Technical Paper No. 204.
Possibilities of Steam Railway
Electrification
Price Four Annas.
UNIVERSITY Of OUR*^ ft^y*
Technical Paper No. 204.
Possibilities of Steam Railway
Electrification
Price Four Annas.
Technical Papers issued by the Chief Engineer with the Railway Board, India, are not
official publications; neither the Government of India nor the Eailway Board are responsible
for statements made or opinions expressed in the papers.
SIMLA: ^ F. G. BOY AL-DAWSON,
June 1920. J Chief Engineer with the Railway Board.
PREFACE.
The first part of this paper is a reprint of Part I of Messrs. Merz and
McLellan's report of 191i on the feasibility of electrifying the suburban area
of the Eastern Bengal Railway.
The second part is a reprint, with the kind permission of the management
of the "Railway Gazette and Railway IXews," of an article on the "Possibili-
ties of Steam Railway Electrification " by Mr. Calvert Townley, which Avas
published in the issue of llth July 1919 of that magazine
The- third part is a report by Mr. A. R. Gundry, A.M.I.E.E., A.M.I. M.E.,
Electrical Engineer, Eastern Bengal Railway, on the electrification of
various railways in England together with an account of certain electrical
works also visited by him when in England.
In view of the growing importance of the subject to railway men the
above three papers are worthy of careful study.
SIMLA, ^ F. G. ROYAL DAWSON,
June 1920. ) Chief Engineer with the Railway Board.
PJ^^^^^IS^
INDEX.
i
First Paper —
" General Remarks on Electrification " by Messrs. Merz and ATcLellan.
Section A. Introduction . ......
Section B. Suburban Electrification ......
Section C. Terminal, heavy gradient, and Main Line Electrification
Section D. Incidental Advantages of Electrification and Summary .
Second Paper —
" Possibilities of Steam Railway Electrification " by Mr. Calvert T ownley
(Reprinted from the Railway Gaze((e,.fatetl llth July 1919.)
PAGE.
1
5
11
17
19
Third Paper —
" Railway Electrification in England " — Report by Mr. A. R. Gundry,
A.M.I.E.E., A.M.I.M.E., Electrical Engineer, Eastern Bengal Railway . 23
Technical paper No. 204.
First Paper
General remarks on Electrification,
By
Messrs. MERZ AND McLELLAN.
SECTION "A."
Introduction.
At the present clay over 2,000 miles of railway have been converted from Historical
steam to electric working, the whole of this change having taken place during
the past 20 years and by far the greater part of it during the past 10 years.
Although the first electric locomotive was exhibited at Berlin in 1879, the
earliest important electric railway was the City and South London Railway.
This was the 'first of the deep level "tube" railways, and was constructed in
1890, at a time when the application of electric traction even to tramways was
by no means general. The first railway actually changed from steam to electric
working was probably the Nantasket Branch of the New York-New Haven
System in 1895. The earliest conversions to electric traction in Europe were
those of the Paris-Lyons-Mcditerranean Railway in 1900, while the first to take
place in England was that of the Mersey Tunnel Railway in 1903.
It was not, however, until 1901 that the Lancashire and Yorkshire and
North Eastern Railway Companies in England, and the Long Island Railway
Company in America, converted really important sections of steam railway
carrying a dense and varied traffic over considerable distances. Table I gives a
list of some of the more important schemes carried out since 1900.
There are to-day in progress many other large schemes, those at New York,
Paris, Berlin, Buenos Ayres, Melbourne and London, alone involving the con-
version of considerably over 1,000 miles of suburban track.
Seasons for Electrification. — Several reasons have led to the adoption of
electric traction for Railway work. Perhaps two of the most important are the
ease with which a greatly improved train service can be given and the question,
of ventilation.
Numerous instances where the use of electric traction was decided upon for
one or both of these reasons can be given. In the case of the underground and
"tube" lines in London, the Mersey Railway and the underground lines in
Paris, Berlin, Hamburg, and New York, it was financially necessary to run a
very heavy and fast service of trains, while the importance of the question of
ventilation is obvious from the nature of the lines. In the case of the Tyneside
lines of the North Eastern Railway and the London, Brighton and South Coast
Railway, the neighbouring1 tramway competition necessitated that frequent
service of fast trains which electric traction is peculiarly fitted to give, and
which did, in fact, arrest the loss of traffic— changing a decreasing traffic into
an increasing one. In the case of the suburban railways in New York, Berlin,
Melbourne, and Buenos Ayrcs, a rapidly increasing traffic necessitated greatly
improved services which could best be given by electric traction.
Electric Locomotives and Motor Coaches. — The earlier lines, whether
equipped electrically from the outset or converted from steam working, were
suburban. This can be seen from Table I. On these earlier lines electric
locomotives were usually employed. There is, however, a serious drawback
attaching to the use of locomotives (whether steam or electric) for this class of
traffic in that heavy weights are required on the driving wheels in order to
obtain the high accelerations necessary. This adds so much dead weight which
has to be hauled.
The question therefore arose — could not the weight of the carriages be
used for adhesion, thus rendering unnecessary the use of the dead weight on
the locomotive ? The result has been to produce what is now known as the
Historical
Outline
eontd.
" multiple-unit system " of train working. With this arrangement power is-
provided on every second or third coach. The coach provided with electric
motors, — a " motor coach "—when coupled to one or two additional trailer
coaches, as the case may be, constitutes what is known as a " train-unit." The
TABLE I.
Railways converted f mm steam to electric working (1900 — 1911).
Date.
Name of Line.
Electrical System.
Nature of duty.
1900
Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean Railway Ter-
Direct-current
Terminal working..
minus.
1901
Les Invalides (Versailles Railway)
Direct-current
Suburban.
1901
Milan Yarese (Porto Ceresio Railway)
Direct-current
Suburban.
1902
Valtellina Railway (Italy) ...
Three-phase
Passenger and;
Goods traffic.
1903
Manhattan Elevated Railway (U. S. A.)
Direct-current
Dense Urban.
1904
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (Liver-
pool-Southport Section).
Direct-current
Fast Suburban.
1904,
North Eastern Railway (Tyneside Section) .
Direct-current
Suburban.
1904
Long Island Railway (U. S. A.)
Direct-current
Suburban and in-
terurban .
1904
London Metropolitan District Railway
Direct-current
Dense Urban and
Suburban.
1905
London Metropolitan Railway
Direct-current
Dense Urban and
Suburban.
1906
West Jersey Railway (U. S. A.)
Direct-current
Suburban and in--
terurban.
1907
New York, New Haven and Hartford Rail-
Single-phase
Interurban.
way.
V
1907
New York Central Railway
Direct-current
Terminal and in-
terurban.
1907
West Shore Railway (U. S. A.)
Direct-current
Suburban and in-
terurban.
1909
London, Brighton and South Coast Railway
(South London Section).
Single-phase .
Suburban.
1909
Midi Railway (France) ....
Single-phase
Heavy Gradients.
1909
Giovi Line (Italy) .....
Three-phase
Tunnels and
Heavy Gradients.
1911
Kiruna Railway (Sweden)
Single-phase
Goods Haulage
chiefly.
train-unit so formed can be driven from either end as required. Trains of a
greater number of coaches can be made, up by coupling two, three, or four
such train-units together, the whole multiple-unit train being driven equally
well from, either end.
It will be seen that this arrangement eliminates the necessity of carrying
about a heavy dead weight for adhesion. The chief difficulty in its adoption
was the question of the control of all the motors scattered throughout the train,
by one driver, but this was overcome, and the " multiple-unit " system is found
to-day upon most important electric suburban railways. The system is dis-
cussed later in the Report in greater detail.
Main Line JSlectrijication.~In the instances of conversion from steam to
electric working already mentioned, electric traction was adopted more or less of
necessity on suburban sections. In those early cases, it was not expected that
electric traction could effect sufficient reduction in working expenses to justify
3 No. 204.
"the necessary capital outlay unless some compensating increase of traffic or
saving of new capital expenditure was obtained. But actual experience of
electric traction, albeit under suburban conditions, showed those responsible for
ihe operation of railways that the haulage of trains by electricity — quite apart
from its effects upon the development of passenger traffic — possessed certain
distinct operating and financial advantages over steam haulage.
For the haulage of goods and non-suburban passenger trains, the electric
locomotive has several advantages. It has been fully established that electric
locomotives can be, and are being, built which are far more powerful and which
run at higher speeds than is the case with steam. For instance,-the electric
locomotives used on the Pennsylvania Railroad can develop over 4,000 H. P.,
while those adopted on the New York Central haul 1,000-ton trains at over 60
miles per hour.
Railway managements are in many cases being faced with the problem of
quadruplicating their main lines, hence there is to-day a definite movement in
the direction of replacing steam locomotives by electric locomotives, for main
line working.
Systems of Electric Traction. — The question of whether or not electric
traction shall be adopted in preference to steam, Js tp-day a financial rather
than an engineering one. Most of the advantages of electric traction can be
obtained whatever electrical system of working be adopted. At the same time,
each of the various systems has special advantages making it suitable for
different conditions.
Prior to 1900, direct-current alone was used for traction work at a pressure
which had gradually been increased up to 600-800 volts at that date. A
number of important schemes were carried out about this time at these pressures,
the current'ibeing conveyed to the trains by means of a "third rail " carried
along the side of the permanent way. The number of railways which were
electrified or considering electrification about this period,* led engineers to
devise other electrical systems. The three-phase system made its appearance
about this time. The technical differences between this and the direct-current
system are considerable, the most important being perhaps that alternating
three-phase current is used for the motors in one case and the direct-current in.
the other, while two wires are used for track at different electrical pressures,
in the case of the three-phase system. The system possesses certain features
peculiarly fitting it for use upon heavy gradients, and it has been largely adopt-
ed for mountain traction, specially in Switzerland and Italy. Well-known
examples are the Valtellina Railway, equipped in 1902, and the Giovi Line,
1909, both in Italy, besides numerous smaller lines in Switzerland and the North
of Italy. The system had not been much used outside these countries and not at
all in Great Britain, although its merits were carefully considered by the Board
of Trade in connection with the Underground lines in London. In America
the only important instance is the Cascade Tunnel on the Great Northern
Railway, United States of America.
The single-phase system with commutating motors using single-phase
current, was introduced about 1904-05. Single-phase cm-rent was the earliest
form of current used for electric lighting, for which it was adopted on a large
scale. It has been adopted for electric traction in several important cases,
notably in Berlin and in New York, as well as on a section of the London,
Brighton and South Coast Railway on the South side of London.
A recent development of the direct-current system has been in the use of
higher voltages for the track condxictor.
The fundamental difference between steam and electric traction is that, in Fundamental
the case of steam traction, the fuel necessary to supply the mechanical energy between6*
for running the train is consumed on the locomotive, whereas, in the case steam and
of electric traction, it is consumed in stationary apparatus at a central power Traction
station. In the latter case, owing to the fact that the energy required is
developed in large amounts, a much larger and more efficient type of steam and
-electric generating plant can be used, space not being confined as on a steam
* Xo les« than fifteen railways in Europe began the conversion of the Juburban lines between 1900 and 1905.
locomotive. In the case of electric traction, the energy often has to be trans-
mitted over long lengths oi' transmission line, transformed in sub-stations and
delivered to the trains where it is vised by electric motors. In all these pro-
cesses, losses of energy occur, but in spite of this, the economies which can be
introduced in the fuel consumption are usually sufficient to reduce considerably
the annual cost of coal and water. In cases where the traffic is sufficiently
dense the sa\ing Avhich can thus be rnad^ is more than sufficient to pay the
capital and operation charges of the power station.
In cases where the energy for electric traction can be obtained from a
source which is also used for general supply purposes, a further reduction often
results, due to the combined generation and distribution of the electrical energy,
in virtue of the economies which can be effected in the amount of plant re-
quired, apart altogether from its efficiency.
In Calcutta, the economies which can be effected in coal consumption are
not of the usual importance since coal is cheap and hence the financial value
of savings in the amount used, correspondingly small. The power station
standing charges are, however, normal, and hence while the annual value of
the savings is abnormally small (coal being cheap), the standing charges to
be paid are as high as usual, and hence in this case the economies which can
be effected in coal consumption are not sufficient alone to show a net saving
after paying these charges. As will be seen later, however, there are other
important economies resulting from the use of electric traction which, even in
this case, make its adoption advantageous.
No. 204
SECTION "B."
\
Suburban Electrification.
4 The electrification of steam railways which has, up to the present, been Classes of
carried out in different parts of the world, can be divided into four classes :—
(a) Suburban electrification.
