The upright gait of man, " god-
[e erect," the delicate capacities of his hand, the vocal
ojatus capable from the first of the exqiuKite modulations
ich can only bo appreciated by the cultivated ear, the moral
B, the perception of beauty, the abstract conceptions of
iber and extension — all these seem wholly out of the range
tlie results that can be accounted for by the preservation of
rful variations. They all point in a very different direction,
1 lead us on to another stage in Mr. \\'allacc-'s argument.
For it is remarkable that all those peculiarities, which seem,
:e the large brain, to be superfluous, or, like the smooth
I to be positively injurious, to their first possessor, are
lently qualified to lead man on to tlie heights of being
rfaich he has subsequently attained. The smooth skin suggests
once the necessity of clothes ; the absence ot (i\a^a «^A

22 fOPTLAft scascK

t^sL3L rxtTLTjizjKfi -r.'ji the -^'jXiiittrfnl capftdtr of the hand, leads
nanoTallj ry, *hr: Ckbricad<'^iL of t*>jls and weapons ; the vast size
of thr: brais. pr -yTide? a «i-:nsant reserroir of inteUectnal power,
out of which ev^rr L-rirti- a^ iz arife*. maT be met by a corre-
•"poTwiing ci,,iirrivaL.O)r of fnpply. Bat all these capacities have
a refrrrence to the rit^irr, and not to the present. In the first
in-t^nce* we =ee a creature bi-m into the world weak, unde-
fend^ and Tin.»TippIi^l f.:.r the ntjinent, bat provided with
bumlties which eminentlv fit it for a Cw higher existence in
some remote a<?« and mider verv different conditions. The
capa/L'ities are given first ; the uie of them comes later. They
do not ariije out of the pressure of past necessity; they are be-
stowf:d in anticipation of fixture wants and for the furtherance of
a future develoj>ment. But that is the method of final causes,
which is eiactlv contradictory to that of natural selection.
The former Ixjks always forwards, and the latter looks always
backwards. The one is the method of prophecy, and the other
of history. The one implies the action of an intelligent and
forecasting agent, while the other relies wholly on a chain of
causation — which mav or mav not have been established in the
first instance by an intelligent agent, but which, once estab-
lished, works on blindly and unalterably by itself. This may be
illustrated by the action of man upon Nature 'in his own pro-
vince of artificial selection. WTien the florist wishes to produce
a particular variety of flower or leaf, he carefully selects all in-
dividuals that approximate towards it, guards them from in-
jurious influences, secures their inter-breeding, and takes them,
in short, by his protecting care out of the natiu^l conditions
into which they are bom. The pigeon-fancier aiming at a
special featlier, the poultry-breeder desiring to secure plenty of
eggH, the slicep-farmer cultivating specially, as it may happen,
wool or mutton, acts in the same way. In all these cases an
ideal is first proposed which is afterwards worked up to. The
ordinary operations of Nature are defied or counteracted by
Bp(;cial contrivance in order that the proposed end may be
gained — tliat the intended type of aniipal may be, so to speak,
cniated. They are all cases, within- narrow limits, of final
cauH<;H, in whicli man's intelligence is the causer, and the laws
of Nature tlie unintelligent instnmients. Natural selection
luiH, in these cases, to bow before the higher power of human
W'lcction. The inference which Mr. Wallace draws from the
liiK^ of iliought which he has developed — and it seems the only
poHHibh^ influence — is that some such superior selection has been
at work in the production of man. Some higher intelligence
hoH (^xerfised over the world at large the same kind of control
whicli man displays in his farm or in his poultry-yard. This
ifujx*nor intelligence has forced the great AiCe-a^^encies on the

XAICRiL SELECnOS rsaUFTICIEST TO DBTELOPltEST OF MM

^ (irtli oat of iJieir natural coiirac for tlie sake of producing a

chnioe and eminent ereatiu'e, just as the florist manipulates Lis

roses to produce a Lamarque or a Mar&hal Nicl, or a pigeon-

bntrier hia birds to liring about a pouter or a fan-tail. Into

the further question of what this mighty Life-fashioner may be,

or by ifhat other name he may be called, Mr. Wallace does not

I enter, though we may gather, from a passage in which be speaks

^ of "the controlling action of such higher intelligences," that

^b he does not necessarily identify bim with the First Cause of all

^P things, but rather inclines to the ^'iew that such interference

H^ with the ordinary course of nature may Ije due to some unknown

ordfr of intelligent existences, the existence of which may help

to carry our thoughts across the immeasurable chasm wliich

separates man from the Infinite and Unconditioned.

These are thoughts which open vistas of scientific imagina-
tion in which even Professor Tyndall might find ample room
to range. If we admit them at all, it is scarcely possible' to
stand still on them. If this overruling and intelligent selec-
tion has been necessary to produce man, why should it be
limited to that single achievement ? A unique and solitary
mterference of this kind is far more inconsistent with any
philosophical view of creation than an habitual and regular
tniidance. Str. Wallace himself puts this forcibly when he
admits that his theory " has the disadvantage of requiring the
intervention of some distinct individual intelligence, to aid in
kihe production of what we can hardly avoid considering as the
l;Sltimat« aim and outcome of all organized existence — intellec-
K&ial, ever-advancing, spiritual man." But the disadvantage
Knnifhes if he will boldly extend his theory, and allow it t-o
JDclnde. as he hints in the following sentence, the idea " that
the controlling action of such higher intelligences is a neces-
iry part of the great laws which govern the material imiverse ; "
r, to put it in other words, that intelligent superintendence is
I perpetual factor in the development of life. Other cases,
b^dee man, might easily he brought forward, which present
amilax difficulties in the way of natural selection, and seem
therefore to require the introduction of this other factor.
What, for instance, were the steps which led to the production
~ I the firgt mammal, or of the first vertebrate ? It is easy to
e the superiority of the perfect animal in either case, and its
msequeut fitness as an aim towards which intelligence might
rork, but very difficult to comprehend how the first steps in
either direction can have been beneficial to the individual.
Some years ago a Scotch clergyman, Mr. Rorison, published a
little book, which has hardly been so widely read as it de-
"■ rved to be, entitled " The Three Barriers." They were the
ain, the Breast, and the Backbone — the symbols of Wisdom,

24 PQFOLAB SdXNCB SETIKW.

Love, and Power — which he maintaiBed to constitute insuper-
able barriers in the development of species by natural selection
alone. Mr. Wallace has admitted the difficulty in the case of
the brain ; is he prepared to deny it in the case of the other
two ? He maintains — so far as appears at present^ imanswerably
— that man cannot have been produced by the imaided power
of natural selection : does not that raise a strong presumption
in favour of the introduction of another agent in other cases
also ? He has marked out very clearly and conclusively the
limits of natural selection in the origination of species ; can he
Bet any limits to the controlling and interfering Power which
he has invoked to fill up the deficiency ?

POLYMORPHIC Fl'NGI.

Br M. C. COOKE, M.A.
[M-iTE LXVIU.]

r is DOW generally admitted that a great many fungi, for-
merly regarded as good and distinct species, are, in reality,
ly conditions or stages of other forms. It has l>een proved
beyond doubt that many species of fungi are trtily polymor-
phic, appearing under different phases. It is, notwithstanding
nil this, most premature and unjustifiable to conclude, as some
I luve done, that there are no good species at all, or that tliere
B« no certainty whatever in the study. VHiilst admitting that
Bflany of our old notions have been overturned, that what at
■Kk time we hardly deemed possible has been proved to take
Bwce, we are not prepared to go the length of some, whose
■nowledge of the subject falls far short of their assumption.
Ht is not very long since that one writer gravely asserted his
■pillion that all the British species of jEcUlium, for instance,
Bwuld be reduced to a single species ; that, in fact, there was
Ba sound specific distinction between them. This opinion
fciginnted probably rather in prejudice than as the result of
Body and investigation. Others have lumped together a host
H nnassociated species, without satisfactory evidence, and
ftckred them to be only the same thing under different con-
Kaons. Hasty generalisations In this, as in other cases,
Koducc more harm than good.

Kit is exceedingly difficult to trace such minute organisms as
Hngi, especially moulds, and to prove, v,-itbout doubt, that
HQT are conditions, the one of the other. It is easy enough to
Bir the spores of a certain Mucedine on paste, or potato, or
mff other matrix, cover them carefully, and watch the result ;
Km, if the common Aspergillus or Penicilliitm makes its
^Kiearance, to some minds it is at once conclusive that the
Hjd JMucedine is only a condition of Aepergilhis or PenicU-
Ktn. Such a conclusion is not only rash, but mischievous,
Bd &r &om the truth. There is no eridencc tbat tlu; A8^>er-

26 POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.

giUu8 or Penidllium originated from the spores of the Muce-
dine which were sown, but perhaps never germinated. When
two moulds proceed apparently from the selfsame mycelium,
judgment may be pronounced too hastily, for the mycelium of
both may be distinct, though interlaced together ; the safest
conclusion being based on two forms of fruit when developed
upon the same thread. Beyond this, there is always room for
doubt. Hence it will be seen how diflBcult it is to prove
dimorphism in moulds imder such conditions. In many cases
it is more presumption than proof. These remarks are not
made with the view of discrediting the conclusions of such
observers as Professor De Bary and the brothers Tulasne, but
rather as a caution against assuming as fact that which is only
conjecture.

Messrs. Tulasne, in their splendid work, " Selecta Fungorum
Carpologia," have given a great number of instances of polymor-
phism. We have no reason to doubt that in many cases, perhaps
most, they are quite correct, but even some of their conclusions
require verification before they can be accepted as established
fact. As an illustration of the results determined with regard
to one species by these authors, we may instance the very
common SphceHa (JPloeospord) herbarum. It occurs on the
dead stems of herbaceous plants, on the leaves of some trees,
and even sometimes on decaying Algoe. On pea and bean
stems it is usually plentiful. In fact, it is almost the commonest
Sphceria, and easily recognised. The sporidia are, of course,
contained in elongated, transparent, membranaceous asci ; they
are of a yellowish-brown or amber colour, ovate-oblong, and
divided by numerous septa, \vith transverse divisions. The
asci are enclosed within carbonaceous perithecia.

Equally as common, and even more so, is a mould which
forms sooty or dark olive spots, or patches, on all kinds of
decaying vegetable substances. This is called Cl^tdosporittm
herbarum. It may be characterised as cosmopolitan, and one
of the commonest, if not the commonest, of fungi. Under the
microscope this mould consists of a profuse mycelium, from
which arise tufts of jointed threads, mixed with elliptical or
elongated spores, ultimately septate. This mould is one con-
dition, according to M. Tulasne, of Sphceria herbarum.

Another condition of the same plant is a very pretty mould
found mixed with, or parasitic upon, the Gladoaporium^ and
known as Alternaria tenuis. This species is figured in Corda's
" Prachtflora," and consists of chains of spores resembling in-
verted jointed clubs. The joints are also transversely divided^
as in the Sphceria sporidia.

A third form of the same species is that named by Rev»
M. J. Berkeley Macrospanum sarcimUa^ which is developed

roLTMonpmc fusgi. 27

n decaying gourdu. The spores are clavate, at length some-
liat rectangular, with nmnerous septa, constricted, and very
:i riable, both in size and in the number of cells.

Beades these, there are certain " distinct papillate, or Ixittle-
fhaped cyets, which contain naked spores, capable of germina-
tion." So that altogether we have five different forms of fungi,
all of which are hut stages or conditions of one and the same
thing. It is very probable that, in addition to these, /(per ma iia
may also hereafter be discovered, or traced to some already
known Coniomycetoiis species. From this example it will be
readily understood what we mean when writing of "polymor-
phic fiingi."

Having thus, as it were, defined our terms, we will proceed
to notice two instances cf apparent polymorphism which have
come before us. We say " apparent" advisedly, because in the
fecond instance only suspicions can be predicated. Some two
or three years ago we collected a quantity of dead box-leaves,
on which grew a moidd named by Link PenicUliitni rosewm.
This mould has a roseate tint, and occurs in patches on the
leaves ; the threads are erect and branched above, bearing
oblong, somewhat spindle-shaped, spores. When collected
heee leaves were examined, and nothing was observed or noted
ipon them except the Penicillium. After some time, certainly
Wtween two and three years, during which the box remained
nndirturbed, circumstances led to the examination again of
one or two of the leaves, and afterwards of the greater number
of them, and the patches of PeniciUiuTfb were found to ba
intermixed with another mould of a higher development and
ikr different character(Pl.LXVIII.fig.5). This mould,or rather
.Ifucor, for it belongs to the Mucm^ni, consists of erect
branching threads, many of the branches terminating in a
.delicate, globose, glassy head, or sporangium, containing
lerous very minute subglobosc sporidia. This species ha&
L named Mucar hyalinua. The habit is very much like
that of the Penicillium^ hut without any roseate tint. It is
almost certain that the Mucor co;ild not have been present
when the Peniciliiiim was examined, and the leaves on which
it had grown were enclosed in the tin box, hut that the Mucor
afterwards appe.ored on the same leaves, sometimes from the
same patches, and from the same mycelium. The great dif-
ference in structure of the two species lies in the fructification.
In PeniciWium, of which the figure 4 of our plate {PI. LXVIII.)
is a good illustration, the spores are naked, and in moniliform
threads, whilst in Mucor the spores are enclosed within globose
membranous heads or sporangia, as sljown in fig. 5. The
moulds, or Mucedines, to which Penicillium belongs, are
included in one of the large fezuilj of fungi termed Hijplwi-

28 roppLAn science review.

myc6te«, and the Mucors belonfj to another family, the 1
vnytxtes. We entertain no doubt whatever that the Mucor, to
which we have alluded aa growing on box-leaves, intermixed
with Penicillmm Toeeiim, is no other than the higher and
more complete form of that species, and that the PeniciHiivm
is only its coDidiiferoua state. The presumption in this case is
strong, and not so open to doubt as it would be did not ana-
logy render it so extremely probable that such is the case,
apart from the feet of both forms springing from the same
mass of myceliiun. In such minute and delicate structures it
la very difficult to manipulate the specimens so as to arrive at
positive evidence. If a filament of mycelium could be isolated
successfully, and a fertile thread, bearing the fruit of both forms,
could be traced from the same individual mycelium thread,
the evidence would be conclusive. In default of such conclu-
sive evidence, we are compelled to rest with the assumption
until further researches enable us to record the assumption ax
fact.

In Lewis's recent "Report on Microscopic Objects foimd ia
Cholera Evacuations" (Calcutta, 1870), a similar instance of,
presumed dimorphism between precisely the same genera i»
thus recorded, "On a preparation preserved in a moist chamber
on the third day a white speck was seen in the surface consist-
ing of innumerable ' yeast ' cells with some filaments, branch-
ing in all directions. On the fourth day tufts of Penunllium
had developed — two varieties, P. i/laucum and P. viiide. This
continued imtil the ninth day, when a few of the filamenfa
springing up in the midst of the PenicUl/luTn were tipped with a
dew-drop like dilatation, excessively delicate — a mere distended'
pellicle. In some cases they seemed to be derived from the
same tilament as others bearing the ordinary branching spores
of PenicUlium, but of this I could not be positive. This kind
of fructification increased rapidly, and on the fourteenth daj
apores had undoubtedly developed within the pellicle, just aa
had been observed in a previous cultivation, precisely similu
revolving movements being also manifested." Here we hava
another example of a J/hcoi' developed from a PenictUiuTti, anA
one observ-ation strengthens and confirms the other.

Before entering upon the details of the second apparenf
polymorphism, it may be as well to give some particulars ol
the circumBtanccs under whicli the fungi appeared. It wai
oiu' fortune— jjoofi fortune as far aa this investigation ia cott
cerned — -to have a portion of wall in our dwelling persistent^
damp for some months ; it was close to a cistern that becaoM
leaky. The wall was piipered with " marbled " paper, and
varnished. At first there was for some time— perhaps monthi
— nothing worthy of observation except a damp wall ; decidedlj

s«r. 29

damp, discoloured, but not by any means mouldy. At lengtb,
and rather suddenly, patches of mould, sometimes two or three
inches in diameter, made their appearance. These were at
first of a snowy whiteness, cottony, and dense, just like large
tufts of cotton wool, of conaidemble expansion but of niiniatiire
elevation. They projected from the paper about a quarter of
an inch. In the coarse of a few weeks the colour of the tufts
became less pure, tinged with an ochraceous hue, and rc-
sembL'ng wool rather than cotton, less beautiful to the eye or
a lens, and more entangled. Soon after this darker patches
made their appearance, smaller, dark olive, and mixed with, or
close to, the woolly tufta ; and ultimately similar spots of a
dendritic character either succeeded the oUve patches, or were
independently formed. Finally little black balls, like smalt pin-
heads, or grains of gunpowder, were found scattered about the
damp spots. All this mouldy forest was more than sis months
under constant olwer^'ation, and, during this period, was held
sacred from the disturbing influences of the housemaid's broom,
being consigned to the master's care with little compunction,
but occasionally it became the subject of remarks not altogether
flattering either to the wall or the moulds, or the master
who was protector and patron of such a wretched mess.

Curiosity prompted us from the first to submit the mouldy
denizens of the wall to the microscope, and this curiosity was
increased week by week, on finding that none of the forms
found vegetating on nearly two square yards of damp wall
could be recognised as agreeing specifically with any described
moulds with which we were acquainted. Here was a problem
to be solved under the moat favourable conditions, a forest of
mould indoors, within a. few yards of the fireside, growing quite
naturally, and all strangers ; could they all be related, or if
not, why should all of them appear on that wall for the first
time? Whence could these new forms proceed? Were they
a new creation ? Were they only other conditions of very
common things ? Certainly here was material for much reflec-
tion, perhaps some speculation. Some of the problems are
stilt unsolved.

The cottony tufts of white mould which were the first to
appear had anabimdant mycelium, but the erect threads which
sprung from this were all for some time sterile (PI. LXVIII. fig.
1) ; tbey were slender, t^ry delicate, joint«d, and branched ; so
interlaced that it was difficult to trace the threads throughout
their length, or to separate them from each other. Fertile
threads were then developed in tufts mixed with the sterile
llireade, or individual fertile threads appeared amongst the
(terile. These latter were rather shorter and stouter, also
Kparingly branched, but beset througliout iiear\y tteii "«\iu\e

}

30 rOPULAB SCIESCB HEVIEW.

length with short, patent, alternate (mostly) branchlets. Thei
hranehlets were broadest towardB the apex, so aa to be almost
clavate, and the extremity was beset with two or tlireo shorfe
epicules (PI. LXVIII, fig. 2). Each spicule was sm-mounted by
an obovate spore (a) attached to the spicule by its smallest end
(PI. LXVIII. fig. 3). The presence of fertile threads gave the pale
ochraceous tint to the tufts already alluded to. This tint was
80 slight that perhaps it would have passed unnoticed but foF'
the proximity of the snow-whit« tufts of barren threads. Tha
fertile flocci, it may be from the weight of the spores, wera
decumbent, hence the fertile tufta were not much elevated above
the aurfiice of the matrix.

This is a moat interesting mould belonging to the order of
Mucedvnes, but it seemed to agree bo little with the charactera
of any known genus, that, on distributing specimens last year,
it was placed prorisionally in a new genus under the name of
ClinolHchum lanosum;' since then, with the advice of some
mycological friends, it has been referred to the old genus
Mhvnotrickuni, as Rhinotrichum lanosum.. Without entering
here upon the reasons which led to this course, or attempting
to discuss generic and specific distinctions, it is suEBcient to
indicate that the mould in question possessed such positivei
characters, and was so different from all recognised forms, that it
not only had claims to be regarded as a distinct species, but it
still remains doubtful whether it should not constitute tha
type of a new genus.

The mould above described having become established for a
week or two, small blackish spots made their appearance on the
paper, sometimes amongst thin patches of the mould and some*
times outside them. These spots, at first cloudy and indefinite,
varied in size, but were usually less than a quarter of an inch in
diameter. The varnish of the paper was afterwards pushed off
in httle translucent flakes or scales, an erect olivaceous mould
appeared, and the patches extended to nearly an inch in dia-
meter, maintaining an almost universal circular form.

This new mould sometimes possessed a dirty reddish tint,
but was commonly dark olive. There coiJd be no mistake
about the genus to which this mould belonged ; it had all th»
essential characters of PeniclUium. Erect jointed thready
branched in the upper portion in a fasciculate manner, and
bearing long beaded threads of spores, which formed a tasael4
like head, at the apex of each fertile thread (PI. LXVIII. fig. 4)a

* Cldiotbiohtjm, gen.nav. Hyp!iMina creeping; fertile flocw aeptat%
decumbent, siuiplo, or branched ; branchlets altemttte, palant, short, benrii^
at tbeir tips a. few apores attached to short apiculea ; aporee Nmple, TjM
ainetrie^m lanomm. — Cooke, Ftmgi Srii, E.i». No. 368.

POLYUORPIHC FUSGI. 31

For the beBcfit of the mycologist, we may observe ttiat, although
at first reminded of the Penu'Uliurn olivaceum of Corda by
the colour of this species, it differs in the spores being oblong
(PL LXVIU. fig. 4 b), instead of globose, and the ramifications
of file flocci are different. Unable again to find a descril>ed
species of Penicillium with which this new mould would agree,
it was named Penicillium chartarum.

Almost simultaneously, or but shortly after the perfection of
the spores of the Penicillium, other and \eiy similar patches
iippeared, distinguislied by the naked eye more particularly by
their dendritic form (PI, LX^nil. fig. 6). This peculiarity seemed
to result from the dwarfed habit of the third fungus, since the
varnish, though cracked and raised, was not cast off, but re-
mained in small angular fragments, giving to the spots their
dendritic appearance, the dark spores of the fungus protruding
through the fissures. This same mould was also found in many
cases growing in the same spot^ amongst Penicillium ckarta-
rumr, but whether from the same mycelium could not bo deter-
mined.

The distinguishing features of this fungus consist in an

eitensive myceliiun of delicate threads, from which arise

numerous erect branches, bearing at the apex dark brown

opaque spores. Sometimes the branches are again shortly

branched, but in the majority of instances are single. The

spores are septate, sometimes with two, three, or foiu- divisions,

many of them again divided by cross septa in the longitudinal

direction of the spore, so as to give a muriform appearance.

II Ab fiiT as the structure and appearance of the spores are con-

med, they are very similar to those of Sportdea^nium poly-

trphum ; consequently specimens were published as a variety

r that species, but the accuracy of this determination is open

» very grave doubts. The mycelium and erect threads are

pmch too highly developed for a good species of SpoT-idesmium,

id certainly eo for the species to which they were referred, so

tftt in the "Handbook of British Fungi " it is named Spwir-

miiuTn tdtemaria, for reasons hereafter detailed (PLLXVIII.

Freuss has described, in " Sturm's Flora," a species of Altei--
naria in which the spores are attached end to end in a beaded
manner, as in other species of that genus, and the spores them-
selves are just of the character of the spores of our Sporides-
miitm, as will be seen by reference to the plate and comparison
of figures 8 and 9. Preiiss's Altsrnaria, which be calls chai"-
taruni, was also developed on paper, and it is not improbable
Iliat it is a more highly perfected form of the Sporideamiam
in question. This view is strengthened by the appearance of
tieahly collected specimens of the Sporideemium,^ in vi\i\(iV, aa

32 rOPULAIl SCIENCE REVIEW.

seen by a half-inch objective, the spores seem to be monjliform j
but if 80, the attachment ia so alight that, all attempts to see
them 80 connected when separated from the matrix have failei
On one occasion a very immature condition of the Sporidcemium
was examined containing simple beaded spores (PI. LXVIH
fig. c) connected by a short neck. There ia therefore sonu
foundation for believing that the spores of this species are at
first hyaline, simple, and connected together in a monilifomi
manner by a short apiculus ; but, as subsequent search die
not reveal any further corroborative evidence, it can only ba
considered probable. Finally, Mr. C. E. Broome, to whoni
specimena of the Sporldesfiiium were submitted, confirmed tha
observation that, when seen in sifu, the spores seemed to he
beaded.

The last production which made its appearance on our wait
paper burst through the varnish as little black spheres lila
grains of gunpowder. At first the varnish was elevated b|
pressure from beneath, then the film was broken, and the litth
blackish spheres appeared. These were, in the majority oj
instances, gregarious, but occasionally a few of the spheres ap«
peared singly, or only two or three together. As the wholg
surface of the damp paper was covered by these different fun^
it was scarcely possible to regard any of them as isolated, oi
to declare that one was not connected with the mycelium ol
the others. The little spheres, when the paper was torn from
the wall, were also growing from the under surface, flattene*
considerably by the pressure. We shall call this species, foi
the sake of distinction, SphtBria (yydospora. The spherical
bodies, or perithecia, were seat«d on a plentiful colourlea
mycelium. The walls of the perithecia, rather more car*
bonaceous than membranaceous, are reticulated, bringing Ui
mind the same structure in Eryaiphe, to which the perithecia
bear considerable resemblance. The ostiolum is so obsciuv
that we could not be satisfied of its existence, or whether the
perithecia are ruptured when mature. It is rather from ana-
logy than positive evidence that the name of Spkceria is given
(PI. LXVIII. fig. 10). The interior of the perithecia is occupied
by agelatinous substance coDsistingof long cylindricalsacsorasci,
each containing eight globose, colourless sporidia (PI. LXVIIt
fig. 11). These are accompanied by slender branched threads^
called paraphyses, supposed to be abortive aaci. At first, and
for some time, the perithecia contain only a granular mass, at
length mixed with paraphyses. The contents of the fertilfl
asci are also at the first granular, and finally the sporidia art
perfected.

We have now described, aa fully as seemed to be necessary
the four forms of fungi which vegetated during last winter and

" ilFl(lf*TfRt

^▼OH. IMUOX AHO

roLVJioiii-mc tcsiii. 33

■prtng on oiir damp wall. \\Tiat preBiunption have wu tliat

tbey belong to ono and the same fuugus — direct evidenoe tlier«

ia none — or should they be regarded each as antoaomouH ? We

have already intimated the difficulties wliich beaet all attempts

to obtain positive evidence in sucb cases. Already too many

theories have been liascd on or supported by supposed reiiilla

from the cultivation of fungi Kpores. ISIany ridiculous assertions

have been made by those who have thus exhibited their

thorough ignorance of even generic distinctions, to say nothing

of more complex relations in mycologic science. Stilt we are

■ tnrtlD means prepared to doubt that many of the recorded cases

■Be polymorphism will ultimately be proved to be fact, and that

H^ftny more will yet be discovered. We would admit that it is

r poasible that none of the species, now included in the two yrcat

femilies of Coniomycetea and HyphoTnycetes are nutouomoua,

But, becatise it is posaibU, it by no means follows that we are

prepared to condemn them by wholesale, or to admit that

there is at present any evidence for doubting the autj^uomy of

some entire genera. In the present condition of the rtudy,

and in the liice of some startling facts, it is important that all

ol)servationB sliould be recorded which Ijear upon the subject

of polymorphism, whilst great care ought to be exercised in

tbp declaration of positive judgment.

Reviewing the instances of association above recoi'ded, and
wp should prefer, for the present, calling them associatimi
only, the mind naturally reverts to other and similar reconled
instances. Supposing the whole of the four forme described
iilwve to be conditions of Spkccriti cych^pom, there is no
Enater faith needed to believe it tnie than in the case of
Spharia herbanim. If AUeniaria tenuis is really a condition
<>( i SphtO'Ut, why not A Itemaria chartaruvi? If Alteryiafi<t
be associated with Cladoaporium, wliy not with Peniciltium?
Ut if Sporide»}}iium epocKnu-m, why not Sporideamium poly-
""firplium ? And as for Rhmotricktim and PenicUliuTn, it is
juat a& possible for these to be polymorphic, as for Dactylium,
Ofndryphiuin, and VeiUcillium. When the presumption is
confirmed by repetition, and more positive relations, there can
fe no doubt of a much more ready acceptance of their polymor-
phism than there would have been prior to the investigations
"f the Messrs. Tulasne and De Bary.

In this communication our remarks have related more parti-
■ularly to the moulds, since attention has of late been directed
'o them in consequence of the supposed discoveries of certain '
'iwman theorisers. It requires no little patience to compre-
lipod tlio relations of Aerospores, Schizosporangia, Anaerospores,
AiToconidia, Thecaconidia, Aniieroconidia, and similar novelties,
"f to relish philosophy like the following recent impot\a.UoB ". —
no, J-z-ffO. xzxrni. o

34 POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.

" Another most important vibrionic process — and which is as
yet equally imknown to didactic science — is that of massive
vibrionic co-cementation^ as we find it, e.g. as a mass of
* matted ' interlaced or entangled, and as it were ' coagulated '
vibrios, e.g. in the ' mother of vinegar,' or ' phycomater : *
forming a tough and apparently fibreless gelatine, uniform in
all directions, and whence on the surfece of the vinegar — as
from the fetid sciuns of our hydrant-water likewise — little
sprigs, like air-vesicles, become manifest, and that, rapidly en-
larging in bulk and lengthwise, from their ramified fibre (and
which under water readily dissect into ' yeast ' joints) erect
the blue tufted ' pencils ' — of globular-beaded single-fiUhspores
borne on fascicled joints — directly into the air. After being
swelled by moisture, these beadlets become oval and, being ex-
posed to the air, thick-coated. When such swelled and in-
durated spores of the blue pencil-tufts so abundantly found on
rotten apples^ lemons^ sweet potatoes^ old cheese^ &c., drop oflF
into the water or a fermentable liquid, they often directly
enlarge into stemless, floating globular seed-sporangia (mucor)
containing the blackish, globular seed within the leathery
mucor vessel. But when such blue tuftlets (' Penicillium glau-
cum,' ' crustaceum,' &c.), e.g. as forming floating islets on old
coffee and tea-decoctions, become entrained ' under water,' the
beadlets become confluent by macei-ating their coats, and,
under cover of an exuded floating scab, the whole vibrionic
mass of liberated contents now constitutes a polypous, wriggliiig
pulp — like crawling snods— and each constitutive vibrio (in-
dividually coated and forming a sort of short, vibratile sprig,
called a ' bacterium ') by individual lengthwise growth increases
into a short automatously travelling and afterwards exceedingly
long, but still as fine ' leptomitous ' or individual fibre of the
' mephitic ' water-rot of oiu: pools and gutters " ! * Such a
lucid (?) explanation of polymorphic fimgi as this extract
contains can scarce fail to commend itself ; the marvel is that
the whole subject has not been cast aside by intelligent men as
quite unworthy of serious attention.

We are unable, within the limits prescribed for this article,
to explain tlie relations whicli subsist between such fungi as
the *' red-rust " and " mildew " of com, and the barberry " clus-
ter-cups ; " or between the yellow rust and the black brand of the
bramble and rose. In other words, the polymorphism of the
Uredines and their allies. This is less to be regretted, since
there has not, during the past four or five years, been any im-
portant additions to our knowledge on this subject, and what

♦ " The Zymotic Fungus." Experimental Inrestigations by Dr. T. C. Ilil-
g»rd, St. Louis, Mo.

I'oi.vmohpuic Frsoi. 35

had preTioiisly been discovered and illustratc-d is very generally

If we are asked what deductions we are to miike from tlie
&tcts proved and tbe presumptions admitted, but not proven,
we may answer briefly ^that tbe tendency of recent discoveries,
in tbe relations of one form to anotber amongst fungi, is to
demonstrat'e that reproduction i.s not so simple a process in
these low conditions of plant life as had hitherto be^n supposed.
" lliiB it in, and nothing more."

At one time the word " spore " represented tbe only recognised
organ associated with the multiplication of fungi. Male
organs or fecundative power was now and then mysteriously
alluded to, but until recently all reproduction was supposed to
hv confined to a kind of germinative bud which was termed a
spore. Each fungus was held to be perfect in itself, and re-
produced itself, with no relation to any other individual, by
this means. Tbe change of opinion amongst mycologists is
manifested, as much as anything, in the new terms, or the ap-
propriation of terms irom other cryptogams, now in vogue.
Conidia, spennatia, oospores, zoospores, pycmdia, protospores,
&Q.f all relate to organs but recently recognised in fungi.
And, however much we may qualify the fact, however mucb we
may doubt tbe evidence in special cases, we cannot ignore the
conclusion that reproduction is very complicated, although
very little understood in these extraordinary plants. Whilst
admitting that the Chidosporiiim and the Macrosporium, the
AUisrunria, bottle-shaped cysts, and minute spermatia are all
»a intimately related with a certain species of Sphcen'a, that
lliey can no longer be regarded as plants with a distinct
aatoDomy and independent existence, we are unable to explain
the relations which one liears to the other, or by what means
each exerts its influence. The field for observation and research
in a large one, and promiEes a rich reward ; all that is required
is earnest and careful workers, in which this, of ail Emopean
catmlries professing to he scientific, has hitherto been most
lamentably deficient. How long shall such a reproach continue ?

EXPLANATION OF PLATE l.XMir.

Barren tliniid of lihinofrichuin hnosum.
Fertile Ihwftd of RJtinnfru-huni hnumim.
Portion of fertile thread of Rliinolrichiim lanosiim, ahowing one of

the bmnchleU with termiiinJ Bpiciiks Wnring ibe spores; a, a

apon detached.

36 POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.

Fig. 4. PeniciUium chartarum^ considerably maguificd j B, portion cf chain

of spores.
„ 5. Fertile thread of Mucor hyaJinuSj bearing Fporangia.
„ 6. Dendritic patch of Sporidesmium altemanaj natural size, showing'

its habit.
„ 7. Mode of growth of Sporidesmuan aUeniana^ showing mycelium

with erect threads and spores : c, supposed early condition of

spores of the same.
„ 8. Part of chain of spores of Aiienian'a chai'tarum of Preuss.
„ 9. Spores of Sporidesinium altemaria,
„ 10. Perithecium of Sphceria (yclospora,
„ 11. Ascus with spDiidia and paraphysis of Sph^tia njchsiiorn.

THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITIONS.

Br RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S.
AuTHOB OP " The Sun/' " Other Worlds," " Saturn," &c.

-•o^

BY the time these lines are read the results of the four expe-
ditions which have been sent out from England to view
the total eclipse of December 22, 1870, will probably be known
throughout the greater part of Europe, To consider the pro-
bable nature of those results may therefore seem out of place
and over-venturesome; while to discuss what preceded the
setting forth of those expeditions may seem a waste of time,
since nothing that can now be said, whether in the way of
praise or censiure, can aflfect the result. Yet it appears to me
that this is the proper time and a suitable place for a brief
discussion, both of the probable results of the eclipse expedi-
tions, and of the circumstances which happened before those
expeditions left our shores. As respects, in particular, the last
of these subjects, considerations of the utmost moment to the
scientific world, or at least to scientific Englishmen, are at
issue. We are passing through a period of transition; and
though there can be little question what will be the ultimate
issue of the changes now in progress, though almost certainly
a few years will place science in this country on a more satis-
factory footing than at present, yet it is well to watch the signs
of the times, to note the working of the old system, and to
estimate rightly the great need there is of change.

Some eight months since, astronomers were beginning to
urge the importance of making due preparation for the eclipse.
It was felt that after what the American astronomers had done
last year, England was bound to show her zeal in the cause of
astronomy by sending parties to observe this European eclipse.
Few expected at that time that the Americans would set com-
petition (at least in this case) at defiance, by crossing the
Atlantic in force, and doing here in Europe what we had not
thought of doing last year in America. But it seemed clear to
all that we were bound at least to observe our own eclipses — kg
to describe eclipses visible at European stations.

38 FOrULAB SCIENCE BETIEW.

Now, at the very beginning, the impression was conveyed by
those astronomers who are supposed to be ofiSeially connected
with the Government, that it would be only as by an act of
grace that Government aid would be granted. Those who were
present at the meetings of the Astronomical Society, for
example, when the subject of these expeditions was mooted,
were painfully struck by the tone which pervaded the oflScial
communications addressed to that body. Astronomy appeared
in the light of an importunate beggar about to renew lier
troublesome applications ; while, though a liope was expressed
that some assistance might be wrung from the Government, it
was left to be clearly understood that the grant would be re-
garded as an act of great grace and condescension.

It is necessary, indeed, to point out that in all this a grave
injustice was done to the Government. The real opinion of
those in power was never really ascertained \mtil much later.
But whatever the cause may have been, certain it is that the
impression conveyed during these preliminary discussions was,
that Science — as represented for the nonce by Astronomy —
had occasion to approach the powers that be in the garb of
humility and self-abasement, to plead very earnestly if she
would gain a small modicum of help, and to be well content
with whatever the Government might be disposed to give her.

This, let us proclaim it at once and loudly, is not the
proper attitude for Science. If she must needs come as an
applicant, she should come as the Sibyl of old, giving clear
intimation that what sheoflfers is worth more, a hundred-fold, than
what she demands. She should come as conscious that what
she asks is to be the benefactress of the human race. To quote
Professor Tyndall's noble words : — " Science does not need
the protection of men in power, but desires their friendship on
honourable terms. By continuing to decline the offered hand,
they will be invoking a contest which can have but one result.
Science must grow. Its development is as necessary and as
irresistible as the flowing of the tides, or the motion of the
Gulf Stream. It is a phase of the energy of Natiu-e, and as
such is sure, in due time, to compel the recognition, if not to
win the alliance, of those who now decry its influence and dis-
courage its advance."

I^ut so timid were the men of science to whom the task of
approaching the Government fell, that their voice was for
many weeks — invaluable weeks — altogether imheard. It
pleased them in the first place to apply to the wrong depart-
ment, and in the wrong way. Certainly the mode of applica-
tion was that which had been adopted in former years ; but
there have of late been changes, and the old mode of applica-
tjon was as little likely to be effective as the plan of posting

THE ECLIPSE EITEDITIOSS. 39

^in the first convenient chink) adopted by Mrs, Tadgers's

old woman-of-all-work. Nearly fifty days elapsed, duringwhicli

no reply whatever was received ; and then a reply came which

■plied — aa far as this wrong department was concerned— a

it refusal.

If thia result bad been made public at once, it is probable, or
ktber, it is certain from what actually followed, that the
greater part of the mischief might have been remedied. But
the old fear of giving offence to those in power appears to have
operated, and only graduully, and in an unofficial manner, the
public learned that (as it seemed) Government had withdrawn
the light of its countenance from the science of our day. Then
the natural result followed. The public press — the Daily News
leading the way — appealed loudly against the supposed decision
of the Government. To the public press, and to the public
press alone, it was owing tliat Government changed their mind,
if even it was not tlirough the public press alone that Govern-
ment first really beard what was required of it. Then one
would have supposed that the committee of scientific men ap-
pointed to deal with the matter would have si;nt in appeal
after appeal until the required assistance was obtained. But
aometbuig quite different took place. Those who managed the
committee waited until Government itself intimated its readi-
nees to consider the proposals of astronomera. Even then the
committee were in no haste to act. " As quickly as their con-
stitution permitted," to use the euphemistic expressions of the
Astronomer Royal, or, in other words, after wasting a fortnight
of most valuable time, they sent in a new application ; and
this they did so gently that when, a week later, Mr. Lockyer
applied directly to the Chancellor of the Eschequer, he found
Sir. Lowe in complete ignorance that anything was wanted
the Government.
It was now the second week in November ; the eclipse some
weeks off. The sum of two thousand pounds and the means
ipf transport had been promised by the Government, but it seemed
likely that, the grant would be of little use, since so short a
iod remained for organisation. Six mouths had dwindled
iwn to sis weeks. Not only had the actual work of or^anisa-
m been thus left, to be completed in a siiace of time alto-
'her inadequate, but those who had volunteered to join the
"Ition, and who had all this time been in doubt whether
fir services would be required or not, had now little time left
prepare themselves for the work they desired to perform."

* I will mention one inatacf^e out of many that I kuoiv of to illuEtrate the
BUtellieTOUs cftVcla of thu delay. Mr. W. II. li. IIuJb^w, M.A., ft Fellow of
8l John's, and ft very akilful matbcuintiuinti, iind proposed to study the

40 POPULAR SaENCE BETIBW.

As to the work performed by the organising committee in
the brief interval which now remained, I do not care to say
much. That there were shortcomings cannot be denied. Con-
tradictory directions were sent by post and telegraph.* Eminent
men of science, learned Fellows of colleges, and disinterested
volunteers in the cause of astronomy, received telegrams so
ciu-t, and even impertinent in tone, as to have justified their
withdrawing wholly from the work they had volunteered to do.f
But then it must be remembered that the work of months was
being crowded into weeks, and that a large part of the blame
should in justice be removed from the inferior officers who had
to superintend this part of the work, since it was certainly not
their fault that the time at their disposal was so limited.

To sum up this more painful part of my subject, there was
complete mismanagement from beginning to end. To whom
wo should ascribe the blame of the fiasco (for let ihe success of
the expeditions themselves be what it may, the preparations
were a complete fiasco) it would be difficult to say. We can-
not rightly place the blame on the shoulders of the Astronomer
Boyal, whose official duties at Greenwich would have justified
him in leaving the matter wholly to others. And again, the
names of many in the committee — as General Sabine, Messrs.
Lassell and De la Eue, Colonel Strange, Dr. Huggins, andjso
on — are guarantees of an earnest regard for scientific interests.
And as for the rank and file of the committee, if I may be
permitted the expression, it is well kno^vn that the matter was
taken completely out of their hands. But somewhere there

corona with the polariscope. In order to do this the more efTectuaUy^
he had intended, if the expeditions were decided on, to devote a large por-
tion of the long vacation to making himself practically familiar with polari-
scopic nnalysis. He received definite intimation that his services would be
accepted on Nov. 22 ; that is, in the heai't of the October term (the busiest
term of all at Cambridge), when his whole time was taken up with lectures
and the work of preparing questionists for the tripos of the present month.

It is not too much to say that the actual efficiency of the observing
parties has been reduced by much moi-e than one-half, through the delay
which resulted from the " weakly constitution of the committee " appointed
to manage matters.

• I was myself present when Mr. Brothel's, of Manchester, received within
a few minutes three contradictory sets of instructions, one by post and two
by telegraph.

t In one instance, a Fellow of a college received a telegram so remarkable
in tone, from a member of the organising committee, as to be obliged to
intimate that even the curtness of telegram-English would nofjustify the
rudeness he had been subjected to. It is only right to add, however, that
the courtesy of the honorary secretary of the committee was favourably com*
mented upon by all who received communications from him.

THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITItlS.^. 41

■e been a leaven of undue Bubservience to tlie powers
,t be, and im fortunately tbis leuvcn " leavened the whole
ap."

Let us turn to a pleasantor subject.
The course of the nioou'a shadow during the eclipse is some-
what remarkably curved, so that, though crossing the southern
part of the .Spanish Peninsula towards the west, and Sicily and
the .South of Turkey towards the east, it yet dips southward
into Algeria and Timia. The expeditious have been so planned
as to take advantage of this pecidiarity. The weathei in Spain
is not likely to resemble that in Sicily; while in Algeria it is
probable that a totally different condition of weather may pre-
vail than at any of the European stations.

The chances of the parlies at C^idiz and Gibraltar are pro-
bably about eciual.

' The Cadiz party is under the charge of the Bev. Fr. Perry, S.J.
'Here three classes o£ observation are to be made. There will
l)e spectroscopic obsen-ations of the corona, by Kr. Perry, assisted
liy Mr. Hostage and by Mr. Abliay. The polariscopic observa-
tions will be made by Mr. Hudson, Al.A., Kellow of St. John's
College, Cambridge, and by Mr. Moulfon, B.A., of Trinity.
Both these gentlemen are skilful mathe-maticiaos, and familiar
with the theory of polariscopic analysis, which indeed forms a
part of the Cambridge mathematical course. Sketches of the
ci:irona are to be made by Messrs. Naftel, Smyth, Penrose, and
(-'i.dlins ; while Captain Toynbee superintends the cbronoinetric
;trraagfments.

The Gibraltar party is in charge of Captain Parsons. Spec-
ipic observations will be toado by Alessrs. Carpmael and
>n. Messrs. T^ewiH and Ladd superintend the polari-
Kopic work. Mr. Himter and two Oxford undergraduates w^ll
sketch the corona. But at this station other observations are
to be made. The planet Saturn will be close by the sun, and
Messrs. Talmage and JIaclear propose to examine very carefully
appearance presented by the planet imder these cirnmi-
ices. Professor Thorpe, formerly of Owen's College, Man-
r, and now of Glasgow, will study the changes in the
lical activity of the sun's light during the eclipse : and, if
ble, diu-ing totality, he will endeavour to estimate the
ility of the corona's light in this respect. Lastly, Mr. Buck-
;bam, assisted by Mr. Spiller, will apply a very powerful

icope to obtain photographs of the eclipsed sun.
The only other European party is that which is to view the
Tipee from the neighbourhood of Syracuse. This party is a
isik&bly large one. It is in charge of Mr. Lockyer. Several
of spectroscopic observations are to bo made. Professor
le, assisted by Mr. Bowen, will conduct one series *, Mr.

42 POPULAB 8CIXNCE BXYIXW.

Lockycr, assisted by Mrs. Lockyer, a second ; Mr. Seabroke,
assisted by Mr. Burton, a third; and Mr. Pedlar a fourth.
Messrs. Ranyard, Griffith, and CliflFord will superintend the
polariscopic observations ; Messrs. Brett and Darwin will make
sketches of the corona ; while Messrs. VignoUes, father and
son, will superintend the chronometric arrangements, and make
general observations. But, probably, the most important work
done at this station — if the weather is favourable — will be that
superintended by Mr. Brothers, one of our most skilful photo-
graphers. Assisted by Dr. Vogel and Mr. Fryer, he hopes to ob-
tain two series of views, one by means of one of the Sheepshanks^
equatorials, belonging to the Royal Astronomical Society ; the
other by means of a photographic camera of his own.

I have kept to the last the strongest party of all ; that,
namely, which, imder the charge of Dr. Huggins, proceeds to
Oran, in Algeria. Here the duration of totality will be only
three seconds less than the actual maximum. The name of
Dr. Huggins is alone a guarantee that the spectroscopic study
of the corona will not only be conducted skilfully, but with a
most careful reference to strict scientific principles. He is in
alliance, however, with other eminent physicists. Professor
Tyndall and Dr. Gladstone are with him. Mr. Crookes joins
in the spectroscopic work. Captain Noble and the Rev. F.
Hewlett will see that proper portions of the corona are brought
upon the slit, while these two practised observers will have at
the same time the opportunity of viewing the image of the
corona on the screen in which the slit is made. This screen is
covered with rectangular cross-lines, and the true shape of the
corona will thus admit of being very readily noted. All the
arrangements for viewing the spectrum of the corona and re-
cording the place of any lines which may appear have been
superintended by Dr. Huggins, at whose house I had the plea-
sure of inspecting them thoroughly. I cannot doubt that the
actual observations — to be made severally by Dr. Gladstone
and Mr. Crookes — will be successful, if the weather only be
favourable. Dr. Huggins himself — after seeing before totality
begins that the adjustments are properly made — will devote
his attention to the telescopic study of the corona. I have
dwelt so much on the importance of keeping the eyes in dark-
ness for a few minutes, at least, before totality begins, that I
need hardly remark how well pleased I have been to find that
so eminent a physicist and so skilful an observer intends to adopt
this precaution. I attach very great importance to this fea-
ture of Dr. Huggins's plan ; since very little could, I think,
have been expected from the mere renewal during this eclipse
of observations which have been made repeatedly during former
eclipses of greater extent and importance.

; ECLIPSE EIPBDITIOSS. 43

poWiscopic oliservations at Oran are to be made by Mr.
I arpenter, of the Greenwich Obsenatory.

As regards the results which are to be expected from these
tour expeditionB, supposinfr the weather to bo favourable, it
does not seem to mi; diSicvilt to form an opiniun.

In the first place, it must not bo concealed that, in this aa in
all former eclipse espeditioBs, no inconsiderable proportion of
the suggested obsenationa aro bkely to be of no practical
utility whatever. For example, there can ho no question that
alt the observations which are directed solely to determine
whether the corona is a solar appendage will simply involve a
waste of labour. It has been a misfortune that any doubts
should have been startfed respecting a matter so thoroughly de-
monstrated ; but this misfortune it is now too late to remedy.
\or must we forget that in former instances an even larger
proportion of observing energy lias been tlu-own away. For
when, in 1H6U, not only England but France, Italy, Germany,
and other countries sent forth their astronomers to view the
Spanish eclipse, the doubts which Faye and others had urged
respecting the reality of the prominences iuflueuced more than
nioe-tenths of the observers. Nearly a hundred astronomers

' observers endeavoured to find out whether the prominences
real solar phenomena, or mere illusions- — lunar mirages,
perhaps, as Faye had suggested; and it would be difficult,
indeed, to say how much knowledge which, but for these ill-
■ nisidered doubts, might have been acquired, was throwu away
i .11 that inauspicious occasion. The success of De la Rue and
fttcchi in photographing the eclipsed sun does indeed serve to
render the eclipse observations of 1860 memorable, and in a
sense to hide from our view the real failure of astronomers at
that time. But the very succesa of the two who chose to work
iudependently and usefully, only causes us to deplore the more
that thirty times as many preferred to waste their energies in
demonstrating the demonstrated.

On the present occasion, however, those who have pleaded
for useful observations have not been wholly unsuccessful. A
rflatively umall proportion of observing energy is to be devoted
to demonstrate the abundantly demonstrated fact that the
corona is a solar appendage." Nearly all the most skilful tele-
scopists and spectroscopists propose to inquire what the actual
constitution of the corona may be, regarding its position — veiy

• I dm told that, io o receot number of "NBture," it ia reuinrlied in a leader
tbtit. " despite some hard writing to the eoDtmrj', the position of tbe corona
n^mtinE to be proved." This Ib in a bodm true; oud so, nUo, it ia Iruu that
f\i!tr propoGitioo of Euclid (as, for iiutance, Prop. 5, Book I.J reintuns to be
u far at tome Iriimert are «

> nine

44 POFITLAA SCIE5CE BEVIKW.

justly — as already established. The influence of Faye's doubts
about the corona has been far less than that of his doubts about
the prominences in 1860. In the plan of operations proposed
for Dr. Huggins's party, in particular, one can trace no signs
of any evil influence exerted by these doubts. Every suggested
observation is such as will tell. The spectroscopic obser\'ations
will either reveal new bright-lines in the coronal spectrum, or
exhibit the Frauenhofer lines, or else prove that the spectrum
really presents no other featiures than were seen by the Ameri-
can observers. Young and Pickering. The oparations of Cap-
tain Noble and the Rev. F. Hewlett, as auxiliaries in these ob-
servations, will be especially valuable ; for we shall not only
have unexceptionable evidence as to the parts of the corona
actually analysed, but also full information as to the figiure of
the parts examined ; and this, combined with Dr. Huggins's
study of the structure of the corona, as seen in the telescope,
can hardly fail to lead to results of the utmost interest and
significance.

I sliould be led to attach almost equal importance to the
telescopic and spectroscopic obser\'^ations to be made by JMr.
Lockyer's party, were it not for the unfort\mate doubts which
Mr. Lockyer himself entertains respecting the corona's posi-
tion. One cannot fail to recognise in his instructions the
efiects of these doubts ; the suggested observations seeming to
have scarcely any other end than to solve them. There is also
another strange opinion of Air. Lockyer's, which seems almost
certain to exercise an unsatisfactoiy influence upon the observa-
tions made by his party. He holds the chromosphere as seen
by aid of the spectroscope to be only the lower portion of an
envelope extending, in reality, far above the highest of the
prominences. This seems to mc a strange delusion. No one
familiar with the history of former total eclipses can fail to
recognise the fact that the outline of the chromosphere — or,
as the discoverers of the layer called it, the sierra — is as well
defined as that of the prominences. There is indeed not a par-
ticle of evidence tending to the belief that in eclipses it would
appear otherwise than in the valuable drawings which Profes-
sor Kespighi has obtained by aid of the spectroscope. Indeed,
I might go much farther, and say that everything we know of
the chromosphere points to the belief that it is not a solar
atmosphere at all, as has been assumed, but is formed rather
of small prominences and of the remains of those loftier pro-
minences wliich ZoUner and Kespighi have watched sinking
back towards the solar surface. The gaseous envelope into
which these gaseous prominences are projected to vast heights,
and through which they sink slowly back, is doubtless to be
regarded as the true solar atmosphere, and not that glowing

THE RXirsE EXrEDITlON?, 45

aoA somewhat niddy layer whose serrated siirfuuc may be seeo
far below the sinking prominence-matter.

It is very probable, huwever, that the attempt which Mr.
Brothers proposes to makt to secure photographa of the corona,
may cause the Sicilian party to he one of the most successful.
His plan is to take a double series of photographs, one with it
Sheepshanks' equatorial belonging to the Astronomical Society,
the other with a camera of his own, mounted upon the equa-
torial and carried by the same movement. The camera
fiictures are intended to include a wide field, and it is far from
improbable that the long coronal beams may thus, for the first
iiue, be rendered visible in a photograph. I have had the
ilvantage of a full discussion with Mr. Brothers of the plan he
jiroposes to adopt, and I qiute concur with him in thinking
(hat, if weather alone be favoiirable, his operations arc likely
to be rewarded with a fuller degree of success than has yet re-
warde<l attempts to photograph the corona.

With regard to the long beams, I may remark that I regard
them as among the most remarkable and significant phenomena
presented to us by the corona. If the pictures which have
iieen drawn >iy Giltnan and others during recent eclipses be
accepted as indicating the exact proportions of the dark and
I'right beams, a problem of great difficulty is presented to us.
Ve might readily \vi misled by these radial beams to regard
the corona as due to the passage of light-rays between the in-
equalities of the moon's surface, did we not attend to certain
considerations which negative such a theory, Fr. Secchi,
indeed, compares the corona to what is seen when the sim's
ii^ht is admitted into a darkened room through a nearly cir-
iilar opening imperfectly Htopped by a circular plug, or through
i circular opening imperfectly stopped by a nearly circular
plug. Dr. Oudemann, also, has put forward a somewhat aimi-
Iir interpretation of the coronal beams," which he supposes
due to the illimiination of matter lying between the moon and

a such views are studied carefully for awhile, however,
1 objections become apparent. Let us suppose for a mo-
mt — in order to give Oudemann's theory a chance, so to
nk — that we may neglect that matter of the same sort which
I beyond the moon, and which, being illuminated more

" Dr, Oudemaun'd tlicory has lately bepQ brought by Dr. De la Hue under
ti* notice of the Aatronomicftl Sodely, but wm not received very fovout-
»Mj. Of Inte, indeed, Dr. De la Itue baa shown, as rcspecta Bucb theories,
• eauiderolioH /or the toeak which appeals Blrongly to our syrapnthies as
Eagtiihrnen, hciwevpr fur it may be from coioranndiiiy our ngreement as
' l« of Bstronoiny,

46 FOPUI^AS SCIENCE SEVIEW.

brilliantly than the matter on this side of the moon, and pre-
senting also a far greater depth of illuminated matter, ought
to give neariy all the light seen close by the moon — ^let us, I
say, neglect this consideration, and deal only with the matter
lying between the moon and earth. Then the sun^s rays, pass-
ing the rough edge of the moon and falling on this matter,
would certainly produce a radial appeai-ance, resembling very
closely the corona as pictiured by eclipse-observers. There
would be bright radial beams and intervening narrow spaces,
precisely as in the picture by Mr. W. S. Gilman, jim., in
Commodore Sands' report of the American eclipse. But in
order that these radial beams should extend as far as they have
been actually seen during eclipses, the matter capable of being
thus illuminated should extend (one may easily calculate) fully
200,000 miles from the moon towards the earth. Now, assuming
with Oudemann, that this matter is the exterior part of the
Zodiacal liight, there is no reason why it should not extend as
far as this towards the earth, or very much farther. But^ then,
as the corona has been seen as well in June and July as in
December and January, that is, as well when the earth is a
million and a half miles beyond her mean distance as when
she is as nuich within that distance, we are utterly prevented
from supposing that the limits of this zodiacal matter lie always
somewhere between the moon and earth, separated as these
bodies are by less than a quarter of a million of miles. In
fact, to accoimt for the visibility of the corona in all total
eclipses, we must assume that when the earth is in perilielion,
the zodiacal matter extends three millions of miles or so (at
least) beyond the earth. This matter, thus extending beyond
the earth, ought to be visible at night in a far more conspicuous
manner than the corona during totality. For, according to the
theory, tliose particles within the quarter of a million of miles
separating us from the moon which are but obliquely illuminated,
and whoso brilliancy is marred by the strong light continuing
during oven tlic most considerable total eclipse, are yet so con-
spicuously lighted up as to show the radial beams on a bright
background. ITow much more conspicuous then should be the
illumination seen towards the south at midnight, where (accord-
ing to the theory) a space some three millions of miles deep, full
of this matter, is illuminated directly — or as the full moon is —
while the darkness of night and the black background of the
sky help to render the phenomenon more conspicuous. The
black shadow of the earth would indeed be thrown as a long
black rift across this illuminated region of the heavens ; but
we know how far it would reach, and what its shape would be.
Even at the moon's distance the true shadow would be but
about three times the moon's diameter in breadth, while at a

TliE KCI-irSE E-XrEDITIOSS. 47

mco of 900,000 milps, or more thr.n 2,000,000 miles from
B iinaKiDed limits of this zodiacal matter, the shadow would
I in a point. Xor would the penumbra extend far enough to
pc any but a relatively small portion of the supposed matter.
Ut U hardly necessary to point out that no sucii phenomenon
t ever been witnessed either in the winter months or at any
r seaaon. So thai, independenily of a host of other objec-
iDft, this one — rightly underetood — disposes of Oudemann's
_, and of all others which rotjnire that matter admitting
( being rendered visible to lis by the sun's light exists at the

"a distance.

■Yet these radial beams remain to be explained, for I think
r will be dif^posed to assert that they are due to mere optical

mX believe that the chief interest of the eclipse observations
not unlikely to be associated with the interpretation of the
ronal radiations. For, as it seems to me, the ditGculty of in-
■preting them is altogether greater than that of explaining
a itself. As respects this last, indeed, it seems to me
ptprobable that the evidence we have can be made much fuller
t more convincing than it is at present. But as respects the
B have much to learn before it would be safe to hazard
2 Opinion. Xor is it by any means unlikely that we may find
I these beams a problem as difiiculb of solution as that pre-
pted by the phenomena of comets.

I It will bo well to consider some of the accounts which have
a given of the coronal beams. More particularly it will !»
tereBting to inquire whether we have satiafoctory evidence as
9 their fixity during the whole continuance of txitality. For
'lottgh their appearing to change in potiition would afford us
err satisfactory evidence as to their nature, their immobiiity,
if it could be established, would have great significance.

It is worthy of notice, at tlie outset, that accounts refer-
ring to apparent motion are less likely to be trustworthy than
those which distinctly state that the beams remain fixed in
position. For, in tho first place, an inexperienced observer
might very well be misled into the supposition that a radiated
glory of light had a certain degree of motion; and in the

* Ouilcinnnn M>Mpt* samewhsl confideDtlj Dr. Gould's sUt^ninnt that
III* CQiriBiil besnis rbanged in pufiitiou during the Ameriiuin eclipse. Dr.
Curtia rcmukB bowtvpr, und the atudy of the VFirioua nairatiTcs fully con-
6na» thfl aiwcrlinn, thst ftll ihe other obaerverB describe llie r»ys us RxeA in
pokition. I dn not kuow thnt thdr appnteot moTement, if con&rxnpd, could
b« T«)^n]nl a» dcmonetinling noythtDg m to their nature ; hnt in this, m in
ntlMT csMw, oil tb4 best authenticated accounts speak of ibom as remaining

48 POPULAR SCIENCE BEVIBW.

second, the shifting lights around the horizon, as the shadow
sweeps across the station of the observer, would tend greatly to
encourage the illusion. To this may be added the circumstance
that at the first formation of the corona, and as it is disappear-
ing, an apparent rotational movement results from the rapid
closing in and separation of the solar cusps. I find that the
accounts of apparent motion in the coronal beams are few in
number and of little weight compared with those which assert
the fixity of the rays ; and I cannot recall any instance in which
an observer speaks of the apparent motion as of a phenomenon
he had been at the pains to convince himself of, whereas those
who refer to the fixity of the beams speak sometimes very
definitely on this point.

Here are a few accounts of apparent motion.

Don Antonio d'UUoa, speaking of the eclipse of 1778, says,
" the corona seemed to be endued with a rapid rotatory motion,
which caused it to resemble a firework turning round its
centre." But it does not seem at all clear that he refers to
the beams, because he says, " there appeared issuing from the
corona a great number of rays of unequal length, which could
be discerned to a distance equal to the lunar diameter." This
" discerning " of the rays seems to imply that they were xm-
moved ; and certainly the observation would prove too much
if it were accepted as establishing a sort of Catherine-wheel
motion of the radial beams.

In 1842 several observers, says Grant, "asserted that the
ring of light " (not the rays) " tiuned continually roimd its
centre." " At Lipetsk," he adds, " the light of the ring seemed
to M. Otto Struve to be in a state of violent agitation." Then
follows the best testimony yet given in favour of apparent
changes in the beams. "Mr. Baily states," says Professor
Grant, " that the rays had a flickering appearance, somewhat
like that which a gas-illumination might be supposed to assume
if formed into a similar shape." It will be admitted, however,
that there is here no convincing evidence of a change of plctce
in tlie beams, and further that the changes of brightness are
fairly comparable with those flickerings which Chladni, Encke,
Humboldt, Bessel, and other astronomers have noted in the
case of comets, and which have even at times been noticed in
the zodiacal light. When we remember that the coronal beams
are necessarily seen through our atmosphere, which must
undergo very important changes of temperature during the
continuance of totality, and probably be subject to waves of
disturbance, we cannot wonder that the illumination of these
delicate objects sliould seem fitful.

Now when we turn to narratives describing the fixity of the
coronal beama •^'^ ^"d much more satisfactory evidence.

THE EtXIVSR EXPEDITIOSS. 49

the carefully observed eclipse of 1733, M. Edstrom,
iii.itlieinatical lecturer in the Academy of Charlestadt, noted
'•that the riug appeared everywhere of equal breadth, save
wht-re it emitted rays from above as well as fiom below ; that
tlii^e rays were equal in brilliancy, but unequal in length -, and
thai, they plaitdy mavniained the same position, until they
T-rtHwAoS along with the rimg up(ni the appearance of the sun's
limb." I take this account from Professor Grant's admirable
" Phyaical Hiatiiry of Astronomy ;" and the italics are his. The
same eclipse afforded abundant evidence of the extreme deli-
cacy of the light of these radiations, for " at Lincopia," says
Grant, " the ring appeared of a bright white colour, but it did
not exhibit a radial aspect"

Bruhns, of Leipsic, speaks thus of the appearance of a long
radial beam seen during the eclipse of 1860 : " On the eastern
«ide a long ray sliot out to a distance of about a degree ; at the
Iiase ita breadth was three minutes, but it tapered down to
about a minute and a half in breadth near its extremity.
During the ten seconds tliat my attention loaa directed to it,
neither the direction nor the length of the ray altered. Its
lisbt was &inter than that of the corona, which was brilliantly
^j$ite and seemed to twinkle."

HT 1 bftve already remarked that all the observers of the
Hunerican eclipse of last year, save Dr. Gould alone, speak of
^Bbfi fixity of the beams. The following instances may be spe-
^Bklly cited. Professor Simon Newcombe says: "Looking
^Buectly at the corona, there was no actual appearance of stria-
^Hon, hut it seemed to be of a jagged outline, extending out
^^Bo four sharp points nearly in the horizontal and vertical
^^Kection, while between these points the serrated edge hardly
^^fcmod to extend Iwyond the body of the moon. The greatest
^^Btonco to which the extreme points seemed to extend did
^^Bt exceed a semi-<liameter of the moon, and there was nothing
^^Hbe loog rays of light extending out in any direction whatever.
^^Bhmt / turned my head tlie points did not seem to turn ivlth
^^K Still I experienced a singular difBculty in judging accu-
^^Hely either of the number or direction of the jagged points,
^^Kof the extent to which they might be optical illusions pro-
^^ftcod by the differences in the height and brilliancy of different
^^■rtd of the corona. . . . Seen through a green glass, the
^^Bona consisted simply of four or five prominences, extending
^^Hnind the moon, smooth in their outline, shading off by im-
^^■troeptible gradations, and rising to different heights."
^^■QoD^ral Mycr, by observing the eclipse from the summit
^^K White Top Mountain, obtained a far better view of the
^^KUal beams than any of the observers at lower levels. '' As
^^KeDtn," he says, " there stood the full and intensely black

50 FOPULAB SCIENCE BSYIEW.

disc of the moon, siurounded by the aureola of a soft, bright
light, through which shot out, as if from the circumference of
the moon, straight, massive, silvery rays, seeming distinct and
separate from each other, to a distance of two or three diame-
ters of the lunar disc, the whole spectacle showing as upon a
background of diflfused rose-coloured light. . . . The silvery
rays were longest and most prominent at four points of the
circumference, two upon the upper and two upon the lower
portion, apparently equidistant from each other, giving the
spectacle a quadrilateral shape. The angles of the quadrangle
were about opposite the north-eastern^ north-^westem^ south-
eastern^ and south-^westem points of the compass. . . . There
was no motion of the rays^

The spectroscope may perhaps aflFord some information re-
specting the structure of these beams ; but the faintness of
their light will render spectroscopic observation very difficult.
If I were willing to hazard a speculation as to their structure
and physical cause, I should associate them, I think, with the
tails of comets, and regard them as phenomena indicating the
action of some repulsive force exerted by the sun. Sir John
Herschel has pointed out that we have demonstrative evidence
of the real existence of repulsive forces exerted by the sun with
great energy under certain conditions and upon certain forms
of matter. A source of perplexity exists, however, in the rela-
tive narrowness of these beams, whose apparent cross-section, as
delineated by most observers, is far less than the apparent dia-
meter of the sun. One would thus be led to infer that the
real seat of these repulsive energies lies far beneath the solar
photosphere. It is worthy of notice, too, that the beams
usually appear to extend from the zone of spots ; and one might
almost infer that the repulsive action is exerted with peculiar
energy in lines extending from the sun's centre towards the
so-called spot-zone.

It is with reference to such questions as these that the ob-
servation of the present and future solar eclipses is so full of
interest. There are problems presented by the corona which
are as yet not only unsolved, but apparently very far from solu-
tion. All the energies of our observers need to be directed to-
wards the mastery of these difficulties ; and therefore it is that,
as I think, I have been right in urging as earnestly as possible
that the records of past eclipses should be made to bear fruit
in the interpretation of all problems which can be in-
terpreted by means of them, while the opportunities affi^rded
by future eclipses, and the skill of those who observe them,
should be wholly devoted to those more perplexing problems
which still await even the means of solution.

The news has just arrived that the Sicilian party will be dis-

THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITIONS. 51

tributed among four stations— one party will be at Syracuse,
another at Augusta, a third (the head-quarters) at Catania, and
a fourth, a strong party heSaded by Professor Eoscoe, at the
gummit of Etna. Although this arrangement is associated in
the telegram with the accident which happened to the Psyche
(the news of which sent a thrill of alarm and anxiety through
the hearts of all who take interest in the cause of science), I
am disposed to hope that some parts of the arrangement may
be referred to other considerations. The fact that a portion of
the expedition is able to travel so far south as Syracuse, actually
crossing the line of central eclipse, seems to imply that the ex-
pedition has not been seriously hampered by the accident. I
hope much from the party at Etna. I had dwelt earnestly on
the advisability of sending a party there (see the December
number of " Eraser's Magazine "), and I think it cannot be
doubted that, though the totality will last there but a short
time, more instructive observations of the corona will be pos-
sible at so considerable an elevation than any which have yet
been made.

M 'J

52 rOPULAR SCIENCE RETIE\T.

NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES.

Br THE Rev. C. HOPE-ROBERTSOX, F.R.M.S.

[PLATE LXIX.]

THESE lovely creatures give as much pleasure to the student
of science as to the child at play, who runs, cap in hand,
to chase them. Their colours, forms, and habits, all furnish
charming subjects for observation. We propose to collect some
notes taken at intervals on these points, and show the methods
available for easily exhibiting their interesting peculiarities.

We begin with the distinction which serves, in general, to
divide butterflies from moths, which is the existence of a clvJ}-
shaped end to the antennae of the butterfly ; while the moth
has sharp-pointed or plumed antennae. From this club-shaped
end comes the generic word RhxypaXocera^ compounded of the
two Greek words for a cluh and horn. Observation has found
this distinction characteristic of the butterfly tribe ; we wish
further to see what there is in the habits of the creatures to
explain the reason why they have such horns.

If we look at one on a bright sunny day we will see its
horns erect, stretched out, delighting in the simshine. While,
if we look at a moth, which flies chiefly at dusky hours, when
it is brought to the light its horns are folded back, and doubled
as fer as possible imder shade of its body or wings, as if unable
to bear the glare. They are evidently most sensitive to light.

Now this is a key to one purpose which the horns serve.
They are the thermometers of these little weather-watchers.
The degree of warmth needed for them is made known by the
effect of light on the delicate tips of their horns or feelers. A
club-shaped feeler gives a larger surface for the light to act
upon; and the nervous energy needed for the butterfly to
enable its muscles to work, is collected by the club-shaped
points, and its general influence stored up to sustain flight
against the effect of a chill. Cold would paralyse them. Now
if we take the microscope to examine the structure of the club-
pointSf these are found to be full of cells, or depressions, where
the beat and electric energy, accoTXipanpxi% ^1^^*^ may be

TOR. umOX AVD
' ..■•wrOUMOATRH'^1

KOTDS 0\ lirTTEBFLlES. 53

*1»llected and traDsmitted to tbe system fur use. Some of
these are figured at a, Plate LXIX.

The butterfly tribe is one of the order Lepidoptera, or scale-
winged insects, so called from the multitude of little scales
^Ulith which the wings are covered.

^H~ These are of various forms, colours, and textures, suiBciently
^^Uatinct to mark the species, with a wonderful variety on tbe
^Kifferent parts of t he wing. The shapes are clear and compact
^En all the body of the wing; while at the edges there are
^Brager shapes, like plumes, or the wing feathers of birds, Tbey
^f«re attached, each by a separate stalk, to the membrane of the
wing. Some of these diversified forms are figured at k. They
come off like dust wlien slightly rubbed. The lovely colours
of these scales seem to depend, not always on an actual sheet
of local colour, but to be due sometimes to the dispermon of
light by means of fine lines orstriff drawn on each scale. The
relation of the size of lines, closely ruled, to the length of a
wave of light, is, by tbe undulatory theory, easily shown to
account for the dispersion of colours by a ruled surface, in itself
colourless. Buttons have been made, as curiosities, thus arti-
ficially ruled with very fine lines, giving a beautiful play of
changing colour. The colours of mothernsf-pearl, and other
substances, seem due also to the dispersion of light on a
white ground. Now, in the case of the purple Emperor a
changing play of colour is seen, between browu and purple, as
it catches the light at different angles. This appearance can
be calculated as due to the relative breadths of the lines
covering the scales (which vary from 10,000 to 30,000 in the
inch), when compared with the difference between the lengths
of waves of light.

These lines on the scales run always from end to end,

never across. The reason for this seems to !« that by this

arrangement the drops of rain, if falling on the wing, are rolled

off easily. The wing is nearly waterproof ; single drops running

^rAffvery cleanly, leaving no trace, if the scales are uninjured.

HL The arrangement in position on the membrane of the

^^^ing is a curious point about I he scales, aud explains the

■Vonderful expansion of the wing, diuing the first half-hour

after tbe butterfly comes out of its chrysalis. When first

emerged the comparative size of the wing to the body is seen

at fig. a. In about half-an-hour it will he seen to have

expanded to about the size figured at n.

To find the rationale of this development, we must take a
chrysalis when nearly full grown, and gently lift off the skin
covering tbe future wing, whose outline is easily traced on the
«ide of the chrysalis, as at E. Applying a microscope, we can
see the scales very closely packed together, slipped uudei 6ac\i

64 FOPULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

other both lengthways and sideways, as at fig. d. When the fall
development of the wing is attained, the scales are then to be
seen in a much more expanded state, spread out from each
other in all directions, as at fig. f. The membrane of the
wing, to which the roots of the scales are fixed, is elastic when
soft. In this state it emerges from the chrysalis, and, air
being breathed by the air-vessels, is sent to the extreme edges
of the wing, by many air-tubes which pervade the skin ; the
air stretches these tubes, which in turn expand the skin, and
this pulls out from under each other the different rows of
scales, until they assume a position in order, like the slates of
a housetop. By this time the skin gets hard, and when once
dried is stiff enough to remain in the flat shape required for
future flight. But till this is done the insect is helpless, and
many a one is then picked up as a choice morsel by quick-eyed
birds.

The colours of the wing in its moist, fresh, dustless purity
arc surpassingly lovely. Nothing can be more attractive as a
sight than the flight of a dozen or so of new-fledged Peacock
butterflies about one's break&st-table. They may easily be
kept thus to come out in succession by seciuing some dozens
of the black-looking caterpillars, off a bed of nettles, where
they feed. A large box, covered with wire gauze, to keep out
wasps and ichnemnon flies, may be their home. Fresh nettles
must be daily given them. And then, by degrees, they all go
into the trance-like chrysalis stage, hanging to the sides or top
of the box. Each morning after they begin to come out a
fresh batch will be found, and the room may be lit up with
their rainbow hues for two or three hours, till they are strong
enough to brave the open air. It is sad to see the disappoint-
ing result if an ichneumon fly has pierced the caterpillar
previous to its capture, and laid its murderous eggs inside.
Instead of the dazzling, graceful wing of the butterfly, comes
out a swarm of dingy little flies, horrible to behold, in their
victim's stead. Therefore let these caterpillars be early taken
and kept well covered.

We take next a very interesting point, which we believe
has not been much noticed. It is the powers of a magnifying
glass seen in the eyes of some butterflies. Their eyes may be
divided into two classes — hairy and smooth. The general
appearance of the eye is shown at fig. m, where 1, 2, 3 represent
the surface lines, as seen with successively increasing powers of
the microscope. It is seen that ultimately the surface is found
to be covered with a number of hexagonal little lenses, each
being, in fact, a complete little eye. About sixty rows of
these cover an ordinary eye, such as that of the Vanessa tribe.
They are about ^ o^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^® largest.

VOTES ON flrTTEBFLlES.

^|F Some butterflies have, at the angles joining these hexagonal
^■^M:«t8, a hair Btandin^ out, wliieh, repeated at tliouBandtf of
^pimch angles, gives to the eye a rough or hairj look. Such
r iaiiy eyes are represented at No. 2. They are very dark. It
is in these eyes difficult to see anything but the clothing of

But other butterflies, such as (he white ones, have no hairs
in the eye. The eye is then quite smooth and transparent, as
at Xo. ]. Holding such a butterfly closely, with its head
turned sideways to the sunlight, a very lovely picture is seen
displayed, of an arraogemcnt such as is figured at l, of dark
hexagonal spots divided by a network of light-coloured lines.
This is brilliantly lit up, and is exactly in appearance like the
effect produced by those glixss paper-weights which have a
picture inside them, magnified by the round surface of the
enclosing glass.

The most convenient fly to see this in is the small cabbage
one, for it is more easily caught than the larger white. This
Uie writer found from having told his little boy to catch some
white butterflies in the kitchen-garden. He always brought
in the smaller white, eaying that the others were too quick for
him. On seeking a reason for this slowness of sight, it is
found that the smaller white has the upper part of the eyeball
clouded with an opaque shading, ae at pq, which prevents it
seeing anyone approach just above it, though leaving the sight
clear at the sides.

Taking this conveniently blind little fellow, then, as the
/ubject of examination, easily renewed, the theory of explana-
^;0n of this appeai-ance evidently is this : —

The hexagonal network on the surface of the eye, as at No. 1 ,
■ reflected down on the interior retina in its very small natural
I^ Then the whole outer siirface of the eye, considered as
me sur&ce, acts like a globular lens, magnifying the interior
eflectioD till it is easily discerned with the observer's unaided
" sye, and assumes the very beautiful, picture-like appearance
which lasts while the eyes are fresh and moist. Thus the
butterfly's eye is a natural magnifying glass, exactly like what
is known as a Stanhope lens. The observer uses it as at r, and
sees the cells much enlarged.

That the hexagonal appearance is not exactly the same in
outline as the actual network on the cornea of tho eye is due to
the fact of the retina upon which the reflection is cast not being
exactly in the focua of the curved lens surface. This leads to
an overlapping of tlie outlines of the facets, making them seem
much thicker than the dividing lines between the facets of the
surface really are, as at fig. o.

The proboscis or trunk of the butterflynext chiims attention*

rOPULAB SCIENCE IIETIEW.

It ia a tube of doulile structure, eacli lialf being easily se-
parated or closed at pleasure by tbe fly ; when not used it
is nicely coiled up under tbe cbin, When needed for
Bucking the juicea of plants it is uncoiled, and, the two half
tubes being kept together by neat little teeth interlocking,
the tube draws up the juice into tbe moutb of the fly. To
enable it to do this, each half of the tube is furnished with a
multitude of fibres or nerves, which are reticulated across
from side to side, making it easily compressible. The air is
eshausted in the tube by Ihis compression, and its place is at
once filled by the juice which rises in the tube. Figs, B and
s show the general appearance of the tube, fig. T the re-
ticulated fibres for exhausting the air. Near the point of the
trunk, an additional means of suction is probably furnished by
a number of little protuberances, like nipples, which no doubt
help to draw up, like a sponge, by capillary attraction, the
juice when only in small quantities. These, however, do not
seem to be perforated with suction holes ; even when photo-
graphed with the microscope on a large scale, they show no
sign of any channel through them.

This tnmk is, in use, thrust into the nectary of flowers,
and in its passage is often covered with pollen. Hence, those
butterflies which flit from flower to flower indiscriminately,
such as the Peacock or Admiral, would be likely to carry from
one flower to another pollen grains, of a useless or different
kind, which might interfere with the proper fructification of tbe
flowers they are brought to. Now here comes in one of those
wise adaptations of the insect to the vegetjiblo world, which
proves the superintendence of one Master Mind. Such
butterflies are furnished with a long pair of soft brushes,
instead of their forelegs ; with which, while using the two
other pair of legs to support themselves, they wipe and clean
their trunks after each time of using. So that all adhering
pollen is wiped off, and not carried to other plants where it is
not needed.

In other insects, such as the bee, the provision for preventing
pollen mixing is accomplished by a beautiful instinct, which
leads the bee to keep only to one class of flower in each trip
it takes for honey.

But tbe butterfly liaving no settled home, spends its little
life in roaming anywhere ; and hence has this modified change
of legs into brushes, as seen at fig. B.

Its roaming seldom lasts much longer tlian necessary to
meet some mate, and deposit the eggs, Hke carved ivory balls,
as at fig. c, on the plant which will be best fitted for nourish-
ing its young when hatched.

The Hfe of one that has not yet met its mate may be pro-

NOTES ON BUTTEBFLIES. 57

longed artificially for weeks. Nature's great object being the
continuation of the species, life is prolonged in the hope of so
doing. Then if allowed its liberty it still seeks its mate ; and
perhaps this accounts for the hibernation of such specimens as
are the earliest every year ; creeping out with faded glories, to
try if they can accomplish their destiny, which was not fulfilled
before the winter.

Having settled their eggs on the chosen plant, the
parent butterfly never sees them come to maturity : a fair
lesson for faith to rejoice in. Tnist may never be felt by the
insect, but is evidently taught us through it. And how won-
derful is the destined change of the eggs it trusts, while itself
will not be there to watch I At all times the glorious change
from a first stage of grub or caterpillar, through the trance-like
sleep of the ch^salis, into the joyous creature that might well
be called a "flutter-by," has been a theme for poets and
philosophers.

ON SLEEP.
Br Db. RICHARDSON, F.R.S.

-•o*-

The Phenomenon of Sleep.

" HRHE twinkling of oblivion," as Wordsworth exquisitely

X defines the phenomenon of sleep, has, from the time

of Hippocrates to the present hour, engaged the attention

of thoughtful minds. Poets have foimd in the phenomenon

subject matter for some of the most perfect of their works.

Menander exalts sleep as the remedy for every disease that

admits of cure; Shakespeare defines it, "The birth of each

day's life, sore labour's bath ; " Sir Philip Sydney designates

it, " The poor man's wealth, the prisoner's release ; " and wearied

Dryden sings of it —

" Of all the powers the best.
Oh ! peace of mind, repairer of decay,
Whose balms renew the limbs to labours of the day."

As to the philosophers and the physicians who have said
and written on sleep, I dare hardly think of them, lest I should
commit myself to an historical volume instead of a short
physiological essay ; so I leave them, except such as are simply
physiological, and proceed on my way.

Perfect sleep is the possession, as a rule, of childhood only.
The healthy child, worn out with its day of active life, sud-
denly sinks to rest, sleeps its ten or twelve hours, and v^kes,
believing, feeling, that it has merely closed its eyes and
opened them again ; so deep is its twinkle of oblivion. The
sleep in this case is the nearest of approaches to actual death,
and at the same time presents a natural paradox, for it is
the evidence of strongest life.

During this condition of perfect sleep, what are the physio-
logical conditions of the sleeper ? Firstly, all the senses are
shut up, yet are they so lightly sealed that the conmiimication
of motion by sound, by mechanical vibration, by communica-
tion of painful impression, is sufficient to imseal the senses^
to arouse the body, to renew all the proofs of existing active life.
Secondly, during this period of natiural sleep the most impor-

ml fLixp.

S»

^piii changes of nutrition are in progress ; the body is rcno-
Tating, and if young ia actually growing; if the body be
properly covered, the animal heat is being conserved and
laid up for cipenditure during the waking hours that are to
follow ; the respiration is reduced, the inspirations lieing
lessened in the proportion of sis to seven as compared with the
number made when the body is awake ; the action of the
heiirt is reduced ; the voluntary muscles, relieved of all fatigue
and with the extensors more relaxed than the flexors, are under-
going repair of stnicturc and recruiting their excitability ; and
the voluntary nervous system, dead for the time to the exter-
nal vibration, or as the older men called it " stimulus " from
without, is also undergoiog rest and repair, so that, when it
comes again into work it may receive better the impressions
it may have to gather up, and influence more efl'ectively the
muscles it may lie called upon to animate, direct, control.

Tliirdly, although in the organism during sleep there

is suspension of muscular and nervous power, there is not

universal suspension ; a narrow, but at the same time safe, line

of distinction separates the sleep of life from the sleep of

death. The heart is a muscle, but it does not sleep, and

I Out lungs are worked by muscles, and these do not sleep ; and

HJllie viscera which tritiuate and digest food are moved by

nDuscles, and these do not sleep; and the glands have an

urangement for the constant separation of fluids, and the

glands do not sleep ; and all these parts have certain nerves

witich do not sleep. These all rest, but thej do not cease

their functions. Why is it so?

The reason is that the body is divided into two systems as
regards motion. For every act of the body we have a system
of organs under the influence of the will, the voluntary, and
another system independent of the will, the involuntary.
The muscles which propel the body and are concerned in all
acts we essay to perform, are voluntary ; the muscles, such as
tlie heart and the stomach, which we cannot control, are
iDvolimtary. Added to these are muscles which, though com-
monly acting involuntarily, are capable of being moied by
die wiU : the muscles which move the lungs are of this order,
fur we can if we wish suspend their action for a short time
or quicken it; these muscles we call semi-voluntary. In
deep, then, the voluntary muscles sleep, and the nervous
Cleans which stimulate the voluntary muscles sleep ; but the
involuntary and the semi -voluntary muscles and their nerves
luerely rest : they do not veritably sleep.

This arrangement will be seen, at once, to be a necessity, for
upon the involuntary acts the body relies for the continuance
of life. In disease the voluntary muscles may be p&raljKd, the

60 roruLAR aciENCE heview.

brain maj be paralysed, biit if the involuntary organs retain
power, the animal is not dead. Sir Astley Cooper had under
his care a man who had received an injury of the skull
causing compression of the brain, and the man lay for week*
in a state of persistent unconsciousness and repose ; practi-
cally he slept. He did not die, because the involuntary system
remained true to its duty; and when the great surgeon re--
movcd the compression from the brain of the man, the sleeper
woke from his long trance and recovered. Dr. Wilson Philip
had a young dog that had no brain, and the animal lay in pro-
found insensibility for months, practically asleep; but the
involuntary parts continued uninfluenced, and the animal lived
and, imder mechanical feeding, gi'ew fat. Fluorens had a
brainless fowl that lived in the same condition. It neither saw
nor heard, he says, nor smelled nor tasted nor felt ; it lost
even its instincts ; fur however long it was left to fast, it
voluntarily ate ; it never shrunk when it was touched, and when
attacked by its fellows, it made no attempt at self-defenc^
neither resisting nor escaping. In 6ne, it lost every trace of
intelligence, for it neither willed, remembered, felt,
judged : yet it swallowed food when the food was put into its
mouth, and fattened. In these cases, as in that of the injured
man, the involuntary systems sustained the animal life. It "
the same in sleep.

When we look at these phenomena, aa anatomists, we find ft
reason for them in structure and character of parts. The in.-'
voluntary muscles have a special anatomical structure ; and
the nervous organism that keeps the involuntary muscles in
action is a distinct organism. There are, briefly, two nervous
systems : one locked up in the bony cavity of the skull and is
the bony canal of the spine, with nerves issuing therefrom
to the muscles; and another lying within the cavities oi
the body, with nerves issiung from it to supply all the involun-
tary muscles. The first of these systems, consisting of thfl
bruin, the spinal cord, and the nerves of sense, sensation, and
motion, is called the cerebro-apinal or volimtary system of nerves;
the second, consisting of a series of nervous ganglia with nervei
which communicate with the involuntary muscles and witl)
nerves of the voluntary kind, is called, after Harvey the veget*
tive, after Bichat the organic system : asketchof this orgaat<
system is depicted in the accompanying diagram.

In sleep the cerebro-spinal system sleeps ; the organic systei
retains its activity. Thus in nileep the voluntary muscles an
parts fail to receive their neri'ous stimulation; but the in
voluntary receive theirs still, and under it move in stead;
motion ; while the semi-voluntary organs also receive BuflBciefi
stimulatioa to keep them in motion.

Of all the involuntary organs, the heart, which is the citadel
if motion, is most protected. To itself belongs a special neivoiis

centre, that which feeds it steadily with stimulus for motion;

from the cen.ical ganglia of the

organic nervous system it receives

i second or supplementary supply ;

and from the hrain it receives a

third supply, which, passive under

ordinary circumstances, can under

eitraordinary circumstances be-

L-ome active and exert a certain

controlling power. Then the ar-
teries which supply the heart with

blood are the first vessels given off

from the great feeding arterial

trunk, and the veins of the heart

winding independently roimd it

empty their contents direct again

into it. Thus is the heart the most

perfect of independencies: thus

during sleep and during wakelul-

nes3 it works its own course, and

taking first care of itself in every

particular, feeds the rest of the
body afterwards ; thns even when

sleep passes into death the heart

in almost every case continues its
action for some time after all the
other parts of the organism arc
in absolute quiescence; thus in

iybemating animals the heart Con-
ines in play during their lonj;
lolence; and thus under tin.'

insensibility produced by the in-
halation of narcotic gases and
vapours, the heart sustains its
fmiction when every other part

ii temporarily dead. Next the heart in independent action
is the muscle called the midriff or diaphragm; and as the
diaphragm ia a muscle of inspiration, the respiratory func-
tion pla^ second to the circulatory, and the two great functions
of life are, in sleep, faithfully performed. In sleep of illness
bordering on sleep of death, how intently we watch for the
merest trace of breath, and augur that if but a feather he moved
by it or a mirror dimmed by it, there is yet life.

In natural sleep then, sleep perfect and deep, that half of our
nature which is volitional is in the condition oC inertia. To

63 POPDLAE SCIESCE IIETIEW.

say, as Blumenbach has said, that in this sUte all interomrU^
"between mind and body ia suspended, is more perhaps than-
should be said, the precise limits and connections of mind and
body being unknown. But certainly the brain and spinal cord,
ceasing themselves to receive impressions, cease to communi-
cate to the musclea they supply stimulus for motion, and the
muscles imder their control with their nerves therefore sleep.
And so, to the extent that the acts of the brain and cord and
their nerves are mental, and the acts or motions of the volun-
tary muscles are bodily acts ; to that extent, in sleep, the inter-
course between the mind and the body is suspended.

TiiK Physical Cause of Sleep.

In sleep the condition of the voluntary muscles and of the
voluntary nervous system is, we must assume, in some manner
modified, sinco these organs are transformed from tlie active into
the passive state. Respecting the condition of the muscles is
sleep, no study of a systematic sort has been carried out, but in
relation to the brain there has been much thoughtful study,
upon whicli many theories have been founded.

The older physiologists regarded sleep as due to the exhaustion
of the nervous fluid; during sleep, they held, this fluid accu-
mulates in the brain ; and, when the brain and the other centrei
and nen'ts of the cerebro-spinal system are, to employ a common
expression, recharged, the muscles are stimulated and the body
awakes ; the brain prepared to receive external impressions and
to animate the muscles, and the muscles renovated and ready
to be recalled into activity. This theory held its ground for
many years, and, perhaps, still there are more believers in
it than in any other. It fails to convince the sceptical be*
cause of its incompleteness, for it tells nothing about the nature
of the presumed nervous fluid, and we know nothing as yet
about this fluid. The primary stop of the speculation is con-
sequently itself purely hypothetical.

Another theory, that has been promulgated, is that sleep
depends on the sinking or collapse of the lamina of the cere-
bellum or little brain. This theory is based on the experiment
that compression of the cerebellum induces sleep; but the
argument is fallacious, because pressure on the larger brain, or
cerebrum, ia followed by the same result. The theory of pre&*
sure has been proposed again in a diflerent way ; it has been
affirmed that the phenomenon of sleep is caused by the accu-
mulation of fluids in the cavity of the cranium, and by pressure,
resulting from this accimiulation, on the brain aa a whole. We
know well that pressure upon the brain does lead to an in-
eensible condition resembling sleep, and in some instances, in

05 SLEKP. ti3

iriu^ the Aail has been injured and an artificial opening
through it to the brain has heen foimed, pressure upon the ex-
posed surface has led to a comatose condition. I once myself
■aw a case of this nature. But the evidence against thia ex-
planation 13 strong, because the sleeping brain has been observed
to he pale and too free of blood to convey any idea of pressure.

In opposition to the pressure theory, Btumenbach contended
that sleep is due to a diminislied flow and impulse of hlood
upon the brain, for he argued tlie phenomenon of sleep is in-
duced hy exhaustion, and particularly by exhau^ion following
iipon direct loss of blood. Recently Mr. Arthur Uiu^ham, in a
very able communication, has adduced a similar view, and the
general conclusion now is that during sleep the brain is really

iplied with less blood than in waking hours.

"o accoimt for the reason why the brain is less freely fed
hlood in sleep, it has been surmised that the vessels, the
ies, which Iced the brain, and which for contractile pur-
i axe supplied with nerves from tlie organic ner^-ous system,
are, under their nervous influence, made to close so that a por-
tion at least of the blood which enters through them is cut off
on going to sleep. This view, however, presupposes that the
organic nervoiis centres, instead of sharing in the exhaustion
incident to labour, put forth increased power after fatigue, an
idea incompatible with all we knuw of the natural functions.

Carmichael, an excellent physiologist, thought that sleep
brought on by a change in the assimilation of the brain,
by what he called the deposition of new matter in the
organ, but he offered no evidence in proof : while Metcalfe, one
of the most learned physicists and physicians of our time, main-
tained that the proximate cause of sleep is an expenditure of
the substance and vital energy of the brain, nen-es, and volun-
tary muscles, beyond what they receive when awake, and that
the specific office of sleep is the restoration of what has been
wasted by exercise ; the most remarkable difference between
eiercise and sleep being, that during exercise the expenditure
exceeds the income ; whereas diunng sleep the income exceeds
tie expenditure. This idea of Metcalfe expresses, probably,
a broad truth, but it is too general to indicate the proximate
cause of sleep, to explain which is the object of his proposition.

Sty own researches on the proximate cause of sleep — re-
senrches which of late years have been steadily pursued — lead
in« to the conclusion that none of the theories as yet offered ac-
wiunt correctly for the natural phenomenon of sleep ; although
I must express that some of them are based on well-defined
Cuts. It is perfectly true that exhaustion of the brain will
indttce phenomena so closely allied to the phenomena of
Hatnial sleep, that no one could tell the artificially induced ttoio.

idea

POPDLAli SCIENCE BEVIEW.

the natural sleep ; and it is equally true that presfiure upon the
braiti will also lead to a state of sleep simulating the naturaL
For example, in a young animal, a pigeon, I can induce the
deepest sleep by exposing the brain to the influence of extreme
cold. I have had a bird sleeping calmly for ten hours under
the local influence of cold. During this time the state of the
brain is one of extreme bloodlessnesa, and when the cold is
cautiously withdrawn and the brain is allowed to refill gently
with blood, the sleep passes away. This is clear enough, and
the cold, it may be urged, produces contraction of the brain sub-
stance and of the vessels, with diminution of blood, and with
sleep as the result. But if when the animal is awaking from
this sleep induced by cold, I apply warmth, for the unsealing of
the parts, a little too freely, if, that is to say, I restore the
natural warmth too quickly, then the animal falls asleep again
under an opposite condition ; for now into the relaxed vessels
of the brain the heart injects blood so freely, that the vessels^
in like manner as when the frozen hand is held near the fire,
become engorged with blood, there is congestion, there is pree—
sure, and there is sleep.

The same series of phenomena from opposite conditions can
be induced by narcotic vapours. There is a fluid called chloride
of aonyl, which, by inhalation, causes the deepest sleep ; during,
the sleep so induced, the brain is as bloodless as if it were
frozen. There is an ether called methylic, which, by inhalation,
can be made to produce the deepest sleep; diu'ing this sleep
the vessels of the brain are engorged with blood.

We are therefore correct in supposing that artificial sleep
may be induced both by removal of blood from the brain, and
by pressure of blood upon the brain ; and in the facts there is^
when we consider them, nothing extraordinary. In both
ditions, the natural state of the brain is altered ; it cai
under either state, properly receive or transmit motion ; so it is
quiescent, it sleeps. The experimental proof of this can be
performed on any part of the body where there is nerve-fibre
and blood-vessel ; if I freeze a portion of my skin, by ether
spray, I make it insensible to all impression — I make it sleep ;
if I place over a portion of skin a cupping tube, and forcibly
induce intense congestion of vessels, by exhausting the air
the tube, I make the part also insensible- — I make it sleep.

The two most plausible theories of sleep — the plenum and
the vacuum theories I had nearly called them^are then based
on facts ; but still I think them fallacious. The theory that
natural sleep depends on pressure of the brain from blood, is
disproved by the observations that have been made of the brain
during sleep, while the mechanism of the circulation through
the brain famishes no thought of this theory as being possibly

^WTOct. The theory that Bleep is caused by witbditiw.il of
Mood from the brain by contraction of its arterial vessels, is
disproved by many considerations. It presupposes that at the
time when the cerebro-Hpioal nervous system is moat wearied
the organic system is most active ; and it assumes that the great
volume of blood which circulates through the brain can be cut
off without evidence of increased volume of blood and tension of
vessel in other parts of the body, a aupposition directly negatived
by the actual experiment of cutting off the blood from the brain.
There is another potent objection applicable to both
theories. When sleep is artificially induced, either by subject-
ing the brain to pressure of blood or to exhaustion of blood,
the sleep is of such a kind that the sleeper cannot be roused
until the influence at work to produce the sleep is removed.
But in natural sleep the sleeper can always be roused by motion
or vibration. We call to a person supposed to be sleeping
naturally, or we shake him, and if we cannot rouse him we know
there is danger ; but how could these simple acta remove
pressure from the brain, or relax the contracted vessels feeding
the brain ?

These two theories set aside, the others I have named need
not trouble us ; they are mere generalisations, interesting to
read, worthless to pursue. Know we then nothing leading to-
wards a solution of the question of the proximate cause of
sleep ? I cannot say that, for I think we see our way to some-
thing which will unravel the phenomenon ; but we must work
sinwly and patiently, and as men assured that in the pro-
blem we are endeavouring to solve, wo are dealing with a sub-
ject of more than ordinary importance. I will try to point out
tie direction of research.
I find that to induce sleep it is not necessary to produce
I extreme changes of brain matter. In applying cold, for
example, it is not necessary to make the brain substance solid
in order to induce stupor, but simply to bring down its tem-
perature ten or twelve degrees. I find also that very slight
direct vibrations, concussions, will induce stupor ; and I find
I that in animals of different kinds the profoundness of sleep is
greater in proportion as the size of the brain is larger. From
tfaeae and other focts I infer that the phenomenon of natural
deep is due to a molecular change in the nervous structure
itadf of the cerebro-spinal system, and that in perfect sleep the
"lole of the nervous structure is involved in the change^the
UD, the cord, the nerves ; while in imperfect sleep only parts
f thU nervous matter are influenced. This is in accord with
1, for 1 can by cold put to sleep special parts of the nervous
Inn without putting other parts to sleep. In bad sleep we
TOL. I. — so- XXXVIU. t

rOPULAR SCIEKCE REViElT.

have the representation of the same thing in the restlessness
the muscles, the half-conscious wakings, t^e dreame.

Suppose this ide^ of the change of nervous matter to
true, is there any clue to the nature of the change itself?
think there is. The change is one very closely resembling
that which occurs in the solidification of water surcharged witli
a saline substance, or in wat«r holding a hydrated colloid, like
dialysed silica, in trembling suspension. What is, indeed, the
brain and nenous matter? It is a mass of water made suffici-1
ently solid to be reduced into shape and form, by rather lesa
than twenty per cent, of solid matter, consisting of albuminousi
substance, saline substance, fatty substance. The mechanism
for the supply of blood is moat delicate, membranous; Hie
mechanism for dialysis or separation of ci-ystalloidal from col-
loidal substance is perfect, and the conversion of the compound
substance of brain from one condition of matter to another ii
if we may judge from some changes of water charged with
colloidal or fatty substances, extremely simple. I do not now
venture on details respecting this peculiarly interesting que»*
tion, but I venture so far as to express what I feel will ons;
day be the accepted fact, that the matter of the wakeful braia
is, on going to sleep, changed, temporarily, into a state of
greater solidity ; that its molecular parts cease to be moved
by external ordinary influences, by chemical influences ; tliat
they, in turn, cease to communicate impressions, or, in other
words, to stimulate the voluntary musclea; and that then there
is sleep which lasts until there is re-solution of structure,
whereupon there is Wiikefulness from renewed motion in brain
matter and renewed stimulation of voluntary muscle, through
nerve.

The change of structure of the brain which J assume to be
the proximate cause of sleep is possibly the same change as
occurs in a more extreme degree when the brain and its subor-
dinate parts actually die. The effects of a concussion of the
brain from a blow, the effects of a simple puncture of nervous
matter in centres essential to life — as the point in the medulla
oblongata which Fluorens has designated the vital point — have
never been explained, and admit, I imagine, of no explanation
except the change of structure I have now ventured to suggest.
Here, for tlie moment, my task must end. My object has
been to make the scientific reader conversant witli what has
been said by philosophers upon the subject of sleep and ita
proximate cause, and to indicate briefly a new line of scientific
enquiry. I shall hope on some future occasion to be able to
announce further and more fruitful labour.

REVIEWS.

THE TnAXSForiMATlON" OF IXSECTS.'

AMID the TiDit host of dr&wiDg''rooTn scientific works which the put few
Te»rs have introduced into £a<{land, the IxMt, it seema to us, iii tlie
work of M. BlunchftTii, edited by Dr. Duncan, wliich is now before us.
Whether we consder the marvellouB amy of eiquisittfly beautiful plates, a
bi:«t of woodcuta, the admirable printing, or loat, but not the le&it, the ex'
''pllvnt addilioDH which our English nnturalist has made to the text, we
□lUBt readil; give the first place to M, Blaochard's treatise.
(Jurinuelj enough, it deals not oul; with the animals of one vioM alone,
I, besides treating of the insects, it goa compnialivelj fully into the
e&nuh and Cnutaaa. In this reKpi-ct it presents, apart from ibe ninny
r^ltUures <■' novelty which we Hnd in other parts of the volume, much that
ii new to the general render. For it must be confessed that, ^hile the
iui«cta are comparatively well known in many mspecta to the world gcne-
taily, the Aracluiidi and Crtataceimt form — especially the latter — rather iiuw
{pmpa for the consideinlion of the DBturalist.

The first chapters, of course, deed with questions of physiology, such ns

those of metnninrphusis, and the general character of the animnls described,

ud the succeeding ones with the metamorphoses of the various groups of

iiMCta; then in the same manner, though in briefer Cishion, aresubaequenllv

I dmuled the classes Myriapada, Arachnida, and Cruntacea, In the eai'lier

Iebipters — those, in fact, which deal with the general anatomy and physiology
tf Null group — -we fancy that Dr. Duncan has had the heaviest work to per-
ibo. Not merely as a translator, of course, but in bringing the French
Itition up to the slate of our recent knowledge. We have only seen the
R«ncb book momentarily, and of course we may be wrong; but we fancy that
i|re«t deal of new matter meets the eye in this part of the work, and we
Wrtily thank Dr. Duncan for the trouble he has taken ; for, if we do not

* "The Transforraatinn, or Bletamorphoses of Inrects " (Irnireia Mj/n'a-
ftJa, Araehnida, CYuttacca). Uving an Adaptation, for English Headers, of
M. fimile Blouchard's " Mfitamorphoeea, mwurs ot instincts dea Insecles," and
> L'otntiilation from the Wurks of Newport, Charles Darwin, Spence Bale,
■l^iti Miiller, Packard, Lubbock, Stainton, and others. Hy P. Martin

«t«l, F.R.S., Professor of Oeology in King's Collegs, London. London :
«B,Pelter,&Co. 1871.

68 roFCLAii

mistnke, he baa been nt pains to make a wortt, tiiat was intended merelj a; %
populur one, do service of a good kind to both nnturaliats and the public
(reuerally- We believe Ibnt it is be wbo introduced much that relates ta
ibe nerroiis sj-stfui of insects, for we find in tbia work a great deal of
■natter that is absolutely new lo popular treatises. H^pecially so is tb»
account of the deTelopment of the nervous system in the larva of VaiutM
Miiiea, which is taken front that wondroua worker among insects, oul
English Newport, and which is briefly as follows ; — " Two Houtb after th»
larvn of Vaneaa wticie has suspended itself to undergo its transformatioii,
and in which state it remains from six, eight, ten, or even twentf-fout
hours — Bccordiog to the strength of theindlTiduBl, and other circumstancea— •
before it throws off its last larva-skin, a considerable alteration bas alreidj^
taken plnce in the body of the larva. The ganglions In tbe head are ililV
distinct from each other, but are a liltlo in form, although not yet enlarged.
The sub- (esophageal ganglion is enlarged to nearly twice its original
and tbe cords which join it to the brain are shortened, and bo are Uion
that connect tbe second, third, fourth, and fifth ganglions. Tbe last t«
are separated only by a short interrol. The fifth, sixth, and seventh u
drawn closer together, tbe ends between them are disposed in a "g-U
manner, and the longitudinal direction of tbe nervous chain is in consequent
altered. The q^nglious, from the seventh to tbe terminal one, remain as i
the active larva. A little while before tbe old skin is thrown off there il
great excitement throughout the body of the insect About balf-an-hoa
before this occurs there is a considerable enlargement of the brain, the sub-
oesophageal, and the second, third, fourth, and fifth ganglions. The cordl
that extend between them diverge very much, and those between the fift^
sixth, and seventh are disposed in a ^igiag direction. Immediately after th
insect hasentered the pupn state all tbe ganglions are brought closer togetbeis
in conaeijuence of tlia ends being disposed more irregularly than at any oth
period, which has been occasioned by the shortening that has taken place
every segment, by which the cords are rendered too long- to lie in a direct lia
Seven hours afterwards there is a grealer enlargflmemt of the brain, opd
nerves, and ganglions of tbe thoracic segments, wliich begin to approad
each other. At twelve hours the thoraiic ganglions have united, and
eighteen the nerves of the wings have increased in size, and the
chain in the abdomen has become straight again. At thirty-six hours tb
optic nerves have grown nearly u la:^ as the brain, and the gullet is
pletely surrounded by an extension of ihe ganglion under it, and the
above. The sixth ganglion has disappeared ; and at the end of forty-eigi
boors the seventh is no longer seen, but the thoradc
slie gradually. At fifty-eight hours the middle part of the cht
greatly increased in aiie, and the great nervous centres and nerva twifS
which will supply tbe wings eventually with energy, occupy it The optil
and antennal nerves have nearly attained their full development, and lb<
nrrangenient of the whole nervous system is now nearly as it exists in thi
perfect iuHCct. The whole of these important changes are thus seen to tain
place within the first three days after the insect has undergone its met»
tnorphoses, and tbey precede tho^e of the digestive system." We have givcf
this rather long quotation for various reasons : in the first place, it Ulustratd

DEviEwa C9

■ wonderful phase in nornml developnieiit ; agfiin, il shows Ihe inan-elloiia
insight of Newport, who must h»ve spent many and many a weary hour ero
he could lay down terasly the informntion above given. Lnstly, it shows
how carerully the editor (for we credit him with the qaotntion) has brought
ibe work to its proper development in thus giving the general reader
t-yme small idea of the amount of work done bj s labourer wGo ia Icnown but
to Muttiimists, but who deserves to be remembered wLeti many of the ptesent
fice of nBtnralista are no more.

But the general reudpr, uninterested in metamorphoses, may think
tlie »bove of very little ngniliciince, nod may naturally be more interested
in the general habits or other tonditions of inaecla. If he be, lie cannot
(til to liad sbundance to inlerest liim in this work. For example, let us
take aame of tlie curious facts relating to parthenogenesiB, which are
ntordei, «nd for which we think again we are indebted to IJr, Uuncan.
Von Siebold, he bbvs, " collected a great number of the cases, or eacs, as he
calls them, of Suttttobia liehtHella and S. triqwtieUa, and to his great as-
locuahmeDt none but female todividuals came out of Ihem, and only a aiiigle
locality furnished him with a couple of males. lie liept these females care-
fully in little Teasels closed with glass lids, and found that they clung to
their casee, resting upon the outside of them, These virgin females Inidegga
and filled their mis with Ihem, and did not wait fur a fertilising male, for
ihev commenced egg-laying very soon after they escaped from the pupn-cnse
or tii« chiyaalia condition. When the Sulatobtie vitire removed from their
aacs, ihey bad such a violent impulse to lay, that they pushed their laying
tube about in search of the surface of the eac, and at last let their eggs fall
opsnly. lie writes, ' If I had wondered at the zeal for ovipoaition in these
hu^haudlesB Suleaobia, how was 1 astonished when all the eggs of these
females, of whose virgin state I was most positively convinced, gave birth
, U) young caterpillars which looked about with the greatest assiduity, in
ich of materials for the manufacture of little sacs.'" This ia curioua
tgh, but is just a mite from tlie immense store of information which the
[ contains ; and we only wish that our space permitted us a mora
) quotation. But we have stud, we hope, sufficient to show gene-
iB/ the great value and importance of the work, which is an admirable,
Msly written, Eugli^ work, and whose engravings are beyond comparison
r ara aliuost beyond number.

ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM.'

E present work is one of a acriea which Messrs, Longmans are issuing,

as we suppose, in opposition to the many works of a somewhat similar

A which are being drcnlated about at present. It is one of a aenes

Icb the editor tells us is intended for the members of a large class which

" The Elements of Mechanism." Designed for Students of Applied
Mianica. By T. M. Goodeve, It.A., Lecturer on Applied Mechanics at
■ Rojal School of Mines. London : Longmans, 1870,

70 POPLLAR SCIE^■CE REVIEW.

Iiui only become etudenta of lale yetm. Will it «erte its purpose ? W
cannot laj in exact terms, but n-e am tell nhat nuf impi-easion is, and tlist
is to the effect that it will not. Id no wayia thia due to Messrs. Loa^man.'
who bare diaplnjed oa much care in the publiabiog of tbls work aa of an
olber, and who bare turned it out in such n manner that, for illustration
and tf pngmphy, it ia inferior to none ; but we fiuicj ihnt the editor and the
author have both gone upon the wrong scent It ia true that ay^itinst tb)
view ia the fact that the work haa gone through two editions alrL'ndy ; jet
must we express the opinion, that it is not exactly the work suited U
student of mechanics. The book ia of course addressed to a difTerent class of
men from those for whom most similar writings are intended. In fact it ii
not intended for the ordinary student at all. Yet may we not say that tbr
engiaeenDg and mecliaaical pupil, pure and timplt, will not understand it if
perchance it be the first work of the kind placed in his bands. For our-
Mires, we confess that if the work now before us — ably and intelligibly
■written aa it ia — were the first book giren us aa a manurU of mechanics, we
should fail to follow it in such a manner as it ahould be followed by the
student. Tet may it prore quite the opposite with most studeuts, and
we heartily hope it may, for, tboug-h quite differetit from most treatises on
mecbnnics, it is admirable in all its parta, and is most clearly and intel-
ligibly written by the author. It is the Urat of Messrs. Longmans' series
that we have seen, and we hare judged rather unfavourably of il« appear-

A MANUAL OF COLODKS.*

A CURIOUS book, and one which not often presents itself to the reviewer.
What shall we call it, or how shall we describe it ? It is not strictly,
na its naroe implies, a manual of coloure, for it contains nmny other eubji
but it is mainly such inforinttlioa as those interested in the chemistry of
colours require. It is, in fact, an olementary manual of dyeing, and yet it is
not entii-ely so. But if the reader will imagine a book in which is contained
alt the information that a adentific dyer requires — that is, a dyer who ia pre^
pared to go into the chemistry of dyes — he will form a good idea of the nature
of the work. It \» got up in dictionary form, which we think most excellently
convenient for such a book — each paragraph bemg commenced by a titular
word in deep black letters, or Egyptian type. What shall we («y of the
wiirk ? We caimot afford it much praise, for the reason that it by no meai
I'quals the subject it proposes to discuss. But then comes the question, Ci
yuu have batter ? and to this we fear must be nniwerad. No. The fact ia that,
save a mdimentaiy manual, or one considerably behind the time.none cai
he writl'"n. Why ? the uninitiated will inquire. For the simple and very
intelligible reason that if it dealt with the subject in such a manner that idl
hIiouIJ he able to glean from it the different methods of dyeing, each would

*■ " Tlie Manual af Colcmrs aiid Dye-'\\'areB, their Properties, Applications,
''* ' ation, Impiirilifs. nnd Sophistivalions, \c." By J. \V, Slater. Londo
wood & Co. 1^70.

UEVISWS.

W able to ndopt the process, Mtd bo while he might beoelit the Stnte he
would CTTtaialj ruin hia neigbbiiurs. But bis neighbours are too cimaing
fr>r this ; 80 when tbay discover r secret in djeing, or sny oilier chemiosl
prooMD out of wbicb monej con be turned, they aimplj keep it to tbemselreE,
ita-i m&ke mrmej out of it while tbej can. The nuthor, therefore, cHDnol get
hoM of it, and of course he cannot put it into bis book. Cut, wiib tliia
eirepcioD, Sir. Sinter's mnnual is a Mpital littla work, well arranged, snd
with almiist sufRdeot information on all subjects connected with the dyer.
The reader, taking these facts into consideratioD, will, we should think,
contidei the manual a conrenient and well -in formed assistant, oa we do.

■ TERSE GEOLOGY.*

TTERE is a curious bowk; n small one, and nevertheless a very useful one,
iJ. -which we wonder, now that we see it, bos not made its nppenrnnce
earlier. It is evidently a concise, clear, and well-arrsn^d note-book to iliu
lectures of the eminent men who have produced it. We say a note-book,
fur of the malerinls of a note-book does it consist ; but it must be remembered
that it is the DOte-booh not of a student, but of a professor, and one too
which ematiates from two men, one of whom is one of the most thorough
giNilogisIs in the kingdom. It is intended as a guide to the courses of
lectures of two professors of geology and mineralogy — a very full note-hook,
lo be euro, but still merely a note-book, to assist the student in placing
lo^lber a vast amount of iafornistion to be derived fram other sources.
This is what the authors say of it: — "The student will, onhispnrC, find clear
stKtvments and explanations of the things, fact^, and (-ircumstanceB <'n which
pMshgy is bused, whether he reads lecture by lecture, or bc^inx with some
particular subject, or according to some chosen classification, such as either
of the eight courses of lectures may supply. In either case he must make
the matter bis own by croes-referencBS, using the index as explaiuei in its
prefatory note. Thus he will pursue a systematic study of utei'y subject
md set of subjects, either acconting- to the lectures, one of the Synopses, or
■ay plan that his own rending or his teacher may suggest. Only by ciiuui-
/yiny on some principle or other can a student luaster scieutidc kuon-ledge."
We c«n only say that if the student fallows the advice at>ove given, he will
become master of geology in a compsralively short period, and he will have
leuned one of the beat methods of making himself familiar with a complex
subject. We have only one regret, and that is the want of a few typical
Uluatrationa. Tliese are certidnly required ; nnd we trust that in the next
tdttioD, which must be nearly ready even now, the authors will lake our
idfice SO far. In every other particular the work, though small, is every-
m desire.

' "Geology," By John Morris, F.G.S., Professor of Geologv and Mine-

rinUniiemtvColleBe, London; andT. Rupert Jones. F.OS., Ih'ofussor

Bology and Mineralogy, Roval Mililarv College, Sandhiirdt. Ilrst

Van Voorst. 1870.

rorrLAB scibscb nETizw.

NATURAL rillLOSOPIIY.'

Trm l>ook now before ns is an English rendoring of the French work pub-
lished A few years ainre in Paris, and written b; M. A. P. Deschand.
Professor Everett, D.C.L., the teacher of Natural Philosophy in Queen's
College, Belfast, has rendered it in Eogliah, Rtid it hns now appenrcd in ila
first part — that which is devoted to mechanics, bjdiosbitics, and pneumatics;
TVe should have thought that there were suffirient works on this subject in
Englaod without the introduction of a French Tolame. We could name at
least half-a-dozen which we think wo could proTe to be (juile as excellent
as M. Deschaud's treatise; but then that is nothing; a very eliftht difler-
ence is sufficient, to the mind of a professor in a new choir, who de&ires to
make himself known to the world, to induce him to introduce a new work.
Wa suppose that really the amount of difference between Uie present work
and any of the various treatises which exist already, is, to the reader, ex-
tremely small, however great it may seem to the tmnalator. But tho trans-
lator is the person responsible, and he introduces the work. However, wa
may merely caU attention to the book as a very good one, and we suppose
our thanks are duo to the gentleman who has introduced it into England.
His own work hiis not bei^n extremely beH\-y, but, ns far as it baa gone,
it ia good, though rendered here and there in a le»s simple etyle thsn we
think mijiht hnve been adopted. The book has many excellent iUustm-
trations, and is remiirkably well printed. Why it has hean issued in a
Sexihie cover we fail to see, though douhtless there are gx>od reasons in the
publisher's mind.

TDE TRUTH OF THE BIBLE.f

AQADT I A work on Biblical truth. Year afler year some one eomei
forward lo support the Bible ngninet men of acience, and we humbly
ask the reason why ? Do scienliGc men engage their attcnlion in writing
gainst Riblicnl records P Do Lyell and Huxley, or Murchisoa and Hooker,
take the trouble to write huge books against the Dible, that it finds so many
to support itP Or is it that Church of England clergymen, with little of
ecieniifie knowledge, nnd with a courage proportionate to their ignorance,
are anxious to make what they can by their penmanship P We fear Ibia
has Bomelhing to do with it ; for we do not, we think, find that those who
are conversant with the study of science are, as a rule, the most ready to
rush into the iield, prepared to hold a particular view of the Bible. No ; on
the contrary, It is some country curate, gifted with abundance of time,
learned in a few books, and worshipped by a number of old ladies, who lays

" " Elementary Treatise on Natural Philosophy." Bv A, Pnvat De»-
chaud. Translated and edited by J. D. Everett, ii.A., D."C,U, Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen's College, Belfast. Part I. I^ondon :
Blsckie. 1H70.

t " The Truth of the Bible ; Evidence from the Mosaic acd other Recntda
of Creation ; the Original Antiquity of Man," *c., by the Rev. Bour-
chier Wrey Savile, M.A., Curate of Coombe. London : LongrmanB. 1871.

U> lAole strength to settle down, Cnallj Md cleiirly, tlist nliicli, during
the preeent century. Lag been the greatest mjstery to nil who have entered
upon it. Such men nre ever reitdy, at a few niontbs' notice, to tnke up anj
subject, BJid aatisTy Lbemselves thnt lliey understand it fully. They forget
how many hare ah^>udy been in the field — how numerouB hnre been the
different views na to Bible and Science tec on cilia lion— and, finally, how
instantly their idetis would have beun rejected le^ than one hundred
years dgo. It would b« idle to eianiine this work, which ia merely
* »ort of scrap- Ixtoli, containing- extracts from the many men wlio have
■writttn upon the eubjoct, without liny adequate conception of the
matter by the author, who is aiinply one of thode men who are prepared
affoiiut science, and who nt^ceasaHly come into the world and leave it without
influencing in lhe*/ij;A(«((fcji«iheTiews of those who are capable of forming
opiuioos. He holds the Tiewa he states — that ia all. Ha quotes a number
of wtiCers to show that scientific men ditTer much among themselres. He
has given ■ boob full of quotnlions of thia kind ; in fact, it is what his book
rouaista of. But then, we ask, what on earth does it pmve t That men
dingrec ? We admit it, of course ; what would the world be if tbey didn't P
But if the render cannot aee that the conclusions of ecieotiHc roindK are, as
yean advance, becoming more and more distinct from the ideas of the Old
Testament, and that such conclusions ni-e in general terms complete, we
pity them. The Old Testament ia losing muth of its force as it was
laid down B hundred years ago, but we do not see that this lessens Christi-
anity in the slightest degree. We deplore books like tlie present, wiitten
by churchmen, in a hitter spirit of hostility to men of science, and impossiblo
lo be read hy those who are desirous of knowing nothing but the tmtli,
and nho ceek it to thi^ir own cost, and their own disadvantage. Does
the author think bis book will anti><fy a single really scientific sceptic P
If an, be u mistnheD. And yet, we ask, is it nut the fact that every sceptic
would desire to be convinced that there was a future life io store for him ?
Can the Christian conceive that life in this world h so delightful, that
man would not hail with tbesupremest delight the belief in a future and a
Hod, did he really imagine before that they were nof ? It is impoeaihle for
the thoughtful mind to imagine so wilful a sceptic, and it is for that renaon
that we think that a book which is written in the ftyle that this one displays,
iapigea 174, 6, 6, is one entirely unsuited to the sceptical mind.

A "HANDBOOK OF THE TELEGR.iPH."*

WK know of no better hook than this to place in the honda of a beginner,
and we think, now that the management of the telegraph has been
practicaUy placed in the hands of the Government, tbal it ehoulil place this
work on the table in every office in the kingdom. It is essentiMlly a book
which should be in such a place, for it especially deals with telegraphy as

rorcLAn stience

an art, Rnd we know of no work from which bo much ranj b« gathered in ft'
short a time. lU arrangeraent has bi'en well plBane<l, and its matter ia e«-
cellently arranged, and, go far as wu chu see, madu intelligible to the feeblfst
by putting the difficult problenia in a multitude of wnrs. It u ao amuitrt'd
that anyone, be he ever so simple, (.'an understand it Itiuaj eeem unuBunl,
hut we cannot avoid giving the conteutB; for tliey show, even more thirn
any words of oura, how ndniirably the scheme of the work is carried ouL
The iirst part is of course iDtrodiictorj. Then follows advice to the student
na to his form of applicatiou, various examples of the subject of eiamioaiioa
being given ; luid next wo have infonualion as to officials. Then follow In
proper orfer a lung list; — scale of charges, delivery of lelegrnms, double
needle iustfument, single needle instrument, Morse's priotiog instrument,
groupiug of letters of dilTerent alphabets, Hughes' printing instrument, bell
bstruraent, Whealstiine's automatic machine, Wheatstone's ABC instru-
ment, pneumatic code, postal telegraph codes, miscellaneous regulations,
inland telegraph- fomis, abstracts, abstmct books, accounts, returns, roilwiy
companies' messages and forms, raitwaT-train telegraphs, offences, useful
hints, telegrams and index. Altogether a most valuable, indeed invaluable,
amount of inforcnnlion to the lelegrnph clerk.

CHEMISTRY AND METALLUnOY.'

HEHE we have two books in Messrs. Longmans' " Text-book of Science"
series. They have quite recently reached us, and we are compelled to
say of them that they undo the impression left upon our mind by the
Manual of Machinery which wa had seen as the first, and which we have
noticed rather unfavourably. The present two works have lef^ s satisfactory
feeling upon our mind. They bear out the view expressed by the publishers,
that "the works will not be manuals for immediate npplicnlion, nor uni-
versity teJtt-books, in which mental training is the principal object ; but are
meant to be practicai trealitfi, toajid and e,ract in their hgie, and u-itk
evrrything and every process reduced to the itnge of direti and useful ap-
plicntion, arid iUiirtraUd by KeU-tdeded exampUs from familiar procetet
and facU. It is hoped that the publication of these books — in addition tA
other useful results — will tend to the leading up of artisans to become cin-
didatea for the Whilwoith Scholarships," We think, as we have said, that
the authors of the present works — one of tliem unhappily removed from
auiong us — have done their work well, and in accordance with the plan on
which the volumes themselves are laid down.

And first of Mr. Bloiam's labours. His has been the moat laborious task.
Metallurgy is not a subject so freijuently treated of as Chemistry. He had,

• "Metals; their Properlies and Treatment." By Charles Loudon
BloxBm, I'rufesscir of Practical Chemistry in King's College, London. Loo-
don ; Longmans, 1870.

" Introduction to the Study of Inorganic Chemistrr." By William
Allen Miller, M.D., D.C.L., late Treasurer and Vice-President of the Boval
Swiety, Professor of Chemistry in King's College, &c. Longmans. 18i I.

BSno'
■ Jinn

Ultl<
hMmt

Hhwdc

KEVIBWe. J o

dierrfWre, in bringing it witbin the compiuis of a ama1l octflTo volume, n aotae-
what difficult duly, and yet do we think lie has done it well. Of course it
niust not be imagined that he has Ireattd of ail the meialB. Such a Bchema
would be beyoud his plao, as it would moat unqueatiounbly haTe been beyond
his pupila. He baa therefore, of course, eielected just those inetnls which are
pniiuenlly useful, not merely of special interest ; and has given us minutely,
and yet clearly, the modes, step by step, followed in procuring them froju
aeir ores, from the time the crude ore is taken in hand till the uietal itiwlf
disdmrged. He has given us the methods employed in the metallurgy of
and steel, copper, tin, linc, lead, silver, gold, mereury, platinuni, pslla-
finni, ButimoDy, bismuth, aluminium, magnesium, and cadmium. Indued,
tome vill say that he has dealt in a few iualances with metals which have
little or no ival use in the arts, but we may remath that in these cases he
'ly given a page or go each, so that they do not take up much space.
with the metals which come into daily use he has dealt liberally
Thus iron and steel come in for quite n third of the whole volume,
description of these is full of intereal, especially as the author has in-
iption of the Bessemer and various allied processes. This
ud the other parts of the volume are amply illustrated, and the illustrations
■K clear enough, but they strike ua, merely from their appearance, as being
cither badly cut or u*ed for some years, but this may be due to the fatt
that our copy is an imperfect reprint. Altogether we are very much pleased
with the way in whirh Mr. Bloxam has discharged his task, and we hope
the other volumes of the series will compare with his favourably.

The late Dr. Miller's work has been less difficult than the former author's,
jet do we think it has been equally well done. We had eipeeted that it
would have been little more than a cutting down of the author's well-known
Urge vulume (Vol. II.) on Inorganic Chemistry. It aeems, however, to be a
work written for a flpecial purpose, and to be well adapted to the object the
writer had in view. It was much to be regretted that the author should have
died before the book came out; but, so far as care, trouble, and energy could
hate been exerted upon the most laborious part of the writer's duties, that
d[ >' seeing it through the press," his friend Mr. C. Tamlinsou, F.It.S., has
been sn able and a thorough friend. There is not much, of course, to say
about the volume. It appears to be carefully executed, as we might have
cipetted ; but there is one feature which we very much admire, and that ij
the introduction of experiments, within easy range of the student, and cal-
ruUted to impress the foregoing matter upon his mind. These are
nimieroua, simple, and cheaply performed, and we are glad of this introduc*
lion in such a voliinie as the present one ; altogether it is, like I'rufcssor
llloxam's, an excellent little volume, and we heartily with both ever}' success
in the world.

POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.

COFFEE-PLANTINa. •

THIS is the Bccond edition of a work wBicli, of course, can hsve littJs
interest fur the grent majority of our readers. Yet is it a special work,
ivell done, aod of considerable value la a certain number of pereons. It ie
tbu practical experience of a ((enllemnn who has had no less than tvent;
years' work in the diatricta of PussilaTa, Ilewahettti, and Itambodde.
It must therefore be good, and, en far as we can judg^, it is extremely full,
aud really is rather generally interesting. The author ha/> not supplied hia
own experience alnne. He has taken numerous extracta from Lubories'
well-known treatise, which, though old, is Btiil an excellent work. In
addition to thip, lie hw given tlie substance of various letters, and a quantity
of mntler, from Ferpison'a " Cejlon Directory," 1804-5. Altogether ha
has tried to make his book inttresting and useful, and we think he hat
Bucceiided.

OTHER WOHLDS THAN OURS.f

fTIIHS, the Eccond edition of Mr. Procter's celebrated treatise, reaches us
J- too late to admit of our giviug to it more than a casual notice. Still
we must say a word or two. The preface strikes us as bein^ not the least
interesting portion, for therein does the author deal with those opponents
of his ideas who have endeavoured by unfair means to take from bim bis
own ideas, and who, desirous of not recognising his exposure of tbeir errors,
have dealt with him in a mauner not characterised by that openness and
honesty which some scientiGc men would have at once exhibited. We
have read Mr. Proctor's remarks la this part of bis work with considerable
care; and, so far as we can see, he has (considering the treatment he has
received from certain opponents) been not a whit too severe, while at the
same time his arguments appear most Just, and if Professor Pritcbard and
Mr, N. Lockyer do not give us some Mtisfactory reply, we shall of course
be compelled, greatly to their disadvantage, to accept to the fullest degree
the eiplanalion Mr. Proctor has bo clearly given. Among the more im-
portant novelties in this edition we may refer to the evidence against tha
theory that the cloud-belts of Jupiter and Saturn are raised by the sun's
beat. He considers that the forces inherent in these planets are abundantly
sufficient to account for the phenomena. The author also endeavours ta
demonstrate that there are laws of stars, aggreiiiitive and segregative, other
than those laid down, and he believes that the Milky Way is not a structure
of stars of all orders, but is, in fact, a suiall stream " amidst which many of
the lucid stare are immersed." As regards Mr. Proctor's last chapter, we
can offer no opinion whatsoever.

• "The Coffee Planter of Ceylon." By William SahonadiSre. Second
edition. London; Spon. 1870.

t " Other Worlds than Oura. The Plurality of Worlds studied under
the light of Recent Scientific Researcbea." By Richard S, Proctor, B.A.,
F.B.A.S. Second edition. Loudon : Longmans. 1S70.

BSYIBWS. 77

METHOD AND MEDICINE.*

DR. FOSTER has in this yolume dealt -with the mode in which the
medical man should await knowledge — not content with what is
known, not over desirous of adding novelties to science, but between the
two. His advice is excellent, and is what we should expect from one who has
had such ample experience both as physician and teacher. The volume is
an easaj which originallj appeared among a series of papers by the members
of the Birmingham Speculative Club, from which the author has, in our
opinion, done well to reproduce it. It displays at once the scholarship of
an able physician and the style of a by no means inexperienced writer.

• ''Method and Medicine." An Essay. By Balthazar W. Foster, M.D.,
I^fesBor of Medicine in Queen's College, and Physician to the General
Hospital, Birmingham. London : ChurchilL 1870.

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY.

AFTROXOMY.

niHE Edipm Ripttditiom*, — The amngements made bj the Tmrioas edipee
parties will be foand amoo^ the artidea. When theae fines are read the
resalta of the obeerrations will be known to the w<nld. We shall probably
hare learned much as to the nature of the ecwooa, while the doubts which
have been urged as to its position will (it maj fairij be hoped) have been
fioallj remoTed«

The Zodiacal Light. — Closelj asBodated with the subject of the corona,
the zodiacal lijf ht has received of late a conaderable degree of attention. In
a long paper on the subject in the Moothlj Notices of the Rojal Astro-
nomical Societj, Mr. Proctor discusses the various theories which have been
propounded respecting this object He remarks that the geometrical con-
Biderations applicable to the zodiacal light are too definite to admit of
question— in other words, the path to be followed in seeking for a theory of
the object is unmistakable ; but he considers that hitherto this path has not
been traced out far enough, ^ the perplexities which presently surround us
as we follow it having seemed, perhaps, to render further research hopeless."
The very ditficulties of the subject, however, tend to render the rejection of
erroneoua theories more certain, and therefore must cause the true theory to
admit of the more satisractory demonstration. He then proceeds to discuss
the several theories. lie points out first that the rising and setting of the
zodiacal light, in a manner precisely corresponding with what would be
observed if it were a distant object like a planet or star, at once disposes of
the theory that the light comes from matter lying within the limits of the
earth's atmosphere. Such matter might seem, on a given occasion, to rise or
set according to such a law, precisely as a balloon might seem to follow the
motion of the setting sun ; but only by a singular accident, and not syste-
matically. Again, the theory that the light is due to a ring of matter sur-
rouuding the earth is disposed of by the fact that the gleam shows no
appreciable parallactic displacement, as seen from different parts of the
earth. Such a ring, if far olF, would form always an all but complete arc of
li^rht, from the eastern to the western horizon ; the shadow of the moon
only appearing as a relatively narrow dark rift across the brightest part of
tho gleam. And if the ring were close by, it would be invisible in mode-
rately high latitudes. I'asfting to cosmical theories, Mr. Proctor shows that
tho zodiacal light cannot be due to the existence of a disc of bodies, travel-

"Tag: to <y.

BCIESTIFIC SUMMAKT. 79

1 orbiu of small ecceotricilj around the aun ; Tut in tbat cage the
mioodtj of the glenm voiild be more conatant, mid ita po^itiou more fixed,
Ibaa is actually tho case. Nor csji the appeamnce, and I'tiangt's of appear-
wice, of th.- zodiacal light be accounted for by the existence of bodies tranel-
linj; in orbits of conaiderable eccentricity, so long ns the whole of each orbit
tiea lelativelr close by the sun. " We are thus led to the conclusion," he
adds, '' that the bodies conipoaing the sodiacal light trsTel on orbits of con-
sideiable eccentricity, carrying them far beyond the limits of wliat may be
culled the Eodiacal dif«. The constitution of the disc thus becomes Tsriable,
and that withiu limits which may be exceedingly wide. They mud Iw so,
iu fact, if all the recorded Fsrialions of the lodiacal light are to be accounted
for. In other words, it is requi^te (if the eviJence is to be explained) that
(be pAtlu vf the materials composing the zodiacal light ahould be not only for
the ninst part very eccentric, but that along those paths the mnteriala should
DDl be strewn ID such n nay that a given portion of any palh is at all timea
occupied by a constant or nearly conatnnt quantity of matter." According
to this view, the conntiluenU of the zodiacal light reaeinble very closely^at
least, as respects dietribution along their seTeral paths, and the general
figDie of those paths — the meteoric systems which the earth trafenes in the
toune of her motion around the sun. Mr. Proctor then proceeds to show in
hiiw many refects the results deducible from this theory accord with
known focts respecting the zodiacal light, meteoric aystenia, comets, and the

Th» Colowt of Jupiter. — The planet Jupiter, which has of late formed so
mtefMtJng a subject of study to aatronomera, is now very favourably
riloated fur observatlou — having passed bis opposition on December 13. His
o»laui» are even more striking thia year than they were iu the winter
months of td69-70. Mr. Browning thus apealis of the appearance of the
plinet tm October 24 nnd 25, 1870:— "The equatorial btlt was of a fuller
■:hrd»h Of lawny colour than when I observed it during tlie previous op-
! i-ilion. A bright bfit to the north of the equator whs much the brightest
:< ilian of the planel'a disc. Tlie dark belts on the northern side were of a
''"IT dark brown, with leas copper colour in them Ihiui I found during my
pfvrioas obwrvalioua. The portion of the disc to the south of the equator
"u peculiarly frt-e from bells. This refers Bpecially to the views I obtained
on the 24lb. The hemisphere seen on the SJith had a lipht nnd a dark belt
«1>ii[t midway between the south pole and the equator, tolerably prominent.
I lie ochreifih belt was mottled all over the surface with wliite cloudy mark-
1^'! or patches — a diatinct line of them, though separated by darker mark-
up-* betnreen, evidently endrcled the whole of the planet — a little way to
\iie (outh of the true equator."

rhofagn^lu of Jupiter.— X» some question has been raised by the Green-
wich obwrrers as to the reality of the changes detected and described bj
Mr. firowning, il is wi>rthy of notice that, besides the ahuuilant eviJence
'iiirh was brought forward in proof of Mr. Browning's views by teleecopiats
'"'iMt bare observed llie planet ns well with refractors na with reileclors,
I'Untagraphy has supplied a proof of singular force and clenmeas. Lurd-
I Imiftj bas taken two photographic negatives of Jupiter nt Mr. De la Rue's
I ii Ueiva tory. within a quarter of an hour of the time i\hen Mr. Urownbg

80 POPHLAlt SCIENCE REVIEW.

made the first of the drawings de9i*ribed sboTe. In ihese jtegtitn^V
equatorial belt :« Blni<iBt absolulelj' transpitreiit As Mr, Bruwning reiDuks,
'' the liplil from the orange -coloured bolt bus failed enlirelj to act on tl
Bensitive collodion surface." In negatiTes taken during previous Tears, ti
equntoiial bpit has exerted tbe mast marked action on the collodion film, M
that tbe belt has come out quite opaque.

Srowninff'i Auioinatie SpeftraBcoiie.—The principle of this ingenioiw
instrument has been made the object of several rival claims, which seem to
uf to have no foundation whatever. On the one hand, Herr von Littroir
cldma for his eon {lately deceased) the invenlioQ of the plan, and in d
flrmalion of the claim points to a volume of the Proceedings of ths
Imperial Socle^ of Vienna. On reference to this volume we find an auto-
matic Bpectro«cope described, wbicH bears not the most remote resemblaiieo'
to Mr. Browning's, and would certainly not reward tbe mechanician who
eboutd attempt to remove it from the domain of juctures. On tbe other
hand, Professor Toung. in describing an inatrument he has eucceasfully
employed himself, speaks of Mr, Rutbetford as the originator of the idM
of alott«d bars working over a central pin. lie mentions no date, however,
nor does he give any evidence whatever to show that Mr. Browning bad
had the opportimily of hearing of Mr, Rutherford's
Browning can prove that, bo far bach aa lb62, the idea of his automatic
spectroscope had Dot oul; been conceived by him, but described to other*.'
As tbe automatic spectroscope ia a most important addition to our apeclro-"
Bcopic appliances, it does aeem desirable that those who advocate tbe claims
of others to its iovention should give satisfactory evidence in support of
their views. But it may be remarked, in passing, that the mere euunmtion
of the idea that slotted bars attached to the prisms would give the required'
motion would by no means suffice to establish a claim as against Mr. Itrowningi'
A modification of the plan first described by Mr. Browning baa been
suggested by Mr. Proctor, and at the last meeting of the Royal Astrono--
mical Society Mr. Browning oshibited a spectroscope constructed (
modified plan. It presents certain improvements. The theoretical require*
mentsof an antomaticspectroscopeto give minimum deviation for all rays nrV
Strictly fulfilled, and, further, the motion of the vie wing-telescope ia guided by
the same slot-movement which controls the motion of the several prisms.'
It is proper to point out, however, that these improvements must be regarded
as essentially included within Mr. Browning's own plan. Mr. Proctor
claims no share of tlie credit due to the modified instrument: and thia is bn
simple justice, since surely nothing can be more unfair than to step ij
betiveen an inventor and those improvements which are sure to follow ths
first construction of a new iastrument, and then to claim tbe improved
instrument as one's own.

Double and Tmics-aciiiui Aaloiii/iiic Specfroncojie. — Mr. Proctor has pro
posed a plan, which we believe Mr. Browning is carrying out, for eilendin
the automiitic principle to a second battery of pviama, an iotermediata
prism of four faces carrying tbe light from one battery to the other
this prism three faces act on tbe light. At tbe first there is refmctiun, at
the next total reflection, and at the third refraction again. As at each r»
fHction the dispersion is increased precisely aa when the light passes into oi

sciE!n-inc srini-inr. 81

out of uty one of the prisma of Mther Lnlteiy, there ie no wtt^te of liglit in
lii« paMRge through the intermediate piisni. The two hntteries &re autO'
muii^Kltv adjusted to minimiun deviHtion for nil mys. After pai«in^
lliroii^h the two bntteries, the tight is reflected nnd aent agnin through both
tuttaics, and by means of a diBgonal prism the observer ia enabled to ei-
imiDe the spectrum through an eye-tube at riglit angles to the aiia of tbo
collimator. In this last respect the plan dilTcrs in nothing from that
•ilopted long since by Jnnaaen and others. The norelty of the instrument
congista in the arranyemeat for including a second battery in the automatic
sjstem. The dispenive power thus secured^with perfect adjustment —
cu be made se great as that due to twenty-one or eren twenty-three
) «fiiilat«rat prisms of dense (lint-glaM. As motion is communicated to the

Iiilt«niiediKte battery, the efTective length of connection is no greater tbnn in
Qu cane of the single automatic battery.
GnM'§ AHtoiaatic: Sjiedroiicopt- — Mr. Orubb has dt-vised an anioniatic
lpeetro«COpe, which ia intended for use with Ihe fine telescope latelj*
I|ilaoed bj^ the Royal Society under the ninnagement of Dr. Hoggins. In
tUa instrameDt, which was derised bo fnr back as Inst March, there are fiie
conipouiid prisms; each consisting of a rectangular prism of dense flint-
rltai, bounded by two prisms of crown-glass of small refracting angle, and
iatfi^ucied merely to get the light through the rectangular prism. These
fits prittos arc nulomatically ndjusted to minimum deviation, and the light
ii taken twice through the battery and viewed through a fixed eye-tube, aa
in Mr. Proctor's plan. Whether securing minimum deviation through a
compound prism of this sort is equivalent to securing those optical condi-
lians which result in the case of minimum deviation through a single prism,
ii a qaeaiion which Mr. Grubb has not, so fnr as we Ifnovr, considered. It
Menu unlikely that the spectral lines can be so well defined when these triple
pritnu are used as where single prisms are employed. But experience only
can determine which plan is preferable.

TAe Total EcHpai of the Moon last July.— The Asfronomer Royal observed
this fclipae in a peculiar manner. " Being shortsighted," he says, " (the
distance for distinct vision less than five inches), and every luminous object
being seen as a broad blur, 1 can compare the quantity of light from
«nic«a of very different character. Thus I found that the quantity of light
ncctved from the eclipsed moon was less than tliat from Saturn and greater
than that from a Aquilie, including some from /J and y Aqiiilie. The light
of the moon increased considerably in ten minutes after the time of central
eclipse." " I infer," he adds, " that the only part in which the shadow is
DSariy total W the centre of the shadow, and that a large amount of light
Ula within the geometrical limits of the true shadow."

