LIBRARY
LADY MACDUFF— THE FIRST 300-EcG HEN
This Oregon Agricultural College hen has demonstrated the high egg-pro-
ducing possibilities of the domestic hen by laying 303 eggs in 12 months, 512
eggs in 24 months, and 679 eggs in 36 months.
POULTRY BREEDING
AND MANAGEMENT
By
JAMES DRYDEN
Professor of Poultry Husbandry at the
Oregon Agricultural College
ILLUSTRATED
NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1916
COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
OEANGE JUDD COMPANY
All Eights Eeserved
Main Lib
Agric. Dt^t*.
Printed in U. 5". ^.
PREFACE
THERE need be no apologies for new poultry books. The
industry is important, the poultry constituency large, and
one poultry book representing the finding of one author
would hardly be presumed to meet all demands. In these
days of progress in the science, if it may be so called, of
poultry husbandry, it is imperative that new compilations
be made and new books published at frequent ' intervals,
that the poultry keeper may receive the benefit of early
knowledge of new discoveries.
The remarkable development of poultry culture during
the past two decades is one of the outstanding features of
American agriculture. Twenty years ago the possibilities
of poultry-keeping as an industry were scarcely dreamed
of. While it does not yet receive the consideration it
deserves — far from it — nevertheless it has made immense
gains both in popular recognition and in production. This
has been brought about by a better realization of the pro-
ductive value of the hen. The idea of "fuss and feathers,"
long associated with the keeping of fowls, has gradually
given way to the idea of a poultry industry whose first
and only business, as an industry, is the production of
eggs and meat.
With the development of the industry, there has been a
growing demand for information dealing with practical
problems of production. The poultry producer has his
full share of problems. It must be confessed that the
available literature has been insufficient and fragmentary.
This lack, however, is being rapidly filled, and, as a result,
in all parts of the country, there are now examples of sue-
342853
VI
PREFACE
cessf ul poultry farms ; not that the special poultry farm is
by any means a true measure of the poultry industry, for
the industry is, and probably always will be, largely a busi-
ness for the general farmer, but that the success of special
poultry-keeping is a measure of the advance that has been
made in the solution of practical poultry problems.
This book, therefore, has been prepared that it may add
to the available poultry literature; not that it may sup-
plant other books, nor that it should be the last word on
the subject. The author is fully conscious of its imper-
fections; but, to every student of poultry culture, and to
every poultry farmer, he earnestly hopes that it may bring
some helpful message.
JAMES DRYDEN.
Corvallis, Oregon.
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. Historical Aspect 1
II. Evolution of Modern Fowl 11
III. Modern Development of Industry 19
IV. Classification of Breeds 24
V. Origin and Description of Breeds 30
VI. Principles of Poultry Breeding 61
VII. Problem of Higher Fecundity 92
VIII. Systems of Poultry Farming 138
IX. Housing of Poultry 160
X. Kind of House to Build 187
XI. Fundamentals of Feeding 210
XII. Common Poultry Foods 237
XIII. Methods of Feeding 249
XIV. Methods of Hatching Chickens 281
XV. Artificial Brooding 320
XVI. Marketing Eggs and Poultry 333
XVII. Diseases and Parasites of Fowls 375
vii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Lady Macduff. The first 300-egg hen Frontispiece
Jungle fowl cock (Gallus bankivus) 3
Jungle fowl hen (Gallus bankivus) 4
White Leghorn cockerel 31
Black Minorca male 32
Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel 39
Barred Rock hen, showing fine barring 40
White Wyandotte hen 42
White Wyandotte cock 43
Rhode Island Reds 44
White Orpington hen 48
Light Sussex 49
Speckled Sussex 50
Domesticated 51
Faverolle hen 51
Three breeds of different types winning in Australian laying
competitions 53
Good utility Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel 55
Light Brahmas 56
Buff Cochin hen 57
Le Mans — A special French meat breed 58
Points of the fowl 59
La Fleche 60
Variation the opportunity of the breeder 64
Result of crossing White Wyandotte and Black Minorca,
showing barring 67
Breed improvers. Pedigreed cockerels, from stock with rec-
ords of over 200 eggs in a year 69
Barred Plymouth Rock male. Son of a 218-egg hen . . . . 71
A good type of breeder from 200-egg stock 72
Barred Plymouth Rock male, Oregon Station 73
Result of breeding for a fancy point 74
Barred Rock and White Leghorn first cross, male . . . . . . 78
ix
x ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Barred Rock and White Leghorn, first cross, female . . . . 78
Barred Rock and White Leghorn first cross. Flock showing
dominant white 79
White Wyandotte-Black Minorca male, first cross, with white
plumage and rose comb 80
The recessive color barring 81
Oregon Station hen C543. An exceptional layer though inbred 89
Like begets like 92
Like does not always beget like 93
Oregon Station hen D18, 271 eggs in a year 93
Barred Rock hen A78, record 212 eggs 94
A good Plymouth Rock head with the stamp of vigor . . . . 95
Barred Plymouth Rock hen, 65, 218 eggs 96
Daughter of 65, laid 218 eggs. Granddaughter, laid 221 eggs 97
A mother of high producers, A122 laid 259 eggs in a year . . 98
A family of high producers, daughters of A122 99
A77, 214 eggs. A producer of good layers 100
Daughters of A77 101
Granddaughters of A77 102
A79, 219 eggs. A good layer and breeder of good layers. . . . 104
Granddaughters of A79 105
White Leghorn hen 034, 229 eggs in first year 107
Daughters of 034 107
Oregona — White Leghorn hen. Record of more than 1,100
eggs 108
Hen B42 laid 834 eggs in four years 113
Hen A60 laid 816 eggs in four years 113
Belle of Jersey, 649 eggs in three years 116
Queen Utana, 816 eggs in five years 116
Rose-Comb Brown Leghorn hen, 442 eggs in two years. . . . 116