(b) Terminal electrification.
(c) Electrification of lines including heavy gradients.
(d) Main Line electrification.
This order corresponds approximately with the chronological development
of electrification. In this section we consider suburban electrification, and
in the next section we deal with the remaining three classes.
When tramways were electrified and interurban electric lines built, it was
found that they seriously diverted the traffic from steam railways operating in
the same districts, the travelling public preferring to use the electrified line,
even if it were a tramway. The reasons for this were chiefly that, in the case of
the tramway, passengers were picked up in the streets and deposited almost at
their doorsteps, while the travelling was quick, clean and comfortable. With
the exception of picking up the passenger wherever he happened to be, and
depositing him near his doorstep, railways could offer, by the adoption of electri-
fication, all the advantages which the tramways and the interurban railways
could. To offset the advantage of picking up the passenger in the street, they
can offer the traveller a higher speed (owing to their private right of way) and
additional comfort, thereby regaining traffic which might have been lost through
competing tramways. .As we stated on page 1, it was chiefly for these reasons
that certain railways adopted electrification. There are, however, several other
inducements to electrify suburban lines, apart altogether from questions of
recovering any lost traffic, and we will now consider them in detail and how
electric traction can bring them about.
Since many of the advantages are due to the use of the multiple unit
system of train operation, we will consider this system in greater detail than
on page 1.
Each multiple-unit train, as. the name implies, consists of one or more
train-units. Such train-units usually consists of two or three coaches which TlB1M>
are coupled together and one of which is equipped with electric motors. This
motor equipment provides sufficient power to act as the locomotive of the
train-unit to which it is attached. The chief advantages of this arrange-
ment are : —
(1) That the train-xmit can be operated with equal facility from either
end.
(2) That, where the train is made iip of one or more train-units, the
motive power provided is always proportionate to the weight of
the train which it has to operate.
(3) That high accelerations are possible.
(4) That the weight of the motor coaches and passengers in them is-
utilised for adhesion, thereby reducing the transportation of dead
weight.
If a train-unit consists of three coaches, a train of three, six or nine coaches
can be made up from such train-units, while a train of any intermediate
number of coaches can be run, provided there is a sufficient proportion of motor
coaches. The assembled train can be operated from either end ; it also travels
equally well in either direction. It is clear that, since the motive power is
divided into a number of units, a very much larger number of axles is driven
than is the case with a train hauled by a steam locomotive, and consequently a
much greater percentage of the total weight of the train is available for adhe-
sion. This is one of the main features which renders feasible the high starting
accelerations, the use of which is a characteristic of suburban electric train
working.
Advantages W e now consi der the advantages which result from suburban electrifica-
of Suburban . • . . „ , .
Eicctrifica- tion using the multiple-unit system or tram operation.
A Regular and More Frequent Service Throughout the Day. — Since each
train-unit consisting of, say, three coaches can be operated separately, it is clear
that it is possible to run trains consisting of one train-unit only, during slack
hours ; and consisting of two or three train-units at times of heavy traffic. The
cost of electrically operating the lighter trains is small, since under electrical
conditions, the cost of electrical energy, of cleaning of coaches, and of repairs
and renewals both to coaches and electrical equipments, are directly propor-
tional to the coach mileage. This renders it financially possible to give a
regular and frequent service of trains throughout the day, the regularity of the
service being maintained even during slack hours by trains consisting of one
train-unit only. It has been found that such a service greatly stimulates
traffic.
Higher Speeds. — It is economically possible with the multiple-unit system,
of train operation to give speeds which are much better than existing steam
speeds. We may briefly consider the reasons for this, dealing in the first place
with the speed characteristics of a suburban, service. It is obvious that the
lengths of run and duration of stop have a material effect upon the schedule
speed which can be obtained, whatever system of traction is iised. In the first
place, if the run is very short, the train does not 'have sufficient distance in
which to become fully speeded up — notwithstanding the fact that its accelera-
tion may be very high. In the second place, assuming stop of fixed duration,
the time spent at rest obviously forms a large proportion of the total time of
the journey when the runs are short. With short runs it may be absolutely
impossible to adopt a schedule speed which may be quite practicable with runs
of, say, double the length. For instance, with runs of about one-fifth of a mile,
a schedule speed of over 17| miles per hour is physically impossible with stops
of 20 seconds, while, with the same length of run, if the stop is increased to 40
seconds, the physical limit to speed is 12 miles per hour.* These figures are
sufficient to show that the goodness or badness of a given speed for suburban
working depends upon the average length of run and the average length of stop
involved — a mere statement that the schedule speed of suburban trains is, say,
20 miles an hour, has no definite meaning.
The use of a high acceleration improves greatly the schedule speeds which
can be obtained for given lengths of run and of stop, and if, by the use of
electric traction, such an acceleration can be obtained at a reasonable
cost, both in installing the tractive power to develop it and in oper-
ating it, then the schedule speeds for given lengths of run and stop can be
materially improved over the steam speeds. We have seen that the multiple unit
system of train operation is peculiarly fitted to the development of high accelera-
tions since, upon this system, the whole weight of the train can be utilised for
purposes of adhesion if required. It is usually both unnecessary and undesirable
to go so far as this. Practical accelerations are limited (apart from the question
of providing motive power upon the trains) by the fact that high accelerations
impose unpleasant conditions upon the people occupying the train. With -very
high practical accelerations (say, 2-0 miles per hour per second) not only does the
weight and cost of the motor equipment become excessive, but travelling becomes
uncomfortable. Sufficient motive power can be provided and adhesion
obtained for accelerations up to, say, 1-| miles per hour per second, if the train-
unit consists of one motor coach and one trailer coach, the four axles of the
* It may be of interest to indicate tljo nature of tbe physical limitations of schedule speed. The limitation
chosen for illustration is adhesion — a factor which would he one of the last to limit speed and yet it win lie seen that
speeds as limited by it are not high for short runs when stops are also include!?. In tlic case of multiple-unit trains
the whole of the weight of the train is rendered available for purposes of adhesion, if the trains consist entirely of
motor coaches. The maximum acceleration which it is physically passible to develop (irrespective of the insuperable
difficulties of providing the necessary tractive power) U say 7 miles per hour per second. Suppose we consider the ruu
to occupy 20 seconds; then in 10 seconds, while the train is accelerating, the speed would reach 70 miles per hour and
the distance travelled would be 515 feet. An equal distance would be run in decelerating. Allowing a stop of 20
seconds, the total time of the run would he 40 seconds. The.schcdule speed would therefore be slightly over 17i mile per
hour. This, of course, leaves out of consideration altogether the insuperable difficulties of providing the tractive power,
and the intolerable conditions which the use of such an acceleration as that taken would impo.-e upon the people occupy-
ing the train. The illustration is of interest in showing that there are physical limitations to the speed which can be
obtained on railways, in spite of high accelerations. The question of the influence of the length of stop can he shown
from the above iigures. If the stop is increased to 40 seconds instead of 20 seconds, the schedule speed falls to about
13 miles an hour and this is the maximum which it is physically possible to obtain.
7
No. 20 4
the length of
The advisability of the use of such a high
run, length of stop and schedule
motor coach being each motor driven,
acceleration depends upon
speed required.
The acceleration of steam trains is much lower than this — it is of the order
of 0'3 to O'o mile per hour per second with, say, a 6-coach train. Further, the
acceleration of the steam train at starting depends upon the weight of the train
while, with the multiple-unit system of electric working, the acceleration is
independent of the actual number of coaches to the train since the motive power
is proportional to the number of coaches.
While there is a wide possibility of improving upon the steam speeds" now
fiven by using accelerations ranging from the steam figure of, say, O'o to the
practical electric figure of , say, 1'5 miles per hour per second, the actualjn-
crease of speed adopted must be settled from considerations of economy. WTith
very high accelerations, the cost of the motor equipment becomes high, conse-
quently an acceleration should be adopted for electric working which gives a
reasonable and commercial improvement on the steam speeds— the adoption of
too high an acceleration not only increases unnecessarily the capital cost of the
electrical equipment, but it also increases the operating costs, since the trains
I
SPEED IN MILES PER HOUR.
FIQ. 1,-CURVE SHEWING RELATION BETWEEN ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND SPEED.
FOR MULTIPLE-UNIT TRAINS,
are run at a higher speed than is necessary. Just as in the steam case, excep-
tionally high speeds are costly, since the electrical energy consumption goes
up rapidly as the schedule speed is increased, for a given length of run and
length of stop. In order to give some idea of the effect of schedule speed upon
the energy consumption for given lengths of run, we have prepared the curves
given in Figure 1 which shows the energy consumption required at the train
for runs of 1 and 2 miles at various schedule speeds. These curves show that
the energy consumption rises rapidly as the schedule speed is increased for
given lengths of run. It will further be clearly seen that very much higher
schedule speeds can be adopted economically for longer runs than for shorter
ones. This point is borne out by Table II which shows the schedule speeds
and the average distance between stations for various electrified lines.
Advantages
of Suburban
Bleetrifica-
tion
(tontd.)
ABLE II.
SCHEDULE SPEEDS AND AVERAGE LEXGTHS or RUN ON VARIOUS ELECTRIC
RAILWAYS.
Schedule
Speed.
Average
distance
between
stations.
Miles per hour
Miles.
Paris Metropolitan
12-4
0-51
New York Elevated ....
18-0
0-33
Liverpool Overhead . ......
15-3
U-43
New ^ork Subway, stopping trains
15-0
0-43
Charing Cross and Hampstead Tube (London)
17-3
0-47
Metropolitan Railway (Inner Circle- Trains, London) .
1.V6
0-48
Central London Railway
15-3
0-52
Metropolitan District (London) ....
19-8
0-66
Melbourne Suburban Railways (under construction)
21-0
0-83
London, Brighton and South Coast ....
£2-2
1-06
Prussian State Railways, Hamburg-Altona
18-8
1-08
North Kastern Railway (England) .
20-2
1-10
New York, New Haven and Hartford
22-8
1-30
Buenos Ayres Western (under construction) stopping
trains ........
24-2
1-30
Lancashire and Yorkshire (Liverpool-Sovvthport) .
30-U
1-82
New York Central .......
25-4
1-38
Central Argentine (under construction) stopping trains .
25-2
1-50
Great Indian Peninsula (proposed stopping trains)
23-1
1-55
New York Subway, expresses . ....
25-0
1-61
Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway (proposed
stopping trains) .....
24-8
1-75
Pennsylvania Railroad (West Jersey and Seashore)
27-0
2-15
Midland Railway (Heysham and Morecambe) England
28-6
• 3-25
Buenos Ayres Western (under construction) expresses .
33-9
565
Central Argentine Railway (under construction) expresses • .
87-5
fi-00
The gist of the whole question of choice of speed with stopping trains for
comparatively short runs, is that high speeds can only he secured by acceler-
ating rapidly ; the higher the acceleration, the more costly is the electrical
equipment of the -trains ; and the higher the maximum speed, the greater is the
energy consumption. Very high speeds for short runs are costly both in capital
outlay and operating costs. A considerable improvement can, however, be
made over the existing steam speeds for any suburhari service, and at the same
time the cost of the electrical equipment and the energy consumption can be
kept within reasonable and commercial limits.
Figure 2 is a typical speed-time cur.ve for an average run of 2'0 miles. The
'" electric " acceleration is chosen so as to give an economic improvement in the
steam speed with which the " electric " speed is compared. The thick line
represents steam, and the thin lines electric conditions.
• 10
12.0
180
7-10
JOO
TIME IN SECONDS.
TYPICAL BUN CURVES— 20 MILFS.
FIG, 2— SPEED CURVES FOR STEAM AND MULTIPLE UNIT TRAINS.
9 No. 204,
Improved Punctuality of Trains. — In actual operation, where the runs *
between stops are sufficiently long to allow it, it is usual to take advantage of Ei«etrific»-
the high acceleration possible with electric traction, not only to improve the*
speed but to accomplish as much as possible of each run by coasting. This
reduces the energy consumption. By keeping on the power instead of coasting
the distance can be covered in less time when it is necessary to make up for
delays thereby improving the punctuality of the trains.
Increased Capacity of Terminal Stations. — The increase in capacity of
terminal stations, which is brought about by electrification, is due to' the fact
that trains can enter and leave the station at. a higher speed and — with the
multiple-unit system — no shunting is required. Multiple-unit trains are
operated equally well from either end. The driver merely walks out of his driv-
ing compartment at one end of the train and enters the driving compartment
at the other — taking the train out exactly as if, under steam conditions, a
locomotive were at his end of it, he changing ends rather than the locomotive.