Ti* SateBitfs nf Uravm. — A question has been raised as to the existence
of any more satellites of Uranus than the four seen by Mr. I..a9sel]. Professor
Pritebanl has indeed somewhat roundly asserted tlint to believe in more than
'Ji'ii four is to attack Mr. Lassell. Very few seem to be aware how the
Liiter really stands. Mr. Proctor, in the Monthly Notices of the Astm-
• inical Soi'icty, defenda the claims of Sir William HerscbeVs other font
■■>IlilM, He points out that Sir William Herschel by no means expressed
" the .9a r ilia □ Professor supposes) a mere suspicion of the e.tistence of these
iOLi. — NO. JiXVin. Q

rOFTLAK SCIBXCS SZTIETr.

Other MtellitM. On th« coDtrar^r, Rencliel dtttiocll; ntt* t}i»t be bud n
kept back the umounoement on mecaant of wrr doobta be bod, but b
be bop«l to determine the element* of the orbita. Nnw it bus oerer bapi
pcned that wLrre Sir WiUiam IlerBchel hM exprewed eerUiatr nbont I
matter of obeerratinn, he hu been abown eToitualtr to have been io enuil
But it mH; be urged that Mr. Lfttsell's telescope bi^inir far finer than nencbel'^
and tbowing the fotir other satellites far more diHtiocIlv thnn tbey Been U
have been neen bj Her^bel, the oon-detectioD of the fotu fainter onett woali
teem to show that thej bare no eiialence. tlere, boireTer, a distinctiaa
must be drawn between two qualitiet of a telennpe — definiDg and iUuitiia
natin^^ power. It ii quite clear that m reaped* deGninfi power Mr. Ij«aael^
fnnr-feet re6eetor baa ^reatlj the advantage aver the four-feet reflector ■i'
Slough i and a« reapeeta the BateUItea nesreat to the planet, he would □■
thit account alooe probably bsfe a certain adrantage, ainee an ill-defining
reflector would throw a good deal of diifueed liirbt over the field neiar tbs
planet. In illuminating power, however, it eeems bjito means ao clear tb^
the Slough reflector is greatlv aurpaaeed by Mr. LMwIl'a, even under eqnat
rircum stances. Now Sir William Herschel failed to detectlbe aatelliteswbes
be used hia telescope aa Mr. Laasell has alwaj^i used his— that ia, na a New*
tiinian ; and only wbcu he used the " front view," bv which the illuminatiii|t
power was trreatl; increased, could he gain even a plimpse of them. Even
then only bis skill and long practice in searcbing for minute pointa of light
enabled bim (as be himself tella ua) to succeed. Under these rircumstanoe*
there wjema no adequale reason for diamissing these four satellitea from tbs:
(Hilar STstem. It is worthy of noljce that Mr. Losaell does not seem to hAvA
Ven aware, when he urged the dismissal of the aateliites, that Herscbd
had had more than a suspicion of them ; for he says " Herschel may bavi
mistnken small stars for snlellites," the very error the great astronomer WH
lu) careful to avoid. So far as one of the satellites in questiitn is eonceme^
indeed, Mr. liSi^setl baa himself shown (unwittingly) that it maj 6xiati
For he has said that if any sntellites within the range of hu teleacopg
exist, fhey must travel very far from their primary, sud in a period of at
lesst three months. Now one of Ilerschel's is at a distance corresponding ta
& period of more than ^J months.

notographing a SuJttr Prominence bt/ Mmnn of the •'ipertrotfxpe. — Pro*
feasor Young has succeeded in taking a photograph of a solar prominence bji
means of a double-acting spectroscope of high dispersive power. The resull
is in itself, as be admits, valueless ; but it is full of pmniise. The day will
doubtless coma when the condition of the sun's limb will be recorded M
system aiically by photography as the condition of the solar surface hu bees
recorded at the Ki'w obaerratoiy.

The Flani't*. — Jupiter will continue favourably situated for obaerration
during the next quarter. He is stationary on February 10, and in qoadnk*
ture on March 8. Mars, however, is the planet of the quarter, as be comei
to oppocition on March 20. He will be stationary on February 0. As he wiB
be in aphelion on January SI, this is not a favourable conjunction. But tbfl
northern parts of his surface ought now to be studied, as they arc more fuUf
turned towards the earth ihan in perihelion oppositions. Saturn is slowlj'

aaESTiyic sriniaiiT.

ptMn;: avaj Irma the Bua's upigVoJiirhood, and will not he statloiKtrj until
April IB.

EcJt'pie of the Moon. — On the evening of January 6 the moon will ba
partiallj edipeed- The following are the principal ulenientd oC the eclipse
th wiU be Tiaihle in England) :—

J^rst contact with the penumbra .
l^rat contact with the shadow ,
Uiddle of the F^lipse .
I.ast contact with tbe ehndnw
Laat cont'LCt with the peuumbra .

12 6-6 ,

The niA^itude of the eclipse (moon's dtameler as ] ) will be OSS. First
contact with the shadow will occur at 1.10° from the norlhemmoat point uf
the limb towards the easti and liiat contact at 127" towards t!ie west, fin
lach case for iHrect image.)

BOTAFTY.

" Crtym'* A'cjrf» " or " Fiucialiont." — At (he mepting of the Acndcniy of

Kattiml SdentMf of Fblladelphin in August Inst, Mi. Tbouisf M<;ehaQ said

y little bad been written about the causes of those bunchea of branchea

tfteii seen in trees, and called by the people " crow's nests," and by hotuuiats

Dr. Masters, in Terntnloffy, briefly refers to them, and alludes to

ition " na the cause of their existence. He had watched almost

ly the pnst year one uf Abta haltamta ou his owd grounds. The branclilels

JB weaJi, the leares were comparatively long and slender, not diaticbously

uged, pale in colour, deciduous, and many of tbe brnnchlets died in the

All these were evidences of weak nutrition. lie had found two

liwa of wuBa&Bs, apparently of the same age, growing within a few yards of

■Mil other, but one with numerous fasciculated hunches. In addition to the

cbtncl«rH ia the otlier case, here the fawiculated tree was nut as large as

tlte other one. That weakness, not strength, was tbe cause, was also proved

I7 beta from nn opposite direction— namely, tbe law of sex. Tie had already

tbowD that a low cimditiuQ of vitality favoured mnle, at the expense of the

female organa Tie bad found a large number of fasciculations in the

comiuon blackbeTry, and in all instances, besides the yellowness and the

other marks, there was a tendency to abortion in tbe pistils, an increase in

tlie number of petals, and a development of folinccoua points to the ususi

!»Iyx segments. So that his law of sex, as well na the usual phenomena of

vfakened vitality, indicated that it was this and not ovei-nutritiun wbich

iMiied faaoiationa in trees.

The Grrm Thtory of Frrmentatton. — A series of papers under this heading
lit* reci-ntly been published in the Chemical Xowt by Dr. A. £. Sansom.
Tbiycui he referred to by tliose not well acquainted with the literature of
liie 'uhjecL We find, however, nothing that is new in Dr. Saasom'a obaer-

ipiaeaarrtRMKikMta^MMrf^-to Ui ihMcj «( O* Inn ef^

<i( Hab fti w m ^r^ at th» adt of tbe Tipm^^

Wkate««r ifteh Uw tigour of Ibe tree ioto^
at el m»k Bowtah, aad thu vu

fefM witk &• p

71c Ffrfiwi ^ B«rtlanu.^Eii a p*f** i«*d befaR the MiCToMopieat
ScdiaiiartheHudMaterlitcnrj ud PhilotopliicB] Society (Not. 7), Mr.'
CiMrUa Bailey »kj» : — " It ti sot * Httle renuikable tlutf there it one pe«u<
IhitIj in tbe reiwtiaB of llie hawthonu Tbkh i« inwiatilT orerlooked hj
\h» dnn^taman and tB^^trr, tIz. the direction of the seoondarr nerves,
wbidi proceed l^oni the midrib to tbe baw of eaeh dnas ; Buch an anange-
liient is vfTj rare, being found onlv in some other aperies of CrvUrg%a, u
Axarohu, Ac, in species of Fagta. and in a few other plnnts,"

Art erriain Boliychiumt EpiiAyticT—Ht. J. II. HedGeld xtates Ibnt oi
recent Tint to the nirtbern part of the Stale of Xew York, he hnd noted ilia
hnlrychitim liinarioide$ itnd Baln/chiiim laneeolatiim growing under d
Rtance» that seemed to cnufinn the idea that these species are reallj under-
^ound paraiiites, or rjiiphytic plants. Uore than tiveolT plants nere noticed
sunttercd over a space of a mile in len^h, and in everj inntance thej v
growingr near the common blackberry (Rubtit rillutiu), and every plant thnt
was lifted had its roots in contact vrith the root of tbe blackberry.
rc-fcrred to tbe peculiar character of the root cf ibis genus — so different from
that of other ferns, and so similar to that of some orchids — and to the (act
that these species, so widely distributed, seem nowhere abundtrat — as favour-
ing the idea of their epiphytic character. Mr. Newman soi
fxpressed the opinion tbnt the British lloliyMum lunm-ia is an underground
partLsite, but Moore and others have doubted. Mr, Redfield desired to call
Ibn nllcntion of botanists to the conditions under which these and other

SCIESTIFIC SLMJIART. ^5

tpecies of Botiychmin nis}' be fouud, with a view to determine tha qu«s*

Tik' American Compait J^mU. — Br. ThoniBs Bill, who i«ad a paper ou

ihii (ubject before the AmericaOi Assodation at tlie loat meetiDg, sbjs thnt

in Juue, 1S60, aa he was comiog from Omaha to Chicago, od a, rery dark

tuQj day — BO dark that he could net fona any etttimata uf the poiuts of

I the cumpass from tha fcunligbt— at thrt's diOtTeot points on the piairies he

I iMtic«d young plunls of Silp/iiam laiiuiatitm, and eatimati.'d fitim tbem, while

(going at full speed, tlie coiiraa of tha railway track. On ruaching Chicogu
ba procured, by the kindncgs of the officers of the C. & N. W. road, detailed
maps of the track, and found where be bad estimated the bearing at 3o°,
175*, and BO", the true beiuings were 31°, 78°, and W. In October, 1800,
leing detained by an.accideiit at Tama, he gathered eced, and tliia apriii^'
luani a few seedlings. Drought and insects destroyed part of tbuni, aiid he
» mold only give the history of eight plants, with fourteen leaves. Ten of
I Uiese foiuteen leaves showed a sU^ng disposition, when about four inches
I liigb, to turn to tha meridian ; the other four showed a feeble disposilion iu
V ihe «une direction. These ten leavas, on coming up in June, had an averaj^

Ilnring of 42% and tha mean bearing was nearly as large. But in August
Ike MUii« ten leaves showed an average bearing of only 4^°, and the mean
iMriug was but SJ". Dr. Ilill refers this polarity to the sunlight, the two
iides of the leaf hciug equally sensitive, and struggling fur equal abarus.
lie hoped in a more farourable summer to test this, and several other points
vhicb bad suggested themselves, by experimoots.

Sdervderma vulgare on- EatahU JWtgu(.~The FutidJunmal (an inleresting
fetiodical, which we are glad to sea succeeding) oontains a very interesting
Bale oa tb« abova by the Uev. M.J. Berkeley, F.RS., in the Decembernuniber.
It )« as follown :■ — " I was somewhat surprised sous time since, amongst a
host of other enquiries respecting the qualities of particular fungi, to have
Sdiradernia vuiffare submitted to me ; and still more so, after my evil report
of it, to find that it bad been largely eaten and pronounced very good. It is
bnlr in the young stnl«, of course, that any question could arise about it, for
like its allied puff-balls, when old, it is filled with a mass of loathsome duat.
1 ought, however, to hare recollected that its use as aa article of food was
DO norelty, ns under another and false same it has btfen largely employed el
Vara instead of tlie truffle of P^rigord, to adulterate Perigord pies, ths
quality of which was, in consequence, mucli deter! united. Young speci'
Bitot were given by the late Monsieur I)e»uiB<tieres iu his ' Pkntes Crypto-
(■mss du. Xord da la France,' I'asc. xvi., IfSS, as specimens of the while

Itiuffle, though tha s'ructure is totally different. It is found abundantly in
lb neighbourhood of Monn, where it frequently appears in the market, and
. bsMt from Belgium, in gnat quantities, I» Paris. Some pains are taken to
I fBtid it in the place of its growth, by coi-friag it with earth, until of suffi-
1 Msl site, against the ravages of animals, but especially of the magpies,
' Tbc tame thing clearly is Ugured by Corda, under the name of Foiiiiikoly,r
I BpiARn, wbo considers it superior to either the black or white truffle. I
-IU not certain whether Dr. Bull, wbo is such an authuri^ on the subject,
-■ really tried its culinary properties; but in a letter, receutly received, faa
■ ;-', 'J am itfiaid Schrvt/ermii dlyiire, though doubtle*B eiible -wVa

rorn.AR

HE VIEW.

young, lilic r1! the other puff-bnils, will gcnrcely do to rcrommend ta edille^
einca it ia so small nnd iiot utlmctire by ita coluur, even wlioQ joiing, Hiid>
rerj dangerous at nn earlier fitnge.' There seems always to be eonflictii^''
evideoce Hboiit the qaalitj of fungi, the truth probnbly being that the snms
■pedes ma; be wbniesoine or the contrarr. Affording to IocaI or climatiV
condition, or from idiosyncratic peculiurities of coMtitutinn. Sparagnt
civpa, one of thelargest and most beautiful of our fungi, has occurred lat^lf
ill two or three localities; and I hitve myself hod some dressed which otras
from Miss Broadwood, of Lyni-, in Hamp^^hire, which proved excellent
tin^'le specimen, like Lymperdrm gii/valrwii, is so large that it would almort
be sufficient for b I<ord Mayor's fl^a^t."

Nutriliou aiid Sex in liimU.—la the American A'aluralift for Noreinher,
Mr. Thomas Meehan gives a short account of bis paper on the above subJecL
I[e refeiB to his "lairs of sex," rend last year, and now proposes to show
that a decreased power of nutiition ie one of the opertitiDg causes againd
that high state of Titnlil; ueLVtsnry to produce tlie female sex. He stilted
that there were two classes of mala flowers on the common chestnut (Ca»
lanea Am^icana), one from the aiils of leaves on weak branches, the olhei
terminating the vigorous shoots, only on which the female flowers an
formed. The axillary male flowera mostly matured before the supra-pistillati
ones opened. Theee were extremely weak, owing to the superior absorplivi
puwer of the females belnw Uiem. lie then e:(hiUted some specimens ol
tbcsi', ns well as mme from a vei^ lai^e chestnut trt-e, which had alwaym
bome flbuodout fruit, but hftd fliis year produced aolbiag but male flowe:&
The leaves were nil striped wilh yellow and green, indicating,
experienced gnrdoner knows, that nutrition was obetracted, Plants orii^
watered, by which the young feeding roots rotti.'d, always put on this yelloir
cast. The yellow tint always followed "rineing" the bruiches,
accident done to the bark. The influence of this defectirt pojcer of n
iii thin instance, be held so clear that he bad no difficulty in concluding tb«^
it was one of the agtid* which operated on the htioa of vitalilff that
the v-xc:

Diprf

¥ of Sex vrith Difference of Statian.~-lt h a Tery curious fact tbi
B many plants common to this country and America which present
ditTerent seiurU chwaeteristica in the two. At a late meeting of the PhilA*
dflphia Academy of Science, Mr. Meehan exhibited some gpeeimena of
Jiiimex olilonffifoliHg, a naturalized dock from Europe. He said that m
a.1 he could ascertain from European specimens, and the descrfptions o(
Itnbington, Brorafield, and other English botanists, the plant was tbi
hcrmsphrodile i but there, as correctly stated by Dr. Asa Qray, it waa
usly pnlygnranus. He thought the fact that plnuLi hermaphrodil
ne country becoming unisexual in another was woilby of more attention
;hose engaged in the study of the laws of sex than had been given to it.
s Itaiiitx did not stand alone ; R. cri»pvi and H, jiatieiila exhibited tiM
e thing. Fragaria was another instance well known to horticulturista,
ough the fact scientifically had not received due weight. The Rverags
tendency of the strawberry in Europe was to hi-rniBphrodisni — here to
produce pistillate forms. ITe also called attention to the fact that in theM
Mi sjtecimcna uniscxuolity was in proportion to axial rigor. This lai

SClENTinC SDIMARY. 87

lie bkd already explaloed in timofi past to the AcRdem)', and new inHtnaces
were Bcarcely necessary. Here, hnwaver, the moderslelj weak pluul bad
more hermaphrodite Uowera than the strong one ; nod in hotb clasi<e» of
specimeDB the number of male flowers gmduftUy increiwed with the wenkeD-
iog of the axis, until the ends of tbe raceme were almost wliolly of Diale
Huwers. The first iluwera on the strong verlicelt were usually wholly
[natiUkte.

CIIEMISTRT.

The Filtralion of Sl.-mig Ai-iJa.—\}t. James St. Ckir give* the followins
ciuiple and exact luBthud in the '' Chciiiieul News '' of >Sepie(ul>ur 31) : '' Into
tbe narrow part of an onliuary glaae funnel, apun glass (aueh as is used in
Euakin^c tiuU foe ^Xasa bird!>) \» c1o«ely pai'ked, snl over tbie ie sprinkled
ground glass to tbe depth of a quarter of an ioch, care bemg tabun tbnt
buth the funnel and glass are perfectly clean. About four ounces of boiiinjf
valer are then allowed to pa«s through the filter, which is then allowed tii
dry, and, previous to bciog used, is moistened with a pure specimen of the
Kid to be tillered. A filter «o constructed W a« efficient aa any with whicli
be is acquainted, is very durable and chenp, while, from the fact that these
idds do not act ou glass, freedom from coDtaniination during the process is
perfectly ensured. Such fillers, or the materiala necessary for their prepa-
rttioD, may be oblAined at Mr. Mntlierwell's, 73 Uniuo Street, Ola>i<cow."

ttluit U Thymolt—T'h^ "Medical Press " of December 7 says that Mr.
I Uarj Draper, of Dublin, exhibited to the Dublin Chemical Club, at its lost
i.'oting, B specimen of a new preparation which has been proposed as a
"ilatiluie for carbolic acid. It is nauicd thymol, and is n derivative of the
iU^mHt Fulffaru, the monurda or horse-mint, and the Ttychotison Fjist
liulian unibellifurous plant. It is of a siuiitar chemical conipoEtition to car-
bolic add, but destitute of the very UDpleaaant smell of this popular disin-
fectant. It melts at 44"^ Centigrade, and is soluble in .100 parls of water.
It KMiobles carbolic acid in forming compounds with potash and soda, but
liilTen ftoni it in that these compounds are very unstable, being decomposed
cien by carbonic acid. The introUucIion of this preparation recalls to mind
(he (act, Ibftl oil i>f thyme was in post years a favourite popular remedy for
'<•■: toothache, and it is only now that its efficacy and the causes of such
' iPjcacy have been made maoilest. The oil of thyme is prepared in liirge
'^^tntities in the south of France, where it is used f<;r pi-inliu^ oa china.

Arid Suture of tia Organie MaUert in River n'o(er.— Uerr F. Stolba,
vritjng in the second namber of "Bingler's Journal " for October, slates
ihiit, according to his experience, obtained by mnhiiig (in Ilohemia) a large
iiijiubivof water analyses, all waters which contaiu a lai^ propoHlon of
inranic matter contain it iu combination with bases, chiefiy lime, and that,
Hi'refore, the organic matter is (us already sug^'estcd, and partly expert-
mrntally proved by Uertelius) of an acid nature.

ZVnM of riofeiKH- Miller. — The " Chemical News " gives the following
■tfteli of Profvaeor W. AUen Miller, M.D.. F.R S., Professor of Chemistry
ij> King's College, who died on October 30, 1870. lie died al l.WttT^wV,

rorULAB SCIESCE BETIBW.

vbither lie had gone la take part in the proceedings of the British A
tion. Dr. Miller waa bom at Ipswich, on DecemVr 17, 1617, ud'la'W
twentv-fourth year he became aaaistaDt to the late Mr. Bruiiell, Profcwted
Uhemistry in Kiog'a College, London. In 1844, he co-operated iritll U>
Tuuter in the publication of a paper on the " Electrulyra^ of Secondary Com-
pouoda." In ttie following year be vraa elected a Fellow of the Raynl Society,
fttid iuceceded Mr. Daniell in the chair of chemistry in King's College. Hli
chief worli at this time was his paper on the " Spectra of certain Vapoun,"
puhliahed in 184S. In 1840, be agBin came before the scientittc world with
a paper on the " Atomic Volumes of Organic Liquids." From lliia d«te bia
lime appears to have been chiefly absorbed by other than purely scientific
BiihjectH. He held the pasta of treasurer of the Royal Society, president
and aftrrwarda vice-preeident of the Chemical Society, and a
Itnyal Mint, besides being member of the Science Commission. His later
contrihutions to the scientific periodicniEt were, a paper on " Ti-anspoi^ncy,"
in the" Journal of the Cheniicid Su>ciuty," some *' Analyses of Guttapercha,"
and " A Treatise on Potable Water." In conjunction with Mr. Huggins ho
inveslignted the spectra of the fixed stars. Ue is known to the education
world by his voluminous and widely popular " Treatise on Chemistry,"
three parts, which originally appeared from 18S5 to 1867, nnd which hai
already gone through Heveral editions. Altbough Professor Miller was i
a meuiber of (he Society, he took an active interest in its operations, ■
stTved on several of its committees.

The Theoriet of Fermentation. — In the "Bayerisches Industrie- und Ge-
weibe-Blatt " (Aiifiual), Hen- Dr. A. Weinberg gives a very exhaustive paper
on the above Euliject. It was originally a lecture bufure the Cbemiral
Society of Mimiili, and deals as follows with iLe several iuveatigatora
who deserve to be niuned in connection with the suhjt^ct: 1. Thoaewho
consider fermentalion to he a purely chemical process, the result of tha
chemical action of the ferment or yeast on the sugar ; MM. Trommsdnrff
and Mvisaner ore the founders of tbis theory. 2. Those who conidder fer-
mentation to he a process of galvanic decomposition, called forth by tho
dualism of the exciting body in a conducting fluid ; thia theory was founded
by M. EiimU, and among its adherents are MM. Schweigger, Colin, and
Kolle. 3. Tbose who consider it as a catalytic process, or as due to tlie
action of porous bodies; thia theory was founded by M, Berzeliua, 4. Those
who consider that fennenlHtion is due to the action of certain uitrogenoui
matter, which is itself permauenily in a state of decompodiion, which ia
imparled to the sugar as soon as it (the sugar) comes into contact with the
decomposing nitrog-enous matter under favourable cnoditions — the conse-
quence being the splitting up of the sugar into alcohol and cnrhonic acid ;
tbis view hiiB been established by Dr. von I.iebig, and is adhered to, among
others, by MM. Frdmy, Ijdwig, Oerhardt, &c. 5. Lastly, fermentation is
viewed as being a kind of process of vegetation, the newly-fonnad i
being conudered ns the newly-generated plant; this view ia held by MM.
Erzlehen, Cagniard-Latour, Schwann, Dumas, Mulder, and others.

The Manufacture of ludine, according to Professor Wagner, already
amounts to 30,000 pounds a year.

Ann-'ytit of Ilinmmjham WaUr.—Di. Hill read npaper btfure Ihe British

SCIESTIFIC SUyMAIlV. 69

AMOciatiuo, which is reprinted by ihe " Food JoBmnl " for IJeeeinber. The
rcTcJations then made aa to the quuIitieB of Ihe shallow well-wtttera are
huch M to ehock the feelinge of anj thoughtful man. The table la too long
to quote in full, but a few facts from it will suffice. The toUJ solid impuri-
tiea per gallon fixture in enormous amount^ such as 2o8, 380, and even 607
grruQB per gnllon ; while the organic contamination runs through a rising
scale till it reaches the almost incredibtu figure of 46*1G grains jicr gallon,
ta the terj water holding 607*03 grwns of solid matter in ent-h gallon.

CompodtUm of the Wattr of the XUe. — The muter of Uie Nile has recenll;
undergone iovesUgationby HerrO. Popp ("Aiinalea dvt Chemie," ScptemberJ.
The sample of water taken for analysis was obttuned from the middle of the
riTer, some six miles below Cairo. Prtivious to being aualysed, the water
waa left standing for two days, after which time the water was lirst filtered;
but, ecen after this operation, it did net become quite clear, and it was found
IMceaMry, consequently, to leave it standing for some few days longer, when
it deposited a flocculent sediment, which, on being tested, was found to
eonnst of silica, a minute quantity of organic matter, lima, and magnesia
■alu. One litre of the water contains, in grammes weight — carbonic acid,
00314a i lulphuric acid, 00031)0; silica, 002010 ; ploevboric acid, 000064;
chlorine, 000337; peroxide of inn, 000^18; lime, 0'02S20; magnesia,
OflUa?; Boda, 002110; potnssa, 0O04O8; organic mailer, 0-01720; total,
grm. Percentage composition of dry reddue — carbonic add, i!2'16o;
Iphuric acid, 2 765; silica, 14150; phosphoric acid, 0-370; clilurine,
"•3; peroiideof iron, 2-227; lime, 15-U40; magnesia, 10-332 ; soda, 14-B52;
S'300; organic matter and small quantity of ammouiitcal salts,
; total, 100-167.

Ddactien of Sulphur in C«al-Ga«. — In a recent number of the " Journal
Gasbeleuchtuug," HerrUlcx gives the following method. Let a platinum
be tilled with half a litre of water, and the bnsio be heated over a
Bunsen-burner until all the liquid has evaporated ; the basin will be found
[o be coated, on the outside, where it has been btruck by the Qame, with a
dirty, gri^asy looking substance, which, an being washed off with pure dis<
tilled water, and tesled, proves lu be sulphuric acid. The author further
points out that the glass chimneys used with Argand gas-burners soon
become coated over internally with a white substance, which, on being
laabed off with distilled water, will be found to be, on testing, sulphate of
looia. The glass paneaof a room wherein gal is burned for a few even-
lively will, when rubbed with the litigers of a clean hand, im-
a lubslance which, on the hand being rinsed in distilled water,
a precipitate of sulphate of baryta with chloride of barium, and a
biick-red precipitate with potassio-iodide of mercury.

Povdrrinff Camphur. — In llie "American Journal of Pharmacy " for Ko-
fttuber, Mr. W. Proctor gives some hints as to the above. It is well known
nphor is easily reduced to powder by rubbing with a few drops of
but the powder so made will, after a short time, aggregate to
which havE) to be rubbed down ngoin. The author mixes with the
of camphor »o obluiued, carbonate of mngnnein, 10 grains to the
baing sufiicii^ut; this powder never cakes or fonns crystals.
'mtitirt Tnt/ar Hgjuniiip/iitti is gis en by Dr. Boctigor in the " Journal

96 roTTULX smart* kcthv.

fv fttikt. dMone ' nto. U, ISTO).— Diaah«, In «7^ 1 Aadgrm. of ven

— !■ " Itef kr*! Jonnul " f w Octobcv,
: ■ Cbenual New^" Dr. F. Stolba u
■ OB tlu* Mibjwl, tire r»ulu
Mp c B>h »J Uw mrfaMfl of pUtiaum
I npoo bj tiie flBme of well-
t, hwMMe tto KMgli mpolubed surface promot«8 the
■ (fa w| i iM Hi flf ^ofafl lad p***™"*", which b putljr contumed
I7 A* flMDe, fMtlj meelUMflly eiBi«d ^irwd* in the hot currvot of air,
■Bw bniaf ten dtitKhnJ &«■ On craeiUe. The anthor found, bj ei-
' ea ■ pood iibtiniiB moUe wu heated for twelve hoiin
t DOIS gna. ■ WMght, lad iU sarfsce appeared as if
nll-feaewB mmtt mkaBifUf. This loaa and ^tuvtioo arc
It dimuiatiiiB of osmium, because the
» iinatcr if tlH er vak it tlna ihe qoutit]' of oNoium contnined in
ne iM g l MM aad note policed the surface of platinuni
far fAi^aai mad a expoied to ignitioo is kept, the better
1W7 win MMl tb dekatrioM wtkn of tlie flame.

m^ a OaJl^r— Br lU* OHM Qmt ScbickendaaU undenitiuiJi (uva
t^'Cbanoeal Nm~) aaalioe efBorescenoe, not iui&M|Deatlj met with la
WifJB pwl* of ibe dopM aad alnng the rirers orig^naliiig in the Cordillma
Ae loa Aadea. Tbe author gires (" Annalen der Cbeniie," Sept.] at great
IngA, AetaQi of iJm tatiymt of aeveml Mwplea of this substance, which,
setting a«d« imporitiei present nalv in nmiU quantity, connats, Ja 100 partf>,
of— aoda. 46-31 ; cmrbonie acid, 28-90; water, 35-70; agreeing nearly with
the fMnialaNa,C,0i-t-2H,O. Another maple «in«sled munly of— water,
35-38; soda, 3S-38; carbonic tad, ^C*-!!: nearly a^eeing with tbe formula
Sa,C,0, + .3n,0. The aotbor resides at Pilciao, province of Cataniarm,
Argentine Republic.

IfJbitHir of Lifkl on Prtroltum. — According to the rescarcbes of M. Gro-
lowaki (published in a recent number of the journal which the aiege of Paris
has cat olTfrom us, "Cusnios"), when the petroleum oils are exposed to tbe
•alar light under certain conditions, they absorb a certun quantity of
oxygen, and convert it into oiane in a nmilar manner to whnt hns beeti
observed in connection with other hydro- carbons. The oiygen does not
seem to combine with the oil, hut reacts enirgc^cHlly os an osldiier upon
subatances with which it ta brought in conttict, thus the cork of the veasek
in which it is contnined is generally acted upon to some considerable eilent.
After the action of the ozone, the oil boils with difficulty. The colour of
the vessels in which the oil is placed hna a great deal to do with the absorp-
li'Mi of the oxygen.

WhalitlArAi^iiv Priiuriple of Itinmv* Sn4*t — Herr E. Wemer has taken
up this subject siutB Dr. Tu-on's papers have been publish«d, and after referring

sciENTtnc soimaht. 91

>I tnigtli to Dr. Tu^on'a reaearcbea, he deaciiliea a Beriee of experiment*,
ttiitflj made with the view to obCniti, from the riciniis seeds, an Bcliie
ptinfiple Buitable Tor mediciDHl u»e. Aa regarde the rieinine of Dr. Tuson,
prepared by ibe BUlbor in large quantilj and according: lo ^'- Tuson's
directions, it is staled that ricinine is not nn alkaloid, and, moreover, a sub-
Hasee which contains a considerable quantitT of ash ; and the author, after
(uefullj made annlvsis, comes to the coDclurion that Dr. Tuson'a ricinine ia
1 compound of ningneaia and of hd organic acid, the fonnuln of this body
being C„n„0,„Mp^*6H50. This abatract baa been published in the
•nlnable collection of tbe " Chemical News." It appeared originally ia the
" ITiann. ZeilacLrift fur RiissUnd," No. S, 1870.

Bromine n Larffe Qtiimtitifi. — The "' Boston Journal of Chemifitty " for
Noremljer gives us some facia of interest. Tbe writer tmys that five veata ago
Drornine was sold in this country and in Europe aa high as eight dollars a
pound : now tbe price ia less than a dollar and a half the pound, and the con-
wmption ha.1 increased in a thousand-fold ratio. It aajs : " Ae a manufacturer
of cbemical subitancea, we did not have occasion to purchase for mnnufiictur'
ing purposes twenty pounds a year until after 18t>o, when a great demand
•prang up for tbe bromides of potasaiuin, andium, and ammnniiini. Some idea
of the increase in consumptioD may be foroied from the statement that we
huTB ordered of the valt-makers in Pennsylvania (lunotitiea as large as five
thouaand pounds, or lico and a half font, nt one lime, during the past year,
Oor bromine supply formerly came from Germany, tbe Staasfurt salt-niines
fotnisbiDg it in conaiderahle quantities aft«r they were opened ; but now our
onm stiDOg salines in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Weal Virginia produce it in
UBioonta fitlly equal to the demand."

T%e Excrements of Effypliim BaU. — Herr 0. Popp has published a
rvriouB paper, which is alsi) reimrled by tbe " Chemical News." After refer-
ring to the ciiriotis fact that Egypt, owing to iU very dear sky at nights,
and iia aul>-lropical climate, ia espeeiollj auiled for bats, of which no leas
than eight different grnera are found there, the author proceeda to detail
tb9 methods nf analysis at length ; tbe result of the cnmpnaition of the ex-
crements, in 100 parU, being: urea, 77-80; uric acid, 1-2S; kreatine, 3 M ;
phosphate of aoda (2NaO,HO,PO,). 13-45 ; water (\n\m off at 100", 3-(10 ;
•ubettncea iuBolnble in water, 0-675 ; total, fifrSSfl. In a foot-note to thia
r. Dr. F. Wohler atales that very recently tbe excrements of bala frDui
^pt have become an article of trade, as a sort of guano for manure pur-

} WaUr m Edinburgh, — Upon thia subject Dr. Alennnder Wood reports as
"1. Thai the HerioljtheTalla, and SLMary's Loch all afford water

c a quality suitable for all the purposes fci which il ia required in a town,

t That Die Ilcriot is a better water for general domestic uae than the Tallo.

I. That the spring water of the TIeriot and the Tallii is superior to lliu lake
«al«r of St. Mary's. 4. That the cnnstrucli.in of the ncceaBary ponds for
storing the produce of lUese springs would go far to deprive them of any
superiority which they at present posaess, and would certunly render the
water supplied from such pnnds iuferior iu some ii-sjiects to that obtained
from the natural lake. 5, That the analysis of the water of St. Mary's I^ch
shows it to contain a sufficient ijunDtity of tbe (alts of lime to remove all ,

92 roprLAii sciescb review.

faar of the ditnger siiggeeted in iLe letter of ' A PhyBicii.^ ctpedaUy wfaea
the copiousness of Ilio supply of these m\ta from otlier sources b coosidered,
0. That, under theae circiimaUnces, it appears to me that the wnter pro-
curable from kDy one of the three aourcea of supply being' suitable, the
truEleea should be guided in the selection bj the questions of quauUtj, en-
gineering ditSculties, nnd comparatire expense, oiul not bj the opinion of
snj phyaician. 7, That the preseat supply of water in Edinburgh is a
festly insufficient, and that the poorer ulasaea especially nra not receiving
enough to maintain them in a healthy state. 8. That should any epiden "
disease appear among us, they will be lena able on this account to resisl
contiigion, or to bear up againet disease if attacked."

Darieativtt of Atith.racetie^--'S)ui meeting of the Chemical Society on
December 1 was altogether taken up by Mr. Perkin, F.R.S., who read a
very lengthy and important paper on the above subject. It is very long and
impossible to abstract. It was a detailed nccount of some of the Anthracene
derivatives, more particiilarlj of the products resulting from the action of
sulphuric acid on Dibroni- aiid DIchloranthracene. It ia fully reported in the
*' Chemical News '' of December 9,

Chemicai Chmrt. AjrpointmBntt. — The chair of 8t. Bartholoiaew'i^ vacant
Ity the decease of Dr. Matthieaaen, has just been given to^ Dr. Russell, lec-
turer on chemistry in St. Mary's Hospital. The chair at King's College,
vacant by the death of Dr. Miller, has been.awarded to Dr. DIoxam, who
formerly held the chair of practical chemistry in the same school.

GEOLOGY AND PAL.*:0NTOL0Gy.

Sedi of Ewj-JriM. — At the meeting of the American Aasoctatioa, Pro-
fessor A. Winchell presented a brief note on the above subject. It related
to the occurrence of enormous beds of bog-iron in the upper peninsula of
Michigan, on the tributaries of the Moniatique river. It occurs in a half
desiccated bog covering several townships. It ia of remarkable purity, and
of great but uoknown depth. It lies-directly in the track of the projected
railroad, intended to connect the North Faci6c Railroad with the railroad
system of Jiliehigan. The ore con be floated down, the Mooistique and its
tributaries, to Lake Michigan, in the immediate vicinity of an excellent
harbour. Tliia immense deposit is undoubtedly derived ^m the disinte-
gration of the hiematites and magnetites of the contiguous region on the
West. The ore will possess great value for mixing with the other Lake
Superior ores.

Oeutogy and Agriculture. — Owing to the Agricultural Society having
obtained the services of Mr. Jeuklua, ita Reports have been more scientific
tlian tbey were, and this is a circumstiitice that the Society ia to be con-
gratulated upon. lu the last number of the "Journal of the Royal Agri~
cultural Society " [1^70, Snd series] there is a Report ou the Farming of
Monmouthshire, by Mr. W. Fotbergill, which contiiins a auall geological
map of the county, and also an account of the soils found upon each forma*
tion. The Devonian tudis funiiiih a great variety of soils. There ia a deep

BCIEKTinC StnniART. 93

1 eflpednDT favourable to the onk sod tlie npple : tlie cnnirlonitralea
furnish soils well suited for roots and Iinrley ; nn tlie clay a slrung wlient-
»>U is tonaed, whilst the siatj or shalj Vds are bvet adnpted fur woodland.
The moiiDlain limeetme eoil produces good pasture for the native sheep and
CKltle. Tbe millslone grit appears adapted Tor sheep-walks only. It has
been stated, Mjs Mr. Fatberg-ill, that the worst land in England li<7s upon
the coal-messurea ; and certaiulj, at its beift, it is but hungrj soil ; howevi^r,
by drsining and lining, it may be rendered in a measure productive. The
Dew red anndstone ia of well-known and marlred fertility, producing in rich
abundance every kind of crop. The lias furnishes a cold, wet, tenacious clav
or clayey loam. When pervious it is found fit for cultivation, and grows
pood wheat and tares. The a'luviuni gives great variety of eoil, bolh in
appearance and in productiveness ; and this arises partly from deficient
diaiuage, partly from the character of the subsoil, and eouietimcs from tht-
elevation.

Tkt Jmaiiac of Franee and the Oolitic of EH^lmid.— The relation of thew
two systems in two distinct countries has been well traced by Dr. Thoma*
Wright, who shows that there is a wonderful correspondence between them.
The subject is noticed at some length in the " Geological Magazine." The
loolitiiM taken are the Jurassic department of tbe Cote-d'Or of France and
the Oolitic of Gloucester and Wills, England.

TTie Former Exiilenct of Local Gtaciert in the imie Mmoilaini of
America. — .\t the mpeting of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of ScwncB, held in the autumn, a Tcry interesting paper by Professor
Aeasaiz was read by Mr. J. Perry on tbe above subject. The author con-
siders that twenty-three years ago, when he first risited the White Moun-
tains, be discovered onmistakeable evidence of the former existence of
gladers. Ilis paper is published in tbe " American Naturalist," and deals at
considerabte length with the subject.

Indigpanliim 0/ Sir R. Marcttiftn. — There are very few acienlifie men,
whether geologists or not, wbo wiH not hear with regret of the serious
ia^posilioQ of Sir Roderick Murchison. Ris nge indeed is ripo, but his
energies ere active ; and hence his loss to British geology would not bo one
vhit worae than his loss to the geologists of tbe Dritisb lales,

T^ CarboHiferotti Flora of Brar latand. — On November 9 a paper by
Pwfeaeor Oswald Heer was r«id before tbe Geological Society "On the Car-
booiferousFloraof Bear Island" [lat. 74° aCN]. The author described the
sequence of the strata supposed to belong to the cAtbonirerous and Devonian
■eriea in Bear Island, and indicated that tbe plant-benriag beds occurred
immediately below those which, from their foasil contents, were to be referred
to the mountain limestone. He enumerated eighteen species of plants,
■od stated th«t these indicated a close approximation of the flora to those
of Tallowbridge and Eiltorkan in Ireland, the Greywacke of the Vosgea and
the eonthem Black Forest, and the rcrneiiiViV-shdes of Aix and St. John's,
New Brunswick. These concordant floras he considered to mark a peculiar
Kt of beds, which he proposed to denominate the " Ursn-stnge." Tbe author
remarked that the flora of Bear Island has nothing to do with any DeTonion

Tbe paper gave rise to considerable discusaion.
t llorih cf England and South of Sootlmid SHariant. — Dr. W. A. Nicholsoa

94 FOPDLAB SCIESCB EEnXW.

read a paper on ttii' aViTe bt'/nra ihe Edinburgh Geolo^od Soci«t; on.
Nofembei 17. II>; p-nntHl oat the TCsemUuins which he thought nighl
be laid down between the ahore uid the hIuHuu of the North of England.
He drew atlenlion to the fact that the Wrae limestone of PeeblenhiK might
\eTj piiaeiblj be the e<iuivBleQt of the Bala limeclooe of Wales, and tha
ConiEton limeatooe of Cumberland and We«itnioreland ; and that this would
conuderablj aiiuplif}- tlie elucidation of the Scotch ailuHaos. He showed,
however, that much w»rk must jet be done before it would be poeeible to
•peak with any eertnintj w to tfa« orreUdoo of theee ancient depoMU.

Ajicirni Enrthqvnktt. — -In Ihe "Geological MagKdne" for Den'mber, Mr.
J. Prestwich, the Prtuident of ibe Geological Society of London, givea k
curious record of the above, collected frum the writings of his reUlivM.
Accnrding' to this ri^conJ, the eorlhquakea were distributed as under br
centuriej and teosoDi.

January . , 2.
llth Century, 6, February. .3.

12th „ 16. Mnrch. . . 2.

I'fth „ C. April ... 4. Winter months . 11.

14th „ a. May ... 6.

15th I, 1. June ... 0. Spring .... 11.

l(5tb „ 5. July ... 3.

17th „ 0, August . . 4. Summer ... 7.

ISth „ 13. September , 6.

— October . . 1. Autumn ... 8.

Total , . 69. November . 1.

December . 6.
This shows a great prevalence of earthquakes in the 13th centurr, ft
frnidual decrensu lu numbers to the ISth, and then a gradual increase to tba
18lh century. They seem also to have been more numerous in winter and
spring thnn in summer and autumn. The months, however, in many caaea
are not recorded, and no doubt the general record is confined to the mors
iiuportant and nntii'eahle catastrophes.

Mediterranean Geoliigi/. — Mr. G. Mnn, la the hist number of the " Geolc-
gical Magazine " under the title of " Notes on the Mediterranean," gives a
great deal of interestinff information. Among other points he refers to tba
well known Temple of Sempis. Tiiis, he anja, giving evidence of sub-
mergence and re-elevatioD within known heighU and certain limitations of
historic time, sugg^ats a comparison with other evidences of similar eleva-
tion ; and he would remorlc that Lyetl's estimate of the amount of emer-
gence of the sbell'bored columns on the Ilnlian coast agrees almost exactly
with the amount of elevation in other distant parts, implied by the rueed
gravel ridge on the Corslcan marshes, the great plain of shingle at the
Itbone delta, and the lagoona of the south-western Meditertaneun Freucli
coast. Furthermore, Mr. Gwjii Jeffreys informs him that a recent marina
deposit, containing Galeomuia Tiulimi and other ahelld of species now
living in the adjacent parts of the Mediterrnnean, occurs at Autibes at a
timilar height, vii. 25 feet, above the aea-level ; and Mr. Jnmea Smith
attributes the sandy plain immediately to the north of Gibraltar to a
period of stationary level with a littond lone exactly 24 feet abov« the

SC1ESTI7IC SCJUIADT.

^^"pMKOt level of the »ea. TLe close coliicidence in height is remarliBble,
P ud if lliese elpTittion« at aueb disUat points were eonteinpororj, it implies

II tmifonn kmouot of DocillntioD over & verj large proportion of the Medi-
lanaeaa are&. The t&iaad cua«t deposits at Tftngier auJ Cndii may have
b«eD oonnected with nn independent osciUatioa of greater anliquitj Lhan
ths 35 feet rise, but jct more recent than that which suhmerged and re-

I denied Gibraltar at least 700 feet

I BritM Fotsil Cniriacfa. — Mr. 11. Woodward, we are glad to sefi, con*

liriiiea hii acrouDt of Britisli Fossil Crustacea. In bis fourth Report to the
Briliah Aasnciation, be described, amou); other Crustacea, two speciea be-
lou^ng to the geDua Ct/clu$, one of wbicli still remaius unique. Since that
date, he haa, by the kindness of Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.Q.S., received
a number of apecimena of this genus, collected by Professor HarltiieaB,
F,R.8. ; Mr. Joseph fl'rigbt, of Belfast ; and Mr. J. H. Burrow, of Settle.
Yorkshire ; from the citrboniferous limestone, which be describes partly
in the last Domber of the ** Geological Magazine " and figures in au interesting
plate accompanying bia paper.

Tht .VoftuH of a Glacier. — This important question lies for discussion
between Canon Moselej and Mr. Ctoll, F.RS.E. Mr. CroU baa communi-
cated some remarks on the subject to the " Philosophical Magmine " for
September. To him there seems to be but one eiplanation of glacier
jnovement, namely, that the motion of the glacier b molecular. Ilia con-
cluding remarks are as follows : — The ice descends molecule by molecule.
The ice of a glacier is in the bard, crystalline slate, hut it does not descend
b this state. Oravitation is a constantly acting force ; if a particle of the
ice lose its shearing-force, though but for the moment, it will descend by
ha weight alone. But a particle of the ice will lose ita shearing-force for a
moment if the particle loses ils crystalline state for the moment. The
jMmge of heat tbrongb ice, whether by conduction or by radiation, in all
probability is a molecular process — that is, the form of energy termed heat
is transmitted fiom molecule to molecule of the ice. But at the moment
that it is in possession of the passing energy, is the molecule in the cryatal-
Kne or icy state T If we assume that it is not, but that in becoming
IHMMawd of the energy it loses ita crystalline form, and for the moment
becomes water, all our difficulties refisrding the cause of the motion of
|lideis are removed. We know that the ice of a glnder, in the mass,
cannot become possessed of energy in the form of beat without becoming
fluid; mn? not the same thing hold true of the ice- particle?

Sir Jt. MurrMtim'i Report oh the Geflogieal Survey aud the Mtuetim nf Tyac~
tifttl C«o/ojiy.— This has been published, and will interest the geologist who
iadetirotu of knowing what work the year 1809 has shown in these respecla,
A total area 3,634} square miles was surreyed during the year. This was
in fkigUnd. In Scotland, Mr. A. Gdkie reports 111 square tuilea as being
ibawn. In Ireland 707 square milee have been surveyed. In regard to the
nnueum ProfeMor Huiley reports several valuable additions which have
b^in made during the year. The maps, mining office, and laboratory, are
alio moat favourably reported upon.

Mr. Forhet' Lecture on I'olcanoeg. — In the "Geolcigical Magazine" for
Xovember, Mr. 1>. Foibea, F.R.S., replies to the remajka of Mr. Foulett

rorri,AR sciesce bevieit.

Sciope who, in an earlier number commented on hia {Wr. Forbes") lecture nil 1
ToIcBnoas. Mr. Scrope for the moat part a^es with Mr. Forbes, i
difference is not ^at But on the eiibject of the formation of Tolcanisl
Muid, of the efleet of water on molten laTS, uid some other points, 3]

here jualifies himself fully.

WEOnANICAL SCIENCE.

Piimntntic Trantinimim. — A Tery intoresling theoroticAl pnpcr,
iystems of pneumatic tranemiaflion for pnssenpera and parcels, was read by-
Mr. Itobert Sabine at the last meeting of the British Aaaociation.
results of Mr. Sahine'a eiaminaTion of the conditions of working of iiuch ■
fiyslem may be atflted to be :— That ttmiill pneumatic tubes may be worki-d
more profitably than large ones. For small letter-carrying tubas, and fnr*
somewhat larger tubes for the tranxmi»)xon of metropolitan letters to brsnelt
post-offices, he thinks they will undoubtedly work eatisfnctorily. Lnrga
tubes of modemte length — for inntance for the transport of light gooda
between different parts of a factory^ — might be found useful. But he do«»
not beliere that a pneumatic line working through n long tunnel could, for
passenger traffic, compete, in point of economy, with locomotive milwnyi,
lu a pneumatic tunnel such as that proposed between England and J^Bnce,
he esttmales that in moving a goods train of 260 tons, at twenty-five milea
per hour, the more friction of the air on the walls of the tunnel wi
amount to 9.1 per cent, of the whole resistance, and the work uaefutly
expended in moving the train would he only 5} per cent, of the whols
power employed. To propel such a train engines of 2,000 horse power
would have to be employed at each end, even supposing the blowing
machinery to act with greater efficiency than has yet been attained.
looks to the completion of the Pneumatic Company's works in London and
of the pneumatic paasenger railway in New York to settle the question
the availability of the system for such purposes. The paper will be found
in Engmeermg for September 33.

The SabilUi/ of Ship). — The controversy which has followed the cata-
Btrophe to the Captain has led to a re-ex ami nation of the stability of »
of the ships in the Navy. The Monarch has proved to have ample eta,lHli^
for safety, even at light draught. But when quite light it will contribnto
to her comfort and steadine^is, in Mr. Reed's opinion, to admit water ballast
into a few of her lower compartments. Provision for effecting this was
made in ber construction. In the four ships of the Vaiig}uird tAsBf,"
Reed believes it will be advantageous to supply them with n certain amount
of permanent ballast, and for that purpose a layer of iron concrete on
bottom is propii^d. The need of this ballast arises from tbe fact tl
through improvements in the construction, the hulls of these ships are
renliy lighter than was anticipated, and they float some inches higher than
they would have done if these Improvements had not been accomplished.
"■ ( the enpeosive wrought-iron work which on the ordinary system of
tiuctjon would hare been distributed through the bull, will be replaced

PI SCIENTIFIC STMMAnY. 97 I

ij n itatll amount of cheap coucrele p[np*d e\aj:tly wlierc it will bs iiiosl 1

rlTccliTe in aleadring llie ship. |

WrougM-Irmi and Sleel Gioii. — It is etateJ that in a recent competitive J

' IriiJ between tax AnnBtrong wroiigbt-iron and a Enipp steel gim, the latter
I hu ptoTed to have the gieat«r euduratice. After 131 rounds the Anustroog
( gaa split, and was so severely diiniBged m to be unfit for further service,
f The tleel gun remnins in good condition after 210 rounds.

hiSian Railway IJauge. — A controversy is going on as lo the gauge to
b^ adopted for the extension of the Indian railway system. A joint report
bv Messrs. Strachey. Dickens, and Rcndel, and a separate report by Mr.
Fowler, have been presented to tbe Indian Government. In the former a
gauj^ of 2 feet inches is recommended, in the latter a gauge of 3 feet

Imliim Civil Enginttring Colltge. — The difKeulty which has attended the
»T«tem of obtaining young civil engineers for service in the Public Works
JVpartm^nt, by competitire examination, has led the Indian Qoverament
to Mtablisb a college at Cooper's Ilill, Surrey, for training its civil
engineer officers. Candidates will be ndniilted to the college by examina-
lion. The college course is to extend over three years, with the exception
that candidates having more than usual proficiency tuay shorten tbe period.
Two leima at least of the third year will be passed by the student under a
(ivil or mechanical engineer. It is to be lioped that this attempt at n
thorough and systematic syaten) of technicnl education for engineers may
prove a great succes?. The old apprenticeship system practised in this
manti7, without the supplement of systemRtic theoretical iuatruction, does
nnt correspond to the needs of tbe lime.

Ttchnival Edueal.i<m on f/.c Coji(t'neH(.— The Institute of Civil Engineers
h«ve published a remarkable pamphlet, containing the result of an inquiry
into the condition of engineering educaUon nbrond.

Aixhea of Timber and Iron.— A very interesting paper on this subject
bj a foreign engineer, 31, Gaudnrd, has been read before tbe Institute of
Ciril Engineers. U. Oaudard explains, amongst others, M. Brosse's method

I of estimating the stress in iron arches, and a method of M. Durand Claye of
uiopiuing the boldness of differejit arches, which will be new to most
English readers,

Miialinf Bearingt. — Some new materiab for forming the bearings of
machinery have been introduced by Dr. Gwynn of New York under this
Mime, the idea being to obtain sufficient solidity in the material for the
faring to retain its form, and sufficient plasticity to reduce the friction.
For eiample, very fine powder of iron and of tin are intimately mingled by
gnnding, and then compressed by hydraulic pressure; or solder is reduced
to a wmi-fluid condition by beat and .mixed with powdered graphite, and
ibta consolidated by pressure.
WrvMght-Iroti Bridges. — We may direct attention to a remarkably iu-
IBtttDg appendix to the last volume of tho Trananctiona of the Institute
Ciril Engineers, consisting of a paper by Mr. Colcott Eeilly on wrought-
a bridges. Mr. Reilly gives in detail all the calculations made during
tile actual process of deaigning two well-considered iron bridges. It is
not often that the actual process of deaigning is so fully laid bare by a very
TOL. i. — Ko. xxxvm. K

I'OPir|,*n SrTESrE RBTISW.

(^umpptont ciigiiipoc Tur the inslructiou oFothE'K: anil in regnrd to riveb
joint?, whicli nrc often very cnreleiol; nrninged, Sir. lieiUy proceeds (
principles not onlj Driginal and sound, but in ftdrnnco of current practice.

MEDICAL,

Tlif Spht/giiiograph iiirenltd by GalHeo, — It would fwem from n Uttw 4
>[r. Charles IMlIianis, in the " Lan(¥t " of November 20. that Galileo null
devised an apparatus for estimating the velocity of the pulse, "^'hetlier bi
instrument and tbe present one are tbe tuae is a question, but there can bi
no doubt that a apbygmograph of some kind or other was devised l
Galileo.

Hiarojfraphy in Mft/ifiiic— From the same number of the " Lancet" n
learn of the establishment in America of a " Photographic Review of Medl
cine and Surgery." It is to be published once every second montb.
contains four photographic plates.

Snbetitutioit of Salt* in the Bone*.— The " Lancet " of Pecember 1 recori
some experiments that have been made in the course of the past year by M'
PapiUoD, and which arc recorded in the " Comptea Hondus." In tme t
these a young pigeon was dieted on distilled water to which hydrochloniti
carbonate, sulphatt', luid nitrate of potash were added, and with grain mad
into a paste with strontia. Tho bird remained in perfeot health for near]
eight months, when it was killed, and an analywa made of its bones, with
the following results: in 100 parts there wore of lime ■Vj'TH, of stronfii
S-4d, of phosphoric acid 41'B0, and of phosphate of magnena 1'80; residue
1-10. In a second experiment a white rat ten days old was subjected to ■
similar ref^men, except that phosphate of alumina was substituted for tl
atrontia given to the pigeon in the proportion of about a grain and a half p<
diem. The animal remained to all appearance in good health for About d
weeks, when it died suddenly in convulsions. An autopsy showed tlM
presence of intense enteritis. Analysis of the bones showed that in '~
patta there were of alum <t'05, and of lime 41'10 parts. Another animal u
the same litter was supplied with phosphate of magneua instead of phoa
pbate of alumina, and was killed at the same time. Analysis of its boaci
showed tbe presence of magnesia in the fuUnwing proportions in 100 parlac'
magnesia S'50, lime 4015. In all the animals the appearance presented by
the boues wan natural, and they seemed to possess their ordinary pbjaio"
logical pec uliiui ties.

Hetediag the Blood of Animnla. — It would seem that the questionabls
discovery of llerr Neumann baa received confirmation by Dr. Day, ot
Oeelong Institute, vi*. that the picture or net-work formed by human bloodl
ran be distinguished under the microscope &om that which is formed by ths
blood of other animals. lie says be has repeated the experiment, which ii
" wonderfully simple," almost every day for the last two months, with in-
variable success. A small drop, not n mere speck, of the blood is to ba
placed on a microscope-slide, and carefully watched, at a temperature of 10*
■"' iS'R.'Biimur (=54>2" tn 5jr=Fahr.), until the picture or net-work formed

sCTENTmc .snntATiT. 99

'irils Mftgulntitiii is Jovelopeil, Iliinind blood spMiiily bronli.^ uji intn n

■ nmll-ptttera " net-work i ihc blood of Mixer miitoala (calve*, pijw, el^^,)

■ ikw n lonpiT time, and makes a Inrire pntlem : but tbe blood of every
ir.imnl 3f etas to form b rhftracteristic " picture," Dr. Day hna einmined
i. h!i"iii iif c.ilves, pigs, ?beep, rabbils, diiclid, liens, seTeral kiints of Usheit,

. ..- wr U ns tbiit of ninii, nnd hns found Ibe reaulta to be trustwortby nod

.( MnUml Collfgrfor Women bw, according to the " New York ^redicn)
Jinirod" for November, been organised in Chicago, IIL, with a faculty of
nil leas than fifteen pTofessots. We pity the girls if they are expected to
uodeipi the infliction of a full conrfe of lectures from each of the fifteen.
Our Chicago brethirn miut have singiiliir ideas nbout the meaning of titles,
far one of the incumbents is announced as " Profetsof Emrritm" — and this
in an institnlion that as yet has no exiJ^tence.

Food for Tronpi, — Dr. Dingier gives nn acconnt of a new Pruwinn method.

It appears that a Uerlin Whik, named Grunberg, has recently di«;o?ered a

pnxpia by wbicU a preparation of peas may be made so as to keep without

b^foming ^our, and the Prussian Ooreniment has bought the secret of this

prwesH from the inventor, for a sum of Ij,Ji.55i, The Prussian Wat Oltico

baa created an eatnblidhment, at Berlin, capable of producing daily T''i,000

MUjagea wade of this preparation, which consists of a mixture of bacon,

■ jMnlitrlj prepared pea flour, onions, and otber ingredients, inclusive of sale

■An ESnsages are sent away packed in boxes containing from 100 to GOO,

BHightiig 1 lb. each, which are destined aa food for the nrmlea, and only

Mquiring to be boiled in water for a very short lime to be ready for the use

if the aoldiepi. The duly ration of each is 1 lb., a quantity quite suffi-

■ ;vnt for each man. This ealnblishmeni, only working fur the armies, costs

<!^il; about G,000/.

Sehtiont lif Cotucioiimeu and Seat of Sfnaation.—\ very able paper ispub-
ishi-d on this BubjtM?t in the November number of the " Journal of Anatomy "
bjDr. Cleland, of Queen's College, Galway. We can only give the follow-
iDg abstract, and hope tbe subject will he intelligible to our medical readers.
(1) The irritation of a nerve of common sensation throws the nerve into
tiu iiii|ffe9Bed condition, and as soon aa that condition is continued to the
Indn, the mind recognises the irritation at tbo site where it is applied, in
At form of aenae of touch, temperature, or pain, according to ila character,
Chei-bteiuity of the impressed condition may also itself be recognised in tlie
btm et pain. (2) Nerves of special sense diRVi &om those of common
MUatioD both in tbe circnmatance that the apparatus at tbeir extremities
I' afFerted by irritations of a different kind from those which affect other
mrves, and In their irritation being recognised in the form of the special
•^nie In which they are devoted. (3) By the impressed condition continued
fiiim ih« brain to the distribution of a motor nerve not only b a stimulus
"(iimuuicated to the muscles and applied to the nerve, but muscular i
.-^'iv<-u; and, the consciousness being brought into direct commutucation
tvLili ilie part, the will is enabled to regulate the position of the part and
ilie degree of muscular energy with which it m mainliilned. But a motor
aova differs &om sensory nerves of all eortj) in the -act that irritation of it
iow not produce any sensation either of the character nf common ^en^alion

100 POPULAS SCIENGE BXTIXW.

or special sense : and in tbis respect it is like tbe proper fibres of tbe spinal
cord and brain.

A Woman Kith Fomr Breads, — A primiparoos woman was admitted under
M. Lorain, and was delivered next day of a dead prematore cbild. Sbe
was found to have four breasts, two in tbe normal position and witb tbe
normal puerperal appearances, and two wbicb, from tbeir podtion, migbt be
called axilliUT. and attaining tbe size of a small orange.Serue photo^raphique
des Hupitaux.

Permanganate of I\)ta*s in Coryza. — ^W^e desire to call attention to tbe use
of permanganate of potassa in reiy dilute solution (0*18 grm8.=l*67 grains
to 60 grms. or c.c.=to about 2 fluid ounces) against coryza, cold in tbe
bead, attended with severe sneezing. Of tbe permanganate solution, some
twenty to sixty drops are poured into a tumblerful of water, and of this
liquid every two hours a quantity of a tablespoonful is snuffed up tbe
nostrils ; and if there be any soreness of tbe throat, the same liquid is applied
as a gargle. Dr. Franck, of Munich, states that be has prescribed tbis
mode of treatment now for some years, and foimd it very efficient, by curing
the complaint in about from two to four days.

Skin Grafting. — Tbis remedy now appears quite successful. The " Medical
Press " of November ^ savs that Mr. Pollock exhibited to tbe Clinical
Society several cases of the operation devised by M. Riverdin, of Paris, in
18C9. A girl, aged eight, had been in St. George*s Hospital witb an ulcer-
ated surface from buttock to knee, which had existed for two years. Mr.
Pollock first transplanted two small pieces of skin, about the size of millet
seeds, taken from the lower part of the abdomen. Fourteen pieces in all
were transplanted at various periods. The bum was nearly healed in five
months, without any perceptible contraction of the cicatrix. Mr. Pollock
transplants usually very small pieces, and takes care that the granulations
arc healthy where he inserts them. Mr. Lawson showed a patient in whom
a large ulcer in the leg had resisted all treatment for four years, and was
completely cured in four weeks after a piece of skin, the size of a fourpenny-
piece^ had been planted on it. As soon as the new skin bad established
its vitality, gmnulations sprang from the circumference, and rapidly closed
in the wound. The granulations should be heidthy, no fat transplanted,
but only skin, which must be accurately applied to the granulating surface.
The new skin is kept in position without interruption, and lightly covered
with a layer of lint, over which is a small compress of cotton wool and a
bandage, for the purpose of keeping it warm until it grows on to the part.

The Indian Medical Service. — ^TN'e regret to state that there will be no
February examiontion this year.

Urea formed in the Liver. — According to a note in the "New York
Medical Journal'' for November, the latest researches upon the place of
origin of uroa, and especially the beautiful experiments of M. Gr^hant,
have demonstrated that the kidneys are by no means secretory, but purely
*<»xcretory, organs for urea. Dr. Cyon, in the last number of the '*Central-
Llatt,'' publibhos a few facts in the form of a provisional communication, to
show that it Is probably produced at the liver. The plan of experimentation
adopted (in conmion with M. Istomin) was as follows : The whole of tho
blood was abstracted from the carotid of a dog, and a portion^ after being

sciKSTiFic straMAny. 101

sd, vas transmitted by means of mercurial pre^siiro through the
Utst. Comcidently three couuliti were introduced — oua into the iofeciul
veil* citv>t, tho eecond iuto tbe hepatiL' tirterv, nnd the third ialo the venii
portn. Tbe ieeu]t« of careful autiljaia phoned that the blood which bad
paired tbrough tho liver contained n much krgor proportion of urea than
onliiinry urterial blood. In one experiment 100 c. c. of tbe nrtcriel blood
when deSbriualed coulained 08 grammes of urea ; but, after having been
ptused four tiDies tbroii^h the liver, tbe name qunulity contnined 0170

Datruction of Tunwm-t hj Iiu'eUint/ Chromic Add. — Chromic acid haa
not been luuch e"i|ilnycd here. lu Amotica, however, it hiis been uaed
niih advantage. In a Ule number of tbe " rbilndelpbia Medical nnd tjur-
gical Ileporter," Dr. Daniel l.c-isure, of Allegbaoj Citr, gives aii account of
a tumour of tbe nuck (probably malijfnnut) treated by tbe injection of
thromie aciil. It was ailunted on the rijfht side, ono inch and a lialf by
iwo inched and a hidf longost diamtrter. On Suptomber 17, 1600, it wua
iuJL-clfd by n bypodenuic ayringe with sixty drops of a BolutioD of chromic
add, 100 gnunfi to tbe ounce of water. Ou the day following-, and on tbu
third day, it waa injected as before. Xo eeiious irritntion. On Sept. itO
rrpMliisl, the tumour softening, Oct, 17, tbe same, Nov. 15, the tumour
had collapsed. An opening fomied, and matter waa discharged, roulticed,
and on Not. SO, reported welt. There was a email cicatrix, tbree lines in
diameter, at tbe sent of the lain opening, which so ctoaiily resembled in
ojIout tho surrounding skin as to bo ecarcoly noticed. In Juno 1^70 no
■ign of return. Two other similar cases treated with like succeed. Tho luo
i)[ vhrooijc add in this manner is nevr.

PiMOHout Snuff. — We understand that Dr. Gan'od lately lectured at
King's Collc^ on a case of lead-poisoning, in which ibe mineral was taken
b raiiir. It was rappee that the patient habitually took, and the damp
[Qulf. packed in tlie usual leaJ casea, converted some into carbonate. The
(jntptoms wet« serious, and with difficulty traced to Ibeir real source.
Theii srveral packages were pmrchased, and I'oimd to ba contaminated vrilh

liji! ptHSOO.

Tkt Latt Dr. Il-J^rt Km..,:— We ham, from the " Medical Press " of
Ike. 7, that Dr. Lonsdale baa just brought out a life of liobert Knox, tho
once hmous lecturer on anatomy, of Edinburg'h. From this interesting
tugraphy it seems that tho terrible aRkir of Uiirke and Hare in 18^8
jnxtA tbe ruin of this distinguished teacher's fanio in Edinburgh, and
Alt be died compamtively unknown and poor in Hackney parish, London.
'^M of hia last works, which has been much admired by soma, is (lia '' Ituccs
F Man."

The Conducting Pimcr of the Kerraa. — In tlie ■' Lancet," Dec. 17, are re-
I'lJed S'>n»o fresh invesUgalions upon this point, by Mil. Place and Ilelm-
biJtt. M. Place adopted the ^me method as that Ibrmerly suggested by
lUbaholl*. The cylinder employed for registration was that conalrucled
lij neynsiua fir the Leyden physiological laboratorj-, and was carefully
rlnnted in eiu-h a manner as to avoid accidental vibration. The measure-
iLiezit of the lime was estimated by a coinddent tracing from a vibrating
' inin^ork. The median uer%'e was irritated first where it runs in the

102 POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.

bicipital groove, and afterwards at the wrist, where it runs on the ulnar side
of the musculus flexor carpi radialis, the distance of the electrodes being
about 300 millimetres, or above one foot. The muscular contractions pro-
duced were strong, a more powerful current being required for the excita-
tion of the nerve above where it lies deepest. In order to obtain trust-
worthy results, one or two minutes were allowed to pass between each
experiment. The best observations gave a result of from 60 to 60 metres per
second as the rapidity of propagation of motor impulses, with a mean of
53 metres per second. This differs considerably from the estimation of
Helmholtz, who estimates it at only 33 metres per second. The point of
excitation in Ilelmholtz^s experiments was somewhat higher than in those
of M. Place ; and when Helmholtz^s point was taken, a number (35'25
metres per second) not very different from his was obtained. Further
investigations showed the general truth of Munk's observation, that the
rapidity of propagation of impulses was much greater in the peripheral than
in the centml portions of a nerve. Ilelmholtz's observations were carried on
with a new instrument, of which the idea was suggested by Fick. lie
found that variations in temperature exert an important influence on the
rapidity of propagation of motor impulses, the rapidity being much greater
in warm than in cold temperatures. He foimd also that when two induc-
tion-currents are passed through, an interval of at least l-500th of a second
must elapse between them in order that the second stroke should produce
an augmentation of the muscular contraction. If the period be less than
this, the two act as a single shock ; with nn interval of l-300th of a second
the augmentation ii» very perceptible. Constant currents readily produce
tetanus, especially when passed iu a downward direction. Oscillations are
felt in the miigcle, the duration of which amoimtd to 0'01> of a second.

METALLUKGY, MINEllALOGV, AND MINING.

" Mineralogical Notices " was the title of a paper read before the Koy&l
Society on November 17, by Professor Maskeyne and Dr. Flight. It deals
with several mineral?, and we may mention a few of them. The first is
" On the Formation of Basic Cupric Sulphate." In 1807 M. l^sani described
a mineral which he supposed to be the Woodwardite of Mr. Church. The
substance, however, is not the latter mineral. It had previously been ex-
amined iu the laboratory of the British Museum, and the results sufficiently
tallied with those of M. Pisani to identify the mineral. It can be divided
into an inner layer and an outer crust, of which the contents were given.
2. An opal from the Waddehi Plain, Abyssinia. Mr. Markham presented to
the British Musemn some remarkable specimens of green opal from the
above locality. An analysis is given of it. Next follow FrankoUte from
Cornwall; Epidote and Serpe^itine from lona; Cronstedfite, PhderiUj and
others. The paper is reported iu the " Chemical News " of November 25.

Steel i2ae/!s.— There are in the United States, says the "Philadelphia
Ledger,'' 46,000 miles of nulway which it is necessary to re-lay with steel
rails. It takes 100 tons of rail to lav a mile of road. The estimation of

(0,000 loos would oa\y re-l»y 200 niilw ftnouaUj. If sleo! mils vrvtv ad-

d bw, tUetr cDnsuju)itioi] in America would bo euoruious, and tlie

a mlwaj comptmies coRcspoDdiagly ^al.

' J%i Chemical Katiire of Ciift Iron. — The committee appoinltd ill 1801)

t Rported Uiat tbey have made very littk pragrese. Tlit'j- prunilae a

d report for the ntixt year. Those on the committue were Mr. David

~ » and Maura, .^bel iwd Mntthiessen, The Intter is uufoituiiately dead

Simtk African Diiimonda continue to arrive, and some of them arc e.'v-
^n:niely fine The subject was discussed iu a, pnpcr read by Profet^ur Teti-
uul before the Sodety of Arts on Xoveniher '2ii. The puper appears wilh h
TTiudcut in the " Joumnl " fur the 39th, and may be of interest to smiio

(hoktrit, — The mineral oiokerit, says a recent nimiber of the " Medical
Trew," the celebrity of which ha:s been achieved, it is said, by an expeudi-
lore in advertising of gonietliiug approaching 15,000/. by Messrs. Field, of
London, was eshibited by Mr, Henry Draper, at the lost meeting of tlio
UabliD Chemical Club. This substance is found overlying the coul mea-
tuiee in Moldavia, Austria, and at the Urpcth Colliery at Newcastle- oti'
Tyne. It is purified by distiilntion, and afterwards by pressing it and
tnAting it with sulphuric acid ; when purified it has an extremely high
meltiiig point. For this chaiacteristac, which has not been found in any
other similar substances except wnx, it is selected for tlie manufoetutti of
candles, because it affords a larger wick and a better illununating power at
1 lowerprice. From Mr. Draper's experimonta it appuars that pure o^okerit
lod while was melt at 1-JO" F., the candle aa sold at 138", paraffin at 1211".
There is, therefore, »a odmisturo with it of somu other material. Even the
midue of oit^erit, after its puriHcatiuu, has been utvlited. The lalu Dr,
Matthiessen, whose untimely death by his own hand is still iu our memory,
pttented it as an insulator for telegraphic wires, for which purpose it is
i^d to be eminently suitable.

EniaiKlling of Iron. — This importaut subject is discussed by Ilerr Dr. 13,
JLDuigler, in the Oct. (No. 2) number of "Dingler's Journal," aud the
pi^ is well reported in the- " Chemical News." The author first points
oat that the mun dithculty in the process of enamelling iron consists ui the
&ct that the expan»on of the metal by any increase of temperature is fnr
gitalcr thin the espnosion of glaasy bodies, and that, as a consoquonce, the
enamel is very liable to come off by a sudden increase of the temperature of
the nuDelled metal. This defect, says the author, is best meuded by the
aw and application of a 'ground or tirst layer, which dues not beoome
^uilc fluid by heal, but retaiDS a pasty consistency and porosity, which
Euble it to give way to some extent by the expansion. Un this first layer,
lh« second or covering layer is applied. The author rccomniomls tiie fol-
Wioj: mixture »a ground or first layer ; — Pulverised quartz, iJO parts :
Inm, |ij( ; white-lead, .1 parts. These ingredients are fused together, nod
tt« molten mass is pulverised and intimately mixed with D parts of very
fin*!)' ground-up quartz, 8^ parts of washed pipeclay, and J part of raag-
Mtis idbo. The second, or covering layer, is prepared by melting together
« nuiture of 37 J parts of pulverised quartz, :27J of borax, 30 of oxide of tin,

104 rorULAR StIEXXE REVIEW.

16 of carbonate of soda, 10 of tiitMte of poUs^a, and 5 puts of n
alba. The molten mass is poured into water, and afterivBnJs miied with
6J parts of powdered quartz, SJ of oxide of tin, g of carbonate ol' soda,
and J partfl of magnesia nlba, and tlie wbote of the ingrcdienta very finely
groimd along with wat«r, so ss to constitute an inpalpable powder
metal to be enamelled is first cleaned witli dilute aulpliuric acid (1 pnrt of
strong acid to 24 of water), then rubbed wilh shnrp Bund, rinsed i
water, and immediately aflerwarda dried ; tbe enamel masaea are next bnral
on. Well-made enamel enhibila tbe following characterietiea ; — A perfectly
smooth and level surface, so that the surface nowhere feela uneven or rough
to tbe touch ; a pure white colour ; absence of small cracks.

Ci^per andMangmese Alloiji.—'ili. J. F. Allen, F.C.S., boa made soTeral
interesting alloys of the above. These are, abortlj, Ist, Manganese and
copper in various proportions, from 35 per cent, to i5 per c
ingot, sheet, or wire; 2aA, Copper, zinc, and manganese, also in diSurent
proportions, and in « variety of applications; 3rd, Copper, zi
ganeae, and tin as ingota and as bearing ; 4tb, Copper, manganes
in several different proportions as bars ; Gtb, Copper, mangnncae, and
lead.

TheMflaUin the Sun. Reicrfid of Sodium Line*. — Mr.C. A. YoungwritM
alelt«r toProfessorll. Morton (published in the "Chemical Ne\ra,"Oct 21)
regarding some recent spectroscopic observations in the sun. The following
is the letter :— " Dartmouth College, Hanover, N, H. ; Sept. 20, 1870.— 5Iy
dear eir, — I write to inform you that last Saturday, Sept 23, about 11 a.h.
Hanover mean time, I was so fortunate as to see the sodium lines D, and I),
reversed in tbe spectrum of the umbra of a, large spot near tbe eastern liuib
of the sun. At tbe same time U and V lines were also reversed, but with
the great diaperoive power of my new apectroScope I sue this so often in tha
solar spots that it baa ceased to be remarkable, In tho umbra of the spot
the D, line was not visible, but in tbe peimmbrs was plainly seen, as a &»A
shade. I am not aware that this revorsal of the sodium lines in a spot-
Bpuclruiu has evur been observed before ; its reversal in the spectra of pro-
minences is Dot very unusual. A small promineace un the western limb of
the sun, which was vidble tbe same forenoon, presented all the following^
bright lines, viz. C, D,, ])„ Y>^ 1474', ft,, h., i„ 1080-5, 2001-3, 2OTI-. ~
25St-5, S71H)', and h ; liftt'en in all. In the tpot-speclrum tbe uia^iiefciuut
lines 6,, 6„, and fr„ were not reversed, but while the shade which accom-
panies the lines was perceptibly widened, tbe central black line itself n
thinned and lightened."

Whati»Ww.heinite7—iis. 11, Schwarz (in "Dinglet's Journal") gives
an account of some experimenta made with a hydrate of alumina found ia
the Wochein, and akin to the Bauxite. This wocheinite conBiata, in 100
parts, of— alumina, 50-82; ailioa, 11-28; peroxide of iron, 100; watery;
24'20 ; traces of carbonate of lime and of luangnnL'sc. The mineral ia suit-
able for being mixed M-ilb other lire-tlays (it ia not aulliciently plastic by
itself, even when pulveri"ed), and for tbe umnufacture of aluminate of
Hoda and other salts of alumina,

Comito»iiion of CiJamhili'. Fcn-o-ilmnuif, uml SuMiii-th'tf. — In the
"Journal fiir prnkt. Clifmie." N"o. l;i, Ilerr A, licnnann slates Ih«

StriENTIFlC SL'MMAHV. \0&

im\ym of llie nbove tUree minersli. Beyond IIiIh the paper has little
inleiest

A Cmtrrtte Khich Jiat tcveral good Properties. — The Rev. U. Ilighton.Jt.A,,
lias described to the Britlali Associntioa a form of coucrcte nhich appears
iiieip«naive and useful. The full owing is the metliod of preparing it : — A
(DDccele IB made with ntiy good hydi'aiilic ceiuent. When tliis is drj it is
tietfped ia an nllialiiie solution of ailica, in ivhich is plticed a quantity of free
iilica. The following chemical process then takea plnco : the lime in the
nmcrete extracts the silica from the solution, leaving tho alkali free, wliicli
iminedialely attacks the free silica and conreys it in its turn to the concrete.
Ttiis process goes on continually till the lime in the concret« is saturated
with ultca. By this process within a week the Btrcnjlh of the concrete ia
iacressed itoia 50 to loO per cent., and by a longer continuation of the
deeping the strength is still more increased. As the alkali sets only ns n
' (vrier of tho silica, it is used over and over sgidn ; niid it ia in thia that the

ry uf the manufacture consisU. Tlie fallowing ia the couiparativu
,cc to a crushing force of several kinds of stone : —
Per*]. Ii.di.
The Silicated Concrete, or Patent \"ictoriB Stone . (1,441
Aberdeen Granite 7,770
Dwtmoor Granite 0,003

Peterhead Granite 0,218

Yorkshire I.nnding 5,651

Stafford Blue Brick 4,0.13

rorthmd Stone 2,420

BathSUiue 1,344

The atone fumied in this manner hoa been tried as a pavement iu the
biuiett part of Cheapside, and in many other parts of London, and for Btep.s,
linteb, ulla, &c., in many parts both of this kingdom and abroad, as well aa
ia India. Tho whole of the stone iu tho new warehouses, 27 St. Mary Axi',
ismaJv in this manner.

AlliH/ i,f Lead and P/atimim.^'l'lie " Cliemlcnl News " gives the follow-
iog account of the above alloy, prepared hy llerr A. Bauer, which originally
appeared in the" BerlchloderBeutschcnOhemiechenGeselbchaftzu Berlin,"
Xa l.'i. ISOO. After referring to the obsan-alion of M. Deville, that na
lUuy of lead and platinum is readily decomposed in consequence of the
' luversion of the lead into white-lead, the author made nn alloy, consisting
>[ i parU of pure Itad and 1 part of platinum. Thia alloy is so brittle thnt
it can bo readily pulverised ; and the powder so obtained was moistened
with wat^r, and placed under a bell-jar exposed to the action of carbonic
tdd, oivgen, and vapours of acetic acid. The conversion of the lead into
trhile-leiui took place rapidly ; and after it appeared that all the lead was
ronvcvltd into while-load, the powder was treated with acetic a*;id, and
ibo re^due agun exposed under the bell-jar to the action of the saiuo sub-
■tance^ This procesi having been repeated several times, there remained
>1 lut a steel-greyish coloured crystalline powder, which only appeared to
U finely divided platinum. On being treated, however, with dilute nitric
Mid, the anthiT found that llic pnwjer cin^istcd of an bUov of lead oikd

loti

PUl'ILAll f

:(E IIKVIETT.

pUliuum, which coiituntHl, iu 100 parla— rUtinuui, 4«82; leftd, ol-lSi
conedpoodiag to the fonniUii I't + Pb. TbU alloy lina h sptcilic pravily of
15'77, in laadily decomposed by miueral ocida, but withatands builing iritli
ncctiu acid.

MICROSCOPY.

Dealli of the President uf thcRuyal Mivrmcopical Svciet'/. — On Decuuiber 12
iLur.ov, J.lJ<incroftIleiKie, M.A., F.K.S., F.R.A.S., passed nway (rooi among
ua, Dt the iiiatui'o age o( seventy jears. He might have lived much longer
had it not been for the presencu of a peculiar CHncetoux aflection of tha
rectum, though, UDgularly enough, it was really a liver affecdon which
removed him TrDm antung as, He waa a dear old man, and there muat have
been few who knew him who did not also love him. He was a man n<
well known as he deserved to he, fur during the lost forty yeara he has buen
actively engaged in discovcrieti, both connected with the microscope h
photography. A full sketch of his life will, wo believe, appear in an early
number of the "Monthly Microscopical Journal." Meanwhile a very good
sketch of his photographic labours will be found io the '' British Journal
of Photography " of December 10.

77i« Gmdition o/Uie Mkratcope. — The question as to whethn the objecl-
glassea are perfect, or are in a coaditiou very far from perfection, still goes
on ; Mr. Wenhani approaching the former aide, Dr. lloyston-Pigott the
lallur. The controversy i* not yet doue, and in tiic pr&ient number of the
" MoutWy Microscopical Jouiiid," we believe, a papur »ppenris from Mr.
Wenham,ro-8saertinj{hia cooclusiou. As yet it is difficult to decide who is
tight Time will tell.

Mounting Dialomt. — This, it must be confessed, is seldom dune rightly.
In the '■ Monthly Microscopical Journal " for December a paper by
Captain Lang ^vea some useful hints. Fie says that of course all
diatoms should be mounted on the cover. To secure the correct centering
of them, he forms on a gloss slip, by means of tiie turntable, a ring' of gold-
size ^ths of an inch in diameter, the site of his covering glass, and within
this a very minute one exactly in the centre. This is hardened by heat, i
his cells are. On the outer ring, at equal distances, are placed three little
bits of beeswax. The covering glaas, on which it is intended to arrange the
diatoms, is placed on this general mounting slip, and slightly pressed on
wax. Instead of distilled water, he places on the cover a very slight smear
of glycerine, into which previously, as in the case of the water, a drop of
gum may have been added. Into tliis the diatoms are dropped, and b
then be pushed within the inner ring, and their perfect arrangement and
centi'ring are secured. The advantage of the glycerine over the wati
that it is a greater solvent for freeing the diatoms from any extraneous dirl,
and that it will remain moist for any length of time. When the arrange-
ment is completed, the covering glass is gently pushed off the three pieces
of wax, and linnsfen'ed from the slide to the hot plate, when in a '
minutes the glycerine is evaporated. Put on another slide under the micro-
scope, & drop of beniole is placed on the diatoms, and whilst they an: being

.-CIENTtnC ^IMMAllV. lu?

1 by it, Rud nil &ir Jisplaccd, it little bal^m u di'npjied iot^ tllI^
pnp&red cell, when tbe cover h seized hj die forceps, lovurBed, and plficed
caicTullT on it, and the niountiog is completed in less time tbau it baa taken
tu tell the process.

7%c Xem ^toitffet. — ilt. Kent has contributed some interesting papers on
th« above to the "Uonlhlf Itlicroacopical Journal." UeadcTS of these urillfind
Dr. Uscnr Schmidt's new work Ml of inteiesting details anent the sponges
found in his recent dredgings. Some of Schmidt's drawings are indeed beauti-
fuL The work la almost folio in point of size, and is illustrated by six pUl«s,
which are unquestionably auperior to nloiost ftnytbing done in this country.
The memoir should be carefully read by those who are interested in the
nlg'cct.

Paamge nf tchilc Curpuedee ittrouffh thf Ji'iilU uf Veiieli. — This quesUon
would not appear to be decided yet, though there is much evidence in favour
nf their creeping- out. From the details of a paper by Col. l)r. Woodward,
in the " Monthly Microscopical Journal " for October, it would seem thst,
so far as the structure of the vascular nails and the passage of the white
corpuscles through them are concerned, the fnctd appear to be on tbe side
of Cohnheim. How, then, with regard to the doctrine of iutianimHtion
which he builds upon these fscU and upon his corneal studies ? Does the
cweping out of the white corpuscles constitute the essence of the inflani-
Diatory process ? Do these little movable masses of living protoplasm
furnish the gvmis for the elements of new formnlions ? Have pus-eor-
puscles no other origin? Are the processes which go on in the cells of the
mfl«uied tiaae purely ))asaive— mere phenomeuu uf i-etrogrady nietauiot^

Dr. Cai-jiailcr't Zii,/ Voi/agr. — Dr. Corpenler baa laid the results of \m
last voyage (,<' Malta, the Mediterranean, &c.") before the Koyal Society.
tbe papoi read was full of interesting details. It is not yet published, and
when it b we shall of course lay it before our readers. Several new species
have been found, and some ctirious facts about tbe distribution of animal
life hftTC been discovered. The copy of the proceedings containing the Pro-
Umois former paper extends over one hundred pages, The lirst part deals
with the apparatus, and it shows us that the author has paid attention lo
erea tbe most adverse criticism of his eiirlior voyage, and has on this occn-
aoo taken cnre to have all the apparatus constructed upon the most
thoroughly scientific principles. It is greatly to bo regretted, though, that
the electric sounding apparatus wns found not to work suHiciently well nt
wa to enable Dr. Carpenter and his assistants to employ ii. The details are
Etnnularly minute, and tbe appended reports by W. Lnnt Corjtentcr, B.A.,
B.Sc., Dr. Frankland. V.V.S., and Mr. David Forbes, F'R.I^., though short,
UG of on excellent character,

I'rilrhiir<r» Iiifinoriii. — A new edition is coming oLit, greatly improved.
.\t a Utc meeting of the Xew York Lyceum of Natural History, I'rofeSBor
T. Eglestou, ,)un., read a letter received from Ur, Eulensteiu, of Berlin,
speaking of his forthcoming revised edition of " Fritchnrd's Infusoria," and
vking f'.T contributions of specimens fur the purpose of furthering that
undertaking.

Si>m-itiiiy'g SjivtiViCiipv Tiiblm. — Thcso iiic oxcelleUl, mid iiroducuJ at a

108 rOPULAR SCIENCE REYIEW.

very low price. Each table is about the size of tbis joiirnal| and contains
seven or eight spectra, with the principal bands marked oat

Progress of Microscopical Science, — The work done during the past quarter
has been valuable, as will bo seen from the subjacent list of the articles con-
tributed to the three numbers (October, November, and December) of the
** Monthly Microscopical Journal." " The Patterns of Artificial Diatoms.*'
By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., Sec. R.M.S.— " On Ancient Watei^fleas of the
Ostracodous and Phyllopodous Tribes (Bivalved Entomostraca).*' By Pro-
fessor T. Kupert Jones, F.G.S. — ** On the Real Nature of Disease Grerms."
By Lionel S. Ikale, F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians,
and Physician to King*s College HospitaL — '* On the Histology of Minute
Blood-vessels." By Ijrevet Lieut. -Col. Woodward, AssisL-Surgeon UJ3.
Army. — " On the Formation of Microscopic Crystals in Closed Cells.*' By
A. W. Wills.—** The Ciliary Muscle and Crystalline Lens in Man." By
J. W. Ilulke, F.R.C.S., F.R.S. Part II.— "On the ' Hexactinellidae,* or
Hexradiate Spiculed Silicious Sponges taken in the * Noma * Expedition off
the Coast of Spain and Portugal. With Description of New Species, and
Revision of the Order." By W. Saville Kent, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., of the
Geological Department, British Museum. — *' On a Mode of Ascertaining the
Structure of the Scales of Thysanuradeo^." By Joseph Beck, F.R.M.S.,
F.R.A.S. — " On the Advancing Aplanatic Power of the Microscope, and
New Double-Star and Image Tests." By G. W. Royston-Pigott, MA.,
M.D. Cantab., M.R.C.P., F.C.P.S., F.R.A.S., &c. &c.— " A Few Remarks
on Dr. Bastian^s Papers on Spontaneous Generation." By Metcalfe Johnson,
M.R.C.S.E., Lancaster. — "American Microscopes and their Merits." By
Charles Stoddcr. — "On a New Anchoring Sponge, ' Dorvillia Agariciformis.'"
By W. Saville Kent, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., of the Geological Department,
British ^luseum. — " Ou Aplanatic Definition and Illumination, with Optical
Illustrations." By G. Royston-Pigott, M.D., M.A., &c.— " On Selecting
and Mounting Diatoms." By Captain Fred. II. Lang, President of the
Reading ^licroscopical Society. — "On Certain Cattle Plague Organisms."
By Boyd Mo^^s, F.R.C.S.— " Notes ou New Infusoria." By J. G. Tatem.

PHYSICS.

The Hoyal Society. — The annual meeting of the Fellows of this society
was held on November .'K), at Burlington House. The President, Lieut.-
General Sir Edward Sabine, K.C.B., &c., delivered the inaugural address,
in which he reviewed the progress which had been made in science during
the year. In closing his address Sir E. Sabine announced his intention not
to ofi'er liimself for re-election at the next anniversary, when, to quote his
words, he " will deliver over the chair, doubtless to a younger, it may well
bo to a worthier, occupant ; it can hiudly be to one having the welfare of
the Royal Society more warmly at heart" — a sentiment which was cor-
dially echoed by all present. The presentation of the medals followed : —
The Copley Medal was awarded to Mr. James Prescott Joule, F.R.S., for
his experimental researches on the dynamical theory of heat; a Royal

spresTiFic ^TMMAny. 10!)

Mtdil 1o Professor WiUiHin Ilnllowea Miller, Foft..i-ii St-er^lnrj U.M., (.a-
liit KteATCliee and writinga on minemli^y and crystnllogrnphj', and his
Kipntific Isboiin in the rL-Btoratian of the nittioaAl etandnrd of weij^ht; a
Itnjil Medal wi\s also nivnrded to Mr. Thomiis Daridjon, F.It.ti., for hia
irorb on the rtcent and fosail Brnchiopodft, more especinlly hia aeries of
moflogrtiph!! in the publications of the Pftlreontographieal Sodely ; tli«
Ilumford Medal to M. Alfred Olivier Des Cloizcuut. for hia reaenrchea in
miDenilogicn] optics.

TaoJ raring antl CiMiag- — At the nieeliog of the Literary nud Philoso-
phical Society of Manclieater on Noveoiher 15, Mr, Johnson, in an inCore^it-
ing paper, pointed out the ^nt adrniicea that hnve been mode in ihis
department of Inle. He Uniilly showed to the meeting some »pecimenB of
steel and iron parings isent to him by Me&^TB. Smith and Coventry,
mschinists, Salfnrd, and further rcraarlicd that tbcse parinf^s denionet rated
very clearly the capnbilitiea of the machines Bnd cutting tools of the
present day. One specimen, from a Bessemer sleel shaft, the result of
yring a cut Itbs of an inch deep by gihs of an inch traverse, was particu-
larly interesting on aecoiml of the form and site in which they, the paiing!:,
Ult the cutting Inn!*. The cuttinjr toob used in obtaining tlie speoimena
exhihited to the meeting were of a peculiar con si ruction, nnd possessed
tome marked advnntagea over those in ordinary use.

Xtaical Pilch.— ihe conductors of the " Society of jlrls Jounin! " have
adopted an excellent plan. They hare written to the musical department of
nfwly every European Slate, making enquiries as to the " pitch " ndoptcd
therein. The lettera returned have been most raliiable; and to render them
(till mon; so, their contents have been arranged under severa! heads in n
scbraie of clasrification, ki that by looking over two or three pages every
information eonceniing this point may be gained.

The FHtibilily n/ HaliHiim iii the Blowpipe. — Mr. W, Skey, analyst to the
OmlogicHl Survey of New Zealand, has a short note on thia pwnt in the
" Chemical News'' of Jlcc. 2. The metal platinum has hitherto been supposed
\i) be infumble, except at a temperature that ia so high as to be incapable of
Wng produced by Ihe common blowpipe. When he whs lately engaged in
studying the efiectd of tbo hot-blast blowpipe flnme, the results of which
iiiiestigntion Iiave already been communicated to the ^\'ellinglon I'hilo-
wphittil Society, he found it necessary to test, with accuracy, the degree of
fusibility of platina: and discovered that if the loss of heat fi'om the flame,
by conduction, was guarded against, platinum can be fused with nn ordinary
lilowpipe blast through a candle Same. The method odopted was to sub-
(litnte, for the metaHic nozzle generally employed, a tube of tlay or glnw,
cither of which is a feeble conductor of heat, as compared with metnls. Itv
tills mceim fine platinum points were fused in an unmistakable manner to
licads. The bloat wa4 that ordinarily used in the laboratory by the ii^e of
Ike hydrostatic blowpipe, the flame being that of a stearine cimdle.

Lulling and Siirrri/ in SiciUerlanii. — In iho " Archives des Sciences phy-
li^unH " (So, 4) MM. Hirach nnd Plautaniour give an important paper on
tkii snbject. The paper contains an interesting account of the labours of a
e of scientific men and engineers, who, acting upon the suggestion
nn international meeting held at Berlin in 1804, under the pre»-

HO poprLAR sriEsrE nEviEW.

doncy of Oenernl BAevei, set to vork tn exwut»,ia the tlelvetinn RepuUic,
» complete and reiy nccumte titking of lerela And miuuHring of ftltititdes
nbnye sea-lefel, and other geodesical Inbours. The obserrntory nt Betnv> it
situated at 573-14 mptrea above Bea-levcl ; the cathedral of Friboorg nt
588-66 metres ; the town-hall at Chauit-de-FondB at 080-35 raetrea.

I%jBe» at Cambridge. — We learn from a contempowiry that the dilficuUT of
proridin^; funds for the establish ment of a rrofessorship of Phiraical Science
in the Univeraty of Cambridge has been overcome by the college*, al a
lUMting of their bead». taking upon tbemselTes a quota of tbe rates for iin-
prorementB and other purposes in the town of Cambridge, which whs
formerly charged upon the University funds. This sum amounts to more
than twelve hundred pounds per annum ; so that the University will speedily
be able to avul itself of the munificent otTer of tbe Duke of Devonshire, nnd
will doubtless proceed at once to eatablisb a Professorship of Physical
Science, and obtain the other aids in tbe way of laboratory, apparatus, and
BSMstants, that tbe Professor may require.

Fhyticx at Ojford. — It is now slated that the Physical Laboratory lately
built nt Oxford is opened this term for ^iraetical instruction in phywcs, under
the fiupeiintendence of Professor P. I). Clifton, F.R.S., assisted by two
demonstrators.

Tie Laid of DitSlalvm.—lt is a fact that volntilily alone doeanot deler-
niine which of nuied liquids will distil over first. Quantity has something
to do with it. If the less volatile be in large eiccess, it tends to come over
with the other. But there is still another law. The comjiarative density of
the vapours produced alTccts the result, the denser vapour having a ten-
dency to be evolved in greater quanti^. Dr. ^'an der 'Weyde (bus closes a
recent paper : — "These facts prove that the amount of vapour developed from
liquids is regulated by volume and not by weight, or, in other words, that
of two liquids possessing the same boiling point, but of which the den.'iities
of the vapours diifer, the same volumes of vapours will evolve, asd that,
consequently, the liquid emitting the densest vapour will evaporate in larger
qusntity ; or that if there be two liquids of wbioh the boiling paints differ,
nnd that with the lowest boiling point poEseases the lightest vapoar, the
greater volume of the vapour generated from tbe ktter will produce leee
liquid after recondensntion than the lesser volume of the vspour evolved
from the less volatile liquid, the latter thus more than compensating tlie
former, and resulting iu the apparent anomaly that from a niixlui-e of two
liquids of difierent boiling points the least volatile mny sometimes distil
over in the largest quantity."

y/ie Laie* of Electric SaUrries.—},ir. 11. Ilighton contributes to the
" Chemical News," Dec. 3, some novel idea.s on the subject of electric bat-
teries. He is evidently working the subject nut in its right vein — dividing the
time duringwhich the battery acta into three periods. lie tbiw describes them,
(1) Tbe lime which it takes the electric force to traverse tbe circuit after it
is closed. This in ordintiry cases is iuiinitesiuial ; hut where the circuit I*
very long, and where there is much inductive la well as conductive resist-
tmce, as in tbe Atlantic telegraph, the time becomes very appreciable. But
he would remark that the expenditure of zinc during this first period ii
occupied in producing a state of tension in the conductor which, theoretically

BfTENTIFlC SrirWARV, HI

^^^^^^ forms n stnre of available foroe llint inny nfl^mnTiIs ho recavpri'il.
^^K There ia the period during which Iho magnet is pulling its keeper to
^Pmalf, oad is poaitiTelj doing ftctiinl work. Now, pnrodoxicttl as it luuy
' ' tttta, it is B fact that daring this period (No. 2J, while the magnet is doing
actual work, the intensity and the couaumption of zinc ia actually dimi-
d1>1im1, so tliat, in one sense, the more work done Ihe lops the fuel (so to
speak) which is consumed ia doing it. It is in this point that a galvanic
battery dillVrs from other machines which do witi'k. It is as if a horee,
wUeu he did work, ate actually leas food than when be wns idle, and wasted
l--sa muscle, or as if a locomotive consumed le!>s fuel whea in motion than
wheo at rest, (3) Then comes the third period, when Ihe keepet has heen
piilled home, and the weight is merely sustained. During this period no
sctual work is being done, and tie weight sustained only shows whst work
the magnet is capable of doing, and so serves as a measure of its potentiality,
and during this period (No. 3), slrnnge to say, more zinc ie consumed per
unit of time than while the work is being done. In practice, therefore, in
in electro-dynamic engine, period .t should be reduced to nH. Now break
the circuit. It there be a secondary wire ("as in a Huhmkorff coil) the
tension produced during the first period may bo utilised in some way by the
counter current produced in thus breaking the circuit, and the same series of
phenomena may then begin over again.

7%t FSIriu of ZiijaitU, mid Colicmon Fiijurcs. — In conneclion with this
matter, lb. Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S., has been making some interesting
experiments. Under date Nov. 'iA, he writes so account of the following
eEperimenta to the " Chemical News '* ; — A very strong solution of sodic
■alphate was boiled in a Urge flask and then filtered into six smnll flasks,
each of which was again boiled and set aside to cool, covered with n
walchglass. Some oil of citronella, diluted with two or three times
its volume of ether, was taken up in n straight dropping-tube furnished
with an india-rubber shield, as described in my mode of testing iM. .leannel's
eiperiment (eee "Chemical News," vol. xvi. p. 52). The watchglass
WM gently removed from the flask No. 1, and the dropping-tubo iusericd ;
»fter some niinules a drop fell from the tube, the ether in spreading over the
mface described its cohesion figure, and the solution crystallised imme-
diately. In Nos. i! to o the dropping-tube was lowered so as Ui deliver the
drop veiy gently, or it was allowed to trickle down the side of the Hask. In
two cases the elher evaporated and let! the oil on Ihe surface in minute
Itnses: there was no crystallisation even on gently shaking the solution. In
Nn, 4 a fihn was formed on the side of the fliutk ; on inclining it sn as to
bring the solution into contact with it, crystallisation set in. In No. a
lilni was formed on the surface, but on gently shaking the flask the solution
iKtnme solid.

Ihttf (>i the Air. — At the British Association Mr. C. It. Titehbomo gives
la account of his Inter experiments on the Ilublin atmosphere. His obwr-
lalioOB, so far as they go, seem to point to a curious phase of the subject —
thai is, that dust taken at a great height, and in such a poxition as in certain
^iperiments, should appear to have ns great, or greater activity, than that
Tchich would be obtained fi'om a building which is nightly crowded to suffb-
ntioo. This, in »ome measure, may bo du" to the eittreme levity of the

112 POPULMl SCIESCK liEVlEir.

spares, whicli are supposed to be the lire of the duat, aad which ligl
mny b« deecnbed as ahnost npproftchiiif; volatilitj. 'ITterc it, probahli/,

alliliifte of the majiminn of adidiij for nil lacalilif* at regard* dust,
light that even that obtained in an ordinary house contains a large poilioD
that refuses lo sink when thrown upon water ; and, even when the Tease]
is placed beneath on lur-pump, a large percentage floats. To him the actiriiy
of the dust taken from the top of the monument 134 feet high is something
mnrvelloiis — this source bo fur removed from the busy streets — yet its organie
matter contains what is capable of ariitting up, in a short time, hundred? of
times its own weight.

Meteoric Dust in Snoic. — Thia is a curious subject, but it has been Terr
well followed out by Herr D, lluaeman, who in the " Neuea Jahrbuch fiir
Pharmacie '' (September) gives an account of a reddish -coloured dust which
fell along with snow in the Swiss canton Du Vaud in tlie winter of 18(17.
According to a calculation, made from experiments and obserTntioDS con-
ducted with care, the quantity of duat fallen over the entire surface of the
canton amounted to about 1,500 tons. The author examined the dwt, as
well as the snow which had fallen ^mullnneously. The water yielded by
the snow contfuned a considerable quantity of sulphate of lime and organic
matter, both of which are absent in ordinary snow-water, at least in Switrer-
land, The microscopical inspection of the dust proTed it to contain minute
particles of mica, felspar, quarti, and variously shaped organic matter. After
having been dried at 100°, and ignited, the loss amounted to from 208 to
eren 24 per cent, for four diflerent asiays. The greater portion of this l(v<a
WHS due to the volatilisation of water, of ciyatallisation and constitution, but
nitrogenous organic matter was also found to be present. Of the residua
after ignition, about half was found to be soluble in hydrochloric acid.
This solution, which was only qualitatively tested, contained peroxide of
iron, lime, alumina, tnaguesia, and sulphuric ncid ; the portion insoluble in
acid, having been fused with n mixture of potassa and soda, was found to
contain, beude a large quantity of silica, also alumina, oxide of iron, and
lime. The dust, when treated with an acid, gave off carbonic acid la^ly.

Ga* and Gai-icorh. — A paper entitled '' loatruclions, Ilulea, and Begula-
tions concerning the Use of Oaa and the Inspection of Gaa-works, Oas-
meters, and Oaa-pipes, ordered to be observed by the Communal Authorities
of Karlsruhe" (liaden), which should be consulted by gas makers and
engineers, will bo found in the September number of the " Journal fiir Gas-
beleuchtung."

Experimcntt in Sub-periiwnetil Magueliiiii. — The following eiperioienta
are described in the " Chemical News " of November 25. The object of the
experiment is to produce, in a few minutes, what Dr. lyndalt has named sub-
permanent magnetism ; and thu-i represent to a class qmchly what is effected
by the earth thicly in soft iron lying in the magnetic meridian, and subject to
molecular disturbance from percus^on or other causes. The requi^tee for
the experiment arc — a block of cast iron (wrought iron might, perhaps, do)
slightly magnetised, a bit of soft iron wire, a hammer, and a magnetic
needle for testing tbo wire. Bypt. 1. Lay the iron wire on the blocf, and
hammer it lightly from end to end, for a few seconds. Presented to the
needle, the wire will be found mngnetlscd, showing distinctly strong ootth

SriKNTinc SfMSI.H

I in

I' Mtttti poles, pi'oduced by tb« south anil Doiili pi-lvs of the block.
f. 2, I'lftce the wiro i-ei-eraeil on Ihe block, i.e. Ifiy tbc north pole of the
bh the north pole of thn block, nud hnmraer ns before. Tested ogain
« DeedlOf the wire exkibiu its polos reversed. Kvpl. 3. Ijiy tbo wJrr
nExpL I., and lutmmor; Ihu original polarity ia reatorod. Finnlly, by
OBgjag the poMliou of the w'ae, the pole may bo changed imd rechnnged
wire! luatA This experiment would seem to repreaent well
k miignetisiiig action of the earth. The block personntes the earth with
I nugnetism, which is not less comporntiridy than that of the cost iron.
to remain for a conaidemble time lyin)^ on the block, it wonld
■ nugnetised. Tbo hammeriDg efi'ects this quklitf.

Oitimtmg nigh Temperatitre$ in LiqiaJe. — A very useful invention of
U. Coffey is now to be seen ia operation at Messrs. Doiilton nnd Wntls's, of
ubeth. It ia n new mode of obtaining high temperatures for the evapo-
n of liquids without the use of high pressure or superheated steam, and
n fact, a modiiicntion of the clTCulntiug' system, heated water being re-
d by heavy pdruffiue oils. These circulate exactly like water. A close
a being nitide, the oil heated in s coil of pipe placed in n furnace riaea
an ntr-tight tank, from which it run! through pipes and the jnckets
Bs^ descending as it cools to the coil of pipe in the furnace. With this
tutus a temperature of i]00° or 700° F. may be safely muntained with-
ft any of tbe risks arising from the U9« of ateam nt high preiisures, end, as
\l be easily seeu, vdtb a much less expenditure of fuel.
4 Sei»re TVrf fur a Lighlning-Bod. — According to a recent number of
** Do8t<>r) Journal of Chemistry," a powder magazine nt ^'enice, contmn-
jr S00,000 Lilogrummea of gunpowder (shout 300 tons) was struck by
pitiiin([ this eummer. Thoplatiuum point of the lightning-rod woa melted,
i the rod f^lit nnd twisted, but tbo electric charge was safely conducted
' e earth without doing nny other damage. That lightuing-rod may be
1 to have saved a city, for the e.iplosion of such a quantity of powder
nld hare laid ull Venice in ruins.

ZOOLOGY AXD CO.MPAIlATI\"E ANATOMT.

yeiAiMit to Daru'in'a 'Hieory of FerliJisation tftrorigh Insrd Agenri/.—At
3 Ameiricnn .Association for the Advancement of Science Mr. Tbomns
M^hon read a paper on this subject. Ho said that the discoveries of
Uorwin luul disclosed wonderful apparent arrangements for fertilisation
through insect agency ; but occivsinnolly instances wore found where, with
tlio most perfect fitcUilies, imiccls eeenied to make no use of them. These
tiod been eon«dered na objections to n full ncepptnnce of Mr. Darwin's
theories. The i^nlria was an instnncc. I'he lower division of the anther
d BB a petaloid lever, closing the throat of tbe corolla tube, which ouffht
■r tbe pollen on tbe back of the bee when it entered for the honoy. The
idplo WAS perfect. But no iiiiect is am to entoiv On the other bond, the
pnUo boo, " without which," Darwin snya, "some species would die out
■gland," bores a hole un the outside, through which it gets the honey.
I hamMo beo thus seems to avoid lis duties here. A umikr slat*
Kt— SO. XXiTIlI. 1

114 POPTLAH SCIESCE EETTEW.

of UiiDgs exists in the Peloniti of obt gaidens. The humlile bes extracts
Ihe bmej bj makiiig: s elit in the tube, and avoids int«rferGDC« with the
poUen. But Mr. Meeban fuund that these fltmers are the favourite reaort
of Sphinxes Mill other night motbs, which do extract tbo bone}' from the
month of the tobe, and thus croea fertiliae. It would thus eeem that plants
not only do as a role prefer fertilisation by insect agency, but probubly eome
cUases of flowers have their preferences for certain classes of insects. In
the ease of Sslvia, pn>bahly some insects peculiar to their native countries
fertilise Lhem ; eepedaUy is this probable, as in cultiTatioQ ibc Salvia pro-
dnwa vt-ry little seed.

A Kev Fima of Leah. — At ft late meeting of the Academy of Naturtl
Sdenoes, I'hiUdelpbia, Professor Leidy exhibited in a Teasel of water
numerous living specimens of a leech, which he sud was abundant in the
vicinity of Philadelpbia, but appears to be an undeseribed species. He had
Urst observed it in a pond, on the Delaware, near Beverly, Burlington Co,
N. J., from whicb he obt^ned tbc largest^ specimens. It was found es-
pedally beneath half-submei^d dead limbs of trees, sometimes between the
bark and wood, and in crevices and holes of the latter made by insects^ It
was also found in tbc Delaware and Schuylkill rivers near sboie, beneath
stones. In ditches below the city, and communi eating with the rivers men-
tioned, Bmnlter leeches, appureotly the young of the same, were frequent
between the leave sheaths of submerged stems of aquatic planis, such m
Ziamin nq'iaticn, ScirputJUiviarUU, Saijittaria, Spargimiiini, &c. When dis-
tntbed, the animal receded irom its position of rest, and swam rapidly like
the ordinary medicinal leech, Siruilo tkcoro. It appears to belong to a dif-
ferent genus from the latter, and approaches most in character A'epheiU,
thongh it even exhibits points nf difference &om this as ordinaiily described.
lie has given it the name of Nepkelis punctata.

Tin Hr-de-lanee of Martinique, — A remarkable instance of the develop-
ment of tbia species was recorded lately by Professor Cope, whocaUed attention
to a large spcdraen of a TriffonocepRalut, of which some fourteen inches were
enclosed in the cesophagua and stomach of a larger Ojyrrhupiu plumhtut.
The Hpccimens were from the island of St. Lucia, West Indies. He stated
that a speciea not distantly related to the latter (OphMtu getahu) was s^
to have n similar habit of devouring our native CrotaHda. The islands of
Martinique and Guadaloupc had become so infested with the fer-de-lance,
TrigoaorepUalm lanceolatus, as to be in porta almost uninhabitable, and
it was cbiefly on account of the danger from this venomous reptile that
collecting naturalists had of late years so seldom visited them. The annual
number of deaths in Martinique &om this cause was said to be very large.
Some means bad been adopted to check the increase of this pest, but with
small results. Professor Cope thought that, as the Oxyrrhopiu pbmibeHt
was very numerous in Venezuela and Brazil, and since it was very hormleea
and ensily procured, its introduction in In^e numbers into Martinique,
tec, would be a simple matter, and one probably to be attended with good
results in the diminution, at least, of this enemy of agriculture,— iVoc«rfiHy»
<if the Society of Xatarol Science at FAlUtilelphia,

The Anatomy of the Pmida. — At the meeting of the Zoological Society on
Nov. IB Profesaor Flower read a memoir on the anatomy of the Pandft

eCIESTIFIC SCMltAllV. 115

(AAum fiilgeiu), aa deduced from d Gpccimen of t\m animal wliich had
been presented to the iJociaty bj Dr. Simpson, in May 1800, and hnd lired
for some time in the Society's gardens. After aa ekbomlB evBmiuation of
evei7 part of this animal, Professor Flower came to the coneluaion that it
belonged to the Arctoidean group of the cnrnivoTes, and was most nearly
allied to the racoons and other members of the fiunilj Vroci/tmiiUf.

NiAet (ui TortoUci. — Dr. J. E. Gray, F.Ii.9,, with an energy which we
faacy few of our yuimger naturalists possess, teiul, at the Zoolngical Society
yia Nov. 1, no lesd than ax. conmiunicatians on various points connected
wiiJi the outuial history of tlie Testudinatn. The Sret of theeo contained
notes on tliKO tortoises living In the Society's g&i'dens, one of which was
btilieved to be new to science, and was proposed to bo called Tedtulo chihiiiin.
The second contained descriptions of two new species of Indian tortoises in
the coUection of Mr. T. C. Jerdon. The third related to the family Der-
matemt/^a, and embraced the description of a species of this group living in
th« Society's gardens. The fourth contained notes on a West African
river tortoise (Ct/clanoileiu genegalaisu), also living' in the Society's gardens.
The fifth contuned notes on Sartlettia, a. proposed new genua of &esh-watcr

tr^tetoiKB, belonging to the family Pellocephalidtf, and the sixth notes on the

^Bfaedet of Wtinodmmnyi, in the British Museum.

^^- Aitalojracal Charactrra of ZimpeU. — In the "American Naturalist" for

'^ Vorember Mr. Doll gave an account of the nnntouical characters of the
conical univalve mollushs generally known as limpets. These have been
divided by Gray and other naturalists into tvro orders, according as the
animal poseeswd one plume-shaped gill over the back of the neck, or a
cordon of lamellar gilis all around the body. Ilia recent investigation of
the anatomy of many species, principally from tlie American coasts, had
•L.jwn that the value of these distinctions was less tlian had been here-
tiifore supposed. Some of the limpets were shown to be entirely without
spedal giUs ; others possessed a. cervical plume-like gill, and also a cordon
of accessory gills, greatly varying in extent in the different genera. For
ibis reaeon he proposed to include them all in one order (named Docogloaa
by Dr. Troechel), subdividing it into two sections characterised by the total
abience, or by the presence, of gills, These aub-otders would respectively
bear the names ai AbriiHchiatit and Vroteo-hrimrhiata.

The Devtlopnunt of Diteina. — This subject has been weU studied by
riofeasor Edvrard S. Uoree. Referring to his former papers in the early
iiAges uf Terebratulina, and the evidence then adduced of the proofs of the
I'lcse relations existing between the Bracbiopoda and the Polyzoa, be said
lliat an examination of the early stages of Discina showed the same simple
lopbophore, sustaining a few cirri, the stomach hanging below, and other
features in which a resemblance was seen, The perivisceral wall is made
lip of two layers of muscular tibres which cross each other, giving it a reti-
rulated appearance. While the young shell is oval in shape there is marked
"Ut a perfectly circular area, indicating that at the outset the embryo pos-
■-^aes a circular plate above and below, The muscles were very large, and
occupied moat of the perivisceral cavity. The seta) fringing the mantle
weie very lung, those from the anterior margin being nearly three times
lie leogth of the shell. The mantle margin, the blood lacuncCj and the
nds of muscles to more the eetie, wei-e all described.

116

I'OPl'LAll M'iENTH ItEVIElV.

Salmmi !n J«;!aii.— The "Society of i\jts JDurnnl " Eavs ibat ^^^. Troai*,-
acting- consul at Ningatn, in !i report lliis fCAr to Sir II. Parker, aXuXm that
great quantities of salmon Hre caught in all tho riven of tliat province.
Besides in tlie Shinano-g'AWft, it Is found in tlie Aga-no-kawfl,]the jVraliawa,
and the Miomoto-gawa, ot Mutaknnii rivers to the north-east. Alight it
not be possible to introduce tho spfLwn into Tnemanin nnd New Zealand
from Japan more succesafiillj than baa yet been done from England P

Culkctioa af 1'eiitsiielan JBirds. — On November 15 a paper was read befuro
the Zoological Society by Messrs. Sclator and Salvin on the recent coUec-
lions of Venezuelan birds made by Mr. A. Qoerbg in the Ticinity of Merida.
The present collection was stated to embrace examples of 105 species, nina
of which were considered to be new to science. Amongst the latter were
two new parrots, proposed to be cnlled I'rochronm dUctiimmn and Ct^iiifHt
rjiodoccphohu.

The lielirtiont of Srwli{o}KiiU ami Tforin/i. — It seems unlikely that the
Itrncliiopods fihould be cin-iscd with the Annulr^^ yet th>>y have been ; and.
we are glad to see lliat nn American naturalist, Ur, Dall, placea the
Brnchiopods once more among the Mollusca. In doing so he referred to
several special points of structure, especially the peduncle of Lingula, de-
monstrating its construction to be annlogous to that of the uphona of bivalva
mollusks, such aa the common clam, Mj/a areaaria. He then described the
bristles of Linjpib, showing that they were quite different in consbwTtioiV'
from those of the worms, and also that the Chitons were (in some genera).
provided with true follicular seta;, proceeding from the mantle. Hence
these charactera cannot be held to afford snlisfftctury evidences of affinities
with Annelids. Mr. Dall then proceeded to discuss the theory of Mr,
Morse, that the Brochiopods were a eubdividon of the Annelids. Mr. Dnll
took the opposite view, and, says the "American Naturalist," while ad-
mitting all tho fact? brought forward by Mr. Slorse, and fully appreciating
the careful and thorough nature of his researches, contended on the other
hand timt these facts were susceptible of quite another interpretalion. Mr,
Dall then went ou to take up, one by one, the circulatory, nervous, muscular,
and dige.'^tive systems of the Brachiopoda, and to compare each with the
same organs in the Annelids and the Mollusks, and came to the concluNon
that the weight of structural characters was essentially of a MoUuscan
nature. The Mollusks were an individaaUsed type, while the jVnnelids, and
even most of the Articulates, were typi&ed by their repetition of similnT
organs. No such repetition obtains among the Brachiopoda. Mr. Dall was
of the opinion that the Molluscoidea should rank as one of two great primary
divisions of the Mollusca — one, the true Mollusks, typified by the Gastero-
poda, and second the SloUuacoidea, typified by the Brachiopoda. The second
dtviuon would include the Pnlyzoa, Tunicatn, nnd Brachiopoda; and Mr.
Uall was of the opinion that these groups were essentially related to one
another, and cannot be aeparnleil without violence to their oRinities.

The Cranmm in RejifiUn, Dntrachia, nail /'iV«jt.— Professor E. D. Cope
read a long paper before the American Asaociation on this subject. It is
reproduced, with the woodcuti, in the " American Natiuralist" fbr October.
It is a lengthy and important paper, and we do not do mote than refer to it
here, for it would be impossible to give any abstract of it whatsoever.

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lAiitis

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THE DISCOPHORES, OR LARGE MEDUSA.

Br THS Rev. THOMAS UINCKS, B.A.

[PLATK LXX,]

FEW things can be less attractive or suggestive of grace and
brilliancy than the great lumps of jelly which so often
-trew the beach at certain seasons of the year. Yet these are
■\i<; remains, sorely mangled in the rough collision between sea
^ lid shore, of some of the loveliest of Uving things. A jelly-
■.-U stranded, soiled by ita contact with the sand, mutilated by
lie rush of the angry waters, its cryBtalline lustre dimmed, its
>ivid colours faded, its rhythmical movement stilled, is an un-
(igbtly ruin. Swept in by the advancing tide, with no power of
^^p^^'ce; and left an inert mass upon the shore, it is the very
^■Hbof utter helplessness. But the Medusa, floating on the
^^Kface of a calm, clear sea beneath a summor sky, or gently
^Konie' onward by the rhythmical pulsations of its awimming-
' ^ell, its long fringe of slender filaments dependent from the
Oiatgin of its' crystal dome, and trailing after it in graceful
curves, is a model of exquisite form, and suggesta nothing but
liappy freedom and the very luxury of motion, as it rises and
talis in the yielding water. To the other elements of beauty
tliich characterise it, vivid and varied colouring must be

(added; the hyaline disc is often adorned with blue, yellow,
rose, purple, and other tints, while the fringes are also richly
We are not surprised to find that these beautiful creatures
togaged the attention of the ancients, and have always excited
'lie wonder of naturalists, if they have not always received very
intelligent treatment at their hands. The singularity of their
hinas, and the profusion in which they occur in all seas, were
•'He t« arouse curiosity at least, while the striking peculiarities
f their structure and mode of life have stimulated and baffled
—life research of the anatomist and physiologist. " All seas,"
npy MM. Peron and Lesueur, whose names are most honouraliLv
^TOL. I. — so. XX3JX K

118 FOPULAB SCIEXCE BEYIEW.

connected with the history of the tribe, ^^ produce various kinds
of these singular animals ; they live amidst the Arctic waters of
Spitzbergen, Grreenland, and Iceland; they swarm imder the
fires of the Equator, while the great Southern Ocean is rich in
numerous species. All maritime peoples appear to have known
them from the highest antiquity ; Philippides, Eupolis, Aristo-
phanes, and DiphiluB, before Aristotle, have mentioned them ;
and from the time of Pliny to our own days (the beginning of
the 19th century) more than one hundred and fifty writers of
all the nations of Europe have occupied themselves with their
history."* The true interpretation, however, of Medusan
structure and life has been reached since the French naturalists
wrote.

Aristotle, singling out a character which is by no means
imiversal, fixed upon the tribe thenameof sea-nettles(il(;a^Ace),
in conjunction with the Actiniae ; and it has clung to the Medusae
&om his time to the present. Many of the species, no doubt,
sting, and sting severely ; but many more seem to be destitute
of tibe power, or to possess it in a very slight degree. The
secretion of a poisonous or paralysing fluid, it may be re-
marked in passing, has an important relation to the diet of the
jelly-fish, enabling it to deal with creatures much higher in the
scale of being, and much more strongly built than itself. Other
popular names for the Medusae are founded on the phospho-
rescent properties which many of them manifest, and which form
so striking a feature of their history. To the Italians they are
" CandeUieri di viare ;" the Arabs call them ^^KandU el bahr^
{lucema marina). The resemblance between the rhythmical
pulsation of the disc and the respiratory movement has sug-
gested the designation of Pulmo marvnus^ or "sea-lungs,'*
while our own "jelly-fish" and its less refined equivalent
" sea-blubber," if not so poetical, are in their way as expressive
as any.f

But turning from names to the things themselves, the Disco-
phora constitute an Order of one of the two great branches into
which the Coelenterate sub-kingdom divides itself, the Hyd/rozoa.
It ranges alongside the Hydroid Zoophytes, as a parallel group;
and while the two divisions have their capital features in com-
mon, they are separated by a sufl&ciently broad line of structural
difference. The Hydroid includes within the compass of its
individuality two principal elements, a fixed alimentary zooid
or hydra, and a reproductive zooid, which is frequently or-
ganised for free and independent existence, on the Medusan

* '* Histoire g^ndrale des M^duses." Introduction.
t Other trivial names are " Gel^e de mer/' " Cbapeau marin'^ (Mediter-
ranean), ^ Boule de mer/' '' Capello di mare/' &c.

IIU

ttUlU IilHCOi'IlOliE:^, oa LAll
, bat also frequently maintains its eoimecHon with the
primitive stock in a less highly specialised form. So the Dis-
cophore has its two equivalent elements ; a fised polypite,
whose functions are merely nutritive and vegetative, and a
eexoal zooid, developed from the former by gemmation, in
which the Medusan structure reaches its highest grade, and
which always leads a free oceanic life, while discharging its
reproductive ftmctions. In both groups there are exceptional
genera in which the course of the life-history is modified by
the suppression of the fised element, and the Medusa is
developed directly from the o^'^un, and not as a bud on a hydi"a-
fbrm stock. Such forms, however, exhibit in each case the
closest affinity to those which are produced in a more normal
m anner, and should clearly take their place amongst them in
I ranks of the same division. In the two groups, then, the
meral plan of the life-history is identical, and there isa strik-
g similarity in many of the structural features. The differences
'1 be noticed when I come to describe the organisation of the
!Ophore in detail ; but one salient point of contrast may bo
lentioned at once. Amongst the Hydroid Zoophytes the
ttd vegetative element predominates ; the sesual members
if the colony, though sometimes tree and locomotive, aie in a
e number of cases as permanently attached to the parent
_ inism as the Bower to the plant, and where medusiform
»ids are present, they are comparatively small, incon-
Bicuoos, and of a lower structural grade. But amongst the
Mphores, the locomotive medusan element is altogether in
Re ascendant and reaches its culminating point ; the polypites
arc Hmall and insignificant, and of much the same pattern ; the
more highly specialised structure has gained upon the merely
vegetative ; and vagrancy, instead of plant-like fixity, is the
characteristic of the tribe.

l^et me first define more precisely the limits of the Order which
forms the subject of the present paper. The D-Ucophora em-
brace the large jelly-fishes (Plate LXX. fig, 10), or Swimining-
otypitea — to borrow the expressive German name— whether
iveloped directly from an egg or as buds from a hydra-like
)ck ; and also an aberrant group of fixed Medusa?, the Lucer-
triidcE, of which I shall have more to say hereafter. The
uly-fiBh is both the moat characteristic and the most familiar
1 under which the Discophore presents itself to us ; and I
', at once attempt to sketch the leading features of its
cture in plain as distinguished from technical language,
rely premising that in a large proportion of cases it is not
9 be regarded as in itself a perfect animal, but only as one
■nn of a life-series, which cannot be rightly interpreted alone.
KTbe feature which is most prominent and at once arreats

120 POPULAR SCIEKCE BE VIEW.

attention is the ample gelatinou? disc, the mass of " blubber,**
as it appears when cast upon the sands — the contractile bell, or
swimming-organ, of more or less transparency and most grace-
ful proportions, by whose rhythmical movement the living
Medusa is propell^ through the water. This is both the loco-
motive organ and the float on which are suspended the various
organs of prehension and digestion. It varies in form, though
scarcely in grace, but is commonly a glassy hemisphere with
lobed or sinuated margin, from which in many cases depend
a multitude of fringe-Uke filaments, or a smaller number of
long extensile arms (vide Plate LXX. fig. 10). These tentacular
appendages are sensitive feelers, cast about in all directions in
quest of prey, and also fishing-lines by means of which it is
arrested and dragged towards the mouth. In some species
they are present in enormous numbers, and are capable of ex-
trordinary elongation. The gigantic Oyancea arctica, which
sometimes attains a diameter of 7^ feet, has these organs dis-
posed in eight bunches round the margin of its disc — tangled
masses of interlacing threads, in constant motion, which can be ex-
tended to a length of more than 1 20 feet ! * When it is remem-
bered that this formidable offensive apparatus is endowed with
the power of stinging violently, that these extensile filaments,
which can be shot out to such amazing distances, are poison-
ous and paralyse as well as grasp, we may form some idea of
the terrors that wait upon this floating mass of jelly.

Sound the margin of the disc are ranged certain organs of
vision, which may be regarded as the equivalent of the eye in
more highly organised beings (Plate LXX. fig. 9a). Each of
them consists of a spherical cluster of lenses, borne on a peduncle,
and usually more or less protected by a hood-like covering.
Professor H. J. Clark, who has carefuUy studied the intimate
structure of these bodies — who has actually taken out the minute
lenses and turned them about, so as to trace the curvature of
the face — is of opinion that we have in them " all the elements
of an optical apparatus sufficient to produce a distinct image."
At any rate, there can be little doubt that they are light-
perceiving organs, and serve in some way or other to direct the
creature in its course. Agassiz remarks that "there can be no
doubt that these animals perceive what is going on about them,
and that they are very sensitive to changes in the condition of

the atmosphere Even accidental disturbances are perceived

by them, for when approached, however carefully, the change
of their course, or the unusual rapidity with which they sink,
show plainly that they are making the utmost efforts to escape.
.... When approached with a dip-net it is evident, from the

* A. Agasfliz, in his '' Catalogue of North- American Medusn."

THE DISCOFHOIIES, OB LARGE MEDUS.E. 121

acceleration of their movements, that they are attempting to
escape."

From the centre of the lower or concave surface of the disc —
the top of the domed cavity — is suspended the digestive sac, a
(omewhat four-eided, proboscia-like body, terminating in a
quadrau^lar mouth, which we readily recognise as a polypite,
in fipite of its disguise in the adaptive dress that fits it for a
locomotive existence. The angles of this mowth are extended
into lobate processes, often of very considerable length (Plate
LXX. fig. 10), which are hung with fringes and furbelows, and
forma striking feature of Lhe organism, projecting as they often
do 6ir beyond the opening of the swimming-bell. These aj^
pendages, which have been styled the " grasping arms," assist in
securing the prey and conveying it to the mouth. They also in
mme cases subserve another and very different purpose ; within
their ample folds, marsupial pouches are, as it were, extempo-
rised, in which the ova pass through certain stages of their
licvelopment, and ripea into the perfect embryo. At its upper
f.ttremity the pendent digestive sac opens into a somewhat
■xtensive cavity, from which a certain number of tubular pro-
liQgatious are given off, which penetrate the substance of tha
:i-c, and, after dividing, and in some cases sub-dividing, and
..uastomosing, so as to form a complicated vascular network,
terminate in a circular canal that runs round the disc a little
within the margin. Through these tubular offshoots of the
stomach, radiating through the inferior stratum of the swim-
ming-bell, its contents are at once distributed, and applied to
'he nutrition of the whole structure. They compare with the
>:utral channel, traversing all the ramifications of the common
tlcsh in the plant-like zoophyte, and communicating directly
'liih the stomachs of its multitudinous hydrse, by which the
prepared pabulum is conveyed throughout the length and
rireadth of it^ complex organism.

In close connection with the central cavity, just described as
^mmounting the digestive sac, and also with the radiating tubes
concerned in the circulation, are found certain pouches witbim
which the ovary and spermary are lodged. These pouches open
into the body-cavity, and the ova pass into it in due time, and
rind their way through the mouth to the marsupia prepared for
their reception during the further stages of their development.
The deeply-coloured reproductive organs show distinctly through
the transparent disc, and give rise to the cruciform figure which
ailoms the summit. So much may suffice in the way of struc-
tural detail. We have now the grand features of this organic
'rpe clearly before us." It is less easy to describe the various

■ I have unt rererred to the parliallj developed memhTanoMa ■^<s'i\ ■^ftii^
fea^iet fwroundg the margio of the diac, nor to the cmam&x

122 FOPUULX SCIENCE BETIXW.

beaaty of form ; to give an idea of the exquisite motion of the
bell, puliating vith rhythmical regularity, and, by its alternate
contraction and expansion, driving itself gently through the
vater ; or of its equally exquisite rest, as it floats, balloon-like,
upon the tranquil sur£iice ; to trace the curves of the flexile
tentacles, or to paint the delicate but vivid hues with
which the glas&>like fabric is tinted. Let us hear M. Lesson,
who, whatever may be his merits as a classifier, manifests the
true enthusiasm and sensibility of a naturalist in writing of his
favourite tribe: — -11 est peu d^animaux plus varies et plus
interes&ants a connaitre que les acalephes. ... lis rivalisent
avec les fleurs par Teclat de leurxx>loration. Souvent les gemmes
ne scintillent point avec plus d'eclat que certains d'entre eux.
. • • Vaguant solitaires ou par essaims de myriades d'indi-
vidus sur la surface des mers par le temps de calme, caches
lors des orages ou lorsque les vagues se heurtent ; et, cherchant
un refuge dans les couches d'eau plus paisibles, ils viennent
pendant la serenite des nuits emailler le bleu azure de la mer
par une phosphorescence vive et merveilleuse.'*

The distinguished naturalist, who, under the pseudonym of
Alfred Fredol, has given us so charming an accoimt of ^^ Le
Monde de la Mer," thus refers to the coloration of the Medusae:
^Sometimes the animal is colourless and of a transparency
almost equal to that of crystal ; sometimes it is slightly opaline,
of a delicate blue, or a pale rose colour. In some cases it pre-
sents the most vivid tints and the most brilliant iridescence.
In certain species, the central portions only are tinted red or
yellow, blue or violet ; the rest of the body is without colour."
These are suggestions of a beauty which really cannot be de-
scribed ; for, after all, it is colour suffusing the most exquisitely
delicate tissues, and in association with perfect grace of form
and motion that constitutes the charm of Uiese ocean-wanderers.

A word on the luminosity of the Medusae. The Discophora
are by no means principal agents in producing the phenomena
of phosphorescence. Certain kinds only are luminous in any
high degree, and thougli the large and brilliant ball is a strik-
ing feature in the general illumination, it must yield to the
myriads of NoctUuccB and other minute beings which enamel
the surface of the ocean " like little constellations fallen from
the skies," or cover the dark waves with soft yellow light, and

tentacles (P) which are grouped about the generative pouches, and constitute
a distinctive characteristic of the Discophora, because my object is to fix
attention upon the obvious peculiarities of the tribe, rather than upon structural
minutin?, however important.

• "Ilistoire naturelle des Zoophytes. Acalephes, par Ken6-Primev6re

■ THE DI5C0PHOBES, OR LARGE MKDUSJ!. 123

change tlie very foanj into "sparkles of sea-fire."* The JMe-
dasa represented in our plate (Pelagia cyaTieUa) is eminently
phoaphorescent. We owe some of the best observations we
posftese on the subject to Spallanzani, who had the opportunity
of studying a luminous species of Discophore on the coaet of
Sicily, and has given us in his " Travels " an interesting
account of the results which he obtained. He found that the
light was intermittent, sometimes continuing for a quarter of
an hour, half an hour, or more, and then being suddenly ex-
tjngiiished, and not reappearing for a considerable interval.
He was led to believe that the phosphorescence was manifested
strongly only so long as the Medusa oscillated iminterrupt«dly,
and faded when it passed into a state of rest. He also ascer-
tained that the light was more vivid during the contraction
than dnring the expansion of the disc, and that the principal
seat of it was the edge of the swimming-bell and the large
tentacles. Tliis localisation of the phosphorescence has been
noticed in many of the hydroid medusiform zooids. In one
speciea the light kindles in the central proboscis alone, and re-
sembles a little lamp suspended in a crystal globe. Amongst
the fixed polypites the phosphorescence is fitful in its mani-
festations ; they kindle their lights when irritated, and quench
them when left to themselves. Of the mode in which the
luminosity is produced, and its precise relation to the economy
of the animal, we know little or nothing.

The development of the Discophore is the next point which
claims our attention; and though the remarkable series of
first brought to light by the independent researches of Sars
Dalyell has Iwcome so familiar as to have lost much of

marvellous hue, the real interest of it is still fresh as ever; it
'stiU reads like a romance to the nninitiated, while the naturalist
has, perhaps, hardly fethomed its full significance. As I have
mentioned, there is some variation in the course of develop-
ment. I propose to follow the line which may be regarded as
normal and characteristic of the tribe, and in doing so to take
special note of the parallelism between the history of the Dis-
cophore and of the Hydroid, and also of the points of divergence.

The Medusa, then, as we have seen it, is fully equipped for
the discharge of the reproductive function ; and at the proper
season the laden ovaries yield up their contents, and the
embryos make their way from the generative chamber through
digestive cavity and its oml opening, and lodge themselves
it is hard to say) amongst the ample folds of the tenta-

• The plimae is Nathaniel Hawtborae's, who had the keenest eye for all tho
aspecla of iialure, and who thus describua the phoepboKScence, which lie
had witnessed I'rom the deck of a steamer otT the Americau coast.

\2i

rOPCLAIt SCIENCE REVIEW.

cular fiinges. There they complete their developi
fin&lly leave the parental shelter, as ciliated, free-swimming:
pltmuliB. (Plate LXX. fig. 1, the ovum; fig, 2, the embryo.'}
In this couiiition they bear an exact resemblance to the cor-
responding term of the Hydroid life-seriea. They appear a»
cylindrical bodies, thickly clothed with vibratile cilia, and
fiimished with a mouth at one extremity. After a term of free-
existence the planule selects a site for permanent settlement,*
and, having made a suitable choice, fixes itself by the pole of
the body opposite to that which bears the mouth, and ex-
changes its roving habit for a purely vegetative life {Plat©
LXX. fig. 3). Its shape and proportions have altered ; it is noir
narrowed below, and expands above ; the ciliary appendages
are still retained for a time, but they have lost their activity,
while around the extreme basal portion of the body, a very
delicate film of chitino is in some caaea soon developed (Plato
LXX. fig. 3(t). The presence of this homy sheath, which, ac-
cording to Agasaiz, ia only characteristic of some species, is &
very interesting point, as another feature common to the
DiscophorcB and the plant-like Hydroids, Aa development
proceeds the body lengthens, the cilia totally disappear, th©
upper portion becomes broad and somewhat clip-shaped, and
from its margin bud a nimiber of thread-like arms, while ia.
the midst of them rises a quadrangular proboscis, bearing tha
mouth on its summit. The product of the 5Iedufian egg now
appears as a well-developed polypite, the equivalent of the
primary zooid of the Hydroid colony (Plate LXX. fig. 4). Yet
with all the similarity between them, there is an element of
unlikeness too. The rather deep, cup-nhaped disc surrounding
the prominent proboscis of the Discophore suggests the swim-
ming-bell of the iledusa, and we feel that if it were turned
adrift, to float on the water, with the mouth downwards, it
would bear no alight family resemblance to its parent.f In
a word, the polypite of the fiiscophora has more of a Medusan
look than that of the Hydroids.

To pursue the history, the polypite multiplies the number
of its arms until they become a goodly company, corresponding
with the voracious appetite which it is their oEBce to aatiefy ;
they are very extensile, and when much elongated are like
threads of gossamer waving through the water. The mouth is

' This process of eelcctinn, ofUn conducted ivitli much apparent fasti-

diousoeas, may be witneflaed
generally ■

t It must be remembered that
tPQtacles connected by a web-like
in which the Etructunil elements
bvdm iclo the free meilu^nn or sexual

e of the embrjos of Used antmtih

e of the hydroid polypites have tha
mbrane, plninlir indicating the way
modified, ao as to convert the fixed

H TlIE DLSCOrHORE?, OR LARGE MEDrS.E. 125

a striklag feature of the organism ; it is kept in frequent mo-
tion, as if on the iratch for prey, and is often thrown wide open,
»-3 that every recess of the capacious stomach becomes visible.
The polypite is very protean in shape, and never long the same.
As it feeds and attains its full proportions, its vegetative
powers begin to manifest themselves ; young sprout from
%'arious parts of the body, as in the Hydra, and several gene-
■ ions are at times organically united ; long, thread-like
)t« are also cast ont, from which new polypites are devo-
id, and soon the primary zooid is the centre of an extensive
colony that baa literally grown out of its own substance.

But as the seasons change it enters upon a new phase of its
being ; the production of polypites like itself ceases, and a
new developmental process seta in. The body, which is now
large and cylindrical, begins to divide across ; hrst a constric-
tion a little below the tentacles, tJien another a little below
this (Plate LXX. fig. 5), then another, and so on till the whole
is partitioned into transverse segments, with the exception of
a small portion of the liase. The constrictions deepen ; each
eegment becomes more and more independent, while its margin
is cut into prominent, sinuated lobes, which show like
Mils on the surface of the now disintegrated body. In this
rtate the structure presents the appearance of a pile of circular
discs ; or we may compare it, with Agassiz, " to a string of lilac-
blossomB, such as the children make for necklaces in the spring."
But the polypite is not to lose its identity. Immediately
below the lowest segment a new circle of tentacles is developed
(Plate LXX. fig. Gx) ; about the same time the original set at
the topis absorbed and disappears;* the segments, now con-
nected by the slightest link, begin to manifest independent
vitality, and exhibit the contractile movements so charac-
teristic of the MedusiE. After a term of \'igorous struggles the
uppermost frees itself from its connection with the polypite,
and the rest soon follow. The basal portion, with its new wreath
tif arms, survives. The detached segments, reversing their
position in the water, present the pulsating disc of the Medusa,
»ith its lobed margin and circle of eyes, and take to the cus-
toms of free oceanic life (Plate LXX. figs. 8 and 9). Let us
pause for a moment to consider the significance of this course
of development. The polypite of the Discophore, after multi-
plying itself indefinitely by gemmation, proceeds to fulfil its
most important function in maturing certain highly specialised
reproductive buds, which it casts loose at a certain point of
their development, to lead an independent life and prepare
aod distribute the seed of new generations. We have a parallel

* Viin Beneden's " Polypes," pp. 80, 81.

126 POFULAB SCIENCE BEYJEW.

series of facts in the history of the Hydroid. The difference
lies simply in the mode of gemmation. The hydroid Medusa
buds from the side of the polypite, or of a special zooid, or of
some portion of the common flesh ; the Medusa of the Disco-
phore is a bud formed by the transverse division of the body
of the polypite. And it may be remarked that this vrvode of
budding is not altogether unknown amongst the Hydroids, for
the Hydra has been observed to multiply by transverse fission.
The marvel of the staid polypite resolving itself into a com-
pany of mercurial jelly-fishes disappears; like the plant, it
has only put forth its flower-buds, with the difierence that they
open into full bloom and mature their seed apart froTn, the
parent organism.

I shall now sum up briefly the chief points of difference
between the two Orders. Amongst the Discophores, the free
locomotive element predominates ; the fiixed plant-like element
amongst the Hydroids. The polypite of the formey makes
a nearer approach to the medusan form than that of the latter.
The sexual zooids {Med/aace) of the Discophores possess solid and
massive discs, with lobed margins and pedunculated eyes often
protected by hood-like coverings, and a complex anastomosing
system of vessels ; the opening is rarely provided with a veil,
and, when present, it is very slightly developed ; the tentacular
appendages of the mouth attain an extraordinary size, and the
reproductive organs are lodged in distinct chambers, coromu-
nicating by a definite orifice with the cavity of the body,
through which the embryos make their escape. On the other
hand, the free sexual members of the Hydroid colony are
comparatively small, and have fragile and filmy bells, pro-
vided with an ample veil ; the vessels are generally simple ; the
eyes sessile, unprotected, and of a humbler type ; the fur-
belowed oral appendages are wanting ; and the generative
products are lodged between the outer and inner wall of the
digestive sac or of the radiating vessels, and are liberated by
the rupture of the parts. And, lastly, the mode in which the
medusiform bodies originate and develop themselves differs
in the two divisions. Many of these distinctions have little
special significance ; and though there may be enough amongst
them to justify us in separating the two groups in our classifi-
cation, it must be remembered that the affinities are of the
closest and most intimate kind.