Three Cornell long-distance layers 117
Lady Macduff, taken day after she laid her 303d egg . . . . 117
The 303d egg of Lady Macduff 117
Lady Macduff and 10 daughters 118
Pedigree of Lady Macduff 118
Lady Macduff in full plumage in her second year 119
Son of Lady Macduff 119
Daughter of Lady Macduff 119
Mother of Lady Maeduff 120
Lady Showyou 121
C543 at end of first 12 months' laying 122
ILLUSTRATIONS xi
Page
Oregon hen C543, 291 eggs 122
Highest record hen at the Missouri 1913-14 competition . . . . 122
The head indicating laying quality 123
Breeder of poor layers, 20 eggs in a year 124
White Leghorn hen, laid 1 egg in a year 124
A good layer from poor laying stock 125
Poor layers from good laying stock 125
Barred Plymouth Rock hen laid 74 eggs in a year 126
Another view of Oregona 126
White Leghorn hen, 242 eggs in first year 126
Hen E248, 302 eggs. Daughter of C516 127
White Leghorn hen C516, 267 eggs in a year 127
Two poor layers 128
Utah Station Wyandottes 128
New Zealand White Leghorns 129
White Wyandottes averaged 208.5 eggs in Storrs contest . . 129
White Leghorns averaged 208.8 eggs in Storrs Competition. . 130
Winning pen in the Panama Pacific International Egg-laying
Competition 130
The long and the short way, in breeding for eggs 131
Record of a flock of 43 fowls at the Oregon Station for two
years 131
Good fall and winter producers the best layers 132
The first layers the best layers 133
Inheritance of egg production 134, 135
Egg organs of the hen 136
Poultry keeping and dairying 139
An Oregon fruit and poultry farm 141
A California poultry and fruit farm 141
1,000 pullets in prune orchard 142
Eggs and peaches from the same ground 143
Free range colony system at Petaluma, California, 145
Petaluma farm of 120 acres and 6,000 hens .146
Cleaning out the houses on a Petaluma farm 147
Land unfit for cultivation is used 148
2,000 hens on 3 acres 148
Exclusive poultry farming on the intensive system 149
4,000 hens on 4 acres 150
The intensive plan 151
Backyard egg farming 152
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
A poultry yard may be made an attractive feature of the back-
yard 153
A backyard Louse in which 25 hens averaged 188 eggs, . . . . 154
Another backyard system 155
A plan for backyard poultry keeping 156
The first and not the worst poultry house 163
About the worst poultry house that was ever built 164
An unsatisfactory poultry house 165
A boy with a "safe" horse and "spring" wagon gathers the
eggs 170
A rear view of the Missouri house, showing ventilation . . . . 171
The Missouri Poultry Station house 172
The Oregon Station's first open front colony house 177
The improved Oregon Station portable house 178
The Oregon Station pullet-testing yards 179
Special breeding yards, Oregon Station 180
A colony house at the Utah Station 181
A scratching shed is an advantage where the house room is
limited 182
A cheap shed for fowls 183
Colony houses used on a Rhode Island poultry farm . . . .- 184
Piano boxes utilized for hen houses 185
Stationary 100-hen house. Oregon Station 188
Curtain-front house 189
The nests arranged under the dropping platform 197
A good broody coop 198
The Oregon Station trapnest 200
Taking Lady Macduff from the trapnest when she laid her
303d egg 201
Portable fence 204
Showing how fence may be constructed 205
A balanced ration 219
The relative amounts of ash, fat, protein and water in eggs. . 220
Balanced ration for one hen for a year 226
Digestive organs of the fowl 235
Chickens threshing their own grain 238
Oregon Station outdoor dry food hopper 255
A good roaster 275
Feeding battery for fattening 277
Feeding Station 279
ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
Page
Parts of a fresh egg 282
The beginning of the end of incubation 284
The young graduate 284
Nests used for sitting hens 291
The Oregon Station combination hatching and brooding coop 293
A new brood coop 294
Plan of hen brood coop 295
Hen brooding at Oregon Station . . 296
Brood coop made out of a shoe box 297
Brooding coops on a Rhode Island farm 298
Division of poultry labor at Petaluma 300
Chicks loaded onto the wagon 301
After traveling two miles the chicks were put into this brood-
ing house 302
Oregon Station incubator house 303
Interior of Oregon Station incubator house 304
A 150-egg incubator 305
A 250-egg incubator . . . . 306
Hot water jug brooder . . . . . . . . 325
Continuous brooding system 326
Room or stove brooding; a night scene 327
A stove brooder with hover 328
A stove brooder showing hover and different parts 329
Room brooding, with oil or gas heater outside of room . . . . 330
Flock of 8,000 young pullets 330
Cornell gasoline brooder 331
Terra cotta brooder 332
A 12-dozen crate which may be used for shipping eggs . . . . 338
A roaster in a parcel post package 339
A parcel post package showing eggs wrapped . . 339
The rural mail carrier takes the eggs from the farm . . . . 340
Commercial egg candling 352
A kerosene lamp set inside of a box makes a good tester. . . . 353
Instead of a kerosene lamp, an electric light bulb may be used 354
A fresh egg — note small air space 355
A stale egg — note large air space 355
Cans of frozen eggs 361
Poultry demonstration car 367
Unloading a Nebraska carload of poultry at San Francisco. . 3G8
Dry picking, dry cooling, and dry-packed poultry 370
xiv ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Dressed capon 373
An expert caponizer 373
A bad case of roup 381
Normal hen's ovary 387
Diseased ovary 387
Two white diarrhoea chicks 389
Taking blood sample for white diarrhoea test 391
POULTRY BREEDING AND
MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL ASPECT
Present races of fowls were domesticated, or reclaimed
from the wild state, away back about the time that man was
learning the rudiments of civilization. When man himself
became "tame," he set about taming the wild things of the
forest and the plain, in order that they might better supply
his needs for food, for raiment, and for labor. "A bird in
the hand is worth two in the bush, ' ' was undoubtedly the im-
pelling motive that led to the domestication of the wild fowl.