This alone eliminates about one half of the signal, point and train movements
and effects a very considerable increase in the capacity of a given amount of
platform accommodation.
More Economical Employment of Train Crews. — Train crews can be more,
economically employed, due partly to the higher speed, by which each crew can
perform a higher, train mileage daily and partly to the absence of locomotives.
When the multiple-\mit train reaches its terminus, all that needs to be done is
for the carriages to be opened up for ventilation for a few minutes, and the
motor man to goto the other end of the train. The ordinary working " lie-over "
can, therefore, be considerably reduced. As a matter of interest, upon the
Metropolitan District Railway of London, at their Richmond and other svestern
termini, the trains merely run in, empty, refill, and run out again on the return
journey, the " lie-over " in many cases not being more than three or four
minutes. Of course, at certain times of the day, and after a certain number
of runs, a somewhat longer " lie-over " is necessary, but a considerable saving
in crew's time can be effected, largely owing to the flexibility of the multiple-
unit trains system, apart altogether from the higher speed.
Increase in Earning Capacity of the 'Line. — The increase in the earning
capacity of the lines is due to the higher speeds and the ability of the electric
train to run to schedule time. The headway between trains can, therefore, be
reduced, and this, in conjunction with the improvement of speed, greatly
increases the train mileage which can be run upon a given track.
Development of Residential A,-oa&.— The development of residential areas is
facilitated, since a regular service of light trains can be run cheaply at good
speeds, and a passenger traffic to and from an attractive residential district&can
thus be fostered.
Reduced Cost of Repairs and Renewals per Train-mile. — A saving is
effected in the cost of repairs and renewals per train-mile, with multiple-unit
operation, because —
(a) Less rolling stock is required to run a given mileage, owing to the
higher speed, and therefore the amount of rolling stock which has
to be repaired and renewed per train-mile is less.
(b) The ratio of coach mileage to train mileage can be considerably
reduced with the multiple-unit system owing to the ease with
which the length of train can be varied to suit the requirements
at different times of day. Useless movement of rolling stock is
thus reduced.
(c) The cost of repairing the electrical equipment on a given train is
considerably less than the cost of repairs and renewals upon the
locomotive which would operate the same train under steam.
This is due to the simplicity of the electric motor, which corres-
ponds to the engine on the steam locomotive. The repairs to
steam generating plant such as boilers, fire-boxes, etc., on the
steam locomotives are absent in the electrical case, since these
pieces of apparatus are all at the power station, and there the
repairs and renewals are obviously less than for plant operating
Advantages
of Suburban
Electrifica-
tion
(eft eld.
10
upon the road, while the costs for these are included in the price
paid for electrical energy.
Reduction in Working Costs per Train-mile. — The nett result of the
economies is, that the working costs per train-mile under electrical conditions
are usually less than the costs for steam operation, in spite of the higher speeds.
Increased Revenue due to Increased Train Mileage. — Since electric traction
is an inherently cheaper method of operation, the Traffic Department is justified
in running the more frequent and regular service of trains to which we have
referred, to attract traffic. This higher train mileage reaps an increased
revenue, which is due solely to suburban electrification.
11 No. 204.
SECTION "C."
Terminal, Heavy Gradient, and Main Line Electrification.
We shall now consider the three remaining classes of electrification men- Terminal,
tioned upon page 5. We have dealt, up to the present, with the question of "^li
suburban electrification and it will lie remembered that we commenced the an™ a
discussion by describing a special system of train working — the multiple-unit KJc
system — which enables the fullest advantage to be taken of the possibilities of tion
electric traction for such working.
In the case of terminal, heavy gradient and main line electrification, the
type of traffic which must be catered for is of a different character. For
instance, the working of heavy goods trains has now to be taken into considera-
tion. While the characteristics of a suburban passenger service are a very
frequent service of light trains at speeds requiring high accelerations, the
characteristic of those traffics which we are about to discuss is a comparatively
infrequent service of very heavy trains at speeds which, from the nature of the
case, do not require high acceleration's. It is a far simpler matter, whatever
system of traction is considered, to develop a^.schedule speed of 60 miles an
hour on a 20-mile run than it is to develop a schedule speed of 20 miles an
hour on a run of half-a-mile. In the case of a 20-mile run, if the average
speed is to be 60 miles an hour the run will, of course, take 20 minutes.* If
the acceleration is chosen so that the train attains its full speed in two minutes,
the acceleration is, of course, half-a-mile per hour per second. If this were
done, the train would be accelerating for one-tenth of the total time. If we •
were to allow two minutes for breaking at the same retardation, the train
would be running at full speed for 16 out of the 20 minutes. In order to
perform the run at 60 miles an hour, the maximum speed required for the 16
minutes would be about 67J miles per hour.
Contrast this with figure 2, page 8, where a speed-time curve for an
average suburban run of two miles is given. It will be seen from the figure
that an acceleration of I'O mile per hour per second is adopted and that tKe
train is accelerating for about 50 per cent, of the total time of the run.
Further, even with this acceleration, the multiple-unit train does not have
sufficient time in which to attain the maximum speed of which it is capable
the speed is rising even at the instant the current is cut off.
It will be readily understood, therefore, that for traffics other than subur-
ban passenger traffic —
(1) High accelerations are not required, since the train is, in any case,
only accelerating for a small proportion of the time that' it is in
motion.
(2) For the bulk of its time the train is running at full speed, which is
only slightly above the average speed of the trains.
Another important point is that, since such trains are heavy, there is nou
the same objection to carrying about a few tons of dead weight on a locomotive,
since the extra weight forms only a small proportion of the total weight of the
train, and, since the runs are long, the cost of accelerating and decelerating the
weight is not so important. For the same reason there is not the same
necessity for avoiding the cost of shunting by a special locomotive, for the
expenditure of even a quarter-of-an-hour or so at terminal stations at the end.
of long journeys, is not a matter of very great importance, except at very busy
termini. There is consequently not the same advantage in equipping the
trains so that they can be operated from either end, as is the case with subur-
ban trains ; in the case of long distance trains, very little would be gained if
this were done. It is clear that the conditions which have to be met, are quite
different from those of a suburban passenger service, and that the arguments
which justify the adoption of the multiple-unit system for the latter are not so
paramount for long distance traffic— for infrequent long distance traffic of
every description, locomotives are as suitable on most lines as a multiple-unit
system would be.
* Omitting the stop.
Steam
Looomotivts.
Electric
Locomotives.
Most of the advantages which, electric traction possesses for ordinary
passenger and goods traffic, are to be found in the superiority of the electric
locomotive as a train hauling appliance. We shall first consider the demands
which are heing made upon the modern steam locomotive and the manner in
which they are being met. As we pointed out on page 3, it is possible that
the fact that some of the large railways are approaching the limits of their
existing capacity, has been largely instrumental in engaging the attention of
the railway authorities to the possibility of electric traction for general haulage
purposes.
In recent years, railway companies have been called upon to deal with
traffics which are increasing at a high annual rate. The frequency of the
trains has, in many cases, been so increased that it is impossible to add materially
to the number of trains which are run per hour upon the existing tracks,
having in view the high speeds of main line working and the headways which
must necessarily be left between trains for purposes of safety. It follows that
the tendency is, for the weights of trains to increase very materially, and at
the same time the desire has been for higher speeds, in order to increase as
much as possible the frequency -of trains.
The present problem is to provide a sufficiently powerful train hauling
appliance. If such an appliance can be used (whereby the heavier trains can
be operated at the higher speeds required) the capacity of the existing tracks
is materially increased and quadruplication. is postponed. The capacity for
which the steam locomotive can be built, is limited by the loading gauge, and
the problem before steam locomotive engineers, is that of increasing the capa-
city of a steam locomotive in spite of the loading gauge restrictions to which it
is subjected. To meet these requirements a large number of improvements
have been introduced in steam locomotives. The chief of these are the intro-
duction of superheating, the application of brick arches to the fire-boxes, feed
water heating appliances, the use of oil fuel, etc. At the same time, the
dimnensions of the boiler and the steam pressure have been increased as much
as possible. By these improvements, the efficiency of the steam locomotive
has been materially improved, its power and the rua capacity increased, while
with the use of oil fuel, the smoke miisance * has been eliminated to a large
extent. In spite of these decided improvements the steam locomotive i&
steadily losing ground with regard to the demands which are being made upon
it. If steam traction is retained, the alternatives for the railway authorities
whose lines are becoming congested, is quadraplication or increase of the
loading gauge. Either of these is, of course, an extremely costly proceeding.
This is perhaps the main reason (apart from that of direct financial gain in the
shape of lower locomotive costs) that railway authorities are becoming
interested in the question of the possibilities of electric locomotives which we
now consider.
In many cases, the economies which can be made by the introduction of
electric traction are sufficient to justify it for itself, apart altogether from the
question of the quadruplication which its iise postpones indefinitely. The
problem is, of course, one which is influenced in each particular case by the
local conditions, but we shall point out some of the ways in which electric
locomotives are more economical than steam, and at the same time can relieve
congestion.
The Capacity of Electric Locomotives. — -The power of the electric
locomotive to relieve congestion is due to the fact that it is possible to build
a much more powerful locomotive within the loading gauge than is the case
with steam. The power which can be placed upon an electric locomotive is,
in fact, unlimited by the loading gauge restriction, since electric motors only
are placed upon it and it possesses no parts corresponding to the steam boiler
on a steam locomotive. It is, of course, well known that the special limitation
of the steam locomotive is the size of its boiler. This restriction obviously
disappears in the case of the electric locomotive. Apart altogether from this
an electric locomotive of a given continuous capacity can develop a greatly
* The nuisance caused liy steam raponr ami noise from exhaust and blow-off valves has not been reduced, but rather
kg reverse.
13 No. 204
increased power for short periods of time. For instance, if (.he continuous
capacity of a locomotive were 1,000 H. P., it would be quite practicable to
develop with it 3,000 H. P. for short periods of time. This is impossible with
the steam locomotive
Higher Speeds and Higher Accelerations. — The possibility of developing
large amounts of power for short periods of time, taken in conjunction with the
higher capacity for which electric locomotives can he built, enables them to
operate the heavier trains with which it is now necessary to deal, at higher
accelerations and higher speeds than steam locomotives can. This results in
a marked speeding up of train handling, just as in the case of suburban
working, and consequently relieves congestion. The electric locomotive can
easily be built sufficiently powerful to maintain a high speed with the heaviest
trains. For instance, as already mentioned, the electric locomotives used ou
the New York Central Railroad are capable of hauling a 1,000-ton passenger
trailing load at 60 miles an hour continuously. The higher acceleration,
possible with electric locomotives is a point of considerable importance in the*
case of terminal and shunting yard electrification, since in these cases it is
" acceleration " which is important. Electric locomotives can give these higher
accelerations and speeds with very heavy trailing loads simply because they
can be built of much greater capacity, and Can develop for short periods of
time very much greater powers than the normal.
Improved Punctuality. — For the same reasons, punctuality tends to be
improved. This is, of course, important to the general travelling public and
is also of importance at termini, since it shortens the time that each passenger
is waiting about on the platforms and therefore passenger congestion on plat-
forms and assembly halls at busy periods is lessened.
Heavy Gradient Working. — The high capacity for which electric locomo-
tives can be designed, is a feature of particular importance in the case of heavy
gradient working. In the haulage of trains, tractive effort is required for three
purposes : —
(a) For the prodiiction of the required acceleration at starting.
(b) For overcoming the resistance due to windage, bearing friction,
track resistance, and so on.
(c) For overcoming the opposing force of gravity, which comes into
action if the train is ascending any gradient.
For operation on the level or light gradients, by far the greatest proportion
of the maximum tractive effort which is exerted by the locomotive is that
required for producing the acceleration of the train. "When the train has been
accelerated, the tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance and to
maintain a given speed, is very small compared with the tractive effort at the
time of accelerating. Operation upon a heavy gradient is quite different. The
opposing force of gravity comes powerfully into action. The tractive effort
required to overcome the force of gravity is constant on a given gradient. The
heavy gradient, therefore, constitutes an additional constant demand for a large
tractive effort from the locomotive.
Since horse-power is proporfional to the product of speed by tractive effort,
it follows that the maintenance of this tractive effort constitutes a demand for
horse-power wrhich is directly proportional to the speed of the train. To take an
example, a train weighing 500 tons when on a gradient of 1 : 30 requires a
constant tractive effort to be applied to it merely to overcome gravity, of about
37,400 Ibs. At a speed of ten miles per hour, the horse-power corresponding to
this is 1,000 H. P. while at 15 miles per hour it would be 1,500 H. P. The
locomotive is called upon to develop this horse-power continuously in addition
to the horse-power which it would have to develop to haul the same tram at
the same speed upon the level. Any system of traction which can provide
very powerful propelling machines is obviously peculiarly fitted for such duty-
electric traction is such a system. Electric traction also possesses other
marked advantages for heavy gradient working which are of equal or greater
importance (see pages 14 and 15).