To resimie our history. The polypite having dismissed its
brood lives on. Thanks to its voracious appetite, it soon
repairs the waste of its substance, and in the following spring
may, so to speak, bud and blossom again. The young 5ledusae,
which are liberated in a very inmiature conditi jn, pass rapidly
through the further stages of their development ; so rapidly

■ THE DISCOPHORES, OB LAHGE UEDCS^E. 127

that in the course of a eliort season the minute slice of the
polypite has attained the extraordinary size and complexity of
the gigantic Cyancea, before referred to. Atl tlieir energies
arc devoted to the nutrition, protection, and dispei-sion of tlie
embryos ; and having accomplished thie work, they probably
fade and perish. They share the beauty, and the frailty and
transiency of the flower.

I shall now gather together some interesting particulars of
their habits and mode of life. Bom in the spring, they swarm
at this season in immense numbers near the shoro ; as the
summer advances, and they increase in size, they seem to
disperse themselves over the siu^'ace of the ocean, congrej^ating
again in autumn for the purpose of spawning. In warm,
«erene weather they keep near the surface, and "wander in
the luxury of light ; " in storms they sink to the safer
depths. Their niunbers are simply incalculable ; off our own
coasts they may be seen in immense shoals. Sailing from
Holyhead on a fine evening, 1 have seen the water of the
harbour so densely packed with them that the steamer almost
seemed to be cleaving its way through a solid mass. The works
of voyagers and travellers are full of marvellous accounts of
^e crowds of Medusae which they have encoimtered. Lesson
tells us that off the coast of Peru he met with millions of
indinduahi of a certain species, pressing closely one against the
other as they moved along, and all having the disc directed
towards the north ; the sea was perfectly calm. Dr. Colling-
wood describes a shoal in the Atlantic, "Just before sunset,"
he writes, " we parsed through them for a space of two hours,
during which time we had traversed ten miles. It was easy to
calcidate roughly that there could not be less than thirty
millions of individuals constituting the shoal — an estimate
probably far below the mark." We shall hardly be surprised at
their numbers, if we bear in mind the foots of their history.
Each polypite, by budding, multiplies itself to an amazing
extent, and so provides a large family, each one of which will
in due time produce its complement of Medusse ; and, further,
each one of the second generation multiplies in the same way,
and each one of many successive generations, before the
development of the Medusa-brood sets in. And of this vast
company, the ultimate product of a single zooid, each one that
snrvives may originate a dozen Medusae or more. Of such
myriads no census can be taken.

In autumn the Medusan tribes return from their oceanic
wanderings, and congregate near the shore. Massed together
in enormous shoals they discharge the embryos, which it has
lieen their function to mature, in the neighbourhood of the
littoral region in which thej are to find a home. Agaaaii. lias

128

POPITLAB SCIESCE REVIEW.

witnessed a shoal in the act of spawning. " Myriads of speci-
mens had clustered together so closely that they formed
unbroken mass. . . . They were in such a deep phalanx that
it was impossible to ascertain how far below the surface they
extended, while those in the uppermost layer were partially
forced out of the water by those below."

At this time their energies begin to fait ; the animal floweo
begin to fade, and the autumnal gales strew them on the
beach. Their work is accomplished ; but the cycle of new life
and development which they have originated is already pro-
ceeding in the neighbouring waters.

One or two curious peculiarities of habit may be noted.
A species has been observed which is nocturnal in its habits;
rarely seen by day, it swarms by night at the bottom of the
sea, and is recognised by its phosphorescent light as it moves
rapidly about. Another {Polyclonia frondoaa) has been ob-
served by Agassiz on the Florida reef, " groping in the coral
mud at the bottom of the water, where thousands upon thou- ,
sands may he seen crowded together. . . . They crawl about
like creeping animals, now and then only flapping their
umbrella." This custom, so different from the usual habit of
the Medusip, may connect itself with a peculiarity in the
structure of the mouth and oral appendages, and the absence of
the long marginal fishing-lines which characterise the section
of the Order to which the species belongs {ii/iijostontcte).
Other naturalists report that they have seen Medusa lying at
the bottom of the sea, with the arms turned upwards, expanded
like a flower. This, we may suppose, is their mode of resting.

The Discophores afford some curious instances of " commen-
salism," that is, the association of two animals for t]ie benefit of
one or both of them. Van Beneden mentions a Diledusa which
has a small fish as a permanent lodger within its body. The
fish sails out and returns at pleasure, but finds its home with
the Discophore. The fishermen off the coast of Jutland have
long observed that a quantity of young fishes are always found
beneath the disc of a large Cyanaxt, and sheltering amongst;
its long tentacles ; they only abandon their retreat when strong
and swift enough to protect themselves. Another Medusa
{PeUigia) is accompanied by a tribe of small fishes — sometimes
as many as twenty or thirty — which swim about in the fringes
of the oral appendages, finding there both safety from enemieft
and food. Dr. Collingwood found a small crab residing withia
the disc of a Medusa, where no doubt he had not only free
lodgings, but a share of the crumbs that fell from his host's
table. JI, Quoy and Gaimard observed a pteropod or winged
mollusc hving amongst the long tentacles of a Cyancea off tho
coast of New Holland. A crowd of small crabs and fishes had

THE DISCOPHORES, OR LARGE KEDVSM. 129

also found a refuge in the tangle of interlacing threads.
Commensalism, which is comparatively a new subject, Would
seem to have a wide range in the animal kingdom.

A few words may suflBce for the economic uses of the
Biscophores, which seem to be of the smallest. The old
doctors found healing virtues in them, and used them as
medicines, with probably as much success as many of their
dmgs. They have been carted as manure, in ignorance of the
fiict that the solid matter of a jelly-fish weighing many poimds
is represented, when the water is evaporated, by a few grains
of film. Somebody has undertaken to extract ammonia from
them ; and Mr. Arthur Adams has seen the Chinese ^^ cut off
huge slices of the firm translucent jelly" of a stranded
Oyancea as a relish for the evening meal.

Their best use, after all, is that to which the philosophic
naturalist puts them.*

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE LXX.

Fie. 1. The OTum of the Discophore, with germinal vesicle and spot.

f, 2. The pianola or embrjo.
'. I, S. The embryo attached — the cilia still remaining; a, the horny

sheath.
„ 4. The polypite.
„ 5. A polypite dividing transyersely.
„ 6. The same; showing the segments in a more advanced condition,

and already exhibiting a medusan form ; Xj the new wreath of

tentacles.
„ 7. The polypite bearing a single Medusa-bud ; the rest of the pile

having become free.
„ 8. The young Medusa shortly after detachment.
„ 9. The same, showing the lobes and eye*.
9 10. Pdagia cyaneUa (P^ron and Lesueur), adult This Medusa is

produced directly from the o^^ without the intervention of a

polypite stage.
ilgB. 6 and 8 are after Van Beneden ; the rest are after Agasoz.

* No space is left me for the aberrant group of Lucemariida, which are
/ictf Methua, producing their like without the intervention of a polypite.

130

THE ISSUES OF THE LATE ECLIPSE.

By J. CARPENTER, F.RA.S.,
Of the Rotal ObsebtatorT; Gbeehwich.

THE eclipse expeditions of December last differed remai
firom others that had preceded them. They di
favourably as regards the elaborate character of the meai
schemes of observation, and very un&vourably as regan
success of the observers' intentions. Upon the occasion <
first eclipse expedition, that of 1851, every observer went
liis own account to see what he could, without forekno^i
of what he would see, and without ideas upon the ult
l)earing of any observations he might have the good fortu
make. How successful the expeditionists were in viewin
phenomena may be judged from the fact that nearly a sc<
accounts of observations were given in the "Astronon
Nachrichten," from astronomers of repute located alon
line of totality (which crossed Sweden and Norway), wh
many more were included in a special volume of the '' Tra
tions of the Boyal Astronomical Society." In the second
dition — that for obser\'ation of the eclipse of July 18, 1(
there was again a general vagueness of intentions : eve
was to observe what he could for himself ; what little org
tion was called for was discussed on board the Himcda
her way to Spain. And how fortunate the observers we
this occasion is known to those who have had to refer to e
literatiure, and who have found records of bewildering e
of the observations made on that propitious day. How
rently matters stood in relation to the last eclipse ! Ther

I but one subject of inquiry — the constitution of the cc

There were distinct points by which the question was
attacked, and every observer had allotted to him a de
part of a well-considered scheme of observations. Inste;
|j| one man aiming to explain the whole phenomena of an e<

by himself, as on previous occasions, every man was entr
w^*^ » link in the chain of inquiry. The gazer W3

TlIE ISSUES OF THE LATE BCLITSE. 131

sketch, the polariser was to study poiDts precisely indicated,
ilie Bpectroscopist the same, and the photographer was to expoBe
bis platts so as to soize upon critical appearances. These were
the duties of principals ; subordinate labours were as definitely
rronged. Never before had there been so extensive and de-
■nninate an organisation; and it is quite conceivable that,
Liad the weather favoured the observers, the one outstanding
onigma of eclipse phenomena would have been so nearly solved
that future eclipses would have possessed little interest for
astronomers — ameasiu^ of success the desirability of which may
perhaps be questioned.

But this was not to be. Ill fortune met the observers at
every turn. Deaf ears were turned to their prayers for (Jovem-
ment aid ; dela^ were forced upon them ; one party was ship-
wrecked, and another nearly so ; one detachment of which
the present writer was a member, had their observing tents
and telescopes blown down by a gale, and their most valuable
iiWtrumente saved from utter ruin as it were by a miracle ; and,
vwO, of all, the heavens frowned upon most of the expeditionists
on the eventful day. And it is a curious, though an indgnlfi-
cant circumstance, that the weather misfortunes which befell
the English observers scarcely affected their American confede-
ntes. Bnt the few French and CJermau astronomers who
attempted observations were all unsuccessful. M. Janssen
ind&ed deserves a martyr's fame. He escaped from Paris in a
balloon, taking with him a silvered glass reflector of 13
iocbee aperture, and a small spectroscope, and landed at Savemay,
vboice he pushed on to Oran, arriving there some ten days
bafore the eclipse and living like a hermit the while at lus
ehserving station, nine miles from the town, in a desolate and
fe imiKanfortable barrack : and all to no effect.
^M Vbe dLstribution of observing parties along the line of
^Bdllit^ and their measures of success were as follows : —

^ In Spais,

AtCa^ Lord Lindsay's ^aitj .... successful

BmAnUmio P^slish expedition deUchment (-""der) ^j ^^^^^

1 the Itev. S. J. Perry) . , )

XeKS AmericftD party (under Professor Wiolock) successM

Gibnltar

1 English pEpedition detachments (under J . ■_,■!• ^
Captain Pnrsons) ... 1 ';^^°

In Afeica.

(Enfrligh expedition defacliment (under*
I'r. Ilugpins). French obserrers, Jane- [■ no euccesa
Ken and Uukrd .... J
Vienna observers (Diu WeisanndOppolzer) no auccesa

132 POPULAB SCIENCE BETIEir.

Lt Sicily.

. _ (Italian commissioii (ProfesBor Denza)

AtTerranora | a^dothem) .... | P«tul 8iicce«

Carlentini l^^;?*^ ^^^^" (Profeaaor Watson |^^^
( andothere) .... j »»*««»»»"

r American observers (Professors Haik-) _^ ,
J ness and Eastman) . . . | pwtial sncoess
Syracuse • j^^^^^ expedition detachment (Mr. j g^^^^^^ggf^

' Brothers) )

ritalian Commission (Padre Secchi and^

Augusta - English detachment (under Professor [*^^^

, W. G. Adams) .... J
Villamonda English detachment (under Mr. Ranjard) successful
Catania English detachment (under Mr. Lockrer) no success

i?x- (English detachment (under Professor) ^^ ^^

^^ 1 Boscoe) ..... ["<>•««*"

In this tabulation the ill fortunes of the English observers
are plainly apparent. Yet so far as securing observations is
concerned there has been a good deal of success, and in the end
it matters little who achieved it. How fer the observations
will go in settling the questions at issue we shall presently
endeavour to examine.

But, in the meantime, let us remember that a solar eclipse is
an occasion for observations other than those relating to the
sun's constitution and surroundings. WTien the moon passes
between us and the sun, and appears as a black body on his
disc, an opportimity is offered of making a determination of
the moon's place at a critical part of her orbit. Ordinarily we
cannot see the moon for a day or two on either side of conjunc-
tion, and the observations which are desirable for determining
the errors of her predicted positions at such times are there-
fore wanting. The continuity of the watch which is kept upon
the moon's intricate motions at a great observatory — Grreenwich,
for instance — is broken at this period of every lunation, except
when an eclipse is visible from the observatory, and then the
black moon can be observed upon the sun just as the bright
moon is observed upon the sky. In less accurate times than
the present this observation was simply made by noting the
instants of beginning and ending of the eclipse ; but there is
so much uncertainty, depending chiefly upon the dimensions
of the instruments employed, in noting these instants, that the
data thus procured are rarely made use of.* Occasionally an old

* Amateurs often betray great anxiety to secure the accurate times of

first and last contacts in observing solar eclipses (the late eclipse offered

' instances). Under the hest of circumstances those times are of

■ TUB ISSrES OF Tlli: LAT£ ECLIPSE. 133

AcUpBe observation is available for iising the moon's approxi-
mate place in the absence of better material, such as meridian
determinations. An instance of such application presented
itself a few months since, when Professor Newcomb, wishing to
ascert^Q how, within wide limits of error, the present lunar
tables represented the moon's place a century and a half ago,
resorted to the contacts in the eclipse of 1715 observed by
l-lamsteed, Halley, and Poimd. Such rough observations would
be of little avail now.

In order to extract useful data from the passage of the moon
over the sun, the Astronomer Royal some years since devised a
plan of measuring the cusps in their changing positions through-
out an eclipse in such a manner as to bring out the errors of
all the numerical elements concerned in the prediction of the
phenomenon, the most important of which are the co-ordinates
of the moon's position. This method was first put in operation
in 1836, and again, with great instrumental power, during the
eclipse of July 18, I860, when the deduced errors of the
" tabular places "—as the places predicted by calculation are
called — were found to agree closely with those exhibited by
observations of the moon which were procurable in the ordinary
manner near to the time of conjunction, though there is neces-
sarily a small in comparability from the virtual difference be-
tween the black moon on the bright aun, and the bright moon
on the black sky ; the effects of irradiation being reversed in
the two conditions. These observations were repeated at
Greenwich during the eclipse under notice, and with a similar
resulting agreement between the observed and calculated data-
It will be obvious that they do not require the eclipse to be
total at the place of obser\'ation. One distinguished mathe-
natical astronomer, however. Professor Newcomb, who is under-
stood to be engaged upon the construction of new tables of the
moon's motions, thought it desirable to make the cusp-measures
dinctly upon the line of totality, and he came from the United
Slates for the sole purpose of so making them. He stationed
himself at Gibraltar, and saw enough of the eclipse in its partial
itagee (the total phase had no scientific interest for him) to
■eeoje what observations he desired. But he was baulked in
another way. His measurements would be of no use without
a very exact knowledge of the longitude of his station from a
fixed observatory, or from Greenwich ; without this, an essential
datam, the astronomical time at which each was taken could
iifit be obtained. Preparations of somewhat elaborate cliaracter
■HTe made to determine this longitude by the method of

'Utle value ; and thej are quite useleM where the loDgritude of the ob-
-tning etiitjoQ U not very exactly known, as u often the com.
TOL. I. — SO. SXSlx. L

134

POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.

jb : ^^^9
r to retuml
accurate It

exclianging accurate time-signals by electric telegraph
wicb wae to give its time to Gibraltar, and Gibraltiir
its time to Greenwich ; Gibraltar local time being accurately
determined at Professor Newcomb'a temporary observatory.
This exchange was to be made on several days before and sfler
the eclipse through the medium of the Falmouth and Gibraltar
cable, but, as may be remembered, the cable broke early is
December, and it was not repaired till long after Professor
Newcomb had left the Rock. His observations are consequently
useless until another opportunity offers for effecting the longi-
tude determination : then they can be made available.

The eclipse has therefore been of some import to metrical
astronomy. Let us now take a glance at the materials which
have been gleaned from it towards a solution of the physical
questions at issue at the time of its occurrence, and to which
it was appealed to decide. Of the pheDomena revealed when
the moon hides the photosphere of the sun, the cojwia only
remains enigmatical, Baily's heads were long ago explained
out of interest, and the red prominences now no longer need
an eclipse to bring them under study. The object the most
striking and the most anciently remarked " is still the most
bewildering. At tlie time of the eclipse four modes of obser-
vation were at hand to resolve the mystery of its nature. First,
eye-sketches, with or without telescopic aid, to decide whether
the corona is similarly depicted by olBervers near together and
for apart. Second, photographic pictures, which would give.
the aspect of the corona free from personality (though they
may include subjective appearances of photo-chemi^ cha-
ra(^r). Third, spectroscopy, to determine the gaseous or
incandescent solid condition of the original aource of the
coronal light. Fourth, polariscopy, which it was hoped would
show whether that source is in the corona itself or apart from

* Dr. Schmidt, of Athena, calls attention to tbe foUowiDg account of ul
eclipse seen st Corfa in a.d. 008, in which the corona b very clearly de-
scribed : — "Leon, the deacon, reports Mxaa concerning the eclipse. 'The
nppeBTOnce of the eclipse was of this nature ; December was canning on its
Wai day, and in the fourth hour of the day, the aby being clear, darknoM
coyered the earth, and the brightest Htara appeared ; and it was poaaibla to sea
the di°c of theaun obscure and without brightneaa, but with a certain radiance,
faint and pale, in the manner of a fine baud shining' ia a circle round the
disc along its outer edge : and the sun, overlapping the moon a little (for
she appeared directly intercepting him), sent out its own rays and hlled the
earth with light.'" The date curiously coinwdes with that of the laat
eclipse, though it is Old; Style reckoniog. The appearance of the stars
seems to prove that the eclipse was toM : it ia marked so In the nliabis
list of Eclipses given in the Ari de Virifi^ let Sates de» Faiti JIutorigue*.

^m TAB issnzs of the late eclitse. 135

it; io otber words, whether the coronal glow shines by its own
or by reflected light.

We will briefly review the results obtained by each of these
methods. And, first, with regard to the eye-sketches.

A feir" number of these, all made, however, at the Spanish
end of the shadow-path, have como under our notice, some by
artiste of pretension, others by draughtsmen of no pretension :
and very different are the impressions which these varioiia draw-
ings convey. Clearly, the corona has made greatly varying images
upon retiuie of different eyes, or, what is perhaps more likely,
[he draughtsmen have considerably varied in their powers of
conveying their impressions to paper." Some drawings show
■.\ tolerably uniform circle of light, fading equably into the
purrounding darkness. Such pictures admit of little inference
l-eing drawn from them. Others, on the contrary, ediibit
definite points of structure, and where these are apparent in
depictions of different observers, we can scarcely doubt the
reality of their existence. The tendency of the corona to a
nmghly quadrangular contour is one feature thus certified ;
the existence of a definite zone of bright light (which observers
■if previous eclipses have noted) ia another ; and it has been
Ingested that this be named the leucoaphere. But perhaps
ill- most remarkable appearance is that of a V-shaped ri^ in
i\ie south-eastern part of the broad coronal haze ; and as this is
exhibited in several of the drawings, there can be no doubt
about it« real existence in the corona itself. Another notable
feature is presented in three drawings, made by an American
olaerver in Spain, one at the beginning of totality, another in
the middle, and a third near the end of totality. In the first
of these we see the greatest width of coronal light on the ad-
vancing side of the moon ; in the second an equal width all
Uonnd the moon ; and in the third an excess on the following
tide of the moon ; the whole series suggesting that the moon
. I scted like a moving shutter intercepting the back-light first

* It is probable that luucb difference maj' sfiee from the mere materials
if dtawing and the fltnesB of Ihese for the subject. To reproduce a hary
iil^ect like ihe corona, the worst thing to commence with is a ahevt of white
ptper, eren if it has a black disc printed upon it to represent the moon.
Upm flueh a tablet great diliiaulty will orira ia working the black sky with
Aenquirite aoftneas around the outor indefinite boundary of the hazj circle,
*?peda]Iy if itructural details have at tbe same time to be exhibited. It is
.:i struggling against this difficulty with diverse materials— pencil, chalk,
■iit^r-coluui — that such atrnngelj dis^milar efft^cts are produced, Tbe beat
'uij far reproducing the corona rspidl; and effectively would be a sheet of
'^k gray paper, with a black circle for the raoon'a disc ; and the drawing
niitoial fihoald be white chalk, which, upon the grey ground, will produce
lilt deeinid vflects at once with nnv degree of softness o; ' " '

PGPCXAR KTZ5CB KEVIET.

136

oa one side, then on the oiber, fnnii some reflective mat)
froQt of the ehutter. This is the prima, facie idea con-
veyed ; it is not tu be taken as a proffered explanation of the
appearance, though it agrees with Oudemans' thconf of the
coronal beams. Such a transfer of coronal light from one side
of the black moon to the other has been depicted before,
notably by Professor Flan tamo ur, in his drawings of the
eclipse of 16G0, July IS, and it led the Astronomer Royal to
suggest a cauEc with which Otidemans' theory is in accordance.
Of the photographs secured, three have been exhibited as

bearing upon the questions at issue — one taken by Lord
Lindsay, in Spain, at the comracncement of totality, which is
remarkable as exhibiting an excess of corona on the advancing
side of the moon, and therefore corroborating the American
observer's drawing above noticed ; a second obtained by the
American party at Xerea, and a third secured by Mr. Brothers
at Syracuse. Now, these two last-mentioned photographs are

* From « woodcut lent by Jlessra. XaemiilBn. The top represents the
north. In vivTCinif tliis picture tegiad must be hftd to llie impossibility of
n'pnxlufirig in r wowdcut the softness of u pliologmpb.

THE ISSVES or TEE LATE ECLIPSE. 137

Itie most important achievemeuta of the ivhole eclipse opera-
tions. The American one was taken with a siK-inch object-glass
currected for actinic raya ; the Syracuse one with a photographic
copying lens, four inches iu diatueter, of course mounted equa-
torially. In the latter there is an extent of corona wider than
any other photograph has shown, wider even than that in the
(orresponding American photograph. No doubt this extension in
<lue to the amallness and consequent brightness of the image, for
the exposure was only eight seconds, while the American plate
«as exposed a minute and a half.* Taken alone, Sir. Brothers'
picture is exceedingly valuable ; upon one aide, for about 120
<l^;r6M of the moon's circumference, it shows a spreading of
tho eorooal light to two diameters of the moon ; in the south-
'■ast part there is the conspicuous rift alluded te as shown by
Hie drawings made in Spain ; and there are two other less con-
picuou^ rifts, one about 40 degrees (measured on the moon's
■ircnmference) upwards towards the east of the great one, and
tbe other about 60 degrees away to the south. The bright
liucoephere is plainly indicated, and a tendency to streaming
MV* uot perfectly radial is decidedly perceptible, even in an
■ihiigtd and therefore depreciated copy. But the great value
! t hi.-i picture comes out when it is magnified to equal size and
rajiJiriMl with the American one taken at Xeres. Then it is
.■■en that in the main features, especially the conspicuous rifts,
iha two are almost identical. Slight differences can be made
"lit in the positions of some rather indefinitely-marked portions
f( the coronal boundary, but on the whole the agreement is
v-jndt'rfully close. Now, when it is remembered that these
picturex were taken at points on the earth's surface 1,100 miles
^port, and that one was taken in absolute time 45 minut«s after
'liB oilier, it is perfectly clear that so much of the corona as is
iinmon to the two photographs is cosmlcal and not atmo-
I'lieric. This is a great point established. And yet those self-
ilniwn portraits of the corona open out wide fields for specula-
liLia. What are we to infer from the wedge-shaped rifts?
Tliey Beem to deny the possibility of the outer corona being
Miything like a cosmical cloud uear to the moon, on either side,
(■■r in that case the moon's motion should have aflected them.
If they were caused hy the shadows of lunar mountains cast
upon a sub-lunar mist, in accordance with Oudemans' theory,
the motion aforesaid ought to have modified them considerably

* la the AmericnD picture there is some nppeamice of the outer coronal
ii::hl bntiog been vat oS ea by b diaphragm in the telescope. Structural
n< lula are reported to exist in the origioal ne^tive, which, from cautes
I'.L'it will be obviouft to a photographer, are not reproduced in M enlarged
(I pj sucfa aa that which we have before ua.

138 FOPULAB SCnSKCE B£VIEW.

during the long exposure of the American n^ative, and the
photographed effects of their alteration would have made that
picture differ greatly firom the one obtained by Mr. Brothers,
which had a very brief exposure. And their appearance is in-
compatible with the supposition of a cosmical cloud near to,
though not connected with, the sun ; for in that case, why
should the rifts maintain a nearly radial position ? And if we
conceive the corona to be a solar envelope, we cannot r^ard
the gaps as conical openings therein: they must be looked
upon as valleys of great extent in the direction of our line of
sight. They rather indicate vacant spaces between groups of
radiant streamers of liuninous or illuminated matter ; and this
interpretation may well be put upon them by those who have
been arguing upon the analogy of the corona to terrestrial
aurorce and its possible connection therewith — ^a £eiscinating
subject upon which one would be disposed to dwell if the
identity of the coronal with the auroral spectrum lines were
less doubtfully established.

The spectroscopic results from the eclipse are tolerably
nimierous. The chief point of interest in them is the ample
verification of the existence of the green (iron ?) line corres-
ponding to " 1 474 " of Kirchoff 's scale, not only in the spectrum
of the leucosphere, but in the far outlying regions of the
corona. Professor Harkness, at Syracuse, saw the line in all
parts as £Eur as !(/ from the moon (or sim), and suspected two
other green lines less refirangible. Mr. Burton, at Augusta,
saw the line also. Professor SVinlock, at Xeres, saw it every-
where for 20', or two-thirds the solar diameter, around the sun.
Professor Young, also at Xeres, found it half a diameter off.
Carpmael, at Estepona, saw three lines, one of which is
doubtless the " 1474 ;" we mav well infer the same of one of
two lines seen by Professor Denza, in Sicily. And we can
scarcely doubt that one of those seen by Captain Jl^Iaclear at
San Antonio was also the now fkmous line ; and if so it was,
with others (c, n, and f), seen faintly on the Tnoona disc^ thus
clearly indicating reflection in our own atmosphere or in some
mediimi between us and the moon. It is thus rendered almost
certain that some of the distant coronal haze is reflected light,
and this Wew is strengthened by the fiicts that Harkness saw a
comploto liydrogen spectmm when no prominence was near his
slit, and that Young saw the c-line far above any possible
hydrv>^^n atmosphere.

Enou^rh of observations have probablv been secured to fix

mdulutably the position of the ^^ 1 474 ^^ "line. If more infer-

■"«*on 13 needed, it would be worth while to try if it can-

"• ^»oeured from the moon. A spectator upon our satellite

^^^f**^ would see the corona peep above his horizon some

TUE ISSUES OF THE LATE ECLIFSE. 13!>

time before the appearance of the actual limb of Iho aiin, and
at sunset he would see the corona linger after the sinking of
tlie solar disc. The lunar surface must at sunrise and sunset
be illuminated by a cai-o-nal twUigJd, wliich will be of consider-
able duration on account of the moon's slow rotation. It 18
therefore possible that if the faint light seen upon the moon's
terminator (the boundary zone of light and darkness) .were
analysed by the spectroscope it would reveal the coronal lines.
At all events, the experiment would be worth trying, and there
are abundant opportunities for it. The position of the " 1 474"
line, with respect to lines of known substances, may thus be
deliberately determined, and some more reliable evidence ob-
tained to aid a judgment whether it belongs to a new element
— as Professor Young has suggested, some occluded gas, perhaps
standing in relation to the magnetic powers of iron of whose
spectrum the line is apparently a part — or whether it may be
due to iron in any uncommon form or condition.

Reverting to the immediate results of the late eclipse, we
remark that a faint continuous spectrum of the corona, without
visible dark lines", was noted by several observers, among whom
were Lieutenant Brown, Captain Maclear, and Professor Win-
lock, and that a highly interesting observation, not relating to
the corona, however, was made by Professor Young. At the
commencement of the totality he saw for an instant the whole
of the P'raiinhofer lines of the solar spectrum reversed, and the
field of his spectroscope fi,Ued with bright linee. Ho musk
Ihen have caught a glimpse of the stratum of burning elements
that lays immediately above the photosphere — an observation
made once, and once only, by Lockyer, without an eclipse.

The polarlscopic observations confirm those with the spectro-
scope which indicate that a part of the coronal light is reflected,
though they leave open the question whether that reflection
occurs in or beyond our atmosphere. Professors Pickering and
Lazigley are reported to have found that a considerable propor-
tion of the light is polai-ised, and in a radial direction ; the
lirst-named observer obtaining the same results with three
forma of polariscope. Professor Blasema, observing in Sicily,
asserts that the corona was strongly polarised, the only doubt
with him being as to whether the phtne was radial to the sun
or tangential. Mr. Ranyard, at Villamonda, made three ob-
servations, two of which showed what was expected to be
..hserved in the case of radial polarisation. Mr. Pierce, jun.,
Li-rived at a similar result, and so did Mr. Ladd. Mr. Sarauel-
-un, observing not upon the corona but upon the sky, first, far
on one side of the sim, and then far below it, found vertical
polarisation.
It would be difficult at the present time to define the precise

140 POPULAB SCIENCE BEYIKW.

points upon which our knowledge of the sun and its surround-
ings has been advanced by this particular eclipse. It has been
rendered tolerably certain that there is around the sun a self-
luminous shell (the leu(k)8phere), extending upon an average a
sixth of his diameter beyond the hydrogen atmosphere, the
principal constituent of which shell is that unascertained
matter which gives the ^^ 1474" line ; and that although this shell
is self-luminous, it yet reflects some light from the brilliant
strata beneath it. In the second place, it appears probable
that there is a great extension, irregular in character and with
a tendency to radiality, of matter which has either self-lumi-
nosity of the same kind as the leucosphere, though more feeble,
or that has a special aptitude for reflecting leucospheric light.
In the third place, it is pretty certain that there is a consider-
able scattering of all light not intercepted by the moon in and
by some medium on this side of that body — either our atmo-
sphere or a cosmical haze. This is as much as can be safely
said upon the strength of the evidence now before us. More
may possibly be inferred when a searching examination of the
complete and detailed observations (which the Astronomer
Boyal has suggested should be made in connection with the
undigested observations of the 1860 eclipse) is accomplished.
It is much to be desired that this should be done before the
time of the next eclipse — the 11th of the coming December —
as it is not improbable that points of inquiry may be raised
which that eclipse, from its peculiar circiunstances, will afford
special opportunities for deciding. The shadow will pass over
tjie lofty Neilgherry Hills of India, and most valuable observa-
tions, bearing upon the question of the corona's atmospheric
constituent, may be made at the exceptional elevations thus
accessible.* The duration of totality there will be a few seconds
over two minutes. In Northern Australia, however, where the
shadow passes over Amhem Land, the totality will last four
minutes, and we hear with satisfaction that one observer, M.
Bulard, of the Algiers obser\'atory, intends to station himself
there, most probably with photogi-aphic apparatus. And we
may well rely upon the energy of the Australian astronomers to
make the most of the occasion.

* Considering how the balloon has been pressed into scientific service,
one cannot help wishing that a high balloon view of a total eclipse could be
obtained ; but there is no chance of an opportunity for such a view soon
occurring.

GBAFTING; ITS CONSEQUENCES AND EFFECTS.

Br MAXWELL T. MASTERS, MD., F.n.S.
[PLATE LXXI.]

ANYONE who would write the history of grafting might
readily fill a voKimc^a large one, and one as interesting
K hrge. If he entered into technical details a great many
voliimes would be required. All that we have space to do here
is to show that our forefathers were not ignorant of the
practice, that the surgeons adopted it from the gardeners, that
John Hunter made it the subject of experiment, and that in
tbese days both surgeons and gardeners seem disposed to avail
Ihemselves yet more and more of the advantages it holds out.
If we could induce any reader of a practical turn of mind, and
a bent towards physiological enquiry, to turn his attention to
ibe subject, we should be glad ; for although among gardeners
specially great use is made of the grafting process, it is
ptrfectly clear that a vast field remains yet for research —
research, too, almost certain to yield profitable results alike
to science and to practice.

Though 80 largely practised by nurserymen, it is really doubt-
ful if we know much more about the matter than did the
"Scriptores Rei Rusficie." Cohunella knew how to bud roses;
be describes as many modes of grafting the vine as Beau
Bninunel had fashions for adjusting his necktie, while Virgil
iJescribed the results with a neatness of expression that leaves
unly one regret — that the matter of his verse is less correct
(han the metre. It is the faeliion to laugh at these old culti-
Mtors, who could wield the pen with as great facility as the
pniBiDg-hook, because their ideas of what could be done by
means of grafting do not coincide with our own ; but we should
not be much surprised if in the future it turned out that the
statements we have been accustomed to ridicule contain,
nevertheless, much more of truth than is admitted at present.
^We do not venture to look forward to the time when apples
U grow on plane-trees, or ashen boughs enwreath themaelveft

142 POPTLAE SCIENCE RBTIEW.

is a white mantle of pear-blcesom,' or when hoge shall cnmcli
acorns that have fallen from the overhanging elm. Possibly
none of these things will come to pass, and yet others equally
strange have happened, as we shall endeavour to ehow by and
by, while much at least of what the old writers tell us is
literally true. In himdreds of nurseries at this season pears
are being grafted on quince stocks, apricots on plums, apples oa
crabs, so that Virgil's statement,

" Sec Ion gum tetnpus el iitfrens
I juit ad ciflum ramia felicibuB ubos
Miraturque Doyas frondes et noa sua poniB,"

is as much a matter of fact as that if we commit a ripe seed to
the ground under favourable conditions it will spring up
due season.

Who first among surgeons adopted the grafting process we do
not know. Tagliacozzi ( LaHne Taliacotiua), who died in 1 553, is
the one most held in remembrance for his feats in reqiusitioning'
a portion of the skin of a bystander in order to supply tho^
deficient organism of his patient. How this was done is told
il? langut^e more expressive than polite by one Butler, and it
nifty perhaps be said with justice that the " learned Taliacotius "
owes his reputation among posterity more to the rhymes of
Hudibras than to his own publications. John Hunter, who left'
very little unheeded as unworthy his attention, illustrated the'
grafting process by divers experiments, among which the most
striking is perhaps the removal of the spur of a cock, and itS"
successful implantation on to the comb. Hunter, too, practised a
method of curing ulcers which has been revived within tlie last'
year or two by French surgeons, and carried out with much
success in several of our own hospitals. The operation simply
consists in the removal of minute pieces of healthy skin, and in'
their transfer to the diseased surface. Under fitting con-
ditions, and with due precautions, adhesion takes place, tht
ulcer heals over, and what is usually a long and intractablt
sore is by these means rapidly and effectually cured,

We do not propose in this paper to enter at any further
length into the historical or chirurgical portion of the subject.
Our intention is simply to treat it (rom a physiological point of
view, and to allude to certain facts or allegations which.,
confirmed, will be of no small importance scientifically and*
practically.

" There is cmly a difference of one letter between the Greek words )n
nah, and fiqXj'n ^ pear. Is it poa«ble that Virgil, recalling what some Greeki
friends hod told him, or whnt he hsd road in some Greek author, confused'
the Bfih Mid the pear f This ia haidly likely, and would not account for Ui»
Ctt' l^ooa oaaes of Bfaftisg ; nevertheless, the similarity is snggestiTe.

f • m^

ij'/m.

" '^1 •'"'ir*-^ f'

^^ » »

-tTt .»

« V.

» r

>- f , ••■ »W.;

I.
?

^efoi

CR-VFTISO ; :T3 PONSEtiTJENCES AND EFFECTS.

143

tefore adverting to the artificial procesa as pi
gardeners, it may be well to allude to what Natu
in this way without assistance from man. The u
to branch of the same tree is so common a phi
need not dwell upon it further than to note it as
and commonest case of grafting, at least so far

itised by the
herself does
on of branch
that we
the simplest
flowering

plants are concerned. Among the fungi, indeed, or even in the
early stages of growth of the mosses, the young plants become
w inextricably intergrafted that the so-called individual is
nally a republic one and undivided. In the higher plants the
gTsfUng process is exceptional, and is the result of some
alirasion which removes the outer rind, and thus allows the
growing tissuea of the two abraded surfaces to come into contact,
ud under favourable circumstances to adhere to each other.
Cnion of the contiguous branches of two trees of the same species
is of equally common occurrence with that just mentioned, and
lo this occurrence the great size of some trees is attributable.

We mention these more familiar illustrations with nothing
ffloie than passing comment. They illustrate the power that
gitiwing vegetable tissues have of uniting, and that is all we
«iDt with their testimony in this place. More important for
our purpose is the evidence that plants of different species will
imite together. This has been denied, but there are plenty of
ttses on record, and one facetious observer (Charles Waterton)
compared the union of a spnice-fir with an elm, and the conse-
quent stunting of both, to the incongruous union of Church and
State ! Such cases are certainly abnormal and exceptional, but
they exist nevertheless, as a visit to Richmond Park will attest.
There may be seen, or might have been a year or two since, a
ibum (Cralatgus) adherent to a hora-heara {Oarpinus). There
are cases where the contact of the two trees has been so firm and
80 persistent that at length the two have become actually in-
Beparable unless great force were used. It must, however, be
remembered that we cite these cases simply as instances of the
union of two distinct species, not of grafting properly so called.
The difference is this — a graft derives its nourishment through
the stock on which it is placed, while in the cases just alluded
to each plant, though firmly joined to its neighbour, is per-
fectly independent of it in the matter of food. The same
statement, however, cannot be made with reference to the
mistletoe or the Loranthus. These are different enough from
the trees on which they grow ; they adhere to their foster-
parent* with a tenacity greater than that of any graft, and they
rack the very life-blood out of them, ensuring their own
destruction by causing the death of the trees on which they
pais. It is worth while noting this fact in connection with
ihe well-kuown tendency that grafting, as artificially practised.

144 POPULAR SCIENCE BEVIEW.

has of shortening the term of life of the plant. Other cases of
natural union are worthy of remark, especially the union that
sometimes takes place in roots. For many years it has been
known that the stiunps of silver-firs increased in diameter after
the trunks had been felled. Here was a pretty case for those
who held the presence of leaves as an essential to the due
formation of wood. How would they get over this difficulty —
that wood there was, and yearly increasing, and yet no leaves?
Even quite recently one of our agricultural societies has awarded
its prize to an essay in which the phenomenon in question is in
some way or another explained by the antiseptic action of
peat ! What a delightful discovery 1 Would that the salt-beef
in the brine-tub would increase in like manner! Jesting
apart, the cause of the annual growth of the stumps of the
silver-fir was satisfactorily shown some twenty years ago by the
German botanist Goeppert.* He was enabled to prove that
the roots of the felled tree inoculated with those of adjacent
trees, and that a communication of the nutrient fluids from the
sound tree served to keep life in the maimed one. Doubtless
a similar root-imion exists in other cases, and affords the
explanation of the formation of those seemingly detached
knobs of oak that one occasionally meets with.

Another instance of root-union is worth mention, not only
for its inherent singularity, but because it will yield us im-
portant evidence by and by. We allude to the case of the red
and white carrot recorded by Lindley. The two roots by some
means became twisted one aroimd the other and firmly united
together. But this was not all. While the tops or crowns of
the two carrots preserved their natural appearance above the
point of union, it was very different below. In fact the cha-
racteristics of the roots below the imion were exactly transposed.
What should have been a red root became white, while the white
root blushed with a redness not its own. We may illustrate
what happened in the case of these carrots by the letter X, con-
sisting as it does of two lines, one thick the other thin, crossing
in the centre. Now, suppose the thick line to become thin
below the jimction, and the thin line to become thick, and we
shall have a change analogous to that which look place in the
carrots aforesaid.

Another curious phenomenon occasionally met with is the
union of embryo to embryo, either within the seed or imme-
diately after germination. In most cases a seed contains but
one embryo plant, but there is always a provision made for
more than one, and in fact sometimes two or more are produced,
as in the orange {Citrus). The mistletoe is one of these

• " Ann. Sc. NatureUes," xix. 1843, p. 181, t iv.

^B&Ots, apt to produce twin embryos, and, what is more to our
point, tlie twain are not unfrequently adherent like their
famous Siamese counterparts. TA'e have before us aa we write,
thanks to the courtesy of an American correspondent, a case
wherein two seedling plants of the Osage orange {Madura) are
thus united together. In this plant the seedling consists of a
root or radicle, surmounted by a "caulicle" which hears the two
seed leaves above which the stem proper begins. Now, in our
iipecimen, the roots are free and the stems are free, but the two
caoliclea are intimately united throughout their entire length. In
America, where the Osage orange is largely grown as a hedge-
plant, such imions are said to be not infrequent. Mr. Thwaites,
the eminent director of the Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, records "
a yet more curious instance, wherein two embryos were con-
tained in one seed of a fuchsia, the two embryos possessing,
moreover, different characteristics — a circumstance probably
due to their hybrid origin, the seed in question having been
the result of the fertilisation of one variety of fuchsia by the
pollen of another.

It would be easy to multiply instances, but we have said
enough .to show that imion may, and does occasionally, take
place between different parts of the same individual plants, or
between different plants of the same species, and even between
plants of different specific nature.

Gardeners have not been slow to avail themselves of this
hint. At this season of the year, in our large nurseries, a small
army of expert workmen may be seen preparing the stocks for
Ihe reception of the "graft," adjusting the latter in its place,
md with an amount of precision, dexterity, and rapidity truly
marvellous, the more so as a glance at the homy hands of the
operators would not lead one to credit their owners with the
possession of the requisite surgical nicety of manipulation.
One main object of this grafting process is the multiplication
of desirable varieties of fruit or other trees, which could not be
roiffoduced by other means with sufficient certainty and rapidity,
■nd in some cases not at all. Other reasons why grafting is
done will become apparent as we proceed. In the meantime,
we may briefly allude to some of the conditions for successful
grafting, so far, at least, as they are yet known to us. The
fiirt is that the plants furnishing the stock and the scion
respectively should be nearly related one to the other. We
nay set aside aa fables the stories previously alluded to, or at
tny rate we may explain them by the operation of causes other
those of grafting properly so called. But there is some-
more than mere botanical kinship necessary, and what

• "Ann. M»g. Xat. Hist,,' Mnreh 1848.

; ITS COSaEQUENCES ASD EFFECTS. 145

146 POFDLAB 8CIENCS BEYIXV.

that is is at present in great degree a mystery. It is readily
intelligible that there must be a certain conformity of habit
between stock and scion, that the two must be well matched as
regards vigour, health, time of starting into growth, and the
like, that the tissues of the plant must be sufficiently alike to
permit of due contact and union, and so on. But these facta
will not suffice to explain the sympathies and antipathies which
plants manifest. A pear (JPyrus) will graft on another pear,
on a quince {Cydonia\ or on a hawthorn {CraifBgua) ; but there
is difficulty in getting it to grow on an apple, and a like diffi-
culty in inducing an apple to grow on a pear, closely as the
two are related.

Culti\Titors are often sadly puzzled to find a suitable stock
on which to " work," as they phrase it, some desirable variety,
and it is only by repeated trials with various plants that they
succeed. In such cases they have nothing to guide them but
the general principle that there must be some near botanical
affinity, and, as we have just seen, even that foils them occasion-
ally. For years it was a hard matter to find a stock on which
Viburnum macrocephaluni could be grafted, in spite of there
being plenty of near relations at hand. On the other hand, the
Loquat (Eriobotrya) will graft on the pear, the Eriostemon on
the Con^ea^ genera which, under the circumstances, we should
not call very closely allied, while, in numerous instances, ever-
green plants will graft on stocks of deciduous plants. A peren-
nial species of convolvulus grafted on an annual species has
caused the latter to assume the perennial habit of the scion —
nay, some French nurserymen have even succeeded in en-
grafting a bud on a leaf. Not only did union take place, but
the leaf thus made to serve as a stock instead of speedily perish-
ing, as it would have done under ordinary circumstances,
acquired a greater degree of permanence — assumed, in fact, the
characters of a stem.*

It is evident, then, that much yet remains to be learnt as to
the why and wherefore of these sympathies and antipathies.

In addition to a certain not remote botanical affinity, and to
conformity of physiological conditions, it is obvious that nice
adjustment and accurate contact of the growing tissues must be
secured and maintained if the graft is to be satisfactory.

'^ On each lopp'd shoot a foster scion bind :
Pith pressed to pith and rind applied to rind ;
So shall the trunk with loftier crest ascend.
Nurse the new bud, admire the leaves unknown,
And| blushing, bend with fruitage not its own7'

" Gardeners' Chronicle/' 186C, p. 38C.

TPtJose

GnAFTINO; ITS C0SSEQPENCB8 AND EFFECTS. 147

tJose paraphrase, on the part of Erasmus Darwin, so far
as Hie last lines are concerned, of tlioge of Virgil, already cited.
Turning now to the effects produced by grafting on the
scion and on the stock respectively, we open up a very inter-
esting subject for enquiry, and we make apparent the objects
for which grafting is employed. Gardeners, as a rule, hold
that in the great majority of instances no effect beyond adhesion
is produced. There are some plausible reasons for this opinion,
it must be admitted, inasmuch as the change is very often not
obvious on the surface. One experimenter tells us for instance
that he grafted at various times on the same jargonelle pear no
leae than eighteen different graft.s. Of these eighteen, ten were
apples of various kinds, while the remainder were made up of
peare, hawthorns, medlar, and quince. All these grafts, we are
told, succeeded — at least for a time ; fruit was produced from
the scions in nearly all eases ; but there is no evidence to show
that this extraordinarily composite tree ever produced any fruit
differing from the usual character of that naturally yielded
hy itself, or by its numerous parasitieally attached grafts.
More extraordinary still is. a ease wherein a French experi-
menter, M. Carillet, of Vinoennes, firat of all took two pear-
trees, both of which were grafted on the quince stocks. These
we will call a and b. a was planted in the usual way, then B
yf^a grafted cm it, but in an inverted position, head downwards,
roots uppermost. When the operation was completed, there
were thus two pear-trees united by their leading shoots, but the
upper one, B, was reversed in position, with its roots completely
exposed. To add to the strangeness of the experiment, M.
Carillet next grafted on the ends of four of the principal roots
of B — quince-roots of course — four different varieties of pears,
two of which succeeded ; so that the entire plant consisted, first
of a quince stock rooted in the soil and bearing a grafted pear;
(in this latter, but in an inverted position, was another pear,
also grafted on the quince and witli its roots uppermost ; on
these again were grafted two more pears. This illustration
shows that the current of the sap is quite independent of the
direction of the tissues. It must have passed as readily through
the inverted as through the erect stem ; but what is more to
the point, so far as we are concerned at present, is that though
tiie sap passed through no less than six different organisms,
adfiercnt one to the other, yet each portion of the composite
stnicture retained its own individuality.*

There are, indeed, many cases in which no apparent
change takes place, as a result of grafting. Archbishop
"^teley, with a view of ascertaining whether any change

" GardeneM' CLronicle," J867, p. 847, ex " Devue HorUcole."

148

FOFtLlB 8CIESCB BEVIKff.

would be produced in the time at which the leare^ were
folded, grafted a ecion of an early \-ariety of hawthorn on
late one, and vice verad; but he found in both cases
the scions produced their leaves early or late, as the
mifjht be, wholly irrespective of the habit of the stock
which they were grafted. In spite of this and many simil
instances which might be cited, we imagine that when gap-j
deners state that no change results from the grafting proc*
they would ctntvey the idea that the change is phy&iologit
rather than morphological — that the size, fruitfulness, flavour,
period of ripening, and the like may be altered by graftingi
but not the form. How far this ia true we now proceed to show.

And first as to the effect of the stock on the scion :-
In many cases no further effect is produced than the
hastening of the period of flowering, but in other instances
have alterations in " habit," constitution, &c. Thus, if a
be hardy enough to resist the inclemency of our winters, whi
the plant from which the scion is taken is tender, we may,
make the scion nearly as hardy as its foster nurse by grafting
it on a hardy stock. Thus seedling plants of Cupresaus macro-
carpa have perished in the severe winter, while grafts on the
same plant ■' worked on " the red-cedar Jiiniperus virginiaTUi
survived.

Habit: — By this expression gardeners and botanists mean tfa»
general aspect and appearance of a plant dependent on size, th*
way in wliich the branches come off, their direction, &c. There
are good habits and had habits in a cultural sense. If a plan^
be tender, it is, for some purposes at least, of a bad habit. If
it grow away to a great size, and produce flower and finiit bat
scantily and at long intervals, a fruit-grower would condemA^
it as of a had habit, while a timber merchant might look on it
with a more favouring glance. For fruit-growing purpose(£
it is usually desirable to seciue a plant of comparatively dwarf
stature and of prolific habit, and this, by a proper selection o^
"stocks," the gardener ia enabled to do. He can convert a.
giant into a pigmy ; he can in a short space of time cover th»
barren branches with fruit-buds in place of leaf-buds ; he caa
change the size, enhance the flavour, modify the form, and
alter the time of production of the fruit. All this may be
done, in certain cases, by the choice of a suitable stock and ai
due knowledge of and pronsion for local circumstances o£
climate, soil, exposure, &c

In the case of the apple a dwarf habit, an earlier and more
abundant production of fruit are ensured by grafting upon the
" Paradise," a stock yielded by a peculiar dwarf-growing, surface-
rooting variety of apple. Many, but not all, pears are similarly
aflected by being grafted on the quince.

GBAFTDtG; ITS COSSEQCESCES A5D EFFECTS. 149

nong conifers coireeponding alterations of habit have been

lently noted. One of the most curioua is that recorded by

pSDarri^re. in which a species of Libocedrua (Cupressinese)

afted on Saxe-Qothcea (Podocarpeae) became entirely altered

m appearance. The branches, instead of forming an elongated

pyramidal mass, were directed nearly at right angles, so as to

form a depressed spherical head.

Very curioua also are the phenomena exhibited by what is
called double-grafting in England, or greffe sut greffe by the
Frencli. We mention them in this place as illustrative of the
effect of the stock on the scion. It has already been men-
tioned incidentally that some pears will not graft readily on
the quince, and, consequently, that mode of enhancing fer-
tility could not be adopted were it not for the ingenious
process of double-grafting, which is thus effected : — In the
first place some free-growing pear is grafted on to the quince
in the usual manner, and then the scion so obtained is, in its
turn, grafted with a variety that will not unite readily with
the quince in the first instance. In this indirect manner
the quince stock is made to affect the scion, throw it into
bloom more quickly, and enhance its fertility.

It is needless after this to say one word more as to the
reasons which lead gardeners to employ grafting ; the only
wonder is that they do not avail themselves of it more freely.

Adverting now to the effect produced by the scion on the stock,
it may he said that we have here an operation something akin
to vaccination ; and it is not wonderful that curious results
sometimes accrue, though in this case, also, many gardeners
deny that any visible effect is perceptible, at least in the
majority of cases. Some, however, more in the habit of making
good use of their eyes, have recorded instances showing the
efiect of the scion on the stock, and to some of these we now
propose to allude. The first case is that where on unhealthy
or feeble stock has been restored to health by the imposition
of a healthy graft. This fact is vouched for on the authority
of the veteran fruit-grower and practical physiologist of Saw-
bridgeworth, Mr. Thomas Rivers. Again, it has been stated
that if two quince stocks of equal strength and vigour be
grown under the same conditions, and on the one be placed
a graft of some vigorous growing pear, and on the other a
scion of some weak variety, the stock in the first case will
grow much more quickly than in the second ; and, indeed, a
quince stock on which a strong growing pear has been grafted
may thus be made to produce within a given time a larger
amottnt of wood than any ungrafted quince would do in the
aune time. Again, cases have been observed where from the
stock belo^v the graft fruits and flowers of the same ay^earau*:^
- X — xr>. xxxix, H

150 POPULAB SCIENCE BETIEW.

as those borne on the scion have made their appearance. This
has been ob8er\'ed in the case of the pear grafted on the
mountain ash, and in other cases.

Variegated plants, however, afford the most striking illustra-
tions of the effect of the scion on the stock. We will not here
do more than allude to the classic case of the variegated
jessamine at Chelsea, nor to other similar cases record^ in
gardening books,* but confine ourselves to other more recent
illustrations, most of which have come under our own obsen'a-
tion. The first is a repetition of the jessamine case (already
repeatedly confirmed), but presenting this peculiarity — that
the buds of the variegated scion only remained on the stock
for a short time before they died. "Many years ago," says
Mr. Godsall,t " I conceived that if the variegation otJasniinum
officinale could be transferred to the J, revdiUum^ which
has a larger and handsomer leaf, it would be desirable. I
therefore budded plants of the latter with buds of the common
variegated jessamine. The buds appeared plump for a time,
and then all died off. Notwithstanding this, the following
year the plants exhibited variegation in several leaves and
shoots, continuing even along the yoimg branches; but the
variegation was white, whereas on the J. revolutum (which
has yellow flowers) it became yellow. Last year I reversed the
experiment, by budding the variegated J. revolutum on the
plain J. officinale^ and at the present time the yellow variega-
tion appears on the leaves and young shoots." This change in
colour in the variegation is a very singular circumstance, but
one which the limit.< of this article do not permit us to dwell on.

The effect produced even by a temporary contact with the
variegated bud is confirmed by a case that fell under our own
observation. A year or two since a very beautiful AbutUoih, with
leaves mottled with yellow, was introduced into our gardens-
It was very desirable that this should be propagated as largely
and speedily as possible. Propagation by means of cuttings was
easy enough, but naturally the plants were small, and took a
considerable time to grow bigger. Grafting was therefore had
recourse to. The scions of the variegated Abiiiilon Thomsoni
were grafted on to green-leaved stocks of other Ahutilons.
This was done by many nurserymen on the Continent as in this
country, and it was soon foimd that the grafted plants were apt
to produce ^■ariegated leaves from the stock ; in other woids,
that the pecuhar qualities of the scion were manifested through-
out the entire organism. We were indebted to Messrs. Dowiie,

•vJ^JT^^a'^i^^A^"^ ^^^«^ ««* mentiaDed in Darwin's
t •Gaideacw' Chronicle," ISW, p. 6SS.

GEAFTIKG ; ITS COHSEQtESCES AND EFFECTS. 151

Laird, and Laing for the opportunity of examining a whole series
of such plants thus changed. To show that the variegation was
really due to the influence of the scion, we may mention a ciirioua
6»ct communicated to ua by M, \'an Houtte, the well-known
Boreeryman of Ghent. Like his compeers he had plenty of illus-
tntdoDS of the feet that a variegated scion of this particular
AbutUon will communicate its properties to the stock on which
it may be grafted, but he further ascertained that if by some
loeideDt the graft were separated from the stock, the leaves suh-
ie(]iiently produced from the latter were wholly green, as before
the grafting, and even the variegated leaves originally produced
lnjt their mottled character. Our illustration shows a plant of
rbe variegated AbutUon grafted on to another species of the
-:ime genii^, which under ordinary circumstances produces green
i lives, but which in conaequence of the grafting has formed
.,] legated leaves. Variegated willows have been known to
:iirtt the stock on which they are grafted in the same way,and
iiaci, but not constantly, the purple-leaved nut.

Here is another striking illustration of the effect of the scion
on the stijck. Two " canes " of a particular vine, called " Black
Prince," were growing side by side in a \inery, and adjacent to
them another grape known as " Larly Downe's Seedling," Mr.
Smythe, who relates the case, " inarched " the last-named vine on
to one of the canea of the " Black Prince," leaving the other
<?ane untouched. A great change resulted in the appearance of
the engrafted cane of the " Black Prince." In the first place it
did not begin to grow so soon by fourteen days as its fellow
cane ; ita leaves were smaller, its shoots shorter, and its bunches
of fruit much shorter and smaller. These illustrations will
proliably be sufficient to show that the scion does affect the
stock upon which it grows.

Relying on such cases as these some botanists have broached
the theory ofgraft-hybridisation to account for certain anomalous
appearances, Ifthepollenof one flowerbe applied to the stigma
of another under certain conditions and within certain limits, a
"cross " or hybrid production results, in which are blended in
very varying degrees the characteristics of both parents. Now,
it is contended by some that a similar blending takes place in the
case of grafted plants, and that buds may occasionally be produced
on such grafted plants partaking in varying degrees of the
characters of both graft-parents. Others again deny the possi-
bility of the occurrence, especially practical men, who, seeing
in their daily practice that instances such as wo have cited are
exceptional, and that in the majority of cases stock and scion
remain unaffected save in minor points, give a different inter-
pretation to such facts as we have been commenting on, or
content themselves with leaving them unexplained.

152 rOPTLAH SCIESCB BETIEW.

The case that has attracted most attention on the part
hotanists and phyaftlogista is that of the laburnum known in
gardens as Cytieua Adami. This plant is stated to have origi-
nated in a French nursery from the insertion of a bud of the
shrubby Cytisua purpureu8 on to the common Cytisus Lahur-
nuni. At any rate, great astonishment is excited year after year,
as the tree produces the long racemes of the yellow-flowered
laburnum and the shorter tuftaof the purple Cj/'wms, whilesome-
times the colours of the flowers are mingled in the same raceme f
and, indeed, every intermediate form is produced between the
two species above enumerated. Those who dispute the origin of
this tree from grafting attribute its peculiarities to the cir-
cumstance that it is a hybrid formed in the ordinary way by
cross fertilisation, and that the two-faced appearance the plant
puts on is simply the effect of the disunion of the mingled
characteristics such as is now known to occur frequently among'
liybrid plants. But against this view there are certain circtim-
stances to be recorded. First, the history of the plant, according-
to which it decidedly originated in a graft. The nurser3'man
could hardly have been mistaken in such a case, and there is
reason whatever to question hisveracity. Secondly,attemptHthab
have been made to produce the plant by pollen-fertilisation in
the way suggested have not been successful. Were this a solitary
case one might hesitate to accept it as a case of graft>-hybridi8a-
tion, but it is not unsupported by evidence of a similar cha-
racter, aa we have already shown. Even in the laburnum, Mr.
Purser has produced a precisely similar effect by grafting th»
purple Cytisus on to the ye 11 ow-flo we ring-species. No doubts
have ever been raised as to the correctness of this statement.
We may further cite the case of a Devoniensis rose budded
on a White Banksia, and wherein from immediately above the
graft arose a branch which was neither White Banksian nor
Devoniensis, but partook of the characters of both. This may be
represented diagrammically, as in the figure
1 represents the stock; 2 the graft, or bud
the mised product.

Other illustrations have been cited in roses,
one of which is shown in the accompanying illus-
tiation( Plate LXXI.), and wherein a white moss-
rose is shown springing from the same branch as a smooth-barked
red Quatre-Saisons rose. The graft in this case was effected
close to the ground while the two flowers were home two
feet above it. Those who disbelieve in the possibility of graft-
hybridisation attribute such a case as this to the separation
between the heretofore mixed elements of an ordinary hybrid.
Not long since a well-known French horticulturist, M,
CarriSre, put on record a case in which he grafted a scion of

BBAFIISO ; ITS COSSEIJITSCES AND EFFECTS. 153

Sorhus nepalensis. The buds which were aubsei^uently pro-
duced were found to Ije differeut from those of the scion and
of the etock (unfortunately it is not stated what plant fur-
nished the latter) in hardiness, period of leafing, form, &c. ;
indeed, so different were the new productions, that they were,
says M. Carri^re, unlike any plant lie knew in cultivation.
This also may possibly have been a case of variation not neces-
sarily connected with grafting, but it is too singular to he
pa^ed over in this place.

Of doubtful origin, also, are the oft-mentioned "trifacial
oranges" — oranges in which the fruits presented, blended to-
gether in all possible proportions, the characteristics of two
or three distinct varieties of orange. As the true nature of
these singular fruits is shrouded in mystery, and we can add
nothing to their history beyond what is detailed in readily
accessible books, such as Lindley's " Theory of Horticulture,"
or Darwin's " Variations of Animals and Plants," we pass them
by here with the mere mention.

The latest development of the graft- hybridisation theory is
that according to which certain new or strange variations of
the potato have been attributed to this process. The " eyes," or
bods, of one kind of potato have been inserted into the tuber of
another kind, carefully deprived of its own buds ; adhesion has
taken place, and new tubers have been formed, differing from
those of the parent variety, and producing leaves and haulm
also different in character, and to some extent intermediate.
It is only right to add, in reference to this point, that the
majority of experimenters have failed even in getting adhesion
liuder such circumstances. Others deny the possibility of the
oecurrence in toto, and attribute any changes that may have
occurred to the known variability and tendency to "sport"
exhibited by the potato. So far as our own personal experience
goes, we have seen several cases of adhesion in potatoes grafted
by others; and have ourselves succeeded in obtaining union
in one instance. Moreover, there has been abundant evidence
to show that some change of an extraordinary character does
take place in the new tubers that originate after grafting.
Whether or no these changes are due to a commingling of
characteristics derived from the etock and the scion is a
matter still open to question.

It must not, however, be supposed that all cases of bud-

■ .tion are due to graft-hybridisation. The evidence in

■our of the latter process is as yet by no means free from

(ubt. Nevertheless, confirmatorj" facts, or what, so far as we

loiow at present, we have good reason to believe to be such, are

gradually accumulating. At any rate, it seems clear that the

old notion that graft and scion, scion and graft, have no te-

^^uavcal effect, must be given up as imtenable.

154 POPULAB 8C1XKCE BEYIEW.

The physiology of cell life does not at present help us very
much in the elucidation of the effects produced by grafting.
Those who deny that any effect is produced beyond adhesion
of the graft to the stock, and the transmission of fluid from the
roots through the latter to the scion, have anatomy in their
favour. The tissue below the graft is that of the stock ; above
it, it is that of the graft — at least under ordinary circumstances*
Moreover, it is well known that to a large extent each cell is
independent of its neighbour, and often contains very dif-
ferent ingredients, without any intermingling of the contents
of adjacent cells. This is well shown in the case of the red
beet grafted on the white beet — the two retained perfectly
their respective characteristics above and below the union — as
well as by other illustrations previously cited. But, on the
other hand, this fact should be compared with the transposi-
tion of characters presented by the two carrots alluded to in
an earlier page. Those who lean to the view that stock does
affect scion and scion stock have only exceptional aid from
anatomy ; but physiologically, they may avail themselves of the
circumstance that the passage of fluids, and to some extent the
direction of new growth, are now known not to be limited to
any single course, but to take place in any direction, accord-
ing to circumstances.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXI.

a to Cf Abutilon.

a. Stock of normally green-leaved Abutilon, on which at b is grafted a scion

of the variegated Abutilon Thomsoni.
cc arc branches of the stock, the leaves of which have become variegated in

consequence of the grafting.
(Jf e, Hoses.

d, a white moss-rose.

e, a red smooth-stemmed Quatre-Saisons rose/ proceeding from the same

branch as e, possibly as a result of grafting.

A EESERVOIE OF POWER,
r EOBEKT HUNT, F.R.S,

THE stm, according to tbe philoeopby of the day, is the great
storehouse of Force. All the grand natural phenomena
are directly dependent Upon the influence of energiee whicL
are poored forth without intermiBsion from the central star of
our system. Under tbe influences of light, heat, actinism and
eleotxicity, plant* and animaU are produced, live and grow, in
all their infinite variety. Those phyaical powers, or, as they
were formerly called, those imponderable elements, have their
origin in one or other of those mysterioiig zones which envelope
the orb of day, and become evident to us only when mighty
cyclones break them up into dark spots. Is it possible to
account for the enormous amount of energy which is coDBtaotly
being developed in the sun ? This question may be answered
by saying, that chemical changes of the most intense activity
are discovered to be for ever progressing, and that to these
changes we owe the development of all the physical powers
vith which we are acquainted. In our laboratory we establish,
by mechanical disturbance, eome chemical phenomenon, which
becomes evident to our senses by the heat and light which are
developed, and we find associated with them the principle
which can set up chemical change and promote electrical
manifestations. We have produced combuiition, say, of a
metal, or of a metallic compound, and we have a flame of a
colour which belongs especially to the substance which is being
wnsumed. We examine a ray of the light produced by that
flame bv passing it tiirough a prism, and this analysis informs
us that coloured bands, ha^-ing a fixed angle of refraction, are
constant for that especial metaL Beyond this, research
acquaints ns with the feet that, if the ray of light is made to
pass through the vapour of the substance which gives colour to
the flame, the linea of the spectrum which were chromatic

toioe dark and colourless. We trap a ray of sunlight and
refract it by means of a spectroscope — an inrtrumeiit giving

^tfi

oamal * — when we I

156 POPITLAB scnssfX BKTtiCt'.

rraults which are already described in this joamal
detect the same lines as those which we hare discorered in our
artificial flame. We pursue this very interesting discovery, and
we find that several metals which give colour to flame, and
produce certain lines, when subjected to spectrum analysis, are
to be detected in the rays of the sun. Therefore our inference
is, that some substances, similar to the terrestrial bodies, with
which we are familiar, are actually undergoing a change in the
aun, analogous to those changes which we call combustion ; and,
more than this, we argue that the high probability is, that all
solar energies are developed imder those conditions of chemical
change — that, in fact, the sim is burning, and while solar matter
is changing its form. Force is rendered active, and as ray-power
passes off into space as light, heat, &c. to do its work upon dis-
tant worlds, and these forma of Force are expended in doing the
work of development on those worlds. This idea — theory —
hypothesis — call it what we may — involves of necessity the
waste of energy in the sun, and we must concede the possibility
of the blazing sun's gigantic mass becoming eventually a globe
of dead ashes, unless we can comprehend some method by which
energy can be again restored to the inert matter. Certain it is
that the sun has been shining thousands of years, and its in-
fluence on this earth we know to have been the production of
organised masses, absorbing the radiant energies, in volumes
capable of measurement. On this earth for every equivalent
of heat developed, a fixed equivalent of matter has changed its
form ; and so likewise is it with regard to the other forces. On the
Bun, in like manner, every cubic mile of sunshine represent* the
change of form of an equivalent of solar matter, and that equi-
valent of matter is no longer capable of supplying Force, iinleaa
by some conditions beyond our grasp at present it takes up
again that which it has lost. That something of this kind '
must take place is certain. The sun is not bumijig out.
After the lapse of thousands of years we have the most incon-
trovertible evidence that the light of to-day is no less brilliant
now, than it was when man walked amidst the groves of £den.
We may venture further back into the arcana of time, and say ,
that the sun of the past summer has shone with splendour
equal to the radiant power which myriads of ages ere yet man
appeared on this planet stimulated the growth of those luxu-
riant forests which perished to form those vast beds from which
we derive our coal. Not a ray the less is poured out in any
hour of sunshine : not a grain weight of matter is lost from
the mass of the aim. If either the sunshine was weakened, or
the weight of the vast globe diminished, the planets would

• "Popular Science Review," vol. 1, pp. 210-21^.

^H COAL AS A HESEBTOIK OV TOWER. 157

TSiy in theii' physical conditions, and their orbits would be
changed. There is no evidence that either the one or the
other has resulted. Let us see if we can guess at any process
by which this stability of the solar system is maintained,

It was first shown by Faraday, in a series of esperimental
investigations which may be regarded as the most beautiful
example of inductive science with which the world has been
fsToured ainee Bacon promulgated hia new philosophy, that the
quantity of electricity contained in a body, was exactly the
quantity which was necessary to decompose that body. For
example, in a voltaic battery — of zinc and copper-plates — a
certain fixed quantity of electricity is eliminated by the oxyda-
tion of a portion of the zinc. If, to produce this effect, the
oxygen of a given measure of water — say a drop — is necessary,
the elenricity developed will be exactly that which is required
to separate the gaseous elements of a drop of water from each
other. An equivalent of electricity is developed by the osyda-
tion of an equivalent of zinc, and that electricity is required
for the decomposition of an equivalent of water, or the same
quantity of electricity would he equal to the power of effecting
the recombination of oxygen and hydrogen, into an equivalent
of water. The law which has been so perfectly established for
electricity is foimd to be true of the other physical forces. By
the combustion — which is a conditionof oiydation^-of an equiva-
lent of carbon, or of any body susceptible of this change of state,
exact volumes of light and heat are liberated. It is theoretically
certain that these equivalents of light and heat are exactly the
quantities necessary for the formation of the substance from
which those energies have been derived. That which takes place
b terrestrial phenomena is, it is highly probable, constantly
taking place in solar phenomena. Chemical changes, or distur-
bances analogous to them, of vast energy are constantly progres-
flng in the sun, and thus is maintained that unceasing outpour
of etioshine, which gladdens the earth, and illumines all the
planeta of our system. Every solar ray is a bundle of powerful
(orcee: light, the hmiinous life-maintaining energy, giving
colour to all things ; heat, the calorific power which determines
the conditions of all terrestrial matter ; actinism, peculiarly the
force which produces all photographic phenomena ; and elec-
tricity regulating the magnetic conditions of this globe. Com-
bined in action, these solar radiations carry out the conditions
necessary to animal and vegetable organization, in all their
varieties, and create out of a chaotic mass forms of beauty
rejoicing in life.

To confine our attention to the one subject before us. Every
pereon knows that to grow a tree or a shrub healthfully, it must
lave plenty of simshine. In the dark we may force a plant to

15B

POPULAR SCIENCE REnEW.

grow, but it forms no woody matter, it acquires no colour _
in shade it grows elowly and weak. In sunahine it glows witb
colour, and its frame is strengthened by the deposition of woody
matter eliminated from the carbonic acid of the air in which it
grows. A momentary digression will make one point here more '
clear. Men and animals live by consuming the product* of the
vegetable world. The process of supporting life by food is
essentially one of combustion. The food is burnt in the system*'
developing that heat which is necessary for life, and the living
animal rejects, with every expiration, the combinations, princi*
pally carbonic acid, which result from this combustion. This
carbonic acid is inhaled by the plant; and, by its rital power,,
excited by sunshine, it is decomposed; the carbon forms tbct
ligneous structure of the plant, and the oxygen is liberated to
renew the healthful condition of the atmosphere. Here we serf
a sequence of changes analogous to those which have been shovii'
to be a law of electricity.

Every equivalent of matter changing form in the sun sendi
forth a measured vohune of sunshine, charged with the orf.'a-
nising powers as potential energies. These meet wilb the
terrestrial matter which has the function of bring, and they
expend themselves in the labour of producing a quantity of
wood, which represents the equivalent of matter which baa
changed form in the sun. The light, heat, chemical and elec-
trical power of the sunshine have produced a certain quantity
of wood, and these physical energies have been absorbed — used
up — in the production of that quantity. Now, we learn that
a cube of wood is the result of a fixed measure of sunshine z
common experience teaches us that if we ignite that wood it
gives out in burning, light and heat ; while a little examinatioa
proves the presence of actinism and electricity in its Same.
Philosophy teaches us that the powers set free in the burning,
of that cube of wood are exactly, those which were required foP
its growth, and that, for the production of it, a definite equiv**.
lent of matter changed its form on a globe ninety millions of
miles distant from us.

Myriads of ages before man appeared — the monarch of thi»
world — the sun was doing its work. Vast forests grew, aa they'
now grow, especially in the widespread swamps of the tropics,'
and, decaying, gathered into thick mats of humus-like subatMoeo.^
Those who have studied all the conditions of a peat morass^
will remember how the ligneous matter loses its woody stnio*'
ture in depth — depth here representing time — and how at thft'
bottom a bituminous or coaly matter is not unfrequentl^
formed. Some such process as tliis, continued through long
ages, at length produced those extensive beds of coal which ara^
so distinguishingly a feature of the British and American coal-"

COAL AS A BESEBTOIB OF POWEB. 159

riilds. At a period in geological time, when an Old Eed Sand-
■t'.iQe land was washed by ocean waves highly charged with
< :irbonic acid, in which existed multitudinous animals, whose
work in nature was to aid in the building up masses of lime-
stone rock, there prevailed a teeming vegetation from which
has been derived all the coal-bods of the British isles. Our
space will not allow of any inquiry into the immensity of time
required for the growth of the forests necessary for the produc-
tion of even a single seam of coal. Suffice it to say, that
within one coal-field, we may discover coal-beds to the depth
of 6,000 feet from the present surface. The section of such a
Coal-6eld will show ua coal and sandstone, or shale, alternating
again and again— a yard or two of coal and hundreds of feet of
shale or sandstone — until we come to the present surface;
efcryone of those deeply-buried coal-beds having been at one
time It forest, growing under the full power of a brilliant aim,
the i^nilt of solar forces, produced then, as now, by chemical
pbenomena taking place in the sun itself. Every cubic yard of
coal in every coal-bed is the result of a very slow, but constant,
change of a mass of vegetable matter ; that change being analo-
gous to the process of rotting in a large heap of succulent
plants. The change has been so slow, and continued under a
constantly increasing pressure, that but few of the gaseous con-
ttitoenta have escaped, and nearly all those physical forces
which were used in the task of producing the woody matter of
the plant, have been held prisoners in the vegetable matter
iUdch constitutes coal. How vast, then, must be the store of
pew^ which is preserved in the coal deposits of these islands I
We are now raising from our coal-pits nearly one hundred and
ifSi millions of tons of coal annually. Of this qiiantity we ar©
'■sporting to our Colonial possessions and Foreign parts about
:■ n million tons, reserving nearly a million tons of coal for our
■ 'me consumption. Not many less than one hundred thousand
;ieam boilers are in constant use in these islands, producing
steam, — to blow the blast for smelting the iron ore, — to urge the
millfl for rolling, crushing, and cutting with giant power, — to
twirl the spindle, — and to urge the shuttle. For every purpose,
&om rolling cyclopean masses of metal into form to weaving
riifcy textures of the most filmy fineness, steam is used, and
this steam is an exact representative of the coal employed,
1 lai^e allowance being made for the imperfections of human
machinery. This requires a little explanation. Coal is a com-
pound of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, the last two
elements existing in quantities so small as compared with the
carbon, that they may l)e rejected from our consideration. The
iieat which we obtain in burning the coal is almost all derived
from the carbon ; the bydzogea in liunung producea aome \iea,t^

ItiO

rorULAK SCIENCE I

i sufficient to confine atteotion I

but for oiiT purpose it
carbon only,

One pound of pure coal yields, in combining with oxygen in
combustion, theovet'ically, an energy equal to tbe power ol
lifting 10,808,000 pounds one foot liigb. The quantity of heat
necessary to raise a pound of water one degree will raise 772
pounds one foot. A pound of coal burning should yield 14,000
units of heat, or 772x14,000=10,808,000 pounds, as above.
Such is the theoretical value of a pound of pure coal. Many
of our coal-aeama are about a yard in thitkness ; several impon-
tant seams are much thicker than this, and one well-known
seam, the thick coal of South StafTordahire, is ten yards in
thickness. This, however, concerns us no further than that it
is useful in conveying to the mind some idea of the enormoui'
reservoir of power which is buried iu our coal formations. Ono'
square yard of the coal from a yard-thick seam — that is, in fact,
a cubic yard of coal — weighs about 2,240 pounds avoirdupois,
the reserved energy in that cube of coal is equal to lifting
1,729,200 pounds one foot high. We are raising every yeM!
about 110,000,000 tons of coal from oiu- coal-beds, each ton
of coal being about a square yard. The heat of that coal
equal to a mechanical lifting power which it is scarcely po*
aible to convey to the mind in anything approaching to iti
reality. If we say it is 190,212,000 millions we merely atatfl
an incomprehensible number. We may do something mor«^
than this, if we can convey some idea of the magnitude of thi
mass of coal which is raised annually in these islands.

The diameter of this globe is 7,926 miles, or 13,880,760
yards ; tlierefore the coal raised in 1870 would make a solid hex
more than eight yards wide and one yard thick, which would
pass from E to W through the earth at the equator. Supposing
such a mass to be in a state of ignition, we can perhaps imagin#
the intensify of its heat, and its capability, if employed in
converting water into steam, of exerting the vast force whicli
we have endeavoured to indicate. It was intimated last year in
the House of Commons by a member of the Coal Commission
that the decision of that body, after a long and laborious
inquiry, would be that there existed in our coal-fields a supply
for about one thousand years at our present rate of consumption.
We have therefore to multiply the above computation by 1,000
to arrive at any idea of the reserved power of oiu- British coal-
fields. What must it have been ere yet our coal deposita wera
disturbed \ At the time of the Roman occupation coal wm
used in this coimtry. In the ruins of Eoman Uriconium coal
has been found. Certainly up to the present time a quanti^
of not leas than three thousand million tons of coal liave beea
dug out of our carboniferous deposits and consumed. All this

COAL AS A RESERVOIR OF POWER. 161

eoormous mass of matter has been derived from vegetable
oi^aaizations which have been built up by minshine. The sim-
raya which compelled the plants to grow were used hy the
plant, absorbed, imprisoned in the cells, and held there as an
essential ingredient of the woody matter. The heat, light,
actinigm, and electricity, which are developed when we bum a
lump of coal, represent exactly the quantity of those forces
which were necessary to the growth of the vegetable matter
from which that coal was formed. The sunshine of infinitely
remote ages becomes the useful power of the present day.

Let it not, however, be supposed that we employ all the heat
which is available in our coal. AH our appliances, even the
very best, are so defective that we lose far more than we use.
A pound of pure coal should evaporate thirteen pounds of
water ; in practice a pound of coal does not evaporate four
pounds, even in the most perfectly constructed steam-boilers,
with the most complete steam-engines, such as have been con-
btructed for pumping water for the Chelsea and the other
waterworks upon the Thames.

Xumerous attempts have been made to bum our coal so as
W secure a more efiective result than this. There has been
advance, the most satisfactory being in the regenerative
furnace of Mr. Siemens. In this system the solid fuel is con-
verted into cmde gas, this gas is mixed with a regulated quan-
of atmospheric air, and then burnt. The airangementa
essentially the gaa producer, or apparatus for converting
fuel bodily into a gaseous state ; then there are the regene-
These are sunk chambers 611ed with fire-bricks, piled
such a manner that a current of air or gas, passing through
is broken into a great number of parts, and is checked at
step by the interposition of an additional surface of fire-
I brick ; four of these chambers are placed below each furnace.
The third essential is the heated chamber, or furnace proper.
This, the furnace chamber, commimicates at each extremity
with two of the regenerative chambers, and, in directing cur-
rents of gas and air upwards through them, the two gaseous
rtreams meet on entering the heated chamber, where they are

(ignited. The current descends through the remaining two
regeaerators, and heats the same, in such a manner, that the
uppermost chequerwork is heated to nearly the temperatiu'e of
lie furnace, whereas the lower portions are heated to a less and
IsM degree, the products of combustion escaping into the
''himney comparatively cool. In the course of, say, one hour,
'tie ciurents are reversed, and the cold air and gaa ascending
ihicAigh the two chambers which have been previously heated,
lake up the heat there deposited, and enter into combustion at
Uieir entrance into the heated chamber, at nearly the tern-

162 POPDLAB SCIESCB EBTIBW.

perature at wliicb the producta of combuBtion left the ebambea
It is not difficult to conceive that by this arrangement, and witi
its power of accumulation, any degree of temperature may bi
obtained in the furnace chamber, without having recourse ti
purified gas, or to an intensified draught. Where the tempa
rature of the melting chamber has certainly exceeded 4,001
degrees of Fahrenheit, the products of combustion escape inti
the chimney at a temperature of only 240 degrees. The prao
tical result of this regenerative system is stated to be, that a Ua
of steel requires by the ordinary method about three tons o
Durham coke, — which, being estimated as coal, will be aboil
four tons, — to melt it, whereas in Siemens's furnace, the meltio
is effected with twelve hundred-weight of ordinary coal. Thi
economy is produced by reserving the heat, by means of the re
generator, which is ordinarily allowed to escape by the chlmne}

Another plan for consimiing coal with economy has been re
ceutly introduced by Mr. T. R. Crampton, and is now in use al
the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, and at the Bowling Iron Worta^
in Yorkshire, Instead of converting the coal into gas, as in th
Siemens' process, the coal is reduced by Mr, CKimpton t« N
very fine powder, and then blown into the heated chamber hf
means of a fan-blast. By this arrangement the perfect com-
buation of the coal is produced, and a heat of the highest in
tenfiity can be obtained. The utilisation of this heat, withotrf
waste, when it is produced, is an important question still re
quiring careful attention. There are several other experimenti
being carried out with a view to the economical use of coal
but the two to which we have alluded give up to the prcseni
time the best results. Still, with these we allow more than oni
half of the heat latent in the coal to escape us. The subtli
element eludes our grasp — our charms are powerless to chain
the sprite ; he will not be bound to labour for us, but passes ot
into space, regardless of the human Prospero whose wand o
science he derides.

In conclusion, our philosophy has enabled us to determim
the heat-value of our coal-fields, and to prove that all this heal
baa a solar origin. Our science has shown us that although wl
can eliminate all this heat, we cannot use it. There is an im
mense quantity constantly passing into space as radiant hea
which we cannot retain.

The circle of action between the vegetable and the anima
world, is a beautiful and a remarkable provision. The anima
bums carbon and sends into the air carbonic acid (a compoimt
of carbon and oxygen), the vegetable breathes that carboni
acid and decomposes it, the carbon is retained and the osygei
liberated in purity, to maintain the life and fire-support inj
principle of the atmosphere. Changes similar to these may b«

COAL AS A BSSBBYOIB OF FOWEB. 163

oonstantly going forward in the sun,~and producing those radia-
tions which are poured forth in volumes, far beyond the re-
quirements of all the planets of our system. Although there is
probably some circle of action analogous to that which exists
upon this earth, maintaining the permanency of the vegetable
and animal world, still there must be a waste of energy,
which must be re-supplied to the sun.

May it not be, that Sir Isaac Newton's idea, — that the comets
traversing space gather up the waste heat of the solar system,
and eventually, falling into the sim, restore its power, — is nearer
the truth than the more modem hypothesis, that meteorites are
incessantly raining an iron shower upon the solar surface, and
by their mechanical impact reproducing the energy as con-
stantly as it is expended.

164 POPULAB 8CIENC1 BEYIBW.

THE PLYMOUTH BREAKWATER FORT.

By S. J. MACKIE, C.E.
[PLATE LXXU.]

TO comprehend the nature and value of the Plymouth inm
fort, its position, extent and nature should be cleaily
defined. Plymouth Sound is a vast open U-«haped natural
harbour, a little over three miles in length, and about as
wide at its mouth in a direct line between Penlee Point on
the west, and Renj' Point on the east. At about one-third of
its area the turbident waves which roll in from the Atlantic
are checked by a great breakwater formed of rocks quarried
from the neighbouring hills, mainly at Oreston. In length,
the breakwater is about 5^000 feet long, rising up with veiy
shelving slopes out of some six to seven fathoms of water (at
low tide). On the eastern side of the Sound, Staddon Point
juts out well towards the eastern arm of the breakwater ; but
on the western side the shore recedes between Penlee and
Picklecombe into a large bay at Cawsand, forming a consider-
able expanse of water. The actual deep-draught shipways, of
more than a thousand feet in width, pass on either hand close
to the horns of the breakwater, nearly behind the centre of
which, at a distance of a hundred yards, is placed the iron
fort, to which this article is devoted. At Picklecombe and at
Bovisand (the point of Staddon) there are granite casemated
forts defending the water areas a little way in the rear ; the
distances of these batteries being each about a mile from it.
A mile and a' half up the Sound is Drake's Island, and half a
mile further in the background the heights of Plymouth, also
fortified, as well as are the entrances to the Hamoaze on the
one hand, and to the Lairy on the other. The position of the
breakwater fort is thus a most important one, and it is to be
regarded as the main defence of the Sound.

The iron fort is based upon masonry foundations faced with

ranite, and rising 16 feet 6 inches above high-water spring

tides. Its walls are set in from the masonry about 3 feet,

there being thus a clear walk or glacis of that width all round

THE PLTUOUTn BREAKWATEB FOUT.

165

it. In form it is an oval, measuring upou its major axis at
the base 143 feet 6 inches, and upon the minor axis 113 feet
fi inches ; the curves being etnick from two radii, one of 90
fci't 3 inches, the other 50 feet 9 inches. The batter of the
a;i11 is 1 in 11. In structure the iron wall consists of 15
Qches of iron in three thicknesses, in the following order : —a
Uoat annour of three tiers of 5-inch platea, 21 feet 9 inches
long, and respectively 4 feet 9J inches, 4 feet I^ inches, and
3 t'ect oj inches wide (giving a total external height of 12 feet
5 inches); a backing of 6 inches of common concrete; next
« layer of 5-inch bars 16^ inches wide; these being crossed

Itehind by another layer of similar bars laid horizontally ; the
whole supported internally by vertical iron bars, 5 inches thick
and 12 inches deep, placed upright and edgewise and let into
Ibe floor through a footplate, as also into the roof at short
intervals. The entire circumference is pierced, at distances of
21 feet 9 inches from centre to centre, by eighteen porta for
10-inch 400-pounder rifled guns, which when in position
will point variously — some seaward, some across each of the
■»"o shipwaya, and others np tlie Sound ; but in no case does
:' appear that a converging fire of more than four guna can be
i-litained.

This brief view of the situation will show that the passage
of any hostile fleet would have to be made along the contiguous

TOL. X. — ^MO. 2XXIZ. M

166 POFULAB SCIENCE BEVIEW.

uraterways, and for deep-draught ships well within the thou-
sand yards' range. In other words, the fort would have to
stand its battering, if attacked under such circumstances, at
uncomfortably close quarters. Strength and invulnerability
ought, therefore, to be its primary quaUfications.

In respect to strength, its very massiveness and weight of
oval wall, must require, if even the materials were simply piled
together, a very considerable force to throw them down ; but
materials cost money, and rolled iron in large masses a good
deal, too, both for manufactiure and carriage. Any proper
system of iron-fort building should clearly, then, be based on
the best mechanical plans of constructing with the use of
the smallest amount of material employed in its cheapest
forms. The structural cohesion of the whole fabric, and its
power, in all its details, of clinging together, should also be
leading features in all designs of this class, having in view
the shattering and destructive eflfects of any heavy cannonade
by modern artillery.

It is impossible, imfortunately, to take the new iron fort at
Plymouth as an example of remarkable engineering, or of
first-rate constructive or scientific skill ; but it is, nevertheless,
a topic of grave interest both in a national point of view
and in respect to the immediate protection it is capable of
giving to one of the most important naval arsenals of this
country.

In the memorable contest carried on at Shoeburyness in
1868 an exciting interest was created between the rival targets
constructed upon the plans of Colonel Inglis, of the Fortifica-
tion Branch of the Eoyal Engineers, and that designed by
Mr. John Hughes, with the hollow stringer backing ; the work
of the latter, victorious in respect to endurance and resistance,
has already been described in this magazine (vol. vii. p. 345).

The design for the Plymouth iron fort, which at that time
was embodied in one of the competing targets, has sinc^ been
carried into execution upon the same main principles which at
that date proved so deficient of strength and cohesion in the
representative casemate. Various parts and details have been
modified, as much as they could be, to bring in those improve-
ments which the experience of the artillery attacks and the
suggestions of criticism had dictated. We have, then, in the
final production a formidable structure, although not a scientific
example of the best order ; but a fort, nevertheless, of consider-
able strength, and, for the duties it might at the present time
be called upon to perform, suflficient probably in its essential
qualifications. One of the main reasons constantly repeated
for adhering to the defective principles of the fort was an
asserted economy in the use of the narrow bars. If, however.

TSX PLTHOUTH BBSASWATSB POBT.

167

we pat the cost, of t}ie Plymouth fort, as it now stands, vith
the estimate of a comparative structure upon Mr. Hughes's
plan, we shall find that no saving has been effected hy employ-
ing bats instead of hollow stringers ; whilst the advantage of
the latter would be very great in respect to defensive resis^nce.
The accompanying woodcut will show the general structure
of the walls of the Plymouth fort as they now stand. The
front armour (a) is of rolled plates 5 inches thick ; behind this
is a layer of shingle concrete ti inches thick ; next a layer of

O.OUcb; urn. Ui

vertical iron bars (b) 1 6^ inchea wide and 5 inches thick ; then a
similar layer of bars (c) laid horizontally ; behind this a plaster-
ing of iron turnings and asphalte 1 inch thick. In the rear
the wall is supported by vertical iron bars 12 inches deep and
5 inches thick, the intervals (about 10 inches) being packed
with wood planks set edgewise. A glance at the composition
shows that there is not the slightest mechanical cohesion in it,
but that the whole mass is simply kept together by the bolts.
If these give way, the disruption of the wall seems inevitable.

168 FOrULAB SCIENCE BETIEW.

Moreover, the bulging effect of projectiles striking the front
will open out the incoherent backing, if it do not actually draw
the bars and timbering out of their footings. The concrete
behind the face-plating will be quickly disintegrated by any
heavy battering, and then the bolts being loosened in their
hold, the armour will clatter about in certainly a very noisy
manner, if with no further damaging results ; but how the
multitude of bars will keep together in position imder such
circumstances must be left to the constructors to explain, or
probably for Providence hereafter to determine.

In the Gibraltar shield, after the first failures of the bolts,
others upon the pattern devised by ilajor Palliser were intro-
duced. These had plus screw-threads, and were tapered away
in the middle of the shank, so that when the strain was brought
upon the bolt, the weakest part yielded and stretched. The
objection to these bolts was, that they could not be used in
ships, as there would be a cavity all round them. They stood,
however, well enough in the land shield. In the Hughes
shield there was another class of bolts of a much better cha-
racter, founded by Mr. Parsons upon a similar basis. These
were hollow cylinders with plus screw-threads, the cavities at
the ends being closed by steel plugs. The cylinders or shanks,
having thus the least substance stretched uniformly through-
out, and being made of good ductile iron, the stretching limit
was very considerable, and they were thus capable of withstand-
ing admirably the strains brought upon them by the shot.
They were cheap, too, as well as very strong. Subsequently,
Lieutenant English, E.E., produced and patented a compound
bolt with a carefully turned ball and socket-head on both ends,
and a spiral spring-washer for bufl&ng the rear nuts. The plan
may be ingenious, but cui bono ? If cheaper and less com-
plicated bolts do the work required of them, why employ the
costly which can do no more ? None have ever stood severer
tests than Mr. Parsons', or served their purpose better.

What the effect of a concentrated broadside of the heaviest
gims might be on the new Plymouth fort would be very hard
to estimate ; and happily the heaviest guns at this moment are
alone possessed by England. It will be remembered, how-
ever, that at the Shoeburyness trials a salvo of three gims
broke an orifice in the 15-inch structure through which a
General entered the casemate. No salvo was ever iired against
the 20-inch portion there, and the doubt therefore remains
whether a lamination of 15 inches of iron plus 6 inches of
concrete will keep out a concentrated broadside from such
ships as the Hercules or the Devastation, If so, the credit
will be due to the improvements made in the mechanical dis-
tribution of the materials by the force of critical comments.

SOUTH AFRICA AND ITS DIAMONDS.

Br T. KUPERT JONES, F.G.S.,
pROFESSOS OP Gedloot ax t

""PAKKERTON is being surveyed, and before long it will have
X its Market-square, Church-square, High-street, West-end,
back shims, and river villas, . . . The Church Committee
are calling for tenders for bricks. . . . The Standard Bank
premises will shortly be completed ; and the British Commis-
rioners' Offices will not be very much longer on the road."
Store is added to store ; and the jeweller's store " is as safe as if
it were in the best watched site in London — nay, it is safer. . .
At Pniel great attention is being given to sanitary measures.
. . . Its natural situation entitles it to be called the very gate of
the Diamond Kielda. . . . Pniel and Parkerton are likely to live
and flourish," " Hebron is to have its races on January 2,"
and Pniel also on the same day ; whilst the necessaries and
comforts of life, together with music-halls, liquors, quack-
medicines, and other accompaniments of civilisation, are
announced as ready to hand at the above-named settlements
in the Klip-drift Diamond-fields, by the " Diamond News and
Vaal Advertiser," No. 10, December 17, 1870, out of which
paper and its " Supplement " (published at Pniel) the fore-
going eitracts have been taken. The newspaper and the
naacent towns are, of course, due to the concouTHe of diamond-
seekers, and of tradesmen supplying their wants, riglit and
left of the Pniel Slission Station, near the " Great Bend " of the
^'aal River, 480 miles north-east of Cape Town, upwards of
300 miles due north of Port Elizabeth (Algoa Bay), and about
290 miles west by north of D'Urban (Port Natal).

There are numerous spots at which local proprietors, squat-
ters, and regular diggers have met with diamonds alonj^ the
valley of the Lower Vaal, as at Hebron, Klip-drift (or ford),
~ ]el Mission-station and its neighbouring grounds, Bultfontein
Du Toil's Pan), Zitzikamma, Vogelstruis Pan, Sitlacomie's

170 FOPULAB SCIENCB BXTIEW.

Village, SifoTiell's Village, Gong-gong, Cawood's Hope, Nichol-
son's Pan, Kalk farm (Litkhatlong, near the junction of the
Hart with the Vaal at the "Great Bend**), and elsewhere, near
the junction of the Modder and Vaal. Also below the junction
of the Ky Gariep (Vaal) with the Nu Gariep, to form the
Gariep (Orange), diamonds have been found on several farms
along the latter river, about twenty miles north-west of Hope-
town. The finding-places, however, of the precious gem are
not confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the Orange
River and its great northern branch. The valleys of two, at
least, of the tributaries of the latter (Vaal), namely the Modder
and the Vet, have yielded specimens in their upper branches,
near Faiu-esmith (eighty miles south of Pniel) and near Win-
burg (seventy miles from the Vaal) respectively. High up the
Vaal, also, at Bloemhof, twelve miles south-west of Potscherf-
stroom, diamonds are said to occur ; and even above Bloemhof
some diamonds have been found (I am informed by Mr. C. L.
Griesbach) on the Maquassi Spruit, a stream running into the
Vaal from the north, and some 250 miles away on the north-
east, from the Hopetown District. Throughout this region,
however, no place has hitherto proved to be so rich in diamonds
as the neighbourhood of Pniel above-mentioned. Hebron, an
old mission-station, about ten miles up the river, on its north
bank, and within a great loop of the stream, has been a pro-
ductive digging-ground. The Klip-drift (or ford), by which
the waggon-track from the south crosses into Betchuana Land,
gives its name to the rich diggings five miles lower down the
river than Pneil, mostly on the north side of the river, but
including some groimds belonging to the missionary station,
enclosed in a fine curve of the river, and traversed by the road
to the south on its leaving the " drift." Four or five miles
further down are the Gong-gong diggings, on the left bank of
the river as it winds along on its north-westward course before
receiving its northern tributary, the Hart, and making its
" Great Bend " to the south-west ; and the new diggings called
Cawood's Hope .are just opposite. All the diamond-^ggings
about Pneil, and to the north-east and north-west, are call^
the " Diamond-fields of Pneil," or " of the Lower Vaal," or the
" Klip-drift Diamond-fields ; " whilst the diggings near the ford
indicate the "Klip-drift Diamond-field " in particular.

This rich diamond-bearing district, traversed by the winding
Vaal, and suddenly occupied by an energetic digging and trading
community from all parts of the world, belongs partly to the
Pniel Missionary Establishment, within the limits of the Orange
River Free States ; but the north side of the valley* is claimed

• Referred to as *'Adamanta" in the '' Grahamstown Journal" of
January 80,

Plwtl

SOrxn AFMCA ASD ITS DIAMONDS. 171

Iwth by native chiefs of the Batclapm (or Koranna) tribes, and
by the Orange River Free States (lying south of the river), and
even by the Transvaal Republic, whose main territory is higher
up to the East on the north side of the Vaal. The rights of
ownerehip and the demarcation of boundaries are to be setil '
by Commissioners or otherwise ; and some kind of reguLir
government haa to be organised, in spito of the rowdyism
of the gem-seeking cosmopolites and the disputes of the con-
tenninous states and tribes, if the diamond-yielding character
of the region be persistent, or if the labour and capital of
the present settlers succeed, as is probable, in fixing civilised
homes thus far in the Interior, in spite of tlie sandy and stony
soil, and of the fiooda of one season of the year and the scorch-
ing heats of another.

Of the Klip-drift Diamond-field a surveyed plan has been
sent to Elngland by Mr. E, T. Cooper, one of the Government
land-surveyors of the Cape Colony. It was published in the
"Alining Journal" of March 4, 1871, and gives a good notion
of the existing topography and drainage, and of their relation
to the probable conditions under which the diamonds were
deposited there.

At and near Klip-drift the river has an extremely winding
course among somewhat flat-topped hills, a mile or so in their
greater diameters, and varying from 300 to 450 feet in height,
with gullies or creeks running down between them to the river. -
The tops and slopes of these hills ("Kopjes" they are locally
termed) have been the cliief sources of diamonds to the diggers.
According to Mr. E. T. Cooper, writing in October 1870,
Hond's Kopje, 400 feet high, has yielded possibly 15,000i. worth
of diamonds; Rosa's Kopje, 400 feet, about 100,000(. worth
(including a diamond of iifty-six carats) ; and Original Kopje,
300 feet, upwards of 100,000;. worth.' The yield of the hills
on either side of the river at the drift or ford itself (on the
mission ground 450 feet, and opposite about 30 feet high) is
not specified.

The flats by the waterside do not appear to have been here suc-
cessfully worked — only the sides and sunamits of the hills ; and
here the diamonds are foiond in a ferruginous gravelly alluvium,
* These estimated values for Klip-drifl alone far surpaaa the declared
value of the dUmoDds shipped to England, aci^ordiiig to the elatement in
the "Timea" for Febniaiy ", 1871. Klip-drift, rich aa it ia, haa been
de«erted by the digger for Hebron and Cawood'a Hope. The latter place ia
oppoute Uong-goug, and the diggings are in recent alluvium, accumulated
by the river between an iaiand and the bank. Thia we learn, whilst ihia
paper is in the preaa, &oni Mr. Barry'a Lecture of January 27, reported in
the " Grabanialown Journal," and reprinted in the "Colonial News" of
.Msrcb 17.

172

POPCLAH SCIENCE KEVIBW.

conBiatilig mainly of lydite, jasper, agate, and quartz, with
ochre and rotten felspar, mingled with large and small blocks
of tlie felspatliic amygdaloidal trap-rocks that constitute the
hulk of each hill. Indeed this basement-rock is undergoing
decompoaitioD, some of it hreuking up into rotten ochreoua
felspar, with frequent concretions of chalcedony (agate and
camelian), whilst other portions, less decomposable, remain in
angular and exfoliating pieces.

At different Bpol-s, however, the gravel varies in its couftitu-
tion. Rock-crystal is plentiful in some places, and amethyst
also occius. Garnet, peridot, mesotype, natrolite, and calcite
abound here and there ; but the exact conditions under which
they are met with have not been noticed as yet. Brown mundic
(hepatic pyritea), ilmenite, specular iron-ore, diopside. tour- |l
maline, and diamond are rarer minerals in the gravel. Of
nearly all the above-mentioned minerals there are water-worn,
freshly broken, and perfect crystala. The chalcedony, also, and
jaapers occur in both the worn and the unworn state.

It has l>een suggested by the lat« R. N. Rubidge and others
that large areas of this part of South Africa have been at a long ].
distant period (and yet recently as regards geological time) I'
covered with alluvia, derived from the operations of wat«r and "
weather on the vast region drained by the head-waters of the ,
Orange and Vaal, and now represented in part by the great '
Quathlamba or Draakenberg. This mighty range and ita
southern spurs supply by far the majority of the sources of
the present Orange River system, and still yield to the
upper valleys agate gravel in abundance, from their amyg^
daloidal volcanic rocks. To the north, however, in the Tnm^
vaal, some of the head-waters of the Vaal (Ky Gariep) rise in
the Gats Rand and other mountains, which consist of a different
rock-system. To these allusion will again be made when we
consider the probable origin of the diamonds. (See my paper
on the Geology of the Diamond-fields of South Africa — " Geo-
logical Magazine," February 1871 — for technical details and i
full references to published papers and other materials.) i

The ancient alluvial plains, above alluded to, were probabl;; J
terraced, according to our authors, by the successive subsidences I
of lake and river ; and here and there they were at timea |'
coated with beds of calcareous tufa, derived from aggregation* ;
of fresh-water and land shells ; and this still lies thick on many
parts, and serves as a source of lime to the Colonist« of the
Interior. The work of natural denudation, or the remodelling
of the siirface by rain and rivers, progressed, whether aided or I
not by ice-action (as suggested of late by Mr. G. W, Stow for
the surfece-modification of the Stormberg and Queenstowu
country further south), and ultimately the levels of the present

Sorxu AFRICA AND ITS diamoshs. 173

unage-system were arrived at ; portions of the old high-level
alluvium being left undisturbed on those stable portions of the
vallcy-tioor that reeisted the wear and tear of denudation. If
this be so — and it is likely enough — the precious gems brought
to their places by the old fiystem of drainage of the former
Uigh-level flats still lie amongst the remnants of local debris
and ancient drift on the Kopjes, which remain like the navvy's
" dead-men " of escavated plains, and m the fallen talus and
running sand and gravel of their slopes, whilst few turn up at
lower levels.

Nevertheless, there must be places further down the valley,*
probably as " pockets," or patches of small extent, io or near
the present river channel, into which the hard and heavy gems
Lave been sorted (like gold-dust or tin-etone) from among&t the
miscellaneous sand and gravel. Whether or no it will be worth
while to cut off some bends in the river by short cuts, and work
over the drained river-bed, energy and experience will probably
le day prove.

But whence came the diamonds at iirst ? And, if their origin
be traced, will it be profitable to look for them in their
Dative matrix ?

All the world knows that diamonds, whether in India,
Borneo, Sumatra, South Australia, the Ural, Algiers, California,
United States, or Brazil, are got from alluvial gravel

ived from more or less distant mountains. In Brazil only

ive these gems been found in their native beds, namely, in a
granular quart.zose schist (itacolumite), and some other schists
(micaceous, chloritic, talcose, hornblendic, and argillaceous)
associated therewith. These, together with some accompanying
Umestone bands, evidently represent, in metamorphosed (highly
altered) conditions, some very old sandstones, clays, shell-beds,
&c., such as constitute any one formation of marine and fluvio-
marine deposits. The diamond crystals that occur in these
iirazilian schists may also be, and indeed are always regarded
3S being, the results of some of the changes that have affected
the strata in question ; and they may represent the carbon of
old carbonaceous deposits, separated and purified from hydrogen,
clay, and other matters, whether within the original mass of
the strata, or sublimed through pores and fissures from still
more deeply seated sources of carbon.

It was suggested by the late Dr. Rubidge that the direct
beat and pressure of volcanic dykes passing through coal-beds
Blight bring about a change of hydrocarbons, producing pure

■bon ( = diamond), as they have changed certain coal-seams

* See tlie foregoing footnote.

Hon
Ifieri'

174 POFULAB SCIENCE B£TI£W.

in South Africa and elsewhere into coke, anthracite, and
graphite, which are almost pure carbon. Although the chain
of evidence is here incomplete, this hypothesis has ardent
supporters in the Cape Colony, inasmuch as the trap-rocks
above referred to as constituting a main portion, if not all, of
the Kopjes at Klip-drift are, without doubt, of volcanic origin,
whether they be dykes or outspread masses, and have passed
through the fissured strata that here and there in the gullies
are seen to lie beneath, forming the yet lower foundation of
the district.

The low-lying strata, moreover, are known to be .a part of
the great stratified formation that crops out along the hill-sides
south of the Orange Eiver basin, in the Colesberg, Smithfield,
Harnsmith, and other districts to the south and east, and
which, indeed, constitutes all the Interior of the Colony within
the circling ranges of Namaqualand, the Bokkeveld, Zwarte-
bergen, Winterhoek, and Zuurbergen, ending near the mouth
of the Great Fish River in Albany, on the south-eastern coast.
Within this great area the nearly horizontal and probably
lacustrine (Triassic) strata, first examined, defined, mapped,
and described by the late A. G. Bain, spread far and wide ;
and their geological name, " Karoo Formation," is derived
from the Great Karoo Desert, which is a characteristic feature
of a considerable tract in the Worcester and Beaufort Divisions.
They are also known as the ' Dicynodon strata,' on account of
the prevalence of the remains of that remarkable two-toothed
reptile in some of the beds. The Karoo Formation consists of
an enormous series of shales and sandstones, accompanied by
some calcareous bands, and rich at places with the wonderful
remains of the above-mentioned reptile and many others ; also
with fishes of the palaBoniscan type, together with seams of
lignite and coal, remains of coniferous trees, ferns, and other
plants. Throughout their whole extent these Karoo strata are
<;ros8ed by frequent dykes of doleritic, dioritic, and syenitic
trap-rocks, at different angles, and are often overlain by, or
intercalated with, similar igneous rock. Here, then, are some
of the elements required in Dr. Eubidge's hypothesis of the
formation of diamond from coal by volcanic interference ; but
direct proofs are altogether wanting. We see here also the
reason why many of the Colonists, who have read geological
books, and observed something of the structiu-e of their coimtry,
are so ready to suppose that the diamonds are native to the
spots where they are foimd — converted, they imagine, out of
hidden coal-beds and plant-remains by the subterranean heat,
of which, truly enough, the volcanic rocks bear witness.

Let UR look again at the accompaniments of the diamond
crystals at Klip-drift and thereabouts ; and although the agate

^^m SOCTU AFIlICi AN'D ITS DIAMOSW. 175 I

^^bd camelian, the peridot, mesotype, natrolite, calcite, and I

^Rrobably the ro(;k-crystal and amethyst, have been derived I

^Thnn the veins, glodes, and kernels of the amygdaloidal and V

other trappean rocks in place — and we may add the garnet too,
for I Lave a specimen of melaphyre (?) loaded with garnets,
labelled " from near the Orange River "^yet the lydite miist
have come from some old metamorphic rocka ; and we may
associate with it the hepatic mundic, the ilmenite, specidar
iron-ore, diopeide, tourmaline, and moat probably the diarnmid
as well.

Many of these specimens, not being waterwom, could not
Lave travelled far. There are, however, two very probable
local sources for them ; namely, 1st, Outcrops of old rocks, still
lower in the series than the Karoo beds which lie on the floor
of the valley, pierced and covered by the greenstone and
amygdaloidal lavas ; and such outcroppings are indicated here
and there in the Orange River Free States and the country to
the west. 2nd, The blocks and smaller fragments of old
rocks, constituting the materials of some of the Karoo beds
themaelves.

We muat further observe that, on the one hand, the great
Draakenberg, based, no doubt, on old metamorphic rocka, such
as Sutherland and Griesbacli have met with on the Natal aide
of that range,' has supplied, and may still supply, to some of
its rivers the minerals of the older series of rocks, as well as of
the Karoo beds and their dykes. On the other band, the
northern head-waters of the Vaal come direct from off old
metamorphic rocks, and have some diamtmde in their valleys
he/ore thity reach ikat part of the Vaal which flows over Karoo
atrata.

We may add that down all the valleys of the Orange River-
system ice may have played ita part, as among the hills
further south, and have carried blocks and crystals for miles,
and left them to be detached, unharmed, by subsequent opera-
"" ms of rain and rivers.
lAstly, what are the metamorphic rocks of the Transvaal and
e Upper Vaal, on the onehand, andof thebaae of theDraaken-
Tserg, on the other? \\'e know that " Devonian " pchists, sup-
porting im old sandstone, are present in the latter, and that
siniilar rucks lie against still older mica-achiata, marble, gneiss,
and granite in the Gats Rand about the head-waters of the
Vaal. And, further, we now know that the Karoo beds of the
Stormberg, between Washbank and Queenstown, lie on the
palceozoic carboniferous strata containing Lepidodendron, Slgil-

* With similar rocks on tbU eflstern side of tlie lanf c, probabljr diamonds
auy slw) be foimd \a the HUuvium of the vaUeys.

and I

17C

brio. CaLjaiiet. and cool : sod in Xital tfaer lie nnconfonn-
abfj agvzksc a^ old cartonifieroiis fonnatioii, igneous rock
interrenzng. If. then, these palaeoaoic ooal-beds, stretching
farther to the nozth-eafL. have paitici{MUed in the cmmplings,
squeezing^, and dov chai^^es of the crush and metamorphiffln
affecting the deep-seated Devonian and other rocks, they are
likelv enough to have yielded their carbon to the mica-schists,
clay-slatesy gneiss, and qoartzites, not only as graphite, bat as
diamond ; whilst the other elements of the altered strata went
to form the mondic, ilmenite, tourmaline, and other minerals
known to have been |Hodaoed by similar metamorphism in the
diamantiffTDos rocks of BraziL

It is not found to be profitable, however, there to work these
gen^-bearing rocks, though softened by atmosjAeric and aqueous
agencies. The gxand machineiy of the rivers has carried down
and sorted the material better than man can do it. We should
not, therefore, be certain, if the birthplace of the South-African
diamond were found either in the Gats Band, at the roots of
the Draakenberg, in some isolated patches of old rock in the
Orange Biver basin, or in the material of the Karoo beds
themselves, that it would be at all profitable to attack it with
pick and shovel, or with other machinery. The more scientific
plan would be for a clear notion of the stratigraphical structure
of the whole country, and of its geological history, to be
worked out by a thoroughly educated observer ; whereby the
place of origin, the mode of transport, the sites of deposit, and
probably of re-deposit, of the coveted gems should be satis-
£Eu;torily mastered. This would be a pleasing task, and a long
work, for a hard-muscled, fever-free, enthusiastic young geolo-
gist, willing to do the Colony, nay, the world, a service, with
little hope of monetary reward. Without waiting, however, for
this perfect and disinterested guide, and for many a year to
come, the bold empiricism and blundering pluck of the white
man will snatch the bigger gems and bury myriads of good
diamond grains, and, may be, other jewels, in acres of heaped
rubbish, for John Chinaman some day to sift. And fortunes
will have come to few and misery to many, but average means
of existence to the mass of those who venture on the doubtful
groimds of hidden wealth, digging and digging imtil the soil,
as usual, gives its return of crops and herds, instead of the
hoped-for, but less desirable, gold or gem.

REVIEWS.

THE BOXES OF MAMMALS."

ITR. FLOWKR took the subject of tliB niftnimalmn skeleton for bio first
-IlL courae of lectures nt llie Collega of Surgeons. The subject was liardlr,
oaa might tbiak, a norel one ; yet the nuthor showed, b_v the number of bis
rewtrches and the peculiar views which he expressed, that it A^aa one in
wUcli, (18 in every other department of comparBtivo anatomy, originality
might be sbown. But, apart from this view of tbe matter, we think that
Ptofeasor Flower hoe done well; for he boa giren the student — what he
could not obtain before in a similarly easy manner — a sketch rnit only of
the human skdetoD, but also of the various forois of the mammalian type,
wbicb differ more or less from tbe human arrnn^RHient Unlike many,
who would have thought tbe skeleton of man unimportaot, he places
it firat nnder each section, and then deacribes the typical forms he has
choaeD to represent the orders of mammaiia. Some may imagine that a
book merely on tbe bones of tnammnh must be necessarily dry and unin-
tnestiiig. It IB not so, however ; and when one remembers that in all out
(bsnla we have nothing left but a congeries of bones, he sees the immense
importance and profit derivable from such a pursuit. It is, in tbe opinion
of many comparative anatomists, of no consequence at what part of the
Kale we begin, whether among tbe monotremala or man, But we think
Mr. Flower is just in his conceptions on this point. He says "the structure
o( man has undoubtedly a more universal iuterest than that of any other
orgKuaed being, and has therefore been more tborougbly worked out ; and,
U the majority of terms used in describing the parts composing the bodies
of vertebrate animals were ongiaally bestowed on account of tbeir form, re-
lation, or real or fancied resemblance to some object, as they were met with
in man, there are advantages in commencing with members of tbe highest
clasB, and mastering tbeir essential characters before proceeding to acquire
knowledge of the other groups." In this we quite agree, and altbongb there
ue ampler forms, yet man's osteology is so familiar to every student that

• "An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia; being tbe sub-
tance of the course of Lectures delivered at the Roval College of Surgenns
D 1870." By William Henry Flower, F.B.S., F.fi.C.S. London : ilac-
nillan, 1870.

178 POPULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW,

it natarally comes first The author, in classifying the mammals, follows
De Blidnville^s system, and divides them into Monode^ioj DiMphiOy and
OmUhodelphia, the two latter representing respectively the marst^naUa and
monotremataj 'and the first including the remaining mammals. Of the
principal mammalia he takes the following views. He places the Edentata
quite by themselves, as a low order of the mammalian division. The
Primates include man and all monkeys, and with some doubt he places
also among this group the Lemurina, Next the CTUroptera, or bats. Then
the Insectivoroy or hedgehogs, shrews, moles, &c. The Camivara he divides
into Fissipedia, including the cats, dogs, bears, and their various modifica-
tions, and the Pinmpediaj including the seals, walrus, and eared seals, or
sea-lions, as they are termed. The Cetacea contains two sub-orders — the
Mydaoeti, or whalebone whales, and the Odontocdi, including the cachalots,
narwhals, dolphins, and porpoises. Then come the StremOf including the
manati and dugong. Next the Unffulata, These he divides into the
Perissodactyla, or odd-toed, containing the horse, tapir, and rhinoceros, and
the Ariiodactylaj which he subdivides into four sections — (a) the non-
ruminating, including the pigs, peccaries, and hippopotamus; {b) the
cushion-footed, or Tylopodoj the camels, and llamas ; (c) the Trag%dinay a
group of little deer-like animals, formerly placed with the musk-deer;
(d) the Ftcora, including the deer, giraffes, antelopes, sheep, goats, and
oxen. Next comes the order Hyracoideaj including alone the genus Hyrax,
Then the Probascidea, including the Asian and African elephants; and,
lastly, the tenth order, the JRodentia, embracing the hares, rats, guinea-
pigs, porcupines, beavers, squirrels, &c The animals in the two other
divisions we have already stated. On the contents of the volume it is
as unnecessary as it would be out of place for us to enter. It is ad-
mirably lucid and wonderfully condensed. The section on the skull is a
marvellous chapter ; it contains so much in so little space. The illustrations
are remarkably clear, and have most of them been drawn for the present
work ; they are 126 in number, and they very fairly represent the osteology
of the whole mammalian group. We hope the book may have a large
sale, for it is literally the only thing of its kind in our language.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.*

WE have had more than enough of treatises on Natural Philosophy.
Yet we have had very few to which we have been able to award
even the most distant praise. Here is another treatise adapted, it is said,
for the use of schools and junior students, and what shall we say of it P In
the first place, we must observe that it is adapted to the use of schools
alone. As a book for students — such for instance as first yearns university
men — it is quite unsuited to the end ; it is a thousand times too simple
and elementary. For schools, however, we think it a very good book

• Elementary Natural Philosophy ; being a course of nine Lectures specially
adapted for the use of Schools and Junior Students." By J. Clifton Ward.
F.G.S. London: Tnibner, 1871.

179

bettex Uian most at its Irind, and it gives us great plemure tn express our
t]ipn>YBl of il- It doai not pogseas that quality which so many works of
iu cUss exhibit, vh. the manuricture tmm three or four stiuidRid treatiaes.
Of course TyndalVa and sucli-like books bare been refurred to and taken
ttom larjrely- Yet we think the authnr has selected well from the sources
to wbit^h he has gone, and we think be ts entitled to pmUe for his eflbrts.
nil Myle.too, is short and clear, and he leaves no stone unturned for his pupil,
but endeaTouM to his utainst to make the subject intelligible. The wood-
cnts Are verf ritnple, but they are Bnfficiently numerous. The author has
dealt with electricity, magnetism, li^ht. sound, heat, and pneumatics and
hydrostatics. He lias discharged his task simply and welL There is only
one thing to be resretted, and that is a list of Instruments, &c. which is
fonusbed by Messrs. Home aniThornthwaito. This is ridiculously expensive,
and is altogether out of keeping with such a work, seeing that it reaches to
no leas than Sn

STR-V^'GE DWELLEv'GS."

OF the many wiiters of popular natural history works which there are
■broad, and the multitude of works they each of them publish, there
are not many that possess excellence or accuracy. But when we look at
home what do we see ? Can we assert that the writers who produce those
handsome popular works are a whit more accurate in Engiand thou
in Fnmce or Germany ? "We fear we cannot do so to any great extent.
Whether it is Mr. Wood or M. Figuier, we fancy there is not much
to choose, though we imagine that our English author of natural historv
books cares more fnt truth than does the Frenchman. At all events, there
il no doubt at all that Mr, Wood is a marvellous Look-maker, and there
is little questloa that though some of his books may contain errors,
yet that these are few, and are partly compensated for by the ndmiisble
manner in which he describes his facts and figures his specimens. The
book before us contains some 400 pages, and is practically an abridgment
of his very best work — " Homes without Hands." We ourselves do not
we the necessity of an abridgment. " Homes without Hands " was on
sdmirable volume, exceedingly well illustrated, and, so far as we could see,
by no means too large. But of course the author has had his own ex-
perience, and we cannot blame him for producing a smaller and cheaper
edition. The work contains descriptions of animals only in reference to
iheir homes, and these are clearly and fully described and figured. The
nkelchM appear to us to be abbreviations of the larger ones in the parent
Toliune, but they are not good cuts ; indeed, this seems to us to be a point on
which the author should be blamed, for the illustrations, as compared with
those of some of the French volumes reproduced in this country, ore fur
infeiJOT — they ore thin and bold, if we may use the terms, and in many

* " Strange Bwellings ; being adescription of the Habitations of Animola."
bridged from " Homes without Hande/' By the Kev. J. G. Wood, M.A.,
L.S, Loudon: Longmans, 1671,

180 POPULAR SCIENCE BEYIEW.

cases are Terr badlj printed. The book daasifies animals according as they
(1) burrow in the grouod; or (2) suspend their homes in the air; or (3)
build them of sticks, mud, stone, and so forth ; or (4) make their haluta-
tions under the water ; or (5) live socially in communities ; or (G) are para-
utes upon other animals or plants: or, lastly (7), those which build on
branches. His account of the habits of some ftnim^U is Terr interesting.
Thus, speaking of the curious robber-crab of the Indian Ocean, a creature
whose gills are kept moistened by a store of water, which enables it to live
for a whole day of twenty-four hours without a visit to the ocean, he
quotes from Mr. Darwin, and tells us that the species ^seizes upon the
fallen cocoa-nuts, and with its enormous pincers tears away the outer
covering, reducing it to a mass of ravelled threads. This substance is
carried by the crabs into their holes for the purpose of forming a bed,
whereon they can rest when they change their shells ; and the Malays are
In the habit of robbing the burrows of these stored fibres, which are ready
picked for them, and which they use as junk. .... When the crab
has freed the nut from the husk, it introduces the small end of the claw into
one of the little holes which are found at one end of the cocoa-nut, and, by
turning the claw backwards and forwards, as if it were a bradawl, the
erab contrives to scoop out the soft substance of the nut" If we mistake
not, an exquisite woodcut accompanied this account in the parent volume,
which we wish the author had introduced into this. As we have alreadv
said, the book is a good one, but the illustrations are bad ; and that,
in these days of elaborate woodcuts, is a fault for which we think Mr. Wood
cannot be blamed too much. Description is very good in its way, but
illustration fixes it on the mind for ever.

THE STUDENT'S GEOLOGY.*

THIS, which appears a new work, and which in point of the novelties of
geology with which it abounds, is really so, is nevertheless but a new edi-
tion of a work which every biologist is already familiar with — the " Elements*'
of Geology. The ^ Elements '* was, as the author states, out of print
in 1868, and he set to work with the idea of bringing out a new edition.
But various influences were at work upon him to induce him ''not to repeat
those theoretical discussions, but to confine himself, in the new treatise, to
those parts of the ' Elements ' which were most indispensable to a beginner."
This was, in fact, to revert to the first edition of his work. It was a
difiicult task : many chapters had of course to be recast, figures of particular
specimens had to be cancelled and replaced by others, and additional illus-
trations had to be brought in. Nevertheless, Sir Charles Lyell set to the
task, and in bringing out the present new series — ** The Student's Elements
of Geology" — he has discharged a task for which he must receive the grate-
ful thanks of all who study geology, and of all those who wish to see the

♦ " The Student's Elements of Geology," by Sir Charles Lyell, Bart.,
F.II.S. London : John Murray, 1871.

REVIEWS.

161

'e think, too, thut the waafs of the render sre far better
■upjilietl tbfta Uiu modest «ulhor iiuBgiiies when be refers, in iUusLratiou, to
lhi< " olil wiiDiaD in New Enj^'Iand nho asked a bonk^wller to supply her
with the cbenpest bible ic the largest possible print.'' We look upou this
it book of Sir Charles LjelVn ns a perfect model, for it contains atmost
thiog that the geulngist nho is oot engaged in advancing the studj of
ilogy should know, while for the student it coniiiins everything which
I nquiret. We admire, too, the way in which the author hue busn at
' a to illuHtnite everything, consciaus, doubllfss, froni long experience,
f Iha ^Kt neeeyteity of htiviDg multitudes of WDod-engravio;n in a text
Ueh will be chietly rend by tbose cnrnmeocioii the study of this most
ocing and wonderful science. This will be the more evident when we
J tkat the text exleods over 000 pages, aad the wi>adcut0 reach no lees n
mber tluui (KiO. It would, of course, be iuipbasible to review a boo]( like
i> Iwjrond merely slnting our opiuian of it, u wo have dooe. But, bow-
•r, we may refer to one or two Kctiona, thowing how the author baa
It recently ascertained facts within the compose of hia space.
idall? U this shown in bia references to Carpenter and Wyrille Thom-
n'a idea of the present existence of the chalk formation, an opinion founded
■ the presence in the Atlantic of a few chalk shells hitherto considered
"We must be careful," says Sir Chafles Lyell, "not to overrate the
, fmnte of resemblance which the deep-sea investigations have placed in a
•tmng ligbL Tbey have been supposed by some naturalisU to warrant a
conclusiuii eipresrad in these words: ' We are still living in the Gretiiceoua
Epoch ' — a doctrine which has led to tauuh popukr delusion as to the bear-
ing of the new facts on geological reasoning and classification. The reader
should be reminded til at we have been in the habit offounding our great cbro-
uologicnl di\-iMoni9 notouforaminifernand sponges, noreteji on Ecbinoderm^
and comU, but on the reraainfl of the most highly organised beings available
OS, such as the molluHca, these being met with in stratilied rocks of
ery age. In dealing with tiie moUusca, il is thojeof the highest or
rt apeclalised organisation which atTord us the best clianieters in propnr-
'ir Terticat range is the moat limited. Thus the Cephalopoda are
• most valuable as having a more restricted range in time than the tiastero-
tit, rad these again are more cbnrncteristic of tbe particular stratigniphicol
' divisions than are tbe Lnmellibrancbiale bivalvet, while these again are
V (erviceable in classification than the Brachiopodn, a still lower olnas of
'i, which are the most enduring of sU. When told tbac tbe new
gioge prove that ' we are still livius' in the Olialk Periixl ' we naturally
iT some cuttle-tieh has been found with a belemuite forming put
la Internal fVnmuwork P or have Ammonites, Baeulites, Hnniites, Turri-
>, with four or live other CephAlopudous genera charade ristio of the
Ik, and unknown as tertiary, been met with in the abyseesof the ocean!'
~n the abeenee of these long extinct forma, has a single npiral univnli'e or
i» of cretaceous Oiiitoropod been found living? Or. to descend still lower
» wale, liM «ome charocteriatii! oretNoeous of Lamellibrancbiaie bivalva
. been proved to ha*e survived down to our time t ... It has boun very
"j adniittad by auncbologisln that out of a hundred speciifs of thi«
~) tribe occurring foesil in the L'pper Chnlkj one, aud one onl^,
— SO. IXXIX. O

182 POPULAR SCI£NCE REYISW.

TerebratuInM driata, is still livinfr, being thought to be identicil with T,
caput mrpentis. Although this identity is still questioned by some naturalists
of authority, it would certainly not surprise us if another lamp-shell of equal
antiquity should be met with in the deep sea." We have given at length
Sir Charles's words because they have so much weight ; not simply becaoj^s
they are his, but because of the weighty evidence they bring forward. We
do not see how th<*y can be received with the slightest doubt; and we are
the more surprised that Dr. Carpenter, although no geologist, should have
countenanced such a vdew, the more so as there is no reason to believe — ^indeed
much against the belief — that the chalk has been continuous down to the
present. In fact, to use Sir CharWs concluding remarks, " To talk of the
chalk having been uninterruptedly forming in the Atlantic from the Creta-
ceous Period to our own w as tnadmisnblein a geographical a$ a geologioalteme'^
We have been unable, from want of space, to say a word of the many valuable
discoveries of Dr. Falconer in India, of I^fessor Heer*s observations on the
Upper Miocene of Switzerland, or of Mr. Carruthers* numerously quoted
observations on fossil plants. But we mention them as particularly worthy
of note, and thus we close our notice of one of the finest text-books which
lor years has appeared in this country*

THE SUN.*

THE author of this work is, we say it without the slightest iU-feeling, or
the remotest tinge of satire, a most remarkable man. We say this, because
within the last two years we have witnessed some of his work, and because
we are taken with the most intense surprise at the vastness of his labours.
In our last number we noticed briefly an extensive work entitled " Other
Worlds than Ours," and now we have before us a still larger one of nearly
500 pages, on the most interesting, as it is certainly now the best examined,
subject in Astronomy — the Sun. And it must not for one moment be
imagined that this is a mere popular work. It is indeed rather more tech-
nical, although it is addressed to the general public. A work which deal?
with the subject of spectroscopy in the most recent manner, with the theoriei«
of the sun*s surface, taking into ample discussion the views of Loewy, De la
Rue, Secchi, Nasmyth, Dawes, and Stewart, which goes into the terribly
difficult problems of prominences and chromosphere, dealing vrith the obser-
vations of Young, Dr. Zollner, and Itespighi, and, lastly, which narrates the
several results obtained as to the corona and zodiacal light, is not a book
which can be hastily read, or one for which the reader is not highly indebted
to the author. Now, such a work is that which Mr. Proctor has set before
us. W^e can of course notice but a very feeble portion of so deeply interest-
ing a volume, thoujjrh we wish we had space to go into a thorough review
of it But we may notice from the book the author's account of Professor
liespighi's researches as to those singular projections of luminous matter
from the sun which have of late years attracted so much attention, and
created so much discussion among astronomers. Professor Respighi thinks

• « The Sun : Ruler, Fire, Light and Lafe of the Planetary System." By
Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. London : Longmans^ 1871.

BETIEW3. 1 83

iht? prominenoM linve no aaalagy to cloads, but are tnoetlj pbenomenn or
rTUplun. Where tbere lire foculn, theie life also pnnnioennea, lut tbey
are not identical witli each other. Over sun-^potg there are tow jel«, but do
high proDiiDenceB. In thu circumpohu* regions the prominences are few,
fluaU, aud last a short time. At the solar equator tkej are less active and
bequeot than in higher solar latituJes. IIh noticed some proaiinencee ex-
ceeding three minutes, or ten terrestrial diameters in altitude, and one pro-
minence had an elevation of no less than 160,000 miles. Professor Rospighi
foiiod that the formation of a prominence isnsiiallT preceded by th« appear-
anc-e of a rectilinear jet, either vertical or oblique, and very brigfht and
Weil defined. It nana to a great height, then bends bock again, and ends
b; (ailing into the sun, sometimes forming a cloud in doing so. It is m tlie
upper pnrt oC such prominences that the moat remarkable and rapid traoH-
fumiationa are t^een, but a great difference ia observed in the rate with
which pmminenc^s change figure. Their durHtiou, too, is variable— some are
minutes, some even dajs in existence. The Professor thiuks, savs Mr.
Proctor, that "the sbarpl<^-defined bases nf the eruptive jeta prove thnt
the eruplion tdkes place through nome compact eubstance forming a species
of Bolar crust lie agree* with Zollner in considering that the enormouB
Telocity with which these gaseous mnttersrush through the solar atmosphere
implies that the lattei is of exceeding tenuity."

It is out of our piwer to go further into the substaoce of this book.
The quotation we hare given shows the character of the volume, and we
ran only say that it abounds in novelties to the general reader a« striking
aa the foregoing. It is elaborately iltuatrated, the coloured lithographs of
ihe spectroscopic observations being especially good, and being valuable to
ihe general student because of their abseace from all works with which he
ODmes in contact. In point of style the work ia everj'thing that could be
desired. In ci-nclusion, we must say a word of praise for the publishers
and printers — the book ia admirably got up, both oa to paper, print, and
illustration.

THE HONEY-BEE.*

rE fint edition of this work was published, we believe, in 1838, and
was dedicated to Her Majesty, The present edition has been carried
mt by R dear firieiid of the author, whom he bad artaogod with to complete
tlu work after hia death. Yet we confess our inability to see any great
•dvuicttt which have been mode. We do not menu that the prescinl work
is not a larger and more imporlAnt volume than its parent ; hut what seems to
wil this —that. M>fnr as recent work is concerned, it really is most defective.
niere is an endlesa amount of quotation from Aristotle and Huber and the
nvenJ old aaatomisls who did so much good work. But we do not Hnd
uy account of recent researches, at least anything worth speaking of. The
sdiUr aaye he has been abroad, and it surprises us that he has not heard of

* "The Honej-bee: Its Natural History, Physiology, and Management."
Bv Edward Sevan. M.U. I^vised, enlarged, and illustrated b; William
Augustus Milun, r.R.H.S. London : \'aji Voorst, 1870.

184 POPULAR SCIENCE BEYIEW.

the multitudinous work and experiments of the German bee-masters. Manr
of the statements which the volume contains have been long ago shown to
be incorrect. In no case is this more marked than in the anatomy of the
bee ; the author's most recent authority seeming to be Cuvier. Indeed, it
would seem to us as though the editor's '' bar and frame hive ** was the only
novelty in the volume, and was the sole cause why a new edition has been
brought out. No doubt the opinions of the older anatomists and bee-culti-
vators are of interest, but that they are now completely out of date there
is not the least doubt in the world. For instance, it is perfectly absurd to
make up a book by inserting the matter which has filled various works
during the last century or so. If we may so express ourselves, the book is
too much of the type of '^ Kirby and Spence," and has the disadvantage
of being vastly older. We certainly do not regard it as in any shape
or form worthy to be styled a modem work upon the subject it is supposed
to treat. Doubtless, it contains an immense store of facts ; but then these
are to be found in every work of the kind published for the last fifly years,
and, what is worse, a very large number of them are utterly unreliable.

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.^

IT is surprising, but not the less true, that, great as one would expect the
interest to be produced by a knowledge of the human frame, and
interesting as one would imagine the study of the human frame to be,
nevertheless books on physiology have almost always been a failure so far
as the general public is coucerned. Great as may be their wonder when some
Mmple phenomenon in the human frame is explained, and intense as may
be their interest under peculiar circumstances in knowing even the most
elementaiy part of the human structure, yet, nevertheless, when good books,
amply illustrated, are placed within their reach by popular writers, they
are seldom or never purchased, and they almost invariably cause a dead
loss to either the author or the publisher. Holding these views, we cannot
hope for a very extensive sale of the work before us, and this opinion
becomes the stronger when we remember the exceedingly small number —
forty-five in all^-of illustrations which it contains. Of course we must not
expect very much accuracy in the illustrations to a Wi)rk which is popular
and from the French. The woodcuts are fair, but thev convey a verv
inaccurate idea of the structure for which they are intended, and we fancy
that M. Leveille, the artist, did not engrave them in many cases from actual
specimens, but from drawings ; in fact, the sketch of bone-structure which is
on one of the pages, is a pui*ely imaginary combination of parts, and indeed the
same may be said of the ** rods of Jacob " in the section on the eye. Still,
on the whole, the descriptions are very good, and have been rendered into
admirable English by the translator; so that altogether the book is an
excellent one, especially for the artist class. We wish it success.

• " Wonders of the Human Body. From the French of A. Le Pileur,
Doctor of Medicine." London : Blackie and Son, 1871.

EBVIEWS. 1 85

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM/

TTNTIL Professor Owen's great work came out' in its three volumes,
^ Rymer Joneses work was the best which we had in our language upon
the entire subject of comparative anatomy. Even still it is the most
comprehensive book we possess on the subject of the Invertebrate sub-
kingdoma of the animal world. Being written in a style which very few
of our science men possess-^a style which is simple and terse, yet wonder-
fully descriptive and telling — it possesses for the general student many
advantages, for the writer makes matters as clear and intelligible as they
can poesibly be ; it possesses, moreover, nearly six hundred admirable en-
gravings taken from the best writers of the time. It is therefore an ex-
cellent work so far. But when we ask how much has it been brought up
to the present day, we are astonished at the answer we are obliged to give.
In no respect does it represent zoology as it now is. In hardly a single
instance has the author taken even the faintest trouble to correct or
modify his remarks, and though he tells us that he has done this in regard
to the Protosoa and CalenteratOj we can see not the least evidence of his
having gone into the matter as he should have done. The same figures,
the same letters, which twelve or thirteen years ago conveyed the moat
erroneous ideas, convey them still without the faintest alteration or emen-
dation. This id really too bad in a work profestiing to be a new edition,
and published in 1871. The book is simply tout entier the same work
which was published we fear to say how many year8 ago. If Professor
Jones wished to bring out a proper new edition of his work, we doubt not
he could have found abundance of young, zealous, and accomplished men to
have undertaken the task. As it is, he has brought out an old work in
a new cover, and endeavours to lead us to believe that it represents the
history of the animal woild as we know it in 1871. This has been a sad
mistake, and one we fancy by which the publisher must most seriously
saffer.

THE PROGRESS OF MEDICINE.t

EVIDENTLY the author of this work tries to do his best. He labours
very extensively to bring out a Report which shall be useful. Yet he
Hails most seriously. Ris work is a nondescript collection of all kinds of
matters relating to medicine, and no one part is complete. The half-yearly
volumes which we have been accustomed to so long are infinitely and

• "General Outline of the Organisation of the Animal Kingdom, and
Manual of Comparative Anatomy.'" By Thomas Rymer Jones, F.K.S., Pro-
fessor of Comparative Anatomy in King's College, London; late FuUerian
Professor of Physiology to the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Fourth
edition. London: Van Voorst, 1871.

t Dr. Dobell's "Reports on the Progress of Practical and Scientific
Medicine in different parts of the World." Contributed by numerous and
distinguished coadjutors. Vol. II. (from June 1869 to June 1870). Lon-
don : Longmans, 1871.

186 FOPTLAB 8CIB5CK ABVUW.

jiumejiMtrlj befrxre tbis Toliime. Like one wbo does imt midentaiid tlie
Dftture of his to^k, he is led awmj bj anj great name. For instanee. in the
present rolame, Profeasor Villemin is allowed to take vp Bearij one-nxth
of the space with an account of French anatomj and phjaologj, while
there i« hardlj a line on German work, which is about six timea aa Tast, and
much mrire of which ought to be in this treatise. When we tell oar leaders that
Vr, Dobell relates the progress which tbis countzr has made during a whole
year in anatomy and phjdology, normal and morbid, in cbemiatrT, and the
whole of the practice of medicine and surgery in about 300 pagea, we bare
said enough to show the intense yanity and the extreme ignorance exhibited
by Such a scheme. The b«x>k has really yery little yalue, saye and except
to the author, who, notwithstanding the adyioe we offered when the fint
yolume appeared, seems still desirous of showing the world another one.
Jtoubtless many medical men think it a really good book ; but thoae who are
familiar with the real amount of work in the several departments, both at
home and abroad, must regazd it as the most imperfect, incomplete, and
yain record of the laboun of the profession.

SCIEXCE GOSSIP/

HAKDWICKFS << Science Gossip*' has completed its aixth yolume, and
we must compliment its editor, Mr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., upon the result
Mr. Cooke has done good work, and the public appreciate his labours, as we
are yer}' glad to proclaim. Indeed, in this yolume it is hard to see that anything
in neglected which could interest the reader. Every conceivable subject in
general natural history is dealt with, and that too well and fully, while at
the name time those who care for *^ gossiping natural history '* will find it
abundantly in the ** Notes and Queries,'* which abound in interesting jottings
about animals and plants. Of the many valuable and interesting papers,
there are one or two to which we would call attention. One of them ia
called *' The Towing Net," and is from the pen of Major Holland. It con-
tains a miscellaneous store of knowledge, conveyed in a style most praise-
worthy. We do not say that it is excessively scientific, but it is, we think,
just the species of paper for " Science Gossip." Another very excellent
paper is one entitled *' Eggs of Butterflies and Moths.*^ Unhappily the
author's name is not given ; but we cannot pass it by without noticing that
it contains a mafls of information, conveyed just as such knowledge should
be conveyed. We have looked in vain for faults ; all through the journal
strikes us as a perfect one, and one which distances competition by the mar-
vellous price at which it is published.

♦ Hardwicke's " Science Gossip." An Illustrated Medium of Interchange
and Gossip for Students and Lovers of Nature. Edited by M. C. Cooke,
M.A. London : Hardwicke, I87I.

187

ESSAYS ON DARWINISM."

PSTEBBING had done, we thiak, wisely in reprinting hia aeries of
aaye, luid although some of Lbeai onlj relate to Dfirwiakiu iudirecUj,
fee Are they very Ciir arguments in bvour of the pliilasophy of the great
master : and boing moreover couched in booiely luniiuii)^, und being jliort,
they itre likely to prove an introduction to DarwinUni in mnay cnaea. We
lind it impo^gible to go int« the several chapters of which the work consists,
but it certainly strikes ub that the dret, which relates U> some of the
dilliculties which peasoDable people have in iiccepting BarwiDism, is par-
ticularly good and clew. The author, of course, does not touch any uf the
dnrper argunxiatB which underlie Mr. Darwia'ij theory, and which are yet
r<«Uy uudeddeil, whiuh even Mr. Dai'win himself cannot gel over, and
which otand in the way of the general acceptance of bin views. But he
^■lances st the stxoDgei ai^umenls in favour of the doctrine, and be arguea
dearly luid truly in most winning style. His book may he strongly com-
mended to those wiio have not yet tnken up any of Darwin's worlu, or
who flul to understand them.

^P SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE.t

WHILE now there is so much talk upon tluaauhject — while Professor
Huxley, leader of the scieutitic world, is coat&jtiuji; with tboae
numlwra of men who delight iu doing nothing save what their ancestors
have done before thum, and who abhor tliat which is new— the liook Iwfore
us is one to be read by every person detjirous of information on so vast a
pubject. Jt is a hirge, well-ill us tmted by page-plates of several schools, aqd
hiuidsotuely (lOt up volume. It deals succinctly and briefly with the several
•cbnols wljich it describes, and it is arranged so that the reader may if
be cbouse go hurriedly through it, and pick out the black-Jettcr heading'^ of
nuj department he may select. Jt treats of elementary schools in con-
nection with the Committee of Council on Education, of schools in con-
aeclion with the Science and Art Department of the Council, of schools
under the Admiralty, of those under the War Secretary, of those under the
directiau of the Ilonie Department Secretary, those under the Ponf-Law
Board, those under the Commissioners of Luancy, of schools not aided by
public grants, and lastly, of training colleges of the Committee of CounciL
Under these several beads there is given a great deal of information, wbich
will be invaluable to memliera of the new School Boards, and all who have

real with education under the existing changes. Mr, Bortley deserves
best tiianks of the people for imdertaking so vast a labour, and he has
- "Essays on Darwinism." By Thomas R. Stebhing, M.A., Iat«
Fellow iwd Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford. Loudon r Longmans,
JS7I.

" The Schools for the People ; c

'.iS 'I

bt-parUnent. London : Bell & Daldy, 1871.

(y Ueorge U, T. Hartley, Kxaminer Science and Art
Bell&Dal<" ""-'

188 POPULAR SCIOCE REVIEW.

our extreme gratification at the manner in which he has discharged an
extremely diflicult task; His work must be read by all engaged, either
directly or indirectly, with education.

THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.^

AMONG the numerous opponents of Mr; Darwin's doctrines — and that
they have been numerous a search through our literature for the past
few years will demonstrate clearly — there were none worthy of considera-
tion till Mr. Mivart appeared upon the field; And he has come with so much
force, so much knowledge from reading, so much practical acquuntance
with the subject of natural history, that anything which he may have to
say will have to be heard with gravity and thoughtfulness. But apart
from these, the author's characteristics, the volume itself is one which, from
the closeness of its argument, the multitude of examples it contains illus-
trating its author's opinions, the great incompleteness of the Darwinian
theory which it conscientioubly exposes, and, above all, the calm, dignified,
and conscientious tone which prevails throughout its pages, has qualities
that in the highest degree commeild it to the general and scientific reader.
For ourselves, we may as well say at the outset, that it has not convinced
us of the force of the views which it endeavours to prove, but we mu«t
equally admit that we have learned much from it that our mind had failed
to take in before, and that it has led us to admit a view of natural selection
more extended, vastly, than that to which Mr. Darwin's works give place.
It appears to us that in admitting this extension of " natural selection," we
admit all that is necessary to prove in favour of Mr. Darwin's dictum ; but
we confess that it is alone to Mr. Mivart's efforts that we have altered our
opinion so seriously on this one point. In reference to the latter portion of Mr.
Mivart's book and his opposition to Pangenesis, we differ entirely from him.
With the theological part of the volume we totally disagree, but that may
be disregarded in the present place ; but we think his arguments against
Pangenesis of the very feeblest description, and we could have wished them
excluded from so admirable a volume. The one fact that a particle which
can bo merely seen by our eyes, may be practically as large as the whole
world, and is infinite in division, is of it<«elf sufficient in support of the
principle which Mr. Darwin holds, while in almost every other point the
doctrine of Pangenesis serves to explain phenomena, and without it, it
appears to us, we are without any reasonable explanation of a whole host
of natural facts.

We cannot, of course, in our short space do anything like justice to so
admirable a b<>ok, for we can in no case give a statement of the author's
many and closely-reasoned arguments. But we may briefly state what he
attempts to prove in the course of the closely-reasoned pages of which his
work consists. The following is a brief summary of his case : ** That

* " On the Genesis of Species." By St. George Mivart, F.R.S. London :
Macmillan, 1871.

BBYIEWS. 1 89

Batandflelection is incompetent to account for the incipient stages of useful
itnictttres. That it does not harmonise with the co-existence of closely
limiUr stractures of diTerse origin. That there are yroundsfor thinking that
tpecific differences may be developed suddenly instead of gradually. That the
opinion that species have definite though very different limits to their
Ttriability is still tenable. That certain fossil transitional forms are absent
which might have been expected to be present. That some facts of geo-
graphical distribution supplement other difficulties. That the objections
dnvnfrom the physiological difference between " species " and " races*' still
exists unrefuted. That there are many remarkable phenomena in organic
fonns upon which natural selection throws no light whatever, but the ex-
planation of which, if they could be attained, might throw light upon specific
origination.

It is, as we have said, out of the question our endeavouring to give place to

qootations firom the volume ; our space does not permit it. We may observe,

bow6rer,thatMr. Mivart, as we have already stated, proves, we think, decidedly

tliat specific differences may be developed suddenly, and in many, if not all,

cases are so developed. Admitting this, we can go no further. lie has

raised difficulties ; he has produced numberless cases which are against the

doctrine laid down by Mr. Darwin, but he has not given any in support of

Mr. Darwin *8 views, and these we know to be infinite in number. He quotes

Sir W. Thomson in support of the earth's age, but many persons are opposed

to these views, which are at the best extremely hypothetical. Taking

a difficult line of argument — and there are none more so than Mr. Darwin's

^he asks why the geological record is not more popular ; forgetting, as it

seems to us, that the geologic facts must always be of the most rudimentary

character, seeing that whole rock-formations may have been formed and

washed away again, and indeed have been so. Mr. Mivart is, it seems to

U8, a little too much in favour of hia own theory, and has not given Mr.

Darwin's any of the immense arguments in its favour. This, however, has

been done unwittingly, for all through the volume there is the best of good

feeling shown. Indeed, it is the only book we have ever seen where a

purely controversial question is treated so fully and so fairly, and our best

ibanks are due to the author on this account. We cannot admit all that

he desires to prove, but it appears to us that the book is worthy of a high

rank from its having proved one point, and that a most important one. It

is a volume which deserves to be read by every naturalist, and one which

will continue to live long after its author has ceased to exist.

The Studenfs Guide to the Practice of Measuntig and Valuing Artificers^
Works, by R W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. New edition. London : Lock-
wood, 1871. — This is a valuable work for all who desire a standard guide
to the methods employed by surveyors in their measurement of builders'
works. The several rules and plans it contains appear good and clear.
Extending over more than 300 pages, it necessarily deals largely with the
sabject, and is so copiously illustrated that we think the student need have
little difficulty in mastering it We wish our space would permit us a
longer notice, for the book really deserves it.

190 POPULAR 8CIENCB BXVTXVT.

MdaUography as a Separate Science, S^,y by T. AUen BIytb, M.A., Fh.D.
London : Longmanfly 1871. — ^Dr. Blyth seems as fond of poetry as of
metallography, and uses it largely in the book. We do not see the fbfoe
of his arguments in fay our of making this a separate science firom chemistiy,
nor do we see anything new that is yaluable in his pages. The book contains
some facts not stated in moat chemical works, but they are yery few. We
do not approye of the yolume Umi entier,

Atchley^s CivU Engineer^ and Contractors^ BisUimUe and Price-hock for
Home or Fureiffn Service, by W. D. IlaakoU, C.R London: Lockwood,
1871. — This book will be found useful by all who are engaged in building,
&c. It contains, arranged in tables, the costs of every conceiyable work
connected with building, fencing, draining, road-making, &c It seenua
good book.

On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Pern, by Dayid Forbes, F.RS.,
F.G.S., &c. London : Taylor & Francis. — Mr. Forbes has here reprinted for
private circulation his admirable esftay, read before the Ethnological Society
in June last It contains 100 pages, six page-plates, most admirably
executed, and a long list — a sort of dictionary— of the words in the language
of the people. The book is most interesting, but it is especially yaluable
because of the measurements of bones of this peculiar people which it contains,
and which we believe have been considered very valuable by Mr. Darwin.

T?ie Elements of Algebra and Trigonotnetry^ by W. M. Griffin, B.D.
London: Longmans, 1871. — This is the latest of Messrs. Longmans* ad-
mirable series of scientific works. It seems to be a well-arranged manual,
containing abundant examples, and leading the student on fairly. It is, of
course, intended for artisans and others, but we fear for few of the former.

Aunt RacheVs Letters about Water and Air, London : Longmans, 1871. —
Is A simple plain account of the leading phenomena in the branches of
natural philosophy taken up. We can recommend it for young boys and
girls.

The Aboriginal Tribes of the Nilgiri Hills, by Lieut-Col. W. Ross King,
F.R.G.S. London : Longmans, 1871. — These singular people are very well
described in a paper read by Col. King before the Anthropological Society,
and reprinted here. The paper is a most interesting one, and will repay
perusal.

The Modes of Dying and the means of obviating the tendency to Death, by
W. F. Cleveland, M.D. London : Churchill, 1871.— This is Dr. Cleveland's
annual address to the Harweian Society. Without containing anything
absolutely new, it is a forcible address and contains some very curious
cases. We think the author is to be thanked for pointing out methods not
new, but too unknovni, for prolonging and saving life.

Manual of the Science of Colour, by William Benson, Architect London :
Chapman and Hall, 1871. — This is really a book which should be in the
hands of every artist, and of all who have to do with colour. It is to our
minds the only accurate view which has been put forward. We have passed
this opinion before, and we hope that the book will be appreciated.

REVIEWS* 191

Odd Showers f or an Explanation of the Rain, ^c, by Carribber. London :
Kerbj & Son, 1870. — A little book which teUs of the followinf^ showers :
inSMCtSy fishes, soot, sand, and ashes ; sleet, rain, snow and meteorites. It is a
useful and very small work.

77^ Year Book of Facts in Science and Art, by John Timbs. London :
Lockwood, 1871. — This little book contains about the usual number
of mistakes and errors. It opens with a fair engraidng of Professor
Huxley.

Everybody's Year Book for 1871 is Messra Wyman*s sixpenny annual.
It is a wonderful book, containing a little of almost everything and very well
arranged.

We have also received The Typhoid Fever in ItUngton traced to the Use of
Impure Milk, by Edward Ballard, M.D. London : Churchill, 1871. The
Astral Hebrew Alphabet, London: Mackintosh, 1871. The Correlation of
Zymotic .Diseases, by A. Wolff, F.R.C.S. London : J. A. Churchill, 1871.
Letters on Vaccination, by William Woodward, M.D. Worcester : Deighton
and Son, 1871 ; and also a series of Reports of Patents and Abstracts of
Patents relating to the Preservation of Food, by W. W. Archer, Registrar-
General of Victoria, from Melbourne, Australia.

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Belation to Sex. — By Charles
Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. 2 vols. London : John Murray, 1871. — We regret
that this volume came into our hands too late for a notice in this number.
It is a work of great importance, and one which could not be hastily
reviewed. We notice its arrival, however, for the benefit of our readers,
and in acknowledgment of the book from the publisher.

192

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY.

■♦o*-

ASTRONOMY.

rpnE Total Solar Edipse of December 22.— At lengrth the question of the
corona — at least that great general question which had for the last few
months been so earnestly discussed — is disposed of. It seemed, indeed, when
the first intelligence came from the eclipse parties as though it would still
remain a moot point whether the corona is in large part a terrestrial pheno-
menon, Hs Mr. Lockyer has urged, or whether not only the inner and brighter
portion, but the outer radiated and fainter parts, belong to a true solar
appendage. From Gran we heard of complete failure — a failure the more
diitappointing because so many of our most eminent men of science, as well
as Janssen, the French spectroscopist, had betaken themselves thither. From
Spain came news of the confirmation of the American ob6er\'ation8 of 18()i>,
and, vaguely, of successful photographic operations — but notbing which
promised to decide the questions at issue. From Syracuse we heard but of
** substantial '' results, which a long experience has taught us to regard as
meaning — all but total failure. No one would have supposed, to judge from the
meagre telogranis which alone reached us from Syracuse, that a brilliant suc-
cess had rewarded the section under Mr. Brothers* charge. So rapidly had
telegraphic news come to us when nothing important had to be told, that
everyone was prepared to hear of the complete failure of those photographic
operations from which so much had been expected. In fact, letters from
Mr. Rrothf^rs himself lirst announced a success, which, in reality, is the dis-
tinguishing feature of the eclipse operations.

Comparing the accounts first received, there seemed, as we have said, no
pnmiise of a decision. At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society
on .January 13, Lord Lindsay's photographs were exhibited, and they seemed
unsuited to decide the questions at issue. The accounts of Lieut. Brown,
Mr. Hudson, M.A. (Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge), and of others,
were read, and only one matter referred to seemed to suggest the possibility
that a decisive answer might be given to those questions. It was mentioned
that at three stations, separated by spaces of about six miles, observers had
noticed, opposite the south-eastern quadrant of the moon, a well-marked
V-shaped gap. This was pictured in a fine drawing by Lieut. Brown, who
mentioned that underneath the gap — that is, between the apex of the V and
the corona — the bright inner portion of the corona was shallower than else-
wliere — a most important observation if confirmed (as we shall presently see

SCIENTIFIC SUIIMART. 193

IliM it wi«e). But AH yet w

ificellent lU it was in iUelf, i

thuee mnnr wild pitturea of total eulipnes wltieb liave caused ere now so

much peiplexitj.

Prewntlj came a paper from Mr. Lockyer (wlio had unfortunately not
baan fcvoured with a view of the eclipse), Buiiiuiin^ up the evidence which
had retiched him^Heemingly in a very iiiiperfetrt form. Ilia conclusjnn
was that the inner and brig'hieT part of the corona certainly belongs la the
inn, the outer faiater and rHdiated portion beinjf, he judgi'd, ns certainly
i(moa[)h(>ric. Tie founded this opinion oil the difiereoce which could be
di«cerned b«tweeu the various pictureH of the coronal radiatiuuB.

Bui the end was not yet. A photoffniph taken by Mr. Willard (an Ame-
ticaa observer], in Sprda, had heen found to show the great V-shuped gup
which has been trendy referred to as seen by obserring piirtiee at widely-
wpanlwl Spanish stations; and by about this time the tardy news of Mr.
Brothers' success had rsached his friends in England, who hnalened to
annouDCti it aa publicly as possible. He bad taken ail pboto^nnphs, imd in
tie ttflh " the corona ia Been," he wrote, " as it was neter shown on glnsx
Mon," Would the V-«baped gap be there '-* Tbis was the thought which
Dcearred to all who undentood the position of the vexata guetCio. At length
rofiea of his negative were sent to Hstronoiueis ; and there the great pip
«as Been — untniBtakably the moat remarkable fbalure of the picture. Two
i>lher rifts, fainter and not rtncbing so far towards the sun's limb, were well
BhowD: and on a reference to the American pbotogmph it was found that
there hIm, though Iws dearly, thti place of these rifts could he discemed.
In Li^ut. Brown's picture, nod in a picture taken by Professor Watson in
Sicily, the corresponding deprespione of the inner and brighter part of the
ooTOna were clearly indicated in corrvaponding ailUBtinna. When it is added
that tit Mr. Brothels' pfaolograph the radiations extend on one side to more
titan half a de)p«c from the place of the eclipsed sun, and on the otlier nearly
a degree, the decisive character of the evidence this noble jncture has given
will be immediately recognised.

It would seem, however, that un imperfect drawing of this photograph
had been sent to Mr. Lockyer, who found the place of the great gap — as
deterniined by two prominences — not strictly coincident with the place it
occupies in the American photograph. Comparing this imperfect drawing
with the photograph, in company with the American professors (Young and
Winlock), became to the oiincluaion (from which they did not wholly at that
time diteent) that the gaps photographed by Mr. WUlard and Mr. Brothers
were ditlerent pheoomuaa. Accordingly, in a second paper on the eclipiie,
he renewtd the statement that the outer part of the corona is terreslrial.

But already photographic copies of the two negatives had been made to a
common scale. Only a day or so afterwards, Professor Winlock examined
■uoh copies in company with Dr. Huggins, and expressed the opinion that
the two great gaps are certainly the same in the American photograph and
Mr. Brothers' — the two fainter ones probably so, but too faint for certainty,
Hir John Herschel received similar copies, and in a letter read by Air.
HH^Biaat tbe meeting of the Royal .Astronomical Society on March 10,
^^Btenu astronomer expressed his conviction that the ctuncidence of so

194 roruLAM sciexcb rktiew.

^vifrH-maiked a tmUae dijipoped finaUj of the teiTeftrial tlieoiy. Dr. Balfour
Stewrt, in a letter read at the aune meetinfr, pointed to the decirire nature
of the evideooe affoided br the daricneas of the moon in Mr. Brothers* pho-
to^rraph. mentioiiing, alao (as Mr. Proctor had already done in a paper read
a Tear befoie *), that on d priori gioiinds the atmospheric explanation of
the ndiadona maa imtejiable, idnoe the proportion which atmoapheric glare
due to the inner corona wonld bear to the corona itself would be the same,
or nearlr »o, as the proportion which the atmoapheric glare in full sunlight
beai9 to that sunli^ht-T-Le. would be exceedinglj smalL In ftct, at this
meeting of the Roral Astronomical Society one piece of evidence after
another was brxMight to bear againat the unfortunate '^ atmospheric glare '*
theorr, in whose £iTour not one of those present seemed ready to venture a
woid.

The BtmA* cf ike EeHpm ErpeHtioiu. — ^Freed thus from the incubus of
an erroneous theoir which had too lonir been suflfered to attract attention,
let us consider the real results of the late expeditions. One can hardly
speak of the proof that the corona has a real existence, and is a real solar
appendage, as a result of the late expeditions, because it had, in effect, been
demonstrated much earlier: though undoubtedly the acquisition of evidence
easily interpietable and generally convincing must be regarded as a gain.
But the student of science haa a right to inquire what fresh knowledge has
been acquirad. It appears to us that by far the most important result of the
expeditions is to be found in the evidence which the photographs give as to
the structure of the corona. We have seen that Lieut. Brown had noticed
that the inner and brighter part of the corona is much shallower where the
great gap appears, and that lYofeseor Watson's drawings confirm this. But
the evidence i^ the American photographs and Mr. Brothers's is decisive on
the point The Ci>nespondenoe between the outer radiations and the inner
brighter portion of the corona is unmistakable. This is a phenomenon
wi^rthy of the most careful study. It can only be explained — nobis judid'
hm* — as due to the action of solar forces exerted radially; but whether
thi>st> forces be eruptive, or simply repulsive, is not so clear. The action of
eruptive forces sufficing to accoimt for the observed extension of the corona
may seem at first to involve an incredible degree of activity beneath the
solar photosphere ; but when it is mentioned that a velocity only three times
as great as that with which the hydrogen of the prominences b observed to
be fiung out (after passing through the denser lower regions of the solar
air) would suffice to project matter as far as our own earth, while a veiy

• He thus wrote (*' Monthly Notices " for March 1870) : " We know how
small a relation ordinary atmospheric glare bears to direct sunlight, and the
glare due to the prominences and chromosphere '* (an objectionHble word —
ne should have written SMim) ** would bear a similar relation to the direct
light from those sources." He added that the light from this source '' would
extend over the moon*s disc, since it would illuminate the air between the
observer and the moon's body.'' The fact that such li^ht was recognised by
the spectro&copists during the late eclipse — the bright line coronal spectrum
being actually discernible when the spectroscope was directed to the middle
of the moon*s disc, shows how, by careful reasoning, the results of observa-
tion may be anticipated.

eciENTinc sriiMAiiY. 19.>

e of velocity could csny niHttfr nwat from the sun
trtrto Tttum, this objection nill oot appear decisive. We iui);lit ibuu, aleo
by extemliag aimilu' coDBideratiODS to the stars). lind an ex{ila:iBtion of
licwe facta on the strength of wiiich Mr. StAnislas Ueiinier baa udupiL-d the
Klief tLat iueteorit«a are lutral in origin, as well us tboic yet more reinark-
»blK facta repealed bj Mr. Sorby's microscopic, und the late ProreBsor Or«-
bam'a cfaemioil, aanljaia of tliese bodies. The great ceiocity of some nieteoni,
or (which is the same thing) the hyperbolic hgure of the paths on which they
•ppmacb the sun — a phenomenon hitherto deemed inexplicable — would tw
aucouuwd for alio ifl this manner. But nhHtever theory we adopt tu iu-
terprat the matter, it remains an a deniunstrated fact that the corona indi-
cates tbe action of radial solar forces.

Among«t other results of the eclipse Fipedidons must be mentioned the
important observation made by ProfeMor Young and Mr. Pye, of the reTersai
of all the Fraiinhofer lines close by the sun's limb nt the instant of totality
and for a few seconds after. This proTes that there is close by and outside
the TiBible photosphere a dense and highly complex atmosphere. We may
My, in fact, that Professor Young and Mr, Pye have determined the birth-
place ol the Pratiiihofer lines. Mr. Ixitkrer, indeed, has expressed doubbt
whether Professor Voung and Mr. Pye could have seen the Fraiinhofer lines
thus reversed ; because he considers that tlie method by which the limb of
the uneclipsed sun Is spectroacopically observed ought uniformly to show the
T«ver«al, whereas be has observed it but once Mid Professor Young never,
lie has omitted to consider, however, that in one important — or, rather, essen-
tial — reFpuct, an observation made at the moment of totality, when the solar
and lunar limbs touch, must have an enormous advantage over one made by
the Junssen method. The efiecU of irradiation, and of the sensible dimensions
of the optical image ofeach point oF the solar photoepheKJ, would in tlielntter
case more than suffice to obliterate all traces of the complex atmosphere,
even though that atmosphere were a hundred miles or 60 deep (as was
pointed out in Mr. I'roctor's papers iu the lest number but one of this
DiagBiine *). But wiien the liuih is viewed as by Young and Pye botli
these efiecis are completely got rid of. It may be added that Father Succbi's
observalioD of a continuous spectrum at the very limb of the uneclipsed sun
is confirmed, as Professor Y'oung points out, by the reversal of the Fraiin-
hofer lines seen by the latter and Mr. Pye.

Great doubt rests on the polariscopic observations, insomuch that while
•lime are assured that the light of the corona was mdinlly polarized, others
are equally positive that it was either polarized in the same plaue as the at-
mospheric liglit, or not at all. The spectroscopic observations prove that the
light of the corona may be divided into two chief portions — one giving a
flint continuous spectrum (probably this is the largest portion of the eoirona's

* We ate requested to state that in the last line but one of p. 40 in our
last number, Mr. I'roctor has, by niUtaio, written " the honorary secretary ''
Ua "theaaaistanthnnoniry seerelriry.Mr. A.C, Ranyard." It wasduetothe
Iteoua letters of this gentltman that some who look part in the expedi-
tt were prevented from withdrawing on the score of rather abrupt treat-

196

FOPULAB 8CIENCB SKYIBW.

light, notwithstanding its faintness when dispersed), the other giving a spec-
trum of hrifirht lines, of which far the brightest is either the line *^ 1474 "
of KirchhofTs scale, or Terr close indeed to it. This line is seen in the
Rpectrum of iron, and appears in the spectrum of the aurora. Profeeeor
Youn^ had long since mentioned reasons for believing that it beloogi to a
new element, and this view has lately been adopted by Mr. Lockyer.

On the strength of observations made during the eclipse Father Seochi
expresses the assurance that the chromosphere is not a solar atmosphere,
but made up of many relatively minute prominences.

Sun -Spot Observations at Kew. — The following summary of sun-spot
observations made at Kew has been communicated to the Royal Astrono-
mical Society by Messrs. De la Rue, Stewart, and Loewy.

Months.
January

February

March .

April .

May

June

July .

August

September

October

November

December

Total

213

403

Tliev remarked that the vear 1870 " was characterised bv an exuberance of
solar energy which is without parallel since the beginning of systematic
observations (I.e. since 1825). The number of observed groups far exceeds
that in any previous year ; and it appears also from a cursory comparison
with the maximum years' observations, as recorded by Hofrath Schwahe,
that the magnitude of the different groups, as well as the average amount of
spotted surface during any period of the year, is unprecedented." As the
latter half of the year shows an increase of no less than thirty-five groups
over the first half it seems likely that the maximum has not yet been passed,
even if it has been readied. " A very remarkable feature of the groups
observed during: tlie year," adds the report, ** appears to be their remarkable

lifetime There can be no doubt, from the observations, that an ex-

ct^edingly large number of groups completed three, four, and even more
revolutions before finally collapsing. Whether this peculiarity in the be-
haviour of groups belongs to all maximum years — whether the groups in
minimum years are, on the whole, of a more ephemeral existence — and, fur-
ther, in wliat manner tlie duration of any single group is connected with or
dependent on its magnitude and the law of periodicity, are questions very
tbrdbly suggested by the observations of the past year."

Notes QH the Floor of Plato. — Mr. Birt continues his collection of obser-
Tations on the floor of Plato. He considers it not impossible that the

DttJBOf

Dajv
without

Nmnberof
new

lenration.
11

spots.

groups.

26 '

SCIENTIFIC SEMJIAHT. 197

I^SI^iw explained bm due tn a present lunar octhity i but be addn,
■my prudently, " Ibut it is desirnble olwe'rvalinns ehould be multiplied, espe-
cially as there are gtroDu objections to sucli a view, thaugh the idea hw
been mooted dwiaf; the laat eighty rears."

SupjM/ftl NetB Variable in Orion. — Mr. Webb calls ittleDtion to n red star
in Onun which he coDsidfrs to be sko (lilie many other red star", by the
w*y| a Tariable atnr. lie laja: " I iinre at pre.aent do mentis of giving its
place with due accuracy, but it is easily found about 6m. ISr. iu time we«t
of 42 Oriouia, and nearly on the pamllel of a minute open pair, about IL
mi)niilude, W or 10' DOith of that atftr.

I\riodicai Cliimge$ in the Ph'jaad Cimdltion of Jupiter. — 'Ht. A. C. Ran-
^FBrd notes evidence in favour of Mr. browning's view that the recent changes
in the appearance of Jupiter m»y he associated with those solar disturhaoees
which have recently been so reuinrkable. " A similar increase of colour aud
liright egg-shaped markings " in the great equatorial belt, "were obserfed,"
be remarks, -'in the years 1&58, I8.M), and I860. Mr. Hu^-gina, Mr. Airy,
ind Sir W. K. Murray all noticed and figured them, their drawings, m
xatnj respects, corresp»ndin(( with those made in the course of la<it season."
la 1S60 the aim showed manyapols. In 1850, when the eunwM also much
([lotted, Jupiter ww similarly disturbed. Mr, Raayard also quotes earlier
instance*!, He notices "a most interesting rcmart of Cassini's," which
islalea, however, to a well-kn.iwn peculiarity of Jupiter's spots. Cassini
''ubserved that the bright markings upon Jupiter had a proper motion of
their own, and that that motion was greater the nearer the spots were
•iluated to Jupiter's equator." This hna been often noticed aince; but
jKerhaps the most remarkable known tDstance of this excess of motion
Dear tbe equator is the case of the dark rift seen across a bright belt for
six weeks in succession in the spring of 1860. The equatorial or southern
rod of this rift travelled away from tlie northern end at the rate of about
100 miles per hour I This rapid proper motion of one end of a vaat rift
in a cloud-belt — to say nothing of the persistence of the rift for at least
100 rotations of the planet (that is, by day and by night for 100 Jovian
days) — surely disposes elTectuidly of the theo that th 1 ud belts of Jupiter
arw raised by solar action resembling that to wh h ou own cloud-regions
ere due. Mr. Banynrd closes his paper wi h h rem k b t "if a future
more complete examination of the observati ns f J p hould confirm

the Buspiciirti that the sun and Jupiter have he a p id of maximum
disturbance, it would appear ^J show that h al ma s n Jupiter are
d-pendeut upon some cosmical change, and a n an fl" ct of tides, as
auggesled by Dr. Wolf in tbe case of the uo I al gether so clear,
bowBTer, that the imagined action of Jup n ra ng lar tides could
not synchMniaa with a solar action raisini; d n he d p Jovian atmo-
aphere P We say this not as advocating the tid . theory, but to show that
the mere coincidence of eolar and Jovian disturbances in point of time
dcies not necessarily prove that the disturbing cause is cosmical as dislin-
^iiished from some form of action exeiied by these two bodies upon i-ach
_otber.

mmou Proper MolioH of the Start .'lit (A) OpAiuchi mid 30 Scorpii.^
L \j3m1 baa recalculated the remarkable proper motion common to both

—NO. ZXXIZ. P

198 POPULAR 8CIEHCB MlflEW.

these Stan, whicli lie about 12^ miniites of axe from each other. He finds
that the annual proper motion of each star dedudble from the Greenwich
obeervationB is : —

In &. ▲. In K. P. D.

A'Ophiuchi .... -0-029 . +l"-20
AU)phiuchi . . . -0-043 . +1-05
30 Scorpii -0-042 . +1-17

No doubt can remain that we have here a drifting system.
Proper Motion of OeUserCs Argdander 17,415-6. — Mr. Lynn estimates for
the proper motion of this ninth magnitude star

inR. A. -0--07
in N. P. D. + 1"-20

Memoir by Han&en on the Transit of Venus. — Dr. Hansen deals chiefly in
this paper with the possibility of obtaining the solar parallax by simple
measurements of the distance of Venus from the sun*s centre at the moment
of greatest phase. In the last of three appendices he exhibits formulae ''for
the application of photographic observations to determine the parallax. The
formula) require (besides the distance of the centres of the sun and Venus)
the determination of the position-angles of Venus at the two stations respec-
tively. It is suggested that there should be at the focus of the instrument
a wire in the plane of the declination circle to be represented in the photo-
graphy and thus to serve as a ground-line for the measurement of the position-
angle ; '' but Dr. Hansen is unable to judge of the degree of accuracy with
which the position-angle can be thus determined. The difficulty disappears
when observations are made upon the plan proposed by Mr. Proctor, for by
his method only estimates of distance between the centres of Venus and the
sun would have to be considered.

Nautical Almanac for 1874, and the Tratisit of Venus, — In the recently
issued " Nautical Almanac for 1874 " the phenomena of the transit of 1874
are calculated for nearly all the suitable observing stations. Probably the
tables dealing with these phenomena will be regarded as disposing finally
of any doubts which may have been entertained respecting the accuracy of
Mr. l^octor's statements where these differed from the statements of the
AHtronomer lloyal. For example, it was somewhat confidently stated that at
Nertcliinsk — ^which Mr. Proctor proposed as a suitable northern station for
applying Ilalley's method — the sun would not have both at ingress and de-
gress of Venus anything like the elevation of 10® which had been pronounced
necessary for effective observation ; whereas Mr. Proctor asserted that at
both internal contacts the sun would have a sufficient elevation. The
" Nautical Almanac " gives for internal contact at ingress a solar elevation of
12°, and for internal contact at egress a solar elevation of IQP, In fact, so far
as the '* Nautical Almanac " tables extend, they confirm every one of Mr.
ProctorV statements in all essential points — differing only as to small details
dopt^nding on the selection of the value of Venus's semi -diameter and the
sun's.

lionets for the Quarter. — Jupiter's distance is gradually increasing, but
he continues to be an evening star, and not unfavourably situated for obser-
vation during the earlier port of the quarter. Saturn will be in opposition

SCIENTIFIC SrSTMART. 199

on 3nBe 28. hvt will be too low for fRvournble observation. ^(arf> te the
planet of the quarter. He nns in opposition on Uarcb 18, and will continue
Tor eeTenI weeks fsTOurablj placed, both as respects distance and altitude.
His northern hemiF'pbere is now conudernbl; bowed townrds us and towards
the sun; and as this hemisphere has been leas completely studied than the
■niithern, observers who have pood teleecopes would be doing good service
in studying the planet. Although the oppoailiona which occur when Mnrs
is &s now, near his aphelion, are leas favourable as respects distance, the
planet is more favourably tdtuated as respecta altitude, ^'eniis is eoming
mund into a better position for obserrHtion. and towards the end of the
quarter will be nearly at her brightest. It is sotisfactory to know that a«-
tronomerB propose to study her with special care during the approncliing
months ; so that perhaps some of the perplexing questions which have been
■Ofigested by her sjiots, rotation period, inclinatioo, &c. may be satisfactorily
dealt with.

BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Eiperimenli on the IitfiHeafe of Manure* on rfavtt. — Some very important
eiperiments in this most interesting direction have been carried out by Dr.
Masters, F.B.S., and Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., and reported upon to the Horticul-
tural Society, which caused them to be undertaken. The experiments were,
a* m^ht be imagined, partly failures, for it is natural that mialakes stiould be
made at the first : but they are of spedsl interest nevertheless, and we have
DO doubt that from the next ones we shall have much valunblo matter
to leitm. One of the tables furnished by the reporters shows us that the
yriMJVji removed from Oo to 1-2.3 oz., or nn average of about 08 oz., of
^ minn ml matter from the unmanured soil ; whilst under the ^ame conditions
» Ltguminota removed from under 1 to over 2 ot. ; the AcliiUea S^, and
« PlmUfgo nearly Si^ ozs. Some idea of the richness of the soil in avail-
» mineral matter which these amounts indicate will be acquired when it
■vUited that 1 oz. of mineral matter removed from one of the boxes by one
T tbn gTSBses would correspond to as much per acre as would be contained
B about 6 Ions of meadow bay, 1 oz. in one of the clovers to as much per
t »B would be removed in about 4 tons of clover hay, and 3 to 3 J ozs., as
in the COM* of the Achillea and I^ntago. to a ton or more of mineral matter
per acre. Of phoiphortc acid, the ffraitti would, on the average, thus remove
from the unmanured soil about one'Seventh as much as was supplied where
the heavy mineral manure was employed; and of ;io/aM from one-fourth
lo one-lhird as much as the mineral manure supplied. Of phonphorie acid,
the cUir-en would remove considernbly more than, and of potass about as
much an, the average of the grasses. Of both constilueiils the Lntu* would
■e still, and the AchiUen and F/anliu/o probably very much more.
Rth nitmgenous, but without mineral manure, the amounts removed were,

• rule, with all the plants much greater than — in fact, in some cases once

* ft hlllf as much as — without manure. With regard to mineral conttiluentu,
f, it may be concluded that the unmanured soils were so far drawn
f the first year's growth as to widen considerably the difference

]

200 POPULAR SCIENCE SEYIEW.

between the unmanured and manured conditions ; and henoe the series of
soils would be better fitted for the purposes of further experiments

^f/ieniiniii Experiments on the Cwnpass JPlanL — Mr. Thomas Meehan has
laid a series of remarks before the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia
(October) upon the Compass plant, which dear up the question as to its
pointing: to the north or not, which many people deny. When first he saw
the SUpkiamt to any great extent , in its natural localities, there was not the
slightest indication of this northern tendency. It was a great surprise, as a
limited knowledge of it before had taught the reyerse. He determined to
watch a plant carefully on his own grounds the next year. The result was
just as described by President Hill, and related in our last number of
** Popular Science Keyiew." There was the unmistakable northern tendency
in the leaves when they first came up. and until they were large and heayy,
when winds and rains bore them in different directions, and they eyidently
had not the power of regaining the points la«»t. This often took place by
their own weight alone, especially in luxuriant specimens. Mr. Hill says it
was in June when he saw them on the prairies, all bearing north ; when
Mr. Meehan saw them, and not doing so, it was early in September, and
then no doubt the m»M!hanical causes he has referred to had been in opera-
tion. The plant he has had in his garden now for some years affords much
interest in many respects. He learned a useful lesson from it this year, in
referem*e to the relative rates of growth in the different parts of the inflo-
rescence. Noticing that there appeared to be no growth in the disc florets
in the day, he determined to note accurately one morning during the last
week in August exactly when growth did commence. The ray flowers
close over the disc during night, and at 4 a.m., with day just dawning in
tlie ea^it, he found the ray petals just commencing to open buck. In the
dijk* tliere are about fifteen coils of florets in the spiral.

Tlte IVanf^ of We^ft Xtrirfonndiand. — A recent number of the '* Canadian
NrtturHlii't" contains an able paper on the above, by Dr. John Bell. Its
l*'nk!t]i and the discursive habit of the author prevent us giving an abstract
of it.

The Htrhana of Linne and Michat*,v. — Profesw)r D. C. Eaton, M.A., of
Yule Ct>ll»^jje, U.S., the eminent Amorican pteridolopist, when in Europe on
a visit in 18<»<>, examined many of the standard herbaria, and made notes on
the American plants contained in them. He has most liberally placed a
series of these notes on the North-American Fllices in Mr. D. A. Watt's
hands for perusal, has allowed him to take copies of them, and to print such
i*«»lections from them a-^ he might deem of sufficient interest : those relating
to the col h»ci ions of Liune, now in London, and of Michaux, in Paris, are
^iven. The herbarium name of each plant is placed within quotation
marks, as are also such notes (of habitat. &c.) as were deemed of sufficient
interest to be copied from the sheets to which the respective specimens
were attached. Mr. Eaton's observations follow. He has not printed these
vefftatim, as, not being intended for publication, they were, more or less,
inade up of indications and signs which he has attempted to write out with
exactness. One or two observations of his own are placed within brackets,
and bear his initial. For convenience of reference he has arranged the
species in the order of their occurrence in the species Plantarum, and in

scnsfftmo auMsrjnrf. Ml

^"i&a Flora Boreali-AmeTiMnH. Tlie notes of Mr, Watt's are of especial
iDterMt, but nre too long fut inserdon bere.

To tlume iHltivKted in Hie Lnntmariaixa.—lt baa been recently Etaled by
Dr. Lawson that Dr. A. F. Le Julia, of Cherbourg', France, is t!ii^ag«d to a
monograph of the wbole group of the LaniiHartiictrr, that for suuh it eludy
maleriaU are never too nunieroua, and that be would be happy to receive
■ freah supply of specimena from North America. He aaks Dr. Lawson's
help, and that he would interest his friands in his favour. It ia not nacea-
eaij that the »pecimena be prepared for the herbarium, Oa tlte contrary,
he had rather they were coarsely dried, without beiug n'nshed in fresh
irat>9T or compressed. The parcels may be addressed to him, and sent by
any Tewel tn France.

The VUuHty of I'wMf.— Mr. H. J. Slack, in hia recent interesting and io-
ttrucUve address lo the Hoyal Microscopical Society, ata ted that M, Mnlsena
made eiperimenia last Veer on the vitality of beer-yeaet. Ha found fer-
□lenLatioo poasibia in the midst of melting ice, a temperature at which the
yeast wonld not germinate. The life of the yea.<t-pknt was not destroyed
by the most intense cold that could be produced, about 100° C. below lero,
la doae veawlo when the pruducia of furaiuiitatiun gave a pressure of about
twenty-tive ataiospheree the process stopped, and the plant was killed.
M. BouasiattBult, wlio was preaeiit when this communication was made to
the French Academy, accepted the alatement, on account of the knnivn
nbitity of M. Melsens, hut be detailed eiperimenla to show that other fer-
manla bad their activity destroyed by expoiture to temperatiirea much lew
Bciere, or even by ordinary frosl.

Ih. (frta/, of America, and Profettor S. B. Buckley have had some oon-
(idemble disputation before the Philadelphia Academy (see " Proceedinj^"
Iteceiuber 1870) on the supposed new plants from Texas. Dr. Gray haa
differed from Professor Buckley materially ; consequently the latter haa come
forward to justify himself. It seems to us, from ii cursory giance at hia
paper, liiat in aume of his aa^rtions Professor Buckley is correct, but that
in by Inr the greater number undoubtedly Dr. Gray has at present the
adTaniage. Professor liuckley states, what we must deplore very much,
tluit at the time (>f the American war " a large collection of rare plania "
which he hod made duiing ISull, '00, and '61, in Geor^a, Alnbnttia, Missis-
Eippi, Louisiana, and Te.iaa, which he had boxed and started with for the
North prior lu the war, were stopped and destroyed at Lavaca, Taiaa,
They were intended for, and directed to, the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadtlpbia,

A "Find" uf Biaioim in the &n.~Uf. E. Bickndl, of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass,, exhibited M the American
Aatociatiou at their Inle meeting some diatoms recently Ibrowu up by the
wa at Marblehead, Muas. The deposit tiret found belonged to brackish
water, an indicated by the nature of the diatomi and the presence of fruit
of the Cfmrnatr. The second deposit occurred about a mile li-ora the first,
and was puri^ly of freah-water origin ; con^dsUng of peat with fresb-wnter
i\t,\t>ta»~'IHnnuiaria, Stauronti*, A'ai<i<^tiia rhombaide*, JV. imaai, &c..
These depodts were thrown up by a severe storm on March 31 last, and are
~ tlieved to be the lirst fiesh-water or brackish depouta known to exiat

202 POPULAR SCIENCE BETIEir.

under the present ocean. They seem to be concliimTa proof of the recent
encroachments of the ocean upon the shore-line in that TicimtT.

An Ahnormal Potato^ one growing from the centre of another, was tome
time since presented to the Philadelphian Academj and was reported on by
Mr. T. Meehan. It had been handed to him by the curaton, and on dissec-
tion, though no exact place of origin could be traced, there seemed nothing
to indicate any other theory of origin than that one potato had really
grown out of the centre of the other. But there were serious physiological
reasons in the way of such a theory. A potato tuber is really but a
thickened axis, in which the greater part of the interior structure would be
incapable of deyeloping a bud which would produce a tuber such as this
one had done. The origin of a new tuber from an old one would be nearer
the old one*8 surface. He had been looking for some further explanatory
facts, and belieyed he had them then, in the potato tubers he handed to the
members. They were about the size of hen e^t^, and were pierced in every
direction by stolons of the common couch grass, Triticum repens. They
had gone completely through, as if they were so much wire, and in one
instance two tubers had become strung together by the same stolon, as if
they were two beads on a string. One would suppose that the apex of the
stolon, when it came in contact with the hard surface of the tuber, would
turn aside and rather follow the softer line of the earth ; but there was no
appearance of any inclination to depart from their direct course. They had
gone apparently straight through. He had no doubt the potato before
referred to was a similar case, a potato stolon had penetrated another
potato, and instead of going through as these grass spears had done, termi-
nated in the centre, and formed the new potato there. It was worthy of
thought whether so much attention had been given to this direct force in
plants as the subject deserved. It was well known that a mushroom would
lift a paying-stone many times its own weight, rather than turn over and
grow sideways, which it would appear so much easier for it to do ; and tree
roots growing against walls would throw immensely strong ones over,
though one would think the pressure against the softer soil would give
room for their development, without the necessity of their expending so
much force against the wall.

Culture of various Herbs and Pkinfs. — On October 10, M. Decaisne read
a paper before the French Academy recommending strongly the advisability
of cultivating various forms of herbs and plants during the siege. He
points out that great results would be obtained and that the thing could
easily be done.

Htru<:ture of iTsrywr.— The fact that Paris was besieged does not seem to
have interfered much with the botanists. In the " Comptes Kendus " of the
Academy for October 31, we find M. Tr^cul discussing the ferns as fully as
ever. In regard to Didynwchloina sinuosa he cites all the old and
recent authorities from whom he differs, and in this manner occupies
very nearly nine pages of the Journal. The memoir must be read carefully
by those interested ; it is much too long for an abstract.

Tlw Devcloptnent of the Leaves of Sarracenia. — M. H. Baillon, in a
memoir presented to the French Academy by M. Brongniart (November 7;,
enters very fully into this subject and discusses the views of Saint-Hilaire,

BCIENTIFIC SUMMABT.

203

Onehartn, Dr. Hooker, and others. Botaniata are not agreed as to the
exact significance of the different parts of the leaf. The must generally
accepted opinion is that of the two former biitanistfl. The author has
sludied the developmeut of tlie leaves, unii cornea to the followiog cou-
cliuioD. At &nt the leaves are repreaenled by little buda, little elevstiona
with a convex surfdve. At a little later period the base of these organs
dilates a little and becomes slightly conctiTe inwards. This is the first
Tudioient of the sheath, a portion of the leaf which we see has no
relation with the cavity of the urn of Sarracaiin, This vagina, which will
lake later on a great development, bears itself here as in all the vegetables
in which it is found, and has no influence upon the constitution of the
um. The fint indicatioa of the latter is a small depression, a sort of
"fi/ttetle," \eTy slight at first, which produces itself gradually and withiu
the cone which represents the young leaf. This depression is really due to
an inequality of development in the various parts of the summit of the leaf.
In this reitpect the leaves of Sarracmia behave themselves like those of the
Xymphaacta with which they have other analogies. The remainder of M.
Baillon's paper is, though short, too long for an abstract. It should be all
translated to render it intelligible, but it is not without value as b paper on
vegetable morphology, if we may use the terui.

a iuhatatice so comparatively
colophony was lOW per cent,,
s woody fibre, it was 49'4 per

^P CHEMISTRY.

The Produelion of Acttic Acid hy the Dalructiie DittiUation of Resin. —

Mi. Charles R. C. Tichbome recently (January 9) read a paper on this
subject before the Royal Irish Academy. He stud be found that, when
re«in was submitted to diatillatinn, among other products was a strongly
acid solution. The silver salt of this acid was formed, and on analj-sis it
proved to be acetic. He remarked that it whs rather surprising tc
acid produced in apprecinble quantities fiom
poor iu oxygen. The amount of oxygen in
whilst in an acid-;ielding Bubstance, such a

Aimn-phiiuB Sulphur. — A recent number of " PoggendorlTa Annalen "
(No. 11, 1«70) contains a paper on this subject by Ilerr R, Weber. The
paper contains the account of a series of experiments made with sulphur
obtained by precipitation (by means of acids) from hyposulphites, alkaline
eniphurets, and the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphur
obtained from hyposulphite of soda hy the addition of some hydrochloric
acid to the Eolulion of that salt, exhibits the appearance of aa oily lluid,
which remains liquid for a considerable time after having been washed by

KfuUy-conducted decantation, and resembles, as regards colour and con-
ey, the yolk of eggs. The sp, gr. of this sulphur varies from 1'93 to
^<87 ; it is amorphous, hut becomes, when completely solidified, crystalline,
a phenomenon which is greatly accelerated by heat. The author found that
the liquid sulphur contains small quantities of peraulphide of hydrogen, but
the origin of that substance could not be traced. The assertion often made,

204 TOPULAB 6CIENCB BXTIXW.

that ciystalline sulphur by contact with acids is couTerted into amorphous
sulphur, is not found to be correct when experiments were pnrpoeelj in-
stituted to test this.

Amygdaline and an AMparagine-like mdmUmce m Vttdk, — Heiren Ritt-
hausen tod Kreusler have contributed a paper on these substsnces to the
'* Journal fur praktische Chemie " (No. 18, 1870), which is thus abstracted
in the ^' Chemical News/' The authors, while experimenting with vetch
obtained from Attica (Greece), found, on treating the coarse powder of this
seed with water, that it gave off the smell of hydrocyanic add, which, on
nearer investigation, was found to be due to an amorphous modi6cation of
amygdaline. As regards the presence of an asparagine-like substance, the
authors foimd a crystalline body, which, on being submitted to elementaiy
organic analysis, gave results leading to the formula Ofi^^fi^ ; this sub-
stance is difficultly soluble in water, more readily so in boiling dilute alcohol,
and almost insoluble in boiling alcohol at 85 per cent.

The Chemistry of Compressed Leather, — In " Dingler's Journal " for De-
cember Dr. Dingier states that offal of leather, cuttings, and scrape are first
cleansed from dirt and dust, then soaked in water containing 1 per cent, of
sulphuric acid, until the material becomes soft and plastic, next compressed
into the shape of blocks, dried by steam, and lastly rolled out in mills. In
order to soften the mass, 1 lb. of glycerine is added to 100 lbs. of material
Tlie leather thus again obtained is applicable for the inner soles of boots, &c.

Dr. Wagner s Chemical Technology and Gmc/ins' Work. — The eighth
edition of Dr. "Wagner's well-known work on " Chemical Technology " is,
according to the " Chemical News '* of January 27, soon to appear. An
English edition of this valuable work is in preparation, and will be published
shortly after the German edition. From a short notice which appeared in
the ** Zeitschrift f iir Cbeniie," No. 21, we learn that Dr. K. Kraut has edited
four of the hitherto unfinished parts of Gmelins* work, including an excel-
lently arranged general index. The publisher is M. K. Winter, of Heidelberg.

Deco7nj)osition of Stdphide of Carbon by Heat. — In the ''Journal fiir
piaktiscbe Chemie" (No. 16) W. Stein relates a series of experiments made
with perfectly pure sulphide of carbon. His results show that sulphide of
carbon is not decomposed by a very high temperature if charcoal is simul-
tanfH)U8ly present ; it is therefore necessary to keep the retorts plentifully
supplied with either charcoal or coke.

JIow to Estimate the Total Carbon w Iron.—ln *' Dingler's Journal " (first
number, fur November 1870), Dr. AVittstein first states that the method
suggested for the estimation of carbon in iron (crude cast-iron) by the late
M. Berzelius, is the best and most simple. It consists in treating the iron
with chloride of copper. The author's experiments with this method were
conducted as follows : — 1*26 grms. of coarsely pulverised iron were added
to a liquid contained in a flask, and consisting of 50 grms. of water, 10 grms.
of chloride of sodium, and 10 grms. of sulphate of copper. The iron was
left in tills solution for a couple of days. Ten grms. of hydrochloric acid,
8p. gr. 113, were then added. The flask was next heated on a sand-bath.
By this operation the hydrated oxide of iron and the finely-divided metallic
copper were dissolved, and after the liquid had been diluted with about
twice its bulk of water, the carbonaceous matter was collected on a

eCIENTIFIC SUMMARY. 205

preTionslj weighed filter, and dried at 100°. Tbe qimntitj obtaioed veigbed
(hour gnu,, lo«ing hy ignition b qunotity of 004^ tfiii-i whicb amounts to
3% p«r cent, of cArbou. The residue of tbe ignition vrb tested for the
pnwvace of iron imd copper by dift'^^lviDg it in iiitn>-1i_vdrochloric acid (a^
Tfgia'i. Both metal 8, lo the amount of 1 centigrin., were found to be present f,J
the remaining kilica wah still found to coutain a aniall quantity of carbon. —
8e* also the "Chemical News."

Alt Oavtianat Origin of Xilralet in WiUer. — Mr. Cbarlea Ekin has
(Cbemiml Sodetj, January 19) found considerable quantities of nitric acid
in iprini; water, for which he could nut account by supposing- it to come
tmm KOiue sewage con lamination. Closer exiimination showed that the
wtler in question had pasted through a foseiliferoue atralum. Tbia obser-
TUioD neuesaitates a modification of tbe " previous sewage contamination

j4 Xirtr ABmloid from dnehrma Bark. — Mr. D. Howard, in a paper read
before Thc> Cliemicol Society on January SO, said tbat, in experimenting upon
itDpure crystallisadonB of mils of quinine obtained from the mother-liquors
or ibe uianufi^ctureof sulphate of quinine, hebas occasionally been perplexed
bj an unusuil hiss in re-cry stuUising, which tbe mechanicaliT adhering
mother- liquor did not seem to account for. A more careful exHunnntion of
lome of these substances shows tbat the cause, in some CHses nt least, is the
i'r°»enee of lie alkaloid hitherto undeecrifaed, the extreme solubility of tbe
:;r., of whirh both distinguishes it at once from tbe cinchona alkaloids
!:>;iuly known, and renders it very difficult to aepamte from the uncrystal-

■ ribla qiuDoidio. The most convenient method of obtaining it is to purify
■■he nlk^oida contained in the ninther-liquor from the re-rrystallisntion of
^uch impure product« as be has mentioned by solution in ether, and, after
cMipurstion of the ether, to dissolve with oxalic acid iu as small a quantity
[if water a* possible, and to allow it to crystallise. The oxalate ihua ob-
lained may be puritied by re-cryfitallisation fi-oni water with Ibe addition of
aaioial charcoal, but be has never been able to free it entirely from a yellow

Chair of Clurmislri/ at tit Limdun Imtitiition. — Dr. Henry E. .Armstrong
ba> been appointed Professor of Chemistry, an ofSce once held by Mr. W.
R. Grove, Q.C., and subsequently by Mr. J. Alfred Wanklyn. IJr. Arin-
EtTong studied chemistry under Professorit Ilofuiann, FranhUnd. and Kolbe,
ud bas been Basocial»d with Dr. Frankknd and tbe late Dr. Matthiessen
ia original researches.

The Diarovery iif CMuralum. — Thia does not appear to rest with Professor
0»oigee,B.'Wn8 supposed at first. Mr. J. CarterBell, writing to the "Chemical
Nrws" (February 3, 1871), says: "With regard to the nmcb-vaunted

■ Chlorahim,' I see Professor Gamgee says, in bis letter of .lanuary 13,
'The agent (cbloralum) bad never been thought of in therapeutics until
iMt January ; ' again, in bis letter of the 27th, ' since I Jirst thought of the
ddoride as an antiseptic just a year ago.' In Uwi's ' Dictionary,' 1S93,
Article ' Disinfectants, ' chloride of aluminium is meniioned us on antiseptic j
il «iy», ' Meat, if well packed, cleaned, and washed with a solution of cliio-
lide of aluminium, will keep three months,' After that I hnrdly think
Frofetaor Gamgee can lay claim to the discovery of tbe antiseptic and

206 POPULAB SCDSSCE BKVISW.

therapeutic properties of chloride of aluminium." This ia of ooune too
clear, and we are surprised that a volume so well known should not have
heen previously consulted by Professor Qamgee.

An Examination of the Doctrine of Atomicities is the title of a paper
originally read at the Troy Meeting of the American Association. It hu
since been reproduced by the '^ Chemical News/' and it will, we think, repay
perusaL It is not a paper which could be profitably abstracted, or we should
attempt it for our readers.

Escape of Vie AbbS Moigno and Injury to M, Ch, Girard. — ^The " Chemical
News " of February 24 states that it has just received a letter from tlie
Ahb6j dated Paris, February 15, 1871. From this it understands that the
distinguished savant had a narrow escape during the bombardment A
shell exploded in his bedroom, and destroyed more than a thousand valuable
books, but he escaped uninjured. Les MondeSy the publication of which was
suspended last September, will reappear as soon as communications are
open. M. Ch. Girard has, we regret to say, received serious injury from
the fall of a shell, but our readers wiU be glad to hear that he is now con-
valescent.

Making Malt vnthout Germination. — In a paper which appears in "DiugWi
Journal" for January 1871, Dr. H. Fleck gives the detailed account of a
series of experiments made by him ^ith the view to ascertain how far it
is possible to substitute for the ordinary process of malting the method of
steeping the grain (barley or any other) desired to be converted into malt,
in weak and dilute acids, to obtain thereby the same effect as produced by
germination, and, moreover, in a far shorter period of time. It appears that^
provisionally, the author has succeeded in his attempt, but is engaged in
further experiments. Dilute nitric acid, containing 1 per cent, of acid, yields
excellent results.

Death of Dr. Mmpratt. — It is with much regret that we have to announce
the death of Professor James Sheridan Muspratt, M.D., F.R.S.E., &c,
which took place at West Derby, Liverpool, on February 3. The deceased
was born at Dublin on March 8, 1821, and was the son of the well-known
founder of extensive chemical works established near Liverpool The Pro-
fessor was a pupil of the late Mr. Graham, first at Anderson's University,
Glasgow, and afterwards in London, and abo studied under Baron Ton
Liebig at Giessen. The deceased was the founder of a College of Chemistry
at Liverpool, and was well and widely known in the scientific world by a
variety of scientific publications.

Detection of Seioage Matter in Water. — Since the statements of Mr.
Ileisch this subject has attracted much attention. The best article upon it
is that of Professor Frankland, which concludes as follows : — Potable water
mixed with sewage, urine, albumen, and certain other matters, or brought
into contact with animal charcoal, subsequently developes fungoid growths
when small quantities of sugar are dissolved in them and they are exposed
to a summer temperature. The germs of these organisms are present in the
atmosphere, and every water contains them after a momentary contact with
the air. The development of these germs cannot take place without the
presence of phosphoric acid, or a phosphate or phosphorus in some form of
combination. Water, however much contaminated, if free from phosphorus,

SCIENTIFIC StMMARy.

lAMIiAt ptndotw tbem. A German philosopher has snid "cihne Phosphor
keio Oedanke." The nbove experiuients warrant iha ulteration of thla
iwtuiu tu "ohne Phcupboi gar kem Lebeo."

^ GEOLOGY AND PALiEOXTOLOGY.

Thr Labraiiorile Sockt of America have been rerj fidrly described to a
IflOf pnpti't by Xlr. T. Sterrj Hunt, id the " Canadiiin Nsturnliat." These
peruliar labradorite rocks, presenting h great Biiuilarlt; in mineralogical And
lilboiogical character, have now been observed in E^saeic Count;, New York,
ud ihrough Connda, at intervale, from the aliore of Lake Huron to the cu
(I Labrador- Thr'y arc again met with in soutbem New Brunswick, in I
Uir of Skye, in Norway, sod in south-western Russia, and in nearly all
ltie!e localities we known to occur in contact with and Hpparentiy reposing,
iyit- ■ newer funnn^un, upon the andent Laurenliaa gnei«8. I.leikie, in his
aemair on the geology of a port of Skye,* appears to include the nori
bpenthenites of that island with certAin syenites and grtreustuues, wlvich
b> d««cribes as not intrusive, though eruptive after the mminer of grimitea
(loc. cit., p- J 1-14). The hypersthenilea are represented in his map aa
ixcurritig to the west of Loch Slapin. Specimens in Dr. Hunt's possession
hiQi Loch Scavig, a little further we^t, and others in MncCulloch's collection
Icuiii lUat yicinity, are, however, identical with the North -American norites,
vbn.'« stnitilied character ia undoubted. His paper is of considerable length,
but may be referred to with adfantage.

Xyfticmihif Painti (H Italian GeoUujy. — According to Mr. J. C. Ward,
Kiiting iu the '■Oeitliifiiciil Magazine" for January, these are brietly as
lulbwo: — L The geological records dnte hack only to Juntsaic times, and
lliere is du direct evidence of land over tliia area until lat« Secondary or
nrly Tertiary. 2. The fortnation of Italy has hern effected iu a very simple
nanuer, namely, by the upheaval of three consecutive marine formations
iuto a lon^ chain of mountains, aiid by the deposition round this long island
uf marine stmta belonging to the Miocene and Pliocene periods, and their
subsequent moderate upheaval. 3. The time through which this history
curies us back divides itself into three &ep«rate periods as regards action
from below. (1) A period of tmnquillity, or slow depression, during which
tnuiqiijl marine depo«tion was guing on. (2) A period of vaat internal
furc« maiiifeat>rd in the form of upheaval of land, and formation of lofty
mountiiins. (3) A period, not yet entirely over, of the same force manifested
ID on outward or volcanic form.

Grajihite inllie Amenvaii LiuirfTUiaii.-^Writiu^ on this subject some short
time snce, Dr. Dawson says the quantity of graphite in the Lower Lauren-
tiiD series is enormous. In a recent visit to the township of Buckingham,
up the OttAWB River, he examined a band of limestone believed to be a con-
n of that described by Sir W. E. Logan as the Green Lake Lime-
It was estimated to amount, with some thin interstra tilled bands of

'' Quar. Jour. GeoL Soc.,'

208 FOmjllt SCIBNCB BEYIEW.

pieim, to a tbickae* of 000 feet or more, and was found to be filled witii
diMexninattd cnrAals of grapLite and reins of the mineral to such an extent
as to ci>nstiraie in some places oDe-fouith of the whole ; and making eTeiy
allc^wance fv>r the poorer portions, this hand cannot contain in all a less ver-
tical thicJmewt of puK paitbite than from 20 to 30 feet. In the adjoinin|r
ti^wnship of Lochaber Sir W. EL L«^im notices a band from 25 to 30 feet
thick, reticulai«sl with graphit« reins to such an extent as to be mined with
protit for the mineral.

CrooMhium Kcmaini m America.— \X the meeting of the Academy of
National Sciences, Philadelphia (XoTember 1) Professor Leidj remarked
that he had i>eoentlr ivct-ired from Professor Harden *s expedition a ouUec-
ti(>n of fossils, mostlr consisting of i>emains of turtles and crocodiles. He
had fivmerlr expre^Ksi surprise at the absence of remains of the latter
amon«r the pvai profusion i<f remains of mammals and turtles in the
Mauraises Terres^ deposits of White Hirer and the sands of the valley of the
Niv^bmra Kirer. He cow felt some wonder at seeing so many crocodilian
ivmains. apparently of coiemporaneous age with some of the latter. The
n^ptilian remains aiv generally in a rery fragmentary condition, and have
been picke«i up from the surface of the country. Serenil undescribed spedes
of turtles were reo\>jr*iisable. but these would be characterised at a later
pt'rii^. Fr.mi among the cnvodilian remains be bad been able to obtain i
large |v^niou of thv\j^ of a skull of Ct-ocwiiliut EQiottiy indicated some time
ago fixmi a jaw fragment. The skull appears to hare nearly the form of
that of i\ ntJfiarif and C, hijwrvatM*. It is about a foot and a half in
length. Teeth appe.ir to have been absent at the extreme fore part of the
jjaw. Imlnt^l;alrly behind their usual position the palate presents a deep
pit at ea**li sii^e of the nas^^-palatine orifice. Tbe jaw is deeply indented
laterally, just Itack of the pv^iii.*n of the fourth tooth, and a less indentation
is situatwi lvu*k o( the ninth tvv-'th.

C^<Jir oT (iti»!iytf ,tHti Mitimhoy in Edinhtrgh. — Our readers are perhaps
aware that siMue time a^o Sir luxieriok Murchison offered the munificent
sum of r»,iXXV. l*or tbe endv^wment of a Chftir of Geology and Mineralogy in
th«r rnivornity of FAiinburgh. on the understanding that the anniud proceeds
of this sum would be supplemented by a grant from Parliament. We may
state that Itovernnieut has consented to this proposal^ and has agreed to
rrtvmmeud aji annual grant of 200/. The I'niversity is said to be largely
indebted for this desirable result to the eaniest co-operation of its member,
l>r. Lvon Plavfair.

Thermal Sprinyi^ in Camhriihjeshire, — The Rev. O. Fisher writes in the
*• Gei^logioal Magazine** (January), in opposition to the notice of Mr.
1 lamer, that there are such things as thermal springs. " To-day,'* says Mr.
Fisher. ** I went into a farmyard in this rillage, and found them laying up
the manun* in heaps, pre\-iou9 to carting it away upon the land. The
manure was already hot and steaming when they removed it from the area
of the yard, on which it lay two feet deep. There stands a pump in the
centre of the yard ; and I asked the farm-servant, who lives on the spot,
whether the water was warm. * Yes,* said he, ' almost as warm as new
milk. And so is the water from the other well ' (which stands on the edge
of the yard). I fetched a thermometer, and foimd the water in the yard at

SCIESTinC SITMHAHr. 209

1° F»lir., th«( in the well on the edge of the yard fil 54°, while tlio teni-
perftture of the NT was 14', Snow has been lyini? on the grouad for fiva
daj*, and dinnjipiTftred ddIj last ni^lit. In ihawtoii' it Imb (touo into th«
tmiTiuil well, nnd discoloiin'd the water; eL=e probalily ibe temperitture
laitfht buve been higher, fur the wriricmita con^idi-red the nnter less wnnn
thaa tuunl. la tbese wells the w&ter stiinda at ahont twi-lve re>et frnta the
Biiface. Tliey are fed by springs ftnin the lower chnlfc, the wnter being held
up by the )£Mull. In such a countrj as this, the ideit cf Ihernnal springs
Wing fed by TauIis from below seems inipmbiible, since, though there may
k rnull*, il b scarcely possible that open (issiires can exist in the soft days
[ 4tluiii«lricst."

W Sed Pi]i»-j<ime Qnarjy (America). — Di'. Hayden, in s work recently
, gives the fnllowiiig ndniirnhle desifription of the abore, which
i. A. Labour ihinh* may be of inlereat^ns it uuqueHtinnitbly is — to
B^ lender nf " Hiawatha": — "()n reaching the source of the Pipe-atoue
t, in the rnlley of which th« pipe-Mlone bed is located, I was surprised

t how inconspicuous a plore it is A single glance at the red

■ntM here assured me that these rocks were of the same age as thoM
tt BWDiioned at Jflmes and Vermilion Rivers, and at Sioux Falls. The
P>f {npe- stone L* abtjut the lowest rock ihat can be seen. It rests upon
pquarttile, and there sre about live feet of the »ame grey quarlzit«
Hit, which has to be removed with great labour before the pipe-stooe

r tta ba secured The pipe-stone layer, as jeen at thiw point, is about

oltien inches in thickness, only about two inches and a qnarter of which
no Ufvd for man ufae luring pipes and other omaments. The remainder is
too impiiN. slaty, fragile, Sea, This rock possesses almost every colour and
t«»ute, from a light cream colour to a deep red, depending upon the
anouDt of protoxide of inn. Some portions of it are soft, with a MMpy
feel, like steatite, others staty, breaking into thin (lakes, others mottled

^ilh red and grey There are indications of an unuannl amount of

labour on the part of the Indians in former yeai's to secure the precious
nateTial." It is remarkable that its age is not yet settled.

TTu I'hymcai Relatloitii of the New Red Marl, Shiffic Beds, and Ltitrer Zto*.
— At the Meeting of the Geological Society on January 11 Prof. A. C.
Kammy commenced by stating that there is a perfect physical gradation
between the new red marl and the rhfetic beds. He considered that Uie
new rad sandstone and marl were formed in inland wafers, the latter in a
salt hike, and regarded the abundance of oxide of iron in them as favourable
to this view. The fossil footprints occurring in them were evidence that
there was no tide in the water. The author nininlalned that the new red
marl is more closely related to the rhtctic, and even to the lias, than tn the
bunter; and in supjwrt of this opinion he cited both atnitigrapbicjil and
paleuntologjcal evidence. He desi^ribed what he regarded as the sequence
of events during the accumulation of the later triassic deposits aud the
pas-age through the rhKtic to the lias, and iDtimnted that the same
rewoning would apply to other British strata, especially some of thnsa
coloured red by osida of iron, including the permlan and the old red sand-
itone, and part of the Cambrian. The paper excited a very long discussion,
which wo have not space to record.

210 FOPULAK SCIENCE REVIEW.

JTehdeHte at Bright&n.—'^T, S. G. Perceval, F.Q.S., states tbat in list
Julv he observed that a deposit of Websterite, sabsulphate of alimuiia, hsd
been cut into, in excavating for the Dew system of drainage in the Montr
pelier Road, opposite the south end of Vernon Terrace. It occors tt a
depth of 16 feet from the surface of the road, beneath a ferruginous deposit
of varying depth, which overlies the chalk on the summit of the hill, connst-
ing of ochreous clay with occasional flint-breccia and mames of hssmatite iron
ore in some instauces mammillated and associated with crystals of selenite.
The iron ore is occasionally friable and of a cindery appearance, containing
in its cavities angular pieces of chalk and occasional groups of crystals of
selenite. The deposit of Websterite is about three feet wide at its junc-
tion with the overlying ferruginous mass, narrowing as it descends, ap-
parently occupying a fissure in the chalk, which has at some time been
filled with clay, or has been formed by some decomposing action on the
chalk, the chalk intruding occasionally into the vein of Websterite.

Dr, Carpenter's Vieict Opposed. — Mr. A. H. Green coutributes a very able
paper to the " Geological Magazine " (January 1870), in which he analyses
Dr. Carpenter's argument. Can, he (uiks, then, the fauna of the sea on
whose bed the chalk of to-day is forming be said, on a broad vieWf to be the
same as the fauna whose remains are preserved in the chalk of Dover ? He
is not surprised that certain low forms should be common to the two, becauw
the conditions under which such creatures live do not in all likelihood in-
volve that strujrgle for existence to which specific change is probably due;
they have ample space and ample sustenance for animals of their simple
requirements. Some few forms, too, somewhat higher in the scale, seem
to have lived on in " the dark unfathomed caves of ocean " but little
affected by the round of changes that have so largely altered the dwellers
on the upper world, though here it seems that the modern representatives
are only jirnerically allied, and not specifically identical, with the older
forms, a point of the highest importance. But, leaving these cases out of
the question, are the two faunas, as a whole, a bit alike ? Take one simple
instance. The older chalk swarms with ammonites, scaphites, baculites,
and belemnites, all well-marked and typical forms, not one of which will
be emhoddod in the chalk of to-dav ; and the old chalk has not vet fur^
nished a siniilo fragment of a marine manmial, many species of which will
be prt»served in the modem chalk. A palaeontologist would readily point
out any number of similar contrasts between the two faunas: but what
he ban said >\'ill, he thinks, make it clear why it is that he cannot under-
stand how anyone can say we are living in the cretaceous epoch, unless
he at the tiame time as.^erts that the age of a geological formation is to
be determined fn^m those beds only which are formed out of Foraminifera,
and by the Jhoramtnifera alone of the fossils contained in such beds.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

The Totcer Stdncay. — This tunnel under the Thames, which as an en-
gineering work was carried out with so much skill and success, rather
threatens to prove commercially a less satisfactory undertaking. At all

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY. 211

tt&i It liM been found oeceBsary to Bbandon tlie mechanical working of
tbe tunnel, and to use it as a simple footwav. Whether, with its working
upensea thus reduced to a minimum, it will repay it« cost of construction,
time will show. The traffic under the new arrangement has been con-
aiderftble.

RaSicmf Tiro. — A very inlereBting diecuasion la being carried oo tu to
whether the tirea of railway carriages are or are not more liable to fracture
in cold weather than at other limes. It has long been a popular belief that
mm was rendered either more brittle or weaker by cold. liut the belief
ii<~>e> not reet on any veiy well established basis. On the whole, the balance
'<! eTperimental evidence Eeems to show that iron is not reduced in tensile
eljength nor weaker to resist impact when very cold than at ardinorj
!«inperntures. Some recent ingeniouB experiments of Dr. Joule, communi-
cited to the Manchester Philosophical Society, are in accordance with this
tiew ; but engineers generally would be glad if Dr. Joule's experiments
could be repeated on a lai^er scale. Probably enough certmn qualities of
imn a» raore affected by temperature than other qualities, and in a matter
of to much importance to the lives of travellers it is very desirable that
fuller information on Ibis point shonid be obtained. Dr. Fairbaim points
to the crude process of shrinking the tires on the wheels, and thus inducing
an initial state of tension in the tire as the primary cause of fracture, the
objection to the shrinking- on process being that the exact amount of stress
induced in the process is unknown, and depends on the skill and attention
of the workmen. We do not remember to have seen it suggested, that
there may b« some difference in the rate »f expansion and contraction of
the iron of the tire and of the body of the wheel with chonge of tempera-
tuK, yet a difference may quite possibly exist. The iron of the tires and
the wheel arms and nave is not of the same quality, and probably the
crystalline arrangement differs. If there were a (rreater contraction of the
tire than of ibe body of the wheel, this would eiplntn the fact, alleged by
railway managers, that more tires brenk in winter than summer, without
requiring en asaent to the supposed weakening of the iron. Or perhaps it
^9Ay belp to ejcplsin why steel tires enjoy a greater immunity from fracture
E^Gold weather than iron ones. The same explanation will not bold in
Hb case of rails, which also are stated to break more ^equently in winter ;
'^Bvt, in their cose, the greater rigidity of the supports when frozen would
•eem fairly chargeable with part at all events of the injury.

SlabiJitif of Ship). — All those who are interested in the scientific problem
preMnltid in the calculadon of the stability of ships should study the
di>cumenta accompanying Mr. Childers' minute on the loas of the Captain.
PerhapB the clearest etatemeut of the conditions to be attended to in
estimating the stability of a vessel will be found in a very interestJDg paper
by Mr. C. W. Merrifleld, F.R.S., in the " Annual of the Royal School of
Xaval Architecture," recently publLihed.

Adding Machine. — A very simple nnd nent machine for mechanically
adding up long columns of figures will be found described in " Engineering"
for January 27, The instrument has been invented by Mr. Webb, of New

fttc Marine BuHer. — A new form of water-lube boiler has been invented A

212 POPULAB SCIE3ICI BSTDEW.

by Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, and a boiler of fhk land neentlj plaeii
OQ a steam-tug (the Fairy Deil) has been sucoeasfolly woriced at a presme
of 1-50 lbs. per sq. in. This^ for marine pitrposee, ia a Teiy anofluaUj Ugk
pressure.

Archimedian Screw for Lifting JTater.—'yiT. Wilfrid Airy has conunmii-
cated a vei^- interesting paper on this well-known oonnivaDoe for pumping
purposes. He has greatly improved the screw, and made it more euj of
construction by making the diaphra<nn which forms the spiral chamber
part of a developable surface instead of part of a true screw iozfros.
Round a solid core he winds a plane sheet of tin or other metal, and retaiDi
its inner edge in a spiral groove. The plane then takes a determinate
position, not at right angles, but inclined to the central core. The whole
is then placed in its usual cvlindrical case. The developable screw threidi
are not only more easily constructed, but they make a more effident
machine than the true screw threads. Mr. Airy's experiments 'show tkit
the efficiency of the screw imder the most favourable circumstances mij
reach 85 to 88 per cent.

MEDICAL SCIENCE.

Inca Skulh. — It would appear from a letter of Herr Gratian, of Bnmf*
wick, to Chevalier von Haidinger, of Vienna, that the above subject has en-
grossed the attention of the former of these two savans. The follcinng ii
an extract : — " With regard to my palseontological researches, I beg to
inform 3'ou that they are at present in a somewhat modern direction. TIm
exploration of beds containing fossil bones, especiaUy of the period of the
mrtmmotb, the cave-bear, &c., as well as the search after implements of the
Htone period, combined with cave-studies, form now my chief occupation.
I have here explored a bed which has already yielded interesting results.
The ncquisitions of last year include two Inca skulls from Chincha Alte,
which are in a condition quite as described by Morton, and are especiaUy
distinpruished by the vertical descent of the occipital bone. These sknllfl
were, besides other curiosities, presented to me by the commander of the
North German frigate Neptune, who obtained them at the Huacas. There
is a peculiar interest attached to them in as far as these skulls were brought
to the surface in consequence of the earthquake on the PeruWan coast,
which happened in the month of August, 1808." — Mittheilunffen d&r Anthro-
poiof/iftchen GeiieUschaft in Wien.

Cancer of the Lymphatics. — Dr. \Miitall, who has devoted some atten-
tion to this subject, states that in a case which he lately examined after
death, most of the lymphatic glands, the left breast, and the surrounding
indurated tissue, contained an abundance of fibrous tissue, in which were
embedded free nuclei and nucleated cells, of various shapes and sizes. In
some of the glands, and in a portion of the pancreas, the cells predominated
over tlic fibrous stroma. The central portion of the various growths was in
an advanced state of fatty degeneration ; in some places scarcely anything
but fat was discovered ; in others the cancer-cells were more or less filled
with oil-globules. Portions of the pectoral muscles were reduced to mere

SCIENTlnC St'MSIARV. 213

flbrM infittriited with caticer-cetla, but cnDtnmei! little fnt Nd ^iigpioious
eletnvntB were f'luad In the 8loiiia(;li or in the Diidiile o( the 8piei:a. The
HieiM^ella were litrgr, many of them hynlioe and withaut a niicl^iiH, otters
■mktIj nonnftl. A gond deal of free oil, but not an abnormal nraonnt. in the
eslla: no excea* i>f fibrous tisaue. Some of the tube* of the kidue; were
iatniEUd with graoular and fatty epithelium ; ttian; of them healthy. No
fttoortDKlit]' not)o«d in the tufta. There was a considerable excels of librouB
t!w>B. — SfK Yurk Medieal Jottmal,

Cold Drink* ami fAn> In/liirrux over Blood- Pramre.— It u asserted by the
**Joanisl of Anatomy " (November), that Hermann and Gnat (" PHiiger's
ArohiTtv," 1670, p. H) have endeiivoured to ascerlwnwhutmny be the reason
ter the viddy-epread belief that cold drlnka are dangerous dunnp a hsated
■tal« of the body. They injected water at a temperature of 0" C. into the
ttoratudxa of dogs. The blood-pressure always roae after an injection. This
tMull rMinot in their opinion be ascribed to absorption, bemuse it appeared
TCTT apeedily after the injection, and moreover hot water failed to produce
it. The tmcin^ obtaioed by the bymograpli further showed that the
incnMnd pressure was not due to increased cardiac action ; they therefore
awribed it to contraction of the vessels due t4i the cold. They suppose that
the evils which are commonly ascribed to drinking' cold water during a
heated state of the body are due to the sudden increase of blood-pressuro
whieli the cold produces, favouring coiigo#tion of the brain and lungs.
Quit« in oppounon to what one would have anticipated, they found thti
increase of pressure much loss in animalit pr«viouaIy paralysed by curare.
They feocy that when an animal ia not so paralysed, the cold, by increasing
^e frnquejicy of the retpirations and the depths of the inspirations, brings
intii plav a compensating mechanism which keeps the pressure from rising
so much as it otherwise would {?) It is satisfactory to know that they
intend U) investigate further.

AiHun of Alcohol wi fhe Body. — A new medical periodical, styled '■ The
Doctor," gives a note in its January number on the above subject. It wys
that Dr. Ileinrich Tijumerberg ('' Inaug. Dissertation," Dorpat, 18fl0) fouud,
as the resulta of his investigations and experiments on animals : — 1. That
alcohol constantly lowers the bodily tempemture. 2. That it lessens the
frequency of the heart's contractions. 3. That the blood-pressure in the
c\rolida ia lowered, indicating diminished force in the cardiac lU'tion, and
that this effect was produced partly by direct action on the heart and partly
through tho vagus nerve. The retardation of regressive metamorphosis by
means of alpJ)hol is to be Sflcribed to the weakening of the heart's action, aa
o direct influence on the blood.
Kytiaiogicnt Prize at Cmnhrtdge. — Dr. J. Oedge, who went out with
el Baker's expedition to Africa, and wjiose death at Khiirtnum haa
ly recorded, has left 1,0001, to the University of Cambridge,
o found a biennial |>rixe for physiological research.
\ Jforru* rtctat E:rptrintetit* at to Blood. — At the recent sninle of the
B Sodsly, among the many curiosities exhibit^, the most remarhaLle,
Irbst had most interest for members of the medical pmreo-ioa and for
polo^ta generally, were the eiperimenta performed by Dr. John Norris to
' le cohedoD of colloidal films and splierea, by whidi he believe* tliat
.X«— SO. XXZIX. t

214 POPULAB SCnSCCE BXYRW.

the pawMge, en timte pikce, of the blood-ooipiuclefl through the eajnIlirT
wallfiy as obeexred by Cohnheim and others, can he explained. Dr. Norm
used for the purpose a solution of soap and metal rings of Taiioos diih
meters, set in handles, to hold the films, the spheres being the ordinuy
blown soap bubble. When such a bubble was allowed to faU upon a fihi,
it at once aesumed a flattened ovoid form, and projected equally on either
side of the film, moving readily across it as the frame was inclined firom one
side to the other. By a dexterous application of the blowpipe Dr. Norrii
next took away the bubble from the opposite ade of the film to that
to which it had been first applied, leaving the latter unbroken. Thus tbe
sphere had passed through a film which presented no opening of any kind
without rupturing it Solid bodies well moistened externally, such as an
orange, or a mass of glass, were also passed through. A certain proportioa
of moisture Dr. Norris has found to be essential to the cohesion of the
colloidal substances ; for if the sphere and the film were kept apart fox a
few seconds, no such result ensued ; the sphere rested on the film withAot
cohering to it or changing its shape. Applying the knowledge acquired b?
these experiments to the migration of the blood -corpuscles through the
capillary tissues, it may be conjectured that such a relation as regardf
moisture exists between the corpuscle and the wall of the vessel in the
normal state as to prevent the passage of the one through the other; hot
if this relation be disturbed by any cause, cohesion of the opposed surface!
occurs, and the sphere (blood di^ic) passes through the film (wall of the
capillary). The aggregation of the corpuscles into rouleaux, under certain
conditions, may also perhaps be similarly accounted for. — Vide Lmuet
(March 18).

How are the Miasmata of Marshes destroyed f — An interesting controveffj
is at present going on, pays " The Lancet," in Italy between Dr. Fattorini
and the well-known Dr. Pantaleoni, of Rome. The latter stated broadly,
at the Congress of Florence in 18G9, that the most efficient manner of ren-
dering marnh land healthy is to allow a large population to inhabit it He
pave as an example a portion of central France c^led Sologne, which
formerly was very deadly, owing to marsh miasmata, and which now,
being densely populated, has become a ver}' healthy district. These
opinions were repeated and dilated upon by the same author in the Italian
journal " Lo Sperimentale" (September, October, and November, 1870).
Dr. Fattorini retorts, however, that draining is the principal means of
lessening the unhealthiness of such districts, and that the natural conse-
quence of Dr. Pantaleoni's tenets would be that people should be thrust
into unhealthv localities to diminish the amount of miasmata.

Fusion of the Anthropohr/ical and JSthndof/ical Societiei. — We are happy to
say that this fusion has been at last accomplished. The title of the new
body, named by Professor Huxley, is the Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland.

Health of Baron Liehig. — We rejoice to hear of Baron Liebig's recoveir.
He is now lecturing at the University of Munich with all his old energy.

riati/nefitic men in Dcnhtt/h shire. — The remains of these men has been
the subject of a communication of much interest by Mr. Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S., and Mr. Busk, F.K.S., to the *' Journal of the Ethnological Society "

SCTEXTinC SUMMABT. 215

IiiDtury). Il wems thnt in these men the tibiK were remarkalily coiu-
t m m A Utenll;, p-na^ to tnuuverse sections of the bone almost tho form
f » vertical Mterfy-poaterior nectiun of n ciuiine tooth, ioitend of the iriegu-
lAj thomboidal fonii by which they are luually chancierised. This pecu-
Urity vu lint noticed by Ur. Falconer and Mr. Busk in 1663, in human
«iiuunM proctired from the Oenistn cave st Gibraltar, and almost coinci-
iMitly by I'nfeceor Broca. in tihii« procured from the dolmen of CbaniHDt
Oiar), and eiibnequenlly in those ditKMVered nl !MonlniertTe bv M. E. Ber-
;nDd. Ur. Busk cunsidere it in the hi|:hest degree improbable that it cnn-
HitulM a raee character, and still les* that it can be Inokud upoD as iodica-
live at simian tendencies, s notion that M. Broca seems inclined to favour.
rb« remuna were found, in a cave at Perthi Chwareu, near Corwen, with
bonca of the dog, fox, badp^r, pig-, roe and red deer, sfaeep, Celtic shorthorn,
bow, water-mt, hare, rabbit, end ea^le, and in anotlier at Cefn, near 8l.
Anjib, where the tomb wbs remarkably dliided into chambers. There
■IfMwt to have been at leaat uxtcea bodies, and Mr. DjiwkJns refers them
te tbe Neolithic age.

h^ttumct of (JuBtBM wi TerajttToltirr. — The " Indian Medical Oniette " for
Dm, I, 1870, contaana a short paper by Aagislant-Surgeon Ur. UamiltoD, of
(be Bojal Artillery, on this subject It appears, says " The Lancet," which
fIvM k ebort account, as the result of bis experiments on an oflicer, aped
fortr, of trpnre habit of body and nervous temperament, who was the aulgect
of ague, that quinine administered in ten- and 6ve-pniin doses had the eflect
of averting the paroxysms, and of reducing the temperature about .I" as
doterminwl by one of Caaseila's most delicate regietering indtiuments. It
liad been previoualy suggested by Assistant- 8 u^e on Iliill, also of the Royal
Arlillerv, that quinine should be administered internally and hypudermically
in <«M« of insolation: and, if we remember anght, snme cases iUustrntive of
appaixnt benefit of quinine were published by him. If it be proved
tliia alkaloid has this property of reducing the temperature, its eSect
where the blood becomes supur-heated may, as Dr. Hamilton
oat, b« explained.
mip^f«^ Differena of Bhod betmen Jtarta.—UT. R. H. Buki-well, in a
the "Journal of Anthropology," January, makes a series of state-
wbich we cannot at all accept He snys, for example, he found that
the blood of the Uesh-eiiliog' Mussulman and the Hindoo, itltliough
igfroiu the Muue place, there was a marked distinction. The Hindoos'
I a much laruer number of white corpuscles ; the red curpuscica
ikll«r, lew numerous, not so round in outline, the edge being some-
ftlnioat stellate, or serrated, whilst they never, so far as bis obsena-
a together like rouleaux of coiu. Now it is well known that
obenoaieiion is dtwuibcd, in all books on physiolo^, as a characterisijc
■ Jtby huimiwi blood. The red cotpusclea of the Hindoo, however, run
Itt edge to edge, but not siile ^) side, and thus form, under tho micro-
flal mass. This often, when the paiient is weakly, or has had iuter-
fcrer, becomwaaort of "squashy " mass. It seems as if the weiglit
tbin kIssb cover bad crushed the corpuscles into one flat mass, in
tfaeaepurale corpuscles could nolon^'er be distinguished. ''In noting
my obaervalions 1 was obliged, for brevity's sake, to give > name to
Q3

216 POPULAB SCIENCK RBVIXW.

the phenomenon of aggregating like rouleaux of coin ; I therefore ctD it
'nummulating/ A defect or absence of thb power is found in all penons
whom I have examined, who have been for a long time subject to malarioitt
fevera"

METALLURGY, MINERALOGY, AND MINING.

The Progress of Iron and Steel Industries, — Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S.,

the foreign secretary to the Iron and Steel Institute, has just published, in

the latter*s journal, a very valuable report of the progress made both in

England and the Continent during the past quarter. From this we find that

though the Iron industries have been stopped in France by the war, yet thst

during the first half of the year their returns were greater than last yetr.

Thus:—

Cast Iron. Wrought Iron.

Tons Tons

Ist half-year 1870 . . . 714,892 610,528

1st „ 1809. . . 699J49 497,328

16,143 13,200

Again, the production of steel for the first half-year 1870 is thus esti-
mated : —

Tons

Bessemer steel . 25,360

Martin and other steel 44,219

Total ^,579*

The Report deals with the produce in the different countries of the world,
such as Germany (the different States of), North America, the United State?,
Norway, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Upper Silesia. It contains, besidea,
abstracts of the more important means employed of manufacture, and ia
altogether a most valuable essay, which it is to be hoped the Society will
continue to enable Mr. Forbes to brinjr out.

Mechanictd Pro})erties of Steel jyossessing Pltosphonis. — M. Gruner, Professor
of Metallurgry at the School of Mines at Paris, has published in the " Annalea
dea Minos," 1870 (xvii., p. 340), a paper on the Mechanical Properties of Steel
containing Phosphorus. Premising by stating that in a previous memoir
on the Ileaton process (" Examen du Proc^d^ Heaton," Paris, 1809) he had
si>ught to prove (1) when pig iron containing phosphorus, but poor in silicon,
is n^tint'd with nitrate of soda, that, although the greater part of the phos-
phorus is eliminated, it still retains two or three thousandth parts of this sub-
stance, if the amount of nitrate employed be below 13 to 15 per cent, of the
weight of the pig iron. (2) That these two or three thousandths of phos-
phorus will render the product more or less brittle. (3) That the presence
of the phosphorus increases up to a certain point the resistance to fracture,
prtwided it be testeil by a slow and gradually applied force. (4) That, as
before shown by Dr. Wedding, steel not containing more than 0<X)5 of
phosphorus may be easily worked cold ; goes on at length into the considera-
tion of the mechanical properties of certain samples of steel, the testing of
which had been conducted by Mr. Fairbaim^ whose results are given in a

snESTinc scjiMAnT. 217

, and, 68 the nsiilt of this inquiry, Frofeesor Oriiner
it the following coDcluBinns: (1) that phnapburus when preseint in
ntml ill tlie prciportioQ of from 0002 U> 0003 renders it rigid nnd elMtic ;
increiise? its elastic tenaioa uid resiBtance to frHCliire, without altering its
bardnena ; but thttt such steel, even if it contains but little oubon, wwita
" body," BJid is brittle, without being st the eame t4me hard ; (2) in order tii
show Ihie wRDt of " body," the teats of simple traction nnd trsnsvurse pressure
arc aot sufficient ; it requires testing by blows or shocks. (3) That soft Bes-
semer Ht«el, produced from hematite, at BFtrrow, possesses less tenacity and
elasticity, and is more brittle than the soft, or extra soft, .Sheffield cruciblu
steels; hdU (4) that steels containing phospborua fire deficient in " body,"
and that it is at present premature either to conaidar the Heatoo ptocese aa
k grMit improvement in eleelniaking, or that the steel prepared by this process
can he &vounibIy compared with the usual Sheffield product — (iiiarterly
Rrport oft/i»ln/n and fUeei Iiidtutriea, lB71.

A XuBtl RoUmg Miil. — In the Report above quoted from we find the
ritlowini; interesting account. Tbe new mill Ih cooBidered a novelty, the in-
tention of M. Roy, being the universal rolling mill erei^ted by him at the Savonn
Works. These rolls are figured and described in the September number of
" II PoUtecnico," " Laminatojo a cilindri universal! per la produzione dei
feni rettaogolari " in which machine, by means of a movable cyliuder, or
ring, sliding over smooth rolls, and held in position by a large screw collar,
working on a thread cut on tbe rolls themselves, the groove in which ivct-
jugulnr iron is rolled may be increased or diminished in size, bo that tbe
mme pair of rolls may serve for rolling various dimensions of iron, without
having any grooves whatever cut in tbem. It would require tbe Rs^iittaoce
of an illuetratioii to explain exactly how this arrangement is constructed,
notwithstanding that it is of an extremely simple nature, and well adapted
for small rolling mills; although, for large establisbments, it would most
probably be better to adhere to the usual system of having the separate
grooves cul in tbe rollers themselves. A short description of this system,
with an accoinpaiying plate, wilt also be found, in French, given by M.
Lrmut, in lbe"Kevue universelle de Mines et de la M<!lallurgiB," 1870,
p. ^50,

A Xete iMciilHy far Meneghinilf. — In PoggendorfTs " Annslen" (No. 11,
1870), llerr A. I'renzel describes a locality in Germany where tbe mineral
alltided to has been found by him. The mineral, on beijtg examined, was
found to poHsess a sp. gr. of 6'307. Tbe chief constituents of this subiitaoee
an Itwd, antimony, and sulphur ; in 100 parts — Lead, 63'8B ; antimony,
'"■iSL'; sulphur, 17'29.

Thr Rarr Mineral GahniU. — Mr. G. J. Brush deacnbes this mineral from
. . <'imeas in Mine Hill Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, U.S.A. lie (in the

\iuericsJi Journal of Science and Arts," January 1871) describeB the
iiiiii>'r«l»gicnl characters of this mineral found in a line mine. The mineral
ia cryslalliiie ; colour, blackish -green ; hardness, 7 5; ep. gr., 4-80 to I'OI ;
infunble before blowpipe ; with fluxes, reacts for iron and manganese, and
h soda on charcoal gives a xinc coaling. The composition of this mlnenl
I parts, is — alumina, 40-78 ; ferrio oxide, 8Ti8 ; line oxide, 3I)'02 ;
taoun oxide, 1-13; magnesia, 0-13; Bilica,067. This variety of gabnite

218 POPULAR SCIENCI BETIKW.

(flo named after the celebrated Swedish mmendogiBty Gahn) shows a Ingw
percentage of zinc than any specimen of this mioeral heretofore anihsed;
it is associated with black mica, apatite, calcite, and a brownish Tsrietj of
chrysolite, which, on partial analysis, was proved to be a mono-siliests of
iron, manganese, and zinc

The ZircoM of Mudt/ffy New Sotifh ir7i/e«. ~ Professor S. H. Church, M»4^
gives an account of these in a recent number of the " Chemical News.*'
He ^tLTB he lately obtained a few rounded pebbles, each weighing about
2 grammes, for examination : they came from Mudgee, New South Wales.
Although the specimens did not present the usual lustre of worn surfaces of
zircon pebbles, yet their obviously high density, and the traces they re-
tained of their pyramidal form, nearly sufficed to identify them witk
the zircon ; this idea was amply confirmed by the results of experiment
The Mudgee zircons prerent the exact tint known as hyacinthine ; indeed
the true hyacinth or jacinth, about which such constant mistakes are made
by jewellers, lapidaries, gem-collectors, and even mineralo^rists, is now an
attainable luxur\'. The engraved gems and the cut stones commonly called
jacinths (even by Dana — vide his *' Mineralogy,'' fifth ed., p. 275), are in-
variably, so far as his experience goes, nothing but the hyacinthine garnet,
a comparatively common stone possessed of far less interesting properties
than the true hyacinth. The Mudgee zircons are rather dark : the colour
is distributed somewhat irregularly in and upon many of the specimens.
When cut, facetted, and polished, this Australian zircon, if not too deep in
colour and too large in size, presents a rich soft red colour tinctured with
orange-brown. He was fortunate enough to secure one pale-coloured sped-
men, which, owing to its having been judiciously cut, has turned out a
stone of surpassing brillisncy and beauty. The density of one of the Mudjree
stones was 4*704. After heating, it was found to have become quite colour-
less, although its density rt»mnined virtually unchanged, namely, A'WX In
these and most other partiiMilars the Mudgee specimens resemble those of
similar colour from Expailly, in Auvergne.

The Injiuenve of Cold on Iron and Stctl liaihcay IMierh. — This subject
has been verj' largely tsken up this year at Manchester, and the ** Pi-oceedinga
of the Literary and Phila«»ophic Society** have been tilled with papers which
are some of them exact contradictions of others. The following observations
were made by Mr. Peter Spence at the meeting held March 10, 1871.
After detailing some experiments, he says, his assistant then prepared a
refrigerating mixture which stood at zero, and the bars were immersed for
t*ome time in this, and they prepared for the breaking trials to be made as
quickly as could be, consistently with accuracy; and to secure the low teni-
peratui-e, each bar on being placed in the machine had its surface at top
covered with the freezing mixture. The bars at zero broke with more
regularity than at 60**; but, instead of the results confirming the general im-
pression as to cold rendering iron more brittle, they are calculated t<i sub-
stantiate an exactly opposite idea, namely, that reduction of temperature,
Cfftvna paribus^ increa.s}S the strength of cast-iron. The only doubtful
experiment of the whole twelve is the first, and as it stands much the
highest, the probability is that it should be lower: yet, even taking it as it
stands, the average of the six experiments at 60° F., gives 4 cwts. 4 lbs. at)

SCIENTIFIC SPUMAKr. 219

g wdiglit of the bu at that temperature, while the arenige of the
ux expentnents at zero ^vea 4 cwta, 20 lbs. sj the breaking weight of the
bw at lero, belu^ an increase of Etrength from the reductiou of temperature
•qual to 3'a per cent. Sir W. Fairbairn, in a paper read auother eveniag,
•nrihutes the breakiatip of the wheel in railway curiages to irregularity of
the action of the wheel, caused by altaration in poaition of the tire.

mOolxfrf^

MICROSCOPV.

n 19(A Sand and ill Ohservera. — The " Monthly Microscnpiiwi
Joumal " for March coataina au important paper by Mr. Charles Stodder.
In it he oppoMS the statemeTits of Col. Woodward, that he had not
trva the loth band od the instruments he aa»erted he had seen it with.
He seems very fully to demonstrate hia position, but probably there will
be an answer by Col. Woodward in next month's number.

How Ui Mount OlyrcU is very well treated of, and diueussed by Mr. D. E.
Ouddard, in the "Journal of the Quekett Club" for January. In the
Hme number Dr. Bastion's views are opposed by Mr, Lowne, and an in-
genious neutral-dnt selenite stage is described by Mr. W. Ackland.

The Larijest Angle of an Immeraiim Lera. — Mr. Weoham, writing in the
" MuutLly Microscopical Journal" for January, says that the same optical
law that limita the aperture of any object-glass to near 82° in a bal»am-
nounted object also determines the angle I'n the lens at which the raye
diverge after being refracted tram the plane surface of the front. Toucan
tuver exr^d B2° in a dry objective ; nor can it be greater on the immersion
^item, where an interchange of front adapts it to both conditions, as the
Terr correction which neceasitates the form of the back lenses and their
diameters will not transmit a greater pencil ; and therefore, if the front is
immersed in balsam for the purpose of viewing an object placed therein,
lliis angle of 63° or less, as the case may be, instead of converging at 170°
as from the dry lens, is continued right to the object, supposing the relrac-
t:r« index of the front and balsam to be the same, which they are nearly.

ifllyrocynn.^Mr. T. Charles White has described to the Royal Micro-
iFOpiol Soi'iely how this substance came to be developed in a bottle of
fluid collected in the round- water at Kensington Ciardens, and left aside.
The following are the author's words: — "Not thinking this worth ex-
hibiting to my friends, I screwed down the top of my York buttle, and
stood it on the window-ledga inside ray room, and it was there forgotten
(or about a fortnight, when, by chance looking up at it, I saw that the
groen flocculent matter bod descended to the dead level of some yellowish-
mloared tnud, but for about a quarter of an inch above it was a layer of
the deepest richest indigo blue I had ever seen. Taking it down carefully,
« that no disturbance of it should take place, I looked at it by reflected
light, w^en it was a rich crimson lake. I then remembered thedichroic
Snida I had seen here, and made a careful examiaation." This e
tion, however, does not throw more light on the subject.

Browninji'ii MicroKope Lamp, which has been made since oi
iHie of the nicest instruments we have seen. Not only is it complete op- .
ihf Iwt it !• adiaitably hand;, psoking; into a bumU nw, juat SOL n

220 POFULAB SCIENCE BEYDEW.

high bv three inches wide. It ia an instrament which no one wlio woAm at
the uiicroscope should be without. The following is the aoooont of it gim
by the maker^ and we can fully bear out its accuracy : The metallic ehhniKy
being telescopic occupies a very small compass; the condenser fits into <]»
cell in front, which is also provided with plain and tinted gfass for conectp
ing the colour of the flame. The reservoir is of brass, and will contain raf-
iicient petroline for six hours* consumption. The entire lamp fitting into
the case from the top, escape of the oil is prevented. In trimming the laap
care should be taken that the wick is perfectly dry, and the petroline oif
good quality ; also that none of the oil gets upon the metallic chimney or
reservoir, or a bad smell will be given off until the oil is burnt away. la
using the lamp it will be found convenient to slightly incline it, so u to
bring the broad surface of the flame more parallel with the surface of the
mirror of the microscope. When it is necessary to re-line the chimoej,
screw off the sliding portion, wash out the old lining, and re-coat it witk
supertine plaster of Paris. When dry it will be found ready for use — a few
minutes will be found sufflcient to do this.

The American Journal of Microscopy is, so far as we have seen, a most
inferii>r J oumal of general natural history. It is many miles behind ^* Science
Gossip " in point of matter. However, it may improve.

The Aeroconiscope. — This name has been applied, we imagine, by Dr.
Mnddox. Through this instrument he collected the various germs which
have been floating in the air for months. Some of the fruits of his re-
search have been flgured in two plates in the ** Monthly Microscopies!
Journal ** for February, but as yet a great number of the specimens obtained
by him with the above instrument and figured in the Joumal| are un-
named.

I*IIOTOGRAPHY.

Xi'ic Lens. — A new lens, of which great things are reported, has recently
been brou};ht out by Ross. Including the full pictorial angle of view, it
possesses the further advantages of being quite free from distortion, work-
ing with great rapidity, and having so much sharpness that a figure which
was taken in the foreground of a landscape has been magnified up to a large
size, the magnified photograph being quite sharp enough for pictorial effecL
With a lens of this kind the tourist photographer has a great power, vis.
that of being able to select and magnify any desirable object in the negative
taken by him during his journeyings.

Pvckvt Cameras, — The adnsability of using very small cameras for land-
scapes has been much discussed in photographic circles during the past two
or three mouths. It is well known that from a very small negative an
enlarged print may be obtained, the degree of enlargement depending upon
two things— the nature of the deposit that forms the image in respect of its
fineness and delicacy of gradation, and the sharpness of the picture. Now,
in consequence of an inexorable law in optics, it is impossible to obtain
definition of the highest class over more than a very small space in the
centre when a flat plate is used on which to take the photograph, for in
flattening the field of a lens intended to work with a large aperture an
amount of astigmation is introduced which is quite fatal to shaipneaa. Now,

flUlBKHFTC BUmfABT.

»S1

ID only he reduced nitbin the neceeaarv bounds by nllowin^
pencils trauBmiLled obliquel; tbrougb the Wna U) be brought to a focus
it than can be done ou a flat plate; hence tbe atttntioa of opddiins
t being directed to the production of portrait- Ion mh for working on
li tustead of flsit-gliuw plates, the advaatage of this srrai]|rement beinj;
it s Undscapist ciui thus obtain h Bntoll but eiceedingly aharp picture
it&neous exposure, and that an enlnrged print of great dimen-
■ may bo obtainod from a very small negative of thia cIms.

adudnff fatled Prints. — At a recent meeting of the Photographic
petj a saccessful method of reproducing faded pbotopraphs wa« com-
bicated by Mr. Prilchard. The faded print, having been first of all
idved fVom its cardboard mount, b saturated with wax, so to render it
i transparent. It is now euperpo^^ed on a plate of glnm ccmled nith
)dio-chloride of silver; this coating is rendered more sensitive by being
\ with ammonia previous to exposura to the light. After being
(rted, the image on the glass plate is strengthened by being washed over
"h an inleosifier compo^d of

Gallic acid ... 75 grains
Glacial acetic acid , , 2 drachms
Acetale of lead , . , 50 grtiius
Distilled water ... 20 ounces,
ittle silver solution is added to this mixture wbere great intensity is
By u«ng this plate as a negative, prima may be obtiUDed which
Pgreatly superior to those from which the negative was produced.

' ■ ""'ii. J. S. Rmtth, F.Ii.S.—\a one of the early photographic
(droentalisls, ibis gentleman was much esteemed. His death, which took
place on December 12, removes from aniongBi us the last but one of the
"fathers of photography." He was the lirst t
senraCiser in photography, and by its agency in
paper he, in 1837, obtiuned eularged views of mil
of the solar microsoojie. Hu was also the first ti:
■olphite of soda la an agent for fixing photographs.

AHiJMai Light fiir Photoijraplac EniargcmetiU.—Dt. Monckboven has
published the method by which he prepares niagnesiau blocks for producing
■n intensely actinic light by the oiy-hydcogen burner. His artificial
magneua is thus made : — Mix four pounds of English caustic, or calcined,
magnesia with two pounds of carbonate of magnesia, add one pint of water,
and knead them into a lougb uniform dough. This dough is put into an
■ppropria.te box and pressed into a compnct laaaa ; after which cut it in
equal parallelopipedic pieces, and dry them for a few days in an oven, and
afterwards make them red-hot for about half au hour.

PtttBrxing rte I^riti) of SensUioe Pajier. — The following method is recom-
neDded by an American writer, by which be says he mn retain his sen.iitive
psipet foiBCTcml days in good condition. To a bftth composed of one ounce
of silver to sixteen ounces of distilled water, be adds a few drops of liquor
smmonifE followed by an ounce of nitrate of ammonia. Ou this bath the
paper is floated for one minute ; it is then drawn over ibe sharp edge of the
dieh for the purpose of removing all the surface solution, and is laid, face
downward, on a quire nf bibulous pnpcr, covered by a couple of sheets "*
the same paper. Friction by the baud causes all the su^rfluoua albq

) employ gallic acid as a

connection with silvered

lute objects by the agency

J publish the use of hypo-

222 POPULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

be removed from the sensitiBed sheet, which is then hung up to diy, and the
same operation is repeated with others, the lower sheets of Inbulous paper
not requiring to be renewed until many sheets of sensitive paper have been
prepared.

New Preservative far Dry Plates. — Mr. Carey Lea has found that the
well-known developing agent, pyrogallic acid, also acts the part of a pre-
servative for dry collodion plates, giving a greater degree of sensitiveness than
most of the preservatives now in use. After many experiments, he recom-
mends the following as being the best way to use it : — A stock solution is
prepared containing one ounce of pyrogallic acid to eight ounces of alcohol ;
and of this, which contains rather under sixty grains to the ounce, a half
fluid drachm is added to eight ounces of water in which has previously
been dissolved eighty grains of gum arable and eighty grains of white
sugar. It is better that the pyrogallic acid be added to the other solution
just before using. This, in the estimation of the inventor, forms the be^t
and most convenient preservative for dry plates hitherto introduced.

PHYSICS.

The Bessemer Flame seen with Coloured Glasses and the Spectroscope, — The
'' Chemical News *' of January 20 contains a paper on these subjects by
Mr. J. Spear Parker. With regard to the flame he says, the combinations of
glasses used by Mr. Rowan and Professor Silliman for observing this flama
are somewhat similar in their effect, the two light yellow in the one case
being nearly equivalent to one dark yellow in the other. The combination
he used was one cobalt-blue glass of rather light shade, and one amber-
coloured ; too deep a blue he thinks should be avoided, otherwise the flame
merely shows varying shades of crimson. The appearances observed were
similar to those recorded by Professor Silliman. On first turning on the
blast, the flame appeared of a reddish-orange ; after the lapse of a few
minutes, this gradually changed to crimson, first in flashes, afterwards con-
tinuously ; the sodium line appearing in the spectroscope at exactly the same
time, and corresponding also to the flashes ; after a few more minutes had
passed, the flame altered to yellow, and, at that time, the characteristic Bessemer
spectrum appeared, flickering at first, like the sodium line ; when it became
steady, the flame, when viewed through the colourod medium, appeared to
consist of a sheath of a light yellow colour, the inner cone being rose-red,
while the upper part of the flame was edged with crimson ; this appearance
was maintained throughout the rest of the deearbonisation, only varied by
occa.'^ional flashes of a deeper red, or of a greenish hue. When the termi-
nation of the reaction was attained, the flame, after a few premonitory
flashes, changed again to the crimson colour. The appearance of a crimson
ring romid the mouth of the converter he is inclined to attribute to irradiation.

Indian Pendulum Experiment. — Col. Walker, Superintendent of the
Trigonometrical Society of India, has written to the Royal Society to say,
that he proposes that Captain Basevi should proceed from Karachi to
England, taking observations en route at Aden and in Egypt, and bringing his
operations to a close by a series of observations at the Greenwich Observa-
tory, if the Aatronomer Royal has no objection. He mentions the Green-

SCIESTinC SCMMABT. 223

li rkther than tlie Kew Observntorj bemuse Ihe true time crtD be obtained
there I'roui the aatruDocuii'&l clocks, nbereu at Kuw it can only be obtained
by observBtioa ; and if (as is pmbabla) Captain Bneevi arrives iu tlie winter,
pendulum-obderTatioD9 laben at Kew would be greatly delayed, as happened
when the operalionB were cotumenced at Kew. Moreover, Greenwich
appears to have been employed ae a rererence station for pendulum -observB'
rions more frequently than Kew,

Electro -tnotivi Font. — We desire to direct the attention of those who oru
interested in this subject to a series of papers, one of which is published in
the " Chemical News," January 6, written by the Rev, W. Hijrhtoo, M.A,
The autbtir'a obKrvations are too long for abstract, but they certainly tend
to prove that there is no ordinary mechanical law upplicable to electrical
force. In other word?, he goes in a^iost the doctrioe that only a deGnite
amount of work can be obtained front a definite aiDOUQt of chemiual change,
and he seems to us to prove his cose clearly.

Th* Fuiibiiity of Pbitinuin-mre hy tht Blowpipe.— }At. K J. Chapman, of
Toronto, Canada, does not think much of Dr. Skey's supposed discovery of
the fuaibility of platinum' wire recorded in our last. He says : " If Dr. Skey
will look in PUtlner's ' Problrkunst,' p. 18 of last edition (p. 14 of third
fiiition), he will lind the following statement; 'When it is desired to test
whether it is possible to produce a >u1&ciently strong oiidieiufi; flnnie, it ia only
required to try to fuse the end of n platinum-wire of a thickness of 0' I mm, to
a|[lobule. The wire i^bent for this purpose at a ri^ht angle, and the shorter
bend is so held in the outer ttame that the axis of the wire exactly coincides
with the axis of the blowpipe-tlanie, care being at the same time taken that
neither wire nor flame vibrate. With strong and really good flame a globule nC
molten platinum is very soon formed, and tliis globule will be the larger
sccordinp to the greater strength of the flame.' .\ similar method of show-
ing the fusilnlily of platinum by the blowpipe is given by Dr, II. 0, Lenc,
in his ' Loth rob rschule ' (Ootha, 1848), and Ilruno Kerl, in his handy littla
' I^^ttraden,' refers also to the fusibility of tine platinum-wire by the blow-
(upe-flame. Other published stntements of this well-known fact might
likewise be quoted." — Cliemical Nmvii (Januatj).

DuratioH of Lightning Flashm. — Mr. 0. N, Rood hns been carrying out
researches on this subject, and the result of his experiments is that the dura-
tion of flashes of lightning, bb observed by hiui, and mesiiiired by means
fully described in this memoir, during a violent thunderstorm in .August last,
amounlF, in niimd numbers, Xa about l-500th of ase^^ond, the avemge length
of the streak being 0°.— Jmencnn Journal of Science and Art.

Water Suppli/ Ui Townt. — Herr E. Grahn has published a paper in the
"Journal fur Osflbeleuchtung " (December), which is a portion of a lecture
gi»en by him before a meeting of water-workf engineers, held nt Hamburg
last May, and contains, apart from mnltera strictly relaling to the engineer-
ing part of water supply, a very excellent account of the origin of water in
nature, of its variouslunctionsin the three kingdoms of nature, and on the re-
quisite qualities of water intended fordomeslic use, — See also Chemical A'avt.

Th« CarutituHon of the Sun. — This paragraph should be in our Astro-
nomical summary, but as it is not there we insert it here, tt relates to M.
ZoUaer's recent psper in " Pogjreudarfl"B Annalen" (No, 11, 1870). This
awijr, ga.ya the abstract in the " Chemical News," illaatnled \t^ & «

T4T7 hfmauriEj ^zacut^ eiir-nio-Iidiogrniia. v, ms reamsdB its cantents,
cotir^iy of in A^j^bnie&I ciuzKur. Tb» •sdur dedaeear bo^wrer, from his
mT4«tx«mc.:iu the £,.bIo'vi2:^ eccdtaide'l r^solsi : ( 1 » The ihernfr of the lines
4f antni^ '>in«ct in the tcecmin of * •elf-laiBZBoas bodr (ttmr) does not
pfr>T» toe »hrieci:e of thi^ faoerjor^. • ^ « Tlfce I^jer in which the inTenioo
oi xhfi ipectrun rmk<s p jkn» difen f< -r eTcrr hodj. and that larer is placed
the Deanr to the centr» f:f the 4rar accrrdin^ to the mater Tapoor density
and eniiiATe power rf the <>ib^ta=ee which jield« the spectnon. (3) This
lajer U. fftttitrU pcrhm. £R«re7 to the centre of dif erent stazs accoidingr as
the xn>n;9itv ri the graTitarion the7e«jf is greater. (4i The £atances of the
lajery of c>:>aT*7«ion ^f the «zsipie bodies ( emitting spectra) from eadi other,
as well at from the eentre of the starsL increase with an inczeafe of tempera-
tore. \h\ The rpectra of di^rent «tar« are. e^erit pmribta. tbe richer in
spectrum lines according to the lower temperatme and the greater maw of
the star^ ( t$ i The srcnAt di^erezce chserred in the intensity of the dark
linea of the solar «pecnram and that of other fixed star* doe« not simplj
depend upon the ditfer^rnov of the pi>wer of absorpti-m. but also upon the
difference of d*;pth wherrin the inversion of the rvspectiTe spectra takes place.
A Tfjpwp'opkictil Smrrty of tke HoKoiam Idamd» has been ordered bv the
Legislatare of the Islands, says Silliman's ** American Joomal " (Jannarr),
and an appropriation of ^5.000 made for procaring innroments and meeting
the expenses of the first year. Profess* jr W. D. Alexander of Oahn has been
appointed SarreTor-GeneraL and is making arrangements for commencing
the work. He proposes to measore a base line on the sandy isthmus
between East ^nd West Maoi, which is six or seven miles wide, and to carry
forward tbe surrey as nearly as possible after the methods of the U.S. Coast
Survey. Geological and botanical collections and observations will be made
in connection with the survev.

The Sptdrtim of the Aurora Borealis. — ^This has been well investigated by
Mr. John I drowning, who gives his results in the '* Monthly Notices of
the Royal Afrtrrmomical Society" (November 11). During the display of
the Aurora B'^realis which occurred on the evenings of October 24 and 25,
he confined h'n attention to observing the spectra of the light, taking it in
different parts of the sky. When the spectroscope was directed to the more
luminous portions, which were generally of a silvery white, the spectrum
appeared to conMst of only one line. He could not succeed in verifying the
position of this line ; but it appeared to be situated between D and E in the
spectrum. When observing tbe light of tbe red portions of tbe sky, a faint
red line became visible. He had no means of verifying the position of these
lines with any degree of exactitude ; but he was able to throw into the field
of view a faint continuous spectrum from a distant light, and also the bright
yellow sodium-line produced by a spirit-lamp. The colour of the green line
was very peculiar ; had he not been able to observe it by comparison, he
could not have formed any idea of its position. It was an exceedingly light
silvery green, or greenish-grey, and often seemed to flicker. Besides the two
lines particularly described, be occasionally suspected others, one in the red
and one in the blue ; but he could not be at all sure of this. The colour
of the li^bt of the aurora seen over the greater portion of the heavens
resembled exactly that of the discharge of electricity from an induction-coil
through a vacuum formed from atmospheric air.

SaESTIFIC SrMMART.

ZOOLOGY AND COJIPARATIVE ANATOMV.

The Cnatatva nf Me Oh'/ SfrwiHi— Thine of the Gulf Stream and of
tlie Straits of Florida hare been rnpurled on br FourtaleB. The Brachjuia
luie fallei) to the hand» of Dr. W. Stimpsnii, who deecribes them in the
"BuUctinof tbo Museum of CouiparstiT^Zoalogir," vol, ii. Dumber 2. lu this
important paper Dr. Stinipson gires a full list uf the firachjura coUacted hj
the Coast Surrev dredging eipeditioiw of 1807-8-0. Eighty-one »pedes,
KpreaeotiDti forty-seven genera, are mentioned, niid fifty-two of the species
and ninetaen of the izmera are described »s new. More than half the species
belong to the Maioidea, while the Ocypoduidra are represented br only two
•peciea, both of them belonpng to the CarcinopJacidir. Only a small pro-
portiini of the species are from great depths, and the number of new forma
• loTfrei? due to the thorough explumtion of the shallower waters.
Bui fifteen species are recorded as coming frmu below 100 fathoms, and of
these eleven are Maioids, and the other fuur are Cancroids — a Pilumiim, two
9 of BaUijtnectei (a new genus allied to Porlvnuii), and a species of
Achctmu. The greatest depth at which any of the species were found is 150
fstboms ; and it is quite remarkable that the only species from that deptb
were iWfuniyfe^one of the species of Bathtfnecta and Ibe AeheloiU.

The Life-Hutary nf Monaik. — One of the ablest and longest papers we
hare seen on Ihis subject and in English, is by Dr. Henry Fripp, in the
" Proceeding* of the Bristol Naturaliata' Society." It is very long, and refers
to a piste, hut there is none accompanying the paper. It is to be hoped that
it wilt be properly published before long, with tlie plate accompanying it

The Xf^amiation of tht MtlohiUha mlgnrit in Canada —Mr. Ritchie,
writing in a late number of the " Canadian Xaluralixl," says that the Ateto-
iantka adgarU of Europe is represented in Canada by Lorhnot/vma fiuea,
conimoiily called the May bug. In reference to the appearance of this
creature, we may stale that it occurs in immecse numbers every three
yean; at least, such is the experience since 185A. The years 18^, 1861,
18lM, and lHfl7 ara those when this insect appeai'ed in greatest numbers.
It mtist not be inferred from the above statement that no examples of these
insecta occurred in the intervening yeirs, far it is always a common species
in Canada. But there are years when certain species prevail in such
to be noticed by everybody. One rcaaon why the cockchafer
ri'yearly may be owing to the circumstance that it remains in
■ for three years, Here, then, an opportunity occurs for
s of the alleged practical uses to which these insects may be

1 ofthegetiui Libinia. — In the Pliiladelphia Academy of Sciences

dings," Sept.) Mr. T. Hall Streets states, in respect of the above,
( much uncertainty has existed with regard to the identity of certain
species betoogins; to the genus Libiuio. Libinia dubia, ever Mnce it was
first established by Milne Edwards, has been regarded as a doubtful species.
In the descnption of it by Edwards, he states that it resembles L, canalicu-
iala very much, and that it is not improbable that it is the young of that
species. Naturalists in this biancb of science down to the present time
a^eai to have accepted tLis statement aa the truth. De 1^^, to. lu&

226 POPULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

*' Natural History of New York," states that the " yoooger individualfl^ one to
four inches in length, are more pvriform in shape, are entirel j covered with a
dense, downy hair, and the spines are not so prominent as in the adult In
this state he supposes it to he the X. chibia of Edwards. Gihhes, in an
article in the " Proceedings of the American Association for 1850," regards
the two species as distinct, hut says that no aheolute characters can he indi-
cated hy which they may he separated. He does not know how to aeooant
for this prevailing ignorance, as the characters existing, separating the two
species, are so plain. He then goes on to give the special characters, whidi
we must omit.

Are the Brachiopods Atmelids f — This question is asked and answered by
Mr. E. S. Morse in a late numher of the '* American Naturalist." He replies
at great length to Mr. H. Dall, who takes a different view. The paper is
too long and too vaguely written for an abstract

New American Fishes. — Professor E. D. Cope says that a number of into-
resting additions to the ichthyological fauna of the United States hanng
been sent to the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences by his fellow-
member Samuel Powell, he places them on record for the convenience of
ichthyologists. Several of the species, it will be observed, were new to
science at the time they were received ; some of them have been described
by Professor OilL Most of these are of West Indian affinity, some being
simply well-known species of that region, which have wandered, as has been
suggested by Gill, along the Gulf Stream, and turned aside on the southern
coast of the New England States.

A New Position for the Kematoid Worms. — Mr. Lowne, wh<i recently
read a very valuable paper before the Koyal Microscopical Society on the
above subject, concludes that it is apparent that the Nematoid worms
stand in a clearly intermediate position between the Echinodemiata and
Anneh'da. The water vascular system with its vesicles reminds one strongly
of an Echinoderm ; the pharynx, the pharyngeal teeth, and se.gmented inte-
gument are clearly those of an Annelid, whilst the nervous system is more
nearly like that of the earthworm than that of an flchinoderm. In Goidius
he thinks there can be no doubt of this, where there is but a single ventral
cord. He cannot agree with Dr. Bastiau\s view that the Nematoid worms
are more nearly allied to Echinoderms than to Scolecida, although he must
think much credit is due to him for having first pointed out strong affinities
with the Echinodennata — not stronger affinities, however, than those known
to exist between Nemertids and Echinoderms.

Insect Scales. — Mr. S. J. Mclntyre, who may be said to have given the
greatest amount of attention to the subject in this country, lays down the fol-
lowing conclusions in a paper published in the " Jilonthly Microscopical Jour-
nal '' for January. 1. That the principal structural feature in insect scales is
corrugated membranes — a plan insuring the maximum amount of strength and
elasticity with the minimum of weight. 2. That there are a few scales having
one surface hackled. 3. That the ornamental requirements of scales are ful-
filled either by iridescence or the possession of pigment granules in or upon the
membranes. 4. That the beaded appearances seen in scales are due to the
following causes, either singly or collectively : — a. Corrugations taking the
form of hemispherical embossings ; b. Pigments ; c. Shadows of projections.

SCIENTIFIC SUMMART. 227

a Vte membmnes, either within or beyond the fottu or the nbject-

Slatig/ifer of ratguuin and SmU. — Tha " Journal of Applied'Science "
(Not.) piTM anaccouut of thia, us conducted in tJie Falkland lalandn. During
the wbf le of Aupust Mid beginning of September large and counties* flocks
of penpiins come from bH directions to the Falklund Islands, and where
tiey alight the ground ia literally covered with them. This periodical
migration in for pnrposes of reproduction. The people who make a btisineM
of killing tb«Be birds for their oil, proceed about tbia time in schonnere
capHhle of weathering the storms thnt atB bo common nt this season.
Besides a small crew, tlieiie schooners hate on board a " copolar," witb a
guig of from twelve to Gfteen men. Their only ana is a sbort stick. On
th» island to which they repair they find a rough kind of furnace that haa
betrn u»ed tbe preTinu; year, and which seems to heat one or more iron
bailers, each of which is capable of holding as niucb a» 360 gnUans of oil.
Thetie islands are leased from the Colonial Government for five years at a
small rent, and every exporting house has several rookeries, which are
tBtpected by tbe rest. The penguin-hunters are generally at tbeir post
before tbe arrival of their intended victims, and when these arrive and
drop on the ground by miUions, the men go among then and commit great
havoc upon the tired birds, heaped together, whose wings are intended more
u helps to swim than to fly. After the lapse of five or six boura of
incei'Mnt slaughter, tbe " copotar " and his men generally have got enough
of Inrds for one night'* boiling. Each rann immediately picks up a cer-
tun number of the dead birds, and begins to skin tbeni. This operation ia
done by matdng a. cut in the belly, and, with a peculiar knack, tbe whole
slnn, -with feathers and all, comes off the bird at one pull. The account
goes on further, but space will not permit u* a longer abstract.

AhdommiU Antmiue of InteiU (Scrue Ort^iTiii).— Mr. A. S. Packard, jun.,
writes on this subject in the " American Naturalist " for December. After
referring to Dr. Atiton Dobm's paper in the " Journtl of the Entomolopicnl
■Society of Slettin," 180H, he claims himself to have noticed the alructurea
B> e«rly ob 1806. He says be haj) been able todetect sense organs (probably
endowed witb tbe sense of smell) in tbe short, 8t<iut-joint«d, anal atyleta ot
the cocliniach (PuriploiiPta Amfricima), beautifully mounted by Mr. E.
Bicknell. He has recently, after reding Dr. Dobm's note, observed tbe
KnM orgnos and counted about ninety minute orifices on each stylet, which
are probably smelling ot auditory organs, such as are described by Ilicks.
Mr. Kckuell baa counted more carefully than he did the exact number of
these pits, and made out ninety-five on one stylet and one hundred and two
on the other, adding "there were none on the under aide of tbeir append-
ages that he could see." They were much larger and much more numerous
thin similar orifices in the nnleniire of the same insect, and were situated
in single rows on tbe upper ude of each joint of tbe stylets. During the
breeding seasiin a peculiar odour ia perhaps emitted by the female, as in
Tertebrnte animals, and it ia probable that these caudal appendages are
endow^ witb the sense of smell, rather than of hearing, that tbe male
may smell its way to its partner. Thia is an argument that the broadly
pectinated anlemue of man; moths are endowed rather with the si

228 POPULAR SCIENCE BKYIEW.

smelling than of hearing, to enahle the males to amell oat the females. He
has observed the same organs in the lamella of the antenns of the carrion
beetles, which imdoubtedly depend more on the sense of smell than that of
touch or hearing to find stinking carcasses in which to place their eggs.

Professor Thoms<m*$ HoUenia. — In the '* Philosophical Transactions*' (Part
II., 1869) appears a paper by Professor W. Thomson ** on HbUenia, a genu
of vitreous sponges,*' accompanied with beautiful illustrations. The genus,
however, appears to Professor Leidv, who writes in the '* Proceedings of the
Philadelphia Academy *' for November, to be synonymous with I^eroitema
(Pr. A. N. S., 1868, Biolog. and Micros. Dep. 9). A comparison of the
fiifures of Holtenia Carpenteri with those of i^^on^fna Anna (*' American
Naturalist," 1870, 21, 22) leads him to suspect that the two are probably
the same.

A New American Locality for Conh/lophora. — In the Academy of Sciences
of Philadelphia, at a recent meeting, Professor Leidy stated that, in a recent
virtit to the Schuylkill river at Fairmount, to seek for specimens of Umatellaf
though he had been unsuccessful in obtaining living ones within reach from
the shore, he had found, in the same positions occupied by the former, sn
abundnnce of Cordylophora. This is the first time that he had noticed this
interesting compound hydroid polyp in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and he
was surprised that until now it had escaped his notice. Cordylophora wss
first detected by him in America at Newport, R.I. He had not been able
to satisfy himself that it was a different species from the European Coriyh'
phora lacustris, first described by Professor Allman of Edinbuigb. It
appears, however, to be much smaller. Professor Allman represents the C
UtcHstris several inches in length, with the polyps a line in length. The
American is not more than half the size. As a variety it might be named
Cordylophora A mericana.

Pterodina Valvata, — Dr. Iludson says that the most striking peculiarity of
this new si)ecies, which he tig-ures in the " Microscopical Journal,'* is the
presence of the large transverse muscles for folding the lorica. The lorica
is oval and nearly plane, except on its under-surface, along its major axis :
where it carries a sub-conical case, in which lie the greater part of the softer
portions of the rotifer. The base of the cone is the opening from which the
rotatory head is protruded, and the lorica is here slit to give free play to the
head, while the muscles close the flaps of the slit when the head is drawn
within the lorica. At a distance from the head of about two-thirds of the
length of the lorica, there is a circular opening through which the false foot
is protruded and withdrawn. The water vascular system with three tags
on each yide can be plainly seen ; but there is no contractile vesicle. There
are, however, two objects which appear to be expansions of the canals, and
possibly answer the purpose of the contracticle vesicle : he cannot say, how-
ever, that he ever saw them contract.

The Chair of Xatural History in the University of Edinburgh, the duties
of which were so long and ably discharged by Professor Allman, has been
given to Professor Wy>-ille Thomson, F.U.S., until lately Professor of
Natural History at Queen's College, Belfast. This of course creates a
yacaucy, the applicants for which are, we understand, numerous, but we
have not as yet heard of any one being selected.

y^r yK

« ■«

•»•«*

THE STRUCTURE OF ROCK MASSES
(FOLIATION AND STRIATION).

Br DAVID FORBES, F.K.S.
[PLATE LXXIU.]

IN a previous communication on this subject ' the three
Btnicturee, stratification, joints, and cleavage, were described ;
it now reinainB to take into consideration the two otlier eystems
of pai-allel structure of common occurrence in the metamorpfaic
and eruptive rocks, viz. foliation aud striation.

Foli<Uion. The terms foliated rocks and foliation appear to
have been introduced into geological nomenclature some
mty-five or more years ago, by Darwin, and since then they
lire met with very general acceptation by geologists both
)ad 08 well as at home ; by the term foliation is signified,
1 parallel structure as makes its appearance in rock masses
owing to the arrangement of certain crystallised minerals in
more or less parallel lines, along which their crystals lie on
their flat sidcH or lengthways, i.e. having their longer axes in
the direction of, and not against, the grain of the rock.

All foliated rocks come under the definition of metamorphic
rocks, that is, rocks which subsequent to their cojisolidatio7i
have undergone a change in the molecular arrangement of
Iheir original component mineral particles, which change in
many, if not most instance)-, has been at the same time ac-
companied by a re-arrangement of their chemical elements
also.

The subject of foliation is one of the most intricate problems
in geology, and opinions are much divided as to the significa-
tion and origin of these lines of parallel structure, so that, in
the present communication, the views propounded must not
tie regarded as representing any universally accepted doctrine,

' Popular Science Review for April 1870.

230 POFULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

but rather as the conclusions arrived at by the author, after a
prolonged study of this subject in the field and in the laboratory.

Although, as before mentioned, all foliated rocks are meta-
morphic rocks, these may have originally been either of sedi-
mentary or eruptive nature ; for a long time it was supposed
that foliated structure was alone characteristic of the so-called
crystalline schists, until further inquiry into the subject showed
that, besides being common in tlie crystalline or so-called
primitive limestones, it was far from being of rare occurrence
in many of the plutonic and volcanic eruptive rocks, abundant
examples being met with of foliated granites, syenites, gabbros,
trachytes, lavas, &c., in which a distinctly recognisable parallel
structure is developed by the manner in which one or more of
the crystalline mineral components are disposed in the mass of
the rock.

The parallelism of foliation is not, as in the case of the
other structure already described (stratification, joints, and
cleavage), brought about by the formation of divisional planes
due to the eflFects of purely mechanical forces, but, on the
contrary, is invariably determined by the presence of crystal-
lised minerals, usually in alternating layers, very diflFerent from
one another both mineralogically and chemically, and which,
owing to the peculiar natiure (habit, or behaviour, as it has
been called by mineralogists) of the minerals themselves, and
to the pressure to which they have been subjected, when in
the process of formation or crystallisation, by the weight of the
superinciunbent mass above them, most commonly assume the
form of crystallised folia?, or of crystals developed mainly in
the direction of one of their iixes only. From this it will he
seen that it is very easy to discriminate between foliation and
all other parallel structures likely to be encountered in rock
masses. If at times (as in the coal formation, for example) we
find minor sedimentary beds, made up almost entirely of plates
of mica, or sandstones possessing a fissile or laminated structure
from numerous scales of mica which may be arranged in
more or less parallel lines, a closer examination of the rock,
and more particularly of the mica in it — using the microscope
if necessary — will at once show, that it has been deposited as a
sediment from water, as the particles will be found waterwom
and abraded, and to present an appearance totally different
from that of the foliae, crystallised in aihi, which are met with
in the crystalline schists or other tnie foliated rocks.

The simplest form of foHated rocks which occur in nature
are those beds of crystalline schist, solely composed of one
mineral, such as many of the mica, chlorite, talc, or hornblende
schists ; m these, as shown in PI. LXXIII., fig. 4, the rock is
«een to be a mere aggregation of imperfectly developed crystals

Irthe

THE STItrCTCRB OF HOCK JIASPKS.

231

tthe mineral mostly lying, or, as it were, draTni out in one
direction ; in fact, the metamorphiam in this case appears tg
eoiifiiet merely in a re-crystallisation of the same mineral pre-
viously present in an amorphous or comminuted condition,
without any true chemical action having necessarily heen called
into operation. When, however, inatead of the bods being
composed merely of one mineral, we find two of quite different
nature— aa, for example, mica and quarts — these two minerals,
not Iwing capable of reacting upon one another, except at such
high temjieratures as we have no reason to believe necessary
for the development of foliation in rocks, usually segregate or
separate from one another, bo as to arrange themselves in more
or lens definite or distinct alternating layers, which, if the rock
had been contorted or crumpled up by pressure, may often
present the most ^mtastic appearances ; as, for example, in the
mica schists in Anglesea, a fragment of which is depicted in
PI. LXXIII., fig. 8.

Where one of the minerals has, for example, like garnet,
a very great tendency to assume its crystalline form, we
often find numbers of nearly, if not quit« perfect dodecahedral
crystals of this mineral, enveloped in the foliie of mica or talc,
which cur\'e round them and compose the mass of the rock ;
the crystals of those mineialw which possess an elongated
crystalline form, like andalusite, actinolite, kyanite, rhoetizit*,
&c., arrange themselves, as a rule, lengthways between the
lavers of mica, chlorite, &c

Many minerals which have leas tendency to take the form
of perfect crystals, appear, as it were, to segregate ont in the
form of lenticidar or oval nodules, arranged with more or less
regularity in the schiat ; a very perfect example of this is seen
'l.the annexed woodcut, which represents a fragment of di-

B schiat, consisting of a mass of mica (with a little talc),

«iDg ionumerable nodules of dichroite of a whitisli or

ih-white colour, sometimes exhibiting the characteriBtio

of colours. This specimen is from the Iwrders of Ong-

t Vand in southern Norway, where this rock extends over

aderable area, and as the nodules are pretty uniformly

; the size of a walnut, and the foliation of the mica

lelf around them, tbe rock itself presents a very pecu-

far app Kuance , I

ike wrgaixxitj of thor sn»f cunC

Tbe more iwi«it UmMbMeB, Ennaerfy
wUdi are imttllT nme or lam erjrtalUnc i
qnentlj bnand to be foliated vith ehVnite <
vemr), with Uf^ and Bcapolite (ae in tb>
•phiel and f-bopdrodhe (aa at Chhsdaiiaiid,
piiiumtk migbt alao Ik nenttoned aa
n the metaatorpbic limettanes. laaome
tioo of diffiesenC paiti of the sme lBi]ge
GinestODe may Ik bnn^iiit about bf mineials
cbai3ct«T to OIK another, as diomi in the

rtbe nodiUeeuid

j^TIjjI primitive.

D textnret are fn-

^r mica (ad at Id-

Hebrides}, or with

Nonray); other

such etnHtiire

the folia-

— of dystaUine

very different in

' fignre.

Fm-i.

Tbifi woodcut represents a section of a limestone quarry, near
Chrietiaasand, in Norway, in which a denotes the overlyinj
granite ; a, b, c, different varieties of crystalline ecbis^ in
irregular patches ; d, coarsely ciystalline whit« limestone or
marble; e, crystalline white limestone, foliated by small crystals
of augite and scapolite ; /, ditto, foliated by mica. Although
in this section we 6nd a somewhat confused arrangement of'
I lie different rocks, it is seen that the general direction of
the lines of foliation remains constant, qiute independent of^
the different character of the minerals by which they are ex-
pressed, or the nature of the rock which they traverse.

It must not be supposed, however, that the foliated structure
ill rocks is only developed by mineral silicates, as in the in-
Hlanccs hitherto referred to; on the contrary, other and most
distinct compoimds frequently make their appearance: thus

TUB STItCCTDRE OK ROCK MASSES.

irhen Bedimentary strata, which have originally contained car-
iKtuaceous matter, have undergone metamorphic alteration, it
ttot unfrequently happens that the carbon becomes converted
into graphite, and thus gives rise to graphitic schists, which
wmetimes assitme the exact appearance of ordinary mica schist,
composed of alternate layers of quartz and mica ; the latter
mineral being in this case represented by the scales of graphite.

Met;Ulio foliation, i.e. foliated structure developed by the
Mcurrence of metallic oxides, sulphides, gulphursenides, &c., is
eommon in many countries, extending at times over consider-
able areas. Thus we find in Scandinavia, Bmzil, India, and
elsewhere, ferruginous schists, in which the mica is replaced by
iron glance or the micaceous form of the Bes([uioxide of iron.
The quantity of oxide of iron in these lieds of iron schists, as
tiiey have been termed, sometimes increases so much as t-o pre-
ponderate over the stony matter, and form actual bods of iron
ore often of gi'eat magnitude. In like manner we find, in
Kveral parts of Sweden, schists foliated with zincblende to such
an extent as to be largely worked for zinc ore, as at Arkersimd,
Shyahyttan, Bovallen, &c. ; whilst at Vena, in Sweden, and
Modum, in Norway, similar schistit occur (and are worked) con-
taining cobalt ore and otber arsenical compoimde.

Beds of crystalline schists, foliated or impregnated with iron
and copper pyrites and other sulphides, are common enough in
many countries, and especially so in Scandinavia, where, from
the rusty colour assumed by these rocks along the line of out-
crop, they are called fahlbands.

With regard to the origin of the crystalline schists, the
evidence seems in favour of the view that they ai'e merely
sedimentary beds of sand ; arenaceous, micaceous, and other
muds ; and submarine tuffs of eruptive origin, altered by crys-
tallisation, or what may be tenii«i chemico-molecuhir action.
Occasionally an examination under the microscope will reveal
the contours of the original sand grains, and in some instances,
as Sorby has shown, the existence of still unobliterated current
structure, like ripple-drifts for example. The argillaceous
shales and slates in some parts of Estramadura, in .Spain, are
(tea to be converted into a variety of mica schist, when frag-
caents are found surrounded by or enclosed in the granite.
Some of the hornblende schists of southern Norway, wliich con-
sist almost entirely of crystals of greenish-black hornblende,
were long ago shown by the author to be the beds of tuflF which
had proceeded from the submarine eruptions of pyroxenite
(highly augitic trap) in the vicinity, subsequently consolidated
and te-crystallised in »itu.

When, in addition to the mica and quartz, felspar is also
{iresent in these rocks, they receive the name ni gaeu&,at tn'^i^

2S4 FCOTLAK

properly mica gneiss — a rock onhr diflRmng firom granite in
poseeaeing a foliat^ parallel ^tmctnre: an attempt to give
some idea of this etructure is made in PL LXXIEL, fig. 5, which
is taken from a piece of ordinary gneiss. The ongin of gneiss is
etill involved in mnch obscurity, and there can be no doubt but
that some varieties of gneiss have a totally different origin from
others. It is known that beds of true mica or hornblende
schist, i.e. those composed only of hornblende or mica along
with quartz, often become felspathic close to their junction
with eruptive granites, so as to become lithologically gneisB,
although petrologically they can only be termed felspathic
schists, since by following up these beds they are soon found to
be true schists.

Other and more characteristic gneiss, in which the felspathic
element is inherent and much more prominent, has from old
times, and with much show of reason, been regarded as formed
from the debris of eruptive granites, due either to subserial dis-
integration or to their having been ejected into or under water,
and thus converted into the condition of tuff, which, after
haWng been arranged under water as sedimentary beds and
consolidated, have become subsequently crystalline by meta-
morpbic action, thereby causing them to assume the foliated
appearance they now present.

Whatever may be the true origin of ordinary gneiss, there is,
however, another variety of this rock, called granitic gneiss,
which cannot have been other than eruptive granite originally,
in which the parallel arrangement of foliation is a superinduced
structure, developed in it subsequent to its solidification ; in
fact it is a metamorphic eruptive rock, just as the ordinary
schists are but metamorphic sedimentary beds.

The proof that such granite gneiss was originally eruptive is
seen in the disturbance which it has occasioned in the rocks
through which it has broken, as also in the fragments of these
rocks which it encloses ; thus PI. LXXIII., fig. 3, is taken from
Darwin's admirable work on the Geology of South America,
and represents a fragment, 7 yards long by 2 wide, of dark
coloured rock with garnets in it, enclosed in the ordinary
granitic gneiss of the country about Eio Janeiro, both being cut
tlirough by a still more recent small granite vein ; fragments
and patches of the other rocks are also seen in the granitic
gneiss of Donegal and Galway in Ireland.

A magnificent section, several miles in length, of such granitic
gneiss can be seen in the naked and almost perpendicular cli&
on the north side of Eidsvand, a lake in the south of Norway :
a portion of this section, elsewhere published by the author in
1856, is represented in PI. LXXIII., fig. 1, and shows the original
dark horiibleudic schists of the country broken through and

THE STBDCTfBE OF ItOCK MASSES.

235

located, whilfit immeDse fragments of them are detached and
enclosed in the mass of light-coloured granitic gneiss ; and, as
further evidence of ita eruptive nature, fig. 6 shows how, at
Haukeraadalen, this grauitic gneiss throws out a smali vein
breaking through the adjacent hornblende schist and possessing
all the structural characters of tniG granite, and entirely wanting
the parallel lines of foliation seen dipping invariably at a high
angle to the east in the main mass of granite gneiss. Similar
cases have been described by Keilhau in other parts of Norway,
and by Scott and Haughton in Donegal.

Even in the most characteristic eruptive granites, it is not at
all uncommon to find portions of the rock possessing a more or
less defined parallel structure, due to the position of the plates
of mica in them, in consequence of which the rock, to use the
workmen's language, " has a grain," and splits more easily in
thifi direction — a feature which — a^ for example, in some part-s of
the Aberdeen white granite quarries — is made use of for the
purpose of making curbstones, &c. The lithologist, on seeing
such stones, would describe them, and correctly so, as granitic
gneiss, although petrologically — that is, studied en. masse in the
held — they are true granite. In Germany the distinction gneiss
granite has been employed for such undoubted granites as
possess a foliated structure.

The direction of the lines of foliation was for a long time
regarded as that of the original stratification, and in many in-
stances, no doubt, this is the case ; for example, in the section

Fo ated p nk ciTatolUDe limcitoop.

I n narv gneiss

' Biui ts of augiuc gov SB nth I_.

I. Otbh e ye ns rach teaCe t hi k.

shown in the annexed woodcut, which is taken near Christian-
sand, and which shows alternating beds of ordinary and augitic
gneiss viith foliated crystalline limestone, which are without
doubt the representatives of sedimentary beds of ailicioiis and
calcareous nature, originally deposited by water, and liroken

236 roPCLAR SCIENCE BETIEW.

througli along the planes of stratification by the two grasiti:
dykes shown in the section.

Many years ago, however, attention was directed by Keilhau
and others to the fact that the planes of foliation did not
always coincide with those bounding the larger beds or massea
of rock, seen to be distinct from one another l»y their differing
in mineral composition, and that they were sonaetimes even at
high angles to them. The subsequent obseirations of Darwin
and Sharpe proved, in very different parte of the world, that,
so far from being identical ^ith stratification, the lines of
foliation over large areas were also those of cleavage ; and Mr.
Sharpe, who regarded foliation as the final result of the same
cause which induced cleavage in rocks, generalised, from ob-
eervations in Scotland and the Alpe, that the lines of these
two stnictures, taken together, were parts of great arches
many miles across — an hypothesis, however, which has not
received subsequent corroboration. In 1854 the author an-
nounced, as the results of experimental as well as field
observations, that the foliation in rocks appeared to be a struc-
ture induced subsequent to the consolidation of the rock,
following the direction of the planes of least resistance in the
rock, whether such planes were those of original sedimentary
stratification, subsequent cleavage, or (in eruptive rocks) the
etrite of fusion ; and this view e.\plains why the lines of foli-
ation and cleavage so often coincide, since, if a rock hod once
undergone cleavage and subsequently became foliated, the
foliations would naturally follow the planes of cleavage in pre-
ference to those of stratification, since the former would be
those of least resistance.

It is therefore of the utmost importance tliat geologists,
when observing in the field, should — especially in districts con-
sisting of metamorpbic schists and gneiss — continually bear in
mind that the planes of foliation may not necessarily be in
any way connected with those of sedimentary deposition, and
that, in such districts, the only means of arriving at any
sound conclusion as to what the probable original bedding had
been, is by carefully studying the difference in mineral cha-
racter of the various rock masses superposed one on another.