Savages were content to depend upon the hunt for their
daily food supply. Centuries after the ancient peoples of
Asia had domesticated the fowl, the Indians on this contin-
ent had failed to domesticate the turkey, which is now the
most highly prized bird for food, and possibly the most
highly valued of any kind of animal food.
Civilized man desired a more certain food supply, how-
ever, than that of the hunt. To exercise his God-given
dominion over the earth, man had to bring to his assistance
plants and animals that hitherto existed only in the wild
state. With domestication, came improvement in produc-
tive qualities. The eggs of the wild fowl had no other use
than reproduction. She laid a few eggs and hatched
them. There was no demand for them for human food, or
for use in arts and manufactures. The wild ancestor of our
domestic hen laid probably a dozen or twenty eggs a year.
The difference between that and eight or ten dozen repre-
sents the achievement of centuries of poultry culture.
2 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
The purpose of domestication was undoubtedly utility.
There is no evidence to show that fowls were domesticated
for any fancied or peculiar appearance. There were other
birds that appealed more to the aesthetic. There were
various species of the pheasant family, of gorgeous plumage
and proud carriage — all have remained practically in their
natural state. If the ancients were looking for something
to please the eye or the fancy, some of these would have
suited their purpose better than the fowl. Our present
breeds of fowls, however much some of them may be em-
bellished with colors and shapes that appeal to our fancy
and command our admiration, are without "pride of an-
cestry/' so far as the original jungle fowl conformed to our
present-day standard of beauty. But it is not surprising
that after thousands of years of poultry keeping we have
now some breeds that have been developed along fancy lines
entirely.
There might have been another object besides utility in
domesticating the fowl. Semi-barbarous peoples of the
Orient were, and still are, much addicted to the sport of
cock-fighting, and the fighting qualities of the jungle fowl
may have appealed to them more than any possible use they
could make of the fowl as a source of food supply.
The fact that there has been great improvement in meat
and egg production, however, is pretty strong evidence that
usefulness was the impelling motive in the domestication of
fowls and in their breeding through all the centuries since
they were weaned away from their natural state.
Origin. — It is generally agreed among naturalists that
our present races of domestic fowls are descended from a
wild jungle fowl of India. The Orient has given to the world
the fowl as well as many of our domestic animals. There
are four species of jungle fowls from which it is claimed by
different authorities that domestic fowls were descended,
HISTORICAL ASPECT
namely, Gallus bankiva, G. Sonneratii, G. Stanleyii, G.
Varius (or furcatus). While there has been much discus-
sion and difference of opinion, it is generally conceded that
the evidence points to the Gallus bankivus as the original
progenitor. This species is a Bantam-sized fowl, patterned
much after the Red Game of our day. The male Bankivus
has the color and carriage of the Game.
* ' Specimens of this fowl, ' ' says Mr. Dixon, ' * were brought
from the island of Java and deposited in the museum of
Paris. They inhabit the
forests and borders of
woods, and are exceed-
ingly wild. On examin-
ing the species, it will be
found to exhibit many
points of resemblance
with our common barn-
yard fowls of the
smaller or middling size.
The form and color are
the same, the comb and
wattles are smaller, and
the hen so m u c-h r e -
sembles the common hen that it is difficult to dis-
tinguish it except by the less erect slant of the
tail. The rise of the tail is much more apparent
in the male, but it may be observed that in all wild species
known, the tail does not rise so high above the level of the
rump, nor is it so abundantly provided with covering
feathers as in the common birds. Feathers which fall from
the neck over the top of the back are, as in other fowls, long
and with divided plumelets or braids, the feathers widening
a little and being rounded. The colors of the plumage are
exceedingly brilliant. The head, the neck, and all the long
JUNGLE FOWL COCK (Gallus bankivus)
Reproduced from Carnegie Institution.
Publication No. 121, 1909, by Charles S.
Davenport.
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
feathers of the back which hang over the rump are of a
shining, flame-colored orange; the top of the back, the
small and middle coverts of the wings are of a fine maroon
purple ; the coverts of the wings are black, tinged with irri-
descent green ; the quill feathers of the wings are russet red
on the outer and black on the inner edges ; the breast, belly,
thighs, and tail are black and tinged with irridescent green ;
the comb, cheek, throat, and wattles are of a more or less vivid
red; the legs and feet
are grey and furnished
Hk with strong spurs, the
iris of the eye yellow.
"The Bankiva hen is
smaller than the cock;
and her tail is also a
little horizontal and
vaulted ; she has a small
comb, and the wattles
are very short ; the space
around the neck, as well
as the throat, is naked;
on this space are some
small feathers, distinct
from each other,
through which the red skin can be seen; the breast and
belly are light bay or fawn yellow, and on each feather is
a small, clear ray along the side of the middle rib or
stem ; the feathers of the base of the neck are long, with
disunited braids, or plumelets, of a black color in the
middle and fringed with ochre yellow; the back, the
coverts, the wings, the rump and the tail are earthy
grey marked with numerous black zigzags; the large
feathers of the wing are ashy grey."
The Bankivus inhabits northern India and is found in
JUNGLE FOWL HEN (Callus bankivus)
Reproduced from Carnegie Institution.
Publication No. 121, 1909, by Charles B.
Davenport.
HISTORICAL ASPECT 5
the Himalayan mountains at an altitude of 4,000 feet ; high-
er up other species of wild fowl are found. It also inhabits
Burma, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippine Islands,
and the Island of Java.
The evidence in support of a common origin of all races
of fowls comes largely from Darwin. While Darwin was
inclined to a belief in a common origin and saw nothing im-
possible in this theory, at the same time there are indications
in his writings that he thought it barely possible that some
varieties of fowls might have been descended from a dif-
ferent species, now possibly extinct. On the other hand,
some poultry fanciers took issue with Darwin and pro-
claimed it impossible that all domestic fowls could have been
descended from one parent source.