Economies— Coal and Water. — We have pointed out that the problem
with which steam locomotive engineers are faced, is that of designing sufficiently
14
powerful steam locomotives within the limits of the loading gauge. In order
Locomotives . . , , „ .. ° .
to economise space they are precluded, from adopting the more efficient means
of steam raising and power generation. In the first place, the grate area which
can be used is comparatively small and in order to burn the large amount of
coal per hour which is required to maintain full steam pressure in the boiler a
very powerful forced draught must be adopted. This has the well-known
tendency to carry out through the locomotive uptake, a large quantity of half-
burned coal and cinders. The amount of coal which is lost in this way alone is
considerable, amounting to something like 12 per cent, of the total amount of
coal used when the steam locomotive is developing its full amount of power.
Another important feature, tending towards economy, but which cannot be
adopted on the steam locomotive, is the condenser^m fact, its thermal
efficiency still remains very low.*
A very important point affecting the coal economy of the steam locomotive
is that of stand-by coal losses. The fiVes have to he lighted up, periodically
cleaned and, of course, banked so as to maintain the boiler steam pressure all
the time that the locomotive is standing about doing nothing. An exhaustive
investigation was recently made by the United States Government into this
question of the stand-by losses of steam locomotives and it was ascertained that,
in the United States, something of the order of 20 per cent, of the total coai
used per annum by locomotives in the United States is wasted in stand-by losses.
These stand-by losses are practically entirely eliminated in the case of electric
locomotives, owing to the fact that the electric locomotive consumes power only
when it is actually performing useful work.
Including stand-hy coal, the thermal efficiency of a modern steam locomotive
jfrobably lies between 3 per cent, and 5 per cent. If we contrast this with the
thermal efficiency of a modern power station, the reasons for the savings which
can be effected in the amounts of coal and water used are apparent. The
thermal efficiency of a modern power station of large size and good design
should be 16 per cent, or even more, the exact figures depending on the size and
the load factor. This figure must not be compared directly with the 4 per cent.
of the steam locomotive, since there are losses in delivering the electrical energy
from the poAver station to the wheels of trains. It is impossible; to state
generally what these losses amount to, since they must be calculated for every
particular system of power production and transmission, but if we assume a low
figure of, say, 50 per cent, efficiency between the wheels of the trains and the
power station, the efficiency to be compared with the 4 per cent, in the case of
the steam locomotive is about 8 per cent. — a saving of 50 per cent, apart from
the fact that much cheaper coal can be burned. Of course, a considerable
amount of capital has to be spent on such a power station. Where coal is costly
the saving in coal and water is usually sufficient to pay all the capital and other
charges of the power station and yet show a nett saving. In some cases it may
be possible to utilise a hydro-electric supply, in which case there may be a
further saving.
Economies — Regeneration and Braking on Heavy Gradients. — On page 13
we showed that electric traction is peculiarly fitted to deal with heavy gradient
working on account of the high power for*which electric locomotives can be
built. There are several other advantages in the use of electric locomotives for
such work, an important one being what is known as "regenerative control."
The electric motor is a reversible machine, that is to say, if it is supplied with
electrical energy it will develop mechanical energy ; conversely, if it is supplied
with mechanical energy it will develop electrical energy. In ascending a grad-
ient a train stores energy which it dissipates when descending. In the case of
steam haulage, this energy is dissipated in the form of heat by the wasteful
process of braking the train, which also results in greater Avear of brake blocks
* Even with all the latest improvements HIU! economies the coal consumption per I. H. P. hour of a steam loco-
motive cannot be reduced below 3-0 Ibs. When running at full power and with good coal having a cnlorific value of, say,
14,000 1?. Th. U. If we take the mechanical efficiency of the engine to lie So%, then the coal required for 1 horse-
power-hour at the draw-bar is 3-5 Ibs. One horse-power-hour equals 2.515 B. Th. U. and 3'5 Ibs. of coal @ 14.000
1!. Th. U. per Ib. are equivalent to 49,000 B. Th. U. i.e., the thermal efficiency of the locomotive- —
»bont. This does not include any stand-by coal— it represents approximately the best the steam engine can be expected
to do at present.
15 No. 204
and wheel tyres. With the electric locomotive, on the other hand, owing to
the reversible property of the motor, a considerable proportion of this energy
can be converted into electrical energy and returned !o the track conductor and
used elsewhere. In this way the train is automatically braked, but by electrical
instead of mechanical means. Hence, there is a reduction in the nett amount
of electrical energy required (and therefore, in the equivalent cost of coal and
water) and also a saving in brake blocks and tyres.
Economies — JSnginemen's Wages. — The process of preparing a steam loco-
motive for duty involves a considerable expenditure of time and labour and, in
addition to cleaning, lubrication and overhauling at very frequent intervals,
the fire-boxes have to be raked out, fire-bars renewed, fires relit, the smoke
boxes and tubes cleaned, and the boilers blown down and cleaned periodically,
In contrast with this, the electric locomotive is always ready to take the road
without preparation, the little attention required being almost entirely done by
the crew itself while in charge of the engine. Visits to the running shed are
practically only required by electric locomotives for the purpose of cleaning and
inspection of brake blocks and the less accessible parts underneath the engine.
The motors, if they are kept clean and receive a small amount of attention, are
always readv for immediate use.
V V
In the case of the steam locomotive, it is necessary to attend to the fire
and the boiler gauge glasses, as well as to give the required attention to the
numerous moving parts such as piston rods, connecting rods, crossheads,
journals, valve-gear, and so on. The fire alone involves shovelling on to the
fire anything up to 1^ tons of coal per hour, which keeps the fireman very fully
occupied in the performance of this duty alone. In the case of the electric
locomotive, conditions are entirely different. The driver has merely to operate
a handle, one or two switches, the air brake valve and the whistle. He is thus
in a position to give more attention to looking out and to signals, and the second
man on the locomotive is hardly necessary.
If two men are still employed, a reduction in the wages per crew should be
justified, but even if no reduction is assumed either in men per locomotive
or wages per man, there is still a reduction in the cost of wages per train-mile
due to the saving of the crew's time. There is always, of course, a considerable
difference between the time during which a locomotive is engaged in actually
hauling a train and the time during which the crew is in charge of the engine.
This is partly due to the fact that a considerable allowance of time is made to
the crew for the purposes of engine preparation and partly because engines are
necessarily kept waiting under steam, often for very considerable intervals
between one trip and next, and are, of course, at all such times, in charge
of the crew. When an electric locomotive is waiting between trips, it is not
necessarily in charge of the crew — it may be locked and left in a safe place.
There is also no doubt that the intervals between trips and the amount of
waiting about with engines would be reduced, more particularly since
the whole range of engine duty can be performed with far fewer types of
locomotive.
Economies— Running Sited Expenses. — With engine preparation largely
reduced and performed almost entirely by the crew during running and ordinary
station stops, the remaining shed expenses are confined to —
(a) Cleaning, which involves only a fraction of the labour incidental to
the cleaning of a steam locomotive.
(b) Adjustment and renewals of brakes.
(c) Provision of lubricant, and renewal of brushes.
These can be performed at periodical infrequent intervals and very low
cost and therefore there is a marked reduction in the comparative running shed
expenses.
Economies — Repairs and Renewals.— A. considerable reduction is effected in
these items. A consideration of the amount of repairs and renewals required
upon electric and steam locomotives readily explains it. The repairs required
upon an electric locomotive are :—
(1) Repairs to wheels, tyres, frame, brake-gear, axle-boxes, journals, etc.
These have analogous parts on the steam locomotives, but neither
the tyres of the driving wheels, nor the frames of the elect-ric
16
Electric
Locomotives
locomotive* locomotives are subject to the same amount of wear and tear as
— (eo»cid.) the corresponding parts of steam locomotives, because —
(a) Connecting rods, if present, can be balanced, whereas on steam
locomotives, the reciprocating parts are always, to some extent,
unbalanced.
(b) The turning moment is uniform throughout the revolution.
(<?) The wheels of electric locomotives are unable to slip violently
since slipping of the wheels automatically reduces the force pro-
ducing the slipping.
(d) It is an established fact that the tyres of an electric locomotive
run much further before being re-turned than those on steam
locomotives and that the frames are less subject to racking
stresses.
(2) Repairs to the house, i.e., the sides and roof of the locomotive,
which requires periodically repainting and occasional minor repairs.
(3) Ilepairs to the electrical equipment, which consists of motors,
controllers, switches, collectors, etc.
It is clear from these remarks, that large savings are to be expected in the
case of the electric locomotive since : —
(1) For the reasons above given, the repairs to the frame and
mechanical parts are much less per locomotive than is the case
with the corresponding items in the steam locomotive.
(2) The cost of repairs to the cab is considerably less than the cost
of repairing the steam engine tender, while
(3) The cost of maintaining the electrical equipment is far less than
that of maintaining the boilers, cylinders, valve-gear and other
parts of a steam locomotive.
(4) The electric locomotive depreciates only when it is actually running.
The boiler and furnace whose renewal is the most costly item in
steam locomotive maintenance are depreciating all the time that
fires are lighted. Except for smaller parts, like bearings and
gearing, the average life of the component parts of the electric
locomotive is considerably longer than the corresponding parts
in a steam locomotive.
Double Heading. — It is generally recognised that there are distinct objec-
tions to double heading in the case of steam locomotives. In the first place,
each of the locomotives is independently controlled by its crew. It is there-
fore difficult to ensure complete unison of action between the two crews.
Secondly, the rear locomotive receives the dust, cinders and smoke which
have been raised by the first locomotive. These conditions give rise to in-
creased cost for running shed expenses and repairs and renewals on the second
locomotive, and, in addition, brmg about unpleasant conditions for the rear
crew. In the case of the electric locomotive, there is no objection whatever to
double heading, from the point of view of engine operation. In the first place,
the locomotives can be electrically coupled together and operated by one crew
situated in the front locomotive, just as if the two locomotives were one. Abso-
lute unison of action is thus assured. In the second place, there are no smoke,
cinders, etc., and consequently the conditions under which the second locomotive
operates are much improved. With electric locomotives, the practical limit
to double heading is simply the allowable drawbar pull of the vehicles, if the
locomotive pulls the train, but in the case of heavy gradients, if the locomotives
are arranged to push the train, the drawbar limitation ceases to apply.
The conclusion is that both in capacity and efficiency, the electric is
superior to the steam locomotive.
17
No. 204.
SECTION "D."
•
Incidental Advantages of Electrification and Summary.
Electric traction introduces several important advantages which, while not 4
concerned Avith the actual haulage of trains, are nevertheless important. Electrifies-
Cheap Supply of Power for Other Purposes.—^ cheap supply of power for
general purposes becomes available, due solely to the fact that where a large
demand for electrical energy exists, energy can be generated at a cheaper rate
per unit. Consequently, the existence of the large demand for traction purposes
enables electrical energy to be obtained for general purposes at a much lower
cost per unit, than would otherwise" be the case. The use of electricity in loco-
motive workshops, carriage repair sheds, for pumping, lighting and sundry
other auxiliary purposes, possesses distinct advantages where electricity can
be obtained at a cheap rate.
Risk of Fire. — The elimination of fire risk is, in every case, important,
while its definite financial value is difficult to assess. It is of special importance
in connection with shunting yards, where large quantities of inflammable
material are frequently handled.
Absence of Smoke, Steam, Dust and Noise. — These are matters of importance,
particularly in terminal stations and tunnels. The presence of a large number
of steam locomotives renders terminal stations very smoky and noisy, and both
these conditions take place in large cities, where it is highly desirable to reduce
as much as possible both smoke and noise. Further, from the point of view of
the actual safety of the public — apart altogether from consideration of comfort
— the absence of smoke and steam is an important point. Several railway
disasters, which involved loss of life, have been partly caused by the obscuring
of signals at the mouths of tunnels.
Lighting of Carriages and Stations. — This becomes a simple matter where
electric traction is in use. In the case of the trains, it is unnecessary for them
to carry any special apparatus about with them- the current required can be
obtained from the power circuits.
In order to summarise the matters which have been discussed in this part Snmmary-
of the Eeport, we have prepared Table III where the different points which
have been fully discussed in the preceding pages are summarised.