What the cause of foliation may be, is a problem as yet but
little investigated or understood. Heat (not necessarily intense)
appears certainly to have played an important part, since
foliated rocks are rarely or ever met with unassociated or at
any great distance from rocks of eruptive, i.e. of igneous origin.
Experiments made by the author between 1849 and 1853
showed, when Mocks of massive or amorphous soapstone were
exposed for some months to a temperature not exceeding red-
ness (infinitely below what would be sufficient to fuse or even

TiiE STBucrraE of bock masses. 237

soften the rocks), under a slight pressure of from ahiiiit seven
to twelve pounds per square inch, that they became totally
changed in structure and converted into an aggregate of
finely developed crystalline folise of a brilliant white or greenifih
colour, identical with talc ; in tact, a talc schist. Under similar
dtcumstanees, if protected from oxidation — as they contain
9ome iron in the state of protoxide — ordinary claysktes were
eraiTerted into rocks possessing a beautiful parallel structure,
meembling gneiss so closely, that some of the hand specimens
eould not be distiaguiahed by the eye from parts of the same
dayelate altered at its points of contact with eruptive rocks
in nature. In the first of these cases, mere re-crystallisation or
molecular re-arrangement in the solid mass will explain the
change ; but, in the second, chemical action also has evidently
ctmie into play in re-arranging the chemical elements of the
elayslate into other mineral forms not pre-existing in the slate.
The effect of the heat being to expand and render the pores of
the rock more open, doubtless admits of the molecules re-
UTBQging themselves and crystallising in the still solid rock,
iriiiUt at the same time the superincumbent pressture tends to
force the crystals to shoot out or develope themselves iu one
direction only, i.e. at right angles to the pressiu-e.

Theflo experiments, and the fonnation of the well-known

Iteaumur's porcelain, show how such crystalline straeture can

be developed iu sohd bodies after their perfect solidification

without any return to a fluid or molten condition ; and the

annexed woodcut, taken from Keilhau,

tl'in- *■ which represents an appearance in

, jL ' ' ' ' i' ^^^ gneiss of Jomfnieland, un island
, ; ,' ,' m 1 1 1 1 I on the southern coast of Norway, can
"'■'/.' m 1 1 1 1 I only ^ explained on tlie assumption
/ II ! JfJ^. Li-jt. ^^^^ ^^^ direction of tbo lines of folia-
I I >f''''~WJ^^'r'Tl tion in the rock (which are represented
I jj ^~i' I 1 1 '. by the dotted lines) had bei-n deter-
mined subsetjuent to its complete
ci>nBolidation, since it wilt be noticed
tliat the subordinate bed of dark
homblendic character has been dis-
located by the fault ab, without any
correspond iog disturbance in the lines of foliation.

In the present state of science it would be premature to say
more as to the probable causes of foliated structiu'e ; the hope
may, however, be expressed, now so much attention is dB\'oted
to geological research, that the study of this interesting although
aUtruse subject may no longer be neglected.

StrLatioit, or that structure which is due to the presence of
what are termed the stria! of fusion, has frequently been called

fhlE? fd»*^ or lava ftmctme. from, its beuf; so diancteristic
of t liiaM; ^uhetaneeft aLvj.

ETeryoiMr faa^ prolttbly iK>ticcd the exifteBce, espedally in
gfaiifl of inferior qoalitr. of certain lines wliidi mcwe or leas
injure tbe tiaiispnrency of the glaes. althangh in themselves
quite irskJispgLrenu In the portions of glasB lemaining attached
to the \f(»tX4tm and ades of old or bioken glass pots these lines
aie mill better seen, bring commonly xendned distinctly visiUe
by alternating lines or layers of ghM pwosfiing different tints
of green with othcrrs white or eoloorlesBt and often presenting
a parallel structure of great beauty, especially when these lines
are seen to be contorted and crumpled up into all manner of
shapesi. The same structure is seen in the vitreous slags
from iron furnaces, the colours being usually shades of hlue,
yellow, green, and grey; whilst the slags frx>m the copper-
smelting furnaces often !<how extremely beautiful alternating
striations of a deep red and black colour.

In obndian or the so-called volcanic glass, an exactly iden-
tical striped or banded structure is extremely common, and in
PL LXXIII., fig. 7, which represents a piece of obsidian from the
Lipari Islands, an attempt has been made to convey an idea of
this appearance.

This structure appears to be caused by the movements of
the different parts of a yiBcid molten mass, which flow over
one another at different rates of progression, whilst its existence
is usually denoted by the bands or stripes in the rock either
differing in colour or in the shades of some one colour. Some-
times, especially in obsidians and traps, this structure is
accompanied by an innumerable number of small air-bubbles
(?gas or steam also), which, being drawn out or elongated
from their original spherical shape by the progressive move-
ment of the molten mass, develop a parallel structure of very
peculiar appearance. In the older lavas these cavities often
become, through infiltration, filled up with carbonate of lime
or other minerals, and thus form what is termed amygdaloidal
trap or lava.

Wlien such lavas, glasses, or slags cool quickly, they retain
their vitreous character and the striated structure already
described ; when, however, the cooling takes place very slowly,
or when, by natural or artificial agencies, they have been again
heated and kept so for a considerable time, devitrification com-
mences to take place, the crystalline or stony structure develop-
ing itself first along the lines of striation. In PL LXXIII.,
fig. 2, which depicts a section of a fragment of greenish
plato-glass from the St. Helen's works, an attempt has been
made to illustrate the gradual development of crystallisation
(or foliation, in other words) along the lines of striation, origi-

THE sntrcnru of bocx lus^se^

B>Uy invisible or but bintly di^tiogtiishable, vbeo the gl
bad bt«D for some time expo^U to » lov hvaX in the
the annealing oven. Had tiiu speciin^i been kept lonj; < ^
in tbe hot due, it would eventiully have become altugeUMT
deviuificd or inverted into a crystalline stony maes (B^u-
mur's porcelain t, in which, however, the parallel stnicture due
to tb« sOiie of fusion can still be distinguished either by the
naked eye or under the microscopic owing to the general
direction and parallelism of the longer axes of the ctystals
which oomposo the ma^.

What is thus artificially produced on the small scale can
be se*n on the large scale in nature in obsidian and other
glassy lavas ; and in most volcanic countries hand specimens
can be obtained showing all the stages, exactly as in the case of
gla^. The crystals of the mineral components of the lavas
appear first along the lines of striation, and go on forming
until the whole mass has become devitrified and is entirely
crystalline, and resembles PI. LXXIII., fig. 9, which n^presents
a band specimen from the apparently bedded and intercalated
lavas (which form so pecxiliar a feature of this part of South
America) near the river Alaiui, where it forms the boundary-
line between the republics of Peru and Bolivia. In this speci-
men the rock has lost all trace of its originally glassy or
vitreous appearance, and having become completely devitrified,
is seen to consist m^nly of felspar crystals along with a little
augite, quarts and an occasional plate of mica (a trachydolorite);
yet, as is seen in the figure, a distinct parallel structure (due
to the striae of fusion) is still preserved in the rock, which,
being the lines of least resistance in it, renders it much more
fissile in this direction than across the grain, exactly as is
commonly found to be the case in a normal or metamorphosed
rock of true sedimentarj' origin : in fact, some of these rocks,
wHch underlie conformably oolitic and other strata of still later
age, and which show themselves for miles intercalated con-
formably in the strata, have been mistaken tor true sedimentary
beds, and in one instance described as sandstone (which never
could have occurred liad their mineral nature been examined),
although they are easily traced to the active volcanoes in the
vicinity from which they have been emitted. Even when such
rooks are found to be extremely fine-grained in texture, the
parallel structure due to pre-existing striation, although often
very difficult to distinguish on the rough surface of fresh
Iracture, is commonly found to show itself very distinctly on
the Biurface of the rock when weathered.

t Any geologist who has had the opportimity of studying such
' B in the field, cannot but consider it probable that the so-
l granitic gneiss or gneiss granites owe their structure to

Dgether ^^^
(B^u- 1

S40 POPITLAB SCIEKCB BKVIXW.

In concluding these remarks on the * different classes of
parallel structure met with in rock masses in nature, the
author would but state that his main object has been to direct
the special attention of geologists working in the field to the
'extreme importance of studying carefully, not only the external
contours, but the internal structure of rock masses also, in
order thereby to avoid the mistakes which have been frequently
committed ; such as recording as stratification planes which are
in reality due to the effects of joints, cleavage, or foliation, or
describing rocks of truly intrusive or eruptive nature as of
sedimentary origin.

BRITISH BEARS AND WOLVES.
I W. BOYD DAWKIKS. M.A., F.R.a, F.G.S.

THE lion, mammoth and reindeer, have already been dis-
cussed from the point of \*iew offered by paleontology and
archajology. In the present essay I intend to treat of the value
of bears and wolves in classification, and to see how far they
throw light on the ancient physical condition of Britain. In
the latter respect we shall find that they offer testimony to the
state of things, which is of no small importance to the student
of early English and mediaeval history, while in the former
they compel ua to analyse M. Lartet's method of sub-
dividing the quaternary period.

The semis bear has not been discovered in any deposits of
greater antiquity than the pleiocene age, and is represented in
Europe by many extinct species and several existing varieties.
The British species are four in number : the bear of Auvergne,
the cave and grizzly, and the common brown or black bear.
Each species has its own peculiar range, both in space and in
time. The first, orthe Ursus Arvemensis — the remains of which
are preserved in the magnificent collections from the forest-bed

* Norfolk made by the Rev. J. Gunn and the late Rev. S. W.
ing — was a creature of about the same size as the common

!uropean species, and anned with canines which are quite puny
in comparison with those of the Ureus speltmis. It has not yet
been figured or described as a British species, and its remains
are very rare. On the Continent, however, it is, as Dr. Fal-
coner remarks, abimdantly found in the pleiocenes of Auvergne
and of the Vat d'Amo. It lias not yet been found in any of
the German pleiocenes, nor in any stmta younger than the pre-
glacial forest-bed of Norfolk. We may therefore view it as a
pleiocene carnivore of a southern kind, whicli ranged from
Nortliem Italy, through Fmnce, as tar north as Norfolk, before
the lowering of the temperatiu'e during the glacial epoch, in

company with several of the pleiocene species, such as the

C'fijTM* arihus. Rhinoceros vw-garhinus, R. et.ruBcus, Eleplias
•.xidionitlis, and Trogontheriwrn Cuvierl. The whole group
animals besides the above, associated with the Ursits Arver:
Iritain, is as follows : —

Lcf an

242 forrLix

Mo9€hata, The mosk-dimr.
Talpa EuropfjBo, The mole.
Cercun Capr^Aus. The roe-
C Elapkus. The «tag-
B(>t» primigenus* The urns.
Hippcpatamus majcr.
Equus fossilis. The hoiae.

EUphas antiquus. The murrow-toothed elephant,
^mco^a amphibia. The irateF-nit.
Castor fiber. The heaver.

It is worthv of note that all the memhen of this &iina now
alive are to he found in temperate regions, and there is every
reason to believe that the extinct membeis also rejoiced in a
temperate or comparatively warm climate. On the whole, we
may predicate a southern range of the Ursus Arvemensis^ just
as in the case of two at least of the other British species we can
predicate a northern origin. It defines with as mmch sharpness
as can be hoped for in palseontology the pleiocene horizon of
any strata in which it occurs, and paiiicnlarly the stage imme-
diately before the refrigeration of Central Europe had brought
in the Arctic mammalia, and forced down southwards the
pleiocene fiiuna of Britain, France, and Germany.

We must now pass on to the consideration of the cave-bear,
Urmia apdceus^ the remains of which were among the first to
be assigned to their true owners by the naturalists of the
eighteenth century. The use of bones in medicine,* in the

* At the present day the Chinese are in the habit of using fosnl-bones in
medicine ; and within the last few years the bone-caves of Borneo have
been ransacked for the same purposes as the caves of the Hartz in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries. To such a degree has this been carried,
that up to the present time no European has been able to transmit home s
collection of fossil mammalia from Borneo, because of the high price which
the Chinese demand. The specimens described by Professor Owen firom
China, in the ** Quarterly Oeological Journal " for 1870, were bought by
Mr. Swinhoe from Chinese who had collected them for physic. In ths
Chinese '' Materia Medica " they are described under the head of dragons'
teeth. Even human remains were commonly used in Britain in medicine
during the seventeenth century. In the days of Sir Thomas Browne,
" celestial mummicc,'' or pulverised mummies, was commonly imported into
Britain from Egypt ; and it appears that even the tumuli round Abuiy were
not safe from the incursions of eminent doctors.

In 1070 Dr. Robert Toope, a physician, then resident at Marlborough, in
a letter to John Aubrey, gives a curious relation of the discovery, by
labourers, of skeletons at this place (Abury), which, he says, had the name
of Millfteld. Dr. Toope t^rms tlie double cirele a " temple," and describes
it ns ''a largo spherical foundation, whose diameter is forty yards ; within

^M BBinSH BEARS AND IVOLTES. 243

Bixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, caused the
}>one-«ives of Saxony and Bohemia to be eagerly explored
Ijy the searchers after Album grcEcum, which in the old phar-
macopoeias did not merely mean elephant's tusk or hyaena'B
coproUtp, but any fossil-bone whatsoever. And as among the
remains obtained from the caves those of the cave-bear
were very abundant, the similarity which they bore to the
animal living in Germany led to the recognition of their true
nature, and they were gradually withdrawn from the province
of medicine into that of palseontology, under the name given
to them by Dr. Goldfugs. During the latter part of the
eight«enth and the first quarter of the nineteenth centuries
the range of the cave-bear was gradually eKt«nded, by various
discoverers of its remains, from Germany into France, and
lastly, by the famous exploration of Kirkdale by Dr. Buck-
land, into Britain. It was discovered by the Rev. J. M'Enery,
in Kent's Hole, and subsequently in no less than twenty out of
the thirty^is British post-glacial caves, the contents of which
I have tabulated in the "(Quarterly Geological Journal," X869,
In Belgium, the limestone caverns aroimd Ll^ge yielded
large quantities of its remains to Dr. Schmerltng, the great
rival of Dr. Buckland in cave-himting. llecent investigations
have shown that it crosBed the Alps into Lombardy,and it has been
met with al«o in Southern Russia. Its range in space may be said
to extend from Yorkshire and Li^e in the north, through
Germany and France as far as the plains of Lombarrfy. It
probably also found its way still further south in Italy, no
geographical barrier intervening, although M. Cesselli's quotation
of it from the gravel-beds of Rome has not as yet been veri-
fied. It has not yet been discovered in Jforthern Germany or
8candinavia, or in Northern Siberia, where the vast accumu-
lation of fossil-bones have excited the curiosity of the most
eminent naturalists, such as Pallas and Brandt. Its absence

iMs lh*Te is ftuotter orb whose Kphere is fifteeu yarda in diameter ; rouud
about this temple a. moat exftct plajne ; and but little nicire than a foot under
Ibis superficies laid tbe bone» sue cloxc one by another that Bcul touchetb
KuL I exposed two or three, ancl perceived their feet lay ttro-nrd the
temple ; and I really believe tbe whole ground U full of dead bodies." lie
idda ibst tbe bones -were lar^, but much decnyed, though " ibe teeth
ven extreem and wonderfully white, bard, and sound;" upon which be
notes: "no tobacco taken in those days." Dr. Toope stiys: "Icarae the next
day And dogp for them (the bones), and stored myself with many bushels,
of which I made a noble medicine, that relieved many of my diatressed
neighbnura." Aubrey addat "This was in 1678, mid Dr. Toope waa lately
1 1885) at the Golgotha again, to supply a defect of medicine be hath had
from hence.'' — "Crania Dritnnnica, Ancient JJiitish," Kennet, vol. ii.

244 FOPTLAS SCIE5CE KKTIKir.

can hanfly be a£cribed to the fact of the fossil fnamTnalg of
those regions having been ignored, for they have been studied
and described with the minutest care. It is numerically most
abundant in the caves of Franconia. The cave of Kuhloch,
for example, which in size is equal to the interior of a large
church, contained, according to Dr. Buckland, ^hundreds of
cartloads of black animal dust, entirely covering the whole

floor to a depth which would average at least six feet

The quantity of animal matter accumulated on this floor is the
most surprising, and the only thing of the kind I ever wit-
nessed ; and many hundred, I may say many thousand, indi-
viduals must have contributed their remains to make up this
appalling mass of the du^t of death. It seems in great part
to be derived from comminuted and pulverised bone ; for the
fleshy parts of animal bodies produce by their decomposition
so small a quantity of permanent earthy residuum, that we
must seek for the origin of this mass principally in decayed
bones. The cave is so drv that the black earth lies in the state
of loose powder, and rises in dust under the feet." * Dr. Buck-
land estimates the whole mass of animal matter in this cave at
5,000 cubic feet, which, at the too liberal estimate of two cubic
feet^of matter for each animal, would involve the presence of
2,500 bears. The dryness of the cave, and the freedom of the
animal matter from loam or other admixture, call to mind the
condition of the Egyptian sepulchres rather than an ordinary
bone-cave ; and, so far as I know, have been observed only in
this particular instance. In the rest of the German caves, as
in the English, the animal remains are embedded in a red or
grey loam or sandy clay, introduced either by streams or from
the gradual drip of the water from the roof. The enormous
preponderance of the remains of cave-bear over those of the
associated mammalia proves tliat Germany was the head-
quarters of the cave-bear, whence it may be said to have
passed to the south and to the west, but not to the north.

The value of the animal in classification, and its range in
the geological past, are questions of considerable diflSculty,
whicli demand a most careful analysis. On the Continent it
has not, as yet, been recognised among the animals from any
pleiocene strata, and in our own country it has been obtained
only from one deposit of pre-glacial age, namely, the Lacus-
trine deposit at Bacton on the Norfolk sliore, which underlies
the boulder clay. During the post-glacial epoch it was asso-
ciated with the mammoth, reindeer, cave-hyaena, and cave-
lion, and the whole suite of animals which compose the fauna
of tlie period. Its remains are, however, distributed very un-

• " Reliquiro Diluvionce."

BBITISn BEARS AND ITOLTES. 245

Equally, being found only in the British cavea, and not in the
river deposits, which were probably of the same geological
date. Thia peciiiiaritj of distribution may be attributed to
the habit of living in caves which characterised the creature,
in common with the hyieua, and not, as M. Lartet supposes,
frnra the creature not being here at the time the river-deposits
were accumulated. But, however this may be, the creature
passed away from France, Germany, and Britain at the close of
the quaternary or post-glacial age, and probably also from
North Italy, since the occurrence of its remains in a cave which
furnished also a polished stone-aie and pottery does not
necessarily imply that it lingered there as late as the Neo-
lithic age. Thus we have evidence that it appeared in Europe
jtLst before the glacial epoch, at the close of the pleiocene,
iind increased and multiplied diuing the post-glacial or quater-
nary age, at the close of which it became extinct.

ITius far the evidence of the jjeological range of the animal
ie plain enough, but the eminent French palceontologist, whose
loss is so much to lie deplored, M. Lartet, has attempted a
scheme of classification by means of the cave-bear and other
animals, which, as it seems to me, has been accepted by natu-
ralists without sufficient grounds. He divides the quaternary
series into four periods : " L'age du grand ours dea cavemes,
I'age de lelephant et du rhinoceros, I'age du renne, et I'age de
I'aurochs.' The very simplicity of the system has made it
popular. You find a cave-bear, and at once you have a date
for the deposit in which it occurs ; you find an aurochs, and at
onee assign the stratum to the latest stage of the quaternary.
Unfortunately, however, there are two objections, either of
which is fatal to this mode of classification. In the first place,
nobody could expect to discover the whole quaternary fauna
buried in one spot. One animal could not fail to be better
represented in one locality than in another, and therefore the
contents of caves and river deposits must present some variation.
The den of a hyjena could hardly be expected to contain exactly
the same animals as a cave which bad been filled with bones by
tlie action of water. It therefore follows that the very diversity
which M. Lartet insists upon as representing different periods
of time must necessarily have been the result of diflerent
animals occupying the same area at the same time. In the
Becond place, M. Lartet has not advanced a shadow of proof as
to which of these animals was the first to arrive in Europe, It
U undoubtedly true that they died out one by one, and it is
very probable that they came in also gradually. The fossil
lains from the English caves and river deposits — as for
e those of Kent's Hole, or Bedford — prove only that the
lals inhabited Britain at the same time, and do not in the
■ X— -MO. XL. 8

346 POPTLAB PCIESCE KETIEW.

kast d^iee warrant any cipecuIatioD as to which
here firet. ftlien the French and Belgian naturalists hara
tabulated all the animals found in their respective countries,
they may generalise freelv about the absence, or presence, ot
prepondetance, of certain species Up to the present time thii
haH not even been attempted by any writer on the subject. In
tJie caves of Britain — such as Kent's Hole, Wookey Hole, Kirk-
dale, and the rest, which may be seen in my table of distribution
(Bn'*i«A7'o8(-G/<K-itt/i/^fimnMifo. "Quarterly GeologicalJonmal,''
1 869) — -the cave-bear is associated indifferently with all the three
animals which M. I>artet selects as being of ciasdficatoiy vahie.
In a word, all that we can eafely eay of the post-glacial range of
the cave-bear is that it is found in a great many of the caves in
such association with the other mammalia that it cannot he
considered characteristic of any of the stages into which the
post-glacial age has been arbitrarily divided. We cannot teU
from what area it migrated into Europe ; but, from its knowa
range over the central and southern portions >>{ the Continent,
we may assume that it came from a comparatively temperate
r€^0D, and not from the present home of the reindeer or musk-
sheep. It ver)' proliably came from Southern Siberia. If,
indeed, we allow that the severity of the glacial period begBE
in the present northern regions, and gradually increased, liit
arctic mammalia would gradually encroach on the temperste
zone, and compel the dwellers in that zone to retreat further
and further southwards. The necessary result of the glacial
cold would be a boulversement of geographical provinces, such
as we find at the close of the pleioeene, and during the post-
glacial age. If this view be accepted, the presence of tie
cave-bear in Britain at the close of the pleioeene may ht
ascribed to the increase of cold in the northern regions.

The grizzly bear, TJtbus ferox. has been proved by Profeesur
Busk to be identical with the species described by Dr. Goldftisa
under the name of r]ffu«j>ri«c«s, and is comparatively comnwin
ill the British post-glacial caves and river deposits. It occurs
in the lower brick-earth deposits on both sides of the ThameB,
at Crayford in Kent, and Ilford and Grays Thurock in Efws,
along iwith Elephas antiquits and the megarhine species of
rhinoceros, and Is more abundant in the British caves than its
speliean congener. On the Continent its remains are found in
the caves of Belgium and Germany, and in France it has been
described by M. Lartet under the name of Ursvs Boarguir
finati. It also probably occurs in Italy, according to the
opinion of the late Dr. Falconer.* Its range in Europe, there-
fore, may be said roughly to coincide with that of the cave-

■ " Palwontognipbirad Memoirs," vol. ii.

Ear. I

bhitisie dear.s asd wolves, 247

It liLifi, however, not heen found in any pre-glacial
deposit north of the Alps, but is strictly a post-glacial creature
in France, Germany, and Britain. Like the cave-bear, it
vatiighed away before tJje dawn of the pre-histaric age. At
the present day, according to Sir John Richardson,* it inliabits
the region of the Rocky Moimtaine and the plains lying to the
eastward, as far north as latitude 61°, and, aciiording to Lieut.
Pike, as far south as Mexico. It must have retreated to its
present abode by the same route as its arctic fellow-inhabitant
of Great Britain in post-glacial times, the musk-eheep, east-
ward over the great plains of Siberia, and over the strait* of
Bheering. The mafssive skulls tif the muak-aheep scattered
through the post-glacial strata of France, Germany, and Russia,
and preserved in the frozen grax'els of Northern Siberia, and
lastly, in the ice-clifiF in Eschscholtz Bay, on the American side
of Bheerinjf's Straits, point out unerringly the continuity of
land, and the direction in which the migration took place.

The common European bear, Urttua Aratog, is the foiuth and
last of the species which ha\'e inhabited England during the
geological past, and it is of considerable interest, because it is the
largest of the postglacial carnivores which can be brought into
relation with our history. It occurs but sparingly in the post-
glacial deposits of Great Britain, and was by no means bo
abundant as the two other post-ghicial species. It has not yet
been discovered in any pleiocene deposit, nor has it excited the
attention of the foreign pakeontologists, and consequently we
caunot tell its ancient Continental range. In Britain it sur-
vived those changes which exterminated the characteristic
poet-glacial mammalia, and is found in the pre-bistoric deposita
both in Great Britain and Ireland. It is described by Professor
Owen from the marls imderneatb the peat of Manea fen, in
which also reindeer, the Celtic shorthorn, and horse, have been
found, and is mentioned by Mr. Scott as having beet discovered
both in Longford and King's County. (" Catalogue of Mam-
malian Fossils discovered iu Ireland," Geological Society, Dublin,
February 10, 1864.) It became extinct in Ireland probably
before the historic period, for according to St. Donatus, who
died in 840, in that favotired island, " Ursorum rabies nulla est
ibi." Sir William Wilde mentions, however, that there is an
Irish name for the animal in an old glossary in the library of
Trinity C-oUoge, and Thompson mentions traditions of the
^I«tence of the animaL (Mr. Scott, op. cit.)

"Tie recent exploration of the Victoria cave, near Settle, has
taled the fact that the Uraus Arctos formed a portion of the
1 of the Neolithic dwellers in the cave, who have left the

• "FftiitmBoresli-Americana."

248 rOPULlB 8CIEKCB VKfOW.

Telicfl of their feasts and a few rude implements at the loweel
horizon. The broken bones and the jaws of the animal lia
indiscriminately mixed up with the remains of the red-deer^
horse, and Celtic shorthorn {Bos longifrona). Two of the jawsi
indeed, rival in size those of the great cave-bear. The section
at the entrance of this cave shows the relation in point of time
between the Neolithic occupation and the present day. On the
sur£EU!e is an accumulation of angxdar fragments of limestone^
fallen from the cliff, which rests on a stratum two feet in
thickness, containing Celtic enamels and Roman coins, which
cannot be of a later date than a.d. 746. Under the latter is a
similar accumulation, no less than six feet thick, which rests on
the lower Neolithic horizon. It may therefore fairly be as*
sumed to have taken thrice as long a time for its accumulation
as the first — ^that is to say, if 1,200 years be required for
the first, 3,600 years would be required for the second. And
thus we roughly get at the date when the bear was eaten hj
the Neolithic hunters, which would be about 4,000 years aga
This is one of the very few cases in which even a gaess can be
hazarded of the lapse of past time in the region outside history.
Nor are we without direct testimony that the bear was kiilel
by the hand of man during the Koman occupation of Britain.
In the collection of bones from the refuse heaps round Col-
chester, made by Dr. Bree, the animal occurs along with the
badger, wolf, Celtic shorthorn «and goat. I have also met with it
in a similar refuse heap, at Richmond in Yorkshire, which most
probably is of Roman origin. Indeed, in the northern parts
of our island, the bear was sufficiently abundant during the
Roman occupation to have been exported to Rome for th^
gladiatorial shows, unless jNIartial's " Ursus Caledonius " be a
mere flight of poetical imagination.

Nuda CAledonio sic proebuit pectora urso
Non falsa pendens in cruce Laureolus.

The mention of a trade in Caledonian bears in Plutarch goes
far to prove the truth of this incidental allusion. But whether
it be true or not, there can be but little doubt that the animal
inhabited the great Caledonian forest during the Roman
occupation of Britain. The precise date of its extinction
cannot be determined with any very great accuracy. One of
the Gordons is said to have killed the last bear in Scotland in
the year 1057, but I have been unable to verify the fact. The
statement is made by Pennant, on the authority of an heraldic
legend. The animal might naturally have been expected to have
lingered in the moimtains of Wales long after it was driven
from the cultivated and fertile portions of Roman Britain*

va tho a

BUIIISQ BEAIIS AND WOLTES. 249

1 tho authority of Dr. Eay ' it ie stated to have been one
of the beast« of the chase in North Wales, and is believed by
Pennant to have left traces of its former presence in the namo
Pennarth, or bear's head. But however tlds may be, the
animal doubtless became extinct in our island before the close
of the eleventh century.t

The history of the sojourn in Europe of the Uraus Arctos is,
aa we liave seen, clearly ascertained. The animal made its ap-
pearance in Britain after the glacial epoch had passed away,
and lived on uninterruptedly down to the present diiy. Tlie
fact that it disappeared before the tenth century from Britain,
while it still held possession of considerable aieas in France
and Germany, implies that the state of agriculture here was
higher than that of those two eoimtries at the time. It could
not exist without long stretches of imcultivated lands. At the
time of the Norman conquest hug'e forests overshadowed a con-
siderable portion of Great Britain, to an extent which as yet
has not been properly realised by any historian, but neverthe-
less the hunter at that time had so completely ransacked their
recesses, that he had extirpated the beai', and thus prepared
the way for the farmer. At the present day it lives on most
of the hi(j;h mountains of Ktirope, but is annually becoming
more scarce. In 1852, accorLliny to Ixird Clermont, tive were
seen together in the Enyailine. The animal ranges throughout
Northern Siberia, and is probably represented by two varieties
in North ;\jnerica.

The following table represents the range in line of all the

(British species,
rn'-elulil rgit-glBclil rre-hl>urLo Hlstotio
Urau Arvenimtu . . « — — —

i:.pel.^ ... X
r./mu-. ... . _ -

I. Arclot ... X « x

lUii, Syn. Quad. 214.
t The reputed efficacy of Ijeftr's grease in " slrengtUeniiifr tlie rnciis of tho
lair" nmy pevhnps ba n BUpetBtitinn ihat points brack lo the time whea
ihe uiimnl wft« bunted in Bntain. It wna on important ingredient in many
kinds at ointment in the Middle A^'es, and, mixed eithor with tbe bunit
bead of a Ann*, or a burnt mouM and honey, was supposed to cure baldnBBS.
(See " Uwuer, Nat. Hist," folio, roL i. p. 1)49). It i» very remarlinble that
the bear shuuld be singled out m rnnkioi; far higher tbnii the test of the
btfiutM of ihe chase, and as an object nf reverence, throughout nearly the
whole of the uorthem Euro-^Vsialic contioent, and the northern regions of
America. Tlie Laps make almost a religious ceremouial of gx)in^ out to
bear-bunt and Ihe return (" Lnpponia, SchetTer," Frankfort, 4to. 1072),
he bones of Ilie bear. The Tun;<it2es of the Amoor
with religious ri'spect, and the Red Indians nak pardon
or buDg compelled to kill it.

250 FOFCn.AB SCIENCE BETIBV*.

The Polar Bear {Ursua TnarUvnius) is believed by Dr.
Carte to have been an inhabitant of Ireland in ancient times,
on the evidence afforded by some bones found in Lough Gnr,
in Limerick. The proportions, however, of the long bones and
the position of the third trochanter on the inner side of the
femur, differentiate the ursine bones in question firom those of
the polar-bear. They resemble the cave-bear more than any
other ; but the variations presented by the remains of the
genus Ur9U8 are so great that in many cases it is impossiUe
to determine the species. The size is of no value in dif-
ferentiation, because in the post-glacial and pre-historic times —
before man had seriously entered into competition with the
carnivores — the wild animals were as a whole much larger than
at the present day, when they are driven from the areas where
food is abundant. The recent specimens in most of the museums
afford, therefore, no true guide to specific determination so £ur
as relates to variation in size. The genus bear also, in com-
mon with the hippopotamus and wild boar, present greater
variations in form than most of the contemporaiy genera, and
in very many cases I have been unable to assign the remaini
to its riglitful owner. And that this feeling is shared by other
naturalists, is shown by the appalling lists of fossil bears, which
merely are the expression of the impossibility of assigning them
to any one well-known form.

We must now pass on to the history of the wolf in Britain.
During the post-glacial age tlie animal was rare as compared
with the hyaenas and the bears, and its remains occur both in
caves and river deposits. It has also been obtained from the
pre-historic peat-bogs and alluvia in various parts of Great
Britain. The only case witliin my knowledge of its remains
being associated witli the traces of the Eomans is afforded by
the collections from Colchester, made by Dr. Bree, and already
mentioned. After tlie English invasion, and the populous
Roman province of Britain had been devastated with fire and
sword, wolves increased to such a degree that they are deemed
worthy of notice in the public records. At Flixton, near Filey,
in Yorkshire, writes Camden,* an hospital was built in the
time of JEthelstan for defending travellers from wolves (as it is
word for word in the public records), that they should not be
devoured by them. In the reign of one of his successors,
Eadgar, wo hear of a tribute of three hundred wolves' heads on
Judwal, a prince of Merioneth, who, according to William of
Malmesbury, paid this tribute for three years, and desisted
on the fourth, because he coidd not find one more.f He very

• « Camden's Britinnia," edit Gibson, vol. ii. p. 110.
\ ^WtL Mahn." IL 166, voL i. p. 261, edit. Hardy.

^raelv

251

Titely drove them out of his territury, but they Btiil continued
uumerous in other quarttjra. The Htatement in the metrical
aciiiuut of the battle of Hastiuj^s. that Duke William eoUected
ami huried his own slain, while he left the English a prey to
the birds and wolves,* is probably literally true, because tlie
tangled thickets of the Andredsweald must have been the
liirking-placea of wolves at the time. In 1281 they had in-
creased so much in the counties of Gloucester, Worester,
Hereford, Shropshire, and Stafford, that one Pet«r Corbett
was ordered by Edward I. to destroy them by any means that
he could.t This is the last historical notice which I have been
able to verify. Camden, however, mentions them as formerly
infesting; the Peak country, and there is said to be preserved
at Exeter a record in which they are mentioned as infesting
Devonshire. Taking everything into consideration, it seems
very probable that they were exterminated in England and
Wales before the end of the fourteenth century ; for had
they been present in any force, their ravages would certainly
have been placed on record. Tlieir memory is preserved in
several names of places in different parts of England. " The
spacious palace," for example, called Wolvesey, built close to
the eai"t side of Winchelsea Cathedral by Bishop Henry in
1137, and Wolvey, near Nuneaton, where Edward IV.wastaken
prisoner by the Earl of Warwick, after the battle of Dane
Moor, may be quoted as examples.

The wohes lingered some time longer in Scotland, as might
be expected from the country affording better cover than in
England. The last wolf in Scotland was killed, according to
Pennant, by Sir Ewen Cameron in the year 1680.

The wolf also lived in Ireland during the pro-historic period,

tDe Bello nnstingensi Cimueti," bv Guido, Biahop of AmienH : —
"Lustmvit aampum tollenB et mbbb Haorum
Corpnnt, Uuz, term condidit in gremio ;
VermibuB ntque lapii, Hvibua canibusque vorandA
Demerit Anglorum corpnrn stratEi solo."
Rymn- Fcedeni.'" folio, Loud. 1706, p. ICS. 1281 An. E. 1. « Rex
OS BftllivU, etc. Sciatia quod iojunximus dilecto ntque fldeli nostro
Pel«r Corbel quod in omnibus Forestia et PitrriH, et nliia locis infrn cnmita-
tos nostros Gloucestr. Wjgom. Rereford. Salop, et Slaftbrd. in quibus lupi
potemnt iDveniri, lupoa cutu hominibus, canibua et ingeniis Buia capiat, atqaa
dcBiiu&t modis onuiibiu quibiu videntur espedire.

" £t ideo Tobis mandniDiui quod eidem Petro in omnibus, quffi ad captio-
Scm luporuni in cooiitaiibua prxdictis pertinent, intendentes eitis et auxili'
, quotient opus fuerit et prrcdictus Petnw vobia soiTe fadct ex piute
In cujua etc. dumtur qunnidiu nobis pUcuerit. Teste Rege npud
Binst decimo quarto die Moii."

252 POFIJLAB SCICKCE KBTIEW.

and ita ravages have caused its existence to be placed on record
after the English Conquest. Dr. Scouler has collected nearly
all the notices on the point (Joum. G-eol. Soc. Dub., voL L
p. 225). "Great numbers of wolves formerly existed in Ire-
land, and they maintained their groimd in this country for a
longer period thin in any other part of the empire. Campion,
whose history of Ireland was published in 1570, informs ua
that wolves were objects of the chase. ' They (the Irish") are
not,' he says, ' without wolves, or greyhounds to hunt them,
bigger of bone and limme than a colt.' A century later they
appear to have been equally abundant, for we hnd by the
journals of the House of Commons that, in 1662, .Sir John
Ponsonby reported from the Committee of Grievances that n
Bill should be brought in to encourage the killing of wolves
and foxes. Effective measures for this purpose appear to have
been tjiken, and the wolf was at last extirpated about the year
1710. Dr. Smith, in his 'History of Kerry,' when speaking
of certain ancient enclosures, observes that many of them were
made to secuje cattle from wolves, which animals were not
finally extirpated till the year 1710, as I find by presentment!
for raising money for destroying them in some old grand jury
hooks,"

According to Mr. Thompson," three Wolf-hills in Ireland
claim their name from the killing of the last wolf — " one in the
south, another near Glenarm, and the third three miles from
Belfast."

The mischief done by these destructive creatures may be
estimated by the various orders relating to them, which have
been extracted from the Council Books preserved in Dublin by
Mr. Hardiman.t In 1652 the export of "wolfe doggea" was
declared to be illegal by Cromwell's government, " because the
wolves doe much increase and destroy many cattle." In the
following year, also, in the preamble of a " Declaration touch-
ii^e the Poore," it is stated that "Many times poore children,
who lost their parents or deserted by them, are found ex-
posed to, some of them fed upon, by ravening wolves and other
beasts and hirda of prey." This increase of the wolves is
directly traceable to the devastated condition of Ireland after
the rebellion had been ruthlessly stamped out by CromwelL
In France the wolves have already taken advantage of the
desolate state of the country after tJie war to find their way to
the battle-fields near Amiens. In the same year there is a
third declaration ordering the destruction of wolves, to which

* "Kat. IKaL of Ireland," vol. iv. p. 34.

f " A Chorographical Description of West Oonnaug-ht," by Roderic
O'FInherty, edit. James Hardiman, Dubtin, Note D, p. 180.

BBITISH BEABS AND WOLVES. 253

the general extirpation of the wolf in 1710 may be directly
assigned : ^^ And it is further ordered that all such person or
persons who shall take, kill, or destroy any wolfes, and shall
bring forth the head of the woulfe before the said commanders
of the revenue, shall receive the simis following, viz. : for every
bitch wolfe, six poimds ; for every dogg wolfe, five pounds ; for
eveiy cubb which preyeth for himself, forty shillings; for
eveiy suckling cubb, ten shillings ; and no woolfe, after the
last of September imtil the 10th of January, be accounted a
young woolfe; and the Commissioners of the Kevenue shall
cause the same to be equallie assessed within their precincts.'

Such is the history of the British wolf. The date of its
disappearance from England, Scotland, and Ireland affords
a clue to the physical condition of those countries at the time.
The himter destroyed the only carnivores formidable to the
shepherd and husbandman in England before the close of the
fourteenth century; in Scotland in 1686, and in Ireland in
1710 ; and the two survivors-^the bear and wolf — of the band
of larger beasts of prey that dwelt here in the post-glacial age,
finally disappeared from Great Britain and Ireland.

^>4

THE ^ LOTOS" OF THE AXCIEXTS.
Bt M. C. COOKE, >LA.

TLATE Lxxrr.i

THE history of .^aered plants is alwa\^ an interesting and
iniftructive study ; more so when it extends into a remote
antiquity, and is associated with such great and advanced
nations as those of Egypt and India. Much has been written
and speculated concerning the Lotos of old authors ; and greait
confusion has existed in manv minds, on account of the desire
to make all allusions and descriptions to harmonise with one
ideal plant — the classic Lotos. At the outset of our remarks
we must clearly intimate that it is impossible to combine all
the fraj^ents of history and description applied to some plant,
or plants, known by the name of Lotos — and met with in the
pages of Herodotus, Homer, Theophrastus, and others — into one
liannonious whole, and apply them to a single mythical plant.
It is manifest, from the authors themselves, that more than one
i^otos is spoken of, and it was never intended to convey the
notion that, like immortal Jove, the Lotos was one and in-
divisible. ►Starting, then, with the* conviction that the one
name has been applied to more than one or two very distinct
and different plants, we shall have less difficulty than were we
to attempt tlie futile task of reconciling all remarks about the
J^otos to a single plant.

In the first instance, it is perfectly clear that the Lotos of
Homer, which Ulysses discovered, and which is alluded to in
th(» ninth book of tlie " Odyssey," is quite distinct from any of
th(^ r(»st. It is the fruit of this tree to which interest attaches,
and not to <h(» flower, as in some others. For the sake of dis-
tinetiou, w(». shall spi^ak of this as the " arborescent Lotos,"
and attempt its identification.

The alhision to it by Homer wull be more vividly present in
thi* minds of readers than that of any other Lotos, since the
story forms the basis of the " Lotos-eaters " of oiu- own Tenny-
son. It is thus rendered by Pope : —

/ 7i*rr' : — _

>(<»

r , \ ♦ •

Fi\:.

; A>CIESTS.

IVe climbed the beauh, and springs of water bund,
Then sprend our hn!>ty banquet on the ground.
Three men were tent, deputed from the crew,
(A herald onaj, the dubious const to view,
And learn what habitnnts posseseed the place.
They went, and found b. hospitable mce ;
Not prone to ill, nor stranjfe to foreign ^'ucat,
Tliey cut, they drink, and Nature pivea the fenst ;
The trees around them all their fruit produce ;
Lotos the name ; divine ncctnreous juice !
{Thence called Lotophagi) which whoso tasWs,
luanliate riots in the sweet repast*,
Nor other home, nor other csre intends.
But quits his house, his countiy, and his friends :
The Uiree we sent, from off the enchanting ground
Wtf drugged reluctant, and by force we b'jund:
The rest in hasle forsook the pleaiuDg shore,
Or, the charm tasted, had returned no more.

This tree, the fruit of wliicli was eaten by the Lotophagi, is
mt-ntioned by Herodotus, Theophrastus, Poiybius, DiosicorideB,
anfl Pliiiy, and from them we gather the following particulars.
'^ Of tbc Lotos, this particular kind is of a considerable size,
about as large as a pear-tree, or somewhat le^s, having a leaf
derrated liko that of the Quercaa i/ac. The wood ia of a dark
colour"' (ThoophraBtus), "Tho Lottis is a tree of no great
height, rough and thorny, and bears a yellowish-green leaf,
somewhat tliicker and broader than that of the bramble "
(Polybiua). "The LotoB-tree is of a considerable size" (DioB-
coridea), " Of the aizo of a pear-tree, though Comelitis Nepos
speaka of it as a ehrub ; the leaf is more serrated, otherwiKe it
might be taken for the leaf of the evergreen oak " (Pliny).
A'irgil also includes it amongst trees. Hence we gather that
it is a small, rough, thorny tree, with seiTated leaves, and a
liiirk wood, for Pliny adds, "the wood is of a black colour, and
in request to make pipes to play upon." So much for the
tree, aud now as to its fruit. "This fruit of the I^otos is in
size alxiut as large as that of the Lentlacus { mastic) ; in sweet-
ness it is like the fruit of the palm-tree. From this fruit the
lotophagi also make wine" (Herodotus). "The fruit is like
the bean (Egyptian bean, or Kyamos) ; ae the grape, it changes
colour as it ripens; but, like myrtle-berries, it is produced
tliiirk und close upon the shoots. It is eateu by those people
kd Lotophagi ; it is innocent, of an agreeable sweetness,
I good for the bowels. There is one kind which has no
li and that is sweeter ; of Ibis wine is made. Ulie army

S56 FOFULAB 8CXS5CB JUVilW.

of Ophelias, on his march to GarUiage, being short of poro-
visions, is said to have subsisted for many dajs on this firait*
(Theophrastus). ^ Its firuit at first is like white myrtle-berriesi
both in size and colour, but when it ripens it tarns to purple;
it is then about the bigness of an olive ; it is round, and,
when ripe, has a small stone ; it is gathered and braised among
bread-corn, put into a vessel, and kept as food for the servants;
it is dressed after the same manner for the family, the kemdi
being first taken out ; it has the taste of a fig, or date, but a
far better scent. Wine is likewise made of it, by steeping, Ac
Vinegar is also made of it" (Polybius). ^It bears a sweet
fruit larger than pepper ^ (Dioscorides). ^ Of this Lotos there
are many varieties, and the varieties are most conspicuous in
the fruit. This fruit is of the size of a bean, and of a saffiron
colour, but before it is ripe it undergoes many changes, like
the grape. The fruit is produced in clusters, among branches,
like myrtle-berries, and not as cherries are with us in Italy.
The fruit affords so sweet a food that it has given name to a
people and a district. It is said that those who eat of it are
not subject to pains in the bowels. The better sort is without
stone, for there is one kind that has a bony nut. From the
fruit wine is also expressed " (Pliny). The whole of these
agree in describing a sweet pulpy fruit, of variable size, bat
not larger than an olive, with a hard stone (and a stoneleai
variety, from which wine is made). There is no allusion what-
ever to any peculiar effects resulting from the eating of this
fruit, of the kind indicated by Homer, so that this portion of
his story may be eliminated as poetical. It may be a beautifdl
romance in the hands of our Laureate, to write of the ** mild-
eyed melancholy Lotos-eaters," and of the

Branches they bore of that enchanted stem,
Laden with flower and fruit, whereof they gave
To each; but whoso did receive of them,
And taste, to him the gushing of the wave
Far far away did seem to mourn and rave
On alien shores ; and if his fellow spake.
His voice was thin, as voices from the grave ;
And deep asleep he seemed, yet all awake.
And music in his ears his beating heart did make.

We will accept the romance, and be thankful for the beau-
tiful, even though it be romance, but the Lotos of the Loto-
phagi bore only a common-place sort of fruit which satisfied
hunger, was sweet and pleasant, and could yield wine.

The next evidence to be adduced is that of modem travellers.
First of these is Dr. Shaw, who states that the seedra of the
Arabs " is a shrub very conunon in the Jereede, and other parts

inU "LOTOS OF TITE ASCIKNT.^.

of BarKtry, and has the leaves, thorns, and fniil of the Zlzyphus
or jujube : only with this difference, that the fruit is there
round, small, and more luscious, at the same time the branches
are neither so much jointed nor crooked. This fruit ia in groat
rcrputc, it tastes something like gingerbread, and is sold in
the markets all over the southern districts of these kingdoms.
The Arabs call it ' Aneb enta el seedra,' that is, the jujube of
the seedra."

That the arborescent Lotos was some species of Zisypkus or
jujube, seems evident from the descriptions above given from
ancient authors, and such is the impression of modem travellers,
The observation of the late Dr. Lindley, to the effect that "the
Jjote bush, which gave its name to the ancient Lotophagi, is
to this day coUect«l for food by the Arabs of Earbary, who call
it 8adr, and its berries Nahk, ia the Zlzyphvs Lotus of bota-
nists," is also the opinion of the raajority of scientific men.
It is possible that the fruit of other species of Zizyphus cod-
Btitnted some of the "varieties" mentioned by tlie ancients.

We must not omit to allude to tlie remarks made by Mungo
Park, on this subject, in his *■ Travels," The negroes gathered
from thorny bushes small fruits called tomiei-onffs. These he
describes as " small farinaceous berries, of a yellow colour, and
delicious tast*, which were no other than the fruit of Rkumnus
(Zizjfphua) Lotus of Linnreus. They Imd gathered two large
iKwkels full in the course of the day. These berries are much
fsteemed by the natives, who convert them into a sort of bread,
by exposing them for some days in the sun, and afterwarda
pounding them gently in a wooden mortar, until the farinaceous
part of the berry is separated from tlie stone. This meal is
then mixed with a little water, and formed into cakes, which,
when dried in the sun, resemble in colom- and flavour the
sweetest gingerbread, Tlie stones are afterwards put into a
vessel of water and shaken about, so aa to sepiirato the meal
which may still adhere to them ; this communicates a sweet
and agreeable taste to the water, and, with the addition of a
little poundetl millet, makes a pleasant gruel calleti fondi,
which is the common breakfast in many parts of Ludamar,
during the months of February and March, The fruit ia col-
lected by spreading a cloth upon tlie ground and beating the
hrauchea with a stick. The Lotus is very common in all the
kingdoms which I visited, but is found in greatest plenty on
HkUis sandy soil of Kaarta l.udamar, and the nortliern parts of
^^Bunbarra, where it is one of the must common shnibit of the
^RouOtry. As this shrub is found in Tunis," he adds, " and also
To the negro kingdoms, and as it. furnishes the natives of the
lattor with a food resembling bread, and also with a sweet
li^U^Xj \yhich is much relished by tliem, there can be little

«f iff haae 'At iMtm ■KfltioBBd hfVSmfm Urn food
T^ caazftcsenaks -cV i&ie- j^vlicr tamk aie so mudi time

^..mJ:

*K^

fiBtWi thai no botamit

amair? v.^ d Lauic ^:«a ui^- wf !■■!■ tint aaaie wptdmd
Zizyfitm* i» ^eaos. aid tfv^Si. as ike dse off Taumim that pu^
Yarcar fwc^ -vae ^tiTiratthr t*> vUck he appBfd the name of
Biijrinihfut Ujdo^, It set be taken fsx gnnted, then, that
dszzc(? i^ iascSTaixng pefiijid. if thk deteimination had Ineii
\msfA ii}KA ix^fccSckna snwwki. cv had a mone pramimig en-

dids2<e i^iT ihc ho»:4ir been didoovered, some dMsded proteii
vc«3d hare tK<n cnxoed against the jntelcnder.

The apfjyaajgn of the same tiiiial name to a spedei of
IhofpfT'jff <the Z>. Lohi*! camoC in itaelf be accepted as aa »-
wmipra«at that it had clazms to heiegaidedas the true Lotos in
cffKiati&in to the Jignbe.

WhaSTfer else the plant might be that is mentioned bjOfid
as the Lotos, it vns cridentlT arborescent. It oecon in the
ninth book of his ■" MetamorphoaeaR,^ vheve the nymph Lotis,
fleeii^ from Piiapas, is transformed into

A flowerr ffanC vliidi sCiD

and in the tiansfiuination of Dirope into such a tree for phek-
ing the flonen of the -^watery Lotos^ for theamnsementoflier
infimt son. it is said that —

Tbe ffpnz was new, and all tlie Teidant bonghsy
Adorn d witli Uosboibs. promised frmte that vie
In glowing ooloais with the Tjiiaa dje.

This may be the poetical romance of the origin of the Libyan
Lotos.

The second Lotos may be designated as the Sacred Lotos, or
Lotos of the Nile. It is the one which figures so conspicaously
on the monuments, enters so largely into the decoration, and
seems to have been interwoven with the religions &ith of the
Ancient Egyptians. This Lotos is mentioned by Herodotus, Theo-
phrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and Athenaeus as an herbaceous
plant of aquatic habits, and from their combined description it
seems eWdent that some kind of water-lily is intended. " WTien
the river is full, and the plains are inundated, there grow in
the water numbers of lilies which the Egyptians call Lotos ^
(Herodotus). " The Lotos, so called, grows chiefly in the
plains when the country is inundated. The flower is white,
the petals are narrow, as those of the lily, and numerous, as
of a very double flower. When the sun sets they cover the
seed-veRsel, and as soon as the sun rises the flowers open,
and appear above the water ; and this is repeated, until the

^H TUB " LOTOrt " OF THE ANCKSTS. 250 I

Seed-ve&sel is ripe and the petals full off. It is said that in ■

tJie Euphrates both the seed-vesael and tlie petals siak duwn

into the water from the evening until midiiiffht to a. j^reat

depth, so tliat the hand cannot reach them ; at daybreak they

emerge, and ae day eomes on they rise above the water ; at

sunrise the flowers open, and when fully expanded they rise up

still higher, and present the appearance of a very double flower "

(Theophra&tus). " The Lotos which grows in Egypt, in the

water of the inundated plains, has a stem like that of the

Egyptian bean (Kyamos). The flower is small and white like

the lily, which is said to expand at sunrise, and to close at

snnset. It is also said that the seed-vessel is then entirely hid

in the water, and that at simrise it emerges again " (Dioscorides).

After describing the arborescent Ijotos, Pliny states " there is

ako an herb of the same name, and in Egypt it grows up with

an herbaceous stem, as a tnarsh plant. \\'hen the inundating

waters of the Nile retire, it comes np with the stem like

tie Egyptian beau, with the petals crowded thick and close,

only shorter and narrower. There is a further circumatance

related concerning this plant of a very remarkable nature, that

the poppy-like flowera close up with the setting sun, the petals

entirely covering the seed-vessel ; but at sunrise they open

again, and so on, till they become ripe, and the blossom, which

is white, falls oflf." Athenaius states that they grow in the lakes

in the neighbourhood of Alexandria, and blossom in the heat

of summer. He also mentions a rose-coloiired and a blue

variety. " I know that in that fine city they have a crown

called Antinoean, made of the plant which is there named

Lotos, wliich plant grows in the lakes in the heat of aiunmer,

and there are two colom^s of it ; one of them is the colour of a

rose, of which the Antinoean crown is made ; the other is called

Lotinos, and has a blue flower."

An aquatic plant, with double, poppy-like flowers, expanding
in the morning and closing at night—

tTbcise virgin lilies all the night
BatbiiiR their beauties in the Inke,
Thiit they may rise mori^ froah aiid bright
When their belovi'd sun "a awake —

either white, blue, or rose-coloured, points clearly to a nym-
phieaceoua plant, closely allied to our own white water-lily ;
and this is furtJier strengthened by the description of the
fruit,

" These (Ijotos) they gather and dry in the sun ; then they
pound what is obtained from the middle of the flower, which ia
like a poppy-head, and make it into leaves, which they bake "
(Herodotus). " The size of the seed-vessel is equal to that of

260 F0FE1.AB SCIE5CB KEIHnr.

the largest poppy-head, and it is divided by separations, in the
same manner as the seed-vessel of the poppy ; but the seed,
which is like millet,* is more condensed. The Egyptians lay
these seed-vessels in heaps to perish, and when they are rotten
the mass is washed in the river, and the seed taken out and
dried, which is afterwards made into loaves, haked, and used for
food "' (Theophrastus). " The seed-vessel is like a very large
poppy-head, and the seeds are like millets, which the Egyptiana
dry and make into bread " ( Dioscorides). " It has a seed-vessel
in all respects like a poppy-head, and contains seeds liko
millet. The inhabitants lay these seed-vessels in heaps to
putrefy, then wash away the filth, dry the seed, pound it, and
make bread of it" (Pliny).

Anyone acquainted with our native water-lilies will recognise
this description of the poppy-like fntit and numerous seeds.
Those who are not may consult the 53rd plate of the third
edition of Sowerby's " English Botany." This is still mora
corroborated by the remark of Theophrastus, that " the natnre
of the stem is like that of the bean (Kyamos), and its spreading
leaves are similar, except that they are less and thinner, and tha
leaf is attached to its foot-stalk in the same manner." Tbfl
nature of the stem and petioles, alluded to in the bean or
Kyamos, will be described hereafter, and consists of internal
cavities, or air-passages, to be seen also in tlie sections of the
white water-lily in the plate of Sowerby's " Botanv " already
quoted. (PI. LXXH'., fig. 4.)

There is one other part of the plant alluded to by the
ancients which must not be omitted — -the farinaceous root.
" The root also of the IjOtos is eatable, and moderately sweet ; it
is round, and of the size of an apple " (Herodotus). " The root
of the Lotos is called coraion, which in its figure and size is
like a quince : the colour of the rind is dark, like a chestnut,
but the inside is white ; when boiled or baked it is like the yolk
of an egg (this expression is doubtful as to its meaning), and
agreeable to the taste ; it is also eaten raw " (Theopbraatus).
" The root, which in appearance is like a quince, is eaten both
raw and boiled ; when boiled, in quality it is like the yolk of
an egg" (Dioscorides).

From these descriptions it is evident that the Sacred Lotos
of the Nile, the Egyptian Lotos of the ancient*, was a species
of Nyviphcca, common in the waters of that river. Plants, and
animals also, submit so much to external circumstances, that
the lapse of centuries may eradicate them from spots on which

* Tlie common millet of Egjpt wm the Dliooro. or .Sory/mm vtdffon, the
seeds of which are mucli lurger tbnii in tbe millEta bclniifing to the p?a«n
Hcliiriii, 2\micHm, or PiupaUtm.

laE "lotos" of thb AKCitsrs. 261

1 at ODe time common. It by no means follows that
the same plants will be found Soiiri^hing in the Nile now, that
were common mider the Pharaohs ; but, when the French
invaded Egypt in 1798, Savigny brought home from the DeltA
a blue Nrpaphxea, which was figured in the "Annales du
Museum," corresponding very closely in habit to the conven-
tional Lotos so common on the Egyptian monuments.

It seems to be very probable that the Lotos-flower in the
bauds of the guests at Egyptian banquets, and those presented
aa offeriugs to the deities, were fragrant. The manner in
which they are held strengthens tliis probability, as there is
no other rea&on why they should be brought into such close
proximity with the nose. Our figure of a flower of the blue
yympluea (jV. c<Brulea)i from Savigny, should be compared in
babit, narrow acute petals, &c., with the Lotos of tlie monu-
mente. (PI. LXXIV., fig. 1).

The white Lotos is eWdently Nymphaxt Lotus, L., which is
eommon to the floras of India and Egypt. Like others of the
order, it has a tendency to variation to such an extent that
numbers of its forms have received specific namt's ; but the^-
»re united by Dr. Hooker under the above name. The red
Lotus is a coloured variety of the same plant. Andrews recog-
nised it as a distinct species allied to N. Lotus, but specifically
distinct in the colour of the flowers. Roxburgh declares that
the difference between them is in the colour of the flowers
only. It is now generally admitted that the colour of the
flowers is insufficient, of itself, to constitute a specific diSer-
ence, and the red Lotus, or KymphcEa rubiu, becomes merely
the red-flowered Nyvipluta Lotus, L. (PI. LXXIV., fig. 2.)

As to the blue Ixitus, it is our opinion that it must be
referred to Nyraphait eteUata, Willd., as accepted by Hooker
and Thomson in " Flora Indica." Of this species the N. cyanea
of Hoxburgh and the X. ccBrulea of Savigny are varieties. It
is stated in the work just cited that the authors had long enter-
tained the belief that " the blue water-lily of the Nile and India
lire (like their white congener Lotus) specifically the same.
The most prominent difference we find between them is the
sweet scent of the African plant, whether wild or cultivated,
and its usually more numerous petals and stamina." It is the
fragrant blue Lotus of the Nile that seems to be represented
so frealy on the monuments, whether it be called Nyniphaea
ctendea or N. stellata. And it is the white Lotus {Nympkctia
Lotus) alluded to by the majority of ancient authors. The
feeds and roots of both species are commonly eaten by the
natives of India.

There is still a third Lotus, briefly mentioned by DIoscorides,
Theocritus, and Homer, which may be some species of Medir-

TOL. X. — so. XL. T

POrrLAB SCIENCE REVIEW.

coffii or of the modem genus Lotus. It is herbaceims, mm^
tim^ wild, and aometimes cultivated; but alw&js vrritteo
about a^ though coustituting herba^, aud is ou one occasion
cropt liy the horses of Achilles, We shall not pause to identifr
this plant, hut proceed at once to the last plant it is our design
to deal with.

The Kyamos, or Indian Lotos. This can scarcely claim to be
one of the Icinda of Lota>s mentioned by the ancients, fdnce it is
distinctly alluded to by them as tlie Egyptian bean, or Kyamos.
This pl^t amongst the Hindoos lias a sacred character, equal
to that of the Lotos amongst the Egyptians. It was doubt-
less Asiatic in its origin. Imt at one time was plentiful in Egypt,
whence it has now totally vanished. It is represented on the
Egyptian monuments, hut far less commonly than the Sacred
Lotos. Some authors declare this to be the veritable " Sacred
Iiotos of Egypt,"" a title to which it has no claim. Herodotus
after describing the Lotos, adds. " there are likewise other
lilies, like roses (and these, too, giow in the river Xile), whose
tiuctihcatiou is produced in a separate seed-vessel, springing
like a sucker &om the root, in appearance exactly resembUng
a wasp's nest, and containing a nimiher of esculent seeds,
about tbe size of olive-berries. These are also eaten, when
tender and ilry."

The descriptions of this plaot are so cliaracteristic that tbe»
never appears to have been any doubt as to what plant WM
intended. " This Egyptian bean," says Dioscorides, was " chiefly
produced in Egypt, and in Asia, and in Cilicia, in stagnant
waters." He says it has a large leaf like an umbrella, and &
stem a cubit high, of the tbiekn^s of a linger. The flower,
which is like a rose, is twice the size of a poppy: when the
petals fall off, tbe seed-vessel is produced with cells, eacb con-
taining a bean, a little ele\'ated above the top of the seed-
vessel, like a bubble in water. The seed-vessel is called
ciborion or cibotion, and tJie planting of the beans is effected
by sinking the seed-veesel in the water, with tbe beans in it, so
that they may take root in the miid. The root is thicker than
n reed, and it is eaten both boiled and raw, and is called collo-
casia : the bean is also eaten green : when it is dry it becomes
of a dark colour, and is larger than the Grecian b^m.

Theophiastus has also given rather a full description of this
plant. He says that " it is produced in marshes and in stagnant
waters ; the length of the stem, at the longest, four cubits, and
the thickne^ of a finger, like the smooth jointless reed. The
inner texture of the stem is perforated throughout like a
honeycomb, and upon the top of it is a poppy-like seed-vessel,
in circumference and appearance Uke a wasp's nest. In each
of the cells there is a bean projecting a little above tbe

THE " LOTOS " OF TIJE ASCIBKTS.

263

of the seed-vesBel, wliicli usually contains about thirty of these
beana or seeds. The flower is twice the size of a poppy, of the
colour of a full-blowu rose, and elevated above the water ;
aboat each flower are produced large leaves, of the size of a
ThesBaliiUi bat, having the same kind of stem aa the flower-
stem. In each bean, when broken, may be seen the embryo
plant, out of which the leaf grows. So much for the fruit.
The root is tliicker than the thickest retfd, and cellular like the
stem : and those who live about Ihe marshes eat it as food,
either raw, or boiled, or roasted. These plants are produced
spontaneously, but they are cidtivated in beds. To make theee
l>ean-bedSj the beans are soivn in the mud, being previously
mixed up carefully vdtli chaflT, so that tbcy may remain without
injury till they take root, after which the plant is safe. The
root is strong, and not unlike that of the reed ; the stem is also

I{«<«pUoU ot Ji'elvmiitiia iptcioaum, with the seeda in till.

similar, escept that it is full of prickles, and therefore the
crocodiles, which do not see very well, avoid the plant, for fear of
ruiming the prickles into their eyes."

Major Drury obser%'e9 that the mode of sowing the seeds of
Nehvmhium. in India, at the present day, is by first enclosing
them in balls of clay, and then throwing them into the water.

Sir James Smith says that in process of time the receptacle
separates from the stalk, and, laden with ripe oval nuts, floats
down the water. The nuts vegetating, it becomes a comu-
copreia of young sprouting plants, which at length break looae
from their confiuement, and take root in the mud.

The account given by .Strabo of the Egyptian bean is not
less interesting. " In the marshes and lakes of Kgypt grow
both the paper-reed and the Egyptian bean, which produces a

264 roptLAR SCIENCE nEvizw.

cHoriwrn,. They are nearly of equal height, ha^'ing stems
about ten feet long; but the paper-reed has a smooth stem,
with foliage growing from the top, whereas the bean has leaves
and flowers apringing from separate stems, and bears a fruit
like our bean, but differing in size and taste. The plantations
of beans are pleasant to the sight, and delightful to those who
wish to feast on them. The way of feasting is to go in boats
with cabins into the thick plantations of them, where a shade
is afforded by the leaves, which are very large, so as to be usee
for cups and bowls : they are adapted to this use by their con-
cavity. The shops at Alexandria are full of them, where they
are used for vessels. The sale of them constitutes one part of
the profit of a farm."

Comparing all these very characteristic features with what is
known of Ndumbium. speeiosuTii, there is no room for doubt
that this is the plant which was known to the ancients as the
Kyamos or Egyptian bean, the Tamara of modem India. This
is described as an aquatic plant, with orbicular leaves at-
tached at the centre, smooth ; under-snrface pale ; margics
somewhat waved ; peduncles longer thau the petioles, and
orect ; root-stock horizontal, fleshy, sending out many fibres
from the under-^urface ; petioles long, rising above the surface
of the water, rough with acute tubercles ; corolla polypetalous ;
flowers large, white or rose-coloured ; nuts loose in the
hollows of the torus or receptacle. (PI. LXXIV., fig. 3.)

The flowers-stems and petioles of the leaves ai'e pierced
throughout their length with nimierous canals or air-ducte, so
that sections cut from them are full of large holes. These
sections, about one-eighth of an inch in thickness when dried,
are sold in the bazaars of India, where they aie emploved
medicinally. (PI. LXXIV., fig. 4.)

The leaves and flower-stalks abound in spiral t\ibes, which
are extracted with great care by gently breaking tie stems and
drawingapart the ends; with these filaments are prepared those
wicks which are burnt by the Hindoos in the Jampa placed
before the shrines of their gods. In India, as well as in China
and Ceylon, the flowers are held to be especially sacred. The
roots and seeds are still eaten in India, as they were in ancient
Egypt ; and Dr. Porter Smith states that the common arrow-
root of China is prepared from this plant. (PI. LXXTV., fig.
6.) The peculiar receptacle, and the way in which the seeds
are immersed in it, are so characteristic, that it needs scarcely
any other evidence to establish the identity of the ^felumbium
with the Kyamos.

The Chinese distinguish four kinds of water-lily — the jrellow,
the white, the red, and the pink; the three latter sometimes
with single flowers, sometimes with double. Of the Nelmnlium

^P TUB "lotos" of TriE ANCJESTS. 265

M. Hue says : " " This plant may be propagated by seeds, but
more easily and rapidly by roots ; it does not require any kind
of culture, and there is nothiDg comparable tn the effect pro-
duced by this splendid flower on the ponds and basins of China.
It does not bud till towards the end of May, but its germi-
nation is very rapid, and its great leaves, lying on the surface of
the water or raised majestically to various heights, form a
covering of most exquisite verdure, the beauty of which ia of
course enhanced when it is enamelled by flowers of various
dyes. They are larger than poppies, and their dazzling tints
are beautifully relieved by the green leaves. The young
Chinese poets are particularly fond of celebrating the beauty of
the water-lily gleaming in the moonlight, as the boats row about
the basins illumined by awarma of glow-worms and iire-flies.
Its seeds arc eaten as nuts are in Europe (fig. 5), and boiled
in sugar and water they are considered delicious by epicures.
The gigantic root is a great resource for culinary preparations,
and in whatever way it is dressed it is always excellent and
wholesome. The Chinese pickle great quantities of it with
salt and vinegar, to eat with rice ; rediiced to powder, it is ex-
tremely agreeable when boiled with milk or water, and in the
summer it is eaten raw like fruit, and is very refreshing.
Finally, the leaves are constantly made use of instead of paper
for wrapping up all kinds of tlungs, and when dried are often
mixed with tobacco, to render it a little milder."

Although we cannot regard this as the mythic Ijotos of
Egypt, it was doubtless held in veneration, and is, moreover,
considered sacred by the Hindoos, and serves for the floating
shell of Vishnu and the seat of Brahma. Sir William Jones
says that « the Thibetans embellish their temples and altara
with it, and a natii'e of Nepaul made prostration before it on
I'ntering my study, where the fine plant and beautiful flowers
lay for examination." Thunberg affirms that the Japanese re-
gard the plant as pleasing to the gods, the images of their idols
being often represented sitting on its large leaves. In China
the Sliing-moo,or Holy Mother, is generally represented with a
flower of it in her hand, and few temples are without some
representation of the plant.

According to Chinese mythology, Shing-moo bore a son,
while she was a virgin, by eating the seeds of this plant, which
lay upon her clothes on the bank of a river where she was
bathing. When the time of her gestation was expired, she
returned to the same place, and was there delivered of a hoy.
The infant was afterwards found and educated by a poor fisher-
man, and in process of time became a great man and performed

• " The Chinese Empire," by M. Hue. London, 1859, pp. 469, 470.

166 JGPDUUI 8CIEKCB JUiVUW*

Tm«M>l«g- When Sliiiig-moo is lepreamted Btanding, Bhe
generally holds a flower of the Kdumhmm in her hand ; and
when sitting, she is nsnally placed upon one of its large orUr
cnlar leaves.

The oonclnsion to which these observations are directed ii,
thatat least four kinds of Lotos are mentioned by the andents.
That one of these is arborescent, and bore the fruit on which
the Lotophagi subsisted, which was some one or more species
of ZiggphiiSj diiefly Zizyphua Lotus, That a aeeond of these
was the Sacred Lotos of the Nile, a water-lily or Nympkaa,
TbBt the third was an herbaceous or leguminous pasture plant
Fuaally, that, although the Egyptian bean, cor Kyamos, was
known to the ancients, is represented on liie monuments of
Egypt, and was probably held in veneration, it was not alluded
to l^ ancient authors as a Lotos, and undoubtedly was the F&-
Iwmbiuin apedosum of botanists.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXIV.

Fie. 1. Flowear of Uae water Uly of the Delta of Egjipt (Jf ^iiipfcw
aaruiea)f horn Sarigiiy.
„ 2. Flower of white water lily of the East (Xyn^ihma lakm).
„ 3. Flower of Kyamos, or ** Egyptian bean " (NAnnbrnm tp e cmm m ) ,
„ 4. Section of flower-atem of same plant

f, 6. One of the nuts, or seeds, of Xetumbimn qteehtum, mtmal sise.
,f 6. Starch from the root-stock of KeiunAmni t^fedomtm, x. 320.

GREENLAND.
By WILLLLM PENGELLT, F.R.S., F.G.S.

JEOGRAPHERS and geologists have for si.me time devotL-d
a large amount of attention and labour to Greenland ;
and, judging from the numerous reports and papers on it,
which have been read to various scientific bodies. It muat be
admitted that their efforts have been crowned with great
BucceBB. Of these communications, those whicli have most
recently arrested our attention are Professor Heer'a " Contribu-
tions to the Fossil Flora of North Greenland," read to the
Boyal Society of London on March 11,1 869," and Dr. Brown's
" Physics of Arctic Ice," read to the Geological Society of
London on June 22, 1870,t the latter treating of the country
as it is at present, and the former of ita condition during the
Miocene period of the geologist.

From time to time, Arctic voyagers — especially McClintock,
Inglefield, C^ilomb. and Olrick — have brought from Greenland
considerjihle collections of fossil plants, which have been lodged
in the museums of London, Dublin, and Copenhagen. They
have attracted so much attention, and their revelations have
been so startling, as to induce the Royal Society of Lond<»i and
the British Association to votv, in I8f)6, liberal grant* of
money for the purpose of in vctsti gating the fossiliferoua beds,
and makiDg as complete a collection as possible of the remains
of the plants which they contain. The expedition was en-
trusted to Mr. E. Whymper, so well known for his Alpine
researches, and Dr. Brown, who had previously travelled in
Arctic Xorth America, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, and had
availed himself of the ample opportunities he had thus enjoyed
for studying ice phenomena.

They reached the colony of Jacobshavn, in Greenland, on
June 16, 18fi7,and left the island on the 10th of the following
Septemher, ha\ing received, during their stay, every assistance

* See "PliiL Tpwis."' for 1809, Pt. IL pp. 445-488.

+ See "Quart. Joum. Oeol. Soc" voL iivi, pp. IJ71-701.

868 FOPULAB 8GDDIGB BEflBV.

firom the Danish authorities. The fiMsilB they brought home
were submitted to Professor Heer, the eminent botanist of
Zurich, whose report on them has already be^i named.

Greenland is in all likelihood a lai^ wedge-fihaped island,
covered everywhere in the interior with a sheet of ice of un*
known depth. The coast-line surrounding this vast mar €b
glace is of variable breadth, and has the aspect of a circlet of
bare bleak islands rising to the height of about two thousaid
feet, and separated by deep inlets or fjords, which are the
channels through which the overflow of the interior ice findi
its way to the sea. During the short Arctic sunmier the snow
clears off this outskirting land, on which the population of
Greenland lives and the Danish trading-ports are built.

Though a familiar subject of conversation among the colonisti
from the earliest times, very few of them have ever visited the
great interior sea of ice ; whilst the natives have a great horror
of it, not only because of the dangers it presents, but from a
belief that it is inhabited by evil spirits of monstrous forms*
At the inlets, where the interior ice sometimes reaches the sea,
it presents ' ice-walls,' varying in height firom one thousand to
three thousand feet, according to &e depth of the valley.
This wall is always steep, because bergs are continually break-
ing off from it, thus rendering approach to it very dangerous,
on account, not only of the falling ice, but of the waves which
it produces. One of these faces, known as Humboldt's Glacier,
is about sixty miles broad.

Once fairly on the ice in the interior, a dreary scene meets
the view — one great ice-field, imbroken in all directions, except
in those in which tlie outskirting land is seen. The traveller,
however, finds it traversed with crevaasea^ the bottom of which
he is unable to see, or to reach with his sounding-line. The
surface of the field rises continuously but gently, the gradient
diminishing towards the interior. In the winter it must be
covered with a deep layer of snow, and the siu-face must be
smooth as a glassy lake ; but in the summer this covering is
converted into water, which, in the form of streams, finds its
way to the sea, directly by flowing on the surface to the edge,
or indirectly by falling into the ci^evaaaes, and thence by sub-
glacial routes. As is the case with glaciers generally, the sur-
face of the ice is ridged and furrowed ; and so far as observations
liave gone, this increases towards the interior. Nowhere is
there to be seen on it a trace of any living thing, or a patch of
earth, or a stone, or, in short, anything whatever to remind one
of the outer world. An afternoon breeze blows over it regu-
larly with such piercing bitterness, that the explorers found
their Eskimo dogs crouched imder the lee of the sledge for
shelter.

GREE5LAXD. S6t

lere Becnis every probability that the country U covered
with one continuous almost level field of ice, concealing or ob-
literating all indications of hill and valley, without a single
break, for upwards of twelve hundred miles from north to
south, and four hundred from east to west. Its thickness ia
unknown ; but when it is remembered that every square mile
contains six hundred and forty acres, that the weight of an
inch of rain is upwards of one hundred tons per acre, and that,
even exclusive of the pressure, the specific gravity of ice is
about eight-ninths of that of water, it will be seen that the
' unbroken ice-field of Greenland must have an area of upwards
of three hundred million acres, and a weight of more than
twenty-seven thousand million tons for every inch of it-s thick-
ness.

From the facts that ice-bei^Tg are rare on the east coist, and
that no stones or other indications of land are found on the
surface of tbe ice-field, it is thought probable that there is no
high land in tlie interior, but that the ice slopes continuously
from east to west ; and as the surface of the vast accumulation
of ice in the known interior, ao far from anywhere attaining
the height of the circmnscribing land, can only be seen by
climbing to considerable elevations on the latter, it is believed
by Dr. Brown that the bare siuface of the country, were it«
glacial covering removed, would resemble a huge shallow vessel
with high walla aroimd it — a vessel now filled with ice, which
slowly flows off, in the form of glaciers, through the enormous
lips in the zone of mountain-land forming its rim. Dr. Brown
is of opinion that a great inlet once stretched across tbe island
from Jakobshavn ice-Qord, as represented on the old maps, but
tliat it is now choked up with consolidated her^.

!t can scarcely be doubted that, in the course of ages, the
glaciers, slowly travelling seaward, grind down tbe bottoms of
the valleys to the sea-level, and thus convert the valleys them-
selves into Qords, such as are so prevalent on the coasts of
northern coimtries in general. When a glacier readies the
sea, it {grooves its way along the submarine bottom for a con-
siderable distance — in flome instances upwards of a mile — until
it is stopped by the buoying action of the water, through which,
and not tbe force of gravity, a portion is ultimately broken off
and an ice-berg ia formed. " The ice," says Dr. Brown, " groans
and creaks, then there is a crashing, then a roar like the discharge
of a park of artillery, and with a monstrous regurgitation of
waves, felt far from tbe scene of distiubance, the ice-berg is
laimched into life." Some of the bergs may be seen sailing
majestically in long lines out of the ice-fjords, to be wafted
in various directions by the winds and currents. Some of
them ground near the Qords, where they remain for months

270 POFULAB aCOEVCI BKTXKW.

or even years, and are only removed by ^ calving," or pieces
breaking off from them.

Dr. U. fiink, of Copenhagen, whose long residence in the
country entitles his ojnnion to the greatest xeqpeet, has calcu-
lated the yearly precipitation, including both snow and rain, at
ten inches, and the dischazge of ice, in the I6im of glacaen,
at two inches. A small portion is given off by evaporatLon,
but the greatest discharge is probably in the streams of water
which pour out beneath the gladeis, both in sunmier and
winter. We do not appear to be in possession of sufficient
data to justify an opinion as to how far the united yearly dis-
charge of ice, water, and vapour at present equals the annusl
precipitation. It is obvious that the question of the increase
or decrease of the existing ice-sheet hinges on this point.

The sub-glacial streams, thickly loaded with mud from the
grinding of the glaciers on the rocks over which they travel,
discolour the sea for miles, and finally deposit on the bottom a
thick coating of the finest material, in which Arctie marine
^.Tiimala burrow in great numbers. Some of the inlets, for-
merly quite open for boats, are now so choked up with bergs
— mainly, it is thought, in consequence of the deposits of sub-
glacial mud — that going up them is never thought of at
present.

Occasionally, without a breath of wind stirring, ice-bergs aie
seen ^^ shootiug out " of an inlet, propelled, in all probability,
by the waves produced by a fresh l)erg being detached firom
the glacier up the Qord.

The bergs when aground have always a slight movement,
which stirs up the food on wliich the seals largely subsist ;
hence the neighbourhood of such bergs is a favourite haunt of
these animals, and thus too often tempts the native fisherman,
who not unfre<iuently loses his life by falling ice. " When we
would row between two l>ergs," says Dr. Brown, " to avoid a
few hundred yards' circuit, the rowers would pull with muffled
oars and bated breath. Orders would be given in whispers,
and I'ven were Sabine's gull or the great auk to swim past, I
scarcely think that even the chance of gaining such a prise
would tempt us to run the risk of firing, and thereby endanger-
ing our lives by the reverberations bringing down pieces of
crumbling ice hanging overhead. A few strokes and we are
out of danger; and then the pent-up feelings of our stohd
fur-clad oarsmen find vent in lusty huzzahs I Yet, when viewed
out of danger, this noble assemblage of ice palaces, hundreds
in number being seen at such times from the end of Jakobs-
havn Kirke, was a magnificent sight ; and the voyager might
well indulge in some poetic frenzy at the view. The noon-
day heat had melted their sides ; and the rays of the red ev&ir

GBE£!iLAND. S71

a glancing sskance among them would conjure up fairy
s of castles of silver and catliedrak of gold. . . Suddenly
lliere is a. swaying, a moving of the water, and our fairy
palace falls in pieces, or, with an echo like a prolonged thunder-
clap, it capsizes, sending the waves in breakers up to our very
feet,"

Ordinary Alpine glaciers, like tlioae of Switzerland, flowing
down mountain goigea, receive great accumulations of rocky
debris on each side, which are termed UUerai ■nwraiiies. In
the frequent case of two siich gorges uniting in one at a
lower level, what may be called tlie a^ttoent or imter lateralii
become one, and form a viedial morabie. Not uiifrequentiy
portions of the material thus accumulated ou the surface fall
through the cr^-as^m, and, reaching the bottom, participatt;
there in the genenil downward motion, and with the debris
the glacier has dislodged from the rocky surfece on which it
travels, form the nwrai/iie pm/omle or basal Tiiorai/ne. If,
as in the Alps, the glacier terminates without reaching the
sea, most of the matter thus transported is deposited at it«
foot, and forms a tentunal ■ntoi-ahie.

The glaciers of Greenland are much more bimple. They
bring no debris from the interior ; and the Bhort valleys
through which they reach the sea rarely unite. The surface
material — which is inconsiderable, and seldom takes the form
of a medial moraine — together with that at the base, is floated
off by the detached bergs, which not untreqiieutly capsize in
the inlets, and thus deposit, at least, the greater part of their
btirthen before reaching the open sea. Hence, coidd the suii-
marine surface be inspected, it would in all probability be
found to consist of tenacious clay, imbedding a long line of
boulders, shells, and bones of seals and otlier marine animals.
This matter must frequently be re-arranged by the enormous
momentum of ice-bergs grounding on it. Dr. Brown mentions
the case of a berg which, in 1867, he observed at the mouth
of the Waygatz, carrying a block of rock that, even at a dis-
tance, lookt^ as large as a good-sized houw.

Greenland, though so intensely cold, and apparently so
cheerless, ie full of interest to the naturalist, and by no means
without profit for the merchant. The outskirting land sup-
ports a luxuriant growth of from 300 to 400 species of plants,
eome of which ascend to the height of 4,000 feet; many
species of seals, and whales, and flsh sport in the waters, which
are also occupied by invertebrate animals and seaweeds;
every rock swarms with water-fowl, whilst land-birds from
the south visit the country as a nesting-place ; countless lierds
of reindeer browse in some of its valleys; the bark of the
fox is to l>e heard even in the depth of winter; and the polar

272 rOFCLAIt FCIESCE BEVIEW.

eir "

bear may be seen ail the year round. The Danes, at tLeir
first visit, found a human population there of 30,000 ; and
within their own possessions there is at present a healthy,
intelligent, civilised race of hunters of not less than 10,000
souls. Exclusive of home consiunption, the annual exports of i
the settlements amounted in 1835 to 9,569 barrels of seal- 1
oil, 47,809 seal skins, 1.714 fox skins, 34 bear skins, 194 ]
dog skins, 3,437 lbs. of eider down, 5,206 lbs. of feathers,
439 lbs. of narwhal ivory, 51 lbs. of walrus ivory, and 3,596 lbs.
of whalebone.

Geologists have long taught that, at least, the west coast of i
Greenland is slowly sinking below the sea. This doctrine i«
confirmed by Dr. Brown, who recapitulates the principal points
of the evidence on which it rests. The following are amongst
the facts he enumerates : — Near the end of the last century a
small rocky island was observed to be entirely submerged at
springtide high-water, yet on it were the remains of a house,
rising six feet above the ground ; fifty years later the sub-
mergence had so far increased that the ruins alone were ever
left above water. The foimdations of an old storehouse, built
on an island in 1776, are now dry only at low water. The
remains of native houses are in one locality seen beneath the
sea. In \75B the Moravian Mission establishment was founded
about two miles from Fiakernsesset, but in thirty years they
were obliged to move, at least once, the posts on which they
rested their large omidkp, or seal-skin boats. Some of th«
posts may yet be seen under water. The dwellings of several
Greenland families, who lived on Savage Point from 1721 t4'
1736, are now overflowed by every tide. In one locality, tht
ruins of old Greenland liouses are only to be seen at low waf«r.
A blubber house, originally built on a rocky islet about »
fiirlong from the shore in Disco Bay, had to be removed iB
1867, as the floor was flooded at every tide, in consequence o('
the gradual sinking of the islet — a fact which bad long been
recognised. An adjacent island, on which the natives formerly'
encamped in considerable numbers diuing summer, has becomA^
GO diminished in size through slow subsidence that there is at
present room for no more tban three or four skin tents. Dr*
Brown estimates the rate of submergence at not more than &v^
feet in a century.

Proofs of an upivard movement appear to be equally well
established ou the north coast, where Dr. Kane, in 1655, ob'
served and described a series of old sea-beaches rising one ovM
another to considerable heights above the sea-level. " I bavt
studies," he say^, " of these terraced beaches at various pointfe
on the northern coast of Greenland, ... As these strange
structiirea woimd in long spirals around the headlands of tha

GltEENLAND. 2?3

iey reminded me of the parallel mads of GJen Roy — a.
comparison which I make rather from general resemblance
than ascertained analogies of causea." '

There seems a tendency to regard thia upward movement in
file north, as well as the downward movement in the west, as
still in progress ; in fact, to consider Greenland as a sort of
lever, having its fulcrum somewhere between the two regions in
which the opposite changes of relative level have been observed.
There is nothing inconsistent in the hypothesis that a sub-
sidence in one region synchronisea with elevation in another at
no very great distance ; and, indeed, it is believed by, at least,
most geologists that an instance of the kind is furnished by
Sweden, which is rising along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia,
sinking in the extreme south of the peninsula, but undergoing
no change in the district of which Stockholm may he regarded
as the centre. Dr. Brown, however, whilst cordially accepting
the evidence of upheaval in North Greenland, believes tliat
movement to be a thing of the past, that tiie whole island
participated in it, and that be has detected unmistakeable
proofs, along the whole extent of the Danish colonies — and, in
one instance, 500 feet above the sea — of a striated clay,
containing shells belonging to species still living in the neigh-
bouring sea. In like manner, he regai'da the subsidence now
in progress as being by no means local, but shared by the
entire country. He admits, however, that the district between
the Danisii settlements and the south coast have not been
examined ; so that he can only be held to have proved that,
since the advent of the species of shellfish now living in the
adjacent sea, those parts of Greenland now known to be sinking
were at a much lower level than they are at present ; that,
even then, the country was the scene of ice action, which, by
depositing glacier-clay, furnished a habitat for the marine
molliisks whose shells are now found in it ; that after this
deposition the district rose slowly above the sea, and attained a
sulnferial height of many hundred feet ; that if the process of
elevation resembled that in the north of the island, it was
broken by protracted periods of intermittence, during which
the successive terraces were formed ; and that, at length, there
set in a movement in the contrary direction, which is still in
progress. It does not appear from the evidence at present
before us that the downward movement is necessarily shared by
the north, or, indeed, that the elevation, has yet ceased there.
On these points we need further information.
It is obvious that whilst the changes just described take us
wly and far back into antiquity, they fail to reach the com-

• " Arctic Esploi-ations,' vol. ii. p, 81.

274 rorcLAB science review.

niencement of the glacial condition of the country. Tfia
which, notwithstanding the present »low subsidence, are sli
500 feet tdiuve the sea-level, vfere due to glncial agency, aatfl
must have been deposited when the areas in which they occur
were far helow the sea. They are occupied, too, by shells of
the same species as now live in Greenland waters, and thot
denote that the climate has not changed.

The existing ice-sheet, which bo completely covors the land —
concealing alike the tops of the mountains and the valleys
which separate them — is eloquent of time. It represents, not
the accumulated total snows of ages, but the simi of the annual
surpluses — the remnants of the yearly precipitation which th»
conjoined actions of evaporation, ice-flow, and sub-gladai
streams have foiled to remove — ^the hoarded capital resulting
from the excess of ice-income over expenditure in every fonib-
.\nd yet this income is estimated at no more than ten iucLea
annually, so that the yearly savings must have been very in*
considerable in themselves — probably an inch or two, at most.
Their aggregate is vast, merely because the time of accumU"
lation has been very protracted.

It is obvious that the geologist's chance of finding fossils ia-
limited to the outskirting land. Here, howe^fer, and ^tecially
near Atanekerdluk, on the western coast, opposite Disco Islani)^
in latitude 70° N. — termed North Greenland by Dr. Heer— hS'
liiis been eminently successful, as has been already remariied.

From the Report of Professor Heer, it appears that the
specimens collected by Mr. Whymper and Dr. Brown contained'
'<9 species of plants, of which 20 were entirely new to science ;
that we are now acquainted with a total of 137 species fhan
tlie same beds and localities : and that the deposits which
yielded them belong to what is known to the geologist as the
Atiocene age — a period very remotely ancient, no doubt, when
measured by even the largest unit employed in human history,,
but not very far back in the vast antiquity of the world. It wa»
separated from the close of that era in which our chalk beds wei»
formed, by a period termed the Eocene, and. in all probability,
by an earlier but unrepresented interval. It was long prior,
on the other hand, to the first appearance in the world of any
I'Xisting species of quadrupeds, and though some of the kinds
iif shell-fish now living were also living then, upwards of fifty
per cent, of the species forming the present molluscous fauna
(i ite from times less ancient than those represented by the
plant-beds of Atanekcrdlok.

Plants of the same kind and of the same age have been found
also in Iceland, and even in Spitzbergen in latitude 78° 56' N,,
and are wonderfully calciJated to revolutionise our notions of
the climate of the Arctic regions. Tliat it cannot always have

GREEKLAND, 275

be«n fiigid, is evident from the fa^t^ that of the fossils in
qiietitioD considerably more than lialf the numlier were trees,
whilst at present no frees exist in any part of Greenland,
though its southern point, Cape Farewell, is in latitude
59° 47' N., or fully TOO miles farther south than Atanek-
erdhik : that amongst them there were upwards of thirty
diflferent kinds of cone-bearing trees, including several species
allied to the gigantic Wellingtonia at present growing in Cali-
fornia : tliat the other trees were beeches, oaks, planes, poplars,
maples, walnuts, limes, a magnolia, hazel, blackthorn, holly,
logwood, and hawthorn ; that they were not represented by
leaves merely — which occurred, however, in vast profusion — but
by fossil dowers and fruits, including even two cones of the
magnolia, thiis proving that tbey did not maintain a precarious
existence, but ripened their friiits. Ivies and vines twined
loond their tninks, beneath them grew ferns having broad
fronds, and with them wei'e mingled several evergreen shrubs.

They were by no means confined to high latitudes, for at
leaat forty-six of tlie species have been found aa fossils in Central
Europe, So iar as is at present known, six of them grew no
farther south than the Baltic, ten have been foimd in Switzer-
land, seven in Austria, four in France, seventeen in Italy, six
in Greece, and foxy in Devonshire. In fact, these extinct old
Miocene plants had a much wider geographical range than is
enjoyed by their allies in the present day ; whence Professor
Heer has concluded that the temperature of the northern
hemisphere, at least from Greece to within a few degrees of
the Pole, was much more uniform during the Miocene era than
it. is at present. The mean annual temperature of North
Greenland was, he believes, 30°. and of Central Europe 10°,
higher than it is now.

A vegetation so luxuriant was probably the home of a large
and varied amount of animal life ; though, up to this time, their
remains have been but very sparingly found. Professor Heer,
however, has detected two fossil insects — one of them a beetle —
amongst the leaves.

Such, it has been well remarked, was the variety, luxuriance,

1 abundance of this old Slioccne flora, that if land extended
I that time from Greenland to the Pole, it was probably
[pied by at leaat many of the same species of plants.

276

OBSERVATIONS ON JUPITER IN 1870-71.

By the Rev. T. W. WEBB, M.A., F.R.A,S.

rE phenomena of Jupiter during and after the opposition
in 1869 formed the subject of a detailed examination,
the principal features of which appeared in the Populab Sciehgb
Review for April, 1870. Although no very important conclu-
sion was deduced at that time, it seemed desirable that the
observations should be continued during another opposition, as
the extension of a series always possesses a certain value^ whether
it may be for confirmation or correction, and either change or
persistency would not be vnthout its own interest or significance.
Accordingly, on Nov. 15, 1870, the planet was again brought into
the same telescopic field, and the results of a scrutiny carried on
through forty-nine nights, till April 15, 1871, are now laid before
the public. The nomenclature originally adopted having still
answered satisfactorily the purpose of identification, we shall
speak, as before, of the brighter parts of the disc as the Equa-
toreal and Two Temperate Zones^ and of the darker stripes as
the Two Torrid and Two Temperate Belts, to which must be
added the South Sub-torrid Belt, subdividing the South tem-
perate zone, and the Two Polar Regions,

A comparison of the former observations with those of jVIi.
Gledhill,*at Jlr. Crossley's observatory, Hali&x, and those of
Professor Mayer, at Lehigh University, U.S., has brought out
an imsuspected omission on my part, to which allusion ought
to be made. Though my attention was especially directed to
that part of the disc, I never detected the thin elliptical ring
which both those eminent observers have delineated as extend-
ing in one place across nearly the whole breadth of the South
temperate zone, but which, as far as I know, has escaped the
notice of other astronomers.

The present series has been carried through with my silvered
speculum of 9 inches, and a power of 212: as, even on those
rare occasions when the air aflForded sufficient sharpness for 450,
there was a want of adequate light in that ocular. The atmo-

OBSERVATIONS ON JUPITER IS 1870-71. 277

splierie coaditions were on the whole inferior to tliose of the
preceding season, and to this cause we may refer a general
feebleness in the markings of the disc, which contrasted diaad-
vantageously with some of the former views. A stispicloo,
liowever, does exist that the cause may have lain in the planet's
own atmosphere.

The colouring of different regions of the disc has con-
tinued relatively unchanged; on the whole, however, it lias
usually appeared less intense and marked by less contrast
than previously. It must be borne in mind that the memory
of the eye is no adequate substitute for actual comparison ;
yet it seems probable that some amount of equalisation has
tjiken place, and from several observations it may be inferred
that some sides of the globe present more plainly than others
the remains of the contrast so fully developed in 1869, between
the brownish yellow of the equatoreal zone and the grey piuple
of thtf North temperate belt. The North polar region has been
sometimes noted of an iron-grey hue. If we now proceed to
refer to other details, commencing from North, we find this cap,
or clearing, which, divested of it« foreshortening, must be of
very considerable extent, little varied in appearance. Its
streakiness is once only expressly recorded ; on another occasion
it is referred to as barely, if at all, perceptible, and was always
very inconspicuous. The South edge of this region, however,
exhibited many changes, in part physical, in part merely op-
tical, from the various presentations of the globe. Towards the
North temperate belt there was always a lighter tract, some-
times only an undefined greyish space, at others a sharp white
zone. Dec. 14, this zone was of considerable breadth, and
divided, nearer to its North edge, by a narrow belt, darkest in
the centre of the disc, and diverging towards North in its East
half, which was also somewhat wavy or ragged. This £<treak,
a feebler companion to the great North belli was frequently
seen, but seldom in such perfection, and sometimes could not
be detected ; traces of its irregular form returned once or twice,
but much less distinctly : it evidently occupied in strength but
a small portion of the circumference, and as the season went on
this region became less strongly marked.

Tlie NoHk Tcviperate Belt, though still a prominent fea-
ture, was repeatedly noted as considerably feebler than for-
merly, or approximating to the two torrid belts in colour
and depth. Its character in these respects varied either
actually, or from optical causes, or botii. On some occa-
sions, especially Jan. 7, I thought it had a yellowish fringe
on the South side, as I had remarked more than a year before,
and on Jan. 16 I fancied such an appendage on either edge.
Two or three times it seemed to thin offalittle towards the East
TOL X.^ — HO. XL. n

278 POPULAB SCIENCE BETIEW.

limb. Dec. 23 it was streaky, and there appeared to be a thin
bright zone in its centre : this was again suspected Jan. 20»
when a minute luminous stripe seemed to divide it into two
very imequal portions, the narrower North ; but it was a very
difficult obser\^ation : this occurred during one of its browner
aspects. Insulated portions of such a zone, and dark spots,
were at other times more readily perceived. Dec. 21,1 thought
there was a lighter included portion for about one-fourth of its
length in the centre of the disc. Jan. 9, a similar break inter-
vened between two dusky, probably roimdish spots, about one-
sixth of length apart. Jan. 25 and -26, there were two such
spots, without any perceptible stripe between them ; the time
of rotation shows that these must have been different, and there
were probably many. Feb. 7, 1 suspected that there were two
smaller spots, connected by a lighter space, and a larger one
further advanced across the disc. March 22, there was a dark
knot on the belt somewhat beyond the centre, from which a
ragged projection slanted a little way North-East into the
brighter adjacent space : for about one-fourth of its length
from that knot the great belt seemed paler ; but I could not
make out with certainty whether there was a second spot where
it recovered its usual tone.

The N(yii,h Temperate Zone was still noticed from time to
time to be the most luminous part of the globe, but only slightly,
and not, as formerly, conspicuously so. It was also not quite
so free from disturbance. Jan. 25, when there were two dark
spots in the adjacent North temperate belt, I had at best
moments a difficult glimpse of something like a very thin
dusky loop, or inverted festoon, connecting them, and project-
ing across one-third of the breadth of this zone. On the follow-
ing night I fancied a very narrow dark stripe across the disc
close to the edge of the North temperate belt, not verified,
however, some hours later. March 22, when there was, as just
described, a ra^ed projection from this great belt to the North,
I had a doubtfid suspicion that the central part of the belt was
attended by some very slight wispiness, or thin loops, intruding
into this zone.

We now reach the EqucUoricd Region^ which seemed un-
altered in its proportions, and on Nov. 18 was observed to lie
obviously South of the centre of the disc. Its colour, im-
changed, though probably diluted, has been already adverted to*
The two Torrid Zones were often noted as narrow, and often as
equal ; but the South was sometimes considerably broader and
darker than the North, which, on Jan. 26, was barely visible.
The markings in the included space, though seldom so clearly
made out as formerly, had exactly the same form, and the
* bead-and-hoUow' character was always apparent, whenever the

OBSERVATIONS ON JUPITER IS 1870-71. 279

state of OUT own air, or, as often seemed to be the case, the
lateral fusion of the luminous masses, did not reduce them to a
state of feebleness and indecision. The elliptical areas were
sometimes so luminous on their South, and shaded, apparently,
on their North sides, that with a less powerful instrument they
might readily assume an imperfect zone-and-belt aspect, and as
such it may be suspected that they have been sometimes de-
lineated. The size, though not the general form, of these areas
and their intervals, as far as could be distinguished, varied in
different parts of this coloured girdle.

The South Temperate Zone, or rather its principal feature,
the South Sxih-torrid Belt^ has undergone considerable change
since 1869-70. At that epoch the belt assumed the form of a
spiral, so gradually evolved as to be sensibly parallel to its torrid
neighbour for a great part of its length, and dissipated before
ifc reached the opposite side of the zone, or the meridian where
it commenced ; leaving a vacancy which was occupied by the
great ellipse of Gledhill and Mayer. In consequence of inter-
ruptions, and especially of weather adverse to minute examina-
tion, I never obtained satisfactory views of the whole of this
zone ; but it appeared to me that after a certain degree of
divergence, and subsequent parallelism as before, a curve of
contrary flexure succeeded, and the belt returned to a junction
with itself, a little beyond its origin. On another side of the
globe, however, but how situated relatively to this intersection
I cannot say, it exhibited an interesting feature in sending off
a curved branch in a South-West direction across the zone, which
extended convex towards South till it actually or very nearly
merged in the South temperate belt. When once the air was
exceptionally still (Dec. 22), it appeared to start from a small
separate base. West of which was a bend in the original belt,
and a minute very dark spot of perhaps (/''o. It was seen
again with another spot on Jan. 25. The belt exhibited similar
variations in breadth and darkness to those noticed in the pre-
vious season, and frequently details of obviously an interesting
character were too feeble for satisfactory vision or delineation.

The South Temperate Belt varied greatly in aspect, being
sometimes divided into two parallel streaks, of which one
formed a companion to the sub-torrid belt ; at others broken
up by white patches, which, from the general feebleness of the
belt, were seldom very distinctly boimded. Not unfrequently
it was so faint and diffused that very little could be made out,
and a general washy appearance extended from the sub-torrid
belt even as far as the Pole. Occasionally, however, the South
Polar Belt had an independent and tolerably conspicuous
existence.

Such have been the principal phenomena of this season*

u 2

280 POPt'LAIt SCIESCE IlEVIEW.

Tliree figures are introdticed rather as iUustratioDS ihao »
portraits, for the original drawinj^ were felt to convey but a
imperfect idea of the minuter details, and in the process of |
wood-en gra ring the fainter portions are almost of necessity too '
prominent. It may be justly thought that our knowledge of
this grand planet has gained but httle from these obsen'ations.
Still, a few deductions may be hazarded. ^Ve may safely
assume that the planet is surrounded by an atmosphere charged
with vapour ; and if analogy has led t^ the supposition that
the brighter stripes indicate the presence of a material Ule
cloud, there is nothing in observation to contravene it. It has
'been doubted whether in the clearer intervals we actually see
the body of the planet ; but the great contrast Vietween the
zones and belts renders it probable that in the latt«r we look
upon the real surface, though the much greater darkness of
some of these bands seems to show that others represent only
a semi-transparent atmosphere, and none possibly may be quite

ISTO, Dee. 14d. Uli. 10m. 1870, Dec. S2d. 10b. SAm. 1871, Jan. 25i. Sh. So.

free from the interposition of a nebulous veil. There have of

late been none of those \'ery dark spots in which it is more
likely that the real surface cornea into view.

That the prevailing equatorial direction of these clearei
tracts is caused by the swift rotation of the globe, has long
been taken for granted, without, as it would seem, sufficient
attention being given to the question in what way such a
result would follow ; and in this inconsiderate acquiescence I
had long shared, till the remarks of an ingenious friend sug-
gested further inquiry. As far as I can see, three explanations
only suggest themselves : 1. There may be a certain amount
of friction against some gaseous material diffused through space ;
but this seems improbable from the density implied in the retard-
ing medium, and from the effect of such retardation on the diur-
nal period ; or 2. There may be some kind of electric or magnetic
polarity developed by such rapid rotatory motion : a hypothesis
too obscure to be adopted as long as any other can be devised ;

OBSERVATIOSS OS jrPnEK IN 1S70-71, 281

or 3. Stigh a direction may result from the diffeient values of
rotatioD at different heightg in the atmosphere, combiued with
the expansion and ascent, or condensation and sinking, of the
aerial strata in contact respectively with the warmer globe or
cooler expanse of Bpace : an idea snppoi-ted by the analogy of
our own trade-winds. But if we adopt this solution, it will
lead us somewhat further. We shall find it expedient to
assume a more regular distribution of heat over the surface
of that globe than exists upon our own, and some consequent
difference in its origin ; for notwithstanding perspective fore-
shortening, bells are occasionally traceable at great distances
from the equator. A draiving made on Dec. 22 sho^ra a
defined belt in a South latitude of probably 60° or 65". Now
since the situation of the terrestrial axis at either etjuinos is
equivalent to the average position of the axis of Jupiter as
far as solar radiation is concerned, we may suppose that if
the warmth of Jupiter were derived wholly from the sun, the
temperature of hie equator would bear a similar proportion
to the temperature of lat. 60° or 65° that the temperature of
the terrestrial equator does to the mean equinoctial tempe-
rature of the parallel of Iceland; and that consequently the
warming of the lower stratum of the atmosphere by contact
with the globe would in all probability be too much reduced
_t o a<imit of the formation of definite zones and belts ; eape-
plly when we add to this the diminution to half its value
f the velocity of rotation in that latitude. Hence, then, it
aid appear not improbable that a considerable portion of
1 heat of Jupiter may be of an unborrowed character.
' I idea, which has been advocated on other grounds, seems
roured by another circumstance. Were his temperature due
^rely to solar radiation, the ciurrents ascending from the
" ter equatoreal regions would be observed to deviate to some
II oblique direction, their lateral diffusion being
repressed by equivalent expansion in remoter latitudes ; the
Aenomena, however, afford but very etiuivocal instances of
any such tendency, the oblitjue arrangements which are occa-
aonally visible being too irregidar in aspect or inconsist«nt in
direction to be referred with safety to this origin. It must be
" nitted that the foundation of such an attempt at explana-
1 is very insecure ; still, till some more probable solution
^ / be devised, it seems to present the least amount of diffi-
llty and inconsistency. And as we believe that our own globe
IWesaes a certain amount of internal temperature, independent
f that derived from solar radiation, there is an antecedent
lobability in extending the analogy to globes of greater
isions, such as Jupiter, and we may add Saturn, whose
iirly belted surface no doubt indicates a similar constitu-

282 POFITLAB SCIENCE BSYJXW.

tion, and where the position of the axis enables us to trace a
circular arrangement even to the vicinity of the Poles, and to
infer with little chance of error, that notwithstanding the
slackened rotation, arctic and antarctic belts exist upon Jupiter
also.

As to the possible extent of this atmosphere, we have little
to guide us. No observer, however powerful may be his
optical means, has ever recorded any deviation in the outline
of the limb as it traverses successively the darker and bright^
portions ; and yet a considerable depth would seem to be re-
quired, to admit of a difference in the velocity of rotation
between the upper and lower regions, adequate to the pro-
duction of so persistent a streakiness. The fact that this
streakiness affects the whiter more than the yellower parts of
the disc may be significant as intimating that the yellow
vapours, if such they are, are of less verticil thickness, what-
ever may be their relative situation in the atmosphere. I
am, as before, doubtful as to the existence of any such &ding
of the ends of the dark stripes as might arise from imperfect
transparency in their clearer air. On some occasions I have
believed that the North temperate belt has been £ainter
towards its extremities ; and on Jan. 20 I thought the &I1-
ing-off much more perceptible in this than in the other belts;
which, if such delicate variations at the extreme verge of
optical power could be trusted, might accord with the sujqpo-
sition of its greater vertical depth. At other times the whole
of the belts preserved their tone very fairly to their extre-
mities; and my impression is confirmed that either optical
deficiency has vitiated some previous representations, or that
the condition of the planet's atmosphere has been on such
occasions widely different from that which it has now long
maintained.

There seems little doubt that for a considerable time the
North has possessed a clearer sky than the South portion of the
planet. The coincidence with the period of summer in that
hemisphere will be remarked : nor need the slight inclination
of the axis be considered a bar to the natural conclusion, since,
when the whole constitution of the globe is evidently very
unlike our own, there is nothing forced in the supposition that
a slight difference of inclination might be much more influ-
ential than in our own case. At present it is a mere suggestion,
arising from slender evidence, and requiring further observations
for its confirmation.

The most singular feature of the disc continues to be the
prevalence of these elliptical areas, which it is so difficult to
explain by any terrestrial analogy. That they are not confined
to the equatorial region, and in fieust do not there attain their

)B.«ERVATIO.\S OS JfriTEK IS 1870-71. 283

Inrgest diia«isions, appears from the very curious (ibject deli-
iiwited by Mayer aud Gledliill ; while some older drawings by
nne of om- firat observei-a, which I have been permilted 1o see,
prove that they have been in other seasons abimdantly developed
in less central latitudes. At present we seem far from any
solution of this mystery, while so little of a similar character
can be traced among the cloud-masses of our own skies.

It may be worth consideration whether the superior bright^
ness of the interior of the disc might lead to any inference as
to the nature of the reflecting material. It is well known that
the difference, though not perceptible hy the eye, la very
material, as we can in no other way explain the singular change
occasionally noticed in some of the satellites to chocolate-colour
or even absolute blackness during the time of transit. It
would be interesting to know whether this very remarkable
effect of contrast has ever taken place in front of tlie dark belts ;
more probably it has lieen confined to the liuninous zones.
Experiments might perhaps l)e de\-t3ed which might show
whether the more compact and regidarly rounded of our white
terrestrial eitmidi exhibit any similar inequalities of luminosity,
dependent on the angles of illumination and reBection. Many
points of interest may probably be elucidated by other means
tiian direct telescopic vision ; and we must look forward with
w-pe^iial interest to the residts which are, we truat, reserved for
•}\<- magniticent apparatus and experienced eye of Dr. Huggins.
A comparifioa of the sketches taken by myself during the
veara 1869, 1870, and 1871, with the exquisite views of Dawes
ID 1857 ('-Monthly Notices of It. A. S.,' xviii. 8, 50, 72), pre-
Bettts so much fiimlWity in various respects, as to lead tjj a curious
suspicion that t ho whole atmospheric shell of the planet, with-
vat any material disturbance in its relative arrangements, may
Hve been shifted Southward by more than half the breadth of the
itorial aine ; the South torrid belt, identified by its attendant
>on8, occupying at that time a position very near the centre
f tJte disc ; while several of the characteristic features of what
( have termed the South temperate zone and belt are to be
lognised in a corresponding position of greater remotene«a
nn the Pole. So lively was the first impression of this that
[. thought it migiit have been at once accounted for by a re-
p«ed preaentatiou of the planet's axis; but on considering
■ dates, as well as the position of a satellite sketched by
Dawes in transit, I foimd that no such explanation could he
admitUKl, However little weight may be due to such a com-
mn»on, it suggests, at any rate, the desirableness of micro-

' 'ric measurements of the latitude of the principal belts

isg future oppositions.

284 FOPULAB SCIENCE BETIETf.

,'.y.

THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION AT 30TJTH

KENSINGTON.

■ '

By S. J. MACKIE, G JL y

*
[PLATE LXXV.]

THE present EKhibition is by no means comparable witii |9k
ma<^ilicent affairs of 1851 and 1862 in tiiis countiy, tti(&
in France in 1855 and 1867. The professed purpose of tiii^
annual Kxhibitions at South Kensinjifton, now understood tOlW'
inaugurated, is the illustration' of the special progress madelif
particular sections of manufactures and science in respeotvM
decades of years. In the present — the first of the series — wooDftt
materials, inachineiy, and fabrics, are supposed to be special^
represented. Pottery is also an item. These two groups- of
manufactuvt^s and industries are expected to be on their ttid^
and the advance made since 18C2 to be recorded in the repditi
which an* to be published. Pictures, sculptures, and the
various ilhisti*atious of the fine arts, as well as inventions, wiB
always find admission, and, like the flowers in the Horticultiuvl
(rardens which the Exhibition buildings inclose, will blossomift
full vigour year by year. The second and following Etlfi^
l)itious will be devoted specially to other branches ; tmtdli
after a decade of Exhibitions, the retiuii will be nuideia
woollen and pottery, and then -will recommence another senil
of similar competitions. ' .: :■

The Horticultural Gardens form nearly a square area^eiiil-
tainiu:; about twenty-two acres ; and the present permaneHt'fik^
hibitiou buildings have been erected along the east and wcMf
sides, in blocks of two storeys each. At one end of the'gU^
dens portions of the exhibits are located in corridors leading to
the Albert Hall, in which also a great number of pictures,
fabrics, educational and other articles, are arranged. Across
the opposite end of tlie Gardens there are temporary buildings,
where tlie ]Meyrick collection of armour, military weapons,
astronomical and other instruments, are displayed. Tlie two

IKTKnSATtOSAL ESIIIBITIOS AT SOtTlI KESSISOTON.

285

subjects which form the text of our present brief review will
be the machinery for woollen fabrics and the new inventions.

In regard to the woollen machinery, the whole of the pre-
cedes, from the animals producing the raw material to the
finished cloth, are represented, and the entire range of woollen
manufacture can be followed through by visitora, under the
guidance of anyone versed in the subject. The necessity of
locating each exhibitor's goods by themselves renders impos-
sible that arrangement in consecutive order which would
enable this to be done without such assistance, although this
has been partially attempted. The animals include some
foreign ones sent by the Zoological Society and Miss Burdett
Coutts, and British sheep sent by Mr. Wallis and others.

The first process in respect to the actual manufacture of wool
is the washing of the eheep to cleanse its fleece. For this pur-
pose the apparatus contributed by Messrs. Gwynne — a sort of
water-pipe cage — is admirably suited, within which the sheep
is placed. These pipes, forming the frame of the cage, are per-
forated, and through them numerous small streams of water,
i^sed by one of their excellent centrifugal pimips, intersect in-
wards, pouring in all directions upon the animal. As the water
issues under some considerable pressure, the washing is much
more thorough and effective than it could possibly be by any
amount of hand labour, and the machine also saves one man's
labour in holding the sheep. The next operation in the series is
the shearing — the taking the raw material off the back of the
animal. This also is illustrated by another machine by the same
eminent firm. As a pump for raising water for such purposes,
the direct-action pump of Messrs. Hayward, Tyler & Co. also
merits attention.

We have next displayed the raw material in samples of
numerous kinds, spread all about the Machinery Court. There
are good and bad sorts, as a matter of course ; but what we have
mainly to do with, in respect to the machines required to work
the wool, is the length of the staple or fibre. This is short, or
long, or short-long, as it may be called. For example, short is
wool under, say an inch and a half ; short-long is, say three inches;
and IongmaybeBixinches,or even more,in length. The machines
are usually made to suit these respective qualities. The short
wool may be passed direct to the "burring" machine, in which it
is subjected to a loosening and shaking action in a rapidly re-
volving cylinder, and thence through a series of carding cylinders,
the object being to get out the "burrs" or seeds and other hard
substances which adhere to, or get mixed with, the sheep's
fleece. After the wool lias been scoured — Mr. Petrie's machine
typifies this process — it is partially dried, and the wool then has
to be passed through an oiling process to soften and straighten

286 POPULAB SCIENCB BEYIEW.

the fibres. A Belgian machine for this purpose is shown in
the Exhibition by Messrs. Curtis, Parr & Madeley. This card-
ing process has to be continued through a series of carding-
engines, in order to free and clear the wool sufficiently for
spinning into yam. These machines consist of an arrangement
of cylinders coated with a very even brush-work of fine wires,
called cards, which, working in contrary directions, pull open
the wool and lay the fibres evenly in the direction of their
length, the foreign substances falling away the more entirely
the more perfect the machines and the more thoroughly thqr
perform their operations. The three carding-engines displayed
by the Messrs. Piatt, of Oldham — ^the finest machinists of tibis
class in the world — ^will be regarded with admiration. The
first of these carding-engines is called the "scribbler;" the
second the ^ intermediate ; " the third " the finisher and con-
denser." We have selected their ''finisher and condenser" for
our illustrative plate, as the type of the best English inarhiti^
of its class ever produced.

This machine is in itself a study. The ^ sliver " is broogfai
over from the second carder by a Scotch feed, and is laid
beautifully on the lattice for feeding the machine. The wool
then passes over the cylinder, being constantly combed or
carded by the five pairs of smaller rollers called " workers " and
" clearers." On coming finally from the '' doflFer," the web, which
is then the whole breadth of 48 inches, is divided into 74
threads; and that part of the machine which now gives the
slight roll or twist to these threads is most worthy of close
attention, as an admirable mechanical motion. It is seen
prominently in the front portion of the machine in our plate.
There is a novel addition also in this machine of two small
" dicky rollers," tlie cards of which go just a little way into the
card covering of the doffer, and prepare it beautifully to
receive the wool from the cylinder.

When the wool comes from the machine it has the appear-
ance, but not the reality, of threads ; the fibres simply cling
together, and it still requires to be firmly twisted, or spun into
" yam." Tliis is done by the *' mule ; " and here again with
pride may the superb workmansliip of the famous Oldham
house be referred to. This machine, with its 192 spindles
twirling round so fast that tlieir rotation is invisible ; the
whole row of them coming forward, drawing the thread ;
stopping ; spinning ; winding up and running in on the bobbins ;
coming forward again to spin, wind, and return ; is a sight of
which one never tires, and over which one never forgets the
memory of the man who gave this wonderful and most useful
machine to the world.

We must here, in justice to its merits, refer to the machinery

EiTtBNATiosjii famsmos at sobik kbhsikotox, 287

Mr. Martin, of Ver\'it:r3 ; and it will be well also to

' irstand some of the dikinctions between the English

and those of that active iron-working country, Bel-

^e see in the Belgian raacbinery less finish, less

irable workmanship, but ueeful good engines nevertheless,

'e aee in the car ding-engines that the nirds are felted, and

[uently leas of the card-wires are exposed, the cards being

jiiently stiffer. ilr. Martin's condenser is a novelty, and

exc(;llent qualities ; the web is parted by figure-ot-eight

,p6 running over two sets of cylinder-rings, the intersection

these straps acting like scissors in dividing off the threads.

'o space is thus lost in dividing the web into threads. The

wool for these engines should be well cleaned — a process in

which the Belgi^is surpnpfi the Englislu

The com bin g-mac hints of Jlr. Walmsley demand special at-
tention for the novelty of their principle — the circular rotating
comb. There is nothing more thoroughly novel in principle in
the entire court, and in every way they appear to do their work
well. The combing proc*«s ia of course allied to carding, the
object being to get the wool perfectly cleared and disentangled,
and the long fibres separated from the short. This is admirably
done in these machines by rollere, which draw the long fibres
&om the comb and leave the short ones In it, to be taken off by
another set of rollers. In this way continuous slivers of long
wool, and of short wool and waste, are simultaneously delivered
into separate cans.

The spinning of the yam into thread is only shown by Mr.
Smith's spinning machine : there are, however, other processes,
such as drawing and roving, which are not exhibited. We
have traced the wool now up to the state of preparation re-
quired for the final production of textile febrice, and have
arrived at the stage when it passes to the loom to be woven
into cloth, tweed, and such like poods. The looms are of dif-
ferent kinds, according to the purpose for which they are to bf
employed. The plaiu loom has one shuttle on each side, and
works witli ordinary pickers, and a common tappet- heald
motion ; the fancy looms have shuttles up to four in number,
and work with the Jacquard and chain-picking motions. After
this we have — so far as the fine wools passed through the card-
ing engines which we have been noticing are concerned —
finally (» take a glance at the " cloth-finisliing machines,'' or
tboGe employed to surface the goods with a fine pile or nap.
Jfr. Ferrabee illustrates this process in a very practical
■iBimer.

The coarser kinds of wool, and the fibres of old fabrics, are
also used for making felts and carpets, imd other of the I
fine goods ; and looms for carpet-weaving are well represented.

288 POFTLAB 8CIE5CB BITIEW.

Mr. Hall, of Bury, stands foremost in this division ; and hii
Broasels* carpet loom is remarkable for the simple, in-
genious, and effective application of the magnet for drawing
over into position for re-inserting the wefk wires which keep the
loop or •• pile ** up during the process of weaving.

Space warns me to turn to the ^ Inventions." Some, indeed
most of them, are well known to those who stand to the firont of
general knowledge: but to the great majority of mankind
they will be at least novelties previously only heard or read
«>t. The most notable of these, for any general and wide-spread
practical lie purpose in ordinary daily life, is that special appli-
cation of photography for book illustrations called ^^ heliotype"
which we have ourselves used for the production of our illus-
trative plate. The process is a very simple but most effective
and practical one.

Of all the shortcomings of all previous processes and attempts
in this direction — the application of photography to book-work
— ^the most serious and vexatious, and the most obstructive to
commercial purposes, has been the dependence upon simshine.
Silver prints, each one printed by a separate act involving a
separate and imcertain interval of time, with results in the
pictures provluced the very opposite of uniform, were found to
be utterly impracticable. Then followed a series of very inge-
nious antU in some cases, very beautiful methods, but in all
which there luive existed obstacles to production in commercial
quantities and with requisite commercial rapidity and uni-
formity. This has l)een perfectly accomplished by heliotype —
the prints being by it printed direct from the ordinary printing-
press by ordinary printing-ink. The impressions are thus as
rapidly taken oft* as lithographs, and are as permanent and as
unifv)rm as the most approved classes of book or plate-printing.
The process may l>e easily imderstood. Chromate of potash is
sensitive to light, hardening in proportion to its intensity and
the time of exposure ; chromalum renders gelatine insoluble.
Gelatine, wlien mixed with chromalum and chromate of potash,
becomes a compotmd sensitive to light and insoluble in water.
It is not, liowever, impt^vious in the mass ; but the parts har-
dened by light are so. If, then, a photographic negative taken
by the camera be placed over a thin sheet of this prepared gela-
tine, an invisible picture is hardened into its very substance,
and this picture being impervious to water in proportion to
the degree of hardening, rejects water like the greasy dravring
on a lithographic stone ; the mass of the gelatine plate, however,
absorbs the water like the body of the lithographic limestone;
and so, just as in lithographic printing, the picture takes the
printers' ink from the printing-roller, whilst the plain water-

■ IKTEJIKATIOSAL EXHIBITION AT SODTIT KEKSIKGTOS. 289

wet portion rejects it. There is, however, this difl'orence in
tJie heliotype plate, that it is somewhat of a spongy uufure and
swells, leaving the picture also more or lees depressed according
to the depths of the tints as well as proportionately adlieaive to
ink. The rapidity with wliich this process can be applied was
well exemplitied in the present ioBtance. The order to take
the negative was given to the Stereoscopic Company at the
Exhibition at 8 a.m.; the negative was delivered to a mes-
senger at 10 o'clock, sent to Willesden Lane, where the Helio-
type Works are located ; two hours were taken up by telegra-
phic communications, through an accidental omission in for-
warding instructions for dimensions, the negative having been
taken on a large glass ; the proof was sent for inspection by
post, returned, and the printing of the plates for this journal
vaa actually commenced at ten o'clock the nest morning,
being regularly continued at hand press imtll the whole
required number was completed. ' Ten thousand impres-
sions can be printed from a single gelatine plate without
deterioration, and of course any number of gelatine plates
for working at any number of presses can be taken from the
eame photograpliic negative ; and these being done during
t.be same period would, of course, produce results almost exactly
identical.

Turning to other less familiar applications of inventive skill,
we may take Admiral Inglefield's Hydrostatic Steering Gear,
which has been applied to some of lier Majesty's large iron-
clad ships with perfect success. To steer such ponderous
monsters is very far from being easy ; in rough weather from
twenty to e\en forty men are required at the tiller, and the
force of the waves will even then sometimes cast the whole of
them adrift. At the bottom of a deep ship such as these
ihere is the great hydrostatic pressure due to the twenty or
thirty feet of water in which the ship swims. Admiral
Inglefield uses this as the source of a most powerful inter-
mittent force. He allows the water to come into cylinders,
and to work pistons within them much after the manner
steam would do in an ordinary engine ; and thus he acquires, in
small hydraulic rams attached to the tiller, a motive power
equal to 1,000 lbs. to the inch of surface. A single man now,
by this method, can steer the largest ship in the wildest
weather. This example typifies admirably the class of inven-
tions brought to a practical application.

In Jlr, Tommasi's model for utilising the tides as a source of
power for machinery, we have an idea not yet practically realised,
and typical of another class — unrealised inventions. Men long
ago have looked to this solemn source of enormoufl but totally

290 POPULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

neglected power. The model in the Exhibition is a rongb
one, and the power exerted small. The idea is, however, at
this moment like what the embryo windmill steam-engine once
was — well worth pondering over. It must, however, be con-
stantly met with antagonistic considerations, and especially
must its probable results be compared with the known effects
realised by steam. Mr. Tommasi's model presumes that a
large air-tight reservoir could be built in which the water of
the tide, flowing through a pipe and rising inside, would com-
press the air within. This condensed air would be drawn off
as required in the service of the engines. Now two considen-
tions instantly present themselves. First, the tides rise and
fall in very few places to the extent of twenty feet* Twenty
feet head of water would give the compressed air only a
pressiure of 10 lbs. on the square inch. Steam works np to
60 and 70 lbs. pressure, and, therefore, as a motor, would
be six or seven times superior. But steam costs constantly
money for the supply of fuel to keep it up ; the tides do their
work for nothing. We have then the interest of the money
cost of the reservoir to put against the cost of the coal burnt.
A five-horse power engine would consume some sixty tons of
coal in a year's incessant work ; the cost of a tidal air-compressiiig
reservoir for a five-horse power engine would be, it is said,
SOOl. ; the interest of this at 5 per cent, would be 40i. We
might reckon the coal at 158. per ton, or 45Z. One does not see
the economy of air. This line of thought, however, should not
be condemned. To utilise the tides would be a world-wide
benefit ; but the idea has not yet been contemplated long
enough or deeply enough for universal application. There is
in all probability a way to win.

Thomson's road-steamer, with india-rubber tyres ; Hodgson's
wire^tramway, with the saddles of the buckets clinging on to the
wire-rope by simple adhesion ; Girdwood's copper-wire steam-
packing, the condensation of water within which forms the
lubricant; Siemen's electrical pyrometer, for measuring the
degrees of very high temperatures ; Michele's cement-testing
machine, in which the bent lever is most ingeniously applied ;
Captain Scott's selenitic cement ; are other examples of really
useful and practical inventions, each of which might well
have a page to itself to do justice to it. Mr. Cralloway's and
Mr. Warsop's aerated steam is a topic also well worthy of close
investigation and consideration.

Amongst instruments of precision and fine philosophical
workmanship, very notable are Sir Joseph Whitworth's instru-
ment for measuring to the one-millionth part of an inch, and
the astronomical apparatus of Messrs. Cooke, of York.

In a short notice like the present one cannot deal in detail

nrrBRNATIONAL EXHIBITIOK AT SOUTH KENSINGTON. 291

with many objects, but it is iiseful at least to give indications
of some of the most prominent and instructive. Such a
simple record serves to commemorate the occasion, as well as
to lead many to see and to note carefully subjects which other-
wise might be passed by, or missed by accident or the want of
looking for.

REVIEWS.

THE DESCENT OF MAX.^

r' SAT be rrrriTiTT &: ibe oocaec o icase t)»Syiii pirtpii i y our notiee cC
tli« presezst wQck to tbu Boaiber of the Bxnsw, we Ittd haded tint
the woik WW of £v greater mpottmce tkn it ml For gmt m the labour
BAT hftTe been on the pezt of the aathoTf of eoOeethig and pnttiDg togetlier
■o Tiet an acenmulatian of &cts ^"^ ihoold noC be jiHt to oar leaden did
we not tuxdtm that the roliiiBef aie in nonapect to be eoaipaied witheitkei
of 3fr. DazwiB a pteriooi bookie In point of htt, we mi^t readily hare
noticed thia woriE in oar prerioiu isBoe, had we not thonght that it ms
aomething like its predeewofs^ and on that account detennined to deil
with it frlowlj, and at oar leisare. It moat not, howerery be imagined flMt
the work is not in every waj worthy of the author, for it is a most
important tieatifley and is foU to orerflowing with &ctB whichy leas or men,
help to prove the author's case.

Wliat we mean is, that as regards the descent of man the Tolames some-
h jw or other contain lees than we bad expected of them, and, as regards ih»
arguments they set forth, the author s case seems to us but little stronger, if
anything, than before. The reader must not assume from this that we hold
Mr. Darwin's theory to be in error. Far from this ; for we are convinced
that his TiewSy taken altogether, are strictly and rigidly true. We are as
satisfied that man came from some species of monkey, rather than from a
heap of unorganised dust, as it is possible for us to be. That which we assert
is, that Mr. Darwin*s book is not so convincing to the general reader of the
force of this idea, as we had imagined it would be. It is full of details
which the naturalist can value, and can see how every one of them convinces
him more and more of the origin of species by natural selection, rather than
by any other means. But to the general reader it is a heavy book, without
sufficient thread of continuity to give it adequate effect in his mind.

And yet it must be admitted that it contains nearly aU the evidence upon
the subject, and in some cases put in a very strong manner indeed. But for
all that, wo fear that the volumes will fail to convince those who are worth
convincing as to the origin of man. Yet how little is on the other side,
absolutely nothing in the form of legitimate reasoning; and still the

* " The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex." By Charles
Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. 2 volumes. London : John Murray, 1871.

^M UEViEws. 293

* DaiwiDion opponenls eall upon the author almost lo show them, by
ocular demonatration, the truth of his Tiews. Of course such n demon-
stration would be abeolutely impossible, for those changes which Mr.
Barwin supposes to take place ha^e occupied millions of ysan in iheir
performaDce, step bj itep. It is remarkable that of the various oppoaeala
which Mr. Darwin has raised up to his views, most of them consider
Uiat the shaping of an implement for use is not only peculiar to maii, but
must be so. And, after nil, is there not much truth in Sir John Lubbock's
suggeation, that when primeval man first used flint stones for any purpose, he
■would have acciJenlally splintered them, and would tJien have usud their
sharp fragmenta. " From this slep it would be a email ono to intentionally
break the flints, and not a very wide step to rudely fashion them. This
Utter advance, however, may have taken long- sges, if we may judge by the
immense interval of time which elapsed before the men of tbo neolithic
pcnod took to grinding and polishing their stone tools. In breaking the
fiints, as Sir J. Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted,
and in grinding them heat would have been evolved ; thus the two usual
methods of obtaining lire may have originated." Surely this is nothing but
probability, and no sane person can object to reasoning conducted on so fair
a scale. It is not too much intelligence to expect from anything superior
to a modem ape or baboon. Even animals lower in the scale possess very
nearly power enough for this. " No one,'' says Mr. Darwin, " supposes tliat
one of the lower animaU reflects wlience he comes or whither he goes —
what is death or what is life, and so forth. But can we feel sure that an
old dog, with an excellent memory and some power of imagination, as shown
by bis dreams, never reflects on bis past pleasures in the chase P and this
would be a form of self-consciousneaa. On the other hand, as Biicliner has
remarked, how little con the hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian
savage, who uses hardly any abstract words, and cannot count above four,
exert her self-consciousness, or reflect on the nature of her own existence."
Really these obserrations are very true ; they lead us to make coiiiparisons
between the highest ciTtlised man and the lowest savage, and to confess
that the gap intellectually, if not structurally, is very great indeed.

Mr. Darwin attempts to trace the backward career of man ; and although

be does not bring forward a massive caae in its favour, he urges some

evidence ibat is of a serious nature. Ho says that the most ancient

progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertubrats, at which we are abb lo

obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a group of marine

SiDlmab resembling the larva of existing Ascidians. These animals probably

gare rise to a f^oup of fishes, as truly organised as the Lancelet ; and from

these the Ganoids and other fishes like the Lepidosiren must have been

developed. From such fish Mr. Darwin thinks a very small advancu would

Ctirryiis on to the amphibians. Birds and reptiles, he bos shown, were once

^ inlinutely connected together, and the Monotremata now in a slight degree

^B^IonsMt rnHmmala with reptiles. But no one can at present say by what

^^|few ot descent the three higher and related classes — namely, mammals,

^^^fads, and reptiles — were derived from either of the two lower vertebral

eUsses, namely amphibians and fiahes. In the classes of mammals the steps

are not difficult to conceive which led from the ancient Monotremata to the

VOL. X.SO. iL. X

294 POPULAR SCIENt-E HETIEW.

ancteDt MarBupials, and from ihese to the early progenilora of the placental
mammala. "We maj' thua aaeend to the Lemundfe; and tbe ioterrelii
Qot wide from these to the SimiBdte. The Simladie then brandied oS ata
two great items, the New World and the Old World monkeys; and from Lb*
latter, at a remote period, Man, the wooder and g-lory of the nniTene,
proceeded."

Of the manner in which Mr. Darwin supports the arguineDt which i)
atftted as shove, the reader must judge fur himself. All that can be urged
iu its support ia brought forward, and that only as Mi. Darwin can addni
But the BTidence is not ahsolutely a great deal, though relatively it is o
poweringly strong, and so we leave it to those who will tAke op
Tolumes for themselves.

Of the difficuldes of the argument none are more familiar to aajone
than Mr. Darwin, as the following passage; in which the principal difficult
is fully admitted, wiJl amply show : — " If, however, we look to the rarefl of
man, as distributed over the world, we most infer that their characteristic
differences cannol be accounted for by the direct action of different condi-
tions of life, even after exposure to them for an enormous period of li
The Esquimaui live eicloHTely on animal food ; they are clothed in thick
fur, and are eiposed to intense cold and to prolonged darkness ; yet thej
do not differ in any extreme degree from the inhabitants of SonlliBni
China, who live entirely on vegetnble food, and are exposed, almost naked,
to a hot glaring climate. The unclothed Fueginns live on the marine pro-
ductions of their inhospitable shores ; the Botocudos of Bnudl waodei
about the hot forests of the interior, and live chiefly on vegetable produc-
ticns ; yet these tribes resemble each other so closely, that the Fu^ians oa
board the Beagle wore mistaken by some BraKiliang for Botocudos, The
Botocudos again, as well as the other inhabitants of tropical America, are
wholly different from the Negroes who inhabit the opposite shores of the
A tlantic, are exposed to a nearly similar climate, and follow nearly the m
habits of life."

Thus we see with what fairness and honesty Mr. Darwin tells of the
facts aguast himself as well as in his favour. Of the contents of his
volumes we can only say that they are extremeljinteresting, and theyallgo
toward his theory of man's origin. But he has not got a clear aae,
though all the testimony is with him and none on the other side ; it is misty
and complicated, and we do not think that the mass of naturalists will
accept *ome of the ooncloMons which we have extracted. What ihey will
say will probably be this : "You are right as to your theory of man's origin ;
he undoubtedly has come from the monkey] clsss, but we cannot accept
your transition line as perfect, and we somewhat regivt that you hav*
drawn it so far at present."

THE BEGINNING.'

rZRE are ainoDg the lower atrata of the world of Bcientific men certun
petsoiu ■who, without a aufficient knowledge of what Lu been done,
kUTe yet yeiy definite and diatinct views, which they imagine are all
tiddly tnie and correct. Such men are generally looked up to by the
inferioi class anioag whom they travel, and they very aeldom go amongst
their Buperion in knowledge. Of such a class astronomers are, to those who
have to do with journalism, a tolerably familiar group. There is the man
■who, with a certain knowledge of geometry, has sought lo prove that the
«arth stands still, and the sun does the work which most of ua attribute to
tbe earth. Then there is the author who delights to find comets of a sub-
stantial character, and the man who proves finding the sun's distance by no
means like what it la represented to be, and so on. Now, of a similar class —
bat it must be confessed with much more learning at his hand, and with a
tax greater degree of reason at his call— is the author of the present volume.
Mr. Ponton is not of the lunatic claas of moat of tbe authors to whom we
have referred. His book is only a little unreasonable ; it U by no means
badly written, and to tbe general reader it contnina a considerable deal of
infarmatton. But so far as anything novel is concerned, the book is
absolutely and completely barren ; it has not n single fact that is new, nor
anvthing worthy of serious consideration in tbe shape of ideas or reflections.
Nor does the title convey a proper idua of the nature of the book, for it has
very little to do with the beginning ; and what the author's aim has been in
accumulating together, in a book ostensibly upon the UBiTerse, sucb a series
of plates respecting diatomecea: desinulea, and their allies, we cannot for a
moment imagine. It teems to us as if the author was a microscopist ; and
that, having written a work on such a gigantic subject as the universe, he
thought it a pity not to make it include the aum-total of his labours.
Such, it appears to us, must have been his idea; and if the conjecture be
correct, we cannot blame him too much for so utterly senseless a proceeding.
We must do Mr. Adlard the justice to say that the platea in the volume
are esceedingly well drawn, and are very good representations of the struc-
tures they are intended for; indeed, ttnU attier, this is the bett part of the
work.

Of tbe contents of the book wu know not well what to say. The (irst
few chapters — on the antiquity of matter, the terraqueous globe, solar energy,
&c. — conttun few blunders, and are well written, and interesting gencml
leading. Of course, in regard to the sun, the matter is comparatively
■pe^n^ old, and tbe information conveyed inaccurate in some cases ; but
^together thia part of the volume is not so bad. When we come to the
more eisaentiaUy animal part of the volume, we find the author putting forth
his own ideas more freely and more frequently. It is true that a greal deal
of Ihia part of the hook is taken from that ndmirable treatise of De
(Juatre£>ge>s, on tbe " Metamorphoses of Man and .Animals," and so far is

-I

rDPTtoK smsd Bxncir.

h th» MAar'a vmn tyeedlioM, HoaUv. the lut
|Brt rf tka wnk daab «itk 4* ■kOot'i ovb Ucm oa the first ch^tet of
~ ' ' poB ita necHBTe otMtm «podu and tlie ilinDe

atf toit; nl th» Behwr nuuj ii*. Oa tktipictiaa wemott diatinctijdcdiu

* *•■— yj-Ji— —411 —p— < — Wrt — kwre Mid of the BntlioT'torigiu]
itoi better tkiBaB7«wdicf ana; aid tbcy will pnt tfa« reader, too.moR
tkcmofUr ia aei^utmn widk aaaa of He. Piwton'a ootioiu. b «-
ittntmBag to pnnv tka iiiiliT* at a hmm aool, b« argues as foDom ;
"Tatotha^MliMeMerfhMaHttoo^L Man caBBOt exerdw hu uit«l-
1i I IimI Hjr man Ikaa be bib Ua ffcjacal pomn, irithont food ; but tbt
food cngbt Bot, tbtfirfan, to be regaided aa tha oi^ia or canae of liis thoo^li.
Naitbo- can tboagbta be iceawd ibe repieaenUtire of tbe food. Tbe tm
tUngi an iiaiiaaaiiaiaialili, aad iacayatla of matoal eompKriKin. It cu-
DOt ba afliiiaiMl tbat a poaad of food wQl prodncn so much thongfat, id
aaj^ag Iiba tbe aaae aeaie u nUdi we eaa aaj tbat a poaad of food will
pndnee a ctitain c^Taknt of oraKalar action ; ox tbat a pound of fad
wiQ pradnee aa iBBcb beat, wbkb ma; be emplojed to raise a certain wdgbi
a tool bigb. The food, in it« relatioia to tbooght, acts aotaewbat like tlw
Bpaifc app&ed to tbe povder Bugaiiat. The rasC mechanical force attend-
ing tbe cocploaon icpRMOta the motiTe enei^, not of tbe tinj sparli, bat
of tbat Etadcal power wbicb was tnasored np is the gunpowder. So hnmni
ihooght does not repiceent the food digectad in tbe bninan stomach. ht( w
Ik TtwH ^ Iht mitott paKtrvHA xAiei God Imaidowid the Uvity bring mat.
It is in the molioD* itqniale to in«int«iii the mechanism of his orguinm,
and ihoos wbicb he Tolantarilj peifbnns, tbat we are to seek the aqiuvilenu
of tbe pbyacal eno^ imparted h; tbe food which he digests and osjgui
wbicb he inbalee. Bat his thooghis are something bejrond all tbete, and
are lie tuajM^tfUttitm* of maa'f mkertnt poinert at a rational Uirmff btimg."

We do not care to waste space in analvEing the precluding passagea, Ibr uj
of ogr readers can do it for himself. At the rery utmost, all the writer wu
justified in averting •Kae, that he did not know anjthing further about tbe
question of thought: but the manifest alwurdit; nf the argimient in fsTour
of a Eou] U dear enoagh, from the fact that it applies with as much force to a
parrot or a crocodile as to man. .\nother, and somewhat more extraordinary
effuuon of Mr. Ponlon, maj be found in his obeerratious on the coal meacnree,
which he suppoKS to have taken their origin long before the period of the
formation of tbe sun. He mj« : " Looking, then, to the p«culiar characteia
<^( the vegetation buried in tbe coal formation, to the difference in tbe condi*
lions of climate which roost bare preraiied on the globe while it flourished,
and to the immense remotenesa of the epoch when those needful conditions
were likely to hare subsisted, it becomes a highly probable concluuoo, that
that earlial vegetation clMed tfu turface of the earth long before the tin had
be^in to Aint upon our gliAt — being sustained by those laminous and thermal
Tibrations which have been shown to have partially existed as tbe earliest
of all physical phenomena, and before the establishment of any ceatns of
motive energy." To this geological theory we haye only to express our
uticr nroazement st the marvellous workmanship of tbe coal

MVIEWE. 297

and the foftsils which it conteiiiB, sustained by such peculiar showers of
light OB Uie nuthor imagiaes. One oF the most iulerestiog chapteis is that
bended Protoplasia. In this the author eadeavoura to attach Professar
Hiudey'B weU-known essay in the " Fortnightly Review " (February, 1869),
end less or more to aide with its chief opponents, Professor Lionel Beale and
Mr. J. H. Stirling. This chapter we abali not dwell on, as we fancy the
reader, whichever side he takes, will be sure to find it out and read it for
himself. If ho reada it carefully, it is utterly impossible not to see how the
author coofoses and confounds Professor Huxley's argument, and after all
gives nothiDg but plain point-blank assertion in opposition. The reniler will
be amaied, too, to observe that, after asiag Scale and Stirling against Huxley,
b« himself comes to some conclusion different from both, and which appeam
to UB to support the notion of a sort of spiritual organisation which is stand-
ing up within the oidinaiy physical being. This part of the work is the
most palpably ridiculous of thu whole, and baring noticed it, our readers
must expect us to go no farther, but to leave the work to them, in the faint
hope that their verdict may be less severe than ours.

POrUL.\R .\STRONOMY.'