Darwin based his conclusions largely on his own experi-
ments, and while, as he himself confesses, the evidence may
not be conclusive, it is the best evidence that we have, and
we give here the substance of it. The evidence pointed to
the Bankivus as the progenitor of all fowls, first, because
it mated with the tame fowl and produced offspring, while
the other species mentioned never or rarely crossed. Dar-
win dwells with considerable detail on this fact as an argu-
ment in favor of the Bankivus. Sometimes, however, dif-
ferent species of animals will mate together and produce
offspring, but the progeny called hybrids are barren or un-
fertile. The mule is usually cited in illustration of this fact.
He is the product of two distinct species of animals, the
proof of which is the fact that he is barren. The horse and
the ass therefore could not have had a common origin.
Darwin, and later others, not only found that the Gallus
bankivus freely mates with our domestic fowl, but that the
offspring are fertile and breed successfully. These experi-
ments strongly impressed Darwin with the belief that
Gallus bankivus is the original progenitor of domestic fowls.
8 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Experiments along another line pointed in the same direc-
tion. Students of heredity know that crossing and inter-
crossing breeds and varieties cause reversion, or a breeding
back to remote ancestors. "Why the likeness of some ancient
ancestor through the act of crossing different breeds should
suddenly reappear in the offspring after having apparently
disappeared from the face of the earth centuries ago is one
of the enigmas of breeding. Following up the clue of re-
version, Darwin found what he claimed to be strong evi-
dence pointing to the Gallus bankiva as the original ancestor
of our fowls. He says that Game, Malay, Cochin, Bantam
and Silkies, when crossed, revert to the Bankiva. In cross-
ing the Black Spanish and White Silkie, he found that the
offspring were all black, except one cock which resembled
Gallus bankiva so strongly that he said : ' * It was a marvelous
sight to compare this bird with Gallus bankiva and then with
its father."
He declared further that the color of the golden and silver
Pencilled Hamburgs pointed to their ancient progenitors.
"This may be in part explained by direct reversion to the
parent form, the Bankiva hen, for this bird has all its upper
plumage finely mottled. ' ' Remarkable, is it not, that after
two or three thousand years of breeding away from the wild
fowl, it is possible in crossing to trace in the color of plumage
and shape and carriage of the offspring the descent of the
wild fowl to our present modern breeds. And yet to scien-
tists such as Darwin, mute testimony of this nature may be
more conclusive than the written word.
Darwin's findings in regard to the common origin of the
domestic fowl may be summarized as follows:
1. The domestic fowls mate freely with G. bankivck
2. They mate very rarely with any other species.
3. The Bankiva hybrids are fertile.
4. The hybrids of other species are not fertile.
HISTORICAL ASPECT 7
He argued in favor of but one origin, namely G. bankiva.
He explains in the following words how the changes in the
fowl have come about, and how it is reasonable to believe
that all the breeds have descended from one parent source :
"... from the occasional appearance of abnormal
characters, though at first only slight in degree; from the
effects of the use and disuse of parts; possibly from the
direct effects of changed climate and food ; from correlation
of growth; from occasional reversions to old and long-lost
characters ; from the crossing of breeds when more than one
had once been formed; but, above all, from unconscious
selection carried on during many generations. "
While the views and conclusions of Darwin were generally
those of all naturalists, there were others, including poul-
try writers and fanciers, who took strong grounds against
them. His conclusions were published in the year 1867. It
is worthy of note that a gentleman from whom he got much
of his poultry information, and whom he frequently quotes
in his book, later (1885) took issue with his conclusions that
all domestic fowls came from Gallus bankivus. This man
was Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, F.Z.S., a noted poultry author
and authority in England, who was associated with Darwin
in some of his experiments. Mr. Tegetmeier gives it as his
opinion that the different species of wild Galli will inter-
breed, and then he says:
"But it is with regard to the Eastern Asiatic type of
fowl (absurdly known as Cochins and Brahmas) that my
doubts as to the descent from the G. ferrugineus (Bankivus)
are strongest. "We have in the Cochin a fowl so different,
from the ordinary domestic birds that when first introduced
the most ridiculous legends were current respecting it. Put-
ting these on one side, we have a bird with many structural
peculiarities that could hardly have been induced by domes-
tication. Thus, the long axis of the occipital foramen in
8 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
the Cochin is perpendicular, in our old breeds horizontal, a
difference that could never have been bred for, and which
it is difficult to see could be correlative with any other
change. The same may be said respecting the deep sulcus
or groove up the center of the frontal bone.
"The extraordinary diminution in the size of the flight
feathers and that of the pectoral muscles could hardly have
been the result of human selection and careful breeding,
as the value of the birds as articles of food is considerably
lessened by the absence of flesh on the breast. Nor is the
extreme abundance of fluffy, soft body feathers a character
likely to be desired in a fowl. The vastly increased size may
have been a matter of selection, although, as the inhabitants
of Shanghai feed their poultry but scantily, and, according
to Mr. Fortune, mainly on paddy of unhusked rice, it is not
easy to see how the size of the breed was obtained if, as is
generally surmised, it arose from the little jungle fowl.