TABLE III.
Some Possibilities of Electric traction for various classes of Traffic.
Traffic.
Suburban
passenger.
Terminal
and shunt
ing yards.
Fundamental
conditions.
How electric
traction is applied.
Frequent fast
service of light
trains to be given.
Multiple-unit trains
Heavy long distance' Electric locomotives
trains to be work- i
ed rapidly in and
out of termini, and
conditions general-
ly to be improved.
Improvements due to use of electricity.
1. Frequent and regular service ^ can be economical-
2. Higher speeds . . . j ly given.
3. Improved punctuality due to ability of multiple-
unit trains to make up time.
4. Capacity of terminal stations increased.
5. Train crews more economically employed.
6. Earning capacity of line increased.
7. Residential areas can be economically developed.
8. Working costs per train-mile can usually be reduced
in spite of higher speed and better service given.
9. Better service can be economically run 'to attract
traffic.
1. More margin in locomotive power can be provided
due to overload capacity of the electric motor,
hence heavy trains can be accelerated much more
quickly and so taken in and out of the terminus
more rapidly.
2. Punctuality of arrivals is improved, as trains can
be speeded up when in the terminal zones.
3. Smoke nuisance, fire risk (important for shunting
yards), and obscuring of signals by smoke eliminat-
ed.
TABLE m—
Some Possibilities of Electric traction for various classes of Traffic — concld.
Traffic.
Terminal
and phunt
ing yards
(concld.)
Heavy
gradient
lines.
Main lines.
Fundamental
conditions.
Heavy long distance
trains etc. — concld
How electric
traction is applied.
Electric locomotives
— concld.
Heavy trains to be
worked on steep
gradients where,
from the nature
of the case,
tunnels are fre-
quent.
Heavy trains to be
hauled at high
speeds.
Electric locomotives
Electric locomotives
,
Improvements due to use of electricity. .
4. Noise reduced.
5. Approach flying junctions can be more freelr
adopted, as electric locomotives can control heavy
trains readily on heavy gradients.
ti. Large stand-by coalilosses are avoided.
7. A great reduction in the cost of repairs and
renewals of locomotives is effected.
8. A large saving can be made by economy of crew's-
time, absence of lighting-op wages, and heavy
running shed charges.
1. Smoke and ventilation troubles are eliminated.
2. Good speeds can be given even on very heavy
gradients,
o. Very heavy trains can be -readily handled.
4. More margin in locomotive power can be provided
because of the overload capacity of the electric
motor.
5. Fewer types of locomotives are required — frequent-
ly one type only is sufficient.
6. Double heading can be freely employed with
electric locomotives, one locomotive crew onlv being
employed
7. Large saving* in coal can be effected since —
(a) Stand-by coal losses are practicallyieliminated.
(b) Regeneration can be adopted by which descend-
ing trains help to pull ascending ones up.
8. A great reduction in cost of repairs and renewals is
effected since, in addition to usual reductions, wear
of brake blocks and wheel tyres is avoided by
regeneration.
9. A large saving can be made by economy of crew's
time, absence of ligliting-up wages, and heavy
running shed charges.
-0. Kail wear is reduced.
1. Congestion can be relieved by using larger trains,
which can be handled at high speeds.
2. Speeds can be readily increased where required.
3. More margin in locomotive p ;wer can be provided
because of the overload capacity of the electric motor.
4. Fewer types of locomotives are required— frequently
one type only is sufficient.
5. Double heading can be freely employed with electric
locomotives, one locomotive crew only being
employed.
6. Large stand-by c»al losces avoided.
7. A great reduction in the cost of repairs and
renewals of locomotives is effected.
8. A large saving can be made \>y economy of crew's
time, absence of ligbting-up wages, and heavy
running shed charges.
9. Rail wear is reduced.
19 Technical Paper No. 204.
Second Paper
Possibilities of Steam Railway Electrification
By
Mr. CALVERT TOWNLEY, Assistant to the President of the Westinghouse
Electrical and Manufacturing Company.
(Reprinted from the Railway Gazette with the permission of the Managing Editor.)
Electricity now performs every railroad service previously rendered
exclusively by steam locomotives, and in every case does it better than it was
done before. But in order to use electricity a large investment in equipment
and installation must be made, and electrification has proceeded slowly because
railroad executives were not convinced that the advantages to be gained are
always worth the cost.
The progress of electrification has also been impeded, first, before the war
by the difficulty in financing, due to conditions other than the merits of electri-
fication ; and second, since the war began, because every one has been too busy
to consider any work that could be deferred and because the Government's
taking over the railroads has created an unsettled situation not conducive to the
investment of new capital for future returns. Now, however, there seems to
be ground for hoping that these bars to progress Avill be removed in the not
distant future so that electrification can be again studied on its merits, there-
fore our consideration of the subject is timely.
The Electrical Man versus the Railroad Man.
In reviewing the past 20 years' history of this question, I cannot escape
the conclusion that we electrical men, and not our steam road colleagues, are
responsible for the slow progress made. We have not known enough about
cither the science or the art of railroading. Our belief in, and our zeal for,
our own profession has led us, albeit with entire honesty of purpose, to make
more or less extravagant claims as to what we could do and to underestimate
the cost of doing it. The inevitable reaction of mind which followed an
accurate determination of facts, of course, disturbed confidence in our judgment.
But if at times we have injured the cause of electrification by claiming too
much, strange as it may sound, we have injured it a great deal more by not
claiming enough. Electrical engineers not having always been railroad
men, have been unable to study railroad problems as they should have been
studied, that is to say, with only real and not with any arbitrary limitations
before them. It has been natural for the electrical man to ask the railroad
man for a statement of the conditions he was expected to meet. It was equally
natural for the railroad man to prescribe the conditions upon which his steam
service was predicted. Under these circumstances the problem became largely
one of replacing one sort of locomotive with another, and of balancing hoped for
economies in operation and maintenance on the one hand, against fixed charges
for the additional investment required on 1 he other. Eight, there comes the
mistake. A perfectly natural but yet a fundamental mistake, for which no indivi-
dual or class should be censured but for which the unusual development of the art
is responsible. We cannot blame railroad men for not being electrical engineers
nor electrical engineers because they are not railroad men, but the progress of
electrification has to lag until both should be able to see, each with the eyes of
both. It is only by combining the railroad man's knoAvledge of the funda-
mental requirements of his service with the electrical man's skill in applying
electricity to perform that service that all the possibilities of any specific
problem may be developed.
No More Ruling Gradients.
The electrification of a railroad is not simply the substitution of one kind
of locomotive for another. It is far more than that. It is the adoption of a
fundamentally different method of train propulsion. It is conservative to say
that, within the bounds of ordinary practice, electricity can furnish every train
with all the pulling power that can be used. The limitations of the steam
locomotive in this respect disappear and ruling grades rule no longer. A
strictly limited locomotive power is replaced by one that is practically un-
limited.
There are a number of so-called " systems '.' of electric traction, and heavy
emphasis has been laid by the advocates of each upon its points of difference
from every other. So much has been said about these differences and so little
about the points of similarity as to create an entirely misleading impression.
There are many more kinds and types of steam locomotives in use than there are
electric systems. It is a fact that except for the storage battery locomotive,
which has but a limited field of application, all electric systems have many
more common features than differences. It is a fact that they agree on fun-
damentals and differ in detail only. Their costs may not be the same, their
efficiencies may vary, but they all do their work, and do it successfully and
well. The possibility of unlimited electric power is a characteristic not of any
one system but of all. It is clue to basic differences between steam and electric
equipment. A steam locomotive is a. complete independent unit which not
only generates but also utilises its power. The electric locomotive generates
no power at all. It is only a translating device receiving energy from an
outside and a remote source. The electric power house always having much
greater capacity than any one locomotive, can supply ample power for the
heaviest train on the steepest grade. The steam locomotive, which carries its
own power house with it, is limited to the capacity of its one boiler. By the
multiple unit principle, as many electric locomotives as may be needed can be
coupled together and operated in synchronism by one crew from any cab.
Any required tractive effort can thus be exerted without slipping the wheels,
without imposing undue strains on the rails or bridges, and without increasing
the number of engine crews.
*
Freight Traffic Operation.
The business of a railroad is to transport freight and passengers. I put
freight first because on the average it produces 73 per cent, of the revenue.
Unlimited motive power permits longer trains and higher schedule speeds.
On the Elkhorn grade of the Norfolk and Western the schedule speed was
doubled. It cuts the operating cost by hauling more cars with the same or a
smaller crew. The Norfolk and Western uses two electrics to do the work of
three Mallets. These new opportunities at one fell swoop banish many of the
railroad's time-honoured traditions. The traffic possibilities must be studied
from a new angle and advantage taken of every facility. It is a new thought
to realise that train length is limited not by motive power but by the yard
tracks and length of sidings, or that all the trailing tonnage that the draw
bars will stand can be hauled. Nor are these new" limits fundamental. Sidings
can be extended, draw bars can be made stronger, if it pays to do it. In a
word electrification opens up tremendous possibilities of increasing the great
capacity of a road and without it being necessary to build additional tracks.
Passenger Train Services.
While not as important as freight, passenger traffic likewise comes in
for its share in the widened horizon and the vanishing tradition. Unlimited
power, of course, is available, but the absence of combustion is another basic
advantage. Smoke and cinders disappear. Tunnel operation loses its terrors.
Unobscured signals permit normal speeds with undiminished safety. Projects
like the Pennsylvania terminal in New York, depending entirely on submarine
tunnel operation and previously impracticable, become immediately possible.
Rail-roads owning valuable land in cities can erect buildings thereon, where
before smoky locomotives made any structure above the ground level impracti-
cable. The serial rights are now valuable. Multiple unit operation has, in
fact, made suburban traffic. The rapid acceleration made possible by electric
traction has directed attention to the equal valu'e of rapid retardation
and quickened the study of braking accordingly; also of modified coach
design to bring about the more efficient loading and discharge of passengers.
These combined possibilities secure increased schedule speeds and attract
passengers. The people not only get over the line in a short time, but as a
21 No. 204,
corollary more people get over it in the same time. Again, it is seen, therefore,
that in passenger, as in freight traffic, the ability to do something that could
not be done before, rather than to do the same thing at a lower cost is the
most valuable attribute of electrification, an.d again we find a greatly augmented
capacity without the need of additional tracks.
It is not my pxirpose to make an exhaustive comparison of the relative
advantages of steam and electric operation. That has been done often and
well by others. What I have said about the expanding opportunities for
electrified service is by way of illustration to emphasise my plea tbat the
question should always be viewed in its broader aspect and not hampered and
restricted within any narrower limitations that properly belong to it.
Possibilities of future Electrification.
I am going to assume, then, the broadest possible treatment, and to
suprose that every electrification project is to have its pros and cons most fully
examined. The real and vital question then is, " How far Avill this lead us ?"
" To what extent may we expect complete electrification of all our roads ?"
Parts of a number of them have already been equipped. Many of these are
numbered among our prominent roads, successful corporations which have had
the advice of the most highly skilled executive and engineers, and which are
progressive. The service performed on the electrified sections comprised practi-
cally every kind of railroad transportation. The Bluefield division of the
Norfolk and Western Railroad in West Virginia is an example of an import-
ant coal road opening through the mountains. The Chicago, Milwaukee and
St. Paul 440-mile main line, through Idaho and Montana, demonstrates what
can be done by a trans-continental carrier on a large scale with through traffic,
both freight and passenger. The New York, New Haven and Hatford Rail-
road 73-mile stretch between New York and New Haven shows how through
freight and a heavy passenger traffic can be taken care of on the most con-
gested four-track section of an important eastern carrier and what is possible
for complicated freight yard operation, while the New York Central and the
Pennsylvania out of New York city are splendid examples of our greatest
modern passenger terminal electrifications. There are, of course, many other
electrifications, but even if there were not, those named are of a character to
command the respect and attention of the railroad world. Now, every one of
these projects have been successful. Every one has justified itself. Nearly
every one in its present scope represents an extension of the zone initially elec-
trified, the most convincing evidence possible as to what views the operating
companies hold regarding these several projects. Railroad officials are generally
glad to give. others the benefit of their experience, so it is reasonably safe to
say that operating statistics are available covering long enough periods so that .
the resxilts to be expected from any proposed undertakings may be predicted
on established facts and not upon theories.
All Hallways will not be Electrified-
In the light of present day knowledge, therefore, what answer can we make
to the question " Should all railroads be electrified?"