ASTRONOMY is very nearly taking the place which years since was
occupied by the aquarium and marine zoology. The spectrum has lent
it quite a novel interest, and so much interesting work hna been done upon
the conatitution of the sun within the past ten yvars, that really astronomy
seems likely to have as great a hold upon the popular mind as any of the
lighter scientific pursuits. The work before us puts forward, as a special
claim to popular favour, that it is written in a style to attract the general
reader; and further, that it conlaina none of those algebraical studies which
are common enough in treatises on astronomy, and which frequently drive
away from the study of the stars those who do Dot understand either algebra
or geometry, but who would otherwise gladly learn the constitution of the
heavens. Such in general terms is the argument of the author, who attempts
to put astronomy before the reader in as simple and intelligible a manner as
possible. Still, we must coofesu that, to our minda, he haa not been very
successful. He haa written a book, no doubt, which contains nought but
what has been over and over again taught in some shape or other ; but his
style is, tn our opinion, utterly unsuited to a popular writer. His sentences
fag' very long, some extremely so, and bis language is by no means simple ;
so that though hia book might well be read and advantageously studied by
the fully educated man, we fear much for the great mass of readers to whom
his work is addressed. Indeed, in this respect it falls far short of Mr.
Proctor's splendid work upon the sun, which we recently noticed, being
neither in the novelty of ita matter, nor in the ease of its style, in the

• " Astronomy Simplified for General Reading," with i
Explanations and Discoveries in Spectrum Anoivsea, &c. Sec. By F. A. 8.
Rollwyn. London; William Tegg, 1871.

298 POPULAB SCISNGS BEYIEW.

aliglitest degree compaiable with thftt ^endid Tolame. Aa regards tibd
method of description pursued by the author, we admit tnetj that he pur-
sues his plan of teaching without the aid of mathematics ; bot still lus pages
are not light reading, howoyer accurate they may be. Here is a fidr apedmen
of his work; it is from his chapter on the sun : —

'* The sun exhibits every characteristic evidence of a body enyeloped in
an atmosphere of flame, the lower part of his atmosphere being oompara-
tively dark, coinciding with that portion of the flame of an oidinaij candle,
or other body under combustion, intervening between the brightest portion
of the flame, or region of white light, called the phototpkere ; and above
that a region in which coloured flame or light is sometimes manifested,
especially along the edges of the solar disc, and which last region is called
the chromosphere. But for a singular peculiarity of the solar disk, however^
to which great interest and attention have been of late years attracted, we
should probably never have been able to discover that the solid matter of
the sun was not co-extensive vrith its apparent dimensions or luminoos
appearance, or to have known, as we now definitely do, that the real body or
solid mass of the sun is a dark sphere of matter confined within a flay
prison-house — a robe of fiercest flame. The peculiarity we refer to is whst
are popularly called the spots in the sun, an obvious misnomer, as we shall
soon perceive, but a characteristic enough description of the appearanee
presented."

The foregoiug passage conveys a rather favourable idea of the author's
style, and we have selected it in consequence, yet it possesses less or more
of the qualities to which we have alluded. Of course the book is not ad-
vanced in the knowledge which it conveys. For instance, the multitude of
facts conveyed by the spectroscope are left untold by the author, who, how-
ever, has something to say upon the subject of spectroscopic matters. It is
this part of his volume — the only part which has anything new in it — ^that
we have to object to. We do so because it contains ideas which are at all
events entirely new. But we object to it all the more because we believe
the author's opinions to be utterly imsound, and to have nothing whatever
in support of them. We think, therefore, that they should not have been
introduced here, but in the "Monthly Notices." The author holds the sin-
gular belief that ** the different colours of the spectrum are only diflerent
degrees of intensity in the manifestation and action of light — the blue being
the weaker, the red stronger, and the yellow the strongest, short of white
light." He endeavours to support this idea in these pages, but his argu-
ments are of the weakest possible nature, and altogether the subject is
misplaced. The illustrations are many of them excellent, and are exceed-
ingly numerous, but some of them are rather fancifully coloured and shaded.
Finally, the religious tone of the book is too constantly present, and is, to
our minds, a good deal too one-sided, and we think we may add, too bigoted
also.

A ILETEOROLOGICU, TEXT-BOOK.*

fltHE Secretuj of the Scotch Meteorological Socletj haa supplied us with
J- & small text-book on the iM:ieiicG of meteorology which is at ooce pliun,
'Well worked out, and. exceedioKlj full of interest. Indeed now-a-daja,
-when we are deluged with works, six or seven of which are invaiiably cotn-
piled from wme pre-existing Tolume, the work of Dr. Buchan is a most
xe&eisiiing one, and we think he deaecses conaiderable credit for the labour
lie has taken in producing the Tolnme. The contents of the work are briefly
Be ibltowg : — History and scope of the science ; weight or pressure of the
atmosphere ; distribution of atmoi^plieric pleasure ; the method of obderviag
sod calculating temperature ; solar and terrestrial radiation ; dLitribution of
terreatrial temperature ; relation of temporature to pressure ; moisture of the
ktmoephere : mista, fogs, and clouds j nun, snow, and hail ; prevailing winds i
moBAOons, local and other winds; storms; atiuosplieric electricity; thunder-
(rtoims ; whlrl^nds end waterspouts ; aurora borealis ; ozone, optical pheno-
mena ; meteors ; and lastly, weather and other waminga. All of these
chapters are full as they can ho of useful matter, and must be read by those
who delight in such matters. We may, however, t«ke one or two notes from
them. Firstly, of the box for thermometers. This is particularly useful,
even to the most limited weather student. It is necessaiy that thenuo-
meters should be protected " &om the direct and reflected rays of the sun, and
at the same time hare the benefit of a free circulation of air. No posfiible
ar»Dg«ment can completely fulfil both these conditions ; for if they be com-
pletely protected from solar radiation, the circulation of the air must ba
unduly interfered with ; and if the circulation of the aii be quite unim-
peded, the thermometers are unduly exposed to radiation. All, therefore,
that can he secured is a compromise between protection and ciiculiitioB.
The best and cheapest contrivance yet devised to meet these requirements is
the Jottwe-boarded box for thennometert, constructed by M(. Thomas
Sterenson, C.E,, Edinburgh, and now largely used by the observers of the
Scotch Meteorological Society and other meteorologists.'' The author then
^vea a minute description of the box, accompanied by figures, and describee
how it is to be placed, and the best method of taking observations with it,
all of which we commend to the serious consideration of young meteoro-
logiata. Similnrly we would recommend his attention to the evapomcter, the
afnu»tu/er,aDd the hygromeUr, on each of which the author has some t<^lIing
iem«rks to make. Under the head of rain, mow, and haU, we find the
various descriptiona of rain-gauge described, the author seeming to imagine
th&t the invention of Mr. U. L. Sjmons, of Liondon, who is so well known
for hia meteorological investigations, is about one of the beat. IV'e find
onder this section a short account of those regions of the earth in which '

E" falla no rwn from year to year ; such are the coast of Peru, the valley J

e rivers Columbia and Colorado, the Sahara, end the desert of Gobi. J

"Introductory Text-Book of Meteorology." By Alexander Buchan 1

, F.R.S.E. Willmm Blackwood & Sons, 1B7 . ^^^

300 POrFL4B K3DCB BETIEV.

On Ibe •ubjcct of lulo* aad tka coldnn oT doada tkc ■

iMBkHu of import. AltagttfMr, the beak i

togMlm-. Wilbout aflecbOkn of i^l^biitv"

paw, llic luthor appeal* to Dt to h*»e gama AimL Ua ^nA, a*d t

that he bu Uioraa^j ai ' ' '

THE SL'B-TROPICAL GARDEN.'

those connected with the culture of ftowwa we knmr nnt, Wt m
think that the author of the work before oe would hare done better bid he
aniplnynd some cxprejsioa which bett«r conTered hia mMuniig. Howen^
ait he ha* cipreued the Bgmfication of the term in hi* prefitoe, we m^ M
well (fivo it to our resden. Sub-tropical gaidenin^, he aaTS, maaa* "At
culturo of planta with Urge and graceful, or lemariiable tblia^ or hahit, aod
the aHuciation of them with the uauallj low-grqwing aitd brilliant-flowiriBg
plant* now «o common in our gardens, and which frequently eradicate ernj
race of beauty of form therein, making the flower-garden a thing of laigc
maaiea of colour only." We confeag we aie not very well satiafieil with t^
dsflnition of what sub-tropical implies, but we suppose we must accept '
ibouRh it clvBrly does not imply the plautaof any particular tropic or diTiaoo
if tho globe. Mr. Robinson appears to be one of the very few gardenea of
the preiHiut en who have the slightest poeuble degree of taste. H^teewc
Und him at vnriancu with most of the existing nee of ^ordenera ; and inhia
bonk liB sett out his plan of grouping large and small plants, trees, and
shrubs, aod ordinary garden flowers, in such n manner aa to produce a hat-
wuniouH and a Iiandsome result. We cannot help uniting in the author's
remarlia upon the abominable style in which our London parka are laid out.
Speaking of the lumpish monotony of gardening, he says: "It b fully shown
In the l-ondon parks every year, so that many people will have seen it for
thomislves. Tlie subjects are not used to contrast with, or relieve otbeiaof
low attractive port and brilliant colour, but are generally set down in large
roaues. Hero you meet a troop of Cannaa numbering 600, in one long formal
bod ; next you arrive at a circle of Azaliaa, or an oral of Ficus, in which a
iiuuplo of hundred plauts are so densely packed that tbeir tope form a dead
level. Isolated from overythbg else, as a rule, these masses fail to throw any
natural grace into the garden, but, on the other hand, go a long way towards
spoiling the character of the subjects of which they are composed. For it
is manifest that you get a for auperior eifect from a group of such a plant
as the Gunnera, the Polymina, or the castor-oil plant, properly associated
with other subjects of entirely diverse character, than you can when the
linus or masses of such as these become so large and so estranged from their
surroundings that there is no relieving point within reach of the eje. A

• " The Sub-Tropical Garden ; or, Beautv of Form in the Flower Garden."
By W. Robinson, F.L.S. London : John Klurray, 1871,

BETIBWS. 301

e'tpecimec or »mull group of a Hue Cftnna forms one of Uie most grace-
I objects the eve cad see. Flnnt a rood of it, and it soon becomes as
active aa bo much maize or wheat. No doubt an occBsioDai maea of
i, &c., might proTe eiTective — in a dietaut prospect, eapecially — but the
thing is repented ad nniiteafii." In theee observations we entirely concur,
and we trust the autlior'a influence may eitend, so that we may hope for
intelligent gwdening in a few years. Tbia book, at all events, must do
something towards the conversion of existing' gntdeners. It is amply illus-
trated, and contains abundant occouats of the different forms of plants which
may be used in accordance with the author's instructioa It is a work to
which we give almost the highest praise.

A MANUAL OF COLOUR.*

THIS ia an excellent little work, to which we wish all the eucceas in the
world. The author has gone on strictly scieutific principles, and is
perfectly correct in bis ideas. We only wish that some one distinguished
in the artistic world would lake up the subject, and thus help in introducing
Mr. Benson's general views on the Bubject of colour. Moat assuredly
whoever fie was he would find himself a gainer and not a loser by the t«n.
taction, for he would then be able to masterthoroughly the science of colour.
He could tell at n moment the exact effect of one half-tint, whereas at present
he can only depend upon experience, and if he has not this in each particular
instance — if, in fact, be be not an artist of very considerable experience--
he must remain in ignorance till he has tried. Now, if he had mastered Mr.
BeDSon's scheme, all this difficulty would vanish, for he then would become
poHeased of a perfect scientific scheme for the estimation of colours, both
ample and compound. We think very highly of the little hook now before

SATURN'S RINGS.t

MR. DAVIES has wiitlena work, which doea him preat credit, on Iho sub-
ject of Saturn's rings. lie asks the question, Have those rings been
always there, and if not, how have they come ? Of course the problem involves
some mathematics, and even with their aid cannot be detemiioately proven.
Still the author thinks he baa proved satisfactorily that the rings of Saturn
Are due to the attraction of the planet which has drawn into it, and is still
drawing towards it, multitudes of meteors, which are gradually incrasaing
its bulk. If it be asked, Wbj should one planet alone do this? he answers,
because it is almost the farthest away from the sun ; hence its attraction
for these meteors is greater relatively than that of other planets much

• " Manual of the Science of Colour, or the True Theory of the Colour
Sensations and the Natural System." By William Benson, Architect Lon-
don : Chapman and Hall, 1871.

t " The Meteoric Theory of Satum'a Rings, considered with reference to
the Solar Motion in Space." By A. M. Uavies, B.A., F.R.A.S. London;
Longmans, 1871.

302 POPDLAB SCIESCE REVIEW.

neanr the sun. Indeed, thie ia the most powetful of kU his argmaeati,
and we coofess that it b; no ineaiu mtijfies us. We are duutiafied with
the whole theoi^-, which we think re«t« on t^ Utile foundation. Still
others ma; not think so, and tbej will do weU to coneuli the Tolume.
which is well written and amplj illuetrated. It cootatna, too, ■ papa
on the meteoric theorr of the sun, which we have not Mid anjtluDg abant.

BRITISH BDTTERFUES.*

rIE British Butterflies have found a good friend in Mr. Xewmiui, who
has given ua n hi"tory of their lives — froni lan-a to imago, their hahiM
and their whereabouts— which is oue of the most perfect things of the land.
And we are glad to read the author'a statemeut thnt hie work has att*m«d,
while in progress, a sale that is almost unattainable in English scientiGc
works, flntlj, the work consists of a series of notices to the joong who
may be disposed to go butterHy-hunting. And in them we find the aatbor'a
great experience, and wo commend this part of his work to our leados.
The next part deals with the subjects of anatomy, phynoU^v, and embiji>-
logy of the insects ; and finally we come to the separate account of eaeh
species. This latter is admirably given. First comes a capital engraving,
life-size, of the species: and then follows in order the life, history, time al
appearance and locality, occupying from a page to n page and a half or two
pages of n large quarto (or nearly so) volume. All this is done well, sJ.we
might expect liom the author; it is clear, intelhgible, and devoid of much
of the rubbish which abounds in books of this kind generally- We had
intended to haTO quoted some pnsssges from the introduction, but we have
not space to do so : therefore we must conclude out notice by expresnng
the hope that all who are interested in insects will make theniselTes
acquainted-with the volume.

CASSELL'S TECHNICAL EDUCATOR.!

rllS is conwdered as « work uoiforin in aim with the " Popular Educator,"
but having of course, as the name implies, a more special apphcation.
It is generally very fairly done, some of the authors being very well
qualified for the task of instruction, while others are as certwnly very little
adapted to their task. We notice that a good many of the contributor are
Irishmen. This we think b a new feature of au English work, and by no
meana a bad one. Those whose names are down from Ireland constitute
about the best of the whole of Messrs. Cassell's authors. As regards the
quality of the matter, it is passable, some of the articles being very good

• "An Illusf rated Natural Ilistory of British Butterflies." By Edward
Newman, P,L.S.,F.Z.S. The figures drawn by George Willii^ and engraved
by John Kirchner. London : William Tweedie, 1871.

t ''The Technical Educator; an Encyclopeedia of Technical Education."
Vol. I. Cosaell, Fetter and Galpin, 1871.

■ad oUien equall; bad. We shall not »>r which we think the wortt But
>]t(^ther, we think Messrs. Caasell haie noi done well in th^ selecUon of
ftVlhora, and consequenti; the result is not of the beat description.

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE.*

PERHAPS of all scientific men in England, Professor lyndall is thi^ moat
eloqnent, whether in speskiog or writing;. This is a fact which we
think Tery few who hare read any of his works, or who have heard him
speak, will for a moment doubt. There mar not be in his speech that care-
ful acciuvj which is so eminently characteristic of Professor Huiley, but
assuredly there is eloquence. There is a tine and noble eloquence about the
man which those who are familiar with his public speaking cannot but
admire intensely. But there is in the reprinted papers before us aa much of
that eloquence as there is in the Professor's speech, so that we cannot but
regard them, from this aspect alone, as taking no ordinary tank in English
literature. And apart th)m any qualities of style they may posses^ they
have merits of the highest order as scientific memoirs. Of the contents of
the volume it is difficult to say which chapter or essay is best, more read-
able, or more intensely interesting. A peculiarity of the work U, that it
tyntni"" some Toluable essays on miracles and on spirit-rapping, in both of
which the author shows clearly and effectively how little is in the popular
idea, and how necessary it is to look calmly and philosophically at every
phenomenon. We wish we had space to give the author's words, the more
especially on certain of the subjects he has taken up, but we have not. We
will therefore close our very brief notice of a most valuable work by
quoting its contents: — The ConBtitution of Nature; Thoughts on Prayar
and Natural Law ; Miracles and Special Providences ; Matter and Force ;
Addreas to Students; Scope and Limit of Scientific Materialism ; Scientific
Use of the Imagination ; on Radiation ; Radiant Heat in relation to the
Colour and Chemical Constitution of Itodiea ; Chemical Rays and Structure
and Light of the Sky ; Dust and Disease (with additions to the ori^nal
lecture); Life and Letters of Faraday; an Elementary Lecture on Mag-
netism ; and lastly, a few shorter articles.

Iron and Meat, by James Armour, C.E. London: Lockwood, 1871. —
Essentially a work for the engineer. This little volume appears to be well
got up. It is amply illustrated, and contains a great deal of information
regarding the subject on which it treats. The chapters on ameltaDg, though
not so far advanced as they might be, are nevertheless correct, and go rei;
far into the subject.

* " Fragments of Scuence for Unscientific People ; a Sariei of Detached
EHsays, Lectures, and Reviews." By John Tyndall, LL.D., F^.S. Lradon:

Longmans, 1871.

Thm m/Aat Km rttwptod tontiodaee the itatoi of aidfaateefcon to t
nutfiiT nf thr wTftHSr w lijnff i i nw if f t fiil •with liii p rnfi furioii Tke
hM aTcided dbili— fa l wlrtian. Mid Ihi hM wnderod Ids book id-

trifigiUe to liKM itadaite wfcon aeqinlnm with algete Eudidii

ofalnntBdchnKtBB. yu i Mw i ui wDodcaliMea Mtteieii tlnaii^giitiieTdlnmey

vUch we Aink a good intiodiietion to the neoeeu

71c r»aarfiaw><ifcJwijiBihieJbartMiw,lyJdhnT>d«Il,IJ^^
FJLS. LoBdon: LongmoH^ 1070.— TUe k one of the anthoc^a Isilliairt
on a Mort diHif It adbject It k aheedy fimiiTiar to moot of our
m> ^at we seed mj bo laon ahoot it, ave that in this editkn tbe
anthor hee coQected together and giies a leries of critiqiiee of difienet
pipcD pro and oon, whidi aie leaDj iateietting leading.

A Mmti^wfk wfdk iiJmhmidm, or FmrnOy ^fXmgfitktn^ by R, B. Slmp^

F.L^ London : Pidilidied by the Avthor, iSTL-^Thia work has 00619M
the anthor from the year 1806 till the p i e e cnt time. It is now eompbte^
and with 131 cakwied platot fivms the finest woric of the kind in i*"'t^-*^
Those who aie interested in this wonderfol group should consult Mr. Shaipe'i

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY.

ASTRONOMY.

TXEATH of Sir John Sertchel. — At fi ripe age, jet befoie he had attained
"^"^ the years of his father, the greatest astronomer of our day haa passed
from among uh. The time has Bcarcoly jet mrived for drawing a com-
parison between the elder and the jounger Herachel, or determining
whether utronomj is more indebted to the grand conceptions of the father,
or to the more tutored philosophy of the son. At present what we must
chiefly regard is the fact that these two great astronomers baTe nccom-
pliahed between them the most wonderful series of researche» which astro-
nomy haa yet known. The whole heavens gauged, thoiiaanda of double stars
discoreted and observed, and nine-leoths of all the known nebulte placed
upon our lists by these two labourers alone, such ore some' among the
achievements which must be credited to the Herschels ; while throughout
the whole progress of the work the world haa not known whether to wonder
most nt the untiring zeal and energy of these two workers, or at the
grandeur of the conceptions by which they gave meaning and value to their
obeervations.

In the case of the jounger Herschel we have to admire, not merely
labours in the field of astronomical research, but profound and valuable
mathematical inquiries, chemical studies of extreme interest, and a power
over the difficult problems nssoci&ted with optical research in which he whs
matched by few of his contemporaries. Nor must we forget to point out
bow important have be«n the services which Sir John Herscbel has ren-
dered to science, in those masterly descriptions by means of which he has
succeeded in imparting something of his own earnestness and kcoI to those
who have followed bim as their guide and instructor.

But Sir John Herscbel possessed other qualities which, though in a sense
belonging rather to his personal character than to his position as a man of
science, yet are so far related to the latter that we maj be permitted to
dwell upon them here. A singular sweetness of disposition, h rendiness to
yield attention to the thoughts and opinions of others even when most
adverse to his own, and a perfect willingnesa to admit his own mistakes
when (as all men will) he fell into error — such qualities as these may well
be held up to the admiration of men of science in an age when we have too
often occasion to admit the truth of what the Poet Laureate has sung, that
The man of science himself is eager for glory oud vain,
Uia eye well practised in nature, his spirit bounded and poor.

Tto " ■nil»l fBtj" vUek Sb Jokn Qcnckel mdrocated " u thtt qnaliti
«Ucli aloae cia fit m Csr a Ul Htd nady ftawpHoa u well of monl
haaify aa fl' plijneal adaftatka," ia afior all bnt anotliei word for mmtil
^11^ th . Hw adbrt to Iocmm the koU on all which nughf iuteifen vith
tenaAj mIwJwiimi i/tralh ii,aa Hendwl jvsU; uid, ''the 'euphnsjind
!«■' wtth vUiA w Bsat 'page ow n^t' before we can receive tnd
iiwliM|ilalii M tbaj an Iha fiwamnJi of truth and oatuie :" but it Is
daaAf to be ntawd aa nfiMtin of itraigth of mind ; whila tl)« uemiiig
■ «f pa^ m& wUcft aoBte mco ratam their hold, with Tjce-like
_f, ifM fa 1 1 w Mia IhaoriM, ■■ a« far from showing real streogth 13 the
I of a UHiiilwil piiaiii It ii weU, then, U> note how our greatest
~' I NawtoB aad Sir William Herschel, the greateet tatnv
— w aaboMnre to truth, patient to hear the iMeoo-
1, ni nadj to jitU Ua own opimom when sufficient aigonunB

n# ^KkaM o^ I>MM. — Dr. BaggJM baa alreadj begun tn do good
woak wid tba ba uleacppe pheed iii lua hands hj the Rojal Sode^.
8-(Mk eqaatcrial he «Ripla;«d bofore, he found the light of
Unaaa loo UMk to ba w t i rfartr a i ly «xaauBed with the spectroscope. But
idAthalSHAeaofapertaieof tbe le&acUirbj Onibb, be hae Huccseded
m a t a Jjia g ^ pUacC M aoaae p t poaeL His lesulta are not in accordaiin
«itk dmaa abiMMd by Ft. ScwU ia 18W. Ft. Stf<:trhi then remarked of
tW i^MCraM of Uiauoa : " L« jaooe t bit complHemeiit d£fkut Daiu k
Ttft ft daaa Is blen il 7 a deaz raiei tns-largM et tris-notres." The bud
■ dw Um Im wywataJ a« Ina n&vtgible tbao F, and the one in the
pM aa M>r K. Ott tke caobmrj. Dr. Uuggins describee the spectrin of
Dnaaa M ~ WBlnaow^ miboat aaj part bang wanting, as fkr aa the Mdt-
Mas of lb figh penuts it to be tzand, wbidi is from C to ^tont G." The
B«l '"^fc** alMocptioa Unas ia tke tpectnim of Uianm aie sii. Ona of
tbaas (tbe iBOat rc&a^iUe) is at or tmj near the poaition of F in the
tftetivm. ne ligbt tnm a t*be nnntaiwiiig rarefied hj-drop en, tendeiol
lawBOM by ibe bdnctiaa apok, was compared directly with Ihtt of
I'laoBS, »d "tba biad in Ae pttaet'a spectrum appeared to be coinddest
with Dm bngkt liiM of h rii a g aa." Two of the other baada " appearad
ba n«T Marl; cococidwit with tn^l linea of the qwctrum of air, but the
faiiilMiiii of tbe plaaat's ape ctnu n did not admit of certalntj oa the point"
<* I awpectad," aMs Br.Hng^i^ "tbat the plane tat; lines are in a
degiM hm refongiUa. Tbcn ia no atnng line m the spectrum of tJnmtu
ia Iba poaitiM ot tbe atnmpat af Iba tiaaa ot sir. nsmelj, the double line
otwiXropm. Aa carbMnc add gia might be considered, without much ini'
p(»babilitT. to be a ctoisliiDent of the atmo«fibeie of Uranus, I tooli mea-

* We saw. with pain, that in the most elaborate obituaiy notice it
Reraebel whkb appwed in the dailj presg — the biogn^far in the " Dulr
X«wa'*— tbe moetbeantiful Dualities of Herscbers disposition, those whicB
■pedalh marked the philoaophie nature of his mind, were (most perverselj)
aacribcJ to ranitj — a qualitj, of all others, moe^ alien to his dispodtioD.
Ft>oB intenial CTi'dence, we are inclined to believe that this notioe, ODviouslj-
vtttten b^ one who was not a rvij joung man in 1690, came fiom the pen
of a certain eminent mathemalidan, who did not tire to see it in print

SCIENTIFIC SUUUAItr. 307

Jims of the pmcipal proups of bright lines wtich present themsekes when
tbe induction-spark ia poMed through this gaa. The result vraa to show
tbat the bauds of Uranus cannot be Ascribed to the abaorptioD of this gas.
Then is no absotptton band at tbe position of the line of sodium."
Furtber, "there are no lines in tbe Bpectntoi of Uranus at the podtiand of
the priodpal groups produced bjtbe absorption of the Earth's atmosphere."
The presence of hjdiogen in the atmosphere of Uranus in qunntitiee sufficient
to produce recognisable absorption (if the coincidence abore described be
confirmed) must be regruded as a (act of singular interest and importance.
The line is altogether too strong to be regarded as representing werely the
Fraunhofer F Uae in the reflected solar light.

The supposed Change of CoUnir of the Equatorial Belt of Jupiter. — At the
May meeting of the Bojal Astronomical Society a discussion was raised
upon this subject, and the general opinion of those who took part in the
discussion— including Dis. Huggins and De La Rue, the President (Mr.
LabscII), and others — was that no change had taken place of late in the
colour of the planet It was suggested that the colour of the equatorial belt
is seen now by more observers than in former years, simply because more
obseirers use silvered glaaa reflectors of lai^e aperture. Mr. Browning,
however, pointa out thnt this explanation will not hold good. " Five years
ago," be says, " I began making careful coloured drawings of Jupiter, with
a reflector 10^ inches in aperture. As long since as December 13, 1867, 1
drew attention to the fact that colour is best seen with small apertures or
high powers, I worked with powers of from 360 to 500, when the air
would permit. Although at that time I easily saw the coppeiy-grey of the
dark belts, and the bluish-grey of the poles, I could detect no strong colour
on tilt equatorial belt. Tet for tbe Inst two years the lawny colour of the
equatorial belt has been more conspicuous than either. It is true that
during the last three years I have had a ISJ-inch reflector, but, owing to
unfavourable atmospheric conditions, practically I have seldom indeed used
more than 10 inches of aperture. Several observers have also seen the
tawny colour of the belt with both refrftclora and reflectors of only three or
four inches' aperture. The exact colour of the equatorial belt may be
obtmned by allowing n very powerful light to shine through a jet of steam,
so that an increase in the luminoMty of the body of the planet would com-
pletely account for the colour of the belt." Adhuc nAjtidice lit est.

Proposal for a double Automatic Spectrotcope jcith Compound Priatm. —
KncourBged by tbe success with which Mr. Browning has carried out the
plan devised by Mr. Proctor for a double automatic spectroscope (an instru-
ment on this plan was exhibited at the last eotrfe of the Royal Society),
Mr. Proctor has proposed a double battery with compound prisms, instead
of tbe single prisms of the former. The mechanical contrivance diflers in no
essential respect from the former (slightly modifled from tbe picture in The
Sun), on which the double battery of angle prisms was constructed ; but the
form of the intermediate prism ia necesiarily modified, since this prism as
well as the rest has to he compound. The dispersion which would be given
by thw instrument would correspond to that given by thirty-ax single
equilateral prisms of heavy flint glass.

It is to be noticed that the plan by which the light is made to pass twice

d |(iiM btmiei of tioM crown and two €)at punu

K. 1^«M Ruihiifwij, of S^w Tisk. It u not » direct tiaioD |riim.

d b>^ tkk ihan^riiwi, tfce two ostennost erom ptiinu

^ 3b. Browwng KBufcs that the i

■■ MOR tm^aeotlj ia

1^ er^ alloving for the extn dispeniTe powB
e of the m i ni mum angle of devittion
x" (tie, bnt the word eh<mld obviomij
ia»* Wm iHt), asd Aca kaph gtiwlpr, the dze of »pectro8copcs wodU
~ d tker wonld tbns be rendered more cumbenoitM

n^Ttl^&i^^atStMimDiamba- 11, 1871.— Attention is alrod;
ti^iwiig lo ba dimetod to this eclipn. It teems unlikel; that uj «i-
ydilfat wiD In atot oat from Enflaad to olwrve it i but m the track of
WHIbXJ paans onr paila of Indk, Ctjlou, and Northern Australii, it '»
pateye llMt mmSal obacnatku will be made. Ia India e^eciall.v it i«

Bhlj tWt iWfil > r*"] fX""' — "'J -'— ■■'jj-r tfaeeclipK,

MM Ae ao rtt en hooadaiy of the track of totality Uea but a short distance
•diaik of MadiM, wbn thtoe it an excellent obferratorj, onder the numage-
aacBt of Hi. N- FogMNi. The following account of the most importut
fitaiui of the adpe is extracted from a paper bj Mr. Ra^oonatbacha/;,
fiMiiMiMiMilwJ bj Mr. PogsoD to the Kojal Astronomical Society : — " The
caattal ILae at tbs ccBpee will fint me^t the Ekrth'a surface in the Anbim
Sm, BiidiMitonagca tbe wesiem coast of India, will pass right across one of
tike nMt important parts of Hindustan in a S.E. bj E. direction. In this
part of tbe peninsula the Sim will be about iK>° above the horiion wb«ii
totally obaciu«d. The duration of totality will be two minutea an<j b
quarter and the loeedth of the shadow about 70 miles. On leaving the
Mwlen coatt ot tbe Madras tendency the central line will crose Palk's
Stiniis, paniMg about 10 nulea S.W. of the island JaSiiapattun, and over
the northern part of Oylon, where the small towns of MoeletiToe and
Kokelay will lie near the ceotml tine ; and also tbe well-known naval station
of TriDcom«l««, which will be about 15 miles S.W. of the line. Con-

SCIENTIFIC SrUMABT. 309

Inving its coniae aver the Bay of Beogal, the shadow will cross the S.E.
p»Tt of Sumatra, and will touch the Houth-western coftat of Java, where
BaIatU, the capital, will bo nearly 60 mUesN.E, of the centml line: and
two other Binftller towna, Chidamflr and Nagara, will alao be very near the
middle of the aludow-path. In the Admiralty Gulf on the N.W. coast of
Australia, the eclipsed Sun will be only ten degrees past the meridian, and
not fta from the zenith ; in consequence of which the totality will last
4iij, 18s., or only 4 seconds less than the time of greatest duration.
Lastly, passing: through the most barren and iminhabitated portion of Aus-
tralia, crossing the Gulf of Carpentaria and the York Peninsula, the shadow
vfill ultimately leave the Earth's surface in the Pacific Ocean." "The
general circumstances under which the eclipse will occur," (Mr. Ragoona-
tbachoiy here refers to India) " are singularly and unusually favourable,
the greater portion of the ahadow-path being easily accessible, by means of
the rulway and good public toads ; whUe a wetl-maoaged line of telegraph
will kfibid fiuiilities for that most incomparable means of fixing the longi-
tude of the place of observation with regard to Madras. The favourite
satuttoriain of the Presidency, Ootacamund, will doubtless be selected by
mouy persons as a convenient and &miliar station from which to observe
the eclipse, as also the hilly region of Wyuoad, in the Malabar district,
where numerous European gentlemen reside for the purpose of superintend-
ing their coSee-plantations. The lofty peak of Dodabetta, the highest
point of the Jfeilgherries, 8,010 feet above the sea-level, would, agreeably to
the oft-repealed and enlightened view of Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, the
Astronomer Royal for Scotland, offer a grand opportunity for speclroscapio
obeervationB in an atmosphere of small density, and free from ail the im-
purities which abound at lower levels, hut unfortunately haze and mist aie
very prevalent on the hill-rangea in the month of December. The weather
is in f^eral fine elsewhere about that time i^Iong the abadow-palb, but more
especially m eastward of the Xeilgherry hills than towards the Malabar

The Greenwich Ohien'ofiom of llie tost Solar Eclipse, — Among the most
importaut researches carried out during the eclipse of last December must
be ranked the observntiona made at Greenwich, for the purpose of deter-
mining the error of Hansen's lunar tables at the period of conjunction.
The plan of operations was similar to that arranged for the eclipse of 1880,
Clouds interfered with a portion of the work, but the rest was verv ef-
ficiently carried out. The observationa were discussed (at the cost of no
inconsiderable amount of labour) under the able superintendence of Mr,
Dnnldn. The following are the most important results: —
The Sun'a tabular error was found to be —

InR.A. = +0"11

In N.P.D. = + 2"-2.

s Moon's tabular error was found to be —
InB.A. = +0"'54
In N.P.D. = + 2"-S4.

le etioi ol the Moon's tabular geocentric semi-diau'.eter ~ 3'''48.
I VOL. X.— HO. ZL. X

SIO nXlVhMM aCDDKB WMWaWm

TW cftci of tke eooMtieM OB tlie lAioiee of itetioiis irooU be ^
TW eeirtnl Iim wo«]d be ■hilled nenfy fire ndkt ikrAor Mmy^ ani Ae
InedA cf tbe ibadow mcneeed bj abcNit double that amoimi^ iddkt Oi
tine of £nt contact would be aeeekmled and of kat eontact idaidad br
aboatlQ^ '

Thtat lart lenhi xaajMem to be imp ammpoiiaiit; but it ieirell to
1 V. -, ^ i. «%f~ » PW|Mng tbe way fiir incKHed

ediction of fntme edipeei ^ and tbat antljat
aheady

figbt acc Bach- on astioMBueel qoesdoni but on bistoncal ereDta.

7%e Soltr Opr«M.— Snce oar krt eomnuay appealed, man frets have
eoae to li^t zespecdng tbe solar corana» as aeen during the last eduse,
acl tbere bas been a good deal of diBcasnon ofver the signiBeaace of Ae
arw frets braogbt to oforkriwiedge. On neadj aU sides the atmosphene
flare Ararof ibe eomiabas now been abandoned, thongb the repeated
Msttneat of this fret bj Tarions writers in the ooRespQndenoeHxdiuiiiis of
a conco^oniT weeklr seienee-paper has given rise to as repeated editorial
faiiak i^tbe e£tor beiaig tbe diiei; we bad ahnost said tbe only remaimiift
adrocato of tbe glare tkeonr in this conntiy). Bat althoagb the acto
aatnre of tbe conaa is now generaQj admitted, we are Terr frr indeed bm
bari^ Klred tbe problems of difficnltj presented bj solar phmomena.
biMd wv msT be said to bare barely entered npoo this difficult field of

vbicb bad been breached respecting the eorooa can now k
CiKwswl under aooaewhat noire satisfrctoiy cuvamstanoes than bef(ne the
la:e<o!z^. Tw>l> paper* hare appeared daring the last two months which
bear on die tbecxedcal cocsdezatioos suggested by the observations made
las: IVvvaiKfr. In one Mr. Proctor points to the significance of the observed
<v>=i:<cu;:i ber«>esrn the coiveuL the prominences^ and the solar spot regionaj
aai he points out that. jikLring ftom the evidence now in oar hands, the
tbeoiy »ecis su^:pe«:ed that all the phenomena— corona, prominences, and
«r-spo:s— a;;:^ depe=Je-: *• on the action of vertical forces, or, at anv rate, of
iiNv>f$ diieo:ed vxirvnrds fwm the Son's globe — ^though not neoeasarilv exactlj
laikL** Aba=d.>£Lin^ the meteoric theory of the corona, or rather speaking
of :: as c^ufEcient to account for the observed phenomena, he considers the
fev>bab2e ejects of erjptive or repulsive forces exerted by the Sun on matter
in :he £r$: plao? within his vidUe globe, and he shows that many somewhat
perple^in^: phe=oc:esA seem to receive an interpretation when this theory is
^prov:sx^::AllT^ adopted. In the other paper. Professor Young, of America,
afVer p^'hidac out some objections to the meteoric theory of the coroDa,
remadLs that th:^ low specido gravity of tbe coronal matter may depend on
the aciio:: of '• such solar r>^pulsioc as appears to be operative in the forma-
tioa x^ a comet's uiL" In this paper he points out very luddly how small
the iuduonce must be which our atmosphere is capable of exerting in in-
cxeasin^ the seemixu: importanoe of the corona. " Some influence our atmo-
spber>^ mus:« of course, have ; bat remembering how much the iimer portion
of tbe corv^nal rin^ exceeds in brilliance the oater, it would seem that the
Qlominati^^n of the lunar disc must give us an exaggerated measure of the
iMe alaaospbeik effect. This iUumination makes the edge of the Moon

suuNTirio smnfAitT. 311

only enougb brighter than ike ceotri; to give it the appearance of a. globe,
but of almoBt inky blackness." He remnrks, "Mr. Lockyer, in 'Nature,'
quotes from a letter of mine written nearly a year ago, to Bhow that my
opinioDB regarding the nature of the corona have been considamhlj modified
dnce then ; and thia is true to a certain extent, though I think the present
mpproximation of our views is owing quite as much to a change in hie own
ideas — as would bo evident on refening to hia papers of the same and even
aoiQtwhat later date. But I should afiV/ write, ' I am strongl)' dispoited to
believe that the wbole phenomenon (i.e. the corona as I saw it in I860) is
purely solar.' " In 1869 the RtmoBpbere was far clenrer, it ia to be noticed,
than during the eclipse of 1870.

The Zridiaca! Liglif.—ytr. Birt records some interesdng observations of
the Kodiacal light in the " Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society "
for April. They were made in the eai-lier months of the year 18W, and
have remained hitlierto (for unknown rensons) unpublished. Mr. Birl, by
the way, seems unaware of the extensive series of observations of lie
sodiacal light made by German astronomers, for he remarks that so full and
ccosecntive a series as his own lias not, he believes, been published — a
ebsage mistake. However, hh observations are interesting in so far us
they confirm those already made, eapocially as respect'^ the change in the
form of the "light" as seen at difl'crent seasons. He submits, as n new
theory, the generally accepted eiplnnation that these chang«a are due to the
changing poritioa of the obferver as the Earth travels onwardd on her
orlat.

In connection with this subject we must refar to a most preposterous note
which appenrs in the same number of the " Notices," in which an nb^erTer
■ays, "^We think we saw the zodiacal light on Good Friday evening. When
•we first observed it, it was, as neatly ns I can tell (for my watch was slow)
■bout 7h. 4m., and it lasted about five minutes. It was a little to the north
of where the Sun had set behind a hill, and the rny of light was nearly per-
pendicular, and, as nearly as I could gueaa without means of measurement,
■bout a degree broad and five degrees long," The observation is intercstiug
enough in itself, but can have had uo po^ible connection with the zodiacal
light, whose appearance andporition (at any season) should be too well known
for such an accoimt ns the abore to he referred to that phenomenon.

OrbiU of the Binary Stars ; Serculit and ; Canrri.—yb. W. E. Hum-
WU, of Mr. Bishop's Obaervatoiy, Twichenham, has re-examined the obaeiv
Tittione made upon these two stars. By means of eq^uAtions of condition
founded on obseTvalions made on ; Herculis from 1782 to 1869, he obtains
tiie following elements ; —

Date of the periastron .... 1666-241
Period of the revolution .... .36-006 years
Longitude of the node .... 27° 0'-4

Longitude of the periastron . . 291° 4&'-0

Inclination 60° 14'-1

Eecentridtyi -0-56110, rt= . . . 33=26'-5
Mean motion in minutes .... [2-77090]
Mean distance l"-374.

POPULAB 9CIZSCE RKTIEW.

^H The obsemtioai Avsilable

^H iiiD«l7 jetn. The resulting

^^^ Pem^tron paeaage

^^K Period of reroliuioii

^^H LoDgitnde of the node

^^^L Longitnde of the periutiaa

^^^^^^^^^B Indiiuitioii

^^^^^ft EcccDtncit; < ' 0-30230, f ^

Meftn diatiincc

TVinnecke't A'mc Conttt, — This comet wis first i
S, at about balf-paet eight in the eveaing. From Di. Wii
tioDR, cambined with two maxle by Mr. Hind at TwickeJihain <
the latter astronomer has deduced the following elomentf i
Epoch 1871, June 0-28137 g. x. t.

Longitude of perihelion . . 146^ ISV 8" I Referred to appaient

Longitude of the ascending node . 280' 53' 32" J equinox April 10.

Inclination ^C Sff M"

Logq 0-7854883.

Motion direct

Mr, Hind reuiarlia that the comet appears to be quite diiitinct from uij
previoui'ly computed. IJr. ITuggins has eianiined the comet spectroscopi-
rjiUy, with results not differing from those be obtained from the stud; of
otliiT cometi— the spectrum of the new comet presenting; thiiee bright

.-1 BOinprehcneivt Slar-Chail, — Mr. Proctor is en ga^d in the coottnicliMi <
of an isographic chart of the noTthem hearens, in which are to be iiiclad«Jl',
all the stars (824,000 in number) of Aigelander's noble series of charts.
Mr. Proctor's object in charting these stars on a siogle sheet is ti» endeaTouE
to nscerlain what laws of distribution exist among the stars of the first nina>
or ten orders of magnitude. StruTe has olread; examined a portjon of iha
same list of stars with a somewhnt similar object; but a& he dealt onlj wilk
numerical relations, and these relating onlj tonTsrages, it seems not QiiliV«l]r
that the presentation of all the 324,000 stars in a single riew, all the del«Ii'
of their arrangement being preserved, may lead to results of excrema intVn

Observatioun of Man by Mr. Joytiion. — Mr. Joynson continues to
to the AstroBomical Society, after each opposition of Mars, on elaborated
series of lithograpbs of the planet, as seen with his equatorial of about foul
iuclies iu Aperture. The drawings must cause Mr. Joynson immense labour,
and doubtlaas bis hope is to advance astronomical knowledge ; but one would
like to have " a reason of the hope that is in him." Mr. Dawes, with a
splendid 8-inch equatorial and unequalled power of vi^on, has given us mora
than enough drawings to farm a complete chart of Mars, showing more, pro-
bably, than most observers could expect to see, under the uioet favourable
di'cu instances, with a lO-incb refractor, What useful purpose can bo sub-
served by labouring at a survey with about a fourth part of the power he

SCIENTIFIC SUMMABT. 313

emplojed, Mid with certainly inferior obaerTiog HkiJl f Let Mr. Jo.vngon'a

own answer be taken. "'These drawing-a," he saya, "in conjunction with
those previously sent, prove heyond doubt that the ' bnnd ' nad tbe wine-
gUss-abBped channel ' from it, are permaoeut featurea of the planet ; nuJ
that any apparent change in them arises from the xarious aspects that aru
presented by the planet itself, aa seen from tbe Earth '' — faets which were
ancient before Mr. Joynson was born.

ComfU ichick will bt vuiblc during the approaching Quartrr. — In tbe
'■ Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society " Mr. Rind gives elements of
Tuttle's comet Irom September 1, and of Encke's comet from August 21.
As we have already somewhat exceeded our usual space, yre do not here
quote these elements ; it ia tbe less necessary that we should do so, as doubt-
less all who are likely to stndy these two objects will receive (or have
already received} copies of the elements from Mr. Hind himwlf,

T/ie rianeU during f/ie ensuing QuaHei: — Venus ia now very favourably
situated for obaeivation, and will coDtiuue to be so for some time ; she will
ullaiu her Kreatcst brightness as an evening star in August. Neither Aliira,
JupitT, nor Saturn will be well situated for obsen-alion during I be next

B^ -^ CUmbing IWn. — This plaat (Lggodimn palaiatum) exisiB and llourisbes
inita wildsta1« within the borders of "old Essex," U.S. The writer in the
" Aniericao Naturalist " discovered this rare and attractive plant in 1B6S,
while exploring " Lynn Woods,'' in tbe vicinity of tbe &mous " I'enny
Bridge." The locality of its haunt is within the limits of Saugus, and not
br from that romantic spot known as the Pirates' Glen. Specimens have
been obtained having a stalk or " vine " nearly four feet in length. "As the
climbing fern is one of the must rare, graceful, and attractive plants found
in this couotTf, it is a matter of satisfaction to know that wo have it grow-
ing in our woodland valleya." This fern has been found, though rarely, in
Florida, Kentucky, and Massncbussets. In Virginia it is often seen, and it
baa been found in several other localities.

Botanical Gardens of Europe. — It seems, ft^om certain recently published
statements regarding the time at which the several prindpal gardens were
eatablishcdilbatthefirstone was that of Padua, in 1545. followed by that of
Pisa. Those of Leyden and Leipsig date respectively 1677 and 157U. The
MoDtpelier garden was founded in l^ai ; that of Gieesen in 1G05; of Stras-
burg, in 1620 ; of Alford, in 1626 ; and of Jena, in I62U. The Jardin des
PlaQt«B, at Paris, was established in 1020, and the Upsal garden in 1(127 ;
that of Madrid dates from 1703 ; and that of Coimbra from 1773. .\l the
close of tbe eighteenth century, according to Cleaner, more than 1,000
kindred establiahiuents existed in Europe. England comes late upon the
liat, the Oxford garden not having been founded until 1632, and long re-
maining the only one in the kingdom.

A PtciUiar Ink-plant. ^Ihe " I'all Mall Gazette " states that there is in
New Granada a plant, Con/aria lh;tiiiifoJla, which migbt be dangero-M to

r
I

814

POPCLU

onr Ink ninnfacUirer* if it cMild faa tK mij
uadM ih* Bmnu! of tbe lak pUaL Itt jnin, <
writing witbout aof prarunui fKfmutkm. TW
■ reddiafa culour U fint, but turn to a '
JuIm iIao ipoU* itvol pen* Imb than mmf
phnt MOD to bftve been ducorered under tke £^
writingt, laUnded far the mother oountij, wan wgt
on Urn TO;*^; «bil« the papen written irilh
I11egfbk<, thOM with the juice of that plant were qmte
weru iflven la eoiuequeiice that thu rentable ink wat
public documpoK.

Vtatt ami <il^ FertnaiU, — The " JoanuJ of the
April eaataiat a, u*uful papei by Mr. C. A. Watkhu 01
author laUier eadeavours to collect the information
analytv it, than tu put forward new ideaa. Thia paper
kmaunt of lufomiatioD, but there ia liltl« that
nawHiiuK in it.

AicmU 0/ Sup m the Pha. — A curious tuA it pointed oat
ona of tLc Aniericau jouriiala. He sa;a, that some jean ago
pointed out to him that soma Auctrian and Scotch [dne*, whit
Oompletul.V |p"ll^ by mice, atill contiDued to grow, a« if
bad been rncuivcd. In order to teat thia matter, he took a
abuut livu fi'et high, and girdlud it for a iipace of two inches at aboat thret
feet froxa thn ground. This was five years ago, tnA the upper portian ii
fllill Dlive. The trt^e attractB much attention from Tintors to hid grounda
When ginllot), the bnneh was about one and a half inch in diameteb
Tho whole portii)n of atem between the tier of branches above, and that
below — a apace of about fifteen inches — has fiiuce remained of that die,
U dry and hard oa a "pine knot." The parts ahore and below this dead
■pact) increnso annually in girth. The upper portion \b now about
Inclion In circumference. There nre brani'bes iibove aud below the girdied
portion i the lower onea growing much the strniiger. The upper ponioa
make* only two or tbruu inches of growth n year, and the " needlea " ara
of ti brighter green than the lower.

CoHtriemicc in the Corolla of ^Ivia Ini'olmrata. — In most salvias part
of the anther develops into a lever, which closes the tbront, and, when lifted
by on iniwct, causen the pollen to be thrown on its back. Some RuppoM^
■nil with appnrent good reason, tbnt this is to md in cro^s-fertiliaation. '
Salvia mvoincrala, according to Mr. Thomas Meehan, who writea to ths
" Amnrlcan Natundiat," the lerer arrangements are remarkably well de-
Tetoped, but the arched upper lip curves inward, and prevents the anthen
horn acting in the manner above described. It would seem as if the
aft^r " making " its arrangements for crosa-fertilisation, " repented," and
" mode " another to contradict it.

A Xeiv Pibr«/or (he Mami/achirer. — A new fibre, obtaiDed from the baA
of the mulberry tree, has been produced by Mr. 0. B. MitrasL
pocted that the new material will answer ahuoat all the purposea for whiA
hemp and Qaix are employed.

A'fliii Sptcin of Oaka from KvrCh-ivesi Ainerka. — Mr. R. Brown, U-A.,

SCIESTIFIC SPSIMABT,

315

FKnd«nt of the PhjBical Sodetr of Edinburgb, Las contributed a paper on ,
this subject to the " Annals of Natural History " for April. He pves a
minute account of fi»e species, tbua r Qaercus Sadlcrimia, Q. (Eratcdiana,
Q. echitwiilet, Q. obbrngifolia, and Q. Jacobi. In ali, seventeen species of
CupuliferfB find a place in the flora of the region to ibe 'west of the Rocky
Mountains, northward of and iacluding- Upper California, which immense
eslent of territory, so varied in ita climate and physical features, is generally
known as North-west America. As he Has already described and tigured
most of these species for a general worlc on the forests of that country (now
in course of publication), he doe^ not mention them in this plaoi ; and for
the same reason he has omitted to give figures of the species he has here
described, these figures, with more esteuded descriptions, being intended to
find a place in the same worl;.

■ CHEMISTRY.

The Formation of Osone hy Jtetin OUt has been the subject of a paper
by ilr, C. R. C. Tichborae, which was read at a meeting of Ibe Royal
Irish Academy. The author said, when light resin oils were aubmitled to
the combined action of atmospheric oxygen and light:, ozone was produced
in abundance. (" Such oils, when poured upon a solution of iodide of po-
tassium, instantly produce blue iodide of starch,'') At the same time the
boiling-point of the oil was raised, done was probably the prime mover
in the production of colophonic hydrate, n substance discovered about two
years ago by himself. All the terebine oils on eipoaure to light produced
this etfect. That obteined from pine seeds was said to possess this property
b a most marked manner: oils of lemon and berganiot in a slight degree.
The redn oils poeseaaed this property more decidedly than ordinary oil of
turpentine. Ur. Ticbbome, by experiments, showed the action of those
oionifled oils upon iodide of potassium.

Tlie Chemistry of Seed Germination has been investigated by Herr Dr.
Vogel of the Royal Bavarian Academy ('■ Proceedings," vol. ii. No. 3, 1870).
A memoir published in the foregoing Proceedings, and which has been ab-
stracted in the usual valueble columns of the " Chemical News," contains
the detailed account of a series of experimc-nia made by the author, with a
tie-tr of wcertaining the effect which various substances (as, for instance,
■mline, amoiphous phosphorus, dilute solution of permanganate of potasM,,
sulphate of copper, dilute acetic acid, dilute hydrocyanic acid, arsenioua
add, illuminating gas, naphthaline, and other substances have upon the
genuination of vegetable seeda. Among the substances which thoroughly
impede, and even destroy, the power of germination, the author mentions
dilute (Oal per cent.) acetic acid and phenylic acid (1 drop to 50 c. c.) It
appeara that otherwise the germination is not much affected by very dilute
aqueous aolutiona of most of the substances above quoted.

lUumination by a Substance calkd Carbo.n/gen. — The " Journal fiir Qasbe-
lenchtung " (No. 8) contains a paper on this subject by Br. J. Philips. The
Carbolin (the fluid used in tbe lamps invented by the author) costs about

SIC

^Bf —TtepwpMtdqilhehiyWaf caitflflgiiMlMiiiffld:)
^» little BMR tkM 3S fii^Ui edtte feet). Thecnbo^gei

HewTod^Bid
ilio ciploypd.
p3>BO aad ibrabe aic rwhihitrfi the coloois of
aeca W doft fi^ being MCB ezeedj as m dajiii^ti^ile then ■ ao dngtf
flfiBjsnsf theaMMtteader aad dfliral^ plaBtB,as tlMn is wttfi otlMr nti-
ill flMides of Ugbtaing.

Gmttmr Bimi^ m m Scfotek Oair.'-'We lean bom thb ''Medieil Ftaa"
Bt 3L GiMtnr BiidionMf been appointed to tlie <'Toimg''diair<rfTedi-
CbemiitiT in tbe Andenooian UnxreiBtj at Glasgow. M. Bisdiof is
of thelaxe Froleamr of Cbemiitiy at Bonn, and well known at the
«r of -^ Chenncal GeologT.''
Adimdm^tt nf h^maorM ^akw.— The ^ Scientific American ** zeoeniljrliai
an artide oo ibit snliject. It aajBy that by mixing tbiee to az paiti of
infiMu rial aliea to one part of freshly bomt lime, and stamping the iriMde,
after slightly mnertwiing it, into a soitable mould, artificial stone of uq
disin 1 form can be made. Such stones become extremely haid, are im-
psnioas to wster, are finer grained than cements of 6^011, can be used for
gas or wster pipes, and will take any colour. As there are large depoeiti
of diatomaeeooe earth in Tarioos parts of America, this application for srti-
fidal stone and cement is well worthy of consideration. By combining in-
losorisl earth with native magneate and chloride of magnesiam, a cement
is produced which is known in Germany under the name of albolith cemeot
The chloride of magnesium, obtained as an incidental product in salt msnn-
€Kture, is rery cheap in some parts of Germany, and the oecurreDce of
large depodts of magnesite renders this variety of cement available in Europe
for many purposes. A fine glaze for earthenware is obtained by fusiDg
infusorial earth with crude borate of lime, or boronatrocalcite. A variety
of porcelain can be made by fusing infusorial silica with the borate of msg-
nesia of the Stapsfort mines. This kind of porcelain can be cast, pressed,
and, if sufficiently thin, can be blown as easily as glass. It is capable of
extensive use in the arts.

Oxygen humt u:ith a Sooty Jblame, — The " Journal of the Franklin In-
stitute '' contains an account of this experiment by Professor Thomson erf
Copenhagen. It says that heavy hydrocarbons, like benzol and oil of tur-
pentine, bum with a very sooty flame ; with a very Rimilar flame oxygen
also burns in the vapours of these bodies. The experiment b made in the
following manner : — Some benzol is warmed to the boiling-point in a long-
nocked flask ; the flask is closed by a cork with two holes, through one of
which a glass- tube of about 1 centimetre bore is passed, and through the
other a tube somewhat narrower and bent to one side. When the vapour
arrives at the orifice of the wider tube it is lighted, and then a tube, through
which a slow stream of oxygen is flowing, is passed down into the flask
tiirough the flame. The oxygen tube is bent above, and its mouth is pio-

SCIENTIFIC 8TJUMABT. 317

Tided nith a platinam tube fused into it. A cork upon tbe oxjgen tube
closes the nider tube of the tiHak. The benzol fliuae ia cxtiiiguiBhed, aad
the Tapour ieeuea through the side tube, Tihile the oivgen burns in the

mxol vapour ivith a Ter.v sooty finme.
B ^ Mamial of Orgatuc Chemiitry, by Dr. Henry E. Armatrong, F.C.S.,
~ ofeasor of Chemistry in the London InatitutioD, is advertised by Mesara.

MigmanB & Co., ns being in prepanition for their series of Text-booka oi
jEsence.
f OS from Grape-pipt. — The "Berichte derDeutachen Chemischen Ge»ell-

" ' " '~5. 8, contains n paper on ibis matter, hy Herr S. Fit^. The pips
mtoined in grapes contain from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of an oil,
-which has been the subject of a series of researches made by the author.
The oil, havinu been s«ponified, was found to contain palmitic, stearic, and
erucic acids, the latter fuang at 34° ; formula, Cj,H„0,. The lead-salt of
thia acid ia difficultly soluble in ethec in the cold, but readily so in warin
ether ; the same obtains with alcohol. The erucic acid exceeds in quantity
the two other acids just named, the three being, in the neutral oil, combined
■with glycerine. When fused with caustic alkali, erucic acid is converted
into acachnic acid, C, H^Og, and into acetic acid. The author atotea that
the oil alluded to might be used for culinary purposes ; of course it is only
obtainable in quantity in wine-growing countrlea.

The British Astociatton't next meeting will be held at Edinburgh, and will
cominence on Wednesday, Augu>:t 2, under the presidency of Sir William
Thomson, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c. The facilities now afforded by
the several railway and steam-boat companies to parties travelling from all
parts of Great Britain and the Continent, render it probable that this meet-
ing ivi11 be very numerously attended. The local authorities and the repre-
sentatives of the various scientific societies, aa well as all those officially
connected with the Association, earnestly desire that the members and
Aosociales should receive a cordial welcome, and that ererything possible
should be done to make the visit agreeable and instructive.

Chiarofomi from Chloral and Chloroform from Alcohol and Sleaching
Powi^.— Theae two varieties of chloroform it is important to distinguish,
and therefore the following teste, which are quoted in the " Chemical
News,'' from " Douglass Journal "' for May, exe of importance ; — In the Bret
place, the former chloroform, known now oa the Continent as " Engliah
chloroform," has a sp. g. of only l-JS-^, and contains, according to the
author, from 075 to 0'8 per cent, of strong alcohol, "When, to the chloro-
form prepared from alcohol and bleaching powder, strong sulphuric acid ia
added, it always becomes more or less coloured, which does not bappi^n to
be the case with the chloroform prepared from chloral; when, moreover, a
few drops of each kind of chloroform are left to evaporate spontaneously
upon a watch-glass, the chlnrnform prepired with alcohol gives off, after a
while, a disagreeable ameil, while the other kind retains until complete
Tolatilisation its pleasant fruity odour.

Rxcrements of the cojiimon Bat Jihinolophiis Stppoeidenu. — In the April
number of the "Awialeo der Chemie,' Professor Wiihler, after briefly
sferriug to the researches on the excrements of the Egyptian bat by
9t. Popp, states that Dr. Ehlors had the kindness to supply him vrith the

318 FOPULAB 8CIBNCS BSYISW.

material above named, taken from a locality wheie it had accamnlatad to a
layer of 3 inches' thickness. This substance does not contain anj trace d
nrea, nor any uric or oxalic acids ; the balk i^ made up of the undigested
homy mass of the wings of insects. Dried at 100^, Uiis aabstanoe gare
8'25 per cent, of nitrogen, and left, after ignition, 6*25 per cent of ash, con-
taining potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, chlorine, anlphuric^
silicic, and phosphoric acids, the latter being 36 per cent of the weight of
the ash.

The CryttaOme Substance covering the VaniUa Pbd, — ^M. P. Carles has
contributed an article to an early number of the '' Journal de Phannacie " on
this subject The article treats on the nature of the crystalline aubstanoe
which may frequently be seen on the yaniUa pods, and have been conaidered
by various authors to consist of benzoic or dnnamic add, or coumarine. The
author finds that this crystalline matter fuses at about 81^ ; boils, with
partial decomposition, at 280^ ; is very readily soluble in alcohol, ether|
chloroform, and sulphide of carbon; difficultly soluble in cold water;
exhibits a strong acid reaction to blue litmus paper ; and decomposes ca^
bonates. Elementaiy organic composition, C^JELjd^, The author has pre-
pared several salts of thb acid ; but, as to its true chemical composition, his
labours are not yet completed. See also ^ Chemical News."

Ozone, — ^At the meeting of the Chemical Society on June 1, Dr. Debus,
F.RS., delivered a lecture on the subject of ozone. The lectiuer began
by stating why ozone is considered to be an allotropic modification of
oxygen ; then discussed whether there are reasons to assume the exist-
ence of two allotropic modifications, and concluded with a review of some
of the properties of ozone.

Himalaya Tea, — In the '' Annalen der Chemie " for May we find a paper
by Dr. P. Zoller. This paper contains the results of a series of experiments
made with a sample of very fine tea, a email quantity of which had been
sent to Professor J. Von Liebig by a proprietor of tea plantations.
100 parts of the tea contained 4*25 of water and 5-93 of ash, which, in
100 parts, was found to consist of— potassa, 39-22 j soda, 0*65; mag-
nesia, 6*47 ) lime, 4*24 ; peroxide of iron, 4*38 ; manganoso-manganic oxide^
1*03 ; phosphoric acid, 14*55 ; sulphuric acid, a trace ; chlorine, 0*81 ;
silica, 4*35 ; carbonic acid, 24*30. Extract soluble in water of this tea
amounted to 36*26 per cent. The nitrogen in the air-dried tea was found
to be 5*38 per cent In addition to 4*94 per cent of theine, this tea was
found to contain some theobromine. The quantity of nitrogen in the extract
(that is, the portion of the tea soluble in water by infusion), dried at 100^,
is 1009 per cent., while the ash therein amounts to 11*46 per cent The
author concludes by stating that this tea is equal to the best Chinese tea,
and that the younger the leaves of the shrub the better the tea they yield.

Formation of Transparent Ctibes of Chloride of SodHum similar to Hock-
Salt, — The ^' Chemical News " gives in its usual list of abstracts one, of a
paper by Dr. Buchner in the ** Journal fur prakt Chemie " (No. 6, 1871), on
the above subject This paper is, in a measure, the reproduction of the con-
tents of *an essay published by Dr. Mohr (PoggendorflTs ^'AnnaleUi''
vol. cxxxv., p. 667, 1868), "On the Formation of Rock-salt" The
author relates, in confirmation of the facts adduced by Dr. Mohr, a few

SCIENTIFIC snUMABY.

319

inst&nms whieli prove that the farmation of cubes of n>ck-anlt and of
other chlorides iaomorphous therewith, BctuaUy takes pUOB alowlj by the
spoQtimeouB evaporation of ooncentiated brioes and the gradual diffusion of
the thus Bupersaturaled solution downwarda (in the vessel wherein that
solution is contained), eo that the cubes form, and increase gradually in aixe,
at the bottom of the res^el which contoina the enltne liquor. The author
also obserred, io one instance, the formation of chloride of ammonium in
cubical crystals deposited from the BO-cnDed Etechlin's copper liquor (Zi'guor
ciipri ammoiiiato-muriatici), the eraporntion having been caused by the not
well fitting of the stopper ; but this process had taken years to produce the
cubical form of crjelals of sal-ammoniac alluded to.

Cerlain Fatly Ketones, — In a paper read before the Royal Society,
April 2, Dr. J. Emerson Reynolds gives a long account of the above. He
draws the following conclu^ona. 1. That certain fatty ketones can be made
to unite directly with mercuric oxide. 2. That the resulting coropounda
afford a new group of colloid hydrates, analogous in propertiea to the silicic,
aluminic, and other hydrates already made known by the researches of
Professor Graham. 3, That the new hydrates may best be regarded as ex-
tremely feeble conjugate acids ; the chief member of the group (that
derivable from acetone) being probably tetrahnsic and capable of affording
very unstable salts. 4. That the generating reaotion for these bodies may,
when carefully controlled, be employed as n teat for the presence of a
ketone, especially for acetone in certain organic mixtures. 6, That the
generating reaction for the di-keto-mercuratea may, when carefully con-
trolled, be employed as a test for the presence of a ketone — especially for
acetone — in certwn organic mixtures.

Bett-root Sugar in Ireland.— Ihe Rev. J. Jellet recently (May 29) read
a paper before the Royal Irish Academy on the above subject. Six speci-
mens of the white beet, grown at the Model Farm at Glasnevin, bad been
examined with the Jellet sacchnrometer. The sliced root was digested
with weak alcohol three or four times ; the solutions were evaporated and
then made np, after having been heated to ISO", to a given bulk with
water. This solution was filtered through charcoal, and the 6rst portions
rejected as a certain amount of the sugar is absorbed. The sugar present in
the beet almost entirelj' consisted of cane sugar. The foUowing are the
. results of the six detenninationB : —
Ist. 12 'Oo per cent

6th.

Srd. 12'58 „ „

\ Professor Jellet said that anything o

y good, and would pay to work.

13-60 per cent.
11-02 „ „

12'43 ,, „

r 10 per cent, might be considered

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

! Oiaeial Drift of Mastachuiettt.—VTol N. S. Shaler gives, in tha
DCeedings of the Boston Society of Natural History " (vol. xiii-),
y able account of the parallel ridgea in the above. In the immediate

320 POFULAB SCIENCE BEYISW.

neighbourhood of Boston the unstratified drift does not lie in anything like
a continuous sheet, but is distributed in long and rather narrow ridges,
which, with varying height, on account of long-continued denudation,
may be traced for miles across the country. These ridges are particulariy
conspicuous in the islands of the harbour of Boston, where, although much
worn by the action of tidal currents, the parallelism is quite apparent
They exhibit two sets of trends, the one being north-west and soutii-east,
the other north-east and south-west ; and a comparison of the sections,
given at various points in the islands of the harbour, at Chelsea, Somer-
ville, Cambridge, Brighton, South Boston, and elsewhere, has shown that
throughout this region the drift is remarkably similar at the same h^ght
above the sea. The drift contains pebbles of various sixes, five-foot
boulders, and fragments of every gradation down to coarse sand. The
whole is embedded in a fine mud, which so binds the materials together
that, in the lower parts of the mass, where it has been subjected to con-
siderable pressures, it has become a hard conglomerate. Nowhere is there
any attempt at stratification. In regard to the ori^n of these drifts, IVo-
fessor Shaler agrees with Agassiz in considering them as the materials
which rested in and upon the glacial sheet at the close of its history, and
which were dropped in the places they now occupy by the melting of the
ice upon which they rested. As this drift deposit must have originally
been at least one hundred and fifty feet thick, it is difficult to conceive how
such a mass of detritus as that in question could have ever been contained
in a glacial stream, and the supposition is necessary that the mass of the
drift must have been rent from the floor of the glacier as it moved along.

A new Fossil Myriapod is described by Mr. Woodward, F.Q.S., in the
'* Geological Magazine " for March. It was discovered by the late Mr.
Thomas Brown, after whom he names it. The specimen, preserved in the
round, is four inches in length, and nearly a quarter of an inch in breadth,
is contained in an ironstone-nodule (like those previously discovered), both
sides of which are well preserved. Thirty-six raised body rings, separated
by an equal number of intermediate depressions, can be counted between
the head and the last segment, each ring having two pairs of appendages.
There are indications of pores, and also of the bases of tubercles or spines,
along the dorsal line, but the latter are less perfectly preserved. In their
great work on the " Geological Survey of Dlinois," 186S, vol. iii. p. 566,
Figs. A-D, &c., Messrs. Meek and Worthen have described and figured two
new forms of myriapod under the generic name of Euphoheria — namely, E,
armigera and E. f major. The specimen described is named E, Brownu.

The Skeleton of Dinomis. — Professor Owen read before the Zoological
Society, at its meeting on June C, a paper on Dinomis, being the seven-
teenth of his series of communications on these extinct birds. The present
paper gave a description of the sternum and pelvis, and an attempted res-
toration of the whole skeleton of Aptomis defossor.

Life of Mr. Davidson. — The " Geological Magazine " for April gives a
very interesting sketch of the life of Mr. Davidson, the well-known
authority on Brachiopoda. It gives also an excellent portrait of this dis-
tinguished man, and a list of his writings, occupying two pages of small
type. We may also mention that at the anniversary meeting of tha

SCIEBTinC SCMJIAH'

321

Palnontogrtpliicnl Society (March .^1) this venr, the council of that societj
presented to Mr. DaridBou n copj of hia magnilicent work on British Fossil
Brachiopoda, handaomely bound, as a small expreaaioQ of their high esti-
matioD of hia valuable and protracted labours for the promotion of the
objects of the Society.

The IVoUtuton Mednl and Fund. — The WoIIaston iDedal haa this jear
been prssentpd to Professor Ramsay, who acknowledged the compliment in
a very humble address. Professor Ramaay well deaerres the medal, and
ought, we thick, to have got it earlier. The proceeds of the WoUastoa
Fund were awarded to Mr. Etheridge, to enable him to prosecute hia
valuable work ou the Fossils of the British Islands. Mr. Etheridge has
been on this work for eight years, aad the work itself occupies nine volumes
of manuscript. We hope this splendid work moy be soon completed and
offered to the public.

The Pidaimtagraphical Society hna isauad its yearly volume for 1870, It
contains several most important works, and among them one by Professor
Owen, who concludes the volume with a monograph on the Foasil Mammals
of the Slesoioic Kocka, the materials for which he has long been accurau-
lating, and the interest in which has by no means abated. The first pagea
of this work are devoted to a consideration of the llhffitic Miunmab of the
genua Microkitae, in which the author places the detached tootli of Hypti-
primnopiis rheeticus, discovered by Mr. Boyd-Dawkina at Watchet, Somenaet,
and also the remarkably rich series of detached teeth discovered by Mr.
Chnrlea Moore, F.O.S., of Bath, in a fissure of the Mountain Limestone at
Ilolwell, Frome, Somersetahiro. Then follow the Mammalia from the
Stonei6eld Slate of the genera Amphitherium, Phatcolothfrium, and SUreog~
nathut, compriung four species. The remainder of the work is occupied hy
the consideration and description of the Purbeck Mammalia, which (with
tlM exception of Spatncotheriuum tricutpideiu, Owen discovered in 1854
Messrs. Wilcox and Brodie, of Swonngo) were all brought to light
ingh explorations carried on with characteristic ardour, and at much
and personal rifik. by Samuel H. Beckles. Esq., F.R.S. They occupy
(with woodcuts) ninety-three pages of letter-press and nearly the whole of
four plates. The descriptions of these early types of small Marsupial
Mammals are founded almost entirely upon the evidence aiforded by lower
jaws, not more than half-a-dozen specimens bebg found in which the upper
dental series are preserved, end no crania are aa yot known. Above tun
geneni and twen^-five species have been determined from the Purbeck
beds, Durdleatone Boy, Dorsetshire, and described by Professor Owen. TLa
plates bnve been moet corefully and auccesafully drawn by Mt. Alfred T.
Ilolliek.

Dealh o/.Si'r John HerncheU. — One of oiu' greatest philosophera has gone
from among us. Though, of course, more of an aatronomer than a geolo-
gist, he was nevertheless a distinguished thinlcer in matters of geologic
science. Ha died on May 11 last, at the advanced age of seventy-nine, in
the full poBBeauoo of all his mental fiKultiea, Though he devoted most of
his time to astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, meteorology, physical
geography, etc., geology did not altogether escape bis attention, .\mong
bis suggttstive contributions to this science may bo mentioned the following :

322 FOFULAB 8GI1HCB M|lfUiW«

— ^L Od Changes of CHnuite anniig from tbe TaiTiiig Esoentridtj of At
Enrth't Qibit Q'Qeoi. Trans.,'' 2nd series, toI iiL, xefened to in ''LycD't
Principles'' as eariy as 1837). 2. On the effect of the BemoTal of Matter
ham abore to below the Sea, producing " a mechanical sabTarrion of flu
eqnifibriiun of preesoie and temperatuxe ; " On Snbsidenoe and £2eTatioa;
The Influence of Subterranean Steam; The xeeolts of the "R^ytm**^ of Bodoi
bj Heat; *The Fusion and Metamorphism of Sedimentaiy Boeki^ ete:
(letters written in 18S6, and published in 1838, at the dose of ''Babbage'k
Itinth Bridgewater Treatise "). He mna buried in Westminster Abbej,
beside the remains of Sir Isaac Newton.

I%tt Prt-Gkieiai History of North CheMre.—Tdr. C. K de Banoe, who
pnblishes a somewhat lengthy paper on the geology of Cheshire in the
^Geological Magazine/* thinks, among other condusioiis, that in pra-
glacial times a plain of marine denudation composed of hard and soft beds
of new red sandst(me existed firom the borders of Wales to south-weiten
Lancashire, unbroken by valleys, over which flowed the Dee to the north,
xeceiving as a tributary from the east the Mersey, which gradually cut for
itself a transverse gorge across the strike of the rocks ; at the same tims,
longitudinal valleys, to the north and to the south, gradually came into
existence. Those to the north were afterwards entirely destroyed by marioft
dmudation, which formed a lower plain. The subddenoe continuing and
the climate becoming glacial, the district was submerged beneath the waters
of the Qladal Sea, and the Gorge, or transverse valley^ as well as the km^-
todinal valleys, were filled up with glacial deposits. Afterwards, on tiM
le-elevation of the coimtry, these were excavated out, partly by nmnin^
water, and partly perhaps by small glaciers which, as he has attempted to
show elsewhere, imdoubtedly held their ground, at the dose of the glscisl
epoch, in the valleys of the Lake-district. The entire valley of the Meisej,
including its termination through the Wallut^y Gorge, would be equally
fiUed up with drift ; over this surface of drift the river must have flowed,
widening and deepening its channel as it ran, here making great difis of
overhanging boulder-clay, and there cutting through the drift down to the
bare rock, and in some instances cutting its bed wider and deeper in the
rock than it was before the glacial submergence.

Mr, Htnnestey and M, Delaunay versus Mr, Hopkins. — On the 13th of
last March, just as we were going to press, M. Delaimay read a statement
to the effect that he acknowledged that Mr. Hennessey had used the same
arguments as himself against Mr. Hopkins's theory relative to the fluidity
of the interior parts of the earth. This admission, which is a most honour-
able one, must have been received in Dublin with' great rejoicing, and very
worthily so.

Sea-sand HetgM caused by Glaciers. — ^Mr. J. H. Kinham proposes a some-
what startling but, nevertheless, very well sustained hypothesis on this sub-
ject. Since accimiulations of sand occur at or in the vicinity of all the
valleys of YaiK^onnaught that open towards the west ; and as in each of
them there is palpable evidence that glaciers once flowed down them
towards the west, he cannot but be inclined to believe that these sands
originally owed their origin to glaciers. That omiltf a ccnmulations do
not always exist at or near the mouths of the valleys in that country, which

8CIESTIF1C SUMMARY.

323

open eMtword, Deems due to tht^ii' glaciers being feeden of the glaoler of
the Lougb Comb v&Jley, wliich iteelC n-as a branch of the glacier that
flowed down the valley now occupied bj the waters of Galwny Buy j liow-
ever, at tho mouth of aome of these valleys thpj do exist, and are described
in the " Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland " (sheets 05 and 105).
Furthermore, his belief is strecgtheiied when he eondders tbut all the hccu-
BiulalioDs of thia kind of sand in Ireland, wiLh which he in intimntelj
acquunted, both at or near the aea-board, and inland, Lave simitar relationa
to valleys in which, if he has not observed the traces of glaciuia, yet it is
not only possible, but also highly probable, that they once existed. Since
the glacial period, on account of the luoae and frail nntute of the y&olian
sand, they have been a prey to the caprice of the wind or other moving
fort^i and have been drifted hither and thither, and their real relations to
the more recent depoeila have been obliterated.

Organic Rcinaitu m Ike Crags. — An important list of these is given in a
paper by R. Bell, in the " Geological Magazine " for Junn. The following
is a list of the oett total of each group of which the author has liats : —

Cetocea ....

Other mammnlia .

Insi^cta

Crustacea ....

Ostracodn ....

Cirripedia ....

Annelida ....

Echinodemiata

Land and fcesh water moUusca

Marine Gasteropoda and il^oleno-

concha
Opisthobrun chin ta
Pteropoda
Lamellibranchiata
Brachiopodu .
Polyioa
Cwie
Protozoa
Bhizopodi
Flantot .

n each formation

Amrriam Sttrtrif of Iron and CVjjper Minea. — From the " Report on the
Progress of the State Geological Survey of Michigan," by A, Winchell, L.L.D.,
w« leam that lie survey of the iron region near Marquette is nearly com-
pleted. Eleven largp mapa of the most important mines are nearly ready

334 POPITLAR SOEN'CE BETIEW.

fnrthe eognfer. Di8coreriea hare b««n tatde of naw and large beds of
irou ore in the forest imsetiled couutrf, upon Und* owned bj the StUe..
The older beds beloDg to the HurouiAii sfxtem, aererai thousand feet thkk.
All the rocks appear to have been of sedimentstj origin, though often pn-
ienting combmaiiona su^gestiTe of an igneous character. The fallowing ia
their order, in deacendiDg scale : — 1. Quartdte: 2. Hematic and Magnetic
Ores; 3. Ferruginous Quartiite; 4. Diorite; 5. Femiginoua Quartdte;
6..Dii>rite ; 7. Ferruginoua Quartzite ; 8. Diorite ; 9. Ferruginous Qnartrite;
10. Diorite ; 11. Talcose Schiat ; 12. QuArtzite ; 13. Laurentian. The copper
region, under the auperintendenee of Professor Pompelly, ia being mipped
upon the Bcale of 300 feet to the inch. The fleldwork has led to the aces-
mutation of numeious detoiU respecting the distribution of the eerenl for-
inations, which cannot be presented in & report of progress, but ther hare
necessitated nianj' improvements upon the Geological Uap.

Quality of Ancient Litnatime for Building Hirpotet. — In the "Bulletin
de I'Academie Rojale de Belgique," Xo. 2, 1371, M. Omolins d'Hallof girw
B paper of some importance on thid subject The main view of the aatbot
is that it is not en much the texture of the limestones which has to be lakn
into connderatioD, since the structure and texture of these stones maj vtij
immensely, iind yet they may all be suited for building purposes, proridtd
the layers or beds have not been, as very frequently b the case, dislocated
by geological upheavings, whereby many of these kiods of stone become
foliated, and do not then witbat&nd wind and weather for any length of tint
without crumbling to pieces.

A A'ew Chiimeroid jFViA front the Lt/me Rtgia Litu. — On AptU 5 lut Sit
Philip Grey Egerton, Bsrl., read a paper on the above. This fish, forwhidi
the author proposed the name of iKhyodut orthorliimu, was represented by*
specimen showing the anterior structures embedded in a slab of lias. It
exhibited the characteristic dental apparatus the ChimKtoids, surrounded
with shagreen, a Tery large prelabial appendage ^ inches l<'f g, and termi-
nating in a hook abruptly turned downwards, and a process which the
author regarded as representing the wetl-lniDwu rostral appendage of the
male Cbimteroid, but in this case attaining a length of 5^ inches, and
covered more or less thickly with tubercles, bearing recurred central spines
somewhat tooth-like in their aspect This appendage is attached to the
head by a rounded condyle, received into a hollow in the frontal cartilage.
The dorsal spine, which measured 6 inches in length, was articulated by i
rounded surface to a strong cartilaginous plate projecting upwards &om tbe
notochordal axii, and was thus rendered capable of a considerable amount of
motion in a vertical plane. This structure also occurred in Callorhynekui
and Chinusra.

Approximation of the Crinoidfti to ike Tunicala. — This strange relation-
ship lias been imagined by Mr. J. ILofe, F.R.S., who, in a paper published
in the "Geological Magazine" for June, supports his views rather aWj.
lie says, "In some other rejects there appears to be an approximation of
some of the Crinoidea in some of the Tunicata, as in the pyramidal valvolse
of Cjatidea and the Chelyoaoma ; and the outer tough bags of some of the
Tunicata also contain radiated concretions sometimes ailiceoua, but mole
frequently calcareous, thus approaching the feat of the Echinodermata. If

CIlSNTlflC 8UUUAKY.

325

■lag, u !a auppoeed, tlie Ciiooida receired their Douiiahmeot and the water
seocsBVy for teapLrnlion througb. tht> aims and the covered chftimela con-
necied witli tliem hy on intenml mouth, probably the power of expaonou
and coutmctioD oboTC alluded to ma; have beeo used by the Criooida for
the purpose of rapidly ejecting water to cleRr the internal passages, as a
doue bjT the Atcidtum or aea-squirt, and by the mollusca geaeroU}'. No
doubt many objections may be raised to thb supposed approach of two dif-
ferent and perhaps distinct ordere ; we know, however, that nature draws no
hard lines, but abounds in connecting links, and it may be possible that the
SloUuscoidea and the Echinodermaln are connected by the Unk now BUg-

^H^ed.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Strai/u in Shipg. — Ur. E. T. Reed, C.B., has communicated to the Royal
Sodsty n paper containing the results of the remarkable and elaborate
investigations of the striuns in ships of various types, in which ho was
engaged before leaving the office of Chief Construetor. The enormoua
labour involved in such calculations haa hitherto prevented the attainment
of definite and precise results, even for still-water strains. Mr. Reed has
carried out the necessary calculations for several types of vessel, and raore-
Dver has estimated the straining action due to the position of a ship on ti
wave-crest and in a wave-hoUow. The importance of these calculations, as
afibcting the choice of one type of vessel rather than another, may be
judged from the foUowbg comparison of the straining action in the
Mmotaur and BeUerophon : —

a shearing
Q bending

On Wave-Crest.

" KinoUnp."

, . . 1,305 tons. 555 tons.

140,300 foot tons. 43,000 foot tons.

Ill WiVB -Hollow.

a shearing strain . . . 6QG tons. 640 tons,

a bending movement 78,800 foot tons. 48,800 foot tons.

It may be useful to note that h brief abstract of this paper appeared in the
" Mechanics' Magazine" for May 5.

Tht " Detxutalioti" and Ihc " Cyshps." — The Committee on Designs for
Ships of War have made a report to the /Vdmirelty respecting these vessels.
The result at which they have arrived ia, that " ships of the Deiiattation
clau have stability amply sufficient to make thorn safe agfunst the rolling
or heaving action of the waves ;" and in addition, " as the sleadyinK eUecta of
bilge keels and of friction have been neglacled in their calculations, the
arron aie on the safe side." They estimate that the wind might produce an
angle of heel of five degrees in addition to that due to the roll of the
wavce, nnd that with this the ship would still have an unipio margin of
atability. They recommend that the Dctaiialioa should he completed with

326 rOPULAB SCIENCE BEYIEW.

tho suporstructuro, and the Thunderer without it, mod
alterations in tlio detdgns. In regard to the CjfdopB daai of Tfwli, ther
ai« equally satLstiod as to their stability, even without a Mipenlfuctme,
uudor any ciMiditions of wind and sea to which they will be fikely to be
expi^seii in tho defence of our coast and in making Toyages from port to
pi>rt iu favourablo weather. They recommend that the four Teasels of tlii§
class in Ci^urso of ci^nstruction should be completed with certain minor
moditioatious.

StMiiti/ of Shij»$. — Some advance is made in the theory of the ataUlitr of
Bhi)vi, which siniv the disaster to the Captain has assumed sc great a prM-
tical importance, in an interostin}? paper, read before the Institute of XstiI
Architoots, by Mr. ^V. 11. ^Vhite and Mr. W. John. The paper u too
wathouiatioal for extract in those notes, but will well repay peruaaL

MihMite fi*r Tf$tm4f MetaU, — An extremely interesting machine for test-
inw: motals on a now method has boon invented by Mr. G. Biscboff, of Bonn.
and was dt^^ribod in a pay>r road before the British Association. It liis
siuct' boon exhibited at the Institute of Naval Architects, and illustrated in
en^rinoorin^. Mr. Bischoff first prepares small test strips of the metal
whost^ quality is to bo ascertained. These are 7 mm. and 65 mm. long^
and an^ propaitnl spoiMally by methods which need not here be described.
Tho tost strips are then placed in a machine called a metallometer, in which
tho tost stri^v* are bent backwards and forwards through a definite angle, bj
prefon'uiv an an^lo of 07 }^ These bendings are effected by a dockwoit
arranp'Uiont, aud indicating dials are prox-ided to register the number of
ivM-illations to which each strip is subjected. Ten strips can, if necessair, be
tested at one time. Tho number of bondings wliich each strip sustains is. on
Mr. lU:«oUotV*s systou\, tho measure of the quality of the metal^ and, according
tv> hi> evperiments, wvuiUl seem to be an exceedingly delicate test In
orvler to have sv>mo tixed standnnl to which to refer the tests of other speci-
niens, Mr. Hisi'hi>rt seltH*ts strips of chemically pure zinc. The resistance of
suoli .'♦trips is remarkably uniform. Kuowinj? the average test of say
5l> striivi of zinc, in any jjivon machine at any given angle of bending, we
have a standarvl with which to compare the results of tests on other mate-
rials in the sjinii' or other machines. So delicate does Mr. Bischoff believe
his method of testing to bo, that he asserts he can by its aid detect the
deteriorating etTiH.*t of -(.XVX)! per cent, of tin when alloyed with pure zinc.
The ohjeition to Mr. Bisichofl's system b that at all events, in certain cases,
the pri' pa ration i»f the te^t strips involves processes which alter the mecha-
nical pn>iH»rties of the material.

Xcir Form of liratrtl lindt/e, — l^ofossor Fleeming Jenkin has invented a
now fi>rni of braced areh bridge, and has described the mode of determining
the stn\*»ses on the ditVerent parts of it, in a paper commimicated to the
Scotti-ih St^ciety of Arts. The stresses are determined by a new graphic
method of great inten>st in itself, and which is due to Professor Clerk
Maxwell. rn>fessor Jeukin's braced arch is something like an ordinair
'NVarren jrirvler, in which tho bottom boom, instead of being straight and
parallel to the ti>p boom, is curved into an arch. In the common bowstring
girder the depth of the girder is greatest at the centre of the span and least
at the ends. In Profe^fsor Jenkin's, on the other hand, the depth is greatest

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY. 327

at the ends ssd lea«t at the centre of the span. In (he top boom or
member of the braced itrch the distributioD of material is aimilu to that in
the boom of an ordiaHiy girder. But in the battooi or arched memljei the
Eectioa is greatest at the eods and least nt the centre of the apftn. Mr.
Jejikin calculates that a braced arch of fiOO feot span, of the same atrength
as the Britannia Bridge, would weigh only 0'05 ton per foot run, nrhereaa
the girders of the Britannia Bridge weighed 3'8 tons per foot run. He
Bt8t«8 that there would be no difficulty in maling the braced arch of cast
iron in simple pipes, and that the cost of the superstructure of such
a bridge would be only one-siith that of a wrought-iron girder bridge.
The braced arch is also suitable for conatruction in timber.

Compound Engine*. — In a paper on the Compound Engines fitted in
H.M.S. Briton, by Mr. O, B, lleonie, it was Btnted that the ordinary con-
sumption of fuel had proved not to exceed 3 lbs. per independent high
pressure per hour. Supposing a ship to carry a given quantity of coal
and to steam at a given rate, with a given expenditure of power, Mr.
BifDnie has calculated the following table of the relative length of time
reaoired to empty the coa! bunkers, with ships fitted with engines of dif-

rit types :—
Coil mnnuDal Number a! Siyf
Tjpo of Eogioe. petlnd. H. P, Sienmlng wllh

Nothing could exhibit more clearly the importance of eeonomicnl types of
engine for steam navigation, and especially for heavily armoured ships of
war. The actual eonsuinption of fuel on the trial trips of the Sntott varied
from I'fllC to 1-981 lbs. per independent high pressure per hour. That on
the trial trips of the Tenedot, with compound engines built by MessTS. John
Elder £ Sons, varied from 1'36 to 2-32 lbs. per independent high pressure
per hour.

pcrHoBt.

!10 TdM of CoiJ.

1. Improved Compound Engine.

2. Ordinary Engine with super-

heaters and surface condensers

. 2 .

. ^ .

. 5 days U hours.
■ ^ ,. 4 „

3. Ordinary Injection Engine . .

4. High Pressure Enpne ....

. 4i.

■ 2 „ 11 „

■ 1 » 21 ,,

MEDICAL.

^P Edinburgh Vnhtrsity Fhilosophicul Sucieti/.—ThB firat] session of the
^KSdinburgb University Philosophical Society closed on Wednesday. ,\pril 5,
^■Principal Sir Alexander Grant, Burt., lielitKring the valedictory address,
^■1!be greater part of which consisted of an able criticism of the Darwinian
■ fheory of Ibe descent of mta.

hifiveact of NoHiiitrogenout Food on Mmi. — Br. Parkes has been carry-
ing on his inquiries into the subject of the influence of foods^of different
kinds on man. In the Proceedings of Ike Royal Society (March) he gives a
long paper, in which we find it stated what is the influence of a non-nitro-
genous diet on the system. For instance, the circulation was materially in-
flaenced. Dr. Parltea says that with an equnl pressure tho lever w

■■*»

328 rOPCLAB SCIEKCE BBTIEIT.

■Imort double tho beiglit vheo. the mnn was o;i nitrogeaous food. TUi
heMent^s of expoDuon ahon-n by the Epliygmograph tcu ^uite in accofi-
■nce witb the iujpresaioii giien to the finger. The softness cf the pnbe
pored it vsa not owing to iDcreiteed resistjuice of the futerial wall- With
ngud to the teinperntme, the mesna ace so tloae to thoae of the dajs oo
otditiary diet, that having regard to the fact that the period was shorter and
Iherefore more liable to error, and that eoma ohserTationa were omitted on
the marching-day, it may bo concluded that a non-nitrogenons diet con-
tinued foe five dttjs neither raised nor lowered the temperature of the anils
■nd rectum. It therefore fhows that when the nitrogenous food of *
kemlthy mwi was reduced to one-half for fire days, and lie was kept for five
da,ys more without nitrogen, he was ahle uu the fourth day after auch de-
privatioD to do a very hard day's work. The non- nitrogenous diet, cooEiit-
iDg of butter, oil, starch, and sugar, kept him perfectly well ; all functiotu
•eemed natural, the temperature of the body was unaltered, the pulsa be-
eame Tary soft, and the spbrgmographic tracings ahowed very feeble muk-
iagt'-. bat it was not materially altered in freqiiency. The dieulstjco
a^ieared to be properly carried on, as far as could be judged of by tie
man's own feelings. The health, as judged of by the man's feelings and
the absence of objective signs, was perfect. On account, boweveF, of the
fcebleneaa of the henrt'^ action, it was not thought right to continae the
experiments, whii'h had, he believes, sufGciently proved that force necessaij
for great muscular work con be obtained by the muscles from &t and starch,
Ibough changes in tbe nitrogenous constituents of the muscles also go an,
which have as one effect au increased though not eices^ve elimination of
Mtrogen after the cessation of the work.

Bromide of Fotaisium in Fomning hy Slrt/c'inine. — Dr. Herbert contn-
bnles a paper on this subject to the " New York Medical Journal " (March),
He pave it in a case of poisoning by strychnin as a dernier reteort, in dose*
of ninety grains or more, every half hour. " In twenty minutes after tbe
administration of the first dosa there was perceptible improremcat, which
continued. In two hours the patient could move bis arms. The bromide wd»
then given at the rate of one drachm every hour ; hut, tbe convuleiona coming
(HI again with greater severity, the remedy waa given for one hour every
fifteen minutes. At the end of that time he felt easier again, and the bromide
Wtts continued in smaller doses, at intervals of a half-hour to two hoars,
according to circumstances, during tho day and following night. In tbirtj-
*ix hours from the time that tbe bromide was Brst given he was walking
•bout, feeling a tittle wealt, and occafionally a slight twitch. Concerning
this case there are several important points that it would be well to note ; —
1. The length of time that elapsed before the eflect of the poison was
manifest. 2. A very marked tolerance of opiam. 3. Vomiting afforded
great relief. 4. The antidotal power of bromide of potassium. The naked
facts only ace presented ; my professional brethren may draw tbeir own in-
ferences.''

The Oattric and IntftUnal ruiuies.— These structures, in connection with
thrar patholopcal relations, have been very cnrefidly studied by Dr. Austin
Flint, ProfesBoc of the Practice of Medicine in the Bellevue HospiKd
Medical College, U.S. We merely call ntlention to the memoir published

8C1EST1F1C SUMMARY. 329

D the " New Tork Mt'dicsl Journnl " for Marcli, It ia a paper ot soote
ConsideTable lengtli, anddeala fully with the researches of Handfielil, Jones,
Fox and P'enwick.

Ehclro-Punelure m Aneurism of the Aorta. — Hecent numbers of tbo
" Gazetta Medica lUliana-LombardiB " contam four additional ca^es reUted
by DiB. De Cristoforia and Machinrelli, in which electro-acupuncture waa
employed for the relief of ancuriem of the arch of the aorta. They am
related in considerehle detail, and ace of great interest, abowing, at least,
that the practice is an jooflBnaive one, and gires the patient relief from great
suffering.

Death of a Bisiuu/uishetl Ohatetrtoiim. — Profeasor Pietro Luzznti, of Milan,
died suddenly on March 23. Ila waa one of the moat accompliahed obsle-
triciana of his country.

London Water.— In his report for 1870 to the nepstiar-General, Professor
Frankland states [" Medical Press "j that during the year each pprson in the
metropolis was supplied with twenty gallons of water. Ilis remarks on the
quality of water are generally faTourable, but then he considers 1870 a favour-
able year to the companies, because of its extreme drought. Profeaeor Frank-
land supplies also a statement of the weight of nitrogen contained in the
organic matters found in each sample of water. Organic matters of animal
origin are more highly nitrogenous than those of vegetable origin, and there-
fore the presence of any considerable proportion of organic nitrogen in river
waters known, like tho^ of the Thames and Len, to be polhited by sewage,
must be regarded as throwing grave suspicion upon their quality. Another
table is given showing the amount of previous sewage or animal contamina-
tion. So far as chemical analysis can show, the whole of this can be oxy-
dised and converted into mineral and innocuous compounda when the
analyses were made ; but there is always a risk that some portion may ha*B
escaped this decomposition, and produce disease in those who drink the
water. The riak is much greater when the water ie from rirers and shallow
wells than when it ia from deep wells and springs. Professor Frankland
states that while the evidence of this previous contamiuatiun in the Thamea
and Lea waters exposes them to grave suspicion, he regards the same evi-
dence (ihough greater in amount) in the Kent Company's water as
practically of no importance, if access of drainage from the upper strata be
rigidly excluded from their deep chalk wells, and since the spring of 1888
his analysea aiford no indication of any such soakage into these wells. The
whole report is more favourable than we imngine the next one is likely to
be, the drought having greatly benefited the companies in the one respect
of purity of their water.

Detedivn of Picrotaxia in Beer. — The " Food Journal " for April quotes
ir<aa the Berlin " Wochenschrift '' some important remarks on this subject.
It gives a method of detecting the presence of 4iicro toxin, the poiaonoua prin-
ciple of the seeds of Cocculue indicm, in adulterated beer. The analysis i«
based upon the fact that a soluiion of augar of lead containing amnumia
precipilates sugar, dextrin, gum, &c,, but not picrotoxin,* which, however,
can be extracted by shaking up the aciduloua solution with ether. The beer
under examination is first treated with ammonia until the smell of that
Buhetance strongly manifests itself, llie precipitate b allowed to settle. To

330 POPULAB SCIENCE BBYIEW.

the liquid, as soon as it becomes dear again, an alcoholic solution of sngai
of lead is added until another precipitate is formed, consisting of insoluUe
dextrin, sugar, &c. Sulphuretted hydrogen is added next, and the filtered
liquid is boiled down. The acidulous residue is shaken up with ether and
left to settle, when the ether containing the picrotoxin is drawn off. Picro-
toxin is a strong tetanic poison, producing vertigo, convulsions, and death.
It dissolves in strong sulphuric acid, forming a saffiron-colonred aohition.
With sulphuric acid and potassic bichromate it assumes a red-brown, and, on
heating, a dark brown colour. Another test for picrotoxin is given in its
action on cupric oxide, which it reduces from alkaline solutions, and when
boiled with dilute acids takes up water, forming a substance which ako
reduces cupric oxide.

The Effect of lodate of Potassium on Animals, — In a recently published
paper, read before the Koyal Academy of Belgium, Dr. Meslen, the author,
gave the record of some experiments upon dogs, to which this salt was given
along with their food. He concludes from his experiments that iodate of
potassium is a violent poison ; but this paper is only a preliminary notice,
it being the author^s intention to publish an exhaustive account of his ex-
periments, and of the effects of this salt on the blood and internal organs of
the animals experimented with.

Lardaceoxis Disease, — At the retiring meeting of the Pathological Society
for the present session, the report of the committee on Lardaceous disease
was produced. This is the name recommended for adoption in the case
that has received other names also. An increase of cholesterine and of
chloride of sodium is said to be present, while the affected organs are de-
ficient in potash. It was long ago pointed out by Dr. Dickenson that de-
ficiency of alkali was probably dependent on its removal from the blood by
profuse suppuration, after which the disease is most frequently met with.

A Gift to Owe?i's CoUef/e, Manchester, — Miss Brackenbury, of Manchester,
bns signified her iiitenlion, according to the ^* Society of Arts Journal," to
give 10,000/. for the establishment of a medical school in connection with
the College, being 5,000/. for the erection of suitable buildings, and 6,000/.
by way of endowment for the support of the department. It is suggested
that, OS the father of Miss Brackenbury was in the medical profession, it
would be a graceful recognition for the governors to endow a Brackenbury
professor.

A New Tficory of Nei'cous Action. — This, which was put forward some time
since by Dr. Robert M'Donnel, and escaped our notice, we now call attention
to, for it is very remarkable, and worthy of serious consideration. The paper
was read before the Iloyal Irish Academy. The theory is thus stated by the
author : — '' I conceive that the various peripheral expansions of sensitive
nerves take up undulations or vibrations, and couvert them into waves capable
of being propagated along nervous tissue (neuricity, as it has been named).
Thus, the same nerve tubule may be able to transmit along it vibrations
differing in character, and hence giving rise to different sensations j and,
consequently, the same nerve tubule may, in its normal condition, transmit
the wave which produces the idea of simple contact, or that which produces
the idea of heat — or, again, the same nerve tubles in the optic nerve which
propagate the undulations of red may also propagate, in normal yisicni

tCTSRsmo smnuBT. 331

those which excile;,tlie idea of yellnw or blue, ond so for other senaeB. I
ndTocate this unduktory theory of senBation m preference to the theory
of distinct conductors — lat, because it is simple. 2ndly, because it is
Btrongly supported by analogy, when compared with wave propagationa ia
other departments of science. Srdly. IlecnuEe it (tppears to be in harmony
with a large number of recognised pbysioiogical facts, which seem inex-
plicable upon the theory of distinct conductPM."

A AVw^ Opihalmo»er^ has been detised by M. le Dr. E. Jsvnl. The
mirror is a plate of glass covered by a thin layer of platinum, and the lenses
which serre to correct the refraction o( the patient or the observer are re-
placed by a smikU Galilean telescope. This, by a simple mechanism, is
moile to act m an optometer, and ia exact as well as convenient. A greater
msgni^ing power ia'obtained by this contrivance than by ordinary instru-
nents, while the remark is made that the in^bumcnt is capable of improve-
meat in gome details. It ia a prent desidornlum to ha able to correct liyper-
tnetiopitt andjmyopiai in nil degrec^i, without the ti'ouble of chaii;jing the
glasses, and to gain a greater amplificaUon of the fundus, and we hope
this new opthalmoacope may be perfected.

A Xatiomil CoOeotion of Sargieat InatrumenU. — Sir William Fergusaon
ha« proposed to form a national collection of surgical instruments, to be
placed in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London, to illustrate as
far (IS poBsiblo the prtigress of surgical art in Great Britnin, and the improve-
ments made from cinie to time in surgical appliances and instruments.

The Anatomy of Um CHiari/ Miucle. — Dr. A. Iwanoff has contiibuted a
very valuable paper on this Hubject to the ".ircbiv fiir Ophthal." (Bd. xv.
AbtlL ui. s, 284-208) which b very ably abstracted in the " New York
Medical Journal '' for March, In addition to his former researches into the
anat'imy of the ciliary muscle, contained in a previous number of the " Ar-
chives," Dr. Iwanoff bas undertnkeu lo iliscover what dilTerences it may
have in myopic and hypermetropic eyea. That the difference of refraction
involves a great difference in the accommodntive function has long been
niEuatainad, and a corresponding variety in the ciliary muscle is to be ex-
pected. It has been maintained that in bypermetropia the muscle would
found lai^e and greater in bulk, while in myopia it wovdd be thin and
'let. The examination revealed quite another state of facts. In twelve
Ijapic eyes, whose axes were from 2B to 84 mm. in length, in all myopia
er one-quarter, there was no atrophy of the muscle, but it was
thicker and longer than in emnietro|)ia. The muscle is composed of two
sets of fibres — one eiternal and running in the meridians of the globe,
pointed out by Bowman and Uriicke : the other sot internal, at the anterior
part circular in direction, and described by Arlt and H. Miiller. In myopic
eyes the circular libres were almost entirely wanting, and the meridional
fibres unusually numerous. In four hj'permctropic eyes, whose- axes were
from 10 to 30 mm., the ciUary muscle was found thin and pushed forward,
while in myopia it was thick and shoved backward. In hypenuetropia, the
posterior portion of the muscle was atrophied, the anterior part hyper-
truphied ; that is, the circular fibres were in excess. The difference, then,
in the structure of the muscle in myopia and hypermetropia is that in myopia
meridional fibres are most numeroiL", i[i hypermetropia the circular
nnmeroas.

332 POPULAft 8CIXNCE BXYIKW.

MICROSCOPY.

Contmtt tf Mtf MieroBoopkal Journal. — During the past tluee montlis tim
contents of tliis journal, besides several letters, and the reports on the jnty-
gress of microscopical science, have been as follows : — '' On the Structure of
the Podura Scale, and certain other Test-objects, and of their Bepresentatioii
by Photomicrography." By Lieut.Col. Dr. J. J. Woodward, U.S. Army. —
<' Microscopical Examination of Water for Domestic Use." By James BeU,
F.C.S.— << On the Winter Habito of the Botatoria." By Oharies GuUtt,
C.E., F.R.MS.— ''The Magnifying Power of the Microscope." By Count
Castracane. — '' A Few Experiments bearing on Spontaneous Generation.'*
By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.C.S.E., Lancaster. — ''On the Mode of Working-
out the Morphology of the Skull." By W. Kitchen Paiker, F.K.S., Prea-
dent B.M.S. — "Linear Projection considered in its Application to the
Delineation of Objects under Microscopic Observation." By Charles Cubitt^
C.E., F.R.M.S.~" Optical Appearances of Cut Lines in Glass." By Heniy
J. Slack, F.G.S., Secretary R.M.S.— "Object-glasses and their Definition."
By F. H. Wenham, Vice-President RMS.—" Transmutation of Form in
certain Protozoa." By Metcalfe Johnson, M.RC.S.E., Lancaster. — ^" Micro-
scopical Examination of Two Minerals." By Pro£ A. M. Edwards. — ^"Ad-
ditional Observations concerning the Podura Scale." By Dr. J. J. Wood-
ward, U.S. Army. — " Remarks on the General and Particular ConstructioD
of the Scales of some of the Lepidoptera, as bearing on the Structure of the
^Test Scale' of Lepidocyrtus curncoUis." By R. L. Maddox, MJ).— -"On
the so-called Suckera of Dytiscus and the Pulvilli of Lisects." By B. T.
Lowne, M.R.C.S.

Photomicrographs for the Stereoscope, — In the "Microscopical Journal''
for May there is an abstract of Dr. R. II. Ward^s interesting researches on
this point. Dr. Ward informs us. that in order to photograph, vnthout
delay, any field of view which a working microscopist deems worthy of
preservation, ho should have a camera mounted on a plank which is blocked
at one end for the feet of the stand used as a "working instrument**
Then, whenever desired, the eye-piece is removed, the instrument levelled
into a horizontal position and placed accurately on the plank, and the mag-
nified image instantly thrown upon the focussing plate of the camera.
Finding the usual band, passing around pulleys and over the fine-adjust-
TCitnt wheel, to be a slight annoyance in carrying out this plan with the
stand he ordinarily uses (a large stand of the *' Jackson " model), he makes
the fine-adjustment by a somewhat soft cylinder of india-rubber lying
upon the wheel. This cylinder is rether more than three inches long, is
an inch and a half in diameter, and weighs about four ounces. It is open
through its centre, like a tube with thick walls and small bore, and is
mounted upon one end of a straight, light, wooden rod, the other end of
which is supported on ur near the top of the camera. It is prevented
from rolling off from the fine-adjustment wheel by a horizontal wire, tran^
verse to the axis of the apparatus, attached by a hinge-joint to a post at
the side of the wheel, loss of motion is simply impossible, and an extremelj
fine and manageable motion is secured. The unequalled facility and

TEniy Ti

SCIESIIFIC SL-MSlARr. 33*

aiiy nitli vliicli tltis fippftmtus can be iostniill; laid upon the fine-odjuiit-
ment wheel, or tamed Wk from it, 18 BulBciently evident

Importance <•/ Uie Microicope in xeorkinyat tJie Siull.—liT. Kitciien rnrlter,
F.R.S., the I'residenI of the Micro Bcopicul Society, recently rtad n pdper oa
the abore subject before the Sodet}'. lie enva it is all microBcopic work ;
step by slep eTeiything has to be made nut by the moat delicate niicro-
BCDpica) miuiipulfltiou, and but for lliat instrument Ibe vhole matter must
Jiave been kept saeret to the end of the world. It is impossible to overrato
the mlue of such means that lead to auch researches, for now we begin to
see the absolute Unity of the Vertebrate Series— to say nothing of the other
primary groups of auimala. The highest type — the human — passes thwugh
every stage of morphological structure aeen in the aeries beneath : it doea
not stop at these alftfiea ; it does not utilise, so to say, the incipient atrue-
turea that are ready to be so used, but runs rapidly along its own line,
choosing, as it were, and refuaing, until at length the perfect man is attained.
Yet this perfection of parts, this production of a creature who in hia lowest
attributes is the "paragon of animals," is not brought about irrebtively to
the rest of creation ; it is merely on elected ctmmmrnotion of all that is
highest and best in morphological structiire.

BUm-hing ZH'atomacea. — The following note has been published by no less
an authorily than Dr. Maddos. From some experiments conducted lately
in bleaching both marine and fresh-wntar forms, the use of chlorate of
potash and hydrochloric acid appears tn him as likely to prove t-eri/ useful in
the examination, not only of ti.e skeleton, but the diisposiUon of the endo-
chrome ; and it eeema probable llie same may be employed with success on
the minute Algto and minute forms of organic life commonly accompanying
thinn in the collection. The proportions used haTO been variedj but about
■10 giaiiis of the crushed chlorate to IJ drachm of the acid in 1 ounce of
water, placed in a 2 or 3 ounce phial, closed with a waxed cork, may be
taken as the average proportions ; the action of the evolved chlorine com-
mences after a short period, and can be watched or modified as required.
The use of this mixture for the esamination of chitinous structures in
inaects was adrocated by Dr. llicks ; but Dr. Maddox is not aware of its
having been extended to the Diatomacero ; therefore the suggeation is made
in the hope it may be found useful by those engngei! in the esamination of
the orgwiisation of tlieae rery interesting objects.

nivsics.

protP (u jtr the Iron-filmgi acted on iiy Magttelism.—Ml our renders ore

B how beautifully iion-fiUngs arrange Ihemsslves when placed under

uence of the magnet. It is not such n simple matter to presen-e these

and the following method, suggested by Dr. S. M. Mayer, in an

article in the " Chemical News," June U, seems an excellent one. It ia na

—A clean plate of thin glass is coated with a lirm film of shellac, by

■ring over it a solution of this substance in alcohol, in the same manner

k photographic plate ia coaled with collodion. After the plate has

334 POFULAB SCIEKCE BBYIEW.

remained a day or two in a dry atmosphere, it is placed oyer the magnet^ or
magnets, with its ends resting on slips of wood, so that the under surface of
the plate just touches the magnet. Fine iron-filings, produced by ^draw-
filing" Norway iron which has been repeatedly annealed, are now sifted
uniformly over the film of lac by means of a fine sieve. The spectrum is
then produced on vibrating the plate, by letting fall vertically upon it^ at
different points, a light piece of copper wire. The plate is now cautiously
lifted vertically off the magnet and placed on the end of a cylinder of paste-
board, which serves as a support in bringing it quite close to the under sur-
face of a cast-iron plate (1 foot in diameter, J inch thick), which has been
heated over a large Bunsen-flame. Thus the shellac is uniformly heated,
and the iron-filings, absorbing the radiation, sink into the softened film and
are ^* fixed.*' He generally allows the heat to act until the metallic lustre
of the filings has disappeared, by sinking into the shellar?, and the film
appears quite transparent. This degree of action is necessary when photo-
graphic prints are to be made from the plate ; but when they are to be used
a^ lantern-slides, he does not carry the heating so far. After the plate has
cooled, it is allowed to fall upon its ends on a table, so that any filings
which have not adhered may be removed.

Seven Yeari Magnetic Obsej'vatians, — The Ilev. J. J. Perry has published,
in a paper lately read before the Roval Society, the result of seven years*
observations at Stonyliurst. He states that the yearly mean values of the
horizontal force are found to vary progressively from 3-5926 to 3*6178 in
British units, the mean for October 1, 1800, being 3-6034, with a secular
acceleration of 00042. Calculating from the monthly tahles the mean
value of the horizon tiil force for the six months from April to September,
and for the semi-annual period from October to March, we find the former to
be 0*0006 in excess over the latter, showing that this component of the
intensfity is greater during the summer than during the winter months.
Treating the dip observations in a precisely similar way, we obtain 69° 45'
21" as the mean value of this element for October 1, 1866, subject to a
secular diminution of 1' 40"-2 j the extreme yearly means being 69° 48' 47"
and 00° 37' 62''. The resulting excess of 10" for the winter months in the
computed semi-annual means is so small that the observations tend mainly
to show that the effect of the sun's position is not clearly manifested by any
decided variation in the dip. Deducing the intensity from the above
elements, we obtain for the summer months the value 10-4136, whilst that
for the winter months is 10-4128. The intensity of the earth's magnetic
force would thus appear to increase with the sun's distance, but the differ-
ence is not large enough to have more than a negative weight in the ques-
tion under discussion. This weight, moreover, is lessened by the slight
uncertainties arising from the probable disturbing causes at the first mag-
etic station.
Attraction catised by Vibrations of the Air, — In the '^Philosophical
Magazine " is a paper by Professor Challis, in which the author maintains
that the condensation in waves propagated from a centre will vary inversely
as the distance, and that the rate of diminution of the condensation or rare-
faction with distance from the centre will be continually changed from the
law of the inverse square of the distance to that of the simple inverse of the

SCIENTIFIC SrUMABT. 335

listance, pronded ihere he olteniate condonealiona and nirefaotioDf, as seent)
XI be inevitable -, for it ifi coutrarj to known hydrodynamical Inwa to suppow
Jka posBibili^ of a solitary wave of condeasatinn. The Hbovc-meDtioDed
relocitj gives rise to a coDtiuuftt flow frnm the ratified into the condeiued
poiis, and just in the proportion required for altering the laiv of diminutioa
mth iJhe distance from the mverBe square to the simple inverse. Profeasoi
ChftlliB bolisTcs that the attraction of mngnetiflm is cauaed by vibration, to
(vbic^ he might have added the attraction of gravity — a doctrinu long since
propounded hy Robert Hooke, and of which an account is given in his pos-
thumous works. In the revolving grate erected by Boulton and Watt
beneath a ateam-boiler at the Bank of England, the coal was fed by a scoop
moved by a cam, which advanced the scoop gradually over on orifice, carry-
ing coal with it, and then suddenly drew back the scoop, when the coal, by
its inertia, remaining behind it, fell into the fire. In this case vre have a
backward and forward motiun causing bodies subjected to it to travel in a
Cartain direcliou ) and if we suppose a umUar motion to exist in the
particles of bodies, an attraction like that of gravity will be the result. —
Society of Arts JournaL

Phytict of Areiic Ice, — Mr. Brown has published, in the " Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society" (Tebruary 1871), a very long and im-
portant paper on the above subject, especially ss regards Scottish geology,
Tbe author concludes : —

(n.) Tbat after the Tertiary period the country was covered with a great
depth of enow and ice, very much as in Greenland at the present day ; but
possibly some of the mountain-tops appeared as islands. During this and
the subsequent period glaciers ploughed their way down from the inland ice,
and icebergs broke off and reached tbe sea through the glens, then ice-Qords.

(J.) After this the country sank gradually, as Greenland is now sinking,
to the depth of several hundred feet ; and during this period most of the
glacial laminated foitsiiiferouB clays were formed. During thi* period
boulders were deposited from the icebergs broken off from the glndeia of
Scotland, OS well as from the icebergs and other floating ice drifted both
(rotn the north and south, as was also the case during the former ('■) period.

( 1 .) The country seems then to have emerged from the woter, but no
doubt slowly, until the glaciers finally left the country.

(/.) Sy this time the country was much higher than now, and the land
being connected with tbe continent, the bulk of the present flora and buna
crept into it from various quarters, though tbe alpine plants still kept p08ae»<
uon of the higher mountain -regions during a great portion of this epoch.

(<.) A depression now look place, nnd the estuariai b«ds, or eariet, of the
Scotch rivers were formed. Much of the foaailiforous houldcivclay was
formed as he has described it ; is now imder the sea ; off the coast remains
of its fauna are continually dredged up. Man had also by this time got into
tbe coimtTy.

(^.) The land afler this seems to have riaen, in all probability, to its pre-
sent level, for we htive no certain evidence that since the dawn of history
I were any oscillations of level
Tar^oraiy Accidental Founlain.—iS. H. Vogelsang gives, m Poggen-
'» "Amwloa" (,No. 2, ISll), a long account of a curious fountain

336

rortLAB ^riEXCB bbtisw.

which CADtB vithin bis experience at Delft, in HoUand. It «pyw i^u,
order to ubtAiii fre«h water for domeatic porpoM*, a ao-«U]ed Somm ^mf-
tubo waa being rammed down in the allQTul soil (pect-bog diieSr^
When Hi a depth of 17-& metrei below the aurbce. Bod reij oeuiy
bolow ««-levtil itt that locality, the ram-block was mddenlj Eft«d braima
of ga« iMuing from the opening of the iron tube, immedutelj (ollnwed fcj
watur, which n'so to a height of 14 metrea, and coDdnned
*ome tourtnoD boura ; after that Upae of time, the fonntun beome far a ft*
wooka intL'iTiiittent. The temperature of the water was 13°. The
tion of the gas, in 100 parts, by bulk, was found, by Dr. A. C.
jun., to couslat of 01 '2 of marsh gae and 8'2 of carbonic acid, with taca
only of air, while carbonic oxide and heavy hydrocarbons were prared
■kbwnt Thn phunomeniL alluded to censed when, after some weeka. IM
irou puuip*tulM) waa forced dawn to a depth of 25 metres.

Inm <M a MUer mii ZJeodorwer.— Attention has been called lo the dm <f
•poDgj iron as a deitdoritiug material which, Dr. Yoelcker consideTB of greaiff
potejtoy than animal charcoal. Sewage water passed through a filter of tUi
MbatauM ia caniptcloly purified, and thia filtered water, atler baring '
""* six montbi protected from the air, was perfectly sweet, and tnt fr«

f ftingtu growth. The spongy iron is obtained by calcining

ided iron oru with charcoal. Mr. Spencer, whose name is c<
k tho dlicoverj- of the eiectrotyiic, hes for some time been adTocatingllil
VN iif a flltN oftbia description, Its power of rendering water beaulifiillj
tnuuparent, and apparently free from all organic matter, is its Strang
nooniiiiendatioQ. Wu oursekes have had a considerable experience of the
Spencer filter, and we con^drr it an admirable one.

A Ihnp of WatfT on a Hut Fltae.—Th.e "Society of Arts JouTUl"
(May Ml, quoting IVom Poggcndorft''s " Annalen," gives an accountofn
experiment mado by E. Budde, to ascertain whether a Leidenfrost'i didf ■
with watOT coiild be produced at a less temperature than 100 C. The ei-
perlmeiit was wade by letting a drop of water fall upon a hot plate covar«i
by a partially vxhausled receiver, and it was fomid that the drop astumai
the apheruidal c^mdition at a temperature of 85 C, confirming the doctriM
that the force which supports the drop obeys the laws of the pnssuie of
vapours. The star shape assumed by the drop Berger was explained to bet'
pheuomenon of ribration. If the drop is large it behaves like otlui
vibrating bodies, and divides into aliquot parts, forming nodes or loop&

Dtpolarvatimt «/ Iron SAyis. — Mr. Charles F. llenwood, a member rf
Iho Inititutioa of Naval Architects, read a paper at the lal« meeting of tba
liMtitUtion(March 30) on the bvcntion of Ibo late Evan Hopkins, C.K,F.O.a,
by which the sub-permanent magnetism of an iron ship, the principal
of the deviation and consequent depreciation of the compass, is stated to bi
completely and permanently removed. The paper contained a number 4
extracts, and a table showing the deviations of the compass of VLJiX
yortAmuhttiand before and after depolarisation, which will be given in th(
" Tninmctions '' of the Institute.

A Cbfew Erprrimml in Optict. — In a lale number of the " Froceedin||l
of the Roral Society " Sir Cbailes %Vbeatstone sap that few experiments i*
phyucal epiica are «o beautiful and striking as the elegant pietnrcs formii

sciExrmc sfjimaiit. 337

hy ceraenUng l&miaffl of Belenite of difTerent tliicbnesses (rnrviiig fram
5^ to 5*5 of Bn inch) between two plates nf glass, Invisibls under
ordiaarT circnmatAiices, tbey uxbtbit, when exiimined in the usual polaming-
&ppamtus, tbe most brilliant colours, ivbich are complementsrj to each
othex in the two rectangular podtioas of the analyser. Regarded in the in-
strument which he has described, the appearances are still more beautiful ;
for, instead of a ungle transition, eacb colour in the picture is successively
replaoed hj every other colour. In preparing such pictures it is necessary
to pay attention to tbe direction of the principal section of each lamina
wben different pieces of tbe same thicknesses are to be combined together to
form a surface having tbe same uniform tint; otherwise in the intermediate
tranfilions the colours will be irregubirlj' disposed.

ZOOLOGY AND COMPAiLlTIVE ANATOMY.

Cerntodiua Oemtiof Ganoid Ftuhee. — Dr. AlbertGuthrie hns sent a paper
to tbe Royal Society descriptive of this curious lisb, wliich has lately been
discovered in Australia. It sooms to be a species of ganoid fish, not very
unlike the well-known Lepidosiren. After describing the various points of
its onatomy in detail, tbe author of this important paper draws the follow-
ing conclusions. 1. That Ceratodui and Lepidosiren (_Protopleriis) are more
nearly allied to eocb other than to any third living fish, the Utter genua
diverpng more towards the -Amphibians than tbe former. 2. That the
diETeteDce in tbe arrangement of the valves of the bulbus arteriosus cannot
longer be conaideied of sufficient importance to distinguish the Dipnoi aa a
•ub-clasa from tbe Ganoidei ; but that the Dipnoi may be retained as a bdI>-
order of Ganoidei. 3. That the sub-order Dipnoi may be characterised as
Ganoids with the nostrils within the mouth, with paddles supported by an
axial skeleton, with lungs and gills and notochordal skeleton, and without
branch ioategols. 4. That a comparison of Teltoilei, Chondropterygii, and
Gmtoidei shows that the two latter divisions, hitherto regarded as sub-
classes, are much more nearly allied to each other than to the Teleotta,
which were developed in much more recent epochs ; and therefore that they
should be united into one sub-class— Pn/ost'/i' Ayes — characterised thus : heart
with a contractite bulbus arteriosus ; intestine with a spiral valve ; optic
nenes non- decussating.

The Sub-a.vial Archct in Man. — These form the subject of a very elaborate
paper presented to tbe Royal Society by Mr. G. W. Callender. Tbe author
appears, so far as wq con se**, to admit Owen's division of the cranial vet-
lebne, but imagines that two or more are essential ports. This paper shows
considerable knowledge of the subject, but, so far as we can see, it is open
to very serious objections, Tbe paper) will be found in abstract in the
" Proceedings of the Royal Society " (>Iarch), and will be road with interest.

ErptrimenU in Pangeneeii.- — Mr. F, |,Gallon, F.R.S., has undertaken a
series of experiments which he thinks render it impossible to accept Mr.
Darwin's doctrine of pangenesis. These conaated in breeding from rabbits of
a pure variety, into whoso circulation blood taken from other varieties had

lyl

338 POFULAB SCIENCE BETCBW.

preTioiulj been largely tnnsfened. The resultB were the aune u if no
bleeding had taken place at alL Hence Captain Qalton cries oat agaliut
the doctrine of pangenesis. But it seems to ns perfectly dear that no other
resnlt would hare been expected, even by a Darwinian disdple, from 31r.
Gallon's experiments. We fail to see the force of his reasoning.

The Procest of SUicifieatifm of Animab. — On June 2 a paper was leid
before the Geologists* Association by Mr. M. H. Johnson, F.Q.S., on the
above subject, and it contained some interesting facts. The author pcunted
out how a crop of sponges invested with their gelatinous flesh or ssrcode^
and living at the bottom of a deep ocean, were suddenly buried in a tUd
stratum of white m-.d, consisting of the nunute shells of JFbranwUfentf tint
they then died, and while in the process of decompoeition this interchange
of materials took place — the nascent carbonic add parting with its carbon
in exchange for the silicon of the silicate of soda which searwater is known
to contain. At the close of the paper, the author produced a tadpole, upon
which he had experimented, and which he had that afternoon subjected
for two hours and a half to the action of nitric add, without its undeigoing
any alteration, the inference being irresistible that the animal had become
invested with a film of silica of sufficient thickness to protect it from the
add : another tadpole that had not undergone the same preparation having
been converted into a brown doud by immersion in the add for the aime
time.

Dei-elopment of Isotoma JJ'alkeri. — ^In the second volume of ''Memoiis"
which the Feabody Academy has just published, there appears a most valu-
able paper by Mr. A. S. Packard, jun., on the above subject. Speaking
of the head, the author says, that it is so entirely different from what it is
in the adult, that certain points demand our attention. It is evident that at
this period the development of the insect has gone on in all important
particulars much as in other insects, especially the Xeiiropteroits Mydacidef
as described by Zaddach. The head is longer vertically than horizontally,
the Iroutal or ch*peal re<:ion is broad, and greater in extent than the epi-
cranio-occipital region. The antennae, are inserted high up on the head,
next the ocelli, falling down over the clypeal region. The clypeus, how-
ever, is merged with the epicranium, and the usual suture between them
does not appear distinctly in after life, though its place is seen, in the elabo-
rate figiures which accompany the paper, to be indicated by a slight indenta-
tion. The labrum is distinctly defined by a well-marked suture, and forms
a squarish knob-like protuberance, and in size is quite large compared to
the clypeus. From this time begins the process of degradation, when the
iuseot assumes its Thysanurous characters, which consist in an approach to
the form of the M\'riapodous head, the front or clypeal region being re-
duced to a minimum, and the antenna? and eyes brought in closer proximity
to the mouth than in any other insects. That other most essential Thy-
sanurous characteristic, the spring, is now fully formed. It arises as a
thick tubercle from the stemite of the penultimate segment of the abdo-
men, and subdivides into a pair of two-jointed finger-shaped prolongations.
The tip of the abdomen is deeply bilobate, the median line of the body
being deeply impressed.

AugtraliiiM SiUk\ — The Acclimatisation Society of Sydney have received

SCIENTIFIC SCSIlIAnT. 339

soma iiUc-wono egga tram Jnpan, and axe wiUicg to distribute a portiaa of
tlia stuna to otlier societies, also to privnte iaiiiriduals, mho can satisfy the
Society that tiiey have a euffieient quantity of mulberry leaf of their osra
growing to suBtain the worms prupi^rly. It is hoped that the atteation of
colontsta will be ^ven to propagating the mulberry.

TAt Ovifumtor m ^n-tttif-lailt and tht%r Kindrrd.—'HT. L. S. Packard
deacribee, among other structures, one of the above, which is rather novel.
He is disposed to consider it an ovipoMtor. In the genus Achorutea it may
be found in the segment just bi-hind the Bpriog-bearing eefrmont, and
aituated on the miHlinn line of the body. It oonsists of two squiuish valves,
from between which project a pair of minute tubercles, or blades, with four
rounded t«eth on the undei ude. This pair of infinitesimal saws remind
one of the blades of the sBW-9y, and be is at a loss what their use can be,
unhtss to cut )U)d pierce so as to aooop out a place in which to deposit an
egg. It is homologous iu situation with the middle pair of blades which
compose the ovipositor of higher insectit, and if it should prove to bo used
by the creature in laying its eg-gs, we should then have ^vith the spring an
additional point of resemblance to the Neuroplern and higher insects, and
instead of this spring bt'iiig an imporUuit diiferential character, aeparating
the Thyaonura from other insects, it binds them etill closer, though still
dilTeriug greatly in rcpri-'sunting only a pari of the ovipositor of the higher
insects.

T/ui Tarsi of Ih/lucttt. — In a very important paper on this subject, by Mr.
It. T. Lowne, M.Ii.C.S., in the " JMonthly Microscopical Journal " for Juneg
thwe are some interesting stalemenls. It says that there are about 300 disk-
bearing hurs on the anterior dilated tnrsuit nf Dt/titctu marginatiu,punchiiatti»f
or ci'mnj^erus, the three common Dritii^h species. Two of the diitks on each
tarsus are of lemarknble size, and liiSer in several points beside size from the
remainder. The largest of the large disks is situated on the posterior portion
of the proximal tarsal joint, close to the tibia, and usually measures j^th of
an inch in diameter. The smalleris about half this diameter, and is ratuated
in front of the larger. The other disks cover the remainder of the dilated
portion of the tarsus, and are not more than about j^^th of an inch in dia-
siel«r. The middle pidr of tarsi hare their under side clothed with a dense
pod of diak-benring hairs similar to the latter. If the integument of the
upper suriace of one of the anterior dilated tarsi be carefully removed, the
cavity of the tAisus will be found to be occupied, in great part, by s large
but delicBl« anc The main trachea with its socculus and the tendon of the
last tarsal j<uat will be seen lying upon it, and these occupy all the remain-
ing space in the cavity of the tarsus. The sac will be found full of a gnla-
tiuous viscid substance, the same as that which emdes from the h^ta. It
is wbU supplied with troclieal vessels from the main tracheal trunk, inilicat-
ing that it is an active secreting gland. If a portion of the upper part of
the sac be removed, and its contents cleared away with a camel'a-hair
pencil, the internal orifices of the disk-bearing hairs of the pnlvilliis will bo
sooii (Ustinctly in tlie centre of nipple-shaped projections of the integument

tiich project inUi the sac.

' « Q^itm- Cui/we—A valuable report on the present efTorts in tbi»
D will he found In the " Journal of the Society of Arts," May 6.

r
p

340

POPCLAB SCIENCE RBTIBW.

beO^SP

Carina Habitt of the Capelm. — The foUowing note appMn in (he *
ricaa Natur&Iut " (April). The Capella (MaUotiu ritlouu), an inhBUtant of
tlie northern seas of the Atlantic eoaat of America, is well known ai
far cod-fiib. It visits the ahorea of America diuin^ August and Septem-
ber, for the purpose of spawmug, when it is so abondaat as to darkoo th«
SM for milea. There are some peculiarities aboat the method of tts spaicD-
ing ; the females, on approaching the beach, being attended hy two male*,
-who hold the female between them, bj meuu of the ridg« of doeelj Mt,
brusbrlike Kalea with which the moles alone are provided, so that s
almost entiiclf concealed. In this state the three nm together with great
BwiftnesB upon the sand, and in this act the spawn issues from the female,
which is simultaneously fertilised. An immense husineaa is carried o
the capture of the capelin as bait for the cod, the French fishermen alona
obtaining, from the fiahing-ground off Newfoundland, from sixty thouaud
to sefent; thousand hogsheads annuallj for tlus purpose.

Opoiium Sktiu for Glai-ei. — Considerable purchases, iajrs the "South
Auatralian Register," have latelj been made of opossum skina, for ship-
ment to England, for the manufacture of gloTea. The Austnlinna appear
to be very glad, for opossums are a frightful nuisance to gardens, crops, &&

m»to'e Dolphin, — At the meeting of the Zoological Sodet;, June 6, PriH
fesBor Flower, F.R.S., gave a deacription of a speamen of the so-eaUet
lUaso's dolphin, which hid been taken in a mackerel-net near the EidytiOBd
Lightbouae, and of a second spedmen of the same dolphin subsei^uentlj'
purchased in Billingsgate Market. After a searching inveatigation of the
history of this supposed apedes, Professor Flower came to the conduooiL.
that the differences usually held to aeparatc it from the Jielphin
Ouvier ware untenable, and that the apeciea should be correctly d
Orampm griteut.

Pns:a fur the Economic Entantologi/ of Great Britain. — The 1
prizes for collections of economic entomology are offered bj the Royal I&r- 1
ticuitural Society: — 1. A prize of 10/. for the best collection of British [
insects injurious to any one plant, as the oak, pine, cabbage, wheat, &e. (the
choice of plant to be left to the competitor). The inaects to be shown si i
much as possible in their rarious stages of development — eggs, larva, chiy- i
satis, and perfect insect. In judging, a preference will be fiiven to thmj
collections which most Buccessfully illustrate the life-histoty of the ii
and exhibit the mischief done, whether shown by apecimens, drawi
models, or other means. Examples of the application of drawings, modtk
and specimens to this purpose may be seen in the Society's collection in'*
South Kensington Museum. 3. A second prize of 8/. for the s
collection, 3. A prize of 6/. for the best miscellaneous collection of il
branch of British economic entomology, similarly illustrated. 4, A si
priiB of 2t. tot the eecond-beat collection. The collections to be sent to 1
James Richards, aaaiatant-secretary. Royal Horticultural Sodety, on d
before May 1, 1872, each collection bearing a motto, and a eeparale
envelope, with the motto on the outside, and the name of the c
inside. The Society ia to be entitled to tile from any of the coUecdoasse
in, whether successful or not, whatever specimens or illuatrations they m»y I
chooae, at a price to be fixed by the judges. The judges to have power W J
refrain from awarding the prizes should the collectjona seem not worthy.

HOW FISHES BREATHE.

Bt JOIIN C. GALTON, M.A., M.RC.S., F.L.S.
Late Lkcicber on Comparative Amatomt at CHABma Cbobs Hospital.

rCE common expression, " to drink like a fish," contains
much latent truth, though this animal seems hardly, at
first sight, to furnish an apt illustration of excess, seeing that,
living ax it does in water, it must perforce practise temperance,
if by temperance abstinence from all fermented fluids be
understood.

Nevertheless, a fish " drinks hard "—as often, say, as twenty
times in a minute" — but not in the sense that we understand by
drinking, as a compensation for loss of water from the body
by various means, ajsd through various channels, or merely to
satisfy, toper-like, the capricious cravings of a " thirsty soul,"
No ; most of the water which enters so constantly into its
mouth never reaches the stomach, but, after rippling over those
beautiful organs, its gills, passes straightway away fi^jm the
body, having, in this short period, by purifying the blood,
renewed the lease of a life which is held by a tenure only too
slender — a result the converse of which more commonly attends
the more potent draughts, often as periodic, but luckily less
frequent, of certain " higher animals."

As the subject of the present article is rather the mechanical
than the minutely anatomical, physiological, and chemical
processes involved in the breathing of fishes, a very brief
summary of the circulation of their blood must suffice.

The blood, which has become befouled and impoverished in
it« journey through the various organs of the body, finds its way
to the heart — the great pumping-station of the physiological
sewage in the body of a fish^ — by means of two longitudinal
trunks, one on either side, which meet, each through the
medium of a transverse channel, in a large antechamber,

' A pike which the author limed, the otbei i^y, at the Gardens of the
t Zoolo^cal Sodetf was gulping m water at about this rate.
TOL. 1. — HO. ILI. A A

342 POPULAB 8CIEHCE BBTIEV.

which also receives, through a special canal, the blood fron
the digestive organs. This antechamber communicates directly
with the two-chambered heart, which corresponds — in functioib
at any rate — with the right half of the four-chambered heart q
warm-blooded animals. The blood, propelled by the contrao-
tiona of the muscular walls of the second chamber, or ventricle
of the heart, and of the root (" conua arteriosus," Fig 6, £ a) of
the main trunk proceeding from the heart, next Snde its way,
by means of the branches of this main channel, into the leaves
of that very compendious volume on respiration — the giilt
("branchia"), and then discharges its ballast, carbonic acid,
for a better cargo, oxygen,"

Vein-roots, as many in number as the arterial bronchat
which conveyed the impure blood to the gills, collect and!
carry with them the regenerated fluid to a kind of rendezvoua
at the base of the skull — the " aortic circle" (" circulus cephV
licus") — from which the greater part floira on in a single main
trunk, or aorta, t<J be distributed, through various branches, Ux
various parts of the body.

Having thus very briefly considered the means by which th»
blood is brought to the gills, there to exchange the old for
that which is new, the impure for the pure, and the deadly
for that which sustains life, we will next proceed to study mora
in detail the process by which water is admitted to the gi%
and the way in which these organs first make the most, ani
afterwards rid themselves, of the streams which bathe their
fringing folds.

If a fish — for instance, a pike — be obsened under &irly
natiual conditions, e.g. in the water of a large aquariiun, it
will be seen from time to time to make a kind of gulping,
swallowing movement with its mouth. After the jawa have
been opened, there is a slight, but appreciable, pause, after
which a whitish .fleshy fold or curtain^ will be seen to descend
from the interior, not the edge, of the upper jaw, a little

• It must be borne in mind that the gill-UboiBtory of the fish dowMt
rob, aa bf a eort of dectmlyas, the water of that oiygeo which is oiwof
its two elemeutury conBtitueata, but only of tha fret oxygen derired bm
the sir held in eolution b; the water, Altliouph the quantity of free oxv^
present in water is much less, volume for volume, thaji thnt eoutained in
air, Meing' that the source of euch oxygsa U the air itself, held in golutioD
in the water, this iaiprieoned Kir is, on the other band, samewbat richer in
oxygen than ordinary atmospboric air, for the reason that oxygen is twice t»
soluble aa nitrogen In water.

t Cuvier'a description of this structure is so good that it is worth whilft
to transcribe it here in full: — "II y ii g^ morale men t en dedans de clwqiM
mSchbire, derri&re lea dents antKrieure.i, une espece de voile memhnuieM
ou de valvule toiai&B par tin repli de la peau int^eure et dirigde en Brriire,

HOW nairea bbeathb, 343

I lU tip, and to be met aimultaueously by a similar
screen which rises from behind the tip of the lower jaw. This,
as Cuvier suggesU, has probably the effect of preventing any
reflus of the water which ha^ just been taken in, and possi-
bly, which Professor Owen doubts, the escape also of food from
the mouth.

Simultaneously with the appearance of this curtain, or
*' velum," a peculiar kind of spiny ruff (6 a, Figs. 1 and 4), pre-
sently to be described, seen around the throat, so to apeak, of
the Bsh, expands, and almost immediately the mouth is shut.

The above action, seemingly so simple both to witness and
to describe, presents one difficulty and complexity to the ob-
server, viz, that he has to keep his eye on two points which
are somewhat wide apart, namely, the '■ velimi " in the mouth
and the prickly ruff around the throat of the fish. Hence may
result an error differing only from the " personal equation " of
the astronomer, in that it concerns hut one sense, for which
some allowance must be made.

A3 the obser%'er, unless he has no respect unto his fingers,
will not care to make very prolonged explorations into the
interior of the mouth of a living fish, at alt events of the kind
which has been instanced, he must content himself with
making further observations on a dead specimen,

In considering the various modifications of the breathing
organs of fishes, it will be found practically convenient to
follow the arrangement adopted by Prof. Owen in his Hunterian
Catalogue of the contents of the Museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons,

a. The respiratorj/ currents enter by the inoutk and are
expeUed by an orifice on each side* If we take a pike and
look down its widely opened mouth, we shall see at the back of
the throat something like that which has been represented,
diagram fashion, in Fig. 3. At the front of the floor of the
mouth will be seen a small tongue, not flexible and protrusive
as in ourselves, but having its range of motion limited by that
of the median chain of bones of which it forma the tip. On
either side of the narrow floor, which is carpeted here and
there (see dotted part of the figure) by rasp-ULe sets of very

dont I'efiet doit ecre d'enipechur lt>a slimeiu et siirtout I'enu avol^e pour la
rupimtion, de resaottir par la boucbe." — Hittoirc A'aturvUt iht I'vinmu,
y«^ i. p. 497.

. This organ, from a kind of remole ftnalo;;}' tu tlii> vduni jmuiuiiin ptilatt,
e whicb, witb tbe toniiU, is tibseiit iu nil fiabes, muy couveniuntlj
•■ Telum."

t in which this occurs were onco tBUued, for reiuons whieh we
w prweatl;, "places braachiis liberis." Moat of them hire a bony

:J44 POPULAR SCIILVCE EETIKW.

fine teeth, rise four jointed columns, the last pair of which
form the door-posts, so to speak, of the gullet. The spaces
which are necessarily left between these pillars are not filled
up by any membranoua wall, but serve severally as inlets to a
chamber on either side, which, in tlmt it lodges the gills, may
conveniently be called " branchial." Each branchial chamber
has further its communication with the world of waters with-
out carried on or cut off by the opening or shutting of a door
or lid — the " operculum '' {op. Fig. 1 ; o, a o, io, po. Fig. 4)* —
hinged on behind the eye and put in action by a special set of
muscles.

To return for a short time to the pillars just mentioned.
Each of these is lunged on below — the word will be better
appreciated presently — to certain of the median cbaic of
bones (see Fig. 2) which carry the tongue at their tip; and
further consi8t« of a variable number of pieces — at most four—
also hinged on to one another, which have been termed (pro-
ceeding from below upwards) hyo- cerato- epi- and pliarynga-
branckials {k b,cb,eb,p b, Fig. 2). The two first. pair of pillais'
possess all these members, while the third and fourth have a
hyo-branchial in common ; the pharyngo-branchiaU of the first
pair are, further, small and slender bones, while those of the
Bucceeding three pairs are broadened out, and are armed on
their lower surfaces, i.e. those which look downward into tho
pharynx, with fine teeth.

Since each pair of pillars, through being made up of jointed
pieces, makes a very appreciable hut varying curve with the
floor and roof of the throat, they have been not inaptly termed
•' arches." t The three lower members of each arch further
carry on their concave (inward-looking) aspect, two rows of
tooth-like projections (see Fig. 2), which vary much in shape
and arrangement in the different species of fish ; while on their
convex (outward-looking) surface they are grooved for ths
lodgment of the gill-plates (Fig. 5), which are arranged, comb-
like, in a double row on the first three arches, but, in mai^
cases, in single series only on the fourth. The foundations, lastly,
of a rudimentary fifth arch are represented on either side by
the so-called " inferior pharyngeal bones " (i p. Figs. 2 and 3).

Before leaving the arches we must notice certain important

• l«t. operadum, a cover, lid; from ojierio, I cover. Tbe Skme wiwdia

applied to the door by which the whelk, periwinkle, and other

mollujcs close the entrjiice to their shells.

t For the latest views od the homologies of these bmnchial
most iDtereating subject, but one which does not come within the
thifl article— the reader is referred to ft paper by Mi. St. George Uirvl,
F.R.S., " Od the Vert(?brate Skeleton," published in the last Tolame of tlw
Trnmactioai of the Linman SocieCi/.