"Taking all these facts into consideration, I am induced
to believe that the birds of the Cochin type did not descend
from the same species as our game fowl. ' '
Mr. Edward Brown expresses his opinion as follows:
"To sum up, therefore, it may be taken that with the
domestic fowl, as with many other natural forms of life, we
can go so far back, but no further. The probability is that, as
in the case of dogs, all the varieties of fowls do not owe their
origin to any one species, at any rate of those now extant,
and that we must look to another progenitor than the G. fer-
rugineus for several of the later introduced races, more es-
pecially those from China. "
Such, briefly stated, is the argument, pro and con, as to the
common origin of the domestic fowl. It may be enough for
us to know that we have the chicken that lays the eggs and
feeds the world. In the jungles of farther India a wild
fowl is scratching and cackling to-day as its ancestors did
HISTORICAL ASPECT 9
three thousand years ago. It breeds pure without any stan-
dard of excellence, and lays the same number of eggs as its
ancestor did before the Christian era. It crows at the mid-
night hour, but it shuns the society of man. It is pure-bred
because it has the same characteristics as a thousand ances-
tors have had. While it revels in the jungle and abhors the
sight of man it has millions of relatives living useful lives,
ministering to the wants of man, and on two continents pro-
ducing yearly a billion dollars worth of poultry food-pro-
ducts, just because away back three thousand years ago a
few of its ancestors were caught and robbed of the freedom
of the jungle. What a triumph domestication of the fowl
has been ! What a mint of money it has coined since it gave
up its freedom in the wild and became a part of civilization.
Antiquity of Domestic Fowl. — Let us now consider brief-
ly the antiquity of the fowl. It is not possible to give dates ;
it is not even possible to give the century when the fowl was
domesticated. It is known from New Testiment scripture
that cocks and hens existed two thousand years ago. There
is no reference to them in the Old Testament ; but we find
the egg spoken of by Job in these words : " Is there any taste
in the white of an egg ? " As to the kind of egg we are left in
doubt. That fowls were under domestication two thousand
years ago there is no doubt ; that they existed several hun-
dred years before that, there is authentic proof ; how much
longer must remain largely a matter of conjecture.
In tracing the antiquity of the hen, the following facts
have been mentioned: When Peter denied the Savior the
cock crowed thrice. That establishes the origin of the fowl
before the Christian era. Mention is made of cock-fighting
in the Codes of Mann, a thousand years or more before
Christ. A Chinese encyclopedia, 1400 years B.C., mentions
the fowl. In the religion of Zoroaster the cock figures as a
sacred bird. Figures on Babylonian cylinders show that
10 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
there must have been fowls in the seventh century B.C.
Homer makes no mention of fowls, 900 B.C., but they are
referred to in the writings of Theognis and Aristophanes
about 500 B.C. The ancient Egyptian monuments are silent
about the fowl, though flocks of tame geese are shown.
CHAPTER II
EVOLUTION OF MODERN FOWL
By what process, then, has the small jungle fowl, pro-
ducing little meat and few eggs, been converted into the
Brahma and the Leghorn of great meat- and egg-producing
qualities ? What brought about the change in the fowl that
enables the poultryman of to-day to gather ten dozen eggs
a year instead of one dozen or a dozen and a half, which was
the order of the hen-day at the birth of chicken civilization ?
By what miracle has the meat on the fowl's skeleton been
multiplied six times ? Whence have come the various colors
of feather, the top-knot, the feather legs, and tails 20 feet
long?
There has been abundant opportunity in some three thou-
sand years for the type and characteristics of the jungle
fowl to be largely lost in the evolution of newer and better
races of fowls. If the modern horse is descended from an
animal not much larger than a Jack rabbit, why not a Brah-
ma from a Bantam-sized fowl ? We must disabuse our minds
of the idea that poultry-keeping is a modern institution.
It is idle to repeat that the fowl we see to-day on the farms
and in the backyards are the product of the past fifty or
even hundred years. It has taken hundreds or thousands
of years to bring them to the stage of perfection that we now
have them. Harrison Weir in ' * The Poultry Book' ' says on
this point : ' ' Nearly all our modern methods are only the
old ones re-substituted, even that of the incubator. In the
olden time they kept fowls and bred chickens with a greater
certainty and in better health than many of the now profes-
11
12 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
sed poultrymen of the day." Columela two thousand years
ago described the fowl, and less than a hundred years ago
the description of the farm fowl of England corresponded
in nearly every respect to those described by Columela.
Darwin says that "not only careful breeding but actual
selection was practiced during ancient periods and by bare-
ly civilized races of men. " It is pointed out that in early
times there were different breeds of fowls. Six or seven are
mentioned as being kept by the Romans at the commence-
ment of the Christian era. As proof that the work of selec-
tion has not all been confined to civilized people, it is shown
that the semi-barbarous people of the Philippine Islands
about fifty years ago had no less than nine varieties of the
game fowl. In the fifteenth century several breeds were
known in Europe, and in China about the same period seven
kinds were named. Finally, Darwin says: "Will it then be
pretended that those persons who in ancient times and in
semi-civilized countries took pains to keep breeds distinct,
and who therefore valued them, would not occasionally have
destroyed inferior birds and occasionally have preserved
their best birds ? That is all that is required. ' '
The work of modern times has not been so much to main-
tain the original purity of races as it has been to make new
breeds and varieties by fusing pure ancient races, to what
purpose will be discussed in a later chapter. Present-day
poultry breeders and livestock breeders breed for unifor-
mity. Their skill is exercised in producing uniformity in
the stock. A standard of excellence is set up, and the nearer
their fowls or animals approach that standard the greater
value they have in the market for breeding purposes. The
poultry shows demand a certain standard, and this calls
for uniformity. But uniformity does not permit of im-
provement or progress. It is clear that if two thousand
years ago a standard of excellence corresponding to the type
EVOLUTION OF MODERN FOWL 13
of jungle fowl had been set up, there would have been no
such improvement in the breeds as we have to-day. The im-
provement did not come from breeding to a standard of uni-
formity. The improvement came about rather by variation.