I do not believe that all railroads will ever be electrified. I am not san-
guine even that all the tracks of any one really big system will be .so equip-
ped in our time. It is a question of economics, and the results will not
justify the expenditures even Avhen considered with such broad vision as that
which guided the Pennsylvania in spending millions to put their passenger ter-
minal in New York City without the prospect of a direct return. Electrification
will increase the track capacity. But there are thousands of miles of railroad
that have sufficient capacity now, frequently several times over, and where
the wildest stretch of imagination fails to picture a future need of this kind.
Electrification works wonders in suburban and interurban passenger service.
I have riden for hours across the western prairies without seeing a single town,
much less a city where these advantages would count. Electrification effects
marked economies in fuel, in maintenance, in labour and otherwise through a
long list ; but, electrification calls for a heavy investment and unless these
2(1
a
economies hulk large enough, the interest on such investment will wipe
them out and turn the enterprise into a losing venture. I do not believe the
cause of electrification is held by undue optimism on the part of its advocates.
Bather should there be an enlightened partisanship, enthusiastic where
enthusiasm is justified, but tinged with the sober conservatism of the man who
has to put his own dollars- to work.
There need be no discouragement to the electrical engineer in the views
just given, nor to the railroad man who has looked towards the new motive
power for salvation. There are so many cases where- electricity should be
used, where its advantages are clear and conclusive, that once the railroads
escape from the financial slough of despond in which they are now wallowing,
and are again able to get capital for their needs, there will not be enough
engineers, there will not be enough electric factories in the country to serve
them. Every big system has need of electricity somewhere. For some small
roads it may mean the difference between solvency and bankruptcy. I electri-
fied a short derelict line for the ls"ew Haven Road between Madden and
Middletown, long before given over into the onc-train-a-day-annual deficit
class, and turned it into a good earner.
There can be no rule established. Generalities are sure to be misleading,
but electrification is now firmly intrenched and successful. It is recognised by
railroads generally as an effective agency with great possibilities, and one which
is particularly valuable for certain 'specific purposes. Time alone will tell how
broad its application is to be, but I am confident we can await developments
with tranquillity, assured that the art is in a healthy condition and that progress
will be along the right lines.
23 Technical Paper No. 204.
Third Paper
Railway Electrification in England.
Report By
Mr. A. R. GUNDRY, A.M.I.E.E., A.M.I.M.E., Electrical Engineer, Eastern
Bengal Railway dated 20th November 1919.
Electric Traction — I beg to report below tbe results of my investigations
and observations in connection with Heavy Electric Traction.
The problem of providing an economical, efficient and commercially sound
system of transport which will be popular with the travelling public and the
despatcher of goods is most difficult of solution.
The method of traction is immaterial to the public providing the convey-
ance of them and their goods is done safely, expeditiously and cheaply.
Rapidity of transit is a most important consideration and this condition is
fulfilled by Electric Traction. High acceleration and consequent high schedule
speed is obtainable.
The cost of such a system of transit increases very rapidly with small
increases of schedule speed, therefore increased density of traffic must be
obtained to make the more rapid transit profitable.
The extent to which this greater density of traffic can be relied upon
varies considerably according to the district dealt with, and whether there are
slower systems of transit from whfth passengers can be gathered.
Heavy Electric Traction is not only an Electrical Engineerning problem ; a
sound knowledge of the conditions which obtain on Railways, to be acquired
only in close contact with the Locomotive and Traffic Departments, is essential
for solving the problems involved.
Electric Traction must be carefully considered from the railway standpoint ;
the scheme must be financially sound, it must conform as closely as possible ta
railway conditions, and then comes the Electrical Engineering part of the
problem.
The advantages of Electric Traction are very clearly outlined on pages 1
to 18 of Messrs, Merz and McLellan's report of March 1914 (reprinted as the
first part of this paper) ; it is therefore not necessary for me to repeat them here.
I have, however, endeavoured to obtain first-hand information from Electric Rail-
ways operating in England, also from manufacturers of the apparatus and
plant used on Electric Railways.
The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. — The Lancashire and Yorkshire
Railway have two portions of their line electrified, one between Liverpool and
Southport and the other between Manchester and Bury, the former is run on
the 600 Volts Direct Current System and the latter on the 1,200 Volts Direct
Current System.
This railway has for the last eight years been making exhaustive experi-
ments in connection with the Direct Current System at different Voltages and
they have had running a length of experimental line working at a pressure of
3,500 Volts.
With the high pressure of 3,500 Volts D. C. considerable difficulty has
been experienced with the overhead equipment and they are not at present in
a position to recommend a direct current pressure higher than 1,200 Volts or
thereabouts.
This pressure of 1,200 Volts they have adopted for their Manchester to
Bury service with unqualified success. The pressure recommended by Messrs.
Merz and McLellan for the Eastern Bengal Railway is 1,500 Volts. The
following interesting results were obtained after the electrification of the
Liverpool and Southport section of this Railway.
Under steam conditions there were about 26 trains per day in each direc-
tion between Liverpool and Southport eighteen and a half miles, and a similar
number running in each direction between Liverpool and Crosby and Hall
Railway stations some six and a half miles from Liverpool.
The majority of these trains stopped at every station, a few expresses being
run in the morning and evening for the accommodation of the business men.
Under electrified conditions the daily train mileage has increased from
1,900 to 3,500 and the number of trains in each direction between Liverpool
and Southport has increased from 36 to 70 and between Liverpool and Crosby
and Hall Railways from 36 to 70. Moreover, the running time from Liverpool to
Southport, which with steam was 54 minutes has decreased to 37 minutes and
from Liverpool to Hall Road from 25 minutes to 17 minutes.
This railway's Electric Motor Cars run 50,000 miles without visiting
sheds other than for stabling and can be kept in continuous service for 20 hours
daily, the only attention required being brake adjustment.
Steam Locomotives on similar service require coal every 150 miles and
require thorough washing out and overhaul every 1,200 miles at least.
Experience in dealing with the varying condition and character of the
traffic on this section led the railway authorities to adjust their trains in point
of accommodation to meet such conditions, and as a consequence the trains
consist of two motor coaches and of one, two or three trailers as required, the
five coach trains being worked during the rush hours of morning and evening
and the light trains during the slack hours of the middle day and early after-
noon.
The empty weight of the motor cars is roandly 46 tons, and that of the
trailers 26 tons FO that
A three-car train weighs .... 118 tons.
A four „ „ „ . . . .144,,
A five „ „ „ . . . . 170 „
First class cars accommodate 66 passengers. Third Class Motor Cars
Accommodate 69 passengers and in addition a Luggage compartment 9'-10" by
7 -0" and a motorman's compartment.
The Standard Train consists of two first and two third class cars, the latter
being at either end and equipped with motor bogies, each bogie carrying two
150 Horse Power motors, there being, therefore, eight motors totalling 1,200
Hoi-se Power per train, and accommodate 270 passengers.
The latest 65 feet trailer cars accommodate 76 passengers in the first
class and 103 passengers iu the third class carriages.
The system of having large side doors at each end of a 60-feet car which
doors are readily opened or closed by the public themselves, saves the waste
of labour, causes the passengers to move quickly in and out of the cars and has
shown in practice in England that the trains can be got away from the station
in less time.
The most crowded cars are always emptied during the rush hours in about
50 seconds to pick up and set down passengers.
I will now proceed to record the results of my investigation in connection
with High Voltage Direct Current Electrification. The very satisfactory results
obtained by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway on their Liverpool to
Southport line, induced them to apply Electric Traction to their Manchester
Bury section.
The live rail Direct Current System as used on the Liverpool aud South-
port section is adhered to on the Manchester and Bury section, but the Voltage
has been raised from 600 in 3,200 Volts.
25 No. 204.
The length of the Manchester to Bury line is 22 miles of single track.
The system adopted is the third rail with track-return augmented by a fourth
rail ; the contact shoe collects the current from the side of the live rail instead
of on top ; this facilitates the protection of the third or live rail from accidental
contact hy the staff more necessary due to the high pressure ; the guard on
this rail is of Jarrah wood.
The live rail is anchored every 100 yards by anchor insulators supplied
by Messrs. Buller and Company, Limited.
The lire rail insulators are of Messrs. Doulton manufacture. The cross
sectional area of the rail is 8'35 square inches and weighs 85 Ibs. per yard.
Its resistance ranges between 0-7- and 7-0 times copper of equal area and length ;
the normal length of rail is 60 feet. The track is fed from sub-stations
through short feeders ; no supplementary feeders are used.
The live rail is divided up into sections which are connected through sec-
tion switches placed alongside the live rail, and operated as ordinary link
switches.
Rolling Stock. — The motor bogies carry two 200 Horse Power motors
mounted and geared to the axle through speed gearing, the ratio being 59/25
or 2-36 to 1-0.
On each side of the bogie is mounted a shoe beam carrying the collecting
shoe.
Each motor car is provided with two of these bogies totalling 800 Horse
Power per motor car. The gradients on this line range from 1 in 40 to level.
Each motor is series wound for 1,200 Volts with commutating poles and
the armature is insulated with mica throughout, no hydroscopic material being
used whatever.
The motors are controlled by electrically operated and insulated contactor
switches which are controlled by a master controller fitted in the Driver's com-
partment.
The brake is the standard automatic vacuum brake and if necessary
ordinary steam trailer cars can be coupled to them, the brake still being
effective.
The vacuum is produced by means of a cylinder exhauster driven through
gearing by a 5 Horse Power, 100 Volt motor.
Heating is also provided from the main circuit at 1,200 Volts, and the
lighting pump motor and control off the 100 Volt circuit.
The electric trains consist of either two, three, four or five bogie cars
according to the requirements of traffic — the standard train has five cars, the
front, centre and rear vehicles being third class motor cars, and the intermediate
vehicles 1st and 3rd class trailer cars.
A feature of the design is that the driving compartments for the driver are
at each end of all cars, which enables the trains to be made tip to any accom-
modation required with the minimum of shunting operations, time being of
the utmost importance on an electric service.
With the exception of the upholstering and carpets the vehicles are
practically fire-proof, all framework, etc., being of steel ; panelling, hat racks,
and electric fittings, etc., being of aluminium.
Total length of five-car train . . . . . 326 feet 3 inches
Seating accommodation . . , . .72 First Class
317 Third
TOTAL • . 389 passengers.
26
»' 7
Length over body . . . . . .63-7
„ „ couptws . . . . .65-3
Height from rail to roof .... 12'-4i//
.bogie centres . . ^^M^|HHH| • 4">'-0 '
Wheel base of motor car bogie . • 9'-0"
„ „ trailer „ „ \ . . . 10'-0*
Total weight of five-car train . . . .220 tons.
Weight of motor car . . . . . 54 ;,
Weight of trailer car . . . . 29 „
Power Sfation.—The Power Station is situated at Clifton Junction about
4^ miles from Manchester.
The ground level is 37 feet below the main line, thus affording admirable
facilities for dealing with the coal and ashes.
The boiler room contains three 32,000 Ibs. per hour Babcock Boilers fitted
with the loose link type chain grate ; this type has proved very satisfactory on
low grades of coal but is not recommended for high grade coals.
The superheating surface is 2635 square feet. The economisers (Greens)
are fitted above boilers to economise space and reduce the length of flue to a
minimum ; each boiler has its own economiser of 256 tubes.
The chimneys two in number are 87'-6* above firing level and each
chimney deals with the gases from two 'boilers assisted by an induced draught
fan with water-cooled bearings.
The ash from the boilers after passing over the end of the grate falls into
a hopper which is periodically opened to allow the ashes to drop into a small
motor driven crusher, which breaks the larger clinker to a suitable size for
conveyance through a suction pipe which is 8" in diameter.
The suction for the conveyance of the ashes and soot from the dumping
level through the suction pipe, to the receiver from which the wagons 37 '-6"
above ground level are loaded, is provided by an inverted "Boots " blower.
The Turbine room contains two 5,000 K. TT. 6,600 Volt 3 phase 25
cycle Turbine driven Alternators by Messrs. Dick Kerr and condensing
plant for same by Messrs. Allen and Company ; these sets supply the main
power.
The auxiliary plant is supplied with power by a 500 K. W. gear-driven
turbo alternator complete with condensing plant at 440 Volts 3 phase 25
cycles. The reduction gear has a ratio of 3600/750 E. P. M. and was
manufactured by Messrs. David Brown and Sons, Limited, Huddersfield.
The auxiliary plant is also supplied with power from the main supply
through step down, transformers 6600/440 Volts.
The feed pumps two in number are both capable of delivering 10,000
Galls, of feedwater per hour against a head of 217 Ibs. per square inch.