. ^1

HOW FISHES BREAIIIK. 343

purposes which are served by their jointed arrangement.
1. Each half-areh, in being set on at an angle with the median
chain of tongue-bearing bones (see Fig, 2), can, by the action
of Bpecial sets of levator and depressor rauBclea," be made to
form a greater angle with this middle base line, and so simul-
taneoualy bring about both the widening of each entire arch
in its transverse diameter, and the increase of the space
between it and its neighbours in front and behind. 2. It is
possible for the upper and lower pharyngeal teeth-plates l^p b,
i p. Figs, 2 and 3) to act upon each other, and so be the means
pf a mastication of food in some sort.f

Let us now briefly turn our attention to the spiny ruff

rhich surrounds tlio throat of the fish. The bulk of this is
formed on either side by two bones, the epi- and cerato-hyala,
jointed on, one behind the other (e k, c h. Fig. 4), the former
and most posterior of which is brought into relation with a
bone— the " hyo-mandibular " — which is the chief support of
the lower jaw, through the medium of a small bone, the
" stylohyal ;" while the most anterior, the " cerato-hyal," is
hinged on to the chain of tongue-bearing bones, not far behind
its tip (• Fig. 2). This arch, like those which carry the gills.
Las, therefore, a very fair range of motion. The epi- and
cerato-hyals further give support to certain curved bones (fe 8,
Figs. 1 and 4), which afford attachment to an intervening
membrane, in the manner of the ribs of an umbrella. These
vary in numberj and in mode of attachment, being hung on,
sometimes to the outer, sometimes to the inner sides of their
supports — -why, it is not easy to say — and are called, from
their office, " branchiostegal rays."§ From ray to ray of this
apparatus passes a muscle, which is attached behind to the
inner surface of the operculum. This, by raising the rays, and
acting at the same time in antagonism to a depressor muscle
which rises from the cerato-hyal of the opposite side, and is
inserted into the foremost of the rays, spreads out the bran-

'iostegal membrane umbrella-fashion. "These muscles," as

' The levators, dcpresaor^, and retractara of tlie limncbia. See Cuvier,

' E. Nat. de» I'mmtnt, tome i. pi. v. nnd vi.
t t "The necessary co-operntion of the jaws," observeB Prof. Owen, "with
^» hyoid Mch in the rhythmical movemeoia of respiration is iacompatihle
*■ Vtth protmcted maxillary mnstication ; and, aceording-!y, the branchial appa-
ratus renders a compensatory niturn by giving up, as it were, the last pair
of ila arches to the completion of the work which the proper or anterior
jaws were compelled by their services to respiration to leave unfinished,"

] In the Si/ngmlhut (rips C and 7) they aro entirely wanting. Polyp-
tenu hag but one, mid theie are only three present in C>)prinat.

J From the Greek Vpafx'", pU*i ond ffrijiii', to en

346 FOPTLAX 8CIKSCB SKTIKW.

Professor Owen observes, ^ regulate the capacity of the fanudchial
chamber, and mainlT act upon the water it contains."

The only point to be noted about the operculum is, that it
consists of four elements (see Fig. 4) £Bustened together, so as
functionally to be one scale-like bone. This can be set ajar,
door-wise, or be brought close to the head by the action of
special muscles ; the hinge, so to speak, being at its anterior edge.

Having now described the apparatus for branchial breathing,
let us take an anatomical glance at the method by which a
single respiratory act is effected in an osseous fish.

This act '-dift'ers,'' as Professor Owen well ob8er\'es, " from
that of swallowing, only in the streams of water being pre-
vented from entering the gullet, and being diverted to the
branchial slits on each side the pharynx.^ First, the moutii is
opened by the drawing back of the maxillary bones, and the
pulling downwards of the mandible by their proper muscles,
while at the same time the two ^^ rami," or branches, of the
latter bone are separated wider l)ehiud by the action of certain
muscles on its supports (the " hyo-mandibular " arch). The
result of this latter act is the widening of the branchial cavity,
the space of which is further increased by the opening of the
opercular doors, and by the spreading out of the branchio-
stegal rays, and consequent stretching of the membrane ex-
tended between them. The branchial arches are, moreover,
d^a^^^l forward hy tlie action of tlieir levator muscles, i.e. are
forced to make a greater angle witli the median chain of bones
than tliey do when at rest. During this time the water, whose
reflux from the mouth is barred bv the action of the " velum"
already descrilK'd, rushes through the teeth-guarded sluices* of
the branchial arelies, and washes over the gill-plates, freely
distributing tlie stores of life with which it is laden. Next,
the fissures leading to the gill-chaml)er are closed by the
depression, tlirou^li tho action of special muscles, of the bran-
chial arclies, and by tlie pushing forward of tlie cerato-hyals by
muscles which pass from these bones to the inner side of either
branch of the mandible, not far from its tip.f The water,
then — being pent up in the gill-chambc^r, and all return to the

• AVcro it not for these teeth tho fish would be speedily choked by
various substances jroing **tbe wrong way" into the gUl-cbamber. The
Mullet, which takes in a quantity of sand and mud with its food, and works
it about between its pharyngeal bones, has a number of extremely delicate
fringes attached to the concavity of its branchial arches.

t Tho reciprocal action of these muscles — tho homologues, according to
Cuvier, of the yeniohyoidei in ourselves — is extremely interesting. When
the cerato-hyals are the fixed points from which they act, they depress the
mandible; when, however, this latter bone becomes the fulcrum, they pull
Ibrward the hjoid apparatus, through the medium of the cerato-hyals.

BOW FISHES BBEATHE. 347

mouth beiog cut off — is forcibly driven out backwards, again
to join the waters of river or sea, by the speedy folding up of
the brancbiostegal membrane, and by the shutting of the
oporcular doors upon siUs formed behind them by the bones
which carry the pectoral fins.

In the operation of " drowning " a hooked fiah, which is
familiar to every angler, the opercula of the fish which is being
towed down stream must be either pressed forcibly against the
tides of the liead or be forced widely aside, the result of
which is to embarrass, and, ultimately, put an end to, respira-
tion; in the first case, by the hindrance to the proper dis-
tension of the branchial chambers, and the consequent absence
of a vacnum — if such an expression can be used — which shall
be filled by the water taken in at the mouth, not to mention
the want of room for the play of the gills; in the second
instance, by the retention of the water, now useless for breath-
ing purposes, in the gill-chambers, since the doors which ought
to force and shut it out can no longer do their work.

The size of the outlets of the branchial chambers seems to
bear an inverse ratio to the length of time during which a fish
is able to breathe when taken out of the water; for in those
fishes, such as the mackerel and herring, which die very soon
after removal from the water, these openings are relatively
large ; while in the eel tribe, which not only can exist for some
time after being landed nolens vohns, but sometimeij make " on
their own hook" considerable overland excursions, the outlet
from the gill-chamber "is a small vertical fissure, situated at
some distance behind the gills ; the branchial canity is there-
fore proportionately elongated, and the escape of fluid from it
is consequently impeded."

The Anabaa {Ferca acaaderm), which, on the authority of a
Danish lieutenant,* is yet believed by many to make somewhat
piu^seless expeditions up the tnmks of palm-trees, can, un-
doubtedly, whether it climb or not, exist for a long time out of
water. Dr. Hamilton writes thus of this fish : " Of all that I
know, the cohojius is the fish most tenacious of life in the air;
and [ have known boatmen to keep them for five or six days in
an earthen pot without water, and daily to use what they
wanted, finding the fish as lively and fresh as when caught. In fact
the Calcutta market is chiefiy supplied from ext«nsive marshes in
Uie Yasor district, and about 150 miles distant. From thence
boat-loads are brought, kept alive without water until 80^."!

Tliis fish, together with certain others, e.g. the " Gourami "
ihnnne-au» ol/itx) of the Isle-de-France, has, as Cuvier has

• IWdorfT. (Stin Tram. Linn. 5oc.,vul. iii. p. 02.)
. i lUiet I// Ihe Gangti, vol. i. p. W.

346 rOFULAR SnENCE BEYIEW. ^^H

well represented," its epi- and pharyngo-branchials enormoiMlT
developed and thrown into complex folds, covered with mem-
brane, which Berve to retain a sufficient amount of moisture.

Sir .1. Emerson Tennent describea a remarkable habit whicli
some of the Ceylon fishes have of burying themselves in the
earth, in the dry season, at the bottom of the exhausted ponds,
there to await the renewal of the water at the change of tbc
monsoon— an expedient to which the crocodile also is said to
resort.f He also states that in those parts of Ceylon whert
the country is flat and small tanks are numerous, the native^
are accustomed iu the hot season to dig in the mud for fish.

The Cuchia (Amphipnoua) and th^ Singio (SaccobraTichvi,)
both fishes of eastern climes, and both extremely tenacioui
of life, also present curious modifications of the braochial
apparatus, which cannot here be noticed in detail.

Having considered somewhat at length, on Aristotle'a
principle of proceeding utto rStv yvtopi/jMn, tlie first and more
general method of water-supply to the gills, not much space ia
left for description of the two remaining processes.

j8. The respiratoi'y currents enter the vioutk and are ex-
pelled by jive orifices on each aide-X

The great bulk of the so-called cartilaginous fishes, namely, the
sharks and rays,§ afiford an instance of this mode of breathing.

The branchial arches in these fishes, more or less cartilc^nou
in substance, are not hung, so to speak, from below the base of;
the skull, as are those (Fig. 3) of bony fishes, but are attached
(see Fig. 10) to the sides of the front vertebrse of the trunk.
No branch iostegal or opercular apparatus is fimctionally present;
but from the branchial arches (seen in section in Fig. 9) proceed
long partitions, or septa, on either side of which are attached
the gill-plates,!! ind which form the walls of chambers, or saci,.

• Hilt. Hat. de Fouioru, torae vii. pi. 205, The Innd-erabs, wMch an-
actually droiDned if kept in water, have their gills moUtened by the wat«7
contetitH or secreUoD of & «pongy organ utunted in the gill-chamber.

" Thegillsof fiahee,"88rrofessorMarahftll wellobfierres, "aienot dli»l«d'
on their surface ; but it ia necessary tbat they should continue mobt, oi
usual respiratory intetcbanges between tho blood and the ait diasolved it
the wnter would soon cease. Respiration will, howerer. go on for aihon
time in tiie air, pmrided that the gilla remain moist."

t Ceylon, vol. 1. p. 218. In the same volume ie given a very interestisf
account of the writings of various ancient authors, e.g. Aristotle and Then-
phrastufl, on the subject of tbe Migration of Fishes over Land.

I The fishes in which this form of respiration occurs were fonnerly U
" piscea branchiifl fins,"

S Division I^ayiotlomi of the order Elaimobronchii (l\aviin, a thin plaWj
and iipayxi^, gilla).

U For the rationale of the arrangement of the ^lla see the eqlanatioD d

HOW FISHES BBEATHB. 349

t which commimicates by fissures both with the gullet
and with the water without. With two exceptions, the names
of which — He<r:anchus and Heptanchua — are sufficiently ex-
planatory, there are five gill-saca present, the hinder of which
contains only a single gill, attached (see Fig. 9) to its front wall.

The water taken in for respiratory purposes is, in default of
a branchiostegal and opercular machinery, directed and made
to move on by muscles and elastic structures which act more
or less directly upon the gill-chambers and their fissures of
entrance and exit.

Is it not possible— this le merely thrown out as a siiggestion
— that this peculiar mechanism for breathing, so diiferent in
action from, though but a modification in structure of, that in
bony fishes, may, apart from all considerations of embryology
or of correlation of growth, bear some relation to that peculiar
habit the fishes in which it occurs have of turning on their
backs when they take their prey — a proceeding necessitated by
the position of the mouth on the ventral surface of the body ?

Sharks, in their fcetal state, have temporary external gills) con-
sisting of numerous elongated filaments, which project from the
branchial apertures, immediately in front of the pectoral fins."

7. T!ie reaplraturrj currenis pass both in and out of the
external branchial apertures.

The breathing apparatus of the Lampreys and certain marine
fishes whose very name is sufficiently repulsive, the Glutinous
Hag3,t comes imder this category. In these fishes the gills
consist of closed sacs (b r, b r. Fig. 1 1 ) — not answering, however
(see explanation of Fig. 11), to the gill-chambers of sharks
and rays — thrown into folds in their interior. Tliese, in the
Hag, have tubular connections on either side with a duct which
opens upon the belly of the fish. Betwixt the openings of the
two ducts lies a third pore, which communicates with the
gullet, which, in its turn, has a separate tubular communication
(see Fig. 1 1) with each gill-sac. The water, then, through the
middle orifice passes into the gullet, traverses the gill-chambers,
and finds its way out by the two ducts. The sacs, however,
have each a small duct which opens by a distinct orifice in the
^^tin in the species of Hag called from this circumstance Hep-
^Btfrwma (see Fig. II), while in the lampreys, besides possessing

^" " See Prepnration Xo. lOei, Royal College of Surgeona.

t The Hags, like a certain »oction of the huiimu community which livea
upon those of its fellow-morUils who are " in difficultjea," bow into the
bodies of other fiah, entering the mouths of their victims when the; are
struggling on the hook of the flshL'rman.

The Lampreys and Hngs, once called, from the formation of their mouths,

Cydoitomi, are now included under the term MartipoWaiKhii i^apmitas, a

id fip6n'", ^Ub).

^jpocb, aod^

855 POPULAB BCISNCa BXTUW.

a. similiu* set of seven ^'stigmata" on either side, they oom-
municate internally with a median canal, which ends blindly
behind, but runs forward beneath, and totally distinct from
the gullet, to communicate with the pharynx through the
medium of a valve-guarded opening.

The above curious modifications of the breathing apparatus
have an evident relation to the pre-occupied state, so to speak,
of the mouth in the fishes under consideration ; that of the
Hag being commonly buried in the flesh of its ** host," while
that of the Lamprey, if not similarly engaged with prey, serves,
suckerwise, to anchor its waving owner to some stone or other
support.*

A delicate cartilaginous trellis-work — ^the parts of which,
according to Mr. Mivart, are not homologous with the branchial
arches of bony fishes — siurounds the branchial apertures in the
Lamprey, and, moreover, in some degree encases and protects
the heart.f

\ The leading varieties of all bona-fide fishes having been passed
in review, only two somewhat aberrant forms, which occupy
positions on the boundary line of the class, or, one is almost
tempted to say, the topmost and lowest rungs respectively of
the fish-ladder, claim, in conclusion, some slight notice. To
begin with the lowest form, viz., the Lancelot {Amphioxusy

This little fish, which seems to be the very roughest sketch
of a vertebrate animal, with a brainless nerve-system, blood-
vessels which lack a heart, and a backbone devoid of vertebne,
respires in this wise : water is taken in at a mouth surrounded
with fringes, and, after passing, gently urged along by cilia,
through windows — between the panes of which are piilsatile
vessels — perforated in the pharynx, into a cavity answering to
a branchial cavity, finds its exit by an orifice pierced through
the ventral surface of the fish.

The mechanism of respiration here seems almost identical
with that in animals a little lower than the Mollusca, namely,
the Ascidia, or " sea-squirts" (see Popular Science BevieWy
July, 1869), creatures which, according to recent researches,
seem, in early stages of development, to make somewhat startUng
approaches to animals once thought to be separated from them
by an impassable gulf and by well-defined barriers.

• It is stated in one of the Hunterian catalogues {Physiology y voL ii. 1029)
in the Royal College of Surgeons, that if a Lamprey, when sticking to the
side of a vessel, '* be held with one series of apertures out of the water, the
respiratory currents are seen to enter by the submerged orifices, and, after
traversing the corresponding sacs and the pharynx, to pass through the op-
posite branchia and to be forcibly ejected therefrom by the exposed orifices."

t Preparation 34, Royal College of Surgeons.

HOW FI&HE8 BEBATHE. 351

The biglier of the two aberrant forms, namely, the Mud-
fishes of Africa and South America, which once occupied a yet
more esalted place among the Amphibia, have the choice of two
methods of respiration, in that they possess a pair of rudi-
mentary lungs, in addition to their branchial apparatus.*
These functional lungs, which are, undoubtedly, a modified
bilobed air-bladder, have a cellular structure, " the cells having
the same proportional size and form as in the respiratory part
of the lung of a serpent,'' receive through a pidmonary artery,
derived from two of the aortic arches which have no gill-
structure developed upon them, impure blood, and return it
purified through pulmonaiy veins, and communicate with the
gullet by a glottis-like aperture (see Fig. 12), guarded by a
cartilage.

" The peculiar modification of the gills," observes Professor
Owen, " and air-bladder of the Lepidoairen, are preciselythose
which adapt them to the peculiar conditions of their existence.f
In the inactive state into which they are thrown by their talse
poeitioQ as terrestrial animals, the circulation, wliich would
have been liable to be stopped had all the branchial arteries
developed gills, aa in normal fishes, is carried on through the
two persistent primitive vascular ohamiels. When the lepi-
dosiren resumes its true position as a fish, the branchial circu-
lation ia vigorously resimied, a large proportion of arterialiaed
blood enters the aorta, and both the nervous and muscular
systems receive the additional stimulus and support reiiuisife
for the maintenance of their energetic action."

Does not such a form, together with those Amphibia which,
though possessing perf'ect lungs, yet retain gills, seem in some
measure to bridge over the gulf between the Fiah and the
higher Vertebrata, the highest even of which retains in ripe
years a souvenir, so to speak, of a condition structurally more
fish-like, in the shape of a persistent — gill-less, it is true
^^anchial cleft? J

^or this icaaoQ the tnud fishes we clnased together under the U

his fiah is accustomed, during the Aty seaaonf, to bury itsslf in the
IndnNted mud of the rivei-banks, nnd to remain ia a state of torpor until
the return of the rains.

J Pseudo-branchia, opercular and spiraculnr gills have not been notieed
in detail, since, though interesting from a homologicol point of view, they
do not plitj an imporlnnt part in the re»pirntory function.

Foe foilHr details of the vnrieiiea of the air-bladder in 6shen the reader is
Inferred to an article by the Rev. W. Houghton lu the Pipnlar Scirnce Br-
rirw for October, 1808, nud to Fischer's f'ertiKh fiber rfiV ScAmnirnblate der
Fuchf (Leipzig, 170.5).

Mr. Herbert Spencer, in the second volume (pp. 321 et tr^-) of his Frinai-

352 POFULAB 8CISNCE BBTISW.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE LXXVI/

TiQ, 1. View of under surface of the head and of the fore part of the
body of a Trout (Salmo Farw), from a sketch taken by the
author from a freshly-caught specimen. All the parts have
been left in their natural relations to one another, save that the
giU-coyers (o p) have been drawn aside in order better t6 dispUj
the branchiostegal rays (b i) and the iirst pair of gills (b r).

m n Mandible^ or lower jaw.

m X This is not the eye, as might at first be supposed, but
the lower part of the maxilla, or upper jaw.

h The median portion of the hyoid arch, upon which the
carriers of the branchiostegal rays abut on either side.
' V p. Ventral fins.
Fie. 2. Branchial arches of Perch {PercaJluviatiUs\ seen from above ; after
Cuvier {HUtoire NatwreUe des JPoisions, tome i. pi. iii. Iig. 7).

Only the left halves of the arches, with the median elements
("Copulae," **Verbindung8tucke") of the hyoid apparatus aw
represented. Each half arch is seen to be made up of four
factors, which are, from below upwards, as follows : —

n b Hyobranchial.

c b CeratobranchiaL

e b Epibranchial.

p b PharyngobranchiaL

The three first, with the exception of the hyobranchial element
of the rudimentary fifth arch, all carry gill-plates on their
convex edges, while the edges which look inwards towards the
gullet bear two rows of tooth-like projections.

The pharyngeal factor on either side of the first arch is slender
and style-shaped, while those of the three succeeding arches are
broadened out, and carry on their lower surfaces very fine teeth
Cedents en velours*'). A similar armature may be seen on the
upper surface of the only representative of the fifth arch — the
inferior pharyngeal bone (ip) of either side.

In this figure, which is somewhat diagrammatic, the two
upper elements, namely, the epi- and pharyngo-branchialB of
each arch, have been spread out in the same plane with the
lower factors of their respective arches. Naturally, they make
with the said factors a kind of curved right or obtuse angle, a
relation which is better seen in the next figure.

The point at which the "cerato-hyal" (see Fig. 4) of this side
joins the median chain of bones is indicated by the sign *.
Fig. 3 is taken from a Hunterian specimen (No. 50) in the Museum of the

pies of Biology, puts forth a most ingenious theory of the origin of this structure;
any dissentient from which can turn to the second chapter of Mr. St. George
Mivart*8 Genesis of Speciesj which deals with " the incompetency of ' Natunl
Selection ' to account for the incipient stages of useful structures."

HOW nsass BBEAxire. 353

lioj'Al College i>f Surgeom. It is a sumi-diugrAmmatic rendet-
ing of the branchial arcbeB and their relatioas to the roof uid
floor of the mouth in the Pike (£hij: Lucii") as they are seen
through the -widely-opeDed jawa of the fish.

In the endearour to maJte plain as much ns posuble which
lies in a confined space, aome violence has been done to per-
spective. Nevertheless, the drawing iafundaiueDtnlly correct. In
order that the figure may not be more obscure than it is feared
it may possibly be already, the gill-plates and inwardly-directed
fringes of teeth have been omitted.
G Tube of the guUet.
/ Rudimentary tongue.
p $ Parasphenoid bone.

The rest of the letters have the same iigniti cation as those in
the preceding figure.

The dotted parts of the diagram indicate thuae regions of the
threshold of the gullet which carry a ro^p-hke Eirmature of
amall teetii.
Taken &om part of the right side of the specimen— a dried and
vamiahed head of a Pike — on which the preceding diagram is
baaed. The operculum and branchioslegal ntys and membrane
ore here fairly shown,
u Operculum.

» Suhoperculum. I

p Preoperculum. |

10 Interoperculum.

c h Ceratohyal, which joins anteriorly the median, tongue-
beaiing badhyal.

th Epihya],whichi8Jouiedon behind to the slender stylohyal,
which, in its turn, articulates with the hyo-m&ndibular bone ;
all which relations are concealed by the overlapping operculum.
The ceiato- and epi-hyals are each seen to carry seven
branchiostegal rays (i «), the former on its inner, the latter on
its outer side.

m Lower part of mandible. A flexible membrane, better
seen in Fig, 1, fills up the gap between it and liie upper edge of
the C«rato- and epi-hyaJs.
After Cuvier (^Hisl. Nat. da Poaiom, tome i. pi. viii. fig, Cj, repre-
eents a tronsTerse section of the gill-bearing elements of a
branchial arch of a Perch, together with itd attached gill-plat«
("feuUlet," Cuv., or "branchial lamina "), which is seen to be
made up of two leaflets,
b r Bone of the arch in section.
b a Branchial artery in section. It mny be observed to dirida |
into two branches, one for each gill-plate, each of which courses
along the inner edge of a leaflet, giving off in its course nume-
rous slender twigs. The purified blood is returned to the
branchial rein — which is seen in section at b v — by two trunks
which run each along the outer edges of the two leaflets which
are the components of a gill-plate, having been first collected in
■mall vessels which meet thp artenal twigs on the mutiul tAm-

S54 FOPCLAB BCmCI BKTIBW.

toiy of die capiDaiy SfBtem. The ctmer of the paier blood
ia seen to oocnpj a deeper and, praenmablj, a nfer position tban
does its fellow, at the bottom of the groore wbich is channelled
oat along the ooutox edge of its booy support.

The arrows indicate the eonne of the blood.
Fie. 6. Head of a spedes of Pipe-fish (Sj^m^mMMi jEqtMrmi) from a pre-
paration (No. 1041) in the Mosenm of the Royal CoUege of
Surgeons.

Tlie opeicnlum on the right ode has been lemoved, in order to
display the gills, which are ^composed of a doable series of tofts
on each of the foar arches."

b a Bulbus arteriosas — the root, so to speak, of the trunk
which gives off an arterial brtnch for the gills of dther side.
Fie. 7. Head of another specimen of the Pipe-fish (Sj^ngnathu Sp : f) cap-
tured bv the author in an oyster-dredge off Seaview, Isle of
\^lght '

o p Operculum, left nde. Abore and behind it is seen the
small outlet (*), just large enough to admit a bristie, for the
water which has bathed the gill-tufts.
Fio. 8. The pharynx of the same specimen opened out in order to show the
five fissures on either ode which admit water to the tufted
gills.
Fie. 0. Much reduced from a sketch of a preparation (No. 1060) in the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, of the head of the
Gray Shark {OaUus camnnmii). The right half of the head,
through which a vertical longitudinal section has been made, is
preserved in the preparation. In the pharynx five openings are
seen, which, guarded by tooth-like projections, not bony as in
osseous fishes, but more or less cartilaginous, allow of the influx
of water, which, after bathing the gills paired in their chambers,
finds exit bv five fissures at the side of the head.

a opsopbagrus, or gullet.

8 p opening leading to the canal which terminates extemallj
at the so-called *•' spiracle " (Spritzloch").*

The arrows indicate the direction of the water swallowed for
respiration.
Fio. 10 is a diagram (Schema) after G^genbaur {Chrw%dsuge der Ver-
gleichendvn Anatomie, 2nd edit fig. 210) of the cartilaginous skull
and *' visceral ** skeleton of one of the Schchiiy e.g. Sharks and
Ravs.

o orbit, for lodgment of the eye.

I. II. First and second visceral arches, the former of which
forms the boundary of the mouth, while the latter ('* hyoid ")
carries the tongue.

III. — VIII. Branchial arches, comprising the rest of the visceral
skeleton.

' The remnant of the first " visceral cleft," which in the bony fishes be-
comes closed up, but in ourselves is partly persistent as the external canal of
the eatf and the Eustachian tube.

sow FISHES BBEATEK.

355

In Htplanchus there are nine or ten viBceral Mches.
le. 1 1. TakeD from a prepsMtion (No. 1018) in the Museum of the Royal
College of 6ur{;eona, represents two of the six gill'Saca on ooe
aide of the Mjiino or " Glutinous Hag" ( Heplntrema cirralum).

These sacs,* 6 r 6 r, the upper of which is represented in profile,
axe seen internally to communicate with the usophagus (le), each
by a short tube. Externally, they are brought into relation, by
amilar means, with one of the two longitudinal canals (not shown
in the figure) which discharge the de-oiygenated water by two
pores opening on tlfe ventral surface of the body. The lowest
arrows show the direction of the water used for respiration,
which is admitted not at the mouth, ae in other lishes, but at h
amall opening' placed betwixt the two pores which allow of its
exit. Each sac is further seeo to be supplied with a branch
from the branchial artery (<i) of its aide.
ia a view, from above, of the respiratory apparatus of the African
Mud-flsh, Lepidoiiiren (Proloplfitis) AanivUne, reduced from a
figure in Professor Owen's paper on the anatomy of this fish.
(See Tram. Linn. Soc. vol. iviii. tab. 2fl, fig. 1),

The pharynx has been slit up iu the middle line, and ita sides
spread out on either side.

The five branchial fissures are indicated by numbets.

g Aperture, or glottis, pioicedin the rudimentary thyroid certi-
lags (( A) leading to the short " ductus pneumaticus," or trachea
(dp), which, in turn, communicates with two lung-like saca.

D is a valve which, though it is not stated to do so by Professor

Owen, may act, to judge from the figure, as an epiglottis, i.e.

prevent food, &c., from falling into the glottis.

^ASJigwtt fottnded hy the author ok ipecimeni iii the Museum of the Koyal

CoBege of Sargeow were draton by the kind permisfion of Profeator

Ftomr, F.S.S.^

' " The leading condition," says Professor Owen, " of the gills in other
fishes may be understood by suppoung each compressed sac of n Mjxioe to
be split through its plane, and each half to be glued by ita outer smooth side
to an intermediate septum, which would then support the opposite halves of
two distinct sacs, and expose their vaacular mucous surface to view. If the
st-ptum be attached by its entire margin, the condition of the plagioetomous
gill is efiected. If the septum be liberated at the outer part of its circum-
ference, and the vascular surfaces are produced into pectinated lamelligeroua
processes, tuft«, or filaments;, proceeding from the free arch, the gill of an
ordinary osseous or toleosfomous fish is formed. Sueh a gill is the homo-
bgue, not of a Emglo gill-sac, but of the contiguous halves of two distinct
giU-aacs, in the Myxines. Already, in the Lampreys, the first stage of this
bi-partition may be seen, and the next stage in the Sharks and Rays."

This throws much light upon the somewhat puzzling variations of the
branchial arteries in fishes. See also Oegenbaur. ofi. til. p. 800 ; and the
Introduction of Professor Eolleston's Fonns of Animal Life.

MR. CROOKES' NEW PSYCHIC FORCE.
By J. P. EAKWAKEB, Meeton Collmb, OxrottD.

"DEEING is believing' is an old aod much-quoted sdaga
O which is by many people so firmly believed in, that with,
them it quite partakes of the nature of a truism. To sugg^
for one moment the possibility of their being either partially
or entirely mistaken, is to call in question their veracity, their
powers of obeervation, and, in fact, their whole moral integrity,
and is i^sually met, not by convincing arguments, but % ia-
dignant reiteration. To question the accuraey of their stata-
meots is considered in the light of a personal insult^ uid f^^
anyone to croBs-examine their narrations, however strange
these may appear, is to them unbearable. But just a3 it is t^
firmest of all legal maxims, that no story can by any possi-
bility be true which cannot stand the test of cross-examinstioD,'
so it should be the test of all narrations, especially those of an
extraordinary character, that they in their turn should stand
the most rigid and searching cross-examination to which they
can possibly be subjected.

Few ordinary readers of newspapers can have failed to notice
how the first published accounts of any special or marked
crime are so plausible, and apparently so convincing, that each
reader feels there can be do doubt at all as to the guilt of the
person accused. They have no means of knowing how far the
plausible statements they read bring certain facts into undue
prominence, and cast others equally important, but antago-
nistic, into the shade ; but notwithstanding all this, they con-
stitute themselves arbitrary judges on the first evidence that
is thrust into their hands. When, however, the case is legally
tried, and by cross-examination the evidence is thoroughly
sifted, how different the case looks, what an innocent person
the unfortunate accused is, what miseries he must have suf-
fered, what imbeciles the police are, and so on, ad injinitum-
The human mind is the same all the world over, at all timet
and in all ages— grossly credulous, most easily convinced,

mi. cnooKE^^' NKw rsicmc yoncn. 357

^^nck to imagine, and equally quick to decide ; aud yet, when
all its boasted judgment and foresight are proved utterly
wrong, it is by no meaos taught by experience. At the nest
opportunity men commit the same errors of judgment, and
again Experience would teach them ; but all to no purpose ;
tiiey cannot and will not be taught by her.

The history of popular detiisioos is one of the most instruc-
tive, and at the same time the most saddening of all historical
narrativi>s. The weakness of the so much lauded and boasted
biinmn understanding, the firm belief that men have placed,
and appiirently ever will place, in the mere statements of their
fellow-men, the gross and almost unimaginable credulity they
are constantly eshibitiog, all tliese make up a picture as sad-
dening as it is true. See how long and how widely the univer-
sal belief in astrology, magic, and witchcraft prevailed, and
when these beliefs had to give way at the first dawn of true
science, it was only to make place for new ones, until, in recent
times, almost every ten years has seen a new imposture arise,
has seen it in iu full glory, and has witnessed its sudden
overthrow. To mention but the titles of many of these would,
to most of our readers, be but a string of mere names ; but if
we confine ourselves to tho last fifty years only, what a rush of
them there is — animal magnetism, the odic force, electro-
biology, mesmerism, table-rapping, table-turning, spiritualism,
&c. &c. The more apparently scientific the name, the more it
was conaiclcred likely to take a hold on the public. But just
aB medical men find such great difficulty in conWncing the
mgreat ma£s of mankind that thoiisiinds and thousands of lives
I annually lost by a belief in quack medicines aud quack
tors, so too now it has become most difficult for scientific
1 to make the outside world believe that the grossest impo-
Uons ami the most outrageous impostures are constantly
*Lng palmed off upon them. Few people have any true
« how outrageous many of these pseudo-scientific delusions
ally arc, and how they, like parasitic fungi, grow at the
§0 of tliose who support them.

! history of spiritualism illustrates this well. As far as
B C&n remember, it first dawned upon the world from the
*l6r side of the Atlantic, under the shape of table-rapping
1 tablo-tuming. An ordinary innocent table was stated to
capable of answering any questions put to it, and also of
ip,pering about and raising itself in the air, under the influence
iCsome one or more persons whose innocent hands were placed
^htly upon it. To account for tlie first series of these phe-
'Tiomena, some ingenious person called to his aid the spirits nf
departed persons ; the ever-credulous world jumped at this
theory, and its originators and followers, having thus struck a
TOL. X. — SO. XU.

358 TOFCLAB eCIENCS BETIBW.

^-irgin field, proceeded from bad to worse. " Spirite " be(;am«
&r too general a term ; special spirits were asked for, and inw
mediately presented themselves, those of well-known and for-
merly distinguished peisons, as might ha%e been expected,
being particularly obliging ; then this in return became
wearisome, and these renowned spirits took to music as a
relaxation, and the 86unce« were never complete without most
melodious and soul-inspiring " spirit-musdc." From music the
step to poetry is not far, and spiritual poetry (such lovely
verse and sentiment I) became quite the rage. Then these
spirits, ever so considerate and attentive to poor mimdaoe
humanity, endued their hands with a corporeal reality, and lot
their most ardent believers both see and feel them, and more-
over, as photography became a science, they bo far condescended
as to allow tbemselvea to be photographed, and " spirit-phot">-
graphs " arose, bad their day, and disappeared. And so it went
on, till, finally, the latest of all spiritiial manifestatione is, thai
these obedient spirits come in crowds at the mere bidding of a
great mediimi, they tumble chairs and tables about, tfaey play
on accordions, they tickle people with their corporeal haitd%
they scribble on pieces of paper, they carry the medium
through the air, and, finally — the greatest achievement of all
— they make converts of two Fellows of the Royal Society II
The climax of absurdity is here surely reached. Can even
spiritualism and human credulity go further ? is there no limit
to either ? Are we destined to see the revered letters F.R.3.
lowered to mean nothing more than " Follower of Rampagious
Spiritualism," or are we to believe that spiritualism, with all
its tomfoolery, its absurdity, and its outrageous defiance of
both common sense and common decency, really does contaia
some modicum of true science, and that there is

More in heaven than is dre*nit of in our philosophy P

Are we to believe that the trained intellects of Mr, Crooked
F.R.S., and Dr. Huggins, F.K.S., aided by the refreshing inno-
cence of Mr. Home, have discovered a new and subtle force in
nature, which, under the mystic title of " Psychic Force," is
not only to revolutionize Nature herself, but to undo all the
past and accepted teachings of science ? For this " psycbio
force " is no child's play, it is a force of so powerful a cbaActer
that no laws of science can stand before it, it falsifies eveij
law in Physics and Biology, it creates force, it de^usu
gravity, it can create music, and bid an accordion play when
no one is touching it, and yet it is so obedient that it doea
all this, and much more than this, at the bidding of one man I
And who is this great, this most powerful of human beings, &
man who, apparently at will, can directly create force.

^H us. CROOEES* NEW FSYCHIC FOBCG. 359 I

^Tttmiliilate gravity, and can cause " sad and plaintive " music

inihilate gravity, and can cause " sad and plaintive " music
at his bidding? And the answer comes to lis, one Mr. Daniel
Douglas Home. As we bow before him, in reverent submis-
to a superior being, memories crowd upon us ; surely we
e heard of him before. No man of true genius in this en-
jht«ned country can keep his light long under a bushel, and
man uf hia transcendent power could not possibly do so. Is
it not he whose mighty works made the readers of the " Com-
hill Magazine " in 1860, tremble as they read ? is it not he who
in that memorable essay, "Stranger than Fiction," was the
mediiun at whose bidding tables and chairs became imbued
with a strange superabundance of animal spirits — when accor-
dions played in distant comers, and then, for mere variety,
floated in the air, and there played such marvellous melodies
that they rang in the ears of those who heard them — was it
not Mr, Home -who floated about the darkened room, and
made his mark upon the ceiling, and performed other marvels
still more strange — surely, there cannot he two men in a life-
time endowed with such miraculous and mystic powers ? Is
it not the same Mr. Home, who since that time has been
the pet of society, the great medium, the associate of crowned
heads, and the persecuted victim of the law, who now at last
has performed experimenta which have caused two Fellows of
the Royal Society to burst upon an astonished world with
this terrible, this new, this revolutionary " Psychic Force " ?

Such is the subtle power of this mighty and powerful man
that at his bidding two gentlemen, men distinguished for their
scientiBc attainments, both Fellows of the Royal Society, have
surrendered their usually calm and sound judgments, and hav&
themselves home testimony that even practised men of science
may be victims to that most false of all beliefs, that " seeing *»
believing." Surely one would have thought that men who are
conversant, or should be conversant, with all the intricate
details of many physical phenomena, of the trickery which can
be so easily produced by electrical and optical arrangements —
trickery so hard and so difficult for the unscientific mind to
understand — that such men would be the last to make ship-
wreck of their reputations on the result of such experiments as
they have done. Surely they of all men should know or ought
to know that in such experiments the eyes are the most
deceptive organs possible, and yet these are the very men whc
come forward and in the pages of the last number of the
" Quarterly Journal of Science " show that they have alloweii
their judgments to be deceived as well as their eyes.

When Mr. Crookes, soon after he undertook the editorship
of the " Quarterly Journal of Science," published an article
(now s year ago) anoouncing his intention of testing spiritualism
us 2

360

POPDLAB SCIENCE UEVreW.

by flcientific methods and scientific research, he
sympathies of the majority of scientific men with him, and i^
was hoped that soon we should have the fallacies of this hsk
and grossest form of imposture esposed and annihilated. It waa
fondly imagined that, just as the spiritualistic humbug of the
Davenpori. Brothers was shown to be but clever conjuring,
the audacity of the claims of spiritualism would receive a well-
directed and crushing blow at the hands of Mr. Crookes.
Great is, therefore, the disappointment of the scientific world ta
find, aft«r all the blowing of trumpeta which heralded thesa
investigations, that now Mr. Crookes and his cuadjutor, Dr.
Hng^ns, have allowed themselves to be convinced by the
results of hvo experiments only, performed one evening "
house of the former gentleman. And such experiments ! Vi't
almost blush as we read them, to thiuk that scientific accuracy
is so degenerate now-a-days in England that any persons, much
less men of science, coidd, by any stretehing of a most vivid
imagination, venture to call them scientific. For in truth they
arc the very opposite of scientific. Even to call them un-
scientific is not strong enough ; clumsy and futile are much
nearer the truth. Imagine men of science deliberately investi-
gating the music-producing powers of an accordion in a win
cage placei.i UTider a dining-room table I Imagine also when
they confessedly had suspicion of Mr. Home's honesty, asd ons
of them watched him dressing to see that he concealed no
apparatus about his person, that they placed the accordion in
his hands before placing it in the cage under the table \ But
properly to imderstand the futile character of these so much
vaunted experiments it is only necessary to take the experi-
ments in detail and criticise them.

In the first place, then, there are only two experiment!
described — a number grossly insufficient to cause any reliance la
be placed on their results. Errors of observation, errors "
mechanical arrangement of the apparatus are sure to arisej
and it is only by repeating such experiments that these erron
can be detected and allowed for. Who could have imagined
any scientific men describing a " new force " on the results of
but two crucial experiments, however many trial esperimentd,
of which we are told nothing, may have preceded themf
And then the "crucial experiments" themselves — what aro"
they ? For the first experiment the following was the sppai-
ratua prepared : — " A cage was formed of two wooden hoops, re-
spectively one foot ten inches and two feet in diameter, connected
together by twelve narrow laths, each one foot ten inches long, so
as to form a dnim-shaped frame, open at the top and bottom.
Round this fifty yards of insulated copper wire were wound in
twenty-four rounds, each being rather less than an inch from

^H UR. CROO££S' NEW PSVCHIC FORCE. 361

ita neighbour. These horizontal Btranda of wire were then ■
netted together firmly with string, so as to form meshes rather
leas than two inches long by one inch high." Then, after all
this care and trouble in preparation, this ingenious cage was
not placed openly in the room, nor in any couspicuous place,
but, to such a low level ia scientific accuracy now reduced^that
it was actually placed uwlttr the dining-romn table. No reason
for this strangest of all strange positions is even hinted at, and
can anyone cognisant of the meaning of true scientific research
believe that he is reading of the experiments of scientific men,
and those men Fellows of the Royal Society ?

But to proceed. The apparatus being arranged, Mr. Home
entered the room (one, by the way, which he is thoroughly
ac({uaint«d with, as he had been present before "on sevenj
occafliona"), his toilet having been watclied by Mr. Crookea,
who, strange to say, seems to have believed him capable of
" secreting machinery, apparatus, or contrivances about his
person." We are not aware that even the most famous
conjiyors conceal apparatus about their person of such great
size that anyone casually sitting in their bedroom whilst they
are dressing could not fail to detect it— but then we must live
and learn 1 Mr. Home then sat down at the side of the table,
with the cage between bis legs, and taking the new accordion
(specially purchased for this occasion) in his left hand between
the thumb and middle finger, at the opposite end to the keys ;
the baas key having been opened, it was placed in the cage
with the keys downwards, and the cage was then pushed under
the table as far as Mr. Home's arm would permit, so that his
band was visible. Then tlie performances — we bog pardon —
the ''scientific and crucial investigations" began. As a
scientific preliminary we are kindly told that, the temperature
of the room — a most necessary fact obviously to know — " varied
from 68° to 70° Fahr." \ " The accordion was soon seen
waving about in a somewhat curious manner, then sounds
came from it, and finally several notes were played in auc-
cesBion," and whilst this was going on Mr. Crookes' assistant
most obligingly looked under the table, and reported Mr.
Home's band " quite still," his right hand resting on the table.
From this promising beginning we are quite prepared to be
told that " presently the accordion was seen oscillating and
going round and round the cage and playing at the same
time," and it was now Dr. Huggins" turn to look under the
table, and again Mr. Home's hand was " quite still, wliilst the
DOtiordion was moving about and emitting distinct sounds."
^jfere we dealing with really scientific experiments and not
^■neh as we are describing, we would ask how it was possible for
Hj^Uome's hand to bold tliitt moving accordion and yet be

362

POPULAR SCIKSCE EKVIEW.

'* quite still," but as we are dealing with this peculiar " Psychic
Force " we refraiD and pass on,

The accordion then proceeded to greater lengths, and, aftcn
some preliminary note mounding, played a " simple air," and
later on " played chords and nms, and afterwards a well-known,
sweet, and plaintive melody, which it executed perfectly,
very beautiful manner" ! and during this performance, it being
now Mr. Crookes' turn, he felt Mr. Home's arm and hand, and
again, of course, " he was not moving a muscle." Mr. Crookes
seems to have had a lurking Buspicion that the gifted Mr.
Home was capable of playing the accordion with hia boots, for
he states that during these performaucca he had Mr. Home's
feet held, no doubt by bis obliging assistant. Mr. Crooked
again was apparently so impressed by the cares of mounting
guard over Or. Home's person, and so enthralled by tbe abun-
dant music the accordion poured forth, that it never occurred
to him to notice uheOier the keys were depressed or not ;
yet, to most people gifted with a little common sense, it woidd
be jjbvioua that if the keys were not pressed down, it was im-
possible for tbe music really to have come from the accordion,
and its true source must have been looked for elsewhere. One
wbo risks bis scientific reputation on such carelessly performed,
experiments as these will, we can readily credit, believe any-
thing ; and ao we arc not surprised to read that " Mr. Home,
actually let go the accordion, and removed his hand quite out
of tbe cage, and placed it in the hand of the person nest him,
the iiiatrument then continuing to play whilst no one
loticldng it ! And this even is surpassed by the next para-
graph, the meaning of the first words of which, we are bound.
to confess, has completely baffled us. " The accordion was mno
again taken., without any visible touch, from Mr. Home's hand,,
which he removed from it entirely; I and two of the otheni
present not only seeing his released Iiand, but tJte accordion,
ulsa floating about with no visible support inside the cage ;''
and Ibis " was repeated a second time after a short intervaL'
(The italics are our own.) Now, what are we to understand by
the words "tbe accordion was now again taken"? Taken l^i
whom ? — by what ? Tlie whole paragraph is the most wonder-
ful one it has ever been our lot to read, especially wb^n we con^
aider it is written by a "scientific investigator." Tbe one'
redeeming feature about it is, that at last we have reached the
limits of Dr. Huggins' credulity ; ho writes to say tbat ke did
not see the accordion freely suspended in air, and at the samei
time be continues, " I express no opinion as to tbe cause of the;
phenomena which took place." We hope he will pardon us for
saying so, but it would have been better for his scientific repu-
tation Lad he made uae of ibia same caution at the beginuin^i
And not at the end, of tbese ■p&euio-scS.edO&c t-E^Ta — '■- '

^H HB. CBOOKES »£W rSVCBIC FORCE. 363

Throughout the wliole of these esperiments we are left in
the most glorioua iin certain ty as to time: we have not the
faintest idea given lis how long the esperimenta lasted, how
long the accordion was playing its music, how long it contra-
vened the laws of gravity, and floated about in the air of a cage
placed under a dining-room table. The greatest obscurity is
thrown over all, and yet we are gravely told this is a " scien-
tific and crucial experiment"! Supposing now for the mo-
ment (and this is pure supposition only), that Mr. Home were
capable of trickery, and that Mr. Crookes and Dr. Huggios
were capable of being deceived ; and suppose that a thin wire
or thread was hooked on to each end of the accordion, and
that a concealed and prepared musical box or other instrument
was played, what is there inthese esperimenta unaccounted for? "
But we immediately banish those base suppositions from our
mind, for we are recalled to a senae of our errors by remem-
bering that we are writing aa if trickery and deception were
possible in the presence of two Fellows of the Koyal Society,
gravely engaged in " a scientific investigation of a new force."

Probably by this time our readers have had enough of expe-
riment No, 1 ; let us now turn to experiment No. 2, which is
of an entirely diflferent kind, and one designed, as we are
informed, to test Mr. Home's powers of causing " alteration in
the weight of bodies," a power which Mr. Crookes stat^ is
" most striking, and most easily t-ested with scientific accuracy."
With him here we most cordially agree, so long aa the proper
apparatus is used ; but not under the conditions which Mr.
Crookes considered sufficient. The apparatus which he em-
ployed was aa follows : — " It consisted of a mahogany board
36 in. long by 9^ in. wide and 1 in. thick. At each end a strip
of mahogany IJin. wide was screwed on, forming feet. One
end of the board rested on a firm table-, whilst the other end
was supported by a spring balance hanging from a substantial
tripod stand. The balance was fitted with a self-registering
index, in such a manner that it would record the maximum
weight indicated by the pointer. The apparatus was adjusted
so that the mahogany board was horizontal, its foot resting flat
on the support ; and in this position its weight was 3 lbs., as
marked by the pointer of the balance." On Mr. Home placing
his fingers lightly on the extreme end of this board, the pointer
of the balance descended, and after a few seconds it rose again,
and this movement was repeated several times, " as if by suc-
cessive waves of the Psychic Force"! At the end of these
ezperimenta, the pointer had marked a maximum fall of 6 lbs.

* We would note that it is always an accordion thit is played at these
■taMM, never b concertdna or any othei instrument.

364 POPULAR 8CI£2iCE BITISW.

Mr. Home exerted his pressure at a distance not more than
1 finches from the extreme end; and since the wooden foot
was l^inclies wide and rested flat upon the table, 3Ir. Crookes
shows, and shows rightly, that no amount of pressure within
that space could produce any action on the balance. The
whole value of this experiment turns upon one fact, the utter
immovability of the table itself ; and, as we might have anti-
cipated, this is the one precaution not attended to. The
slightest examination of the apparatus will show that if the
table moved in any so slight a degree, the index of the balance
must descend, and successive movements of the table would

{produce exactly the same eflfect as " the successive waves of the
*8ychic Force." We leave it to our readers to imagine which
would ho. the easiest way to account for the results produced,
and e8|H>oially when they recollect how the mere touch of Mr.
IlomeV hand caused so much motion in the accordion, and
tlien think how the table might have to suffer in the same
maimer.

Mr. Crookes takes credit to himself for having given '^a
plain luivamislied account " of his experiments, and we have but
faithfully ijuott^d him. It is a true maxim, " The greater the
pretensions, the greater the failure," and a more lamentable ex-
hibition of misdirected energies it has never been our lot to read
of. Kut, worst of all, by far the most damaging fact throughout
is to ])ul)lish it to the world that these are samples of scientific
v\\yvv[u\cu\s» These — in which every minute detail, and all
ol>vious preoiiutions, are neglected, where caution should be the
rule aiul is the exception — where the greatest possible care
should have lu»en shown, but where all is most careless and
most untrustworthy — are such experiments to be called scien-
tific, because, forsooth, an F.R.S. is the investigator?

And then, aj^ain, the conclusion of this remarkable account,
the maudlin complaints that real men of science had neglected
this quest it)n, had refustni to entertain it, and would not consent
to act on conunit tees to investigate it — what is all this but the
re])et it ion of what we have so often heard and always know to
be luitrue. ^Ir. Crookes ivas solicited to repeat his experi-
nu^nts, or any one of them, at the last meeting of the British
Association at Kdinburgh, and Professor Stokes even went so
far as to propose the appointment of a committee of Section
A ; but as usual, of course, nothing came of it — the subject
was wisely dropped. Some experiments, like some stories, wont
Ix^ir too much investigation. What w^as the result of the St.
Petersburg committee of six scientific men appointed to inves-
tigate Mr. Home's spiritualistic pretensions ? To Air. Crookes
the explanation of the failiu*e, he says, " appears quite simple,"
"Mr. Home's power is very variable and at times entirely

^p un. cnooKEs' kew psycmc force, 365

absent ; " " when the Russian experiment was tried it was at a
minimum," and bo on. The real facts of the case will, we think,
form a fitting commentary on the experiments we have been
criticising, and will also show how far Mr. Crookea is entitled
to be considered an impartial scientific investigator. We quote
from the " Russian Academical Gazette." " A glass table was
employed, on which stood a lamp with a reflector, so that the
ground underneath the table was brilliantly illuminated and
the slightest movements made by Mr. Home could be observed.
When the stance had begun, Mr. Home announced that be
began to feel the presence of spirits, and that these were mani-
festing themselves by the fluctuations of the flame of a taper
standing on the table. To this it was replied that these fluc-
tuations were produced not by spirits but by the ventilator ; in
fact, when this was shut, the iluctuations ceased. He then said
the quick throbbing of his pulse showed the presence of spirits,
but one of the committee proved that tliis was only due to ex-
citement and fatigue, since his pulse beat as fast as Mr. Home's.
After these two failures the medium gave up the experiment
with the table and proposed to alter the weight of some object.
A common bucket was then placed on a weighing machine.
The company waited long and in vain ; no change of weight
occurred. \\'hen, finally, the sdance broke up, and nothing
whatever bad been accomplished, Mr. Home promised to repeat
the experiment ; but next day he gave out that he was indis-
posed and therefore unable to keep his engagement." Surely it
required no F.H.S. to tell us that on this occasion Mr. Home's
power was at a minimum ; most candid readers would confess he
had none at all.

And now, tinally, a word in conclusion. Until Mr. Home and
his friends and allies Mr. Crookes and Dr. Huggins and "the
well-known serjeant-at-law," Serjeant Cox, whose scientific
aspirations have led him to play the part of the Chorus in a
Greek play — until these gentlemen will submit their mystic
forces, whether spiritual or " psychic," to a most searching and
public scientific examination, they cannot hope to meet with
any credit, either for honesty of belief or for scientific ac-
curacy. Truth ever is and ever should he above suspicion ; it
may lie at the bottom of a well, but we are sadly mistaken if
it does at the bottom of a wire-work cage. And when we say
"lat we much prefer everything above-board, we certainly make
D exception when that board is a dining-room table.

366

THE MOSS WORLD.

By R. BRAITHWAITE, M.D., F.L.S.

[PLATE LXXVn.]

«<Maacu8 in pariotes hn^rens, contemptim a multis adspicituTf at iis, quiadex-
amen structurie ot virioni descendunt, infinite admirationis occasionem
pnDbet." — Hein-zius.

MOST active students of British Botany arrive at a period
when having mastered the flowering plants and ferns, they
look round for some new field for investigation, in doubt which to
** take up " of the four great groups of cellular plants still re-
maining, the Mosse*s, Lichens, Algae or Fungi; each a world within
itself, and oflfering material sufficient to occupy the longest life.
Be it our task on the present occasion to say a few words on
the first of these, and thus haply open out a new store of en-
joyment to some who, hitherto, have not directed attention to
them.

By the ancients, as by the unlearned of the present day,
mosses were but little regarded, few species were distinguished,
and with them were confounded various lichens and algae. Now,
however, that the microscope is in such general use, there can
be little difficulty in referring any cryptogamous plants to their
proper class, and none has its characters better defined than
that of mosses. The first publication which brought them
specially into notice was the "Historica Muscorum " of
Dilliuius, published at Oxford in 1741, in which the species
are carefully fi»^*ured, with enlarged outlines of the leaves;
then came (1778-94) the various works of John Hed>vig, in
which were made kno^vn the whole process of their reproduc-
tion and their anatomy, and thus Bryology was established on
a sound basis; following him came Bridel, Schwaegrichen,
Hooker, and a host of other writers down to C. Muller, Wilson,
Schimper, Lindberg, and Mitten of our own time, by whose
publications the study has gradually been perfected.

The moss world, however, includes among its citizens forms
80 diverse in habit and structure, that three great groups are
at once recognisable.

1. BryijujRj the frondose or true mosses, embracing probably

t:^}M.

r^maina Viy|f ^meX-r-i-C*

THE MOSS WORLD. 367

10,000 species, of which about 530 enter into the British

Flora. These have spores free from Bpiral threads, which
produce on germination a branched confervoid prothalUiim,
tlie leaves undivided, consisting of uniform cells, the branches
dichotomous or pinnate-, the capsule opening iiaually by a lid
and enclosing a spore sac,

2. SPHAGNIN.E, the Bogmossea, a limited group, haviag spoita
without spiral threads, which produce on germination a
lichenoid prothallium, the leaves composed of two kinds of
cells, the larger perforated and containing spiral fibres, the
branches in lateral bundles of three to ten, the capsule sessUe
on a lateral naked branch.

3. Hetaticins, the Liverworts, have spores with which are
mixed elaters or spiral threads, producing a lichenoid pro-
thallium, leaves nerveless, often lobed and furnished with
stipules, or absent, and the whole plant resembling the thallus
of a lichen; capsule without operculum splitting into foiir
separate pieces, or eoinetimes two-valved, or clustered on a
receptacle and opening by teeth.

"We shall on the present occasion confine our attention solely
to the frondose mosses, and puss in review the various organs
revealed to us by the microscope. They have been called
flowerless plants, but incorrectly, for we shall see that the re-
productive organs tliough minute are very distinct, and their
function is unmistakable ; they are natives of every clime, and
from sea-shore to the limit of perpetual snow are everywhere
distributed, preferring, however, mountainous and woodland
districts, because there is moisture most abundant ; and for this
reason also we find them most luxuriant in winter and spring,
thus compensating for the absence of the more highly organised
plants, which no sooner cover the surface of the earth than our
little mosses are no longer noticed.

The denizens of the moss world are never found leading a
solitary existence, but are either gi'egarious or more commonly
ilensely aggregated into tufts or mats, which may contain
hundreds of individuals ; their size also is very variable, some
species of Ephemerutn not exceeding -j'j inch in height, wliile
Polytrichum, com/muna and some Hypnoid mosses attain a foot.
We will take as our type the cosmopolitan Funafia hygro-
Tnettnca, never absent from the ballast of our railway-banks,
brick-fields, and heaths ; and having carried home a tuft, let us
expand it in water and detach a single plant.

Veoetatite SrSTEM.

First, we observe oux Funaria has roots like all other mosses,
and tiieae probably not so much rec^uired for absoc^tloo. sa io.

POrtTLAR SCIENCE RETIKW,

hifjilier plants, but rather as a means of fixing the plants to the
siib,s(ratiiiii on which they grow, fur we find them on rocksand
trunks of trees, where their chief support must be derived from
the atmosphere ; in very many species they occur not only at
the base but also along the whole stem ; somstimes these ad-
ventitious radicles are so dense that they mat the plants to-
gether into a spongy mass, and thus effectually retain a supp};
of moisture ; the microscope shows lie that each radicular fibril
consists of a single series of cells, the transverse partitions of
which are oblique. Then we see a short stem bearing leaves,
with which also all mosses are supplied, and in this instance the
frnit-etalk is a continuation of the stem-axis or is acrocarpic,
any continued growth being by innovations or lateral repetitions
of the stem : but in many mosses the fruit is lateral or pleuro-
carpic, and lateral branches are produced through a succession
of years.

The leaves are attached horizontally, and are always sessile
and persistent, their true arrangement being spiral ; in Fissidens.
distichous or in two opposite rows (-J) i.e. one spiral turn con-
taining two leaves, in some tristichoua {^) two -spiral tuna
cutting through three leaves, and often five or eight rowed (J |).
If we now tear oflT a few leaves from our Fnnaria, and pl^
them in water l>etween two slides and transfer to the microscope,
we may learn a great deal about mosa structure. First, as ta
the form of the leaf; this we observe is ovate, with the apex
pointed, and the ovate or lanceolate form is the most common
among the leaves of mosses, though we find every degree of ex-
pansion between orbicular and awl-shaped. Traversing the
centre from base to apex is a midrib or nerve, composed of
several layers of narrow cells ; this in some species is altogether
absent, in very many it vanishes about the middle or two-third(
the length of tlie leaf, while in others it is excurrent or extendi
beyond the leaf in a point, or it may be prolonged into a bristle
or hair, and these by their number give the tufts of plants a
woolly or hoaiy aspect. The margin is entire, but in many
species it is variously toothed or serrated, and sometimes it haa
a thickened border. The lamina, or expanded plane of thft
leaf, is we observe composed of cells, by which a network il
produced termed the areolation, and so constant are the indi-
vidual cells in form and Eize, that a careful study of them is of
the utmost importance in the identification of species, and in-
deed our only means of determining them when in a barren
state-
In Funaria we find the surface is quite smooth, but in many
species it is covered with papillae; in none perhaps are then
more evident than in the leaf of Tkuidium tamarUcmunn

THE MOSS WOKLD. 369

which thus resemhles a rasp. la form the cells exhibit much
variation, but they are referable to two types,

1. PABESCnTUATOOS when tbe ends are flattened, and we get
a quadrate or hexagonal areolation as in Funaria ; and some-
times the cell walls are so thickened by internal deposit that
their cavities appear like dots, as we see in Crrimmia, Ortho-
trichum, Andre^a, etc.

2. pROSENC'ffTMATOUS when the transverse walls of the cells
are oblique, so that the cells have poiDted ends, as in Bryum,
Hypnum, &c.

According to the qiiantity and tint of the chlorophyl con-
tained in the cells will be the shade of colour of the plants ;
this is usually more or less green, but in Andreas it is choco-
late-brown or black, and some mosses are uot unfrequently
tinged with rosy purple or brown. The cells forming the leaf
base are often of a different form from the upper cells, and when
the leaves are closely imbricated they are thinner and usually
empty; but those situated at the outer angles are sometimes
very different from the rest, and then these alar cells become
of value in the distinction of species and even of genera, as in
Dicr&num, for instance.

^H RErnoDUCTivE System.

IT we hunt up Funaria in December we shall find that
instead of the long-stalked capsules the plants bear little
rosettes of leaves, which are truly the flowers, and contain in
their centre those reproductive organs, which even more clearly
than stamens and pistils are necessary for the formation of fruit.
The little starry heads at the end of the young lateral shoots
are the male flowers, and by dissecting away the enveloping
perigonial leaves in water we arrive at a cluster of fine-
jointed threads or paraphyses, among which are little sausage-
shaped bodies, the antheridia, which at maturity give out a
fluid containing excessively minute spiral threads, the sperma-
tozoida ; and it is to preserve the vitality of these that para-
physes are present, so as to keep up a certain amount of mois-
ture ; for the paraphyses are wanting in the closed bud-Ilke
flowers of Hypnum. If we look among the leaves terminating
tbe stem we shall find similar fcmalu fiowers also containing
paraphyses, and longer and more slender bodies, archegonia,
which are traversed by a fine channel, and open at maturity by
a trumpet-shaped orifice, into which the spermatozoids pass,
and reaching the germ cell in the base of the archegonium,
this becomes fertilized and at once begins to develop into
fruit.

In some mosses these two kinds of organs exist in one flower.

370 roPCLAB SCI8H0I1 KBTIEW.

ID others, as Fimaria, the fiowere are separate but on one plant,
while in others they are on separate individuals ; these thr^e
modifications constitute the synoicous, monoicous, and dioicous
inflorescence.

As the germinative cell enlai^es it pushes its way downward
into the receptacle, and then increasing in diameter ruptiu-es
the membranous envelope of the archegoniura, which is carried
up on the rising fruit-stalk and becomes the calyptra, while an
extension of the receptacle sheathes its base and is termed the
vaginula. When the fniit-Btalk has attained its full lengtli
its apex begins to enlarge and rapidly becomes moulded into
the future fruit ; if, when this is fully formed but still grecD,
we make a vertical section of it, we see that the centre is occu-
pied by a longitudinal bundle, the columella, between wbicli
and the capsule wall lies the sporangium or spore sac. The
inner wall of the spore sac is usually adherent to the columella,
and its outer to the inner wall of the capsule, but both may be
free as in Polytrichum, or the sporangium may be suspended
from the capsule wall by threads as we see in Fimaria, in
which also the columella is very thitik, and occupies a large
portion of the cavity of the sporangium.

The Fbuit.

The mature capsule or theca of mosses is at once the most
striking and elegant part in these little plants, and never fails
to excite the admiration of all who deign to notice them ; the
most elegant forms, adorned with the richest colours, are seea
in the various groups, and these are still fiirther enriched by
the marvellous beauty often seen in the peristomes.

The thin membranous calyptra, often slit at the side by the
distension of the truit, is first thrown off, and we see the perfect
capsule, furnished in moat cases with an operculum or lid
closing its mouth. The surface of the capsule is smooth and
frequently furnished with stomata, well seen in the green fruit
of Funaria ; the cells composing the outer wall are of firm tex-
ture, and in Orthotricum and others in which stride occur,
these are formed of different shaped cells. In Splachnacex the
neck of the capsule is swollen out into what is termed an apo-
physis. The forms of the capsule are infinitely varied, but
spherical, ovate, pyriform and cylindric, are of most frequent
occurrence.

The operculum also presentji various forms ; in Funaria it is
only a little convex, in many it is conical or obliquely rostr&te,
and its figure is very constant in individual species. Veiy
frequently there is interposed between the mouth of the cap-

Tin: MOSS WORLD. 371

sule and the lid an elastic ring, the anniilus, aud in none ie it
more evident than in Funaria hygronietrica, where its rich
purple colour contrasts remarkably with the parts adjoining.
The cells of which it consists are vesicular, and form several
series ; these contract in drying and are suddenly dilated when
moistened, and thus the separation of the operculum is greatly
facilitated. The lid havinff fallen, there is nnw brought into
view in most mosses a beautiful fringe of teeth called the
peristome, which originates from the inner wall of the capsule,
and is most remarkable for the definite number of its consti-
tuent parts, 4, 8, 16, 32 or d-i ; frequently also an inner peri-
stome is present, continued from the outer membrane of the
spore sac,

If we take the most perfect form of teeth, as seen in Mniura,
Hypnimi, or Funaria, we find that each consists of two rows of
lirm coloured cells, separated in the middle by a divisural line,
and also articulated with each other transversely ; on the inner
feice there ia only one row of cells, and these fretjuently project
at the margin beyond the outer layer, and also form transverse
lamellai at their junction ; their testiu-e is also quite different
from those of the outside layer, for they are pale and vesicular,
and on them the hygroscopic property of the peristome depends.
When moistened these internal cells expand, and thus shorten
the teeth and draw them inward into a cone, tbeir usual posi-
tion in the dry state being radiating roimd the mouth of the
capsule or reflcxed against its outer wall-
Numerous modifications of the teeth occiu', which render the
peristome of interest as a microscopic object, the inner layer of
cells being frequently abortive, the teeth become rigid, and
sometimes quite rudimentary, and not unfrequently they dis-
appear altogether, the capsule being then termed gymno-
etomous. In Fimaria the teeth are curiously gyrate, and also
attached to an unusual appendage in the form of a little perfo-
rated central disc, to which the points curve down, so that the
part not inaptly resembles the inverted bottom of a wine-
bottle; in Tortula they are twisted together spirally, and
sometimes united at base into a tubiform membrane; in Diera-
num and Fissidens they are cleft along the dirisional line, and
in Grimmia apocarpa perforated or cribrose. Two other forms
of peristome, however, are met with, in which the structure of
the teeth is essentially different. In Georgia and Tetrodon-
tium the four teeth consist of numerous confluent cells, and
in PolytrichaceiD the numerous teeth are composed of slender
filaments agglutinated together into tongue-shaped processes,
which adhere to the tympanum or expanded apex of the colu-
mella; in the Australian genus Dawsonia the filaments are
free, and project from the capsule like a brush. These tliree

372 FOFULAB 8CIXNCE BBYEBW.

modifications of the peristome are advantageously empbyed
by Mr. Mitten for divisions of the order.

The inner peristome is quite different from the outer, and
consists of a thin membrane arising from the outer wall of the
spore sac, and divided into processes which stand opposite the
interspaces of the outer teeth ; in its most perfect form these
processes are sixteen in number, each two cells wide at base,
project in|]^ outwardly along the middle line as a keel, or perfo-
rattnl and cohering only by the transverse articulations of the
cells ; l>etween each pair of processes are three very fine cilia
each one cell wide, so that the whole circuit of the inner
peristome takes up eighty cells.

This fully-developed, internal peristome is well seen in the
genus Muium, and in Plagiothecium undulatum, Hypnum
riparium, commutatum, &c.; but in many mosses with a
double peristome the cilia are abortive, and the processes also
become quite rudimentary. The columella is a continuation
of the central part of the pedicel, extending to the operculum,
with which it often comes away ; it is commonly imited to the
wall of the spore sac, but is wanting in Archidium and Ephem-
erum; in the Polytrichacese its summit is dilated into a
membrane like a drum-head, which closes the mouth of the
capsule.

Tile spores are globose or kidney-shaped, smooth on the
surface or rough with papillae, and in colour yellow, red, or
ochroous ; in Archidium very large and few in number, but in
the majority of mosses they are extremely minute.

Propagation.

Havino; thus briefly glanced at the various organs found in
mosses, wo may notice the mode by which their growth and
continuance is provided for.

The spore does not (like the seed of a flowering plant) pro-
duce an individual like its parent, but on rupturing its outer
coat, the primordial utricle is protruded as a proembryo, and
commences a process of cell division, resulting in a confervoid
filament, wliich gives off lateral branches and branchlets, form-
ing the delicate green film we may often notice on damp earth.
From various cells of this prothallium young plants are deve-
loped, fine radicles push downward, and true leaves are formed
characteristic of the species, numerous plants thus resulting
from a single spore ; and when this rising generation is able to
take care of itself, the prothallium disappears, except in a few
annual species constituting the genus Ephemerum, where it
continues throughout the life of the plant. Many mosses,
however, are met with which do not produce fruit, yet the

THE MOSS WORLD. 373

eontiiiTiation of their esistence is siDgiilarly cared for. In
Aiilacomnuim and other mosses we constantly find in place of
fruit a paeiidopodiiim or naked stalk bearing at the summit a
globose head of gemraip, and in Orthotrichum Lyellii and
other species the leaves produce on the surface jointed fila-
ments, and both these appendages on falling off develope
prothallium, from which new plants originate. The same
takes place with tubercles which develope on roots, and thus
we may strip the rocks of their tenants Grimmia, Ehaco-
mitrium, Tortula, &c. ; yet a few years suffice to restore
them from the adhering radicles left behind ; and again
the caducous ramuli of Campylopus and Leucobryum become
new plants, while even a single deciduous leaf of Funaria
hygrometrica has been seen to produce prothallium from its
basal cells, by which the establishment of a new colony is
secured.

Cl.\ssificatios.

Sie arrangement of mosses is confessedly a subject of great
iculty, and one that has occupied the thoughtful attention
of all Bryological writers. Up to a recent date the peristome
alone was used as the chief character by which to establish
genera, and thus species were thrown togetJier which agreed in
nothing hut the number and form of the teeth in this organ;
it may be interesting, however, to give an outline of the prin-
cipal systems that have been proposed.

1. Hedwig published the first of these in his "Fundamenta
Muacorum," 1782, with 25 genera arranged in 3 divisiuns.
(1) Without a peristome {Phascum). (2) With a naked peri-
stome {Spkaffnum, Hedwigia, Gi/mnoatortium). (3) With a
fully-formed peristome, sub-divided into : a. Peristome single
(il genera), h. Peristome double ( 10 genera).

", Bridel, in the "Bryologia Universa," 1826, greatly in-
1 the number of genera, arranged aa follows : —

^ Sec. 1. Capsule, opercutate.

Class 1. Fruit without a vaginula on a pseudopodium
{Arckitlium-, Sphagnum). Class 2. Fniit acrocarpous.
Class 3. Fruit pleurocarpous. Class 4, Fruit, radical.
Class 5. Fruit axillary. Class 6. Fruit under an ac-
cessory leaf.
Sec. 2. Capsule deft (Andrefea).

, The next important alteration in system was that adopted

fC Miiller, in his " Synopsis Muscorum," 1849, in which the

minute structure of the leaf takes a prominent part in the

characters of tribes and genera, and many gymnostomous species

Tftt- X. — so. XLI.

but vii]i
dSatribiited under

1,
2. ^Ahmxduqalir^

mSL fordier «Ufa«tad bf ProfeaaoT Schimper,
XE Jas^ TmnmiJkr ^^finPolcfiiE Bnroyea and Synopsis Muse
SnTSfuT Ir^Mt 1^ liie fiouttMn of additioiial tribes and
JwiyTSw lifti TWT aoKBT |;c»enu some indeed on characten
iiAncii ^ wc i ffw ff t^ be fudBcskntlT liufKHiaait.

gL Mx. MinMu i& las desKzi|rtioinB cf Indian and South
AaaKSMsa IImeiw in tike ^Jommal of tbe linnean Society,"
frct|K««d a nev sTsteoL 'vliielunondthstanding its icreat merit,
does n^c siNta iij> bare met ^tb general aooeptai

because tbei>^ «sill lii^<ex>ed a strong Idas in &voar of Hedwig
and bi> sOkoc^ef^M^ He places all mosdes under two sections :
HoraodidTi, hiTixxg^ leaf cells of iinifonn structure, and Hetero-
dictri^ having 1^^ cvUs of rwo forms and including only the
Sphagnaceae. Tbe Homodictri again have two divisions Schis-
tocarpi and Stegocarpi. and tbe latter comprises three groups
>rding

The &milies also are reduced and thus brought more
in accordance with the natural orders of flowering plants ; while
the leaf structure receives its due importance the peristome is
regarded as subordinate, every degree of its development being
found in a single genus, and sometimes in a single species.
Believing these views to be strictly in accordance with &cts
derived from a careful study of the plants themselves, and
therefore true to nature, I feel bound to adopt it, though I
have ventured to deviate a little from the arrangem^ent, believ-
ing that the retention of the acrocarpous and pleurocarpous
sections is certainly convenient.

THE UOSS WORLD.

; TABLE OP THE FAMILIES OF MOSSES.

SuhQlBaa.—SPnAGNIN^.
Tito. 1. — SpKi.sIrAC&£.

SnbclasB.— iJflrwjs:.

Order 1.— SCHISTOCARPI.

Fam. 2. — Aiidb££ace£.

Order 2.— STEGOCAEPI.

DiviBion 1. — Slaamodontes.

Fam. 3.— Obobsucejb.

Division 2.—Nematodontea.

Film. 4. — BuxBAUicucE^.

„ 5,— PoLTTttlcaiCEi,

Diviaioa 3. — Arthrodontes.
SubdivisioQ 1. — Acrocarpici.

— DlCKl^ACKA
7.— IiEUCODRTACES

8. — TEICHOBTOliAOBJI
8. — CALnCPEB&CXiB

10. — Okuimuckx

11.— OBTHOTRICHACSLfi

12. — Sflachdace^

Fmi. 13,— FuKAKiAOta
— Bktacri
— Mniace^

— BAXTRAlOACJIf

— SCHISTOBTEQ A CE«
— F188IDES lACEiU

Subdivision 2

L 1ft — Htpoptkeygiace^
20. — Bhacopilac g^
si. — hookeriace x

23. — FoUTlK ALACEX

— Pleurocarpici.

I Fam. 23. — Xbckeracex
• „ 24. — Eeopo DUCES
„ 25. — Leskeacre
I „ 26. — HrpiJiCR.E.

It will be seen that the Cleistocarpi or closed-fniited mosses
are omitted, for the only point in common which they possessed
was the absence of a separable operculum, yet Schimper, in his
" Synopsis," keeps up for them three families and eleven
genera ; a twelfth genus, Systegium, comprising Phaacum
crispum and multicapsulare which have a distinct lid though
it does not come off, he removes to the stegocarpous section,
and to the vicinity of Weisia, from which indeed it is insepar-
able in any natural arrangement. The most lowly organised
■" B species of Epbemenmi, the babies of the moss world, so

* Not European.

I-OPCLAB SCIESCE RETIEW.

minate as to be scarcely distinguishable, and sd littlrl
dependant, that they never diRpense with their snppm-riiyj
tluLlltitm during t be whole period of their existence, mad 1
microscope will at once §how their afSnity to Fonaru in tbe
lax parenchymatous areolation and inOated calyptra. Again,
Arcbidium and I'leuridium are equally approiitnatod to
Dicranella, while I'Uascum it«elf for which we r^ain the ooo-
mon P. ai.'iiulon Lin. aa the type is equally close to Pottit
among the Trichostomacese.

Habitats.

Few localities are to be found where some moss or other id
not to be met with. Even in our largest towns^ a few yards of
open ground, if neglected for a time, become covered with a
crop of mosses originating from spores wafted oa every hreeie.
Hryum argenteum and Oratodon purpureus occupy the paths,
though probably they do not bear fruit, and Tortula moralii
takes posaeasion of the bricks and their interstices on the garden
walls.

If we extend our walks to the commons around, we find
the list of Bpocit-s considerably augmented, and old sandstone
walla bear in addition Grimmia pulvinata, with several Tortnhs
and Brya. A few mosses are littoral or affect the eearcoaet,
especially several species of Pottia, with Trichostomum ci»-
pulum, brachydontium and littorale, Tortula uitida and cmid-
foUu.

Again, the chemical nature of the soil or rock materially
influences the character of its inhabitants: some are almost
confined to chalk, as Selig^ia calcarea and paucifolia, Funaiia
calcarea, several TortulaD, Weisia tortilis, Thuidium deUca-
tulum and histricosum, &c. ; while clay-fields support the
various species of Pbnscum and Ephemerum, Sandstone has
Campy lost elium, Bracbyodus, Tetrodontium, &c. ; and granite,
slate, or basalt each supports some peculiar species : to the
first of these especially are the Andrereas attached. Bogs are
rich in certain species, especially of ^Iniacece, with Hypnum
cuspidatum, cordifolium, gigant«um, fluitans, nitens, Ac-
Trees are occupied by various species of Orthotrichimi, Zygo-
don, Cryphiea, and Leucodon— some preferring the smooth-
barked willows, others the rougher oak and elder ; and, again,
some confine themselves to the parts near the ground — as
Weisia truncicola, Leskea pulvinata and polycarpa, Anomodon
viticuloBUB, &c. As we ascend the mountains, we soon find we
have reached the head-quarters of the mosses— the numerons
streams and waterfalls, and the frequent mists that saturate
the atmoepheie with moistuie, keep them growing contlnuallyi

THE aoss wonLD. 377

and &equeiitl; impress a marked feature on the landscape, for
species of Po]3rtrichum and Rhacomitrium frequently cover
extensive areas, to the exclusion of all other forms, Again,
ceirtain species — and some of these, too, among the most
elegant — flourish luxuriantly in these elevated regions, which
we should look for in vain at a lower level, as Spladmaceee
Conostomum, various species of Orinimia and Andretea,
Hypnum Halleri, callichroum, reflexum, &c, ; thiis everywhere
covering the bare places of the earth with a verdant carpet
ere yet Spring dare put forth her flowers — clasping in their
tender arms the crumbling atone, and smoothing the scarred
face and furrowed cheek of the time-worn tower, or clothing
the decaying trees with a mantle of green of varied shades,
tnnafonning each into a garden where the observing eye may
delight to trace a miniature resemblance to the pine-woods,
sloes, yuccas, and sedums among higher plants.

Uses.

The old writers del^hted to attribute many uses to mosses,
yet, except among the most primitive races, few of them
minister directly to the wants of man ; the Spbagnums alone
form the first origin of peat, which is still laigely consumed
for fuel. LinoKus tells us that Polytrichum commune was
used by the Laplanders for beds, and highly praises it for not
harbouring insects or any infectious disease ; and this plant is
still used in the dales of the north of England for the manu-
facture of small brooms ; Splachoum Wormskioldii also forms
the wick for the simple lamp of the Eskimos.

Yet although their services in human economy are so small,
in that of Nature how great is their end ! The bear lines his
winter quarters with a thick bed of Polytrichum ; the squirrel
and dormouse, and whole tribes of birds, use Hypnuma as
material for their nests ; and if we shake a tidt of moss over
paper, we shall flnd that it harbours a population we little
dreamed of — elegant little mollusca feeding among the
branches, with tiny beetles and podiu-a3 and curious acari
hiding at the roots.

Again, mosses have been termed the pioneers of vegetation,
for, being able to establish themselves whore little else can
maintain a footing, they penetrate with their slender radicles
the smallest crevices, and slowly disintegrate the substratum on
which they grow, constantly arresting by their interwoven
tufle the dust-grains wafted on every breeze, and ever decaying
below, ever extending above, they are slowly but surely accu-
mulating material capable of supporting a higher order of
vegetation.

378 POFULAB 8CIKKCE KlfUW.

Their vital functions, too, must not be oveilooked, tor their
myriad cells are for ever condensing the moirtiire of the
atmosphere and adding their tribute to every moimtain riD,
which, borne onward to the ocean, is again retomed to them
in the mists and snow-wreaths that are their constant at-
tendants.

In winter and early spring they contribute much to the
verdant covering of the earth, and to the supply of oxygen
afterwards given out by the leaves of higher plants. I haTe
mentioned the vast number of species that people our moss
world, all unsurpassed in beauty of structure by any other
group ; and these are but a fragment of the Creator's handi-
work, unnoticed and uncared for by the ordinary passer-by;
yet, though yielding neither sustenance for the hungry nor
medicine for the sick, there are times when their study will
supply l)oth food and physic to the mind.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXVIL

a. Funaria hjgrometrica, nat size.

1. Sporea.

,2. Prothallium and young plants. ^

3. Male flower.

4. Anthcridia and paraph jses.

5. Autheridium discharging spermatozoids^ with one of the latter Yerj

highly magnified.
0. Fertilised archegonium.

7. Young fruit with vaginula.

8. Calyptra.

0. Perfect fruit before the fall of the lid.

10. One of the stomata from neck of same.

11. Portion of the annul us.

12. Longitudinal section through the fully-formed green fruit, showing

the small sporangium, nearly filled by the columella.
It3. Peristome.

14. A single tooth of outer and of inner peristome, with the central

cribrose disc.

15. A leaf, with the cells constituting its areolation.

THEORY OF A NERVOUS ETHER.
Br DR. RTCHABDSON, F.R.S.

riuy course of experimental lectures on medicul science
delivered during the last winter session, I broached a modi-
fication of the old and well-nigh obsolete theory of the exist-
ence of a nervous fluid ; and I have since reduced to some form,
in a published lecture, the ideas I wished to set forth.' It has
been ciiriolis to me to observe the different lights in which this
■^ort has been viewed by men of different phases of thought
and knowlet^e. Some physicists have accepted that the theory
an^ests the existence 'Of iin intermediate agency between the
matter of living bodies and the forces by which the matter is
moved — an agency essential to the correct understanding of the
relations coexieting between the living matter and force.
Others have thought the theory obscure and retrogressive, &
kind of retreat into the bosom of Van Helmont, and of those
fanciful heroes of Lord Lytton, who, still professing Helmontism
as an article of scientific, and I had almost said moral faith,
proclaim life to be " a gaa." Lastly, certain enthusiastic writers,
and, as they call themselves, experimenteiB, have actually laid
hold of the theory to support modern spiritualism, and its idola
of the theatre.

To commence with the last of these critics, I need scarcely
say, in relation to them, that there is nothing in my mind
baring in the remotest degree on their arguments. I speak
only of a veritable material agent, refined, it may be, to the
world at large, but actual and substantial: an agent having
quality of weight and of voliune ; an agent susceptible of
chemical combination, and thereby of change of physical state
and condition ; an agent passive in its action, moved always,
that is to say, by influences apart from itself, obeying other
influences ; an agent possessing no initiative power, no vis, or
energia naturae, but still playing a most important, if not a

' Medicnl Timet and Gaut/f, Mav 6, IHTi.

380 POPULAU SCIEKCB BKYIEW.

primary piirt In flie production of the phenomena resuliing
from ihe action of the enerffia upon visilile matter.

In respect to those who imagine that the tlieory of tlie
ejtistence of a nenous etlier tends to materialise tlie plienomeua
of life and of livinjr action, the answer is simple. The tlieorj
treats of an assumed material part of the living organism, and
hai no reference whatever to that more distant or spiritual
essence of our nature of which, as yet, no more is known,
pliysically, than of the energia natuTo; itself. We must all
accept that the impulses of men and animals, the volitions,
the sympatliies, the passions, are manifested hy and through
the material organism, the matter as a mechanism obeying the
force that moves it. The tongue of man that speaks, the bund
that gives, takes, strikes, aids, begs ; the feet that make pro-
gression, and all parts that act, act positively as mechanisms
of material character. How they act, in obedience to the
impulses that move them, becomes, consequently, a distinct
question that may be studied apart from the impulses them-
selves, and in the theory this is implied. The impulses, I
mean, are considered as initial and independent motions, the
origin of which forms no part whatever of the theory of a ner-
vous ether.

Of the first order of critics, they alone appreciate the mean-
ing I would attach to the theory of a nenous or animal ether.
The idea attempted to be conveyed by the theory is that between
the molecules of the matter, solid or fiuid, of which the nervous
organisniB and indeed of which all the organic parts of the body
are composed, there exists a refined subtle medium, vaporom
or gaseous, which holds the molecules in a condition for motion
upon each other, and for arrangement and rearrangement of
form ; a medium by and through which all motion is conveyed ;
by and through wMch the one organ or part of the body is held
in communion with the other parts and by and through which
the outer living world commimicates with the living man : a
mediiun which, being present, enables the phenomena of life to
be demonstrated, and which, being universally absentj leaves the
body actually dead — in such condition, i.e. that it cannot, by
any phenomenon of motion, prove itself to he alive.

I hope I have now made clear what is generally meant by
the theory of a nervous ether. But there are yet two other
points on which it is essential, for a moment, to dwell. In
using the word cf/ter I do not necessarily convey the common
idea of a body belonging to the chemical family or group called
the ethers, or the ethyl series. I use the word ether in its
general sense, aa meaning a very light vaporous or gaseous
matter : I use it, in short, as the astronomer uses it when he
speaks of the ether of space, by which he means a subtle hut

material medium, the chemical composition of wliicli he lias
not yet discovered. Again, when I speak of a. neii-ous ether, I
do not convey that the ether is existent in nervous structure
only : I believe, truly, that it is a special part of the nervous
organisation ; but aa nerves pasa into all structures that have
capacities for movement and sensibilities, so the nervous ether
passes into all such parta ; and as the nervous ether is, accord-
ing to my view, a direct product from blood, so we may look
upon it as a part of the atmosphere of the blood.

The theory of the existence and influence of a neTVons Jlukl
IB old. The earliest practical neuro-physio legists seized upon
it at once as affording the only explanation of many rital
phenomena. Willis, who was the leader of modern neuro-phy-
siology, gave the cue, and after him, up to the time of Gatvani,
every school taught the theory. " There exiatB," said the mastera
— "there exists in the nervous system a distinct fluid, a liquid
which proceeds from the centres towards and to the extremities
of the nervous system. The nervous centres (the brain in-
cluded) are thus positively glands ; they secrete the nervous
fluid and pour it out by the nerves. As bile is secreted by the
liver and poured forth, so is the nervous fluid secreted by its
ceutres and poured forth by the nerve ducts." Alexander
Munro, in 1783, sums up the argument clearly and tersely, to
the effect that the nerves ai'e tubes or ducts conveying a fluid
secreted in the brain, the cerebellum, and spinal marrow.

To the physiologists from the time of Willis (who lived, by
the way, in the reign of Charles II.) and to those who followed
him up to the time when Gjilvani made his first observations
on so-called animal electricity (1790) this hypothesis of a
nervous fluid sufficed to explain the varied phenomena of
nervous function: the fluid was supposed to convey the vibra-
tions of the outer world to the inner centres of the animal
body; the fluid governed secretion; the fluid was the channel
by which, or rather through which, the volitional powers of the
animal were brought to bear on the muscular mechanism.

Nor miLst it be ignored that the argiunents employed in
support of the theory were sensible and were supported by
experimental facts. " When," argued the maintainers of the
theory — -" when we cut a nerve across and bring its parts again
into contiguity, we do not restore the office of the nerve
immediately, nay, the influence of the nerve beyond the
incision is generally not restored : when we compress a nerve
we produce numbness by the compression ; and when, by
repeated -slight compressions of a nerve, we cause repeated
contractions of the muscles fed by the nerve, we prove that
the impulse is exerted on matter which admits of being
affected fry simple pressure"

382 POPULAB SCIENCB BETIEW.

Still further, the argnment of the velocity with which im-
pressions are conveyed from the centres of the nervous system
to the muscles, or from the external surfitces back to the centres
— an argument which in our times has been advanced as if it
were new in science — ^was studied by these earlier physiologists
who urged that if the nerves are constantly filledor charged with
fluid, an impulse given to that fluid at the brain may be sud-
denly communicated to the most distant organ, or the reverse,
although the velocity of the fluid be itself very small.

The modem reader will gather from the above that there
was great simplicity, great beauty, great force, in the olden
theory of a nervous fluid ; and if I could invite him to follow
me into the subject of structure of nervous matter he might
perchance be more convinced that the theory was in a sense
true and unassailable. He would certainly wonder why so
little is known, at this day, about so important a speculation.

His wonder would, moreover, be most reasonable, for the
theory, while it has never been successfully assail^, never
been injured a jot by anything that has been said about it, has
merely been let drop and forgotten, hidden for a time by the
brilliancy of another theory — now well-nigh blazed out — I mean
the electrical theory promulgated by Galvani.

The evidence in favour of the existence of an elastic medium
pervading the nervous matter and capable of being influenced
by simple pressure is all-convincing. When we press a nerve
firmly we act on something that is as distinctly under the
influence of the pressure as when we press upon a vein and by
that means influence the current of blood within the vein.
When we freeze a nerve we stop its function altogether, we
make it almost like metal in its appearance and physical
character, and we can then divide it without communicating the
faintest scintillation of sensation to the brain.* In this case
the cold has acted like pressure ; it has either condensed the
nervous matter, and has, by the contraction induced, driven out
some agent the presence of which was necessary for the per-
formance of function, or it has condensed the agent itself to-
gether with the nerve, so that the condition for sensation is
suspended. When we divide a nerve we break a connection,
we divide a structure which must be absolutely perfect for
conveyance of motion, and with our best skill we cannot secure
that the connection shall be ever again rendered perfect.

Each one of these experimental facts suggests that there
exists in the nerve an actual material mobile agent, a something

• This fact is well illustrated in the operation of nerving the horse, under
ether spray. The nerve, when exposed, is found superficially frozen, and
when frozen more deeply may be cut as if it were a soft metallic wire, dead
tn the knife as in the nerveless homy hoof below.

THEOBT OF A SERVOCS ETHEB. 383

more than the solid matter which the eye can aee and the
finger touch. The question to be considered, ia — the naiure of
this agent.

In nervous structure there is, unquestionably, a tnie nervous
fluid, as our predeceaaora taught. The precise chemical compoei-
tion of this fluid is not yet well known, the physical charactere
of it have been little studied. Whether it moves in current
we do not know; whether it circulates we do not know;
whether it is formed in the centres and passes from them
through the nerves, or whether it is formed everywhere where
blood enters nerve we do not know. The exact uses of the
fluid we do not, consequently, know.

It occurs to my mind, however, that the veritable fluid of
nervous matter is not of itself sufficient t-o act as the siibtle
medium that connects the outer with the inner universe of man
and animal. I think — and this is the modification I suggest of
the older theory- — there must be another form of matter
present during life ; a matter which exists in the condition of
vapour or gas, which penades the whole nervous organism,
surrounds, aa an enveloping atmosphere, each molecule of
nervous structure, and is the medium of all motion commimi-
cated to or from the nervous centres.

The source of tliis refined matter, within the body, is, I
think, the blood. I look upon it as a vapour distilled from
blood, as being persistently formed so long as the blood
circuJates at the natural temperature, and as being difTused
into the nenous matter, to which it gives quality for every
function performed by the nervous organisation. In the
closed cavities containing nervous structure, the cavities of the
skull and spinal coliunn, this gaseous matter, or ether as I
have called it, sustains a given requisite tension ; in all parts
of the nervous structure it surrounds the molecules of nervous
matter, separates them from each other, and is yet, between
ihem. a bond and medium of communication.

When it is once fairly presented to the mind that during life
there is in the animal body a finely diflfused form of matter,
a vapoiu- filling every part — and even stored in some parts ; &
matter constantly renewed by the vital chemistry ; a matter
aa easily disposed of as the breath, after it has served its
purpose — a new flood of light breaks on the intelligence. Our
own conaciousnesa re-echoes t« us the fact. Our experience
assures ua that between ourselves and the outer world there
is, while we live, an intercommunicating bond which connects
us with the outer world ; which is apart from the gross visible
subatauces we call flesh, bone, brain, blood ; which in some
way, nevertheless, ia connected with both heart and brain and- .
organs of sense ; which is made in and within our own organiei'

• as ; which produced
: our nnU; which ii
1 b; food aad fav deep, exbmoited by wakefulness and
; vhicfa tvcetTe* evoy Tihratioii or motioii from without,
■■d lets Uw wne Tibnte into us, ta be fixed or reflected liaclc ;
snd which cooven the inr"!*^ when we will an act and per-

It na; be mged that in thii Kne of thought u iDcloded no
note tha the thewy of the wrii(t«K» of the ether that is snp-
pOHd te pemde qvee, the imdalating ether of light. It

rbe n&d thai tba onivena] ether pervades all the oi^ani^m
! Ir-dy as from without, and as part of eveiy
This new would be Pantheism jJiysically di»-
1, if it were true. It bils to be true because it would
dntngr tho iDdindoality of eveiy individual beiog : it faild to
be tnw faemue it would destroy the iadiriduatity of ereiy Id'
dtridaal Mose. If we did not iodindually produce, by our own
cbemistty, the refioed essence perradiog as ; if the eseence were
dtSitBed through u$ independently of oor eating, drinking,
fanathing, we should be independent of the earth altogether,
mdowed with an inde^ructible physical existence not belonging
to U3 at all, specially, but to the univerM at large, and disUnct
from us ; we should, in fact, be a& atoms of matter aggregated
by attraction into a certain fonn or mould, and held to the
earth by the attraction of the earth, bat actually permeated
with the ether, as though we floated in an ethereal sea. If wt^
did Dot iadiridually produce the medium of communication
between ourselves and the onter world, if it were produced
from without and adapted to one kind of vibration alone, then
were fewer senses required ttian we possess ; for, taking two
itinerations only— ether of light is not adapted for soond,
and vet we hear as well as see ; while air, the medium of motion
of sound, is not the medium of light, and yet we see and hear.

In tbe theory therefore I ofler the ner\ous ether is an
animal product. In different classes of animals it may differ
in physical quality so as to be adapted to the special wants of
the animal, but essentially it plays one i>art in all animals, and
is produced, in all, in the same way.

I think 1 may venture, to some extent, to define the required
pbysical properties of a nervous ether. We may consider it as
a gas or vapour, and as ha\~ing in its elementary construction
carbon, hydrogen, and possibly nitrogen : I suspect it is con-
deusable under cold, movable under pressure, diffusible by
heat, insoluble in tlie blood, and holding at the natiual tem-
perature of the body a tension requisite for natural fimction.
It is retained, I imagine, for a longer time in cold-blooded
animals, after death, than in warm-blooded animals, and

THSOHT OF A NERVOUS ETQEtl. 385

longer in warm-blooded aDimals that have died in cold than
in those that have died in heat. Upon ita presence for a con-
siderahlc time after death in some animals, nnd for a short
time in all animals imder &vouring conditions, I believe to
depend those post-mortem movements of muscles which Haller
attributed to the vis i/nsita of muscular fibre.

The ner\-otis ether is not, according to my ideal of it, in itself
active or an excitant of animal motion in the sense of a force ;
but it is essential a^ supplying the conditions by which the
motion is rendered possible. It is the conductor, I presume,
of all vibrations of heat, of light, of sound, of electrical
action, of mechanical friction. It holds tlie nervous system
throughout in perfect tension during perfect states of life.
By exercise it is disposed of, and when the demand for it is
greater than the supply, its deficiency is indicated by nervous
collapse or exhaustion. It accumulates in the nervous centres
during sleep, bringing them, if I may so speak, to their due
tone, and therewith rousing the muscles to awakening or re-
newed life. The body, fully renewed by it, presents capacity
for motion, fulness of form, life. The body, bereft of it,
presents inertia, the configuration of *' shrunk death " the
evidence of having lost something physical that was in it when
it lived.

The theory of a nervous ether comports itself well in respect
to the refined mechanism of the senses. When the wave of
atmosphere strikes the tympanum or drum of the ear it
communicates the vibration to the nervous ether within, and
so, by the auditory tract, to the central organ, the brain.
When the wave of limiinoiis ether impinges on the condensing
retina it communicates the vibration, through the nen'ous ether,
along the optic tract, to the brain. When the picture of an
object is put upon the retina, it is looked at where it is put,
on the veritable spot where it is focussed, until it evanishes by
being withdrawn or shut off from the sense. When an im-
pression is made on the surface of the body, be it made by
beat, electricity, or mechanical excitation, it is vibrated
through the ether to the centres of the nervous system; and
when an impulse from the centres is conveyed to the muscles,
it, too, is vibrated through the same medium.

The ether, as I opine, holds the molecules and cells of nervous
matter, the ultimate particles of muscles, the corpuscles of blood,
and probably the ultimate particles of the fibrine of the blood
in a state of mobility ; it thus passively counteracts the attrac-
tion of cohesion between particles, and prevents rigidity of
the flexible or fluid structures of the Iwdy so long as they
live. Being itself a simple physical agent, the nervous ether
is, I apprehend, influenced in the most signal manner bv

POPULaE HClEJiCE REVIEW.

simple external conditions. It is iofiuenced by
heat and cold, is increaaed in volume by heat, ie coatxacted or
condensed by cold ; it is influenced by atmospheric pressure ; it
is influenced by electrical conditions of the air ; the inductive
effects of electricity on the muscleg of living an i mail a are due,
as it seems to me, to the disturbance escit«d by the electrical
action upon the animal atmosphere; nay, I conceive, we
ourselves are rendered conscious of the changes of external
conditions — of heat, of cold, of variations of the barometiifal
pressure, of electrical Btorms — by the sensible fiuctuations of
the atmosphere within us.

Through the nervous ether, itself a gaa or vapour, other gases
or vapours may readily and quickly diffuse, and by such dif-
Aisionmay so modify the physical characters of the natural ether
aa to lead to modifications of nervous function. Thus those
vapours which, being diffused into the body, produce benumbing
influence — as the vapours of alcohol, chloroform, bichloride of
methylene, ethylic ether, and the like — produce their benumb-
ing effects because they are not capable of taking the place of
the natural ether into which they diffuse : they interfere, that
is to say, with the physical conduction of impressions through
what should be the pure atmosphere between the outer and
the inner world. A dense cloud in the outer atmosphere shall
shut out my view of the sun ; a cloud in the inner atmo-
sphere of my optic tract shall produce precisely the aamo
obscurity.

Pain is the result of rapid vibration of the nervous ether j
and pain, whether it be called physical or mental, is the some
event. The soH:alled physical pain, that which comes from ii
blow or a cut, is excessive vibration, more than the brain can
receive. The so-called mental pain is excessive vibration carried
through the senses to the centres, or excited in the centre*
and carried to the outlets of the body for relief.

It is, I think, no figure of speech to say that nerves bleed
— no figure of speech to affirm the phenomena of nervous
exhaustion, of nervous collapse, of nervous strain and of
nervous overstrain. Under mental labour or emotion nervea
bleed as vessels do — bleed not blood in mass, but the richest
product of blood. Under violent shock the whole nervous
atmosphere is thrown into vehement vibration, the heart is held
fixed by the commotion, and the failure of animal force is
followed by sudden and overwhelming prostration. These are
all clear physical phenomena. A feeble animal chemistry yields
a feeble nervous tension, a powerful chemistry or action pr<^-
duces over-tension.

The infliction of physical pain is followed by the shriek, tJia

^, the moan, or the hard setting of muscle: the shiiel^ tJ»

TUEOUY OF A KEIiVOUS ETHEli. 387

I, the moan, or the muacular rigor is the echo of the pain ;
I is more, it ia the outlet of the evil, the excess of vibration
^ect.ed, diverted, giveo forth. The infliction of mental pain
I followed by tears, sighs, and other varied forms of grief;
see are, again, the echoes and the outlets of the evil.
_The tension of the nervous ether generally may be too high
f too low ; it may be so locally, owing to local changes in
nervous matter it invests and charges. Under undue
iBion of the brain or cord, both closed firmly in by bony
" 1, the ether, under sharp excitation, may vibrate as if in a
I, and plunge every muscle under cerebral or spinal control
) iincontrolled motion — unconscious convulsion,
stly, the nervous ether may be poisoned ; it may, I mean,
Eve diffused through it, by simple gaseous diffusion, other
gases or vapours derived from without ; it may derive from
within products of substances swallowed and ingested, or
gases of decomposition produced, during disease, in the body
itself. But here a field of observation opens relative to the
production of some forms of acute and chronic diseases on
which I must not enter, were even space at command.

I have tried, and I hope with success, to offer a simple and
practical view of a very difficult subject. The philosopher
may think the subject void, the public may think it obscure.
There are many, I am aware, who will say that although the
theory is reasonable it is comparatively worthless until more
is known — until, in short, the physical character of the assumed
nervous ether is demonstrated and certain definite phenomena
are made manifest by its mediation. This criticism, which I
should be the first to suggest, I am the last to ignore. I
profess only at the present moment to submit a theory ; I look
to experiment for the trial of the theory, its truth, its falsity ;
and as it is a the(»ry which experiment can slowly, but in the
most striking and solemn manner, truly and faithfully try, I
abide the result with leisure and contentment.

388

ON PLEISTOCENE CLIMATE AND THE RELATION
OF THE PLEISTOCENE MAMMALIA TO THE
GLACIAL PERIOD.

By W. BOYD DAWKIN8, M.A, F.RS., F.G.S.

[PLATE LXXVm.]

-*o«-

THE animals which inhabited northern France, Gennany,
and Britain, during the Pleistocene* age, have been de-
fined with the greatest accuracy by M. Lartet, Dr. Falconer,
Professor Busk, and others, and probably will not be largely
increased by any future discoveries. There are, however,
certain inferences to be drawn from the comparison of the
present with the former range of the Pleistocene animals, both as
to climate and geography, which have not been brought pro-
minently forward. The delicate question also of their relation
to the glacial period, which has been sub judice for the last
twenty years, demands a careful attention. In the following
essay I shall attempt to show to what extent it may be solved
by an appeal to the localities in Great Britain and Ireland, in
which they have been discovered. I have already proved in
the " Quarterly GeologicalJoumal" for 1869, p. 192, that the
contents of the bone caves and of the river deposits of Great
Britain are, zoologically speaking, of the same age, and that
the absence of one or two animals in the one or the other does
not necessarily imply a difference in point of time. The cave
bear is probably absent from the river beds because it was an
inhabitant of caves, and was not liable to be swept down by
the floods and buried in the river gravels and alluvia, just as
the squirrel is absent from both, because of its arboreal habits :
it has left the gnawed nut-shells in the Cromer forest bed as

* The term Pleistocene is used in this essay as the precise equivalent of
the term Quaternary, and as the natural name of the stage succeeding the
IMeiocene. The Forest-bed mammalia, which I have formerly included in
the Preglacial division of the Pleistocene, are relegated to the passage beds
of the Pleiocene, or the Upper Pleiocene. Evidence for this change of no-
menclature will shortly be published.

P;j.r,. L-aor.ii

M^^'-jTHA

^■'

-V

' +■ V.

' X-" - ) g

■iy<!}o^ra.phy "f N.W. Euylj.- u"i'C''"i-y'.;'^.'."'--'iv-— ■^w.vi.

FLEISTOCKNE CLIMATE \SD MAUUALIA.

38tf

the only proof that it lived in Britain at that remote time.
An examination also of the tables of the diatribution of the
animata proves, tliat so tir as Great Britain and Ireland are
concerned, the attempt to form a chronology, based on the
presence of the mammoth, reindeer, cave-bear, and bison, has
failed, because all the species are found indififerently mixed up
together under the same conditions, I gliall therefore treat
the mammalia, both from caves and river beds, as being of the
same age and belonging to the same fauna.

The Pleistocene land fauna of Great Britain, consisting of
forty-eight species, may be divided into five well-marked
groups, which will be examined separately : the first compre-
hending all the extinct species ; the second, those still inhabit-
ing the temperate zone of Europe ; the third, those common to
northern and tropical climates; the fourth, those confined to
southern climates at the present day ; and lastly, those confined
to the inclement regions of the north.

The extinct group consists of nine, or perhaps t«n, animals:
the sabre-toothed machairodus, of Kent's Hole, and the narrow-
toothed Elephas antiqutts ; the two slenderly-built rhinoceroses,
the megarhine, and the R, hemitoechua of Dr. Falconer {R.
Uptwhlnus of Owen), the tichorhine species, the cave-bear, the
Irish Elk, the Cervus Broinii, the mammoth, and possibly the
Hippopotamus inajor. The last may possibly be represented
at tiie present day by the larger African species. The first
four and the last of these animals were of a southern habitat
in Europe : the cave-bear, the Irish elk, and (Cervus Brotvni)
Brown's deer — the representative of the fallow deer of the
Mediterranean — were dwellers in the temperate zone ; while
the mammoth was almost cosmopolitan, occurring alike in
France and Spain, and living alike on the fruit and leaves of
the Scotch fir in Siberia, and the rich vegetation of the lower
Itasin of the Mississippi. The woolly rhinoceros, on the other
hand, was an animal that did not range in the Pleistocene
"imes further south than the Alps and Pyrenees, while north-
'ds and eastwards it extended as far over the whole of
liberia, and the now submerged area to its north, near the
mouths of the Lena and the Indigirka. The Irish elk is the
only animal that survived its extinct companions of the
Pleistocene ago, ultimately to disappear from the face of the
earth during the time that the pre-historic peat-bogs and
alluvia were being accumulated.

The mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros are the only two
extinct forms that characterise the Pleistocene deposits, being
Tound neither in the ploiocene nor in the pre-historic strata.
The second group, consisting of those Pleistocene species
still inhabit the temperate zones of Europe and America.,

S90 rOFDLiJt 8CIDIGI BITISir.

twenty-eeven in number, links together the ancient with the
present fiouuu The bison, or the aoitehs, ranged over nearlj
the whole of the Enro-Asiatic continent in PleiBtooene tiaieii
firom the Pyrenees through France and Ghermany and Sibnia,
as fiBur asBehring's Straits and Eschscholta Bay,onfheAnieri0ia
shore of the Arctic Sea, in company with the mammoth sad
the reindeer. In the days of Charlemagne it inhabited the
forests in the neighbourhood of Aix-larChapelle, and some
thirty years ago it was met with in the Cancasus, and at the
present day it lingers in the Lithuanian forests, protected Iiy
a special decree of the Czar of Russia. The American variety
inhabits the temperate zone of North America. I agree with
Professor Brandt, of St. Petersburg, in viewing the Amerioii
bison as a variety of the European, after a car^Chl comparisoa
of the points of difference between the two aninwls, Tha
Pleistocene bison stands half way between the European and
the American, and represents sometimes the characterB of the
one and sometimes the characters of the other.- The Urns is
still living, as Professor Rutimeyer tells us, id 'our ddmesUe
breeds, and it inhabited the woods of Germany in a feral stiKte
at least as late as the days of Charlemagne. The griazly besr,
for the identification of which we have to thank Pzofeamr
Busk, is to be met with only in the temperate regions of North
America. During the Pleistocene age it was more nomeroos in
Britain than any of the other species of bear. The rest of fbe
group may be passed over without further notice. They
oonsist of

The greater horseshoe Fox Shrew Field mouse

bat Ermine Stag Meadow vole

Commoabat Stoat Roe-deer Hare

Molt Weasel TTildboar Rabbit

Wild eat Martin cat Horse Common mouse.

Ljnx Otter Beaver

Wolf Browbeat Water rat

The Celtic short-horn {Bos longifrona) and the goat (Copra
hircus) have been purposely omitted, because there is no
evidence that either inhabited Great Britain or any part of
Europe during Pleistocene times.

The third group, consisting of species common to cold and
tropical climates, is represented only by the panther, which
has been discovered by Mr. Sanf ord and myself in the caves of
the Mendip Hills. On the continent it is known under the
name of Fdis antiqua. It is by no means rare in the caves.
At the present day it is found throughout Africa, Asia Minor,
Palestine, and the Altai mountains in Siberia.

^H PLEISTOCENE CLIMATE AND UAHMALIA. 391

We come now to the Hpecies found at present only in
southern climates, the cave lion and the cave liyana. The
first of these is identical with the lion of Africa and Asia, and
lived in the mountainous districts of Macedonia at the time
that Aristotle was writing his "Natural History." The second
I am unahle to distinguish from the spotted hy^na now found
only in South Africa. Both these animals were, on the whole,
larger than their living representatives, a difference which
probably was caused by the abundance of food which they
obtained, the huotfirs in those early days not being sufficiently
numerous to compete with the camivorcB for their prey.

The mammalia, composing the fifth and most important
group, now confined to the colder regions of the north, or to
High altitudes in the northern hemisphere, consists of the
glutton, reindeer, musk sheep, pouched marmot, tailless hare,
and the lemming.

From this short analysis of the Pleistocene fauna, we can
■ i':iliae the peculiar mixture of extinct animals with those now
liiniahed to different regions of the earth. We have now to
isaraine the conditions under which they must have lived in
Europe during the Pleistocene age. We will take that re-
biting to the climate first. The hyeena and the lion, living
only at the present day in hot regions, imply at first sight
that the temperature under which they lived in Europe was
comparatively high. But, on the other hand, the fact that the
tiger of the Altai is specifically identical with that inhabiting
the jungles of Bengal, shows that the testimony offered by the
carnivores as to climate is not altogether trustworthy. In the
case of the lion, the temperature of the mountains of Thrace
was undoubtedly infinitely more severe than that of any region
in which it now lives, and most probably approaches to that
under which it occupied the forests of Germany, France, and
Britain. The spotted hyiena may very likely have been en-
dowed with the same elasticity of constitution as the living tiger,
which enabled it to live in far colder regions than that in which
it is now found. We may therefore dismiss the evidence of
both these animals as to climate, as being liable to lead into
error. The presence, however, of the genus hippopotamus in
the Pleistocene fauna cannot be accounted for except by the
hypothesis that during the time it lived here the climate was
^utemperate, or even warmer than it is now. Alt tlic species
^■■f tuppopotamua now alive spend the greater part of their
^Hwee in the water, rather than on the land. It is there-
^l^re extremely improbable that any ancient species, so little
removed in form from the living, could have inhabited a
country in which the rivers were frozen for a considerable
portion of (Jae yeat. Had the FleiAtocaiid hippopotamua beKxt.

cadowed with halits and modes of life digcre n t from flioie
of the firing speooB^it is acazeelf poawhift that ihii differ
CBce dioald not htTt iuna e mcd iteif on the akcletoiMi nUidi
attoft its presence in Eiizo|ie. Aad jet tlie dilTeie nce it m
wmmR between the extinct European aad the existing laigar
hippopotaizuBy that it is acazceljr a]i|weciable. Hie animal,
there&re, fnrtifatifs that daring the time it occiqaed Enn^
the nTexa were firee firom ice.

This view is, howcmov ditcctly aj fyu u ed hjr the evidenoe of
the whole gronp ai Aicde mamm a li a, which lired in oental
aad northern Europe during the FleirtoceBe age. It is inae-
dible that the climate snited f\vr the weltheing of the hippo-
potamus coold at the same time hare been adapted for the
reindeer, the lemming, or the mnak dieep; for we have no
reason to belicTe that the powers of resiating heat or ooU
pooKssed hy these animali erer differed frnn those widch thej
now possess. The eiidencey therefore, afforded on the one
hand of a warm PleLstocene climate is balanced on the other Ij
that in &Toar of its having been as severe as that und<»r wUch
the northern group of mammalia now flooridu And the opi-
nions of eminent naturalists are, as near as possible, equally
divided as to its actual character. M. Lartet, fixing his atten-
tion more paiticularlv on the hippopotamus, inclines to the
former view, while the' latter is that taken by Dr. Falconer and
Mr. Prestwich. The two views are, however, by no means antago-
nistic, it we suppose that in Pleistocene Europe the climate
was a^^mewhat similar to that of the vast plains of Siberia,
extending fri:>m the Altai mountains to the Arctic Sea, or to
that offered bv the inland climate of North America. In
Siberia we meet with every gradation in climate, from the
temperate down to that in which the cold is too severe to allow
of the growth of trees, which gradually decrease in size as the
traveller posses northwards, and are replaced by the grey
mosses and lichens of the low, marshy tundras. Throughout
the north the winter cold is intense, and in the southern por-
tion is almost compensated for by the great summer heat, and
its marvellous effect on vegetation. In the north countless
herds of reindeer and elks, followed by wolves, foxes, bears, and
gluttons, are continually on the move, in the heats of summer
passing northwards, and avoiding the severity of the winter by
withdrawing for shelter into the forests in the south. If the
reindeer retreat far south, a severe winter is to be appre-
hended ; if they remain very nearly in their usual haimts, the
season is invariably a mild one. There is, indeed, a continual
swinging to and &o of the Siberian mammalia ; the reindeer some-
times invading the province occupied by the elks and reddeer,
while at others the \al\ei «xnxnaXk ^Tic:t^Ai^ u^n the province

rtximofoam clihatb ahb uiVHiLiA. 393

^^■T the reindeer. The North American mammalia also vary in
^^Keir range according to the climate, as Sir John Franklin
^^Hhind, to his cost, when he was travelling over the barren
^^Hrounds fi-om the shore of the Arctic Sea, In both America
^^Wid Siberia there is a zone of debateable ground, in which the
mammals of the Arctic and t«mperate provinces are continu-
ally oscillating to and fro, according to the seasons. And in
this their skeletons could not fail to be mixed together in the
deposits of the rivers. The musk sheep, for instance, which
in Heme's day, a.d, 1772, lived near Fort Churchill, has now
left that district to be occupied by the elk and the wapiti.

There can be no doubt that the mixed character of the
Pleistocene fauna in Britain and Central Europe is due tn a
siinilar oscillation to and fro of the animals according to the
Be&aons; and when we consider the geographical position of
that area at the time (PI. LXXVIII.), we can see at once how
the mammalia occupying it must necessarily have been mised.
The land stretched continuously without any impassible
barrier northwards and eastwards to the present home of the
reindeer in Euro-Asia; while, on the other hand, it reached
southwards over a considerable portion of what is now the
Mediterranean, almost, if not quite, touching Africa. The
winter cold and the summer heat of so great a mass of
land must necessarily have been more severe than now, when
the Mediterranean occupies a far wider area, and when the
Atlantic and the Baltic and the North Sea have considerably
diminished the area of the land. It is therefore by no means
to be wondered at that a southern animal, such as the hippo-
jwtamus, should have wandered northwards and westwards as
far as the latitude of Yorkshire, and it is worthy of note that
this is the extreme northern limit of the range of the animal.

^0n the other hand, during the severity of winter the reindeer
and the musk sheep descended southwards, and occupied the
Area which they deserted at the approach of summer. Such,
in my belief, is the explanation of the mixed character of the
Pleistocene fauna; it arises partly from the climatal extremes
which must result from the extension of the European continent
over what is now sea. The continuity of land also northwards
and southwards afforded room for the swinging to and fro of the
northern and southern forms of life. When that continuity
was broken the animals would be cut off from their bases of
retreat, and disappear from a region in which the climate was
passing from a continental to an insular condition. It must,
however, be admitted that the enormous preponderance of
northern over southern animals in Pleistocene Europe implies
everity of winter cold, while the comparatively few
f aouthem animals show that the^ wwe t^\siV^ ui>a\&

394 KXFULim soDDicai vrnxw.

to invade the coontiy of the reindeer. All the lemaisf of
fbtfil hippopotamufl in this countiy whidi I have seen, irith
two exceptions, belong to adults, and it is veiy probaUe that
that aniinal seldom or never bred in our countiy. The mun-
mothhas purposely been omitted in this analysis of the evidence
afforded by the mammalia as to the climate, because it happens
to be one of the few creatures which were able to live under
very different climatal conditions, being found alike in ths
volcanic ash in which Rome is built, ^e frozen marshes of
Siberia, and in the morasses of the Southern States.

Nor does this evidence as to the Pleistocene dimate stand
alone. The contorted gravels, and the angular state of the
pebbles of which they are often composed, are, as Mr. Prest-
wich infers, explicable only on the theoiy of ice having been
formed in our rivers in larger quantities than at the p ros e nt
day : the one being the result of the grounding of large masses
of ice, and the other of their melting away, and consequently
dropping their burden of pebbles, lie large ]dateauz of bride
earths are also probably deposited by floods, caused, like those
of Siberia and North America, by the sudden melting of tihe
winter snow.

This consideration of a Pleistocene climate leads necessarily
to the difficult problem of the relation of the Pldstoeene
mammalia to the period of intense cold, the Glacial period;
and before this can be discussed, I must define exactly what
I mean by the term. At the close of the Pleiocene period the
temperature of northern and central Europe became lowered
to such a degree that it became almost Arctic in character, and
those complex phenomena were manifested which we know as
glacial. And the latter indicate geographical changes of
enormous magnitude. The researches of many eminent ob-
servers prove, that at the commencement of the Glacial period
an enormous sheet of ice, like that under which Greenland now
lies buried, extended from the hills of Scandinavia over North
Germany, the North Sea, Scotland, Ireland, Cumbria, and the
hilly districts of England, at least as far south as the valley of
the Thames. The land then, most probably, as Professor
Ramsay and Sir Charles Lyell believe, stood higher than it
does now. Then to tliis succeeded a period of depression^
during which the mountains of Wales were submerged to a
height of at least 1,300 ft. ; and the waves of the sea washed
out of the pre-existing glacier detritus the shingle and sand,
termed the * middle drift,' of the North of England and of Scot-
land and Ireland.* Then the land was re-elevated above the

* I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professor Hull, F.RS.,
Mr. Einahan, and the Hev. M. H. Close, in this portion of the sulgect

rLE15T0(,-8NE CLIMATE AND MAMMALIA. 395

craves, and a second period of glaciers set in, traces of wliich
occur abundantly in Wales. .Scotland, Ireland, and even as
&r south as Dauphine and Aiivergne, They were, how-
ever, of tar less extent than those which preceded them,
oceapjing isolated areas instead of forming one continuous icy
oorering to the country. Such as this is a hnefresuvi-S of the

£laci&l phenomena: 1. As the pleioeene temperature was
rvered, the glaciers crept down irom the tops of the moun-
tains, uatil at last they formed one continuoua ice sheet,
moving resistlessly over the smaller hills and valleys to the
lower grounds, and the first glacier period set in. 2, Then
followed the period of depression beneath the eea. 3. And,
lastly, on the laud re-emerging from the sea, tlie second glacier
period set in. The climate during the marine depression must
obviously Lave been milder than that of either of the glacier
periods, because of the moderating effect of the presence of a
stretch of sea.

What ia the precise relation of the Pleistocene mammals
to these two glacier periods ? Did they invade northern and
central Europe during the first or the second, before or
aft«r, the marine submergence indicated by the "middle
drift?" We might expect, it prio-n, that as the temperature
becanae lowered the northern mammalia would gradually
invade the region occupied before by the pleioeene forms, and
that the reindeer and the mammoth would gradually sup-
plant the Cervus ardens and the Elephae meridiimaUs.
Traces of such an occupation would necessarily be very rare,
since they would be exposed to the grinding action both of the
advancing glacial sheet, and abo subsequently to that of the
waves on the littoral zoue during the depression and re-eleva-
tion of tlie land. At the time also that the greater part of
Great Britain was buried under an ice sheet, they could not
have occupied that region, although they may have been, and
most probably were, living in the districts further to the south,
which were not covered by ice. The labours, however, of Dr.
Bryce and others proved that one at least of the characteristic
Pleistocene mammalia — tlie mammoth as well as the reindeer
— lived in .Scotland before the deposit of the lower boulder-
clay ; while Mr. Jamieson has pointed out that they could not
have occupied that area at the same time as the ice, and there-
fore must )>e referred to a still earlier date.* Tlie teeth and
hones discovered in the ancient land surface at Selsea also
very probably indicate that the mammoth lived in Sussex
• For account of these discoTeries, see "Trans. Geol. Soc. Qlafgow,"
vol. i. pun 2 ; " Qunrt. Oeol. Joum.," vol. xxi. pp. 101 et leq. and pp. 204 el »eq.
I ua also indebted to Mr. Junes Geikie for Tuluable infonoBtioa on the
aubjecL

396 POPULAB SCIENCE BETIEW*

before the glacial submergence, although they were never
admitted by Dr. Falconer to be of the same age as the remains
of ElepTiaa antiquua from the same preglacial horizon. On a
careful examination of the whole evidence, I am compelled to
believe, with Mr. Godwin-Austen and Mr. Prestwich, that the
a priori argument that Pleistocene mammalia occupied Great
Britain before the first glacier period to be fully borne out by
the few incontestable proofs that have been brought forward of
the remains being found in preglacial deposits. And the
scanty evidence on the point is just what might be expected
from the rare accidents under which the bones in superficial
deposits could have withstood the grinding of the ice sheet and
the subsequent erosive action of the waves on the coastline.
This view seems to me to be more likely to be true than that
which I have hitherto maintained, that the Pleistocene mam-
malia arrived here after the marine submergence, and to which
I had been led partly by the doubts of Dr. Falconer as to the
age of the mammoth at Selsea, and partly from my own doubts
whether the clays under and on which the animal was foimd in
Scotland belonged to the first or to the second period of glacier
extension ; while, on the other hand, the postglacial range of
the Pleistocene mammalia in central and eastern England was
clearly proved in many cases.

But whatever view may be held as to the arrival of the
Pleistocene mammalia in Britain during the lowering of the
temperatiu-e which immediately preceded the first glacier period,
an examination of the accompanying map (PL LXXVIII.) will
prove that they were in full occupation of the low country at
the time that the higher lands and certain other regions were
occupied by the ice during the second glacier period. The
dotted areas are those in which the Pleistocene mammalia
have been found in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and England,
Northern France and Belgiimi, and which occur equally m
the bed of the North Sea and in the British Channel ; while
those areas which are left plain on the map are those which
are full of the most fresh-looking traces of ice action, old
moraines, glacial stria?, and the like, which have a direct rela-
tion to the existing valleys.

The absence of these animals from those areas must have
been caused by the existence of some barrier to their migra-
tion ; and the hypothesis that this was the presence of ice
alone satisfies all the conditions of the case. It accoimts both
for the exceedingly modem aspect of the glacial phenomena,
and for the irregular distribution of the animals.* We may

* The authorities for the distribution of the mammalia are to be found in
my Eway published in "Quart. Geol. Joum.," May ]8C0.

V PIXISTOCE.NK CLIMATC AMI MAMUALIA. 397

therefore be tolerably certain that the Pleistocene mammalia
lived here at the same time that the glaciers still covered
large areas in Great Britain and Ireland.

The consideration of the Pleistocene climate Ie also inti-
mately connected wilh the formei- extension of North-
western Europe into the Atlantic ; for the extremes of tem-
perature implied by the mixed character of the former can only
be satisfied by the view that Great Britain M'as not an ieland,
but an integral portion of a continent. In the following map,
which is based on that drawn by Dr. Petermann and published
by Dr. Stieler, I have followed Sir H, de la Beche and Sir
Charles Lyell in taking the 100-fathom line as representing
the coast, the time from which the soundings deepen sea-
wards so quickly in every direction, that the line of 200
fathoms would include an area which is hut slightly larger.
As evidence of this coast line, 5Ir. Godwin-Austen has brought
forward the littoral Bhells, the shingle, and the line of rocks
which are found near the cmbouchment of what may be called
the river of the English Channel. And that this river is no
myth is proved by the discovery of the Unio pictoiiim, in &om
50 to 100 fathoms water, by Captain White, at the same
point.

To complete this very hrief sketch of the physiography of
Pleistocene Britain, I have inserted the rivers, and have traced
them by the soundings to their mouths in the Pleistocene sea.
A glance at the map will show the relation of the present
rivers to those great arteries to which they once contributed
their waters. It Is obvious that the great valleys of the
English Channel and the North Sea, and probably that of the
British Channel, would aiford free scope for the migration of
the Pleistocene mammalia from France and Germany to our
coimtry, and that of the Irish Channel to Ireland. And
it is by no means remarkable that tlie paleolithic savages
who lived on the banks of the Somme or the Seine, or in the
caves of Belgium, should have left like traces of their presence
in the south and the east of England. Had they merely occu-
pied one side only of what murt have been to them a most
Taloable hunting-ground, and not sometimes have crossed over
a the other, we should have cause to wonder at their caprice.

EXPLANATION OF PL.\TE LXX^'^I.

d Atbm^^ those in which rieistocene maminalia have been found.
^lined „ - the eilenaion of land to the 100-falhom line.
= Glaciers. Figuiea=lB\\iQms,

398

STAR STREAMS AND STAR SPRAYS.

Bt RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.AS., Author op ^Othsb
Worlds," «Thb Sun," '< Light ScuEarcE," &c. &c.

THE stellar heavens present us with a problem of vast
difficulty — ^the problem of determining the laws according
to which those myriads of orbs which the unaided eyes can see,
or which the telescope reveals, are distributed throughout space.
We can determine the laws of stellar distribution so fiu: as they
relate to the imaginary concave of the heavens. We could
form a globe upon which millions of stars might be indicated ;
or, better, we might mark these millions of stars upon the interior
surface of a hollow globe ; and thus, so far as the apparent laws
of stellar arrangement are concerned, we might actimlly render
the eye cognisant of all which even the most powerful telescopes
can reveal. But when this had been accomplished, we should
have made but a short step towards the determination of the
manner according to which the stars are distributed throughout
space. We should have placed all the stars which the telescope
reveals upon a spherical surface, whereas we know that they lie
in reality on no such surface, but some at distances much
vaster than the distances which separate us from others. We
know that if we have to deal with a sphere of stars at all, it is
a sphere full of stars, and not a spherical surface covered with
stars, that we liave to consider. But, in truth, we know that the
space containing all the stars revealed by powerful telescopes
may not even approach the form of a sphere ; and that within
that space the stars may be distributed in the most irregular
manner — here crowded most densely, here sparsely scattered,
and throughout enormous regions mayhap altogether wanting ;
in some places arranged into clustering aggregations, in
others in streams, and elsewhere in fantastic convolutions or
reticulations ; while, for aught that has yet been shown, the
whole stellar region may be occupied more or less richly with a
variety of forms of matter other than stars or suns, and even
differing perhaps from any forms of matter with which we are
acquainted.

STAB STKEAMS AND STAB SPRAYS. 399

tJnfortunately we have no means of modifying the conditions
■the problem presented to na by the stars. We muBt be
"tent to analyse patiently Hie evidence by means of which
UOQe the prublem can be attacked. Whether wlien that has
been done, or while that is being done, we shall be able to form
clear and definite conclusions respecting the stellar system, need
not at present concern us. It is at any rate certain that if the
secret of the heavens is to be disclosed, it can only be as the
result of systematic inquiries directed to the vast maas of
information which has already been gathered together ; and the
doubts we may entertain as to the actual fruits of such inquiries
ought not to deter ua from making them, pince that would
be in effect to give up the problem of the star-depths altogether.
To use the words of the astronomer to whom more than to any
other, save one alone, we owe the power itself of making such
inquiries, we must " not be deterred from dwelling consecutively
and closely on speculative views by any idea of their hopeless-
ness which the objectors against ' paper astronomy ' jnay
entertain, or by the real slendemess of the material threads out
of which any connected theory of the universe (at present) has
to be formed. Hifpotheae» Jingo in this stage of our knowledge
ia quite sis good a motto as Newton's non fiiigo, provided
always they bo not hypotheses as to modes of physical artion
for which experience gives no warrant."*

My purpose in the present paper is to pursue an inquiry
(commenced by me some five years ago) into a certain pecu-
liarity of the arrangement of objects within the star-depths,
which appears to promise some insight into the real laws of
stellar aggregation. I refer to the circunistance that there
may be olraerved among the stars a tendency to arrangement
in streams, of greater or less length, and more or less distinctly
recognisable. I offer at present no explanation of the observed
fact, but seek rather to convince the reader that this peculiarity
has a real existence, and that it may be regarded as in fact a
characteristic peculiarity of the stellar system. It must be
mentioned, however, that the tendency to stream-formation
among the stars is not to be regarded as universal. On the
contrary, it is but a sign of a much more general law, accord-
ing to which the stars are found to aggregate in certain regions
and to be segregated from others, as though, in some long past
era, forces bad been at work which drew the star material
towards certain regions of space, to the avoidance of others.
And here again, I would invite attention to the fact that the
study of these laws of stellar aggregation and segregation seems
p afford the only means of attacking a problem of immense

* Fram a lettar to Uio present wrileT, ikagaa^., \%I8^.

400 POFULAB SCIENCE BBYIEW*

difficulty, to which the inquiring mind is naturally led by the
partial success which has attended inquiries into the origin of
our own solar system. We recognise so clearly within our
solar system such motions and such laws of distribution
as suggest a process of evolution, that the mind is led to
inquire whether the motion of the stars and their arrangement
throughout space may not indicate the action of a yet higher
order of evolution. If the genesis of a solar system has been
or is being revealed to us, may not the genesis of a galaxy be
one day revealed in like manner ?

But I merely point to such inquiries as these, in passing, by
way of indicating the class of questions to which such phe-
nomena as I am about to consider may eventually lead.
Let us now turn simply to the discussion of those observed
facts which seem to show that the stars in certain regions have
been gathered into streams.

If we consider the stars according to their various orders of
apparent magnitude, we are, in fact, treating the problem pre-
cisely as though the celestial vault were studied by means of
telescopes progressively increasing in power. Nor need we, in so
doing, make any assumption as to the real magnitudes of the
stars. We know quite certainly that whatever telescopic power
we use, or even when we study the heavens with the naked
eye, we have to deal with objects lying at diflferent distances,
and that, therefore, we are exposed to the possibility of error
arising from the fact that orbs which seem to be associated
may in reality be in no way connected. But if we keep this
possibility of error very carefully in view, and if we apply to
the various cases which come imder our notice such laws of
reasoning as may best serve to eliminate such error, then, al-
though we may not be sure that in all instances the error in
question has been obviated, we shall yet have done much to
obtain at least probable evidence respecting the laws of stellar
distribution.

As an illustration of my meaning, I will take an instance
belonging to the more general law of stellar arrangement, of
which stream- formation is but an instance. The reader is
aware that the six stars which ordinary powers of sight recognise
in the Pleiades, are but a few among a very large number which
are seemingly collected towards one particular region of the
heavens in this place. Now, if we consider only two stars of
the Pleiades, considerably unequal in magnitude, it must be
regarded as not only possible, but (on a priori considerations)
highly probable, that these two orbs lie at very different dis-
tances from the earth, and are not physically associated. But
we are not free to extend this reasoning, which is admissible in
the case of two stars, to the whole group of the Pleiades, and to

^Hrgue that, because we have no means whatever of determining
^^ihe actual distances of the orba in that group, we are not at
liberty to assume that they form a real clust-ering aggregation
of stars. In bo doing, we ithould undoubtedly be losing sight
of evidence which absolutely demonstrates the clustering nature
of the Pleiades. We have only to consider the mathematical
probability that so many orbs would be gathered together
w ithin a certain portion of the heavens in the Pleiades, when
^Htbe total number of stars between the same limits of magnitude
^^b euch and such, to see that we have not to do with an acci-
^Pftental phenomenon due merely to the apparent association of
^^itars of many orders of distance in nearly the same direction,
but with a real aggregation of stjira into a definite cluster, sur-
rounded on all sides by comparatively vacant regions. We know
"Jiat William Mitchell, more tlian a hundred years ago, by
"mply considering the six brighter stars of the Pleiades, was
" 1 to show that the odds are about half a million to one
jainet the association of these stars being apparent only,"

Now it is worthy of notice that, even among stars of the first
three or four orders of magnitude, signs of aggregation are
discernible, which appear too marked to be due to mere chance
distribution. For instance, if we take an equal-surface (iao-
r/raphlc) chart of the northern heavens, showing all stars down
to the fourth magnitude inclusive, we are struck by the singular
vacancy lying where modem astronomers place the constella-
tion of the Cameleopard. \\'ithin an oval space, having Polaris
Bd Castor as the ends of its longer diameter, Dul.ihe and 8
rigte as the ends of its shorter diameter, there are but three
«(of the fourth magnitude), although this region extends

WtAt 8TIIRAH9 AXn STAS SPSATB.

401

' MitcheH's paper, in Vol. Ivii.^of the [Philosophical TrmiMctioiu, sntici-
a in the clearest possible mannec one of the general laws of stellar
iributicn wtiicU I have lately endeavoured to establish. The following
'a particular, may be quoted in illustratioa :~" It has always been
1 with astroDomers In diepoee the fixed ^tai-s into couBtellationa ; thia
has been done for the sake of remembering and diatiuguiabiug them, and
tlierefore it has in general been done merel; nrbitraiily and with this view
only; nature her^lf, however, seems to bare distinguished the stars into
gironpe. What I mean is, that from the apparent situation of the stars in
the heavens, there is the highest probability that, either by the original act
of the Creator, or io con8e<^uence of some general law (such, perhaps, as
tvity), they are collected together in great numbers in some parts of
i, wlulat in others there are either few or none. The a^iuneot I make
n order to prove this is of that kind which infera either derign nr
e general law, from a general analogy, and the greatness of the odds
it things having been in the present situation, if it was not owing to
le such cause. "

402 POPULAR SCIENCE BEVIEW.

over some fifty-eight degrees in length and about thirteen
degrees in breadth.

But it is when we consider the stars down to the fifth magni-
tude inclusive that we first begin to recognise the existence of
a marked tendency to stream-formation. It is among these
stars, in fact, that we find those streams which the ancients
recognised when they gave to certain star-groupings such
names as Hydra, Draco, Serpens, the Biver ErickimuB, and when
they marked down among the constellation-pictures two streams
from the water-can of Aquarius and a Itfmd connecting to-
gether the two fishes. The prolongations of some of these
streams of lucid stars have been recognised by those modem
astronomers who gave to certain southern star-groupings the
names Hydrus, fieticulum, and the like.

Now, the chief question which has to be answered, in con-
sidering tlie evidences of stream-formation, is whether the
streams are apparent only or real; and, in order to answer
this question, we have to inquire what form or degree of Btaream-
iness (so to speak) might be expected among the 1,500
stars, down to the fifth magnitude inclusive, if these were
really spread at random over the celestial sphere. In the
" Popular Science Review '' for July 1870, 1 have indicated the
means whereby I have tested this matter, and the conclusion
to which I have been led — this namely, that although among
1,50<) or 2,000 points distributed at random over a sorfiioe of
any kind, certain groups resembling streams might be recog-
nised, such streams would not be nearly so well marked as the
streams actually observed among the stars down to the fifth
magnitude. But, on the other hand, it is not to be expected
tliat the star streams actually recognised should be so exceed-
ingly well marked and regular, or should be traceable over
such great distances, that the reality of the stream-formation
must ])o obvious at once. Had this been the case, indeed, the
reasoning by which I have endeavoured to establish the reality
of the phenomenon would not have been required. The first
astronomers would have recognised the phenomenon as clearly
as we can do. Tlierefore I do not consider the arguments
which have been cliiefly urged agjiinst these streams of lucid
stars, regarded as liaving a real exist^^nce, as needing refutation.
It lias been urg(*d that the streams can only be traced over
such and such distances; that they can be carried this way or
that, according to fancy, and so on. This, liowever, was to he
expected ; if it were otherwise, the reality of the streams would
long since have* ])een recognised: and apart from this, re-
inein])ering that we an; looking into the depths of space, and
that, supposing star streams really to exist, we must see them
foreshortened — in many instances projected on a background of

STAR STB£AJ1S AM> STAR t

40:1

stars leSB systematically distributed, and in other cases mi^ed
up seemingly with other streams, either nearer or further oS' —
the wonder rather is that any well-marked 'poi-tioii, of any
stream should be recognisable, than that no stream should be
traceable over very large areas on the heavens, and still less from
its beginning to its end. That the reader may form his own
opinion as to the reality of the streams traceable among stars
down t<) the fifth magnitude, I give the case of a star-group
which is certainly not the moat remarkable for streaminess, but
chances to be more convenient for the purposes of illustration
than innst ..■thers. V\g. 1 presents the stars forming the

connecting band of Pisces. The bright star in the lower left-
hand comer is the knot of the band, one part of the band being
formed by the curved stream of stars passing to the lower
right-hand comer, the other by the curved stream passing, with
an inflection near the double star in the figure, towards the
upper right-hand corner. In this figure the fact that certain
eet^ of Btars lie on certain cur\'ed lines is of slight significance.
for assuredly in any chance distribution of stars the like
would be found ; the fact which is really significant is the
|)aucity of stars on either side of the curved streams. We have
ain lines along which the stars are plentifully strewn, while
adjacent spaces are relatively vacant. This feat.UTe«
'rable not only in this case, but in others, and even more

404 POPULAB SCISNCS BSYIKW.

markedly in several instances, is one which cannot reasonably
be ascribed to mere coincidence. Let it be noted, moreover,
that whatever significance we attach to it, when considering
the stars of the first five orders of magnitude, must be enhanced
if, as we proceed, we recognise a similar feature (on a different
scale, however) among stars of lower orders of magnitude.
Throughout this paper, I am not presenting a series of con-
siderations so related one with the other that the £edlure of one
destroys the validity of my reasoning ; I am dealing with argu-
ments which are independent of each other, though severally
adding to each other's strength. If some of them feil, my
case is only pro tanto weakened ; it is not by any means
destroyed.

Before leaving Fig. 1, however, I woxild invite special attention
to the manner in which the two star streams are conjoined. We
see these streams converging upon a single star brighter than
those which form the streams themselves ; and we may also
trace, not indistinctly, a certain general equality of distribution
among the stars of the two streams. The former feature is,
however, the only oile I care at present to dwell upon ; and it
is to this particular arrangement of streams — ^two or more (but
usually two) proceeding from a single star— or of branches
proceeding, as it were, from a single stem, that I have given
the title of star sprays. In searching among the star-depths
revealed by telescopes of considerable power, many cases may
be noticed in which such star sprays exhibit a singular imiformity
of structure. The stars of the leading magnitudes are too few
in number to afford many well-marked instances. I may note,
liowever, the arrangement of tlie stars in Coma Berenices as
one illustration of this sort ; the stars 7, 14 and 13, forming the
stalk of the spray. Another illustration may be recognised in
the stars forming the poop of Argo and the hind -quarters of
Canis Major, or (to use a more satisfactory way of indicating
the orbs I refer to) the streams of stars converging on f and p
Argus, from e Canis Major and from ir Argus. At e Canis
Major there is another subdivision ; one stream of stars passing
to K Columbae, the other over u and x Puppis to v Argus.
The streams from the water-can of Aquarius form a more ex-
tensive, but perhaps less satisfactory, illustration of the same
peculiarity.

I need give the less attention to those cases of stream-forma-
tion which may be recognised among the stars of the first six
orders inclusive, because I have already discussed the relations
among the stars, in the second edition of my " Other Worlds."
Of the peculiarities of distribution recognisable among the
stars there dealt with, I may say with confidence that it is
wholly impossible to regard them as accidental ; they indicate

STAR BREAMS ASD STAR SPRAYS. 405

beyond all poeaibility of question the exiatence of Home real
cause which has led to a drifting of the etars towards certain
regions. As regards such pecnliarities of arrangement as would
fall more particularly under the head of my present subject, I
think it is almost equally impossible to feel any doubt. If
some of the streams and reticulations which can be recognised
in the isographic chart addod to the second edition, be due to
chance distribution, the coincidence is very much more remark-
able than the theory of star streams which I am at present ad-
vocating. It is truer to say, however, that the laws of proba-
bility as at present understood will not permit us to regard
such singular configurations as accidental.

It would be desirable that we should have equal-surface
charts of the heavens to include stars down to the seventh,
eighth, and ninth magnitude severally ; because it is only by
thus considering the separate stages ofspace-penetration that we
can obtain complete recognition of the laws of stellar distribution
throughout space. We owe, I think, to the elder Stnive the
first recognition of the importance of such graduated advances
within the star-depths ; though he dwelt rather on the impor-
tance of star-gauging (and that, also, according to averages) than
on the value of star-charts capable of revealing to the eye the
statistics of stellar distribution. It will not be difficult to con-
struct charts including stare down to the seventh, and eighth,
and ninth orders of magnitude ; because as soon as the com-
plete survey of the heavens has been effected after the plan
already extended by Argelander to t.he northern hemisphere,
the charts forming the survey, if carefully drawn,* will enable
us to construct charts of complete hemispheres including stars
down to the seventh, eighth, and ninth magnitudes severally
inclusive.

At present, however, for want of such intermediate charts
(so to apeak) I pass from my equal-surface projection of all the
stars down to the sixth magnitude inclusive, to an equal-sur-
face projection which I have just completed, in which all stars
in Argelander's series of forty northern maps have been marked
in with careful reference as well to their arrangement aa to
their magnitude. In these forty charts, as many of my readers

* It is important ihnt the size of the dines used to indicnfe the severdl
miigiiitudee should renitiin uncbnn^d during the whole process of en^vinp,
and aUo that the several charta forming the series should be printed with
exftcllj the ?ame decree af/idneiu. In Argolander'e splendid series of forty
cbarta, m which all the northern staTs down to the magnitude intermediate
between the ninth and («nth are included, slight changes have token place
during the progress of the work, which creates some degree of doubt as to
the orders to which the sta.ii belong in some of the charts.

■VOL. X.— WO. XU, K B

406 POPUIAl 9CIE5CB BEvrew.

an doubtkes awmre, ArgeUnder ba^ iccluded all stars dow?
SMgnitiide nine and a-h&lf, viUun ninety-tvo degrees of north
pdUr distance — the two degrees south of the equator being
add«d in order to foctUtate the comparison of the northeni
«Ua£ with cb&rta f>;rmiiig the southern survey, one day to be
completed (it may be hoped) at southern stations. In all therp
•!« 3S-t.t98 staw. All these I have carefully copied in, upon
a ciieular chart two feet in diameter, isographically divided
(in pencil) by radial lines and circles, into spaces extending
one degree in declination and one degree in right ascension
for tixty degrees to the north of the equator, the notoinal ei-
teosioD in RA. being oorrespondingly increased with prozimitj
to the pole. In (act, all the spaces in Argelander's series of
charts (some 26,400 in all) were represented in pencil in my
projection, before a single star was charted in. Then the stars
were carefully copied in, space by space, from Argelander's
atlas ; at such a rate (on the average), that the whole work of
charting »ccu[ued me about 400 hours.* I do not think that
the labour was thrown away, when it is remembered that, as a
result, the statistical distribution of all the stars down to tLe
9Jth magnitude was presented to the eye. The gauges
of the Herschels had included in all about 160,000 stars, and
•Stnive, in the elaborate series of inquiries on which he founded
the theories propounded in his ' Etudes d'Astronomie 8t«llaire.'
dealt with about 32,000 stars ; but the labours of Argelandet
enabled me not merely to count, but to delineate, 324,198 stan
— not merely to draw inferenceij from statistical enumeration
as to the real taws of stellar distribution, but to exhibit those
laws of distribution to the eye.