There can be no improvement without variation. In other
words, if like always followed like, improvement would be
impossible. "Like begets like" is not literally true, a fact
for which some of us humans may have regrets ; but on the
whole the human race has improved in many particulars
since the days of our barbarous ancestors, largely because of
this great law of heredity, the tendency to vary. The excep-
tional individual appears in the flock — an exceptional bird
from average birds — and this is called variation. A large
bird from small parents may breed a strain or variety of
large fowls. A small bird from large parents may breed
a variety of small birds. All plants and animals vary, and
it is in taking advantage of this factor that our fowls in two
or three thousand years have been bred up to a higher util-
ity ; or rather, it is one of the most potent factors. Fowls
may be induced to vary in different ways. Changes in
climatic conditions ; changes in food and care, and crossing
of different breeds, all have an influence toward greater
variation. Pedigree or ancestry is a valuable asset, but some-
times the law of variation breaks into the preserve and
takes captive this asset and gives us something more valu-
able. The old law of breeding was that pedigree was every-
thing, and if a phenomenal individual should appear, he
would quickly disappear, his offspring would be reduced to
the general average. The new Mendelian view is that the
phenomenal individual may breed pure ; that he may defy
his pedigree and ancestry and breed a superior race.
Selection. — Variation is effective through selection.
Variation is responsible for the exceptional individual;
selection is responsible for preserving it. Darwin says there
14 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
are two kinds of selection, one he calls " unconscious, " the
other "methodical." To the former he credits, in large
part, the evolution of the fowl. The fancier who in spirit of
rivalry tries to excel his neighbor by breeding from his best
bird, without any attempt to establish a new breed or to
preserve some new characteristic, or improve the breed, is
practicing unconscious selection. There has always been a
standard of excellence, written or unwritten, and fanciers
or poultry breeders have been unconsciously following it
throughout the centuries. Methodical selection, on the other
hand, has to do with the making of breeds and the fixing of
new and desirable characteristics. This pre-supposes a
knowledge on the part of the breeder of the principles of
breeding. According to Darwin, unconscious selection has
done more for the improvement of fowls because it has been
at work longer than methodical selection.
The breeder who follows methodical selection is constant-
ly on the lookout for new and valuable characteristics. He
is not satisfied with following a standard of excellence ; he
sets up a new and higher standard ; he believes in progress.
While the man who is content to beat his neighbor in the show
room and discards everything in his breeding pen that does
not conform to the standard set up for prize-winners, the
man who follows methodical selection would often achieve
his highest purpose by breeding for characteristics or type
that would have no standing in the show room. He is look-
ing for ' i sports " or " mutants ' ' along certain lines and when
they appear he makes them the basis of his breeding opera-
tions.
"Whether the improvement or evolution of the fowl is due
more to one or the other method of selection, it would have
been clearly impossible to evolve the fowl as we now have
it if, in the early centuries, an arbitrary standard had been
set up and all breeding made to follow along that line.
EVOLUTION OF MODERN FOWL 15
Causes of Variation. — A more abundant food supply
undoubtedly accounts for many of the differences between
the wi]d fowl and the modern tame fowl. The wild fowl
varies little. It breeds true century after century, but
under domestication it rapidly evolves new characteristics.
Egg production depends upon a steady supply of good food.
This would not be secured in the wild state. The effect of
domestication has been at once to increase fecundity. The
wild fowl laid a dozen or possibly two dozen eggs in a year ;
the tame fowl now lays ten times as many. A change of
climate and a change of soil induce variation and increase
vigor, and these have been potent factors, doubtless, in in-
creased egg production. An abundant food supply operates
in the same direction. Higher production came immediately
into play when the fowl was put under conditions more con-
genial to egg production.
It is known that the wild pheasant under confinement
produces twice the number of eggs that she produces in the
wild state. Mr. Simpson of the Oregon State Game Farm
gets an average of about sixty eggs a year from his China
pheasants, and he has known them to lay a hundred, while
in nature they lay but two sittings of about 13 eggs each.
Another pheasant raiser is reported in United States Far-
mers Bulletin 390 as stating that seven of his hens laid 131
eggs and then stopped, but when he put them into a fresh
pen they laid 174 more.
A change therefore to congenial surroundings or environ-
ment at once gives a decided increase in production. It
would seem that a large part of the increased productive-
ness is due not so much to selection but to improved en-
vironment. If we are to accept the United States census
figures of about 80 eggs a year as the average production
of the hens of the United States, it is no more of an increase
over the jungle fowl's production than might reasonably
be expected from better environmental conditions.
16 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Effect of Food and Climate on Size and Meat Quali-
ties.— An abundant supply of food, changed soil, climate,
and other conditions relating to environment, would not
only increase production of eggs, but would tend to pro-
duce variations in the size and meat qualities. Abnormal
characteristics, sports or mutations, would frequently result.
Ancient peoples (poultry-keepers in other centuries) had
no interest in standards of uniformity, and they would
preserve the peculiar or abnormal birds, and new types
would be evolved. A sport might be produced weighing two
or three times more than the common fowl, and it is easily
understood that a fowl of that size would be carefully pre-
served. The variations would extend to egg-laying. The
poultry-keeper would find a fowl that was evidently a good
layer ; she would be retained and her eggs would be hatched.
This kind of selection, unconscious selection, works by cen-
turies slowly but surely.
The ancients were not influenced by prizes and high
prices, but more by novelties, and it is easy to believe that
the fowl of unusual or abnormal appearance was carefully
preserved. So, too, it is reasonable to believe that a few
out of many must have paid attention to productive qual-
ities, and in some way — if not by trapnests, by some other
method — picked out the best layers and bred from them.
There is no record, so far as known, that fowls were kept to
please the fancy and win prizes for fancy points, and if they
were kept mainly or wholly for their economic qualities,
selection must have been based on the idea of improving
productive qualities. Whether we owe most to the Mutant —
"the occasional appearance of abnormal characters " — or
to the slow process of unconscious selection — the survival
of the fittest — is a matter of speculation rather than fact.
Use and Disuse of Parts. — The use and disuse of parts
has been a factor in the evolution of the fowl. How so?