One is a reciprocating pump and the other a turbine pump absorbing 40
B. H. P. and is driven by a 45 B. H. P. high pressure turbine of the Hori-
zontal Curtis type running at 3000 B. P. M.
There are three separate switchboards :
1. The main switchboard for operating the main units and feeders.
2. A 440-Volt alternating current switchboard for controlling station
auxiliaries.
3. A 100 Volt Direct Current switchboard for the main switchboard
control circuits, lighting, cranes and stand-by battery for the control circuits.
High Tension Feeders. — These consist of two lines, the " Xorth Line " and
the " South Line." The North Line which is four miles long runs from
Clifton Power Station to Radcliffe sub-station. The South Line is 4-| miles
long and runs from Clifton Power Station to Manchester Victoria sub-station.
The aerial conductor is of 7/16 S. W. G. and the three core cable of 19/14
S. W. G. per phase, the standard span for the aerial line is 70 yards.
27 No. 20k
Sub-stations. — Each substation referred to above is a combined rotary and
battery sub-station, the equipment in each is identical, and contains three 1,000
K. W. 1,200 Volts 6 phase 25 cycle 10 poles rotary converters running at
300 E, P. M. capable of 100 per cent, overload momentary and 25 per cent,
overload permanently.
Three transformers are used for each rotary, each 350 K. V. A. with a
ratio of 6600/900 Volts, they are of the oil-cooled type.
The Battery which is housed in a separate building consists of 580
Plantide Cells (Chloride Storage Company), the capacity is 500 ampere hours
on 1 hour rating and charging current can be raised up to 1,500 amperes for
15 seconds.
An " Entz " automatic reversible booster is also provided for use in
series with the battery for charging and discharging as the load demands.
The North-Eastern Railway.
Oeneral.—The electrified line which I was given facilities to inspect has a
route of approximately 18 miles and connects tbe mineral sidings at Sh.ildon
which forms one of the largest marshalling yards in Great Britain, with the
Erimus sidings at Newport near Middlesborougb, and deals with freight only.
Including sidings about 50 miles of single track are equipped for electric
working. The line from Shildon to Erimus is practica ly all on the down
grade and is in favour of the laden traffic, as the line carries the heavy mineral
traffic from the South West Durham coalfields to the Middlesborough district,
supplying iron works and blast furnaces there.
The steepest gradient is 1 in 103. The return journey from Erimus to
Shildon consists mainly of empty wagons.
Overhead Equipment. — On this line it was decided to install the high
tension direct current system with track return, current being supplied to the
motors through overhead contact wires at 1,500 Volts (similar to the system
proposed by Messrs. Merz and McLellan for the Eastern Bengal Railway).
The overhea'd contact w<ire consists of two copper conductors of 0'155
square inches section, each supported by a solid steel auxiliary catenary clip.
This auxiliary catenary is in turn suspended from the main stranded catenary
by means of single steel wire droppers.
The normal span is 110 yards but this is considerably reduced at curves.
In exposed position the 110 yards spans have been found too great and inter-
mediate posts from which to support the line have had to be erected..
The normal height of the conductor is 16 feet 6 inches, but at level cross-
ings this has been increased to 18 feet 6 inches.
To avoid the possibility of undue sag on the contact wires due to tempera-
ture variation, automatic tensioning is adopted.
This tension is maintained by the attachment of weights at the end of each
section of 1,100 yards t>f contact wire.
The track rails are bonded with two stranded copper bonds each of 0'109
square inches section and cross-bonded between the two rails at every 300 feet
also betwreen the two inner rails of adjacent tracks at the same space interval.
Locomotives. — The Locomotives were built in the North li astern Railway
Locomotive work shops at Darlington, the electrical equipment being supplied
by Messrs. Siemans Brothers' Dynamo Works.
They are designed to haul trains weighing 1,400 tons at a speed of 25
miles per hour on the level, the normal load, however, is approximately 1,000
tons.
The current is collected by two pairs of bow collectors Avith aluminium
contact strips, mounted on the roof of the cab and are raised and maintained
in contact with the overhead contact wire by compressed air.
By making tbe compressed air cock handle also the key of the contactor
chambers, these compartments cannot be entered while the bows are in contact
with the overhead wire, therefore accidental contact with any electrically alive
portion of the equipment is impossible.
In the cabs are two- master-controllers Ity which the motors are
controlled through electrically operated and interlocked contactor switches fxiid
drives a centrifugal fan for supplying ventilating air to the main motors.
The main motors of which there are four, two on each bogie, are all
wound for 750 Volts, the pair of motors on each bogie being connected
permanently in series.
The four main motors of each locomotive thus form two units which are
controlled on the series paralelled system. Each motor is capable of developing
275 brake horse-power at a speed of 20 miles for one hour with forced
ventilation.
The motor equipment is capable of exerting a torque sufficient to skid
the wheels under any conditions of rail and will exert an average pull of
28,000 Ibs., at the tread of the wheels when starting under normal conditions of
rail. The normal quantity of air passed through each motor for ventilating
purposes is 700 cubic feet per minute.
Several experiments have been carried out on certain locomotives with a
train load of 1,400 tons taken down from Shildon to Newport and a train of
800 tons handed from Newport up to Shildon with stops on certain of the
heaviest gradients.
The 800-ton train was stopped and started on a grade of 1 in 103. The
maximum draw bar pull during the tests reached 16 tons ; average speed from
Newport to Shildon was 18'3 miles per hour and the maximum speed 26 miles
per hour.
Another test on these locomotives was in connection with shunting
operations, and while they proved equally as efficient as steam the results were
not satisfactory, in as much as it was proved that for continuous shunting at
low speed this particular type of locomotive was at a disadvantage due entirely
to overheating on the regulating resistances which at no time could be cut out
of service on shunting work. However, this difficulty is a minor one and can
easily be overcome in the design of the motor reduction gear and resistances.
Very little shunting is done with these electric locomotives as all loads are
pushed over the humps into the yard by steam locomotives ; they are then
.marshalled by men controlling the wagon while walking, the average speed of a
wagon in these hump yards being approximately 3 miles per hour.
To obtain this speed with a loaded wagon the gradient is about 1 in 500.
I noticed a very useful appliance which is in use in these yards replacing
the usual wooden scotch, this appliance is capable of pulling up 60 loaded
wagons in a hump yard within 30 yards.
Siib-stations. — The power which is primarily purchased from the Local
Power Companies' system is converted from High Tension Three- Phase to 1,500
Volts Direct Current for supply to the overhead track.
The sub-station at Ayrcliffe contains two 800 K. W. rotary sets each
consisting of two 400 K. W. 750 Volts.
The Eriraus sub-station is similarly fitted but one of the rotary sets is of
],200 K. W. capacity.
Both sub-stations are supplied with Three-Phase current from the North
East Power Companies through Cleveland and Durham Electric Power Com-
pany. Ayrcliffe is supplied at a pressure of 20,000 Volts between Phases
through two overhead lines. The Erimus sub-station is supplied at a pressure
of 11,000 Volts between Phases through underground cables.
The method of conversion adopted is that of rotary converters on account
of their high efficiency and large overload capacity.
The system of connecting two 750- Volt machines in series was adopted
to enable the machines to be designed with a safe commutator speed and a
very conservative value of Voltage between commutator bars.
The London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. — This railway has
approximately 70 miles of electrified track which includes the South London
Section running between Victoria and London Bridge and the Crystal Palace
Section running in a loop from London Bridge and Victoria.
29 No. 204.
The system adopted by this railway is entirely different to any other
electrified railway in England. High Tension 6,700- Volt Single-Phase 25-
cycle current is supplied to the overhead line which is transformed down to
Voltage ranging between 250 and 750 Volts at the motor terminals 011 each
motor car.
This system has been subjected to a considerable amount of criticism by
most English engineers, and it was owing to the fact that no English elec-
trical contractor could undertake the manufacture and instal the equipment
for Alternating Current Single- Phase Traction that the whole contract was
placed with the A. E. G. Company of Berlin 1907.
Erom my observations I am of opinion that these criticisms were to some
extent warranted, but the simplicity of distribution and the inexpensive sub-
station or switch cabin, containing only section control switch-gear with one
attendant are certainly points in its favour. "With the Direct Current System,
running machinery in the shape of rotary converters or motor converters are
required in each sub-station with the necessary attendants, maintenance and
running charges.
On going through the repair shops, however, I was struck by the number
of motors vmder repair and I could only conclude that maintenance charges
on the actual train equipments were high.
I was, however, informed that the motor cars were overhauled annually
and that they ran approximately 4,500 miles without overhaul. This, however,
•was not borne out by my inspection of the shops as far as the motor equipment
was concerned.
This railway purchases their power in bulk from the London Electric
Supply Company on a sliding scale and before the war was paying 0'5 pence
per unit ; this hoAvever, owing to high cost of coal and labour, has nowr been
raised to TO pence per unit with a consumption of 1G million to 20 million
units per annum.
Overhead -Equipment. — The overhead contact wire consists of one copper
conductor of >155 square inches section, this is suspended from two main cate-
narys by two droppers-- to which it is connected by sliding clips, the point of
attachment forming the apex of a triangle and the two droppers being the
sides of the triangle.
This construction, although slightly more expensive than that adopted by
the North Eastern Railway, appears more efficient and enables much longer
spans to be used without the danger of contact wire being blown from its
normal position by strong winds, a serious defect which has actually occurred
on the North Eastern Railway and is mentioned in the report of my inspection
of that Railway.
The spans on the Brighton Railway range from 75 yards to 220 yards and
I am informed that they have never had a moment's trouble due to the above.
No special means of adjusting the tension is provided, the main and
auxiliary catenarys are strained between each span and the tension adjusted
Ly the usual turn-buckle.
The structural work for supporting the overhead contact wire is of very
heavy construction and could with safety be considerably reduced in weight.
I much prefer the lighter structure used on the North-Eastern Railway.
Rolling Stock. — The motor car bogies on the South London Section, each
carrying two 115 H. P. motors mounted and geared to the axle through gearing
the ratio 60 — 14 or 4'2 to 1.
The total horse-power per motor car is therefore 400. On the Crystal
Palace Section the motors are 150 horse-power each totalling 600 H. P. per
motor car.
All motors are wound for single-phase 25-cycle 350-750 Volts. The
transformers stepping the line Voltage down to these Voltages are mounted on
the underfrarnes and there is one to each pair of motors.
30 \
The air compressor driven by a 6 H. P. motor at 300 Volts supplies
compressed air for the Westinghouse Brake and the contact bows lifting gear is
also mounted on the underframe.
The air pressure is automatically maintained at between 95 and 110 Ibs.
per square inch by a governor control.
The trains are run on the multiple unit system, with train units of one
motor car and one trailer car, one motor car and two trailer cars, two motor
cars and three or four trailer cars to suit traffic requirements.
This railway has adopted the compartment type of coach in most cases,
but have experimented with the compartment type and end type combined
with considerable success; it maintains the combination, enables the passengers
to sort themselves out when in the car, a distinct leaning towards the end
door type of car.
For the inspection of the overhead track two special petrol electric
motor cars are provided ; built by Messrs. Dick Kerr and engined by the
Daimler Motor Car Company.
These cars are fitted for carrying out all ordinary repair work and are
^5 feet 4-wheeled vehicles.
The actual inspection is made from the roof of the coach which is specially
built for the purpose.
The London and South- Western Railway. — This railway has 150 single
line miles of track electrified which includes the Wimbledon and Waterloo
Line via East Putney, the Kingston ma Wimbledon and Richmond route, the
loop line from Darnes to Twickenham via, Hounslow, the Thames Valley to
Shepperton, the Maiden Hampton Court Junction and Clygate Lines.
The system adopted by this railway is the 600- Volt Direct Current with
live conductor rail and track return.
Track.— The conductor rails are of 100-lb. flat bottom section supported
by insulations. Straight and cross bonding is used to connect the track rails
and to ensure the equal distribution of the return current over all tracks.
An important piece of constructional work in connection with the track
at Hampton Court Junction, where a flyover junction has been constructed to
avoid the crossing of the new electric trains on the level, and to enable
acceleration to be attained.
This new piece of line is 1^ miles in length, and includes a steel-girder
bridge of 160 feet span, which carries the. track for electric services over the
original lines at this junction.
Soiling Stock. — This railway decided upon the compartment type of train
-with a view to utilising the companies' standard type of coach for all trailer
cars.
The empty weight of the Motor Cars is 44 tons and the empty weight of
the trailer cars is 24 tons.
The trains are equipped for multiple unit working and are made up of
three coach units, consisting of two motor coaches with a trailer coach close
coupled between them. The individual three coach units are intended to be
permanently coupled together and work as three or six-coach trains according
to the traffic requirements.