Now the first and most important conclusion deduced from
this process of charting relates to the Milky Way ; and it wiJI
be well to defer the consideration of that conclusion until I
come to speak of the Milky Way as itself a vast conglomera-
tion of star streams and star sprays.

But another conclusion, not obviously deducible from the
chart itself, or its photographic reductions, was forced upon me
in a very marked manner as the work of charting proceeded.
Again and again I had occasiou to notice the tendency of the

* Arg^landei and bis asugtauts were engaged no lest than aeven vmn
and one maoth in compitittDg their iiugiiiGc«Dl coDtributioti to iiranognphi.
Tbe nte at which I copied in tbe «tan was such as to enable me to tofj
caiefiiUj within each space on mv projection tbe stars shown in tbe conet-
ponding space in the Ut^e atlas. It is worth; of nuiice that a single te«and
of extra time (on the average) pet star would have caused an addition of
niQetj hours', or say ten days', work. The time actually empkiyed on the
average was ^ghtly less than fonr and a half seconds per star.

aiAJt STREAMS AMD STAB 8FBATS.

407

stars to associate tliemselves into atreama and sprays, the star I
sprays being ordinarily of the form illustrated in Fig. 1. It I
would be quite impossible for me to convey by means of pictures ^
any adequate idea of the persistence with which these peculi-
arities of structure were renewed, especially in certain parts
of the chart. Indeed, it would be absolut-ely necessary to
include a much larger portion of the heavens than could
here be conveniently pictured, to show the most significant J
feature of all, the manner namely in which the sprays ara I
divided and sub-divided. I

Now the point to be chiefly noticed here is, that so far as ■
a priori considerations are concerned, one would be led to I
expect that no very marked signs of stream -formation would I
be shown among stars down nearly to the tenth order of mag- •
nitude. For the further we increase our range of vision,
the more likely must we be, it would seem, to obtain a
view in which the actual relations of the stars are confused
by seeming combinations, due to the accidental agreement,
in general direction, of star-groups at very different orders of
distance. For either there is or there is not a general uni-
formity of star-magnitude (within certain limits). If there i
is such uniformity, so that the fainter stars are in reality ni d
large (on the average) as others, but more distant, then it ii^M
certain that amongst the stars dealt with in Argelander's chartcl
there are in all directions stars at very different distances ; star^:!
therefore not in reality associated, but which yet, being seen iiil
nearly the 8amedirection,are brought into seeming justapoaition.'rl
If, on the other hand, there is not among the stars, even in a
general sense, any approach to uniformity of magnitude, then
we may be even more completely deceived ; for certain near
stars which are really very small (relatively) may be brought,. .
not merely into seeming juxtaposition with more distant stars,,^
but even to a seeming equality of magnitudt;. I

This being remembered, it was to Ije expected that the I
distribution of the stars included in Argelander's charts would
correspond much more closely to a real chance distribution of
so many points over a hemisphere, than where we considered
only a comparatively small number of stars belonging to the
leading orders of magnitude. Moreover, even assuming the
point which I am now endeavouring to prove, viz., that the
stAts are in many cases arranged into the form of streams and
sprays, it would yet seem highly probable that all signs of thesu
streams and sprays would be obliterated, simply because atreamfl
and sprays of stars would probably lie at very (Afferent distances
in all directions, and the configuration of the nearer streaaUM
would be blended with and confuse the configuration of thd
more distant. U

rOPCLAR SCIESCB REVIEW.

Figs. 2 and 3 will serve to illustrate my meaning. It is not
difficult to recognise in both these figures the existence of stw

being ne<iilj in SSj" N, Dec., uid lOh. 28m. K,A.

streams and star sprays too well marked to be regarded as due
to accident ; but yet we are led to suspect that the streams

fiere si

STAB SIBEAMS AND f

nere seen lie at different diatances, and that much more clearly
marked streamB would be recognised if we could cut off with a
veil all the stars bejond a certain diatance, aud obliterate alto-
gether certain of the nearer atara. I would, however, recom-
mend such of my readers as poBsess Argelander's chart to study
the region around the two epaees pictured in Figs, 2 and 3 ;
ffh en I think the conviction will be forced upon them that
's a much closer connection between the several branchssj
V seen in those regions than one would have been difr
1 to expect among tie ordera of stars Argelander has ia«1
ped in his charts.

iny cases occur, however, in which two streauia lying at J
rent distances appear to cross each other in the chart ; ands
ll a somewhat noteworthy circumstance, that the disposition '
■ve nearly equal stare in the form of a cross, thus ■ ■ ■ which in
f seldom met with (compared with other simple configura-
w) in the complete series of charts, is commonly to be
iced where two well-marked streams cross each other.

B arrangement of the stare in the large chart, as respectsi
cegatiou in certain regions and segregation from othere, i»l|
Bciently remarkable ; but I have not space to dwell at length '
here on peculiarities of that description. Some of these pecu-
liarities are associated with the configuration of the galactic
stream of stars, presently to be briefly reterred to. One, however,
is 90 remarkable that I cannot refrain from here calling special
attention to it. The Milky Way region or zone is shown in the
chart to be exceptionally rich in stars (as W. Struve judged
from statistical considerations); but instead of that gradual
tendency to aggregation towards the galactic zone which Strme
supposed to prevail, there is in many places a sudden change in
the density of distribution, spaces close by the galaxy being
relatively poor. But in no instance is this peculiarity so ra- >
markably esemplitied asin the part of the Milky Way near the I
horns of Taurus, Here we have on one side the rich tields of I
the Hyades and the Pleiades, and on the other rich galactic-B
fields — properly so-called ; but between these two rich regions F
we have absolutely the poorest region in the whole of the
them heavens."

Extending neit our range of view so as to reach the stars
down to the thirteenth magnitude inclusive, we have indeed
1n§ complete surveys to consider, but yet the evidence we

PI ie sufficiently distinct. The zodiacal zone has been
y sun-eyed by Chocomac, Uind, and othere, with the

* This peculiaritjdidnot escape the atteatioa of Argelander, whciMys: —
'' Dia Hbsolut krmale Gegend tiudet eich nber aonderbiu'weise nicht gM well
Ton der Milchstraase eutUml, an deu Uijmeiu dea St\«n."

410

rOPTLAS BCIEKCB REVIEW.

ohject of eo mapping down even the fainter stare, that the
asteroids which traverse this region may be the more readih
recognised. In the maps thua conntmcted, we find star streams
and Gtar spniya as well marked as in Argelander's chart. As
the same general considerations apply in this case, it will be
sufficient for me to invite attention to Figs. 4 and 5 ; but I
would recommend the student who may possess Chacomac's
charts to study carefully the regions which surround the two
spaces pictured in these figures."

If we pass on towards yet more remote depths, we still find
well-niarked signs among the stars of a tendency to form

streane and sprays. Sir John Herschel has pictured some very
singular specimens of such streams, as seen in bis eighteen-incti
reflector during his survey of the southern heavens ; and
doubtless, could the fields surveyed by the elder and younger
Herschel be presented in maps, so that several adjacent fields
could be seen at a single view, many other instances would be
added to the list.

It is scarcely necessary to add that the largest telescope ever
made by man — the great Parsonstown reflector — has revealed

* There is ad intereetinfr quotation at pugo 267 of Webb'a Ce!etlial Oijfelit
in which Fr. Secchi dMcrib«a the Batooishment with which, when studTing
ci-rttiiD pnlactic regions, he faw rpinls and cuirea of Stan so refn'lBT'lr dil-
fosed Bs to pieclude bU ^&e,Wi^\^ >^a,\, c^lKaQB ^u^^utvoa was in queslioii.

m STAB STREAMS AND FTAR BPSATS. 411

even in the intricate constitution of the nebulse the esistence
of streams and sprays, sometimes spiral, sometimes but slightly
curved, sometimes disposed with singular regularity, at others
extending in irregularly shaped branches, growing gradually
fainter and fainter until they are at length lost altogether
either by diffusion or through extreme faintnees.

But it remains to be censidered that we have strong evidence
in favour of the view that the Milky Way itself is but a stream,
or rather a congeries of streams of stars. The evidence on
which Sir William Herschel rested his theory that the galaxy
'is of the shape of a cloven flat disc, was abandoned by himself

A poition of one of Chacwoac's etliptio ehnrta, the centre being in H° 8., end
23h. Sem. B.A.

during the later years of his career as an observer ; and he
recognised clearly that some of those rich nodules of the Milky
Way which can be seen in the northern heavens are real aggre-
gations of stars (not vast depths along which the stars are
arrayed as in a sort of procession), and that such aggregations
approach in figure to the spherical form. In the southern
heavens Sir John Herschel recognised galactic regions to
which Sir William Herschel's later mode of reasoning could
— ,be applied even more convincingly. Now precisely the same
■X«BBOning by which Sir W. Herschel was led to regard the rich
nplastering regions of the Milky Way in Cygnus as spherical in
ni>rm, seems to show that the well-marked portions of the
nlactic stream are really stream-shaped. And this view of
! galaxy, which might seem to agree ill with the usual

412 POPULAB 8CIXNCB BXYIEW.

account of this marvellous band of stars, accords excellently
with the description given by Sir John Herschel and others
who have most carefully studied the galaxy. More especially
is it suggested by the aspect of the Milky Way in the southern
heavens. For there the continuity of the zone, on which so
much stress had been laid is shown to be interrupted by a broad
dark rift, a feature wholly inexplicable on the theoiy that the
Milky Way is shaped like a cloven flat disc. And over the
whole region from Argo, over the feet of the Centaur, to Sagit-
tarius and Scorpio, the Milky Way as pictured by Sir John
Herschel presents an appearance far more closely according
with the theory that the Milky Way in this region forms a
gigantic spray of stars than with any other that has been pro-
pounded. In the northern heavens, the fidntness of the Milky
Way causes it to appear more uniform in structure ; but even
in the northern heavens, as has been well pointed out hy
Professor Nichol, it is only on the most cursory examination, or
when the Milky Way is studied imder unfavourable circum-
stances, that it can be regarded as a simple zone. But it is
well worthy of notice that in my chart of 324,198 stars, the
Milky Way reveals itself (through the mere aggregation of
stars down to the 9^th order) as a congeries of streams, with
branching extensions, of which only the commencement can
be recognised as more or less marked projections, in the best
pictures of the northern parts of the Milky Way.

It remains to be noticed, in conclusion, that the nebular
system also shows the most marked tendency to stream-forma-
tion when isographically charted, as in the series of charts
which illustrate my paper on the distribution of the nebulse, in
Vol. xxix. of the Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society.
The tendency to stream-formation is more especially to be
noticed among the southern nebulae. It is worthy of remark
that, whereas the southern nebular streams converge upon the
Magellanic Clouds, the northern nebular streams seem to extend
towards the outlying streams of the Milky Way, as it appears in
my chart of 324,198 stars. The evidence of a real association
between stars and nebulae is singularly strengthened by these
peculiarities of arrangement.

REVIEWS.

POPULAR SCIENCE/

ru wmderful, but still it ii not the lesa true, tbnt scientiflc readers, cr
lenders of sciectific boohs, Bre in a thsIIj larger proportion in the Utiitt'l
Sl«te« of America tbati tbe; axe here. It is perfectly aiuaring to be instfllleii
into the secret* of some New York publiisber, and fiud that books, of which
jou bardlv heard at home, trenting on questiona of <>pecint scientilic im-
porlaiice, have hnd e sale Id New York which is reckoned by thousanda.
Still, Enjfland is the producer, if ehe be not the reader, of scienlific books;
and in no ioslance is this fact more fully or admimbly illustrated than iu
the case of the work under notice. Mr. Proctor is one of our best scieotitic
writers, as peibapa niftoj of the renders of this journal are aware alreaity,
but he is cot only 90 in a truly scientilic seose : be is not only thoroughly
Kud remarkably accurate, but be possesses in a Teiy marked degree that
excelleuce and purity of style nbich arc at once so attractive to the general
render, and so rarely met with in the sclentitic world. In the book now
under notice, the reader, accustomed to Mr. Proctor's contributions to these
pa^s.will be fturptiaed to find that tbe writer hu not conSned his atteotioD
^J purely aatronomicsl subjects, but that physical geography, loology,
geob)gy, physics, and physiology haie each nnd all funned subjects of careful
and advanced reading by the author. And wa say this, not out of an
empty deaire to compliment an author who has been a contributor to our
pages, but from the fact that many of the contributions, though written for
some daily or other journal originaUy, bear on them the atamp of original
thought and pure reflection. They are not essays such as wa too frequently
find in our journals, sparkling with bright writing, but devoid of auytbing
like careful thought and reflection — productions which will not bear a
moment's thought or reflection from tbe reader who is Tet««d in bia
subject Far &om it, indeed. In some ioalauces we bave wondered to
And tbem so very learned ; and we have been surprised that so proli6c a
writer CD astronomical subjects should have either the time or ibe tnclina-
tioa to go so fully into questions which have do real bearing upon the
series of mnttera which be is engaged in studying. Of the truth of thU

* " Light Science for Leisure Hours. A Series of Familiar Essays on
Sdentitic Subjects, Natural ITienoniena, etc. etc." By Uicbard A. Proctor,
B.A., F.R.A.S. London: Lcngmans, 1871.

Tf^

414

POPULAR SCIEKCB REVIEW.

ve could not have a bett«r instancs thmi that aflbided by Hr. Darwin, Id
quoting from the article on " Bealh-IUte," in bis l&at work on "Tke
t)escenC of Man," and in nieDtionicg Dr. Farr's ipecial opinion as to Uw
qiuli^ of the paper quoted from. Of the numerous cbapters in the work
it is impoasible for us to speak spedall; : aulEce it to Btat« tbe subject!
of a few. Thus we have " Strange Biacoveries respedjng tbe Anron,"
" Our Chief Time-piece LoMug Tiine," " Recent Solar Besearcbes," " Secttt
of tbe North Pole," "A Great Tidal Wave," "Deep-Sea Dredging*,"
"Tunnel through Mont Cenis," "Earthquake in Peru," "A Shower of
Snow Cryslalu," " Influence of Marriage on the Deatb-Rate," " Tlie Safety
Lnmp," " Pbotogniphic Ghosts," "Bellingon Horse Bftces," "Squaring tbe
Circle," and a new theory of " Achilles' Shield," These are but a few of
many articles, but they strike us ss among the most importani. Especially
inleresting, however, of all these is the paper on " Our Chief Time-piece
Losing Time." This is both a remarkable and en iutetesting art^de. It
relates to t}ie fact that the motion of the earth is gradually altering, m
slowly of course that it is almost imperceptible, but stiU decidedly. Thu
change relates lo tbe form of the earth's orbit, which, \rith regard to tbe
motion of the moon, is decidedly undergoing a cbange. Of couree this is
an alteration of not tbe least importance in a practical point of view; but
it is one which is of importance astronomically, nnd which is most nsr-
xellous as illustrative of tbe wonderful accuracy of modern re««arch.
''Suppose,'' says Mr. Proctor, "that, just in front of our moon b filie
moon, exactly equal to ours in size and appearance, were to "et off with a
motion corresponding to the present motion of the moon, save only in one
nspe«t, namely — that the false moon's motion should not be subject to tbe
change we are considering, termed the aceeUratum. Then one hundred yekit
would elapse before our moon would fairly begin to show in advance. She
would in that time have brought only one one-bundred-and-fiftieth pari
of her breadth from behind the false moon. At the end of another oentuiy
she would have gained four times us much ; at the end of a third, nine
times as much; and eo on. She would not fairly have cleared her own
breadth in less than twelve hundred years. But the johole of this gain,
minute as it is, is not left unaccounted for by our modem asironominl
theories. Half the gain is explained, the other half remains to be inlw
prated ; in other words, the moon trantU further by aioid half her am
breadth in twelve ceTifun'ei than the thmdd do according to the hmar theory."
But what, we may ask, is the causa of this singular retardation, if so it
be, of the earth's rotation-movement f The cause would appear to be,
according to Mr. Proctor, the movement of the tides. And a little reflec-
tion will serve to convince anyone who doubts it that here is an ezpeuditun
of a very considerable degree of power, of indeed in some csees an enor-
mous degree of almost unassailable force. Now where, asks Mr. Proctor,
does this force come fromP "Motion being ihe great ' force-mensurer,'
what motion suffers that the tide* may work? We may," be ihioks,
"securely reply that the only motion which can supply the requisite tcaw
is the earth's motion of rotation." Therefore, he says, it is no idle dream,
but a matter of absolute certainty that, though slowly, still very surely,
our terrestrial dobe is losing its rotation-moTement Other chaplcTB in tbe

antbor'fl booh are not less jntereBting thsn that from whicb we hsTe
quoted, but our limited epot^e forbids our ent^ricg upon them. Thn book
is full of itutmctive readiii|[, and is withal a moet atuactive volume.

11 p

TERRESTKLAX MAGNETISM.'

[ATEVEB may be thoujrlit of this author's views by phyflicisls com-
'oUow bim through a difficult line of argument iu a subject
where few ordinary persons are qualified for the task, there cau be little
doubt, we think, that be has performed his tssk ably. So far as we bave
examined his views, tbey are throughout fortified by an amount or learning
and patieoce in inreBtigation which might have made the author aufGcienily
courageous to have appended his name. And we think so all the more
because we know how important is a name in making a book be read and
cnrefully alteniled to. Of course, if the author bore a name unadorned or
at least undiBtinguished in physics, it would be a different aJTair. It would
cause his book to convince some peraona of the error of his views. But
really we do not think that this is the case. To us the author of the book
appears, as no doubt he is, as a writer to whom physics baa been a subject
of careful and prolonged study, and who baa by this time obtained dis-
tinction in bis subject. However, be that as it may, there is no doubt
that the theory he puts forward is modestly set forth and is further sup-
ported by a multitude of facts in the science of physics. It will of cou»e
yet remain undecided as to how our earth became originally magnetised ;
but, granting its magnetisation, we think it is much more coincident with
facts as they are to suppose a condition of electricity intervening between
the earth and the sun, and that this is the parent of the earth's niagneti)=m,
than that the latter should be derived from any kindred condition in ihe
sun itself, Indeed, the author's illuatration of the powtion of the earth
in regard to the aun and the impossibility of its poles corre^'ponding to
the ttDo of the earth, appeani to ua adequately clear. In fact, it seems
probable, from analogy, that if the two poles should act on one of the
earth's, they would thus destroy each other. Further, as the author has
pbown (and this seems to us to be a more powerful argument), the motion
of the sun round its own axis should produce profound changes in the
magnetisation of the earth every twelve-«nd-a-h jf days, or half the sun's
own period of rotation. This and other facts which he adduces sufficiently,
we tbinlt, disprove the view of the sun's direct activity as a magnetiser.
Id the further elaboration of his views we shall not follow the author.
Nor do we deare to express any opinion on their accuracy or force. The
subject is one which can only be followed out by an experienced physiciat,
and by him only with considerable time at his disposal. The book is well
got up, and contains abundant maps and plans illustrating the variations

Edmburgh: ■William Black-

416 POPULAB SCIBNCB BEYISW.

of the magnetic needle, <C koe genui omm. Altogether^ the wock isone
which, for an anonymous contribution, we have to apeak of in tenna of high
praiae. We commend it to the contention of our phjaical leadeia. It
is well worthy their perusaL

ON SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.^

TXTE had almost thought that defenders of spontaneous generation wen
V Y extinct. Of course we always except M. Pouchet, of France ; but of
late years he has done so little in this direction that he almost may be con-
sidered to have given up the battle, not convinced, of course, of the error of
his ways, but believing rather in the unwisdom of his opponents, and espe-
cially of M. Pasteur. But during the past two or three years an EngHsh
champion for this peculiar doctrme has sprung up, and, so iar as we can see,
he is a more formidable supporter of the doctrine than even M. Pouchet
himself. It is neceseary in cases of controversy on a scientific subject to
look to the men holding the opposite sides ; and when we do so in this in-
stance, we see a formidable array of authorities going in against the author
of the present volume. For example, we have in the first ranks of oppo-
nents Professor Huxley, who goes in strongly and determinately against the
doctrine. Yet, strange to say. Professor Huxley would be, we should think,
one of the first to admit that this process must have been at one time a dis-
tinct operation ; for it is only by it that men of his school can suppose the
origin of oiganic beings on the earth, unless indeed they take Professor Sir
W. Thompson's rather singular aerolitic theory into consideration — an
hypothesis which, after all, only pushes the difficulty back a little farther
than it was before. Well, then, we have Professor Huxley distinctly in
opposition to the doctrine ; and this alone is veiy seriously against it, for
Professor Huxley is not one who takes up an hypothesis without due con-
sideration. If he has gone in against spontaneous generation, it is only after
giving mature consideration to those experiments which have been recorded
in its favour. He is, therefore, a tremendous opponent. Still, we must
remember, on the other side is l^fessor Owen, who in his last volume goes
in strongly and decidedly in favour of spontaneous generation. Between
two such opponents, what is one to do? Clearly, authority is of no mo-
ment ; for if Professor Huxley does not believe without careful investiga-
tion, surely we cannot accuse Professor Owen, the greatest worker in com-
parative anatomy which the world has ever produced, of carelessness or
want of consideration in the belief which he so strenuously expresses.

But really it is almost impossible to decide the question at the present
moment And we think that before further investigations are made, it
would be well to have some researches exactly carried out into the tempe-
rature which some of the lowest organisms will tolerate without perish-

* '' The Modes of Origin of Lowest Oiganisms ; including a Discussion of
the Experiments of M. Pasteur, and a Reply to some Statements of Professors
Huxley and Tjndall/' By H. Charlton Bastian, ALA., M.D., F.RS.
London : Macmillan k Co., 1871.

REVIEWS. 41 7

ing altogether, aai into the que«ti<iQ of when the_r are to be cnnsiijt^red
living or dead ; for tt is renlly od this point of temperature thnt moat of the
eiperimecta are based. From a careful examioation of Dr. BaBtian's most
iuterestiog work, wbich contains a boat of reaearcbes, we aie much dieposed
to agree vritb him in bia supposition that the process which be ndrocales ia
Dot only likely, but actually ta'tea place. At the same time, we confess
that there are obvious faults in the tine of reasoning which Dr. Bastian
pursues. lie does not seem to us to have detannined with HufGcieot clear-
ness that the heat to which he exposed certain of his solutions was amply
adequate to kill the genus which he caused to undergo their development.
If this be so, it is clear that he bns the most of the argument with Professor
Huxley. It seems to us that he is right; but clearly, as the argument
stands, Professor Huiley has the best of it In some of his eiperimenta
Dr. Bastian does not appear to us to have been adequately careful. See,
for instance, when he says (p. 63), '' On the other hand, if the turnip aolu-
tion be neutralised by the additiou of a little ammonic carbonnte, or
liquor potasste ; or, better still, if evau half a grain of neto cheeM (the
italics are ours) be added to the infusion before it is boiled, then I have
found that the fluid speedily becomes turbid, owing to the appearance of
mulcitudea of Sncterin. In an infusion to which a fragment of cbeeae had
been added I have seen a pellicle form in three days, which, on microscopic
examination, proved to be composed of an aggregation of Bacteria, Vibrionet,
and Lfptothrii filaments." Surely, it must occur to Dr. Bastian that the
cheese which be introduced must have contained the parents of the bacteria
produced, and that probably his boiling the liquor was not sulficiuct to
destroy the life of their organisms. In any case, this, wbich is in some
respects a type of the author's experiments, would not be sufficient to satisfy
those who are sceptical upon the subject. We tnist, therefore, that in the
work which Dr. Bastian promisee us on the subject more satisfactory in-
vestigations will be found. The present work is most interesting ; but, as an
argumentative one, it is not sutQciently conclusive,

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.'

ris, to a certain extent, imfortunate — we mean, of course, for the pub-
lishers — that there should be at (be same time two series of works
of the same kind for the use of students. Messrs. Longmans are issuing a
series of excellent and cheap manuals upon the different hranchefl of sdenee,
and almost at the same time the Messrs. Groombridge are advertising for
sale a set of works, nearly of the same class, and appealing to exactly the
same people. The present work is one of the NaluriU Philosophy Series, and
is in every respect, so far as we have seen, an excellent manual, lla phy-
sical features, size, type, and illustrations are all excellent, and the general

* "A Course of Natural Pbilosopby, conl«ning the Elementa of Me-
chanics, HydrostaticB, and Optics, for Schools, &c'' By Richard. WonoAU^
UA, fiuSc. Loadoa : Groombridge, 1&71.

418 POPULAR 8CIKKCB REYISW.

character of the work is verj good. Of course, the subjeeta are all treated
in the most elementary style } bat we doubt not that^ so far as it is in-
tended, as the author implies, for matriculation examination of the London
University, it is amply sufficient for its purpose. According to the author,
it is introductory to his previous work for the subsequent examinations of
the London University, while it follows the same form and order, so that
students, in pursuing subjects further, will be able easily to connect what
they have to learn with what they have already learnt. At the same time,
the author states that the book ** by no means represents the narrowest view
which may be taken of the curriculum of the London University, bat will,
it is hoped, be found useful in schools generally, as containing a systematic
explanation of the more elementary principles of this branch of natural
philosophy.'' We notice that each chapter is succeeded by a long aeries of
questions, which takes the pupil through examples of all he has been
studying. Li most instances these questions are followed by the answen.
Li some they are not, thus leaving a certain amount within the range of the
student's knowledge. So far as we have seen, it is in all respects a clear
and good manual

PLANT-FOOD.*

r[S book, the author tells us frankly, lays no claim to originality. We
are glad to hear it, for assuredly if it was not distinctly stated in the
preface, we should have taken the author somewhat to task for his labours.
But now the question comes, if there is no originality in the work, why was
it published P To this we have no answer in the author^s prefatorial
remarks, and we are unable to guess anything in the shape of a reply our-
selves. The book is essentially a made-up one; and is, in addition, spread
over about double the quantity of space that is requisite. We do not well
know what to say about such works. They are really without any distinct
value, and usually — and indeed the present is no exception — they put in a
very xmsatisfactory and abstractive sort of way, what is much better put, if
a little more lengthily, in a more important treatise on the subject. For
example, when we have in English such a splendid treatise as the " Natural
Laws of Husbandry,'' by Liebig, it is more than absurd to issue such a
rudimentary incomplete work as that which Mr. Grundy has offered to the
public. Of course it must be said that throughout his pages there is no
symptom of grave error ; the book is accurate so far as we have seen. But
the idea of publishing such a rudimentary kind of book in the language
which contains Liebig's splendid treatise, looks to our mind as a great weak-
ness on the author's part. Such books can do little or no good ; and, except
that they gratify their author, we are ignorant of any service they can be
capable of offering.

• "Notes on the Food of Plants." By Cuthbert C. Grundy, F.C.S.
London : Simpkin & Marshall, 1871.

DESCHA>'EL'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHT.*

PROFESSOR EVERETT haa done weU to reproduce this Tolume from
ihe French. Whatever the teader uia; thiak of his foroiet Attempt in
the came directtoo, that ia, howerer unsatisfactor; he ma; deem it, he miut
be ^atieSed with the tnmsktion of the volume by Professor Descbsnel'on
ITeat In the present work, however, we find that besides the auclior's
labours beinj; particularly good, the editor has laboured equally well, and
has added a great deal so as to make the book a really fl'ood one on the sub-
ject of heat, and to leave in the student's hnods a volume which he may
read with satisfaction aud pi'ofit, It must not be supposed from these re-
msrks that the work is of a very advanced character, for it is not But it
bears evidence of bein^ an exact treatise ; niid it coDtnins abundance of
mallec. quite sulBcient for the '' medical " student or the first-year's-man in
" Arts." The subject of the volume ia Heat ; and this is dealt with very fully,
the chapter on Thermodynamics and lai^e portious of the chapters on Con-
duction and on Terrestrial Temperatures being the work of the editor. The
nomenclature of units of heat is borrowed from Professor G. C. Foster's
article on Heat in Watta's " Dictionary of Chemiatrv," and several other
shorter portions of the English edition have been added by the editor.
For instance, the chapter on the motion of glaciers, where he adopts Forbes'a
views in preference to Tyndall'a. This adoption of Forbes's theories is not
usual, but we think it right ; we fancy from Forbes's work upon the subject
that he most conclusively proves the force of his ideas. On the whole, the
^ery good one, and we have much pleasure in recommending it,

BRITISH FUNOLt

OF all the departmeuts of Botany we fancy that that of the Fungi has
been the least studied by the amateur, and, doubtless, the reason has
been the absence of a suitable manual wherein tbe student could And every
species which he was likely to meet. However, this need no loiger exist,
for Mt, BI. C. Cooke, M.A., has supplied a work which will long outlive
him, end which must for many yea.ra be regarded as the standard instructor
00 tfae subject He haa given us, in two volumes of more thnn 000 pages
and with more than 400 well-devisod woodcuts, nn admirable account of all
the British Fungi. It is true, as he himself admits, that in many cases
the American distribution ia imperfectly given, but this is a very small
defect, if it be one at all, in such an admirable work. We think, too, that
cooaiderable praise is due to Mr. Macmillan for the admirahle manner

• " ElementsjT Treatise on Natural Philosophv." By A. P. DeschaneL
Translated and Mited by J. D. Everett, H,A., D.C.L., Professor of Natural
Philosophv in Queen's CToUege, Bflfaat. London : Blackie, 1871.

t "Handbook of British Fungi." With full descriptions of all the

Sedea and illustrstiaQs of the genera. By M. C. Cooke, M.A. London :
HCmiUan & Co., 1871.

I 4S0 FopcLAS ecastx tznsw. ^^^H

in «h!di he hu tnrneci oat tb« wo^ is eraiy pwii c u tir wiA «UA ^^i
pablixher h» to d<>. Th- Tfifinnni Mrr irh ■■ fii iiphi.fcT ifcii J^hw uiilil 1
of tli« bmiae that iwun tbeni. Wbn we eoarider ths fiwt tbtt m bnA W
1>Mn publi>b(id (vn tbU tnliiect for tbe Um 4iil?-fi*a yean, «« oh tai|iR
wbat • Ubuor Mr. Cnoke'a hat been; kad wWb rnrtba we bov that kai
Tolamet and Hliutntione ha*« botb hr exceeded ibe niaik wUdi vm
crigiinUlT fixed, w« msj farm Nine ides of tke elNDrbui^ natan et Ut weik
Id pTodadng them. The review of inch a book ie « tatk oelr tai tW
botaniat who baa demoted ft lifetime to the atadT, aad Iw after aD wooU
be biwe«d in hie tclt'Cli'm of eome {tartieular mode of dmnoa. To o«nel>M
tbe book eeeme admirably amog^, attd the claMfieatiaa adofted pvl»-
culittly clear. RMidM, with the help of the engiaTiiiga, so ooe aeed — silk
a little cantinn — make an; miatake in dUg^ioeia, Fungi gcfKistlj, or
Bporjfrra, those plante which bsTe the fporea naked and with wUeh tht
)t«orkiieepedaU7coiuiected.aie divided hj Mr. Cooke into ^mrm-
'^ Oadtromyctlt*, Coniomyrttei, and Hyphomycttet. With then fcttr
M hi* booki are eapeciellj connected, of which tbe fint of eovne
Hlfae greater part of volume one ; the others dividing Uie teat of the
•tween them. So far as we have eeen, the arrangement ia osoallv

j^M many ohanct«ra bang emplojed as are abeolntely iiniii j and

mn, and thiu the definition of anj particnlar epeciea, more cepeciaO;
ttSfmtHoim/atei, becomea a taak of no great difficnllj. The whole hook
i« one, therefore, which we cen in the faigbeet degrce epeak well of; and
while we be^ to return our thank* to Mr, Uooke for the excellence of hii
laboiirR, we cannot but recommend thoee of our renders who an iiiliiiiiliil
in tbo ntud; of Fungi, to purchase tbe volumes for ibemaelvea. ^^H

Pl^NE AND SOLID GEOMETRY.'

MR, H. W. WATSON haa been selected at the author of Messrs. Long-
mnna' " Manual of Oeometry," and we think the selection bae been
extremely well made. Although in this little treatise before us there is not
much that is not to be found in the work of Messrs. Ronch£ and Gombet-
ousse, there are in msiiy instances detuled and important alterations which
we fancy are to the reader's advantage. We notice as especially deserving
nttentitin, that a certain alteration has been made in the non-adoption in
snntp imtlances of tbe svllogistic method. We think that when these changet
have been made the autbor has shown conridemble caution, and haa not
altered more than is abwlutely necessary. Altogether, we consider the
present work is every way as good as those in the same series whicb baye
gone before it

• "The Elements of Plane and Solid Geometry." By H. W. Waiion,
M.A. London: Longmans, 1871.

A NEW VIEW OF CAUSATION."

Bdvantage by those who are interesUd in philosophic treatises
origin of thioga generallj. It ia, we thiolc, tolembl}' clearlv written, but it
would haTe been better had the nuthor given ixa a little more of himself and
« little leaa of other autboTB. Aa it if, he occupies but & very small portion
of a very small book, of about 150 exceedingly small page», in eieesaivaly
large typ«. His views are in most inatances correct, aod be ttims at a proper
Diode of forming opinions.

DARWINISM REFUTED.t

WC call attention to this very little book beeauae it ii one of the briefest,
shallowest, and most ignorant treatt»ea wa have ever seen upon the
•ubject. The author does not clearly understand the bypotheaea of Mr. Darwin ;
and his ignorance of conteniporary work is something yery kmentable in one
■who proposes to write upon so important » subject aa that which he has
tnken up. The mere statement that Sir Charles Lyelt is opposed to Dar-
T.-ininn. is aulBcient to show bow conTerxant the author is with receut
jjcientific labours. This bocik is a moat ignorant and worthlesa production.

THE SMITHSONIAN HEPOKT-l

THIS Report for IHOit lina jui>t been published, and lias the year 1871 upon
its title-page. It conlaina, betides the nionetnry ntid other reports
« only of local iuleresl, a number of very valuable papers, transla-
i, &c. Among tbeni may be specially mentioned Sir John Lubbock's
^verpool address on the " Lower Races of Man," Professor Huxley's
tolendid essay on the " Principles and Methods of Palreontolngy," which
"865 in a Catalogue of the Museum of Practical Geology, and
L Marey'a splendid monograph, with over thirty engravinge, and occupying
newty fifty pages of this work. There are aeveml other important papers,
which render this volume one if the best contributions to science which are
iwued during the yeac in America,

" A New View of Cauaatiun." By T. S. Barrett. London : Prorost

fc Co., 1871.

~ " Darwinism Refuted : an Eseaj on Mr. Darwin's Theory of the

«cent of Man." By S, H. Laing. London ; Elliot Stock. 1871.

" Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the SmithiWiiiBn Inatitu-

"for the year ISflO. Washington: Go^emmwa\.?«a"TOVj"C)%KR,\'*il\.

' rOL, X — no. XLl. F s

4!tf2 POPULAB

HI I [•>

SHOBT NOTWBB.

An EkwmUory Comtm ^ Thtordicd and applied Ifiwiiwwffi, ^ Ij
RichMd Wormell, M. A., B.8c. Sod edition, haodaa : QrooaSbBd^ USTL
This it the aecond edition of a work whieh ire ftacy we lin?e hid Wbn
under our notice. It it one of Measrs. (hoomlnidge's aerief of ednrntioil
amnuela, and is a yery good book of its kind. Thia, tlie seeond editiany
contains aome things not in the first (me^ and is altogether an impnffe-
inent on It

IVtHmmar^ MfpoH om ike VtrUhrata diiconered m the Bari'Kmmedjf Bmt
€taiy« by IVofesaor C. D. Cope. Thia ia a reprint, for private drcolaliony of
a pepcr lead by the Frofeaaor before the American Fhiloaophical Society in
April last It deala very ably and minutely, aa mig^t be expected of its
authoTi with the animala found in a fiaaure of the Potadam limestone. The
paper deacribea the aeveral apeciea, and condudea with aome very carious
obaenrationa on the former connection of the American and Asian oontinoits.
« Th^ Orwai 2)frmmd ^ Jmh : Ham and O^feei ifiU C&mtructunu Cin-
cinnati : Clark & Co., 1871. Thia ia a ourioua pamphlet, which bean no
author's name. Still the author has evidently read some of the worisi upon
the subject ; mainly, that by Professor Piaisi Smyth. He regards the IN^xamid
as a standard of measure $ and gives numerous illustrations in proof of its
being so.

A AVv to the Xatmrai Orders of Wild FUnoering TiatUs, by Thomas
Daxtor, F.().S. lA^dou : Simpkin & Marshall, 1871. This is a series of
tables for tho purpoM« of teaching botany to beginners. The author fancies
it hss cortain fostun>s of simplicity; but for our part, we fail to see in what
it id Himplor than a gixni elementary treatise, such as Bentham's, for instance.

Iht tht C\iMw of Ham Stitmut, the Auroraj and Terratriai Magnetism^ by
Q. A. Howoll. lAmdon : Williams & Norgate, 1871. This is a reprint
of some old papers on a subject of considerable importance. They are
written by an amateur; but, nevertheless, we think them worthy of a
fiivourablo opinion. We commend them, therefore, to the notice of our
readers.

The Xat^ral Uitiory ofthr BritM Diatmnactig, by L. Scott Donkin, M.D.
London : Van Vixkrst, 1871. Part II. The second part of this work has
appoaivd at last, and without an apology for the delay, or a promise of
bettor things in future. It deals with about forty specimens. The plates
are only four in number, and we must say they are simply abominable. It
ia not St all to Mr. Van Voorst's credit, he who has published so many
splendid natural histoiy works, that this volume should be issued in its pre-
sent form.

Otitrge W, Child*: a Biographical Skddk^ by James Partin. Phila-
delphia : Collins. An interesting but brief sketch of a remarkable man*

DigitaHi and HeaH Dimamj by Balthazar W. Foster, M.D., Ptofessor of
Medicine in Queen's College, Birmingham, and Phyaidan to the Queen s
Hospital. This is a pamphlet which ia moat creditable to ita author. It is
not of any great len^^Vit Vt \a taaMSjoZ&cs \bqX Xn^^iJd&Kt^iaiLdiai^ya con-

BEYIBWS. 423

ddeiable experience of cardiac disease. We cannot discover firom what it is
reprinted. Mayhap it is an original essay.

The Triun^h of Evolution, and other Poems, by Joseph Merrin. London :
Longmans, 1871. The title sufficiently conveys what this work is about
We pass no opinion upon it.

A complete Course of IVoblems in Practical Plane Oeotnetry, by J. W.
Palliser. London: Simpkin & Marshall, 1871. The lecturer on geo-
metrical drawing at the Leeds School of Art and Science has here given
what appears to be a useful work. It is accompanied by no less than 260
diagrams ; and so far as we have seen, it is simple enough, provided the
student goes on step by step through its pages. We think Mi. Palliser has
done well to produce it. We fancy he has supplied a want much felt.

V T 2

424

SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY.

ASTRONOMY.

rpHE Eclipse of December 12, I871.--Thi8 eclipse will probably be well
observed. We have already spoken of the track of the moon^s shadow,
but when our last Summary appeared it was not considered likely that an
expedition would be sent out from England to take any part in the work
of observation. Application has been made, however, to Govemm^it, and
the sum of 2,000/. has been granted, as well as transport and the means of
camping, &c., for an English expedition to Ceylon. As a strong observing
party will proceed from Sydney and Melbourne to the stations in northern
Australia, while the Dutch Government will probably garrison suitable
observing stations in Java, there is abundant reason for believing that the
eclipse will be well observed. Observations in India will probably be
superintended by Mr. Posson (the Government astronomer at Madras),
Colonel Tennant, and Lieutenant HerscheL It is hoped that Mr. Lockyer
will be able to head the expedition to Ceylon. At the present time it is,
indeed, understood that he will do so, in accordance with the request of the
Astronomical Society (who have felt it incumbent upon them, we under-
stand), to urge that one or other of our principal solar spectroscopists
should take charge of the English expedition ; but we can regard nothing as
definitely settled at this moment. It is hoped that M. Janssen may be
able to go to Java. We remind our readers that in North Australia the
totality will last 4 m. 18 sec, or 2 m. longer than at the best stations last
December. In Java the duration will be less, and further west in Ceylon the
duration will be only a few seconds longer than in last year's eclipse. A
slight mistake has been made on this point, however. Mr. Hind, in his
first and comparatively rough account of the eclipse, had marked the
shadow track as barely extending to Trincomalee. He now so places Trin-
comalee, with reference to the track of shadow, that be estimates the
duration of totality there at 2 m. 30 sec. ; and it has been inferred that,
since this is the case with a town on the border of the shadow track, places
in Ceylon near the middle of the track will have longer totality. But, as a
matter of fact, Trincomalee is now shown to lie \et\ near to the middle of
the shadow's path. However, there can be no doubt that, with suitable
observing weather, stations in Ceylon will have a considerable advantage
over the best stations for observing last year's eclipse.

Aa to the observations which are to be made or which require to be
mide, we have a few remarks to make. Photogi-aphy is to be applied again,

SCIESTIFIC SO MSI ART.

t tmder conditiona nliirb promtae bett«r success than has bitbeito been *
uned. In particular, adTimtage is to be taken n( tbe experience acquire'!
~"r. Brothers last year. Mr, Brothers, it may be remembered, adopted a
r metbod of pholographing tbe corona, mnktnj^ use of na ordinary
photographic lena of 1od|j; foc'Js instead of a lelescope. Notwithstanding vrry,
unfavourable weather, the eclipsed bud having been clouded over until within
a few seconds of the end of totality, Mr, Brothers succeeded, aa we know, in
picturing the corona "as it was never seen on gloss before," II ia not to be
wondered at. therefore, that it has been decided to employ the Esme method
on the present occasion. The proposed spectroscopic observationa are nl»<
promising. Two excellent li-ioch refractors are to be mounted on the same
equatorial stand, one at each end of the declinatiim niis; so that, while
one observer studies the aspect of a portion of the corona through one tele-
scope, another may study the spectrum of the same portion through the
other. Thia contriTance ban been suggested by Dr, Huggins, and appears
well calculated to remove tbe doubts which have hitherto rested on the
subject of those spectroscopic observations which have been guided merely
by means of the (irdinnry tinder. Mr. Lockyer has made suggestions, among
which the following niay be noticed. " At each place," he says (Le. India,
Ceylon, and Australia), " the spectroscopes should be employed for faalf-an-
hour (to be on the safe side) before totality, in scrutiniMng the crescent at
its narrowest place, and the chromatosphere outside the follonHng limb of '
tbe moon. At each place, as before defined, there should be a spectroscope
with a Endcr and equatorial motion (or some equivalent arrangement]
directed to the sun's centre, to record any changes which take place in the
spectrum from, say, ha!f-an-hour before to half-an-hour after totality, an^i
also during totality, bien enlendti. The relative darkness or brigbtness of the
lines should be recorded every ten seconds. The spectroscope should have
moderate dispersion. Urge ohject-glaaaea for collimator and telescope, and wHh
focal length sucb that two or three degrees round the sun should be take i
in (i,e. 1° or li° from the sun's centre), and a large field.". . .

Coming to the details of the expedition to Ceylon. Mr, Lockyer expresses

F opinion that it need not exceed the following numbers : —
1 telescope-spec troscopic observer; 2 aasislants.
I photogmpberi 2 assistants,*
I sped rose upic observer ; 1 asaistaut.
Or 6 iu bU.

To one suggestion of Mr. Lockyer's we are compelled to take grave e
ception. He notes, among observations which he regards aa compamtivelJ
unimportant, " sketching anything but the c^fni^in the corona." It appealf
to us, on the contrary, that the changes in the corona are precisely U
phenomena which are. in tbe first place, most ditScuIt to delineate ; and, ii

* Mr. Lockver remarks that, in his opinion, this duty may perhaps 1
entrusted to stilled sappers. But the historv of all tbe rei^nt eclipseashoi.
that, of nil the departments, the photograpnic is tbe one which requires b
be entrusted to the most skilful hands. Very useful spectroscopic work b
been done with verj' little preceding practice ; but no gwd pholographic w
has yet been done save by experts.

rorriAK ecmcE bzueit.

W« kaow u ft fl

it MldilT, « ndaly of •txangd; dimn^ul phenomena, ■
~* t nr^ag Hlwiimiuu of om Ktmoephere by the {^

I tfce naUj- mIw partiaai of the corona, maj' alwaji h

« diScnltj to detoimine the pndae

Med: lint there can be rerj littk

J aia ^liAjr dtM ta tLe Trntj-ittji amotint of iUiuninalioD

\ Mi W Ibe n^id eha&itet of tempemiure resulting from ibe

" (t lie npper regiona of tbe air. To p«j

I ia a ctHuse ■dmirablir calculated, petbtp«,

■ ■wNnwiliyril qnastioiu ; but it does not seem to pnanue

' gtba leel mlar curuua. The most Talublr

i appe»d*g% of our sun would nn-

• fMaad if eaaakMmr, not lufTerm^ bis attention to be dii-

1 bj the changing JlluminitifMi*

• between the cbangeful pbenomena of

• of tbe ccraaa whose liiity pronounces them

I tf Mt Ammmi iWaAai e/ « Planriaiy A'ebtila.—^i. Gill, of
11 lEBom M a eanfii] obaeirer, and as baring executed tomt
^fhoMgnpliaof tbe mooB, announced at the- recent meeting of the
' ' a tbki he had detected a parallax of neatlj two eecood* in
Miarr nebula 37 H. ir., close bj tbe pole of the ecliptic.
», k«<mt er. of continuing his olHerrationa for vet another yen
IBitiT«IjaBiiuulirin{;lhattbeDebalalia5 thi^ large parallax- Shaold
' n confirmed, it would foUcitr that this nebula is nearer to ns than
i Man, 01 at least than anr fixed star whose parallai has
a been meatured. The rwult would be interesting, as confirming
ttase doubts whieb hare recentlir been expressed respecting the Tast dis-
tances at which nebula hare been long supposed to Ue. It mu^t not be fbt-
gotten, however, that Sir William Herschel, bj whose observations these
T»t distances hare been snpposed to be established, was himself the firet to
express doubts on the nilgeet. The planeiair nebulie, in particular, were
among tbe objects which he judged, during the latter part of his career ai
•n obeerrer, to be much nearer than be hod imagined when be enunciated
bis earlier but better-known theoriet> It i» Mmewhat singular that the
particular nebula which hu thus been the fint to reward the search for
nebular parallax, was the fiiet nebula which Dr. Huggins found to be gaseous.
A somewhat reraarkahte comment is reported to have been made by
Profesam Tait uponj Mr. Gill's paper. That eminent mathematiciao re-
marked, oceoiding to the report, that Mr. Gill's obserration. if established,
would tend to orerthrow the theory now unirersall; accepted among astro-
nomers respecting nebulfe, — to wit, " that nebulic are the moving matter of
stars ; shon-ers of stones. Sir W. Thomson would call them, at inconceirablj
vast disltinces." We had nsTer heard that this theorj had even been enim-
ciated among astronomeie, though we have had through our hands the pro-
ceedings of all the principal astronomical societies of Europe and America,
and all the most \m^r\juA t.Tea\,\6eft civi Bsttcrtwinv which have been pub-

^^Ilh<

BCIBHTIFIC SUJtJIABT. 427

led during- the last ten ye&ia. Surely, eiihei Profi^Mor Tnit or the
reporters moft have maile Bome nusUlie.

F)irther OhaerDotioaii of i/ Arffiii and the Sarroundinff ytbula, — Mr.
Abholt nubmitted, two jeais ago, picturea of this interesting nebula to the
Koynl AftTonomical Society, which seemed to «how thnt the nebula had
imdergonu important changes. He now eends a tliird picture, accompanied
by comments on the criticitjiua to which his former paper was espoaed. Hia
first iitlftck falls va Mr. Froctor, who, Id an article in " Fraset's Magazine ''
fi>r iJecember 1808 (presenting Mr. Abbott'a work in a very favourahle
Sght), had TODturud ki expreaa doubts whether (he ftam in Mr. Abbott'a
drawing of 1666 had bttcu actually copied from the view given Ia- the tele-
MOp«, ^c. Mr. Abbott saya that all his drawings " were carefully copied
from the object a« described ia the ' AstioDomical Register' for January
1869 ;" and he adds that " there is little doubt but that Mr. Proctor'* views
on the subject would be very much enlarged, if he had the opportunity of
aeong the star and oebula as they appear at Hobort Town." Commenting
tti Mr. Abbott's letter, Sir John Herachel, who bod been the first lo eipreas
donbta as to tho phtcing of the stars iu Mr. Abbott'a drawings, remarhed
tbtt there was not one among all the stars delineated which he could
identify with any of those laid down in bis own drawings and catalogued
pontiuns. *> The mo»t superficial inspection suffices to ahow that there Is do
correspondence between us ; and that ^tr. Abbott's field of riew of 1" 8' in
<UaJueler diffuni n« completely from a dmilar field in my monograph, having
q Arg&s near the centre, as if the telescope had been directed to quite a
different part of the heavens. . , . Tiii^ would, however, be of little
moment, were it permitted to suppose that attention bad been given only to
the delineation of ihe nebula, and that the stars bad been put down at
random, or with little regard to tbelr real configurations. Mr. Abbott,
however, in the paper which accompanies his diagram, distinctly repudiates
this supposition, and insists on the correctness of his ropresentatioDs of the
etara in the field of view delineated; not, indeed, aa micromotrically
accurate, but as careful eye-drafts." Mr, Abbott having been communi-
cated with as to the doubts thus renewed, replies, under date Febru-
1871, endeavouring to re-estobligh the accuracy of his drnughts-
inatiBliip. Finally, the whole series of papers has been submitted to the
iPWrching scrutiny of Ihe Astronomer Royal, who conceded the main pciuts,
^^femely, tliat the nebula has shifted its position, and that Mr. Abbott was
fl»t to announce this interesting foct, yet comments, in somewhat
re terms, on Mr. Abbott's drawings. " When we look closely to funda-
ital point*," says Professor Airy, " all is confusion. Mr. Abbott'^
ratjuua were all made with a refracting telescope, so that the order of
B four cardinal points on the map would be Eg W (turned round in
a any degree), But in the 1670 map liu hns them marked Wg £1 ; in the
I map lie has marked only g . The g in the two map* differ about
In each of these maps is e line (different for the two) which he calls
tflioe of Light.' What this means I have not the alighleat idea. In
iDta of geometry, therefore, Mr. Abbott is o. most inaccurate man. As

428 POPULAR SCaSH(X BEVUSW.

regards tbe delineation of the nebula, I cannot make out anything. It i»
impossible for us to publish maps in this state." We have spoken of Pro-
fessor Airj*8 examination of the subject as final ; but as a matter of &ct, a
let'.er from Captain Herschel reopens the yeiy question on which the Astro-
nomer Koyal had expressed himself satisfied. '* Mr. Abbott appears to have
got wrong/' eajs Obtain Herschel, '' in his N. and S. points. Ib it rash to
suspect that he has also mistaken ti ? Neither does he appear to hare even
recognised the lemniscate. He speaks of * a dispersion of the stan ' ; but his
own drawing, as I now show, places most of his stars in approximately their
right relative places. Surely ail this betokens wm'recogmtiUm, cm his partj of
the object he teas examining, due probably to an inferior magnifying power.
If his chart of the stars is as correct as I think, every atom of evidence of
change in the nebula which he adduces is swept away.''

To quote the remark with which Professor Airy opens his paper, '' The
subject is a very puzzling one.*'

Proposal for a Series of Surveys of the Star Depths, — ^Mr. Proctor, in a
communication to the Koyal Astronomical Society, indicates the necessity
of a series of systematic surreys of the heavens, on a principle quite different
from that on which the Herschels gauged the star depths. A series of tele-
scopes of gradually increasing aperture should be employed to gauge every
portion of the celestial sphere, the series of gauges for the several apertures
being then charted isographically. His opinion of the value of such surveys
is founded on the interesting results which are established by the isographic
( harting of all Argelander's series of 40 full-sheet charts, showing the places
of 324,108 stars. It would not be necessary, however, to mark in every star
separately, with careful reference to position and size, as in the isographic
copy of Argelander's charts ; all that would be necessary would be to mark
in the observed number of stars (as determined by the gauges) in the corre-
sponding spaces in the chart. The gauge fields should not be circular, but
square (except close by the poles), so as to leave no ungauged spaces, and to
avoid overlaps. By taking apertures of 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, and 18 inches, or
evfn to 2 ft. and 4ft., a progressive series of charts would be obtained,
■which would throw great light on the laws of stellar distribution.

The Physical Changes of Jupiter. — Mr. Ranyard has contributed an inte-
resting paper on this subject to the ** Monthly Notices " of the Astronomical
Jr^ociety. He shows that, within two years of the great sun-spot maximum
of 1848, the white spots on the southern belt were strongly marked, and
the equatorial region much broken up. Within a year of the next sun-spot
minimum, Mr. De la Hue made his large and well-known drawing of
Jupiter with a 13-inch silver speculum. "It is full of the smallest details
in the belts, yet there are no traces to be found of Dawes' markings, bright
points, northern or southern eggs (sic)^ or equatorial port-hole^.'' (We take
some exception to these terms, as thus used absolutely; though they are
very suitable expressions for comparative description.) Drawings made by
Tiazzi Smyth in 185G entirely endorse Mr. De la Rue. But in 1858, when
tlie sun was again marked with spots, Lassell noticed a numerous group of
white spots in the bright equatorial region of Jupiter. "For several
years," says Mr. Lassell, " I failed to see any such spots upon the face of
Jupiter at all, but last year they appeared again in the same quarter of the

SClESTinC SEMMABT. 429

piftnet. and were atUntiTcly and ably observed by Mr. Dnwes." la 1859
the floccutent cloudy ■ppenrnnces rewrabling port-hnles in tbe principHl bells
were beftiitifully diHwn by Sir J. Keilb Murray. In 1800-01 again, ProfesBor
Airy, Bpaaking of the grent eqiiatoria!. Bays, "It has beeo employed to a
consideroble extent in the prepamlion of delineationa of Jiipit«T and Mars.
The farmer of these planets has exhibited in tbe last year some appearances
never before recorded ; and it lins appeared verydennbie to register as soou
as possible anything which seems to indicate a change in the constitution of
ibal )freat body." Mr. Carpenter therefore made, during that year, a series
of most careful drawings, showing all the fiocculent port-boles and tbe
leddish colour of tbe equatorial region, bright egg-ebaped spots, aod
elliptical markings, which have ^been observed during the last two

An important feature in Mr. lanyard's paper is the fact that the eridence
he adduces is tnlten from tbe recorded observations of Lassell and De la
Hue, who are now the chief upponerits of tbe assertion that Jupiter has
laiely changed in aspect, and, from tbe work done by thi; Greenwich equa-
torial, now said to give no evidence of change.

"We may note in this connection that the picture of Jupiter at p. 280 nf
the lant number of the Pnjmlaf Science Reeiete, has been inverted by mis-
take. Tbe inversion is of no coijsequence in itself, since it simply (»u»e»
the picture to present Jupiter in bis natural instead of his telescopic posi-
tion ; but as the compftrisoji between this picture and others might lead Ui
confusion, it is desirable that tlio astronomical reader should Iw made aware
of the mistake. (Mr. Webb did not see the proof i>i *itu, and is therefore
not responsible fur tbe error.)

Ditcoirn/ of avolh(r Aitcroid. — Another asteroid, the llStb, baa been dis'
covered by Mr. Watson, of Ann Arbor, U.S., who bids fair to rival the most
successful aateroid seekers.

The Xnitmher Shootiag-itan. — We remind our readers that the November
sbooting-stara should he looked for in tbo early morning hours of Novem-
ber 13 and 14. It is not likely that a display of a marked character will be
witnessed, hut considerable interest attaches to the determination of the
relative richness of difTtrent portions of the system. It is not unlikely
that Btragglen, really belonging to the samt: system, may be seen (aod known
by their " radiant point") on several daya before and after November 13.

Thr JVanelt of the Quarter. — Venus will be a morning star, attaining her
kTi^ntest brilliancy on November 1, and reaching her greatest westerly
';loogation on Hecember C. Jupiter will be weU placed for observation
•iuring the latter half of the quarter. Mars and Saturn will not be well
placed for observation.

_ : BOTANY.

^ Trantpiralion of It'akri/ Matter by Learet.— PioftaaoiWSth ot tiliRoyel

L' Agricultural College, Cirencester, has published an important and lengthy

paper on this subject in the "Transactions of tbo Botanical Society of

Edinburgh." The conclusions at which the Professor arrives may thus be

430 POPULAB SCIENCX BBYISW.

briefly stated : — 1. Total quantity of water in the leaves of the hay kmel,
63*4 per cent* 2. Quantity of water which can he removed from the leaves
by calcium chloride; 5*08 p. c 8. Quantity of water which can be .^moTed
from the leaves by sulphuric acid m vacuo, 6*09 p. c. 4. Quantity of water
which can be removed from the leaves in the sun, 5*8 p. c. 5. Anrnimt of
transpirable fluid in stem and leaves, between 6 and 7 p. c 6. Amount of
£uid in relation to cell sap, between 56 and 57 p. c. 7. Rapidity of trau-
piration in sunlight; 1 hour, 3-03 p. c. 8. Kapidity of tzanapiration in
diffused daylight, 1 hour, 0*59 p. c 9. Rapidity of transpiration in dari[-
ness, 1 hour, 0*45 p. c. 10. Amount of transpiiation in darkneas, 48 houn
(mean), 13*47 p. c. 11. Amount of fluid transpired in a aatorated atmo-
sphere, in sun^ 1 hour, 25*96 p. c. 12. Amount of fluid transpired in a diy
atmosphere, in sun, 1 hour, 20*52 p. c 13. Amount of fluid transpired in a
saturated atmosphere, in shade, 1 hour, 0*00 p.c. 14. Amount of fluid
transpired in a dry atmosphere, in shade, 1 hour, 1*69 p. c. 15. Quantity of
water taken up by leaves when immersed in it, 1 ^ hour (mean), 4-37 p. c
IG. Quantity of watery vapour absorbed by leaves in a saturated atmoephiBre,
18 hours, 0*00 p. c. 17. Amount of fluid transpired by upper suifkoe of
leaf, in sun, 1 hour, 1*34 p. c. 18. Amount of fluid transpired by under
surface of leaf, in sun, 1 hour, 12*33 p. c 19. Amount of fluid transpired,
both sides coated with collodion, in sun, 1 hour, 0*96 p. c. 20. Amount of
fluid transpired by upper surface of leaf, 48 hours in diffused light, 2*82 p. c
21. Amount of fluid transpired by under surface of leaf, 48 hours in diffused
light, 16*08 p. c. 22. Amount of fluid transpired, both sides coated with
collodion, 48 hours in diffused light, 2*56 p. c 23. Relation of fluid taken
up to thnt transpired, and that retained by plant in 1 hour sunlight —

Grammes.

Total amount taken up ... 1*088

Deduct . . . 1-038

Difference . OO*)

Amount transpired .... 0-64
Gain of weight of branch . . 0*398

Total . . . .1*038

24. Increase of weight of branch in saturated atmosphere, diffused daylight,
48 hours, 7*34 p. c. 25. Increase of weight of branch in ordinary atmo-
sphere, diffused daylight, 48 hours, 714 p. c. 26. Increase of weight of
branch in ordinary atmosphere, darkne«»s, 48 hours, 3*01 p. c. 27. Rapidity
of ascent of fluid in plants (a) 8^ inches in 70 minutes, in sun. Lithium
citrate. Transpiration equal to 7*58 p. c. per hour, in sun. Lithium all
through branch. 28. Rapidity of ascent of fluid (6) 9^ inches in 30
minutes ; Lithium citrate. 29. Rapidity of ascent of fluid (c) 5/j inches in
30 minutes j Thallium citrate.

The Ftnictian of Bop Mosses. — ^Dr. Braithwute, in an interesting paper on
mosses in the "Monthly Microscopical Journal *' for July, says that with

* Percentage calculated on the total weight of leaves or branch employed.

H^ sciENTinc sruuABT. 431

^^Bect to the iiuiCtioa of these mossea, he Ciumcit do better than i^uote Professoi
^^BiinpeT'a words. He aajs : — " UnlesB there were hog moascH, many a bare
^^■tntnin ridge, many a high valley of the temperate zone, and large tracts
^^■tlie northern plunB, would present a umfi.irm watery flat, instead of a
^^Bering of floweiing plants or shady wo oda. for juet as the Sphagna suck
^^Btbe atmospheric moietuie, and conrcy it to the earth, do they also con-
^^Bnite t« it by pumping np to the surface of the tufts formed by them the
^^■nding water which waa their cradle, diminish it by promoting evaporation,
^^B fin^y, also by their own detritus, and by that of the numerous other
^H|pUats to which they serve as a support, remove it entirely, and thus
^^Eig about tiieir own destruction. Then, as soon as the plant detritus
^^■ned in thio manner has elevated itself above the surface water, it ia
^^^^Uar to uB by the name of turf, becomes material for fu<.'!, and all
^^BUignum vegel&tion ceases."

^^Bff Crou-FertUuntiou of Scrophuiana nodota. — It is probable that the

^^Butgamj of the dowers of Scrophutaria has already been observed and

^^Misbed, but it was new to Professor Asn Gray until pointed out this

^^Bon by bis assistant, Dr. Farlow. Tbe arrangement is thus : — lu the

^^Kily opened blossom the upper part of the style is bent forwanl so as to

^^■g the ettgma, now ready for pollen, just over the patent lower lip of the

^^Mll&: the anthers, not yet dehiscent, are out of sight toward the bottom

^^Bfiie coroUa, the filaments being strongly recurved or doubled over. In

^^B blossom a day or two older, the stigma hoa dried up, the style become

^^■l)y, and the tilaments have straightened so as to bring the four anthers

^^Ko tbe gorge of the corolla at the base of the lower lip, just back of the

^^■fr withering stigma. Tbe transversely dehiscent anthers are now widely

^H^. The flowers are visited by honey-bees, which barely insert their

^H^ into the gorge of the flowers ; the chin or throat of the bee, coming

^^■b contact with the lower lip of tbe corolla, is necessarily dusted with

^^■len from the older floweta; and this pollen, in the passage &om flower to

^Hwer, and pltmt to plant, is inevitably applied to the stigma of the &esbly-

P^isned flowers, which alone is in condition to receive it. The nectar sought

} by insects ia here secreted abundantly by tbe corolla, at its base on the

posterior aide, and to some extent by the disk which girts the base of the

oivary. The posterior face of the scale which represents the anther of the

fifth stamen is apparently glandular, but hardly, if at all, nectariferous.

Bees plunge their proboscis to the bottom of the flower. — Silliinaii'i American

Joamat for August.

So-caHtd Mimicry in FiiinU. — Professor Dyer read a paper on this subject
before the British Aseociation at Edinburgh, He pointed out the broad
distinction existing between the miniiciy of animals and what is called by
that name in the vegetable kingdom. In the first case, tbe animal and
what was mimicked were always found in close association. On the other
hand, the plants in which n mimetic resemblance was observed were seldom
found in the same neighbourhood. A strildng reeemblance in foliage would
be found between a plant of the group of leguminosw and another belonging
to that of compositie ; as also between distinct varieties of ferns, though
existing under entirely different conditions and indigenoua to widely-
separated portions of the globe, and iu the leaves oC several ai^ectea aC

432 POPULAB SCISNCB BETIEW.

caducous forest trees. The cause he attributed to the action of omiltf
chemical agents on the structure of plants^ so that those growing' cm the arid
soil of the searcoast might, from deriving nourishment from sLinilir
substances, come to have a similar form to plants of a totally difoent
species, whose chosen habitat was high sandy regions. In the discum
which followed the reading of the paper, Professor I/awaon demnrred to tbe
t«rm mimicry being in any case applied to the resemblance obsetred in
plants, that term inferring the existence of an intelligence which was tbe
attribute of animal life alone ; while Dr. Lankester protested against tlie
supposition that the mimetic changes and resemblances observed m animak
were the results of an exertion of the intelligence of the animal itself, or of
anything but the peculiar conditions under which it was placed.

The earliest Coniferfms Tree, Dr. Dawson and Mr. CarrHthers. — Dr.
Dawson has addressed a short note to the ''American Naturalist " for June,
stating, with reference to a notice copied in the May number of the
'* Naturalist" from the ''Academy," that the opinion respecting the plant
above named attributed to Mr. Carruthers is an entire mistake. " PrototaiitH
Loyani is an exogenous tree, with bark, rings of growth, medullary rays^ and
well-developed, though peculiar, woody tissue ; and, if Mr. Carruthers bii
made such a blunder as that attributed to him, this can only be excused bj
defective observations or imperfect specimens."

Darwin^ s Theory applied to Plants, — ^An excellent paper on this subject lits
been reproduced from the German in the '' American Naturalist '' for Julv.
It is a very lengthy paper, and is abundantiy supplied with notes. It ii
translated by Mr. Packard, jun., whose name is so well known here and ii
America. The original authors are Dr. £. Miiller and Professor F. Delpina
It is the most important botanical contribution which has appeared for
years.

Fungi within the Thorax of Birds. — At the British Association at Edin-
burgh, Dr. Murie referred to the circumstance- of lowly organised vegetable
structures being not un frequently found growing in animals and man, both
externally and internally. For the most part these affected the skin, giving
rise to several cutaneous diseases. They also flourished in the alimentarr
( anal ; and among others, one peculiar form (Sarcina) had been described
by the late Professor Goodsir from the human stomach. In nearly though
not all instances where vegetable organisms flourished within the livinjir
body, it was in organs where a certain amount of air had free access. It
was more diflicult, though, to account for the cases where vegetable para-
sites arose in, so to speak, closed cavities. The instances which be ( Dr.
Murie) brought forward as coming under his own observation were three in
number — viz., a fungus-like growth in the abdomino-pleural membrane of a
liittiwake gull, a great white-crested cockatoo, and a rough-legged buzzard.
After a general description of the specimens in question, the author referred
to them as in some ways bearing upon those doctrines whereby living*
(organisms were supposed to originate out of the tissues themselves. Other
weighty reasons undoubtedly might be given to the contrary, but as everv
fact, either fumi:«hing doubtful evidence of, or opposed to the spontaneous
generation theory, might be useful at the present juncture, he (Dr. Murie)
thought a record of such worthy of being brought before the Association.

W9atiie of the laU MatUr of th« Mint.— Hi. William Bradie, R.S.A., has
just completed the full-sized m<Af\ \a clay of a colosanl atatuu, to be erected
in GUsgow, of the Iste Thomas Graham, Master of the Mint. Dr. Graham's
nsearcjbea and dUcareries in chemistry are known to all scientific inquirecii.
To geoernl readers it mnj be necesEar; to mention that Dr. Gmham wa9 a
native of Glasgow, being bom in that city in ]dO». At the age of tsventr-
five he became Professor of Chemiatry at the Andersonian Universitv ; and
in 1837 he succeeded Dr. Turner ag Chemical Profeasor in UniverBity College.
London, which position he held till 1865, when he was appointed Master
of the Mint, la the same year fae woa created an honorary D.C.L, by the
University of Oxford : he was also a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a
Correaponding Member of the Academy of Science of the Institute of
France, His " Elements of Chemistry " is a standard eliiM-book, and he is
known also ha the author of a number of scientific papers, The memorial
about to ba erected in his native city is due to the gratitude and muniK-
cence of an old pupil, a wealthy Olnsg-ow gentleman. The statue ia to b»
ct£i in bronze, and is to occupy a po9itii>n at the south-east comer of George
Square, corresponding with that of Chantrey's celebrated figure of James
Walt at the south-west comer.

Tht compound Amnumiim Amalffam formed hj the Bntiery.— In a late
uumber of " Silliman's American Journal," the late C. M. Welherill
^'ives an account of the abore. He says that a piece of flltpr paper was
phced upon a glass plate, then saturated with a strong solution of the re-
> J y^tallised methyl ammonium oxalate. A globule of mercury of the
-i/e of a small pea was placed upon the paper, with the negative
f-jte of twenty cells Dunaen in contact with it, the posilivo pole touchin;^
the paper. The globule swelled slightly, presented a buttery appearance,
attached itself to and amalgamated the blade of a penknife which was in con-
tact with the negative pole, and upon being pressed under a glass plate
iJktnped inmimerabU gia M)hlet in iti tvbitance (in fact was a metallic froth),
which emitted an ammoniacal odour. He promised other papers dealing
more at length with the subject, but we suppose they were not done before
his decease.

Cobalt UUrajiinrine. — In the "Journal fur Pmk Chemie" [Nos. 8, 9], Uerr
W. Stein contributes a paper on this subject. The author first refers briefly
to his reaearches on ultramarine (see " Chemical News," vol. iraiiL pp. US),
142, and 204), reminding his readers that a blue colour way result from the
intimate mixing of a block and a white molecule. Next this paper contiuns
researches on a sample of cobalt ultramarine, which had been kept for some
twenty years in the museum of the Dresden Polytechnic School, The
result of the analyus of that substance led to the following composition, in
100 parta :— Silica, 4-0; alumina, 08-45; cobalt (metal), -20-80; oxygen
0"a. The composition of the oxide of cobalt present in this ultramarine is
4CoO.CojOi. The analyaia was confinued by the synthesis of an ultramarine
cobalt — ^vin. by nmply igniting the black oxide of cobalt of commerce with
alamina.

SCIENTIFIC SUMllAItY. 433

CKEMISTRY.

434 POFULAB aCTENGl BIYIHr.

Improvements in Chhrimeiry. — ^Mr. J. Smith, MJL, read a paper hdm
the British Association at Edinburgh on ** Lnprorementa in Ghloiimetiy.''
He showed that the use of the milky solution of bleaching powder in chkni-
metry is unsatisfactory, a^d hence it was necessary to disoorer a method of
securing a clear solution containing all the chlorine by diasdiTing it m sb
alkaline solution. This is conyeniently done by addingi aay, ten gramiMf
of bleaching powder to twenty grammes of soda crystala, fiHawng out Ihe
precipitated carbonate of lime, which is known to be waahed, when it ao
longer discharges the colour of dilute sulphate of indigOy and making up tke
filtrate by water to one like of fluid. It is a clear colourlees liquid ai the
specific graTity of 1007, but if made of specific grayity 1-288 sli^tij
greenish, haying a pleasant oily feeling between the fingers^ cootzastiag
favourably with the roughness of the decanted solution of tiie MAaiAing
powder with which it gives a precipitate. Most satisfactoiy results aie ob-
tained from it by all the chlorimetrical methods, and it has the fKldHMmil
advantage of showing the amount of lime in the sample by adding a solutioD
of known strength of carbonate of soda until a precipitate is no longer
formed.

Dichraisni of the Vapour of Iodine, — ^Professor Andrews read a paper
before the British Association on '' The Dichroism of the Vapour of lo^ne.''
The fine purple colour of the vapour of iodine, he explained, arises ham its
transmitting freely the red and blue rays of the spectrum, while it absoibi
nearly the whole of the green rays. The transmitted light passes fieely
through a red copper or a blue cobalt glass. But if the iodine vapour be
sufficiently dense, the whole of the red rays are absorbed, and the trtos-
mitted rays are of a pure blue colour. They are now fireely transmitted as
before by the cobalt glass, but will not pass through the red glass. A
solution of iodino in sulphide of carbon exhibits a similar dichroism, and,
according to its density, appears either purple or blue when white light is
transmitted through it. The alcoholic solution, on the contrary, is of a red
colour, and does not exhibit any dichroism.

77ie Phosphate Process with Seioape, — Messrs. Forbes and Price described
their process to the British Association. This process, it was stated, was in
operation at Tottenham. The sewage, after passing through some depositing
tanks which had been constructed for the lime process, was pumped up at
the rate of 800 or 1,000 gallons per minute along a carrier into a tank a
hundred yards long, and of gradually increasing breadth. This tank took
three hours to fill. Aa the sewage passed along the carrier the chemicals
were mixed with it thus : — Two boxes were placed over the carrier — one a
few yards further along it than the other ; the first contained the phosphate
mixture, and the second milk of lime. Men were continually stirring the
contents of each box, which were allowed to run continuously into the
sewage as it passed beneath the boxes. The amount of the preparation
added was now ascertained, but it was stated to be certainly much less than
the proportion indicated by previous experiments (one ton to 500,000 gallons
of sewage).

I^^M SCIENTIFIC SDUMART. 435 I

GEOLOGY ASD PAL/EONTOLOGY. ^^^|

aeay of Iht Opereubt of HyalMes. — Mr. W. S, Ford unnounces this
Siacoverj- ftom New York, in " SilUman'a American Journal," He sajs
th&t severfil weeli^ ago, being in Montreal, he showed Mr. Billio^, Falieon-
tologist of the Geological Survey of Ciuiitdft, a small collection of fossils that
he bad made in the Primordial rocks near New York. He poioted out to
him, that amongr them there were tlie opercula of two species of Hydithtt.
One ISO minute circolftTspedes with four pairs of lateral miiscuJar impressions,
and two smaller, doreal, all radiating from a point near one aide. The other
spetdes is larger and like a Disct'iin on the outside. Mr. B. ehowed him
eeveml spedmens of the smaller species, that hod been collected iy Mr. T.
C. Weston of the Canadian Survey Inst summer, in rocks of the same nge
belowQuebec. He is informed that this is the first discoveryof the opercula
of HyoUthes yet made on this continent. He has made some observations
on the rocks of this ficinity, and collected a number of species of fossils, of'
which he hopes to give an account at an early date,

Tht Geology of the Kocky Moanlaim. — We learn from one of our American
contemporaries published in August, that Professor Marsh of Yale College,
with twelve other gentlemen, has started for the Aockj Mountains and
Pacific Coast. He will he absent until winter, and will continue his
UTestigations of the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations which his explora-
tions last year proved to be very productive in new species of vertebrates,

W}uit it Coal? — This question is answered in a very able paper by Pro-
fessor Bawson, LL.D., in the " Monthly Microscopical Journal " for August.
lie says that — 1, The mineral charcoal or " mother coal " is obviously woody
tissue and fibres of bark ; the structure of the varieties of which and the
plants to which it probably belongs, he has discuasod in another paper. '2.
The coarser layers of coal show under the microscope a confused mass of
firagmenta of vegetable matter belonging to various descriptions of plants,
and including, but not usually largely, sporangites. 3. The more brilliant
IsLjere of the coal ore seer, when separated by thin laminte of clay, to have
on their surfaces the markings of Sigillariie and other trees, of which they
evidently represent llatteued specimens, or rather the bark of such specimens.
Fnder the microscope, when their structures are preserved, these layers show
cortical tissues more abundantly than any others. 4- Some thin layers of
coal consist mwnly of fl8tt«ned layers of leaves of Cortiiifesor/^AnojiAyfft"".
5. The Stigmaria underclays and the stumps of Sigillaria in the coal roofs
equally testify to the accumulation of coal by the growth of successive
forests, more especially of Si^llarite. There is, on the other hand, no
necessary connection of sporangite beds with Stigmarian soils. Such beds
are more likely to be accumulated in water, and consequently to constitute
bitnminous shales and cannels. 6. Leptdodendron and its allies, to which
the spore-cases in question appear to belong, are evidently much less im-
portant to coal accumulation than Sigillaria, which cannot be affirmed to
have produced fpore-casea similar to those in question, even though the
observation of Ooldenberg as to their fruit can be relied on ; the accuracy of
which, however, he is inclined to doubt.

436 FOPULAK 8CIE5CB REVIEW.

Svnih of SeoiUmd CT u n fl i i i. — Mr. J. D. Brown tcaI s pap^r on Ane
before the Britiah AasocUtion at E din bi ugh . The object of tbe paper m to
show that the nlmian rocks of the aoath of Scotlaiidy m der^doped in Dib-
frcetshiie and Peeble«hiie, are not all ooe gedkgieal epodu aa hai ben
hliherio supposed, bat belong to two diflmnt epochs — n lower one re|R-
«eated by the M<^lit rods, well known hj their beds of anthneite ihaki
and graptolitesy and an upper seiies of later age, which lie ancaoformahle <■
the Moffat rocks. These beds have been long known at Wrae and GIcs
Cotho, and more recently in Galashiels, through the exertions of Mean.
Lapworth and Wilson.

Sew FoM RepUlei from tko Cniaetom amd Tertiary Furm^tioitu. — ^IVo-
fesflor C. O. Manh describes seTeral of these remains in ^ Silliman'a Amerioa
Journal ^ for June. The remains were collected bj the Yale College part?
during their explorations last summer in the Rocky Mountain region. Tks
specimens firom the Cretaceous formation are of great interest, as thej
further illustrate the remarkable development in this country^ both in
numbers and distinct forms, of the Mosasauroid Reptiles, which appear to
have been comparatively rare in other parts of the world. Fortunately,
moreover, some of these remains serve to clear up several obscure points in
the structure of these reptiles, and prove conclusively that they had a well
developed pelvic areb and posterior limbs ; although up to the present time
no satisfactory indication of this had been discovered, and the eminent paleon-
tologists who have recently made these animals an especial study con^der
them probably destitute of these extremities. The remains found in the
Tertiary deposits are also of importance, since they show that types of rep-
tilian life, slmost unknown hitherto from that formation in the West, were,
in one of the ancient lake basins at least, abundantly represented there
during^ that period.

A huge I*terodactyl. — We learn from the " American Naturalist " ( Julv)
that Professor Marsh states that the Yale College party obtained, in addi-
tion to the cretaceous fossils already described, several specimens which in-
<iicate a huge flying reptile, which he names Pterodactyl us Owenii. The
bones discovered '* indicate an expanse of wings not less than twenty feet/*
Tbe remains were found by Professor Marsh in the upper Cretaceous forms-
ti'>D of Western Kans&s. This is the first occurrence of the pterodactvl
in America.

The Sicatherium Giganteum. — Dr. J. Murie, F.Z.S., read a paper before
the British Association at Edinburgh, stating the systematic posidon of the
4'Xtiuct Sivatherium Giganteum, in relation to the deer, antelope, and other
niiinials of the same species. The author introduced the paper by some
rt-marks concerning the labours of the late Dr. Falconer and Sir Proby
( 'autely. These eminent men, the former a distinguished graduate of the
Edinburgh University, brought to light, in their researches of fossil fauna
of the Sewalik Hills, several remarkable mammalian forms. The sivathe-
rium, one of these, as attested by its remains, must have attained the size of a
full-grown elephant. It appears, however, to have been a ruminant. In some
respects deer-like, in othere more resembling the antelopes, still stranger it
seems to liave had some of the characteristic features of pachyderms, the
tapir for example. Dr. Murie went on to show that it belonged to those

SCIENTIFIC SCMMAKV. 437

leal farma which by some tnaj ba regarded as one of ihe progeoitors of

e berbivoroiui groups. The Bivatberium, according to him, is unlike

L other living ruminants hut one— the prongbuck — from the fnet of ila

biDg had hollow faoms, evidently subject to aheddin);. It ditlers thus

D deer whose solid horn« fuiuunlly drop olT, and from the antelope tribe,

len, whose hollow horns are persistent. Sare one living form

le saiga — no recent ruminant possesses, ns did the stvaiheriuiii, r muzzle

inbling in ssTeral wnj's the proboscis of the tapir» nnd elephants. On

iBtrength of his own recent reaesrches, and of those of Mr. Barllett and

^ Canlfield, Dr. Murie is inclined to place the aivatherium in the family

mocapridie. Radiating from the mvatherium can be traced diflerentiK-

l of structure allying it to the ancient bramatberium and megaeeiops.

telj, links lead through the prongbuck towards the deer, girafle, and

"d the other hand, configurations point undoubtedly to the saiga,

■ there it is, as it were, split into lines directed towards the antelope, the

Ten the pachyderms.

fHnt ImpUmenIt in Joihuti'i Tonib, — The Ahb6 Richard gave no dccount

'a recent discovery to the British Association at Edinburgh. He thinks

't upsets ell geological hypotheses as U> man's size. The Abb^ uufnr-

tely forgets (1) that the tomh may not be that of Joshua at all, and (2)

t, if it be, there is no evidence as to tbe time the flint weapons weru

I there. In fact they may have been, and probably were, therp many

• before Joshua was placed there.

f« of tlm pretent anil of the Mammoth Penodt. — ProfesEor Van Beneden

d a paper, in French, with this title, before the British Assoraation. So

s gathered, it wtis an argument against the Darwinian theoij.

MECHANICAL SCIENXE.

, Tie HAyai'mrirr.— Under this name, Mr. A. E. Fletcher has described, to

B British Association, an instrument for measuring the velocity of stieome

■water, or the velocity of a ship relatively to th^ water through which it

goring. The apparatus is very simple. A double tube, with two orifices

Blhfl bottom, one of which faces the source of the current, while the Other

) the opposite direction, is held in the stream, and communicates by

m with the indicator where the pressure is measured, by columns of

(her, water, or mercury, according to the circumstances of the case. Tbe

ibynmeter is already employed on some of the mail packets running to the

"hited States, in place of the patent log, to ascertnin the speed of the ship.

more convenient, as giving the speed directly, without a time observa-

The principle of the instrument is not new, but the construction is an

improvement on previous iostrumeats.

Liyht RaHtBayit. — Mr. W. Lawford has read a paper on this subject before
the InsUtute of Mechanieal Engineers. By liyht railwai/!, Mr. Lawford
imderstands railways of tbe ordinary narrow gauge, constructed as branches
from existing trunk lines, but intended to bo worked with light, flexible
roUing stock, and at slow fpeeda, 'WitliB,TttKa.mM.TQ.\(iBA.tS,Tt v
VOL. JC. — HO. XLI. a o

438 " POPDLAB SaESCE BETIEW.

pail of whe«l8, fiuch railwaja might be constructed fur 3,O00L to 3,GO0J. pe
mile of single vay> U>. Lawfoid deacribed « short line of this ducaptioD,
constructed for the Diike of Buckingham ftod Chandos at Wooton. Tha
line, of miles in length, trilh a. hranch of I^ miles, is essentiallj a tvdw
line, the higliest embankment being 12ft and the deepest cutting lOfL
Turnpike and other roads are crossed on the level. The mis are 301li.
bridge taiU on longitudinal timbers. The ballast la 10 ft. wide sod 3 lu
Sin. thick under the aloepera.

Vomptmnil Enginr* of the '^Tentdoe." — In the recent trial of the enginM
of the "Tenedos,'' the eoosumptlon of fuel, in the six hour runs, vtiiid
&om I'S^tbs. per L II. P. per hour, at «ight-knot speed, to 3~33 Ibe., U
thirteen- knot speed. The rate of espanraon of the steam was 9 tioei
in the former case and 0^ times in the latter case. These reaulta are et-
trt^mely ^tisfactory.

Waltr Ibicer. — The Industrial Sodetv of Mulbouse has recently reouced
ooaununicationa about a project for utilising the fall of the Rhone at Be1>-
gnnde. According to the calculations of M. CoUadon, of Genera, this [lU
at thiitecQ metres could be utilised so aa to afford 10,000 horses power. An
Ameiican companj, employed in tlie production of phosphate of Ume, pio-
jpose* to construct a tunnel for utiUdng this fall, and offers to Alsatisn
manufacturers to erect at £ellegrande establishments similar to those thej
poaeesa at pteaent. (Paris Correspondeot of Ungioeeiing.)

Sttf-aetatg Radilrr.— At the lotemaUonal Eihibition of Naples, Signor
Sidliano, of Palermo, exhibited an arrangement for working the nddei
of a ship bj moans of electro- magnets. The currents which actuate the
electro-magneta are under the control of the ship's compass, any derisliai
of the LMmpass from an aa^gned direction completes an electric drcoi^
which in turn, through the electro-magnets, acts on the rudder. Tb
' cOOipase and rudder form a perfectly automatic arrangement.

MEDICAL.

ri>l¥mt4iti/tlie GofAwa o/Ute ^enrf.— Professor the Ber. Samuel Hou^loo,
F.II.S., in his noent lecture (June 24) before the Royal Institution, at-
tempted to ootupute the volunies of the ventricles of the heart. Admitting
the principle of least action, he said: "I can predict a thing that at firit
sight appears reiy strange. I Cftn find the ratio which the volumes of lbs
two canties bear to each other by the measurement of the lengths of tha
HhrM that surround them. On measuring these fibres it comes simply to
this. lift L be the length of the fibres that go round the entire heart : let
ba tho length of the Rbres that go round the left ventricle. Find thoM
lengths and cube them. The ratio of those cubes will bo propottiooal to
the sum of tho right and left ventricles divided by the left. There
thoonitii'tl grounds which I believe are almost of themselves sulficieDt to
wititie us to believe that these two cavities are of equal volume, and tber»*
fon> Ihnt this fraction will come out equal to 2. I have taken, however, •
mot* certain mode of determimng this by collecting together all the obcei*

SCIESnFIC ECMUART. 439

Tktiooa of direct meMuiement of these voIuDies thai I cnc iind, and I
find that the mean is 2'1S5. From theoreticsl grauBtls, I believe that
more accurate axperimeots and observations irill proTe that the decimal
fraction at an eighth must be struck off, and that the true proportion ie re-
presented bj 3. Certainlj 2 ia the number given by the most accurate of
the ten observers. But now to my verifications. I measured the length of
the common fibres in the hearts of a great number of oxen, nnd I find it t^>
be 10-875 inches. I measured the length of the fibres that go round the
left ventricles in the same hearts, and I find as the mean of man; meaaure-
ments 8 625. Well, I suppose there is no one present here vrbo is a good
enough arithmetician to tell me at sight what the ratio of the cubes of
those numbers would be. I have cubed the numbers, and their ratio comes
out 2-OOJ. I. believe that to be a remarkable t«sult, and to entitle us to
assert that the principle of lea^ action applied to the problem of the heart,
is capable of solving it a step beyond ivhat it has been solved, and bringina
us within reach of the knowledge of one more of the wonderful laws
the Creutor. How it would rejoice the soul of the great Kepler if he had
known that the ratio of the length of the fibres in his own heart was in the
proportion of cube root of 2 to 1 ! Di*ine Geometry ! Queen and mistresa
of philosophy, thy right to rule the sciences shall never be disputed t " —
Britiih Medical Journal for June.

Dynamic! of A'erve nod Muicle. — From the " British Medical Journal '"
Cwhich contained an able review on it) we learn that Dr. Radclifie has pub-
lished hia views on this subject. We have not seen the book, however,
wbicli is published by Messrs. Macmillan. Hence we can do no more than
Announce the fact of its publication. It ia to be regretted that Messrs.
Mncmillau do not send out theb books more freely for review. We have
had to write for at least three or four of their recently published works. We
have DO care for the interests of a publisher, but ne do not consider that an
author isfairly served by the negligence of bis publisher in regard to sending
out his book for review. A lesson might well be taken from the American
publishers in this respect.

Dr. Lionel Beale a " Baly " Medalliit.—'ih.e " Baly Medal " of the Royal
College of Fhyncions, London, has been awarded to Dr. Lionel Beale, and
was presented to him immediately after the termination of the Harveinn
Oration.

Death of Von Hieiaeyei: — We regret to notice the decease of the distin-
guished Dr. Felix von Niemeyer, author of the well-known work on the
Practice of Medicine, which has met with such a remarkable success in
England and America through the translation of Drs. Ilumpbreys and
Hackley. We hare no particulars of Ntemeyer's case, except that he had
recently returned from France, where ha had been engaged in studying
typhus and dysentery in the army. At the time of his return he was sick,
but his illness was not believed then to be of a serious character.

Todd and Sowman'g Fhyiiolo^. — The second part of the new edition by
Dr. Beale, F.R.S., has made its appearance. It is devoted to the considera-
tion of fibrous, elastic, and connective tissues, cartilage, bone, and fat. It is
of course a very valuable work, and we wish it were completed by the
present editor,'who is certainly somewhat slow at his work.

440 FOPCLAB 8CIE2IGI WBfXSW.

METALLURGY, MINERALOGTy AND MINING.

7Ae Mmufaeiwre of Si^L — ^Blr. D&yid Foibes* usual quartedy wpA m
the mining and metaUnigical xesonioes of the aeTCfal States of Enofi^
g^Tee ns meet TalaaMe infonnatioiL In lact, it conridwahlf light— mt
task, for it gives in a condensed and thoroughly eompreheDsva fiaa, srvf-
thing that has heen done for the qnarter. We find it atsbsd that M.
Aiistide Berard has recently introduced into piactical operatioii, atGiVQi^ia
France, a process for the direct conTersioo of pig-iron into steel, fiv ivUdhp
among other advantages, he claims that it effiBCts a partial pmrftratiwrf
the iron, hy eliminating the sulphur, phosphorus, araenic, ftc ; at Isail^ t»
such an extent, that commoner brands of ]»g-iron, which by no proceH at
present known could be used, may be employed for making steel saitabb
for the manufacture of rails, tyres, &c ; and that, by the ^wnlwm^ tedoa
of air and gas, alternate oxidising or reducing efiects may be obtained tt
pleasure, so that the decarbonisation or recaibooiaation, and coasequest
uniform nature of the product may be regulated, whilst at the same time the
waste is reduced to a minimum. The main features of the process sie—
the conversion of the fuel employed into a gaseous state, the use of s jet
of superheated steam in so doing, and the employment of a peculisrij-
shaped converting furnace, in which, from three to five tons of cast-inm is
treated at a time, the charge being run into the moTeable bed of the funsoe,
in the molten state, direct from the blast furnace or cupola. Spiegeleissn is
added in the operation, and the waste is stated to be not more than from
seven to eight per cent., whiUt the operation is said to require only firom
one hour to one hour and a half. The process has been fully described in a
pamphlet, published by M. Berard.

Anthracite Coal Trade of Pennsylvania, — Mr. Peter W. Sheafer, a well-
known engineer at Pottsville, Pa., has prepared a diagram, which is pub-
lished in '^ Silliman*8 American Journal/' exhibiting the progiessive deve-
lopment of the anthracite coal trade of Pennsylvania. It embraces the
period of fifty years, from 1620 to 1870, and an accompanying table gives
in detail, for each year, the yield of anthracite of the four great subdivisions
of the anthracite region, the Lehigh, the Schuylkill, the Wyoming, and
the Lykens Valley, Shamokin, &c. We take the export in tons, for the
years below specified, from the table-:

Lehigh. Schuylkill. "Wyoming. LykenaV., &o. Total

1820 365 365

ia30 41,750 89,934 43,000 ' 174,734

1840 275,313 475,091 148,470 15,505 864,384

1850 690,456 1,782,936 827,823 57,684 3,358,899

1860 1,821,674 3,270,516 2,941,817 479,116 8,513,123

1870 3,172,916 3,853,016 7,825,128 998,839 15,849,899

The Schuylkill trade began in 1822, with the exportation of 1,480 tonsj
the Wyoming, now twice the largest, in 1829, with 7,000 tons ; the Lykens
Valley, &c., in 1839, with 11,930 tons.

PudfUing 6v Siemens' Gas Jkrimce.— Mr. Forbes' Beport states that in the

SCItMEFIC SUMJIAHV,

441

"fteuMJecher S^itschr.'f, Berg. Huetleo u. Salinenwesen," 18"0, p. 145,
will be found an extremely interesting pnper by Ur. Eoamanii, in vbicb
tie gives the KBults of ft comp&rison between tbe effieuU and relfttiTS
ecoDomy of puddling in the ordinary manner, and when done by Siemens'
regenerativa gas puddling funmce ; although short, tlie spitce at commaiid
will only allow of our giving the conclusions arrived at, which are (J), that
tbe Siemens' furnace is to be preferred iu all cases where an extremely high
heat is required, and where the fuel is of bad quality and unauited for
producing auAicient heat when consumed in the ordinary way ; (2) when-
ever a filed temperature or a certain quality of flame is required for any
length of time ; (3) when no use of the waste heat of tbe flame (as for
heating steam boilers to drive machinery) is required. And, iu addition,
there is less waate and also somewhat le&s loss of iron in tbe slag with the
Siemens than with the ordinary furnace, as may be seen by a comparison of
tbe chemical analysis of the reapecUve slags.

Oidlnur tarntca Biemtni hinian
Silica ....

^^ffiie amount of pbospborus or sulphur eliminated in the slag is about the
^bne in both instances. If, however, the fuel is of good quality, and the
waste heat is employed for raising steam, then there appears to be little, if
any, advantage in the employment of the Siemens furnace, which is known
to be extremely costly, both in original construction and in subsequent
repairs.

Alumina

111

118

Protoxide of Iron .

68-60

66-33

do. Manganese

1-00

0-02

Lime ....

170

2-51

Magnesia

024

0-82

SoUa and Poiaah .

213

0-73

14-4.3

14-28

Sulphur

0-24

0-28

101 -CI

MICROSCOPY.

Sac» in the Tibia of a Flea. — A very long and somewhat important paper
has appeared iu the Quekett Club " Journal " for >Tu]y, on the above
subject. The function of these sacs, in the author's opinion, is somewhat
peculiar. He says that the action of tbe contractile sac of the upper tatsn!
joint is first, by slow disteusion, to become filled with air, tbe membranous
sac of tbe tibia simultaneoualy collapsing. When fully distended, the tarsol
sac suddenly contracts to about one-fourth its previous diameter, when at
tbe same moment ibe membranous sac of tbe tibia becomes fully inflated.
This rhythmical, alternate movement sometimes proceeds, regularly, at the
rate of two or three pulsations in the minute, but this is not always the
case, as he baa frequently found that it is suspended foe longer or shorter
periods, and in many specimens it is altogether wonting. Believing that

442 POFULAB SCIENCE BSTIEW.

these remarkable organs have not hitherto been obflerved, he has dercled
much attention to them, and he thinks he is justified in ezpreaaing tbe
opinion that thej probably serve a very important and hitherto unsospectod
purpose, in the respiratory system of the animal, and farther, if he is riglit
in his conjecture, that similar' organs will probably be found to exist is
many other insects. He thinks it possible, then, that these coatndSk
sacs serve the purpose of pumps or syringes, by means of which air is dnns
through the external orifices or spiracles, and propelled through the minute
capillary vessels of the tracheal system.

An Immersion Paraboloid is described by Mr. B. D. Jackson in the
^ Journal of the Quekett Club " for July. It is formed of a solid paraboloid
of glass, ground to a different curve thnn the dry form, and instead of
having its emergent surface hemisphcrically hollowed out, it is left nearly
flat, a very slight concavity only being given. This concavity is so slight
as to be hardly perceptible, but it is intended to permit the slide in contact
with it, by means of the water film, to be moved to and fro without danger
of scratching the glass top of the illuminator — no very difficult thing to do,
in spite of the apparent hardness of the substance. The stop to prevent
direct rays passing into the microscope is cemented to the lower surface of
the paraboloid. The object (Eupodiscus arffus) is shown by a quarter-inch
binocular with a black field ; the angle of the object-glass being about
110°, a result he has not been able to attr.'n so satisfactorily by any means
previously employed. There is no loss of light by reflection firom the lower
surface of the glass, since the rays pass almost in straight lines from the
curved sides to the focus. The ordinary test diatom slide, when mounted
dry on the cover, as usual, presents a curious appearance, the field being dark,
with a small spot of orange-brown light, occupying about one-fifth of the
diameter, the spherules, however, being shown distinctly. He has not been
able as yet to use this illuminator with higher powers, the fog surrounding
the object unpleasantly.

The French Erecting Prism is a Camera Lticida. — The July number of
the " Monthly Microscopical Journal " contains a letter, in which the writer
asserts most positively that this prism answers the purpose of a camera
lucida.

The Degeeria Domesticay or Speckled Podura, is, according to Mr. Wen-
ham (" Monthly Microscopical Journal," July), when shown opaquely under
a ^th or upwards, a specially beautiful object. The scales are apparently
much thicker than in other species, and the ribbings or I I I markings are of
a reddish-brown colour — ^not beaded, but slightly constricted at regular in-
tervals, like the short antennae of some insects, and in the deep intercostal
spaces there are numerous thin septae, or transverse bars, very fine and dis-
tinct, of a greyish tint. Both these and the slightly " varicose " spaces on
the ribs may be displayed in the form of beads, by dodging the illumination.
Where practicable, some form of opaque illumination should always be
employed for verifying the structure of these objects, for we are in this case
quite free from the errors of diffiraction, which more or less accompany ob-
jects seen by transmitted light, and cause an indistinctness of outline.

The " Wolf -rock " under the Microscope.—^r. S. Allport, in the " Monthly
Microscopical Journal," says that, when examined by the eye or simple lens,

SCIENTIFIC STIMMABT. 443

I rock is Been to consist of a yello'wiah-grej eompact base, in whicli

tela of clenr glasay felspBr nie imbedded ; they e«hibit no gtrm ; their

IB sharp and splintery. A tbin section examined in polarised light

1 crossed prisnis eihibita a beautiful group of crystala of felspar and

a porphyriticBlly imbedded in a fine-grained matrix eompoaed of

mte crystala of nepheline, felspar, and hornblende; ■when cut very tbin,

■ hornblende alone exhibits colours, tba heingonal sections of nepheline

g block, the rectangular white ; the felspar is also cither dark or tight,

0. the general appearance is that of a mosaic of dark and light stones inter-

sed nith email brilliant- coloured crystals of hornblende ; the whole

g a matrix in which the larger crystals are set. In thicker sectioni

b felspar and nepheline dieplay fine colonrs, but the minute structure is

« irell seen.

Finsics.

A iVVw Eejffar the Mortc Ftialitiff Telegraph was described to the British
Association at Edinburgh by Profeesor Zenger. lie said that, at Ihe Norwich
meeting, he had had the honour to show a new automatical key for the
Mor«e printing telegraph, which printed three different ^gns — -viz., a point,
a short line, and a longer line. That nrrangienient restricted the telegraphist
to a certain speed, but he had constructed the key now shown in order to
allow a derer telegraphist to obtain Ihe highest speed attainable. Ele
ahowed a model, and explained it in dettul. The rate of Telocity was indi-
' by a gmaU bell sounding as often as the cylinder reToWed. By the
laidcnl arrangement, wliaterer the speed of the paper and the ctocb-
rk moving it, the relnuvi: length remnins unalterably the same. On the
working instrnmenl, the printing apparatus with its rollers for tile paper
sheet is attached to the key, forming only one apparatus together. By using
three signs, the combination of 1, 2, and 3 elements gives 89 aigna. Thia
wiD do for all letters, figures, and phrasea commonly used, and spore nearly
30 degrees of space, and therefore of time of transmission. In a brief dis-
CLiasion, it was said that the adoption of Professor Zenger's apparatus would
do away with the mistakes now so often made by the doubting whether the
short line meant a line or a point

The late Professor I'ayen. — Physics has lost one of its great masters
through the death of Payen, which occurred a few months smce, '■ Les
Mondea '' of June 29 contains a abort account of his life. In 18i4 he was
the first who pointed out the rational method of applying manures in
agriculture, and about the same time brought forward the theory of the
decolouration of liquids by animal charcoal, also suggesting the use of
the reeidues of sugar-refining (seuma which contain more or less animal
charcoal along with other substances) in agriculture. In 1830 he laid the
foundation of the proper Taluntion of mannres, according to their richness in
nitrogen. The late author's eihauetive researchea on amylaceous matter
settled the ernct structure, mode of formation, and the derivation of dei-
tiine and glucose from aarch ; the existence of diastase, also, was first
pointed out by the deceased. Prof. Pajen, very well known, also, amnug

444 POFULAB SCIENCE BETIEW.

great many others, by his excellent work on industrial chemistry, '' Vrku
de Chimie Industrielle" (Paris: Hachette & Co, 1867), was, once 1842, a
member of the French Academy of Sciences, and held the professorships of
Industrial Chemistry at the £cole Centrale des Arts et des Manufactures
since 1830, and at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers since 18S9. The
deceased was not only a very eminent scientific man, but was thoroughly
and practically acquidnted with almost every branch of industrial pursuits.
Anselme Payen was bom at Paris on January 17, 17d5, and was in early
life first the technical manager of beetroot sugar-works at Yaugirard, and
afterwards of very large chemical works near Paris.

A yew Form of Steam-blast, — A paper on a new form of steam-blast was
communicated to the British Association at Edinburgh, by Mr. W. Siemens,
F.K.S. The new blast is employed for the movement of air in the pneumatic
tubes connected with the central telegraph station in London. It is said to
cost only 40/., and will do the same work as an eng^e which costs 2,000/.

A New Form of Galvanometer has been devised by Mr. John Trowbridge,
Assistant Professor of Physics in Harvard College (U.S.). It is described
at length in " Silliman's American Journal " for August It would be
impossible to describe it without the cuts which accompany the article.
We merely refer to it because it may interest some of our readers.

Transport of Salts by Electrical Discharge. — This pnper, wLicIi is by
M. Becquerel, appears in the *' Comptes Rendus '' for June 26. His essay
treats on some phenomena observed by the author while experimendng on
the efiect of only moderately strong electrical discharges when certain
chemical compounds are placed in the route of the electric current. As
results from these experiments, the author finds that the undermentioned
calts and other chemicals are transported by electrical discharges in the
direction from the negative electrode to the positive electrode, but not again
the reverse way. These salts and substances are ferricyanide of potassium,
bichromate of potassa, chloride of barium, chloride of sodium, chloride of
potassium, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chloride of ammonium, and
protochloride of iron. The following are among the substances which are
not transported by any electric current, whatever its direction : — Chloride
of cobalt, chloride of platinum, nitrate of silver, caustic potassa, and
sulphate of potassa.

A Meteorological Observatory in the Azores. — Dr. Buys-Ballot, after
briefly pointing out the great importance, not simply in a scientific, but also
in a mercantile and industrial point of view, of having, on one of the
islands just named (they belong to Portugal, and are situated at about
40® N. lat., and 30° W. of Greenwich), a meteorological station, connected
by submarine telegraphs with Europe and America. The author states
that, probably, by September 1872, this desirable object will be accomplished
by the activity of M. Fradesso da Silveira, the Director of the Observatory
at Lisbon. — Co7»/>^c« RenduSj June 12.

Low Temperature of the \Sth of May and the First Days of June. —
M. Sainte-Claire Deville gives a lengthy paper (" Comptes Rendus,*'
June 19) containing a series of communications received by him from
different localities in France. It appears that, even in the very south of
that country, the temperature fell during this period to so low a degree as

soiENrmc soiMART. 445

t been witneesed withio idaii's memc>r}' at this tioie oC the season;
r, heavy alorius, aceompftnied by deluging rainj and eeriouslj dBilruc-
tive hail, hftve occurred in many parta of France ; while near Paris, at St.
Germain en Laje, he fonnd the temperature was -3*5' on May 18, in the
morning, at a height of 33 centiraetres above the soil (a meadow).

ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Xew A'orA American Phyllopoda. — A series of notiets of several new
species appears from the pen of A. J. Packard, M.D., in " Silliman'a
American Joiimol" for August and the earlier months. We merely
call atteulion to them because, of course, it would be out of our power to
reproduce them here,

A Grimd Drf^ging Exploration. — Professor Agoasii has accepted an invi-
tation extended to him by the Americsn Coast Survey Bureau to take pas-
BSge on the iron coaat^urvey steamer, which has recently been built at
Wilmington, Delaware, and which was to sail for the Pacific coast in Sep-
tember. The eipedition will take deep-sea soundings all the way, and
extensive collections of specimens will be made for the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology nt Cambridge. Secretary Buutwell has written to the
Secretaries of State and the Navy, asking that naval and other officers may
be instructed to aflbrd such courtesy aud assistance to the exploring party
M may be desirable. We learn also that Count Pourtales, of the Coast
Survey, and Dr. Hill accompany the expedition,

The Srachiopada oblainal by Vic United States Coast Survej/ Exptdition. —
This eipedition was in charge of L. F. ce PourliUes. The report is pub-
lished iu the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Anatomy (vol. iii.
No. 1), and is by Mr. W. H. Dale. In this paper all the species dredged by
Count Pourtales are fully described, and the synonymy of these and other
species and genera is well worked out. The anatomy of several of the
species is described at considerable length, Two lithographic plates, chieBy
anatomjcaj, illustrate this paper.

The Deaeiopment of a Giant Gregariiie. — The anatomy aud development
of G. gii/untea, an enomiously large species, has been worked out by M. E.
Van Beneden, who has published a long aud important memoir, accompanied
by a plate, on the subject. He has found in the lobster'^ intestiue multitudes
of small protoplasmic masses resembling the Protmnmbu primitiva of Haeckel,
witli certain distinctions from it, however. They are distinguished from. 1
the true Amteba by the absence of a nucleus and a contractile vacuole. I
Tbaee have no projections from them. There are, however, others which
hare one, or more frequently two, prolongations iu the form of arms, which
M. Van Beneden says resemble the mobile stem uf Noctiluca, and these
forms he calla generating cytodes. He then describes the movements of
them, one of the arms or projections of which is motionless. After a time
the other increases in length till at last it breaks awuy, and having specially
nn undulating motion, it is like a nematoid worm. Curiously enough, when

446 FOPULIB SCXKKCE BETTETr.

the moredble ann hMs been diadiaiged, the feather deyelc^meiit of the am
St lesl hegmsy and h goes tiiroagh the same proeesB of deyelopment tad
imadsm as tiie preeeding, with this diffisrenoe, that instead of becoming
detac h e d Cram the centzal masB, it gndnallj aheozbs it as a yertebxHie
eoihnro ahscsbs the oontoits of the vitelline sac The resemblanoe of the
animal thus fonned to the Nematodes has led the anthor to stjle them
pmmiiffimriie. He then proceeds to describe the further development of
those peculiar bodies into Gregarma gigatUea, SeTeral other subjects of
kindred interest are discussed in the memoir, which is both fvM and
oompfete.

Tke Metiorie Ori^ tf Life, — ^This new hypothesis, which was originated
by the Preadent of the British Association in his Edinburgh addrea, is
somewhat startling. The notion that life first came upon the globe in a
glissening fiz^balL which brought some fragments of moss along with it, is
a ciinoas noticai enough : but it by no means gets rid of the difficulty of the
Cdiinn of life : it merely cames it back a little further.

Zm^fm/ SiatumK^T>T, Sclater, F.RS., read before the Britbh As-
soc£aX2oo i at Edinburgh) a report firom the committee for the formatioD
of xoolo^cal stations in different parts of the globe. It stated that an
ol^s^rratory at Naples had been arranged for, and drew attention to the
im]^>rtance of establishing a zoological station in the British Islands, and to
the opportunity now afforded for such a proposition by the cessation of the
gnnt to the Kew obserratory. Until a recent date, it was submitted, the
Ascvxiation had giren considerable sums for dredging explorations, but in
cv>s:&seqxience of the advance of zoological science the problems were much
chanp>d. and their nature was such as to demand the assistance of the
As^Kviario:: in other direction?. The careful study of the development and
haVirs of marine animals could only be carried on by the aid of large aquaria
anxi ciinibjv»us apparatus, which an individual could hardly provide for
hini<«elf. This, and the copious supply of animals for observation, could be
yr.^vided by such a co-operative institution. A resolution was accordingly
>ul aiitted, to the effect that the committee of Section D recommend that a
cv^u:nii::e^ of the Association be formed for the purpose of erecting a
r \ Ivvical station at a convenient place on the south coast of England — say
Tv^r;iuay — and that a sufficient sum of money — ^say 500/. — be placed at their
o.iiijvx«5al, either by a single or by a series of annual grants. After reading
the rop^vrt, IV. Sclater ivmarked that as there were three or four aquaria
already established in this country, he thought the best plan would be to
establish one in an entirely different part of the world ; as, for instance,
under the tr\>pics, where animal life was entirely different

^^f IND

Abdoicinai. Antcnoio of luecU ... 337

Abnormal Polato. An 202

"Aboriginal Tribw of ihe Nilgiii

HiUs" 190

Accidental Fonnlajn. Temporary... 335

^^M

Asteroid. Discovery of Another ...429

Astronomy 73, 192. 305, 400, 434

Popnlar 297

Atchley's " CiTil EnpnuBra' Price
Book" IBO

Acid and Salt, Unequal Lobb of,

near the Poles of a Butter; iH

Add natore of O^anic Mattera in

Acide, StwBg. Filtratiou of 87

Adding Machine 211

Aerocoaiacope 220

Jlsricutturf and Geology 02

.iir. Dust in the Ill

Alcohol, Anion of, on the Body ... 213
„ Chloroform from 317

mantBof 190

.Mbiloid from Cinchona Bark 205

Alloy of Lead and Platinam 105

Alloys, Copper and MonganebB ... 104

of the Air 33*

Aurora Borealis,Spectnim of the... 324

AoBljuliaa Silt 33B

Automatie Spwlroawpe 80, 81

,. ,, DouUe,

with CoEopound Frisme 307

"Ajmara Indians of BoliTia and

Peru" 190

Babsett's "New View of Cansa-

Bartley-s (G. C. T.) " Schools for
thcPeople" 187

BasUan's "Modes of Origin of
Lowest OrganiBma" 416

Fiahea, New 226

Jonmal of MlcroBCopj... 220
AmiDonium AmBlgaui, Compound 433

Analysis of Birmingham Water ... 88
Anatomy of the CUioryMn*cle ...331

„ oflhaPandn 114

Aneurism of the Aorta, Electro-
Puncture in 328

Animal Kingdom, The 186

Animale, Detecting the Blood of... 93

„ EabitationB of 179

Bats, Egyptian, Eicpements of ... 91
„ of the Present and of the Mam-
moth Periods 437 ■

Beale, Dr. L., a "Baly" Medallist 439 ■

Bears, British 241 ■

Beot-root Sngar in Iraland 319 H

BcginciBB, The 2fl5 1

Beuson's"Man«al of Colour" 301

Bessemer Flame, The 22a

Bible. The Truth of the 72

AnthjBdle Coal Trade of Pennsyl-

vanitt 440

Anthrapological and Ethnological

Societies, Fosion of the 214

Arches of Timber «id Jwn 97

Aiehiuediui Screw for Lifting

^ Water 213

KAHtie loe, Phyriei in 83S

Birds. Vsneiuelan. Collection of... 118
Bieehoff, M. 0., in a Scotch Chair 316

Insects" 6?

Bleaching Diat«mtce» 333

Powder, Alcoholfrom... 317

448

POPUULB SCIENCE BETIEW.

FAGS

Blood. Difference of, between Races 215
., Ih*. Koms's Experiments as

to 213

„ of Animals, Detecting the ... 98
Blowpipe, Fosibilitj of Platinum

in the 109

Bloxim*s ** Metals ; tlieir Properties

and Treatment** 74

Bo^Iron, Beds of 92

Bog Mosses, Function of 430

B^nds '' Handbook of the Tele-
graph" 73

Bones of Mammals 177

.. ^bstitution of Salti in 98

Bookss Reriews of. 67. 177, 292, 413

Botanical Gardens of Europe 313

Botanr 83, 199, 313, 429

Botrvchiums are they Epiphytic ? 84

Brai^fd Bridge, New Form of 326

Brachio^^ia 44^

BnM^iopods and Worms, Relations of 116
,. are thej Annelids ? ... 226

Braithwaite. R., on the Moss

World 366

Breasts^ Foxir. Woman with 100

Bridges* Wn>ught-Iron 97

British A$$cviation. Meeting of ... 317

IVcir? and Wolres 241

Fvx^sU Crustacea 95

., Fun«i 419

Bromido of Pota;»$ium in Poisoning

br Strvv'hniae 328

B^>miQ<^ in Large Quantities 91

Ixn^wnittg** Aut»>mAtio Spectroscope 80

Miciv>^vpo Lamp 210

Sj>ectrv>sn.vpe Tables ... 107
l^achA:i"* " Text-Kx^k v>f Moteor-

v\v><v^* 299

Kuoklc. Kev. G . On the IVvelop-

rtcn: v'f Man 14

l>uA>\\ IV^t.. Wsputatiou of 201

Ku.M.i:. The Science of 304

Bu::ert(uvN Hriti*h 302

Notes on 52

CvMi^Rr.v.K. l^vs'os at 110

C»mt»r:» l.uctvU. the Fwnch Erect-

iU^ lV.>n; A 442

i%»me?Tik^ l\x»ket 220

<\n\j\hv^r. IVwylonusj 89

1^4ttcer of the L\ mphnt ics 212 •

l\«crt. Orl ;:* v^V 311

i\«nv^:t-iMlU. aikI their Striking

Vx^IvVltV 1

Os^jvlitt. Ounou* H«bits of 340

i\*rKv« in Irv^n. How to Estimate 204
t^arN\uit\ rv^u* Flvvra of Bear Island 93

\\^r^>v\\^*n, lUuminatiott br 315

<\^r|»etttvr, Pr. his Last Vorage ... 107
u IV.» hit Views Opposed 810

>»

PAGI

Carpenter, J., on the Issues of the

LateEdipees 130

Cassell's Technical Educator 303

Cast Iron, Chemical Nature of 103

Ccollpa,Whati8it? 90

Ceratodus, a Genus of Ganoid Fishes 337
Chemical Chairs, Appointments 92, 205

„ Nature of Cast Iron 103

„ Technology, Dr. Wagner s 204

Chemistry 87, 203, 315, 483

„ and Metallur^ 74

of CompressM Leather 204
of Seed Germination ... 315
ChUds, G. W., Biographical Sketch

of. 422

Chimsroid Fish, New 324

Chloralum, Discovery of 205

Chloride of Sodium, Formation of

Transparent Cubes of 31S

Chlorimetry, ImproTements in 434

„ What is it? 435

Chloroform from Alcohol and

Bleaching Powder 317

„ from Chloral 317

Chromic Acid, Destruction of

Tumours by 101

Ciliaiy Muscle, Anatomy of the ... 331

Ci nchona Bark, Alkaloid from 205

Civil Engineering College, Indian 97

'• CivU-Engineers* Price-book »' 190

Climbing Fern 313

Coal as a Reservoir of Power 155

Coal-gas, Detection of Sulphur in. . . 89

Cobalt Lltramarine 433

Coffee-planting 76

Cohesion Figures Ill

Cold, Influence of, on Iron and Steel

Railway Wheels 218

Colour Experiment in Optics 336

Colours, Manual of 70, 190, 301

„ of Jupiter 79

Columbite, Composition of 104

Comet, Winnecke's 312

Comets 313

Comparative Anatomy 113. 225, 337, 446

Compass Plant, American 85, 200

Compound En^es 327

Concrete with Several Good Pro-
perties 105

Coniferous Tree, the Earliest 432

Consciousness and Seat of Sensa-
tion, Relations of 99

Cooke (M. C.) on the '* Lotos " of

the Ancients 254

„ „ on Polymorphic Fungi 25

Cookers '* Handbook of British

Fungi" 419

Copper and Manganese Alloys 1 04

„ Mines, American Survey of 323
Cordylophora, New American Local-
ity for 228

CuroUa of SalTia InvatDcnts, Con-

tri Tan re in the 3

Corona. Solai S

Corpnsoles, WhiM, Piusage of.

ihrough the Walls of VeBSBl* ... !■
001718, PcrmangAasCe of Folou in i'

Craniiini in Beptite;, &c 1

Crinoidw, ApprozimatioD of, to the

TuDicaU 3

Crtifodilinn Renuunu in AmeTtcA... 2'

Crooke*' New Psjchic FoKe 3<

•'Crow's Nesls"

Cnstocea, British FoBsil

of the Qeaos Libinia ... 2

ofthe Qolf Stream 2:

CrvstaUinB Sabetance Corering Che

VonillBpod 3

"CVdopCthe 3

Dinwmsv, EssaTs on 1<

Refilled *

Dnnrin's " Descent of HaB " 3'

Tbeorv of Fertilisation,

Objections to 1

DsTidaon. Mr., Lifa of 3'

Duries'B " Meteoric Theory of Sa-

tiirn's Rings" 3

Dawkins (W. B.) on British Bears

andWolres 2

on FleistocFne

Climate, and thp Relation of the

Pleistocene Mnmmalia 10 the

Glacial Period 3

Dnilh, Means of Obviating the

Teodencj to 1

De»p-s» EipIomCion i

Degeeria Domeitiea 4

Depolarisationof Iron Ships 3

Di-rivatices of Anthiaceoe

'■BMcentof Man" 2

Dercbanel's Natural Philosopb; ... i
DeMhand's "Treatisa on Natntsl

Philosophy"

" DeTSBlatioli," the 3

Diamonds, South African 103. I

Diatofflacea, Bleaching 3

„ British, Noinral History

of 4

Diatoms in the Sea.a"rind'of-.. 2

,. Moanting 1

Difference of Sex with Kfferenoa of

Station

Digitalis and Heart Disearc 4

Dinomis. SkeleloQ of 3

Discina, Derelopmeot of 1

DJBCophoreB 1

Distillation, L;iws of 1

DobcU's, Dr., ■■ Reports on the Piw-

gresa of Medicine" I

Dolphin, RisBo's 3

Donble and Tvics-acting Automatic

Spiwtroseope SO

Dredging Eiplorstion, a Grand ... 4^0-
Drinks, Cold, and the Influence

orer Blood-Pcessura 2W

Dry Plates, New Presorralivo for 222

Diiit in the Air Ill

Dying. Modes of IBff

Dynamics of Nerra and Mnscle ... 4.'!^
Dytisous, the tarsi of 33ft

EiBTHQCAJiBa, Ancient 84

Earvnker, J. P., on Mr. Crookes'

New Psychic Force 3.^6

Eclipse Expeditions 37, 78, 194

„ lasnesof (helate 130

,, of Dec, 12. 1871 424

„ of the Moon S3

Total 81

„ of the Sun, Total 30ft

Economic Entomotogj.Prites for... 34(1
Edinburgh UniTersity Ptiiioaophicel

Society 327

Water in 9t

Education, Technical, on the Conti-
nent 97

Electric Batteries, Laws of lift

Eleotro-Motive Foree 22»

Moctro-puncture in Aneurism of the

Aorttt 32»

Elements of Mechanism til)

Enamelling of Iron ]03

Engines, Componnd 327

Ethnological and Anthropological

Societies, Fosion of the 21 +

Ererybody's Year B<.olc 191

EicremenU of E4^ptiun Bats 91

„ the Common Bat ... 317

FtOKD Pbihts, Reproduction of ... 2

"Faaciations"

FaUyKelones 3

Fer-de-lan« of Maniniqite 1

Fermentation, Germ Theory of ...
„ Theories of.

m, A Climbing 3

Ferns, Structure of 2

Forro-ilmenite, Composition of ... 1

Fertilisation of Salvia

„ throoghlnsectAgenpy.

Objections to Darwin's Theory

Fibre, New,forlbBManiifBrturM... 3

Films of Liquids I

Filtration of Strong Acids

Fishes, American, New 2

, Cranium in 1

. how ihey Breathe 3

Flea, Sacs in the Tibia of a 4

450

POPULAJt SCIENCE BEYIEW.

PAiQI

Flint Im^Mnento in Joshnn's Tomb 437 \

Floor of JPUto, KotM on the 196

Flors, Ourboniferons, of Bear la-

Und 93

Fk»ver*t. W. H., ** Introduction to
Ui« O^eokgT of the Mammnlia" 177

Foliation of Rock Masses 229

Food for Troop* 99

Forbes ^D.)on the Scnctnie of Bock

Massw 229

Lecture on Volcanoes 9o

Fossil Crustacea, British 95

.. Myriapod, Xew 320

„ Reptiles 486

Foster s ** Method and Medicine *... 77

Fragments of ^»ence 303

Fungi. British 419

„ IVdrmorphic 25

.. Within the Thorax of Birds 432
Fungus Show, The 84

iTAExm. Mmeial

Galileo's ^phjgnivigTarh

Oalton, J. G^ on How Fishes Breathe

OalTanometcr. Kew Form of

Ganoid Hshes^ Ceratolus a Genus

of.

Gas and Ga5>vocks

Gastric Tubules

Gea(«i$ of Species

Geok^i^aiu Rrp^ot* Sir R. Muivhi-

joc'*

vV :.vy i*-. 207. 319,

O-^i* l.-^T aai M::;<^ialv>gy. Chair of.

Ita'.-.as. Xot^^wcrthj Points

Mtxi;t<?T.-iit -firi

cf :hr K«vkv M.-irrAins

T^r«if

Thf StTJ^irTV

v^VTn^rrr. a OoTrr't:** Coi:rse of

A. »%'%.«• 44 •^ •&« <•.*•••••••%••••••••••••

v^fmr. ThtViTT . : V\raif^r.rAtji>n

r- rsr.v Y. i.^... Narrow Escape of

0-fi,rr!s. Looa'.. Forccer EiisJt/^nce

iT.wii-Tt * • Eiemctts of Mechan-
ivTTi "

Or»,f^Tj^. •> Coixi»ecT!f»rv-es and
>"^«vr5.

CrrHham. T.. S^Atur of

t"VrHp»''-T*iTVi. Oii from —

iTrnphiffir. rhf Anwwar*

Mar. ^

irr^iv. "Dr.. Thnputaf^i ^ w .»...»

<Treeiilais<i

217

341

445

337
112
328
188

95
435

20s

207

1M»

42S

2i»6

319

141
4SS

S17

Greenwich Obserrationa of Solar

Edipee 309

le, Development of a 446

GmWs Automatic Spectroscope ... 81

Grundy's "Notes on the Food of
Plants" 418

Guns, Wrought Iron and Steel ... 97

HA2C8K2r on the Transit of Venus... 198
Hawaiian Islands, Topographical

Surrey of the 224

Hawthorns, Venation of 84

Heart, Volumes of the Cavity of the 438
Hennessey, Mr., and M. Delannaj,

fvrtics Mr. Hopkins 322

Herbaria of lonne and Michaux ... 200

Herbs, Culture of 202

Hereulis, Orbits of 311

Herschell, Sir J., Death of. 305, 321

High Temperature in Liquids 113

Himalaya Tea 318

Hinrks, Rex. T., on Discophores, or

Large Medusae 117

Hitting the Mark 1

Hohema, Prof. Thomson's 228

Honev-bee 183

Hope-Robertson, Rev. C, on But-
terflies. 52

How Fishes Breathe 341

Humble Bee, a Fertiliser of Plants 447

Hunt, IL, on Coal IW

Hyolithes, Discovery of the Oper-

cula of 43.5

Hyposulj^tes, Sensitive Trst for ... S9

iLLtTfiXATioN bv CarloxTcen

ImAinaation. Use asd Limit of. ia

Science «

Immeivion Ltns, lanrtst Angle of

r&ral-oloii

Incsa sknlls

Indian Civil Eafnarrring College...

., Meiirtd Servicr

„ Pendulum Eip-rimeat

^ a\&i-^ V iiv \.T«it,t^e ...............

Infusoria, Pri:ohdrd'>

Infusorial Silici, Adrant.vrrs of ...
infL-p'ianis x^u.mr ..................

Inozganic Cbt-mistry, Intivvi'-ciioa

to the Studv vf

Insect Scales

Insects. Abdominal Ant<niue of ...

TransfomuiiJon of

International Exhibition

Intactinal Tubules.

. lodate of Potassium, £fr«>ct of, on

315

304
219
442
212

97
U>,i

222
97
107
316
313

226
22"
67
2S4
3:

'*.2S

T^^M^ Bidnwam of the Vapour of

33«>
434

■' Iron and He»t " 303

Iran anil Steel Bailwaj Wheals,

Influencs of Cold on 318

„ Arches 97

,. as a Filter aad Deodoruer — S36

„ Enamelling of 103

„ Hlings acted on bjHBgnetism,

how to Fix 333

,, lodUBtries, Progress of. 316

„ Mines. American Surrey of ... 323

„ Ships, Depolarisat ion of 33S

Isotomn Wallwri, DeTeiopmont of 338
Italian Omlog}^, NoCeworthjFoiDts
in 207

JmH, Oraat Pyramid of ~422

Jupilw, Physical Changes of 428

KmoHES, Fatty 319

Kingflflhers 30*

Enoi, late Dr. R. lOI

IiABBADDHiTB Bocks of America ... 207
lAminariacn, The 201

Lardsceous Diseaaa 330

Lead and Fklinom, Alloy of 105

Leathfr, Compressed, Chemistry of 204

Leech. New Form of 114

Lena, New 220

Le Pilcor'g (A) " Wonders of thp

Human Body" 184

LevellingandSorrey iuSwitzerland lOS
Lihinia. OeQQs, CnutAcea of the... 22S

Liehig. Baron, Health of 214

Light, Inflnoaco of, on Fetnileam... 80

„ Zodiacal 7B, 311

Lightniiig Flashes, DoFslion of ... 223
Rod, ScTereTest fnra... 113
Limestone, Ancient, fbr Building

PnrpOBes 324

Limpets, Anatomical Characters of 115

Liquids, Films of Ill

„ High Temperature in 113

Liver, Urea formed in the 100

I/judon Water 32»

" Lotos " of the AncicDta 2S4

Low Temperature in lUay and June 445

Lower Lifi« 209

Luzzati, Prof., Death of
Lyell's(StrC.) "Student'

ofOeoloey'^'

Lymphatics, Cancer of the

Uacuii! (S. I.) on Flymoatb Break-
water Fort

„ on the lotecnstioDal
EihibitioQ at South Eenslngtun

Haguetic Ohsetvations

a, Bub-peniuaeat, eiperi*

t Oer-

206

Hsmmalia, Pleigtncene 3SB

Mammals, Bones of 177

Man, Natural Selection icsufflciant

to the DeTclopment of 14

„ Sub-axial Arches in 337

„ The Descent of 191

Manganese Alloys. 104

Manual of Organic Chemistry 317

Manures. LifluencB of, on Plaats... 19S

Marine Boiler, New 311

Mars, Observations on 312

Hartiniqae. the Fer-de-lance of ... tl4

MastcrB (M. T.) on Grofling 141

Mechanical Science... 96, 210, 325, 437

Mechanism, Elements of 69

Mechanics, Manual of 433

Medical College fbr Women 99

„ Science 98, 212, 327, 438

„ Sorrice, Lidian 100

Medicine, Fhotogiaphy in 98

Progress of 186

Mediterranean Geology., 94

ModuBiE, Large 117

Melolontha Vulgaris, the 22S

Meneghinite. New Locality for 217

Metaline B

ing loa. 216, 440

Met^ in the Son 101

„ Machine for Testing 328

„ Theii Properties and T^eat-

. 74

Meteoric Dust in Snow.

Orifiiin of Life 447

Metoorolopcal Obserrntory ia the

Aiores 445

„ Teit-book 2S9

" Method and Medicine " TT

Miasmata of Marshes, howdestroyed 314

Microscope, Condition of the 108

., Importance of the, in

Working at the SkuU 3SS

„ Lamp, Browning's 219

MioDBcopical Jountal. Contents of 332
„ Science, Progrras of 108

Microscop; 106, 219, 333, 441

„ American Journal of ... 220

Miller, Prof., Death of 87

Miller's " Introduction to the Study

_ ^logical Notice 102

Mirart's " Oenesis of Species " ISS

MoigQo, Ahbi, Escape of 208

Monads, Life-history of 335

«i& a Booiy Ihae $11

—'Mi— IBS flBflB« ASBbOIBT OCuMf** «•••••••••••• lit

r M Fvfn, FteC, SMh of ZiZ Ml

IKt FhmDt (W.) om Gteenkad......... SI7

.»»». « ■■■ ■■■» ^l^v aVI^{WIHB| OBHl^DBBSF w •••■•»■■••••••• Mmt

61 PoCmi u Ooqn 100
IvtBOB of ^JiASi oo.** 90
miuK^Jiifl Society, Ediaooig^.«. 327
Xattsax Hbtc<kt. Ok7 «£. ax ndloaopl^, KatmmL.. 72, 178, 417, 419

Fi?:»ii!wV ^— . 2SS BmiiIw — ib Stad, Murfiwiiml

. F^kim^-. 72. 17K 417. 419 IVopertMs of SK

ScJBcxn Iw ii lfc wa x iotb» njoKy^i h ift EnlugementB, Aitifi-

HrracfMOB H Xtt. 14 dal li^ lor 221

5«aDc»l AlBKaAc SkVlS74 19S FhotQfpvpluBg a Solar Pkomiiieiice 82

X«»aiobd WoRH. 5«v PoBt:«B for Fb€Ct)gEa{ilis of Japiin' "9

the ..- -. 226 Pbotogrnplgr 220

X<9VM. Ccstiwcae Powrc^the... 101 ^ in Medieiiie 90

Kcrnrai Aetxc Xtv Tbecvy cf ... 930 Phctomiaogtapho for the Stereo-

Elber.Tbeorrofa. 379 veope SS2

XrvBaa't -fititifli BoRfliflMs'* ... 302 PhYvwraB 219

5evBcdlIari 209 Pl^lk^ioda. Nev Koxtli Anuruaa 440

yik. Water «f the. CoBpoiitxn of 69 FhTvial Bdatiopt of Nev Bed

Nitnt«« in Water. Oxigxn of. 205 llari. Bheetie Beds, and Lower

Xol.*"r.'s 19:h BaDd a=J its Ol^ Lbis 209

Mrr^rs 219 Phvsic* 108,222,333,443

NoB-sitiugenoiisFood. Icfiuenctrc:. ., ax Cambridge 110

on Man 327 „ at Oxford 110

Notrition mnd Sex in Plants S6 ,, in Arctic lee 335

Phvsiological Priie at Cambridge... 213

PhvsiologT. Popular 184

O^KS. N'ev Species of 314 „ Todd and Bowman's ...439

Objects. How to Mount 219 I^crotoxin in Beer, Detection of ... 329

Otld Showers 191 Pine^ Ascent of Sap in 314

Oeltzen's Argelander, 17. 415-6. Pknetarr Nebula, Detection of the

motion of 198 annual Parallax of a 426

Oil from Grape-pips 317 Planets, the 82, 193, 313, 429

Oolitic of i:nglanci. 93 Plant-food 418

Ophiuchi. Motion of 197 Plants. Culture of 202

Ophtlialnioscope, New 331 ' „ Darwin s Theory applied to 432

Opossum Skins for Glovefii 340 „ Fertilisation of 84

OpticH, Colour Experiments io 336 „ Influence of Manures on ... 199

OrbitH of the BiD<u7' Sturs 311. ., Nutrition and Sex in 86

Organic Chemistry, Manual of. 317 | „ of West Newfoundland 200

„ Matters in Kiver Water, ■ „ so-called Mimicry in 431

Acid Nature of 87 i Platinum and Lead, Alloy of lOo

„ Remains in the Cmgs 323! „ Crucibles, Loss of Weight in 90

Orion, Supposed New Variable in... 197 i „ Fusibility of, in the Slow-

" Other Worlds than Ours '* 76 pipe 109

Ovipositor in Spring-tails 339 _ „ -wire, Fusibility of, by the

Owen's College, Manchester, Gift Blow-pipe 223

to 330 ; Plato, Notes on the Floor of. 196

Oxford, I'hysics at 110 j Platynemic Men in Denbighshire... 2>4

Pleiatoeeae Climota 3.

Plyinciuth Breakwater Foit 1'

Fnevunatic TransmiHBtan

Pockot Cunapafl 2

Poisoning by Strychnine, Bromide

of PotasBiutd in 3;

Poisonoufl Snnff 1

Polymorphic Fungi

Ponton's " The B^guming " 2

Popular Aatronomy 2

„ Science 4

Potato, Abnormal 2

Pondering Camphor

Pre-glacial Hialoiy of North Che-

Bhira 3

Prints, Faded, Oeproductionof. 2

Pritdurd'a Infnaoria 1

Proctor (E. A.) on Eclipse Ezpedi-

I, ooSUrSueiunBand

Stur Sprays 3

„ on "The Sun".,, 1
Prnotor's "Light Sdonce for Lei-

ann Hours " 4

"OliifitWorlda thanOurs"

Psytjiie Force, Crookes' N«» 3

Plorodartjl, A Huge 4

Fterodina Vslvnta !

Puddling by Siemen's G«a-furnace i

QimniiB, Inflnenco of, on Tempera-
lora 2

Raiu. Steel 1

Bailway Gauge, Indian

Tires S

Hailirays, Light 4

Iloin, Kxplauatiou of the 1

„ StanuB, &c. On Uie Cauae of 4
Keade, Hev. J. B., Daath of... 106, 3

Bed Pipe-atone Quarry 3

HcptiUe, Cinaium in 1

Resin Oils, Formation of Ozonn by i
„ used in the Prodnction of

Acetic .\cid 2

BeyiewB of Books 67, 177.292,4

RhceticBcdB £

Bbysiniflter, The 4

RiciianIson(Dr.)onSUep

„ Theory of b Ner-
vous Ether !

BicinuB Seeds, the Active Prindpla

Risao'a Dolphin !

Bobinaon'a "Sub-Uopical Qarden" i

Rock HossM, Strnctttre of '.

Boiling Mill, New ;

RoUwjn'B "Astronomy Simplified" I

Royal Society, (he ,■,,..

TQL. X. — SO. XLI.

Boyston-FIgoU (O-W.) on the Strik*

ing Velocity of Caaoon-balla ... I
Builder, Self-acting iSS

SiBowiDiittB's "CoffoB Planter of

Ceylon " 76

Salmon in Japan 116

Salts, Substitntjon of, in Bones ... 98

„ Tcanqiortof. 446

Salvia, FertUissCioo of B4

Samarskite, Composition of 104

Sap, Ascent of, in Pines 314

Sarrocenia, Development of the

Leaves of 203

Satellites of Uranus Bl

Satnrn"fl Bings ...;. 301

SavUe (Rev. B. W.) on *• The Trath

of lie Bible " 72

Schools for the People 187

: "Science Gossip" 186

: Scientific Sommarf ...78, 193, 306, 421
Scleiodema Vul^re an Eatable

I Fungus 85

I Scorpii, Uotionof...... 107

I Scrophnlaria nodosa, Cross-tertilisa-

1 IJonof 431

I Seals, Slaughter of. 227

I Sea-sand Heaps caused by Glaciers 322
Seat of Sensation and Conscioos-

oess. Relations of 99

Seed Germination, Chemistrr of ... 319

> Sensitive Paper, Preoerving the

Purity of. 321

Teat for Hyposulphitee ,.. 89
i Sewsge Hatter in Water, Detection

r of. SOS

1 „ Phosphate, Process with... 434

J Sex of Plants. Differencu of 84

1 „ SelectJDD in RelatioD to 191

! Ships, Stability of 96.211,328

1 „ Strainain 32S

) Shooting-stars, November 429

I Silidfication of Anjmals 338

> SUk, Australian 338

Silurians 93, 436

) Sivatherium Giganteom, The 43S

} Skeleton of Dinomis 320

i Skin Grafting 100

7 Skull. Impoitanee of the MJETOMope

3 in Working at the 338

Sinter's " Manual of Colonrs " 70

9 Sleep 58

Smithsonian Report, Tbe 421

a Snow, Meteoric Dust in 112

Q Souff, Poisonous 101

9 Sodium Lines, Hentnol of 104

9 Solar Corona 310

7 „ Eclipse, Greenwich Observa-

7 tioDs of 309

S „ Total vm.

rortJLAB SCIRSCE EETIEW.

Solar ProinmenM, PbotogmpMng a

South AfricsD SiamaDds 103,

Specios, Genosis of. I8S

SpacUed Podnra 443

Spectioicape, Aulomatic S" "'

„ Tables, Browning'a.,.
„ Used in Photograph-
ing a Solar PronuDeiico

Spoctrom of the Antora Boreolia... 2U

„ of UraooB 306

Spbygmogrnph inventad bj Qalileo 98

Spongea, Nov. 107

Spontaneaua OoDeration 416

^ring-toila. Oripositor in

Sta^chart, CompMhensivB

Star DeptbR, Proposed Surreys of 42S

Star Stroamfi and Star Sprajrg 398

Stan, CammoD.Proper MolJOD of the 1 97

St«am Blast, Now fom of.

Stetibing'a (T. R.) " Essbtb on Dar-
winian! " 187

Steel Gun 97

„ ladostriBS, Progreaa of 216

„ Manufacture of. ""

„ Mechanical Properties of, Pos'

Beasiug Phusphanis 21S

„ Bails •""

Storeosoope, Photomicrograptu for

the 882

Straues DwvUiogs 179

Striatioa of Rock Masses "■'"

Strychnine. PoisoDiDg bj, Bromide

" Student's Guide t« the Practios of

Ueasimng Artiliceni' Wock

Sub-axial ArchsH in Man

Sab-permaneat Magnetiem, Eiperi-

112

TofTMrtrial Ho^otinn ..„ 1

Tena Geology

Testing Uet^, Machine for X

TheoiiH of PermenlatioD I

Thermal Springs iu CaDibridgatliii* 91

ThoBMOn'B Holl«Dis X

ThTmoI. Whatisitr I

Timber Arcbes I

T'mI Paring and CoUinft II

llbpogmphical Snmy of Iba H»-

waian Islands U

Tcrrtobes, Kotea on II

Total EdipM of the Moos {

„ „ San J(

Tower Subway. The

TransformatioD of Inaecu....

Trdosparent Calwa of CUoride of

Sodium, Formation of

Tran»|ncatIoD of Vfaimj Matter by

" Triumph of Erotation "..

Troops, Food for ,

Tnilb of the Bible „.

Tumnnrs, Deatmclion of

Tyndall's "Fiagmenta of SeiesM" II

UuiTDS, SatelUtsa of

„ Spectnim of ..„.,
Urea formed id the Livar...

. 204

r, Amorphons 203

,. in Coal-gas, Detection of 89

Bun, The 183

„ Constitution of the S23

„ Metals in the 101

„ Spot Observations at Eew ... 16 >

„ Total Ellipse of the """

Surgnca! Instruments, National Col-

iMtion of

SwiuserliLud, Lercllingaud Surrey in

TlBsi of Dyti

Tea, Himalaya .._ ,._

Technical EdacatioD on the Con-
tinent 97

„ Educator, Caaaell'a 3ii2

TelegBiph, Handbook of llie 73

" Tonedos," Compound Euginoa of
'!«« - i3S

Vakili^ Pod, Crystalline Sabatane*

GoToring the Ill

VeeetablB Physiology "

Venation of Hawthorns .

Voneauelan Birds, Callectiou of ... Ill
Venus, Hansen on the Transit of... I'
Vertebrala, Pfelinunaty Report on

the 1

Volcanoes, Mr. Farbei' Lectnre on

Von Niemiryor. Death of 4

Vartea Riuga. Experimeata of 4

It Plate ..'.

. im

Water, BinniuBbam, Analra

„ Drop o^ on n H

„ in Edinburgh...

,1 of the Nile, Compoaition of >
Power 4:

I. Supply to Xiondan S;

„ Supply to Towns X

Wataqn'a " ElMrnenU of PUui ud

Solid Geamntry " >. C

Webb's (Rev. T. W.) ObMmtiona

on Jopiiar in 1S70-TI

mDEX.

455

Websterito at Brighton 210

Wild Flowering Plants, Key to th«

Natural Order of 422

Winnecke's New Ck)met 312

Wocheinite, Whatisit? 104

WoUaston Medal and Fund 321

Wolves, British 241

Women, Medical College for 99

Woman with Four Breasts 100

Wood's (Rev. J. C.) "Strange

Dwellings" 179

Wormell's " Course of Natural

Philosophy" 417

Worms and Brachiopods, Kelatious

of. lie

PAOX

Wrought-ipon Guns 97

„ Bridges 97

Ybab Book of Facts 191

Yeast and other Ferments 314

„ ViUlityof 201

ZiRCoirs of Mudgee 218

Zodiacal Light 78, 311

Zoological Sections 448

Zoology 113, 'l'I.\ 337, 446

END OF VOL. X.

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Full text of "The Popular science review : a quarterly miscellany of entertaining and instructive articles on scientific subjects"

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