EVOLUTION OF MODERN FOWL 17
The blacksmith's arm is a striking object lesson of the effect
of vigorous use of a part of the body. The poultryman
knows that exercise hardens the muscles of the chicken, and
when a tender article of chicken meat is desired, the fowls
are fattened in crates or small pens in order to keep them
from exercising. Whether the qualities of tenderness in the
meat could become a fixed and transmissible characteristic
may be open to debate ; but acquired characteristics some-
times become hereditary. The horse was originally a pacer ;
trotting is an acquired characteristic. Fowls were original-
ly all sitters, but certain breeds through disuse of sitting or
hatching have acquired the characteristic of non-sitting,
and they breed true to that characteristic.
It is known that the wing of the tame duck has diminished
in weight in proportion to size of body and legs since domes-
tication, the tame duck being a descendant of the common
wild duck. The tame duck is much larger in limb and body
than its wild ancestor, and it has little or no use for its wings.
By use, the leg bones have increased in size, but by disuse
the wing bones have rather decreased. Under domestication,
the disproportion between strength of wing and ability to
fly, has become so great that a duck of the Pekin type would
make a spectacle of itself if on the wide-open prairie by the
use of its wings it sought to elude the pursuit of the coyote.
The same thing is true to a greater or less extent in breeds
of chickens. The weight of wing bones is much less than
those of the wild ancestor, the jungle fowl, in proportion
to weight of leg bones. This is specially true of the heavier
breeds, since the Cochin and Brahma, for instance, very
seldom use their wings.
Crossing. — Probably the most fruitful source of varia-
tion, and therefore evolution, is the crossing of different
breeds or varieties. Before methodical selection was prac-
ticed, little consideration would be given to keeping breeds
18 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
and varieties separate; and crossing was no doubt freely
resorted to. Crossing adds to size and vigor, produces varia-
tions and abnormalities, restores lost or latent characteris-
tics and increases fertility. Our present types and races
of chickens were undoubtedly evolved in part from cross-
ing.
Summary. — It is known, therefore, that all breed im-
provement is founded on variation. It is further known
that variation may be induced by certain other conditions
or factors. A change from one climate to another is a fruit-
ful source of variation. This is true of plants as well as
animals. A change of climate often gives increased vigor
and fertility. Changes in climate and changes in food have
undoubtedly had a great deal to do with the evolution of
the fowl. Transplanted to a cold climate, we find the jungle
type of three pounds has evolved into the twelve-pound fowl,
because the fleshy fat fowl was better fitted to withstand
the cold. On the contrary, the southern climates are not
favorable to the heavy fowl, with heavy feathering and
abundant fat, and as a consequence there was gradually
evolved the Leghorn and fowls of that type.
Again, abundant food that was assured with domestica-
tion, undoubtedly exercised a potent influence in determin-
ing the size and characteristics of the fowl. Plenty of food
tends to increase the size ; scanty nutrition results in small
races. Good food increases fecundity.
Crossing, however, is probably the most powerful means
of variation. Crossing different breeds or varieties opens
the door to further improvement, and to other breeds.
CHAPTER III
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY
Poultry-keeping had its birth, as has been seen, when the
wild fowl of the jungle chose to foresake the wild way and
become the companion of men. The domestication of the
fowl and the beginning of poultry-keeping has been of tre-
mendous importance to mankind. Poultry and eggs are
more highly prized than any other form of animal food.
The domesticated fowls are now producing in the United
States over $600,000,000 worth of eggs and poultry annual-
ly, and the combined value of all poultry products of the
different nations must reach a total of several billion dollars
a year. Add to this the fact that the production and con-
sumption of eggs and poultry are rapidly increasing, and
a conception may be formed as to the magnitude of the fact
of domestication. The development is not altogether a
modern achievement. Men of modern times seem more
concerned in exterminating wild game and animals than
in preserving or domesticating them, and only the strong
arm of the law has saved from utter annihilation many
species of wild fowl.
Great as have been the achievements in the poultry realm
under domestication, only within comparatively recent
times has keeping poultry come to be recognized as an in-
dustry. Fifty years ago there was little or no poultry litera-
ture. The first enduring poultry journal was published in
1872 by H. H. Stoddard. Now poultry books are numbered
by the score, and of poultry journals there are now half a
hundred in the United States devoted exclusively to this
19
20 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
industry, not to mention the mass of poultry literature pub-
lished by the various farm journals as well as newspapers.
The first reference to poultry in the publications of the
Department of Agriculture, is in the Annual Report of the
Patent Office for 1845. The first bulletin or entire publica-
tion on this subject issued by the Department was Bulletin
41— "Standard Varieties of Chickens." Up to July, 1911,
41 publications devoted entirely to poultry, and containing
1,696 pages, were published by the Department. The Maine
Station Report for 1887 was probably the first to report
poultry work. The New York Geneva Station, Bulletin 29,
1891, was the first bulletin to report experiments with fowls.
It was in 1880 that poultry-keeping assumed sufficient
importance to be included in a census of farm products by
the federal government. Now practically every agricultural
college and experiment station either has an organized poul-
try department or is giving instruction and conducting
experiments with poultry in connection with other depart-
ments.
Notwithstanding all this recent work in poultry husban-
dry, history is strangely silent about the improvement of
the hen or the development of the poultry industry, in
which she is the most significant factor. Moving picture
films came too late to tell her history. The word ' ' fowl ' ' or
"cock" or "hen" is mentioned in books here and there
throughout the centuries. As civilization advanced and
books became more plentiful, more extended references are
found, showing that the fowl was gradually coming into her
own, becoming a factor of importance to civilized man.
Though there is no written history of the poultry industry
until recent times, yet throughout the centuries the hen has
been the companion of man, developing new characteristics,
changing the color and pattern of her dress, adding to or
subtracting from her weight, improving her economic quali-
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY 21
ties — all without a printing press, an experiment station, or
a poultry show. The real history of the fowl preceded the
poultry show and the poultry book. The improvement of the
fowl was not all a matter of modern times. A century ago
there existed all the sizes, large and small, that we have to-
day, and if we are to believe some writers, economic qual-
ities were as highly developed then as now. About seven
hundred years ago eggs were so plentiful in Europe that
they sold at the rate of 50 for one-quarter cent. At that
time Charlemagne kept fowls on his "model" farms, and
he himself prescribed methods of management of the fowls.