Each train unit is equipped with four motors, each of 275 H.-P., the
axial system of air circulation is adopted, the motors being totally enclosed.
Each three coach unit will accommodate 190 passengers and luggage for
which there are two compartments.
Poioe)' Souse. — In preference to the. purchasing of power from a public
supply company it was decided to erect an independent Power Station at
Wimbledon.
The Power House equipment consists of 16 Babcock and Wilcox boilers,
each capable of evaporating 20,000 Ibs. of water per hour at 200 Ibs. per square
inch with a super heat of 200 degrees F.
The boilers are fitted with chain grate stokers.
31 No. 204.
Coal is fed to the boiler hoppers from overhead bunkers.
The turbine room contains five 5,000 K. W. turbine-driven three-phase
alternators which generate current at 11,000 Volts.
To provide current for lighting the building and driving the auxiliaries
for the condensing plant, etc., three turbine-driven 400 K. W. direct current
generators have been installed.
The condensing plant is of the surface type with the necessary air and
circulating pumps.
The ground level of the power house is below the railway level approxi-
mately 14 feet, and to enable coal to be fed direct from wagons into the over-
head bunkers a special ramp has been constructed.
Sub-station. — Current frcm the power house is distributed to nine sub-sta-
tions through paper insulated, lead sheathed, three core cables which are run
along the line supported on short posts.
The sub-station equipment includes the usual static transformers and
rotary converters with the necessary switch gear for control.
These sub-stations convert 11,000 Volt Alternating Current to 600 Volt
Direct Current for supply to the track.
The Underground Railway of London, Ltd.
This Combine includes the District and Metropolitan Railways and the
Bakerloo, City and South London, Central London, Hampstead and Finsbury
Park Tubes.
All these railways have adopted the 600 Volt Direct Current System.
The District and Metropolitan use an insulated return and the tubes a track
return.
The insulated return was adopted with a view to avoid electrolocis and
damage to gas and water pipes in the tunnels; while this has been accomplished
considerable trouble has been experienced with the insulation on motors and
train equipment, due, I am told, to the high pressure which accompany the
grounding of either main.
This Combine have taken every advantage of the flyover Junction at busy
crossings ; a typical junction is to be seen at Earl's Court where there are two
main roads and two tunnels one above the other with the result that there are
no crossings.
Rolling-Stock.- I inspected the stock on the District Railway only. This
Railway, in fact, all the lines in the Combine, have adopted the end and
centre door type of coach.
The empty weight of a motor car is 31 tons and the empty weight of a
trailer car is 21 tons.
The trains are equipped for multiple unit working and are made up of
two-coach units consisting of one motor car ; and one trailer car, these are
run as two, four, six or eight-coach trains.
Each train unit is equipped with two 150 H.-P. motors totally enclosed
and each two-coach unit will accommodate 120 passengers.
Motor cars on this railway run approximately 50,000 miles without
overhaxil.
To give an example of what this railway is doing in the way of accelera-
tion, a train runs between two stations, a distance of half a mile, in 85 seconds,
not including stops.
All the equipment of this railway is of American manufacture.
Power Supply.— This Combine owns the large Central Power House at
Lots Road, Chelsea, and most of its railways are supplied from this source.
Current from this Power House is distributed to numerous sub-stations,
situated at suitable points throughout London.
The sub-station equipment is similar to that installed by the London and
South-Western Railway and includes static transformers, rotary converters and
the necessary switch gear.
absorbing the
energy
32
General. — The High Tension Direct Current System of Electric Traction
is no doubt very much in favour at present not only in England but in
America where High Tension Alternating Current has so long been boomed.
T do not say that this is any guidance in deciding the most suitable system
to adopt for the special conditions met with, on the Eastern Bengal Railway or
any other railway, but I do say that it compares very favourably with any
other system aad that the increase of pressure from 600 Volts to 1,500 Volts
or even higher has in no great degree affected the reliability and efficiency of
the Direct Current System which has given such good results.
Having dealt with the system of Electric Traction I will now deal with
the application of Electric Traction to Suburban Traffic.
Due to the ease with which high acceleration can be obtained, Electric
Traction lends itself to the most economical running.
High acceleration means high average speed approaching the maximum
speed. Thus the train obtains, its maximum speed very quickly, and the
power may be cut off and advantage taken of the good coasting qualities of
electric stock to run the greater part, of the journey
stored in the train.
For the same schedule, the lower the acceleration, the longer the power
must be used which reduces the time of coasting and results in most of the
energy put into the train being absorbed in the brakes.
The speed during coasting decreases very slightly and a train is still
travelling at a high speed when the brakes are applied. A considerable amount
of energy is therefore absorbed by the brakes.
Since all this energy must necessarily be imparted to the train during
acceleration and as the amount of energy required on short runs is proportional
to the weight of the train, it follows that this latter is a matter for serious
consideration, therefore all cars should be as light as possible, consistent with
safety and comfort.
In electrifying the Liverpool and Southport section of the Lancashire acd
Yorkshire Railway, it was necessary in the transition stage to run steam trains
to nearly the same schedule as the electric ; as a result it was found that the
coal consumption of the slower steam train was nearly double that of the
electric trains, the running wages were doubled and though these steam trains
were only run for a few weeks the engines showed that the repair bill would
have been enormous had the steam service been continued.
Table I gives the following interesting figures in connection with train
weights :
TABLE I.
No. of motor cars ....
2
5
5
No. cf trailer cars ....
2
0
0
Weight of motor cars
4(5 tons.
22 tons.
15 tons.
Weight of trailer cars
26 tons.
...
1*1
Over all length of train
248 ft.
242 ft.
243 ft.
Weight of train ....
144 tons.
110 tons.
75 tons.
Total area per train ....
2,400 sq, ft.
2,135 sq. ft.
2,400 sq. ft.
No. of seats (1 per 10 sq. ft.)
240
213
240
Seats per ton • .
1-60
1-94
3-2
33
No. 204.
Table II shows clearly the effect which the reduction of weight per seat
Jnis on Hie energy consumption.
TAI;IJC U. •
Energy delivered to train in Watt-houvs per seat mile :
Length of run .
J mile
1 mile
2 miles
:') miles
4 miles
5 miles
6 miles.
\verage speed M. P. 11.
22
29
$6
4u
42
43-5
44-5
144-ton train
81
51
41
3(1
33-5
32
31
110-tuu train
52'5
ia
3G-5
33
31
30
29
75-ton train «
32'5
27-5
28-r>
22-3
:! 1 •.">
21
20-5
•
i
In short runs, the. energy is almost exactly proportional to the weight of
the train, hut this is not so for longer runs. This is due to the energy on
shorter runs, being almost entirely used in accelerating the train, whereas on
the longer runs the effect of the train resistance predominates.
The electric service is more flexible and by adding more motor cars to
a train, or trailers within the limits of the motors, all fluctuations in traffic
can he easily met.
It is, therefore, clear that for Suburban traffic, with short distances
between stations, electric traction shows considerable economies over steam,
and the earning capacity of the trains is much greater.
I visited the works of Messrs. The British Westinghouse Company, The
English Electric Company, The Chloride Electric Storage Company, and
Allen West and Company, with a view to seeing ihe manufacture of the
different parts of a train equipment. I was, however, somewhat disappointed
as none of these firms had any equipment for heavy traction in course of
construction.
Messrs. The British JVestingltouse Company. — I visited these works at
Manchester and was given every facility for inspecting the work under con-
struction in the shops. I also took the opportunity of going thoroughly into
their method of insulating the windings of electrical machinery. I was im-
pressed with the quantity of mica used, and the elimination of cotton for
insulation is a step in the right direction and should be encouraged especially
in India. Tor Indian conditions we ask for a GO0 P. rise of temperature above
atmosphere. This, however, was for treated cotton insulation, and if mica is used
I am strongly in favour of this temperature being raised to 75°, and any
contractor quoting for mica insulated machines being given the benefit of a
greater rise in temperature.
This company had a number of large turbine generators in course of
construction including two 20,000 K. W. sets for Glasgow and two 10,000
K. "W. sets for the North Tees PoAver Company. They also had a number of
1,000 K. W. 1,500 Volt Rotary Converters under construction for traction
work in Australia.
The English Electric Company. — This Company's Preston works I found in
a state of reconstruction after being entirely on munition work ; there were,
however, a great number of light traction motors of various si/es going through
the shops and on test, these motors are for Electric Tram service and are
extremely well constructed and of very ample dimensions throughout.
Asbestos insulated wire is used on these motors with good results in
England but I cannot suggest that this material could be used for insulating
motors for India where in places the humidity is over 100 per cent. There was
also one 110,000 K. 'W. set for Glasgow and one 10,000 K. \V. set J'or Bradford
under construction.
This firm has in hand aithc present time one of the largest contracts
ever placed for electrical construction, this contract is unique in as much as no
Consulting Engineers are engaged and the English Electric Company are
entirely responsible for preparing the site and foundations and piling, if
necessary, erecting the Power House building, supplying and erecting all tbe
plant and handing the complete Power Station over ready for duty.
I also visited the Bradford works of this company which was originally
the Phcenix Dynamo Company's ; the^e works are exceptionally well laid out
and should be A great asset in mass production which it is proposed should be
undertaken by these works.
The majority of the motors built at these works are fitted with roller
bearings or ball bearings.
The gear for short circuiting the slip rings and raising the brushes on
slip ring motors is extremely simple and effective, the brushes are not
actually lifted, but the tension is removed and owing to the brush being set
in a horizontal position they automatically leave the ring.
These works also manufacture electric battery run-about trucks suitable for
workshop or platform use. The trucks weigh approximately 15 cwts and are
built in sixes to carry 15 cwts to 20 cwts ; they are fitted with It Chloride
Ironclad Exide Accumulators which supply current to lj H. P. motor.
The capacity of the battery is 150 Amperes and is capable of driving
the truck at 6 M. P. H. There are .a number of firms manufacturing these
very useful trucks including the British Electric Vehicles Company and
Messrs. Roadcraft Engineering Company. They are in use on all important Rail-
way Stations for luggage and in many of the large Engineering workshops for
material and I am informed that they have given every satisfaction and effect
considerable saving over any other form of goods trolly.
The Chloride Electric Storage Company. — I visited this Company's
Avorks with a viewr to seeing the construction of their Ironclad Exide Storage
Battery which is specially designed for traction work.
The positive plate consists of a number of vertical pencils joined top and
bottom, to a horizontal bar.
Each pencil comprises a core of hard lead alloy (antimonial lead)
which is surrounded by active material ; the whole is enclosed in an ebonite
tube having a large number of horizontal slits, or giving the electrolite access
to the active material, on the other band, they are not sufficiently large to allow
of the active material washing out.
It is claimed that with this form of construction buckling or distortion
of the plate is prevented.
The negative plate is the usual hollow grid on which are fixed two lattice
structures which support the active material between them. The whole is a
very solid and well made cell and has in many cases replaced the Edison
cell for electric vehicles.
SGPi— 283 2!T^ Kl!.— 9-7-20. 1,<M>
BOOKS AND TECHNICAL PAPERS PUBLISHED BY THE RAILWAY BOARD.
BOOKS.
(1) Administration Report on the Railways in India. Published yearly. Price Volume I,
Report, Rs. 1-8, Volume II, Appendices, Rs. 2-4.
(2) Classified List and Distribution Return of Officers of all Indian Railways,
Published half-yearly. I'rice Re. 1.
(8) History of Indian Railways constructed and in progress, corrected up to 31sj;
March 1918 (published quinquennially) . Price Rs. 1-8.
(4) History of Services of the Officers of the Engineer and Superior Revenue
Establishment of State Railways. Published yearly. Price Rs. 2-8.
(5) Pocket edition of the schedule of dimensions to be observed on all 5' 6", ;V 3J"
and 2' 6" gauge Railways in India. Price 12 as.
TECHNICAL PAPERS.
(6) Over 200 papers have been published by the Technical Section of the Railway
Board's office. The papers comprise —
(a) Original descriptions of Railway Works; and studies of Railway problems in India
and elsewhere,
(b) Reprints of articles from Foreign Engineering Magazines,
(f) Reprints or abstracts of reports received by the Government of India on subjects
connected with Railways.
A complete list of the papers can be obtained gratis from the Chief Engineer with the
Railway Board, Simla.
The books and papers can be bought from the Superintendent, Government Printing,
India, 8, Hastings Street, Calcutta.
The prices of the papers vary from Annas Four to Rupees Eight.
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