The thirty-years war destroyed the poultry industry, as it
did other industries; and there are those who maintain
that at that time the secret of selecting the productive hen
was lost and has never been recovered. Be that as it may,
the care that was evidently given the fowls, and the cheap-
ness of the eggs, might indicate that the fowls were very
productive.
As an industry, the public is interested only in the econo-
mic aspect of poultry-keeping. The great increase in pro-
duction has already beei* noted. This increase is probably
without a parallel in the history of food production. What
factors have been responsible for this increase ? First, the
increase must be ascribed largely to natural causes. With
the increase in the percentage of the population that live in
cities there has been a relatively greater consumption of eggs
than of meat. There has been a greater call for a lighter
diet than when the larger proportion of the population
lived by toil or muscular labor. It can hardly be said that
the increased price of meats has driven the people to eggs
as a substitute, for the price of eggs twenty years ago was as
low as 6 and 8 cents a dozen in different sections of the coun-
try, and yet the consumption of eggs per capita was less
than it is now. With greater riches and higher compensa-
•22 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
tion, the customers have turned more to eggs than to some
other staple foods.
Second, a better knowledge of the high nutritive quality
of the egg and of the fact that it cannot be adulterated —
that it comes to the table in its original unbroken package,
guaranteeing its purity — has also contributed to its in-
creased use.
Third, cold storage, which is discussed in a later chapter,
has also been a powerful factor in the increased use of eggs.
All this, by opening up larger markets for poultry pro-
ducts, has contributed to increased production, for without
profitable markets no artificial stimulus could maintain in-
creased production.
Education. — On the other hand, what may be called arti-
ficial stimulus was necessary. The demand for eggs would
not have been fully met had education or artificial means not
been resorted to in order to stimulate production. Under
this head may be mentioned the agricultural and poultry
journals. These journals have constituted a medium for an
exchange of views by producers. Experiences have been
published and re-published, and they have shown that there
is money in producing eggs. Successes have been chronicled,
and this has been followed by explanations of methods. In
this way a great educational campaign has been going
on through the medium of the agricultural and poultry
journals.
The poultry page of the farm paper chronicling the poul-
try experience of successful farmers throughout the country,
read by thousands of farmers weekly, has been a great force
in directing attention to this industry and encouraging it
among the farmers. It is doubtful if any other page of the
farm paper has a larger circle of readers than the poultry
page. The journals devoted exclusively to poultry, though
they do not reach as large a constituency as the farm papers,
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY 23
have exercised great influence for better poultry. They
have appealed more to the special poultry keeper than to the
farmer, yet they have led iii the dissemination of information
along special lines, and thousands of readers have been kept
informed by the poultry papers as to the progress being
made in the industry. "While making special appeals to the
fancier or breeder of standard-bred poultry, these publica-
tions have paid more or less attention to the productive side
of the industry, and they show a growing tendency to em-
phasize this. The general newspapers, both dailies and
weeklies, are devoting an increasing amount of space to the
campaign of poultry education.
The poultry show has also been an important factor in
this development. It has afforded an opportunity for a
study of breeds and external characteristics, and created an
interest in the industry ; this, too, in spite of the fact that
the poultry show has been notoriously weighted down by
standards of judging that in some respects handicap rather
than encourage practical poultry breeding.
Though coming into the field late, the experiment station
and the agricultural college have been rendering valuable
assistance through state and federal aid. The results of
investigations during the past fifteen years have been of dis-
tinct service to the industry ; so has the work of the college in
the teaching of students, and in institute work or extension
work. The demonstration trains, in which the railroads co-
operated with the colleges, have been the most successful
agency in getting the information directly to the people
interested. Moving picture films, industrial poultry con-
tests among the school children and laying contests, are other
agencies that are helping in the work of poultry develop-
ment.
CHAPTER IV
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS
Breeds and varieties of fowls will be discussed here brief-
ly from a utility standpoint. Before the days of the poul-
try shows and poultry books there were different races and
breeds of fowls. There were the Mediterranean or
Italian fowls, which were small of size, light feather-
ing, active and nervous ; and there were the Asiatics which
were large, fleshy, heavily feathered and slow. These
characteristics had been fixed before the business of breed
making by the modern fancier had begun. The original
Cochin weight has not been set any higher, and the
minimum weight of the Italians has not been reduced.
It would be difficult to conceive of any reason why there
should be heavier breeds than the Cochin or Brahma, or
lighter ones than the Leghorn, and yet if prizes were of-
fered in poultry shows, or other rewards given for the larg-
est fowls, it is without question that there would in time be
evolved breeds of fowls of much greater weight.
From the jungle fowl, as we have seen, were evolved
through the centuries the Asiatics of large size, and the
Mediterraneans of small size. From these two pure races
a hundred different breeds and varieties have arisen within
less than a century. "The American Standard of Perfec-
tion" recognizes 121 breeds and varieties ranging in size
from 12 pounds, to about three pounds, not counting the
Bantams.
Standard Classification. — "The Standard of Perfection"
classifies fowls according to external points of size, shape
and color. It divides them into classes, breeds, and vari-
eties. The class refers to the place of origin, the breed mainly
24
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS
25
to size and shape, and the variety to color within the breed.
A full description of each breed and variety is given in an
illustrated book called the "Standard of Perf ection. ' ' This
gives all the various exhibition points which go to make up
the perfect specimen from the standpoint of the "Stan-
dard."
STANDARD CLASSIFICATION
Class Breed Variety
American Plymouth Rock ..Barred, white, buff, silver
pencilled, partridge, and
Columbian.
Wyandotte Silver, golden, white, buff,
black, partridge, silver
pencilled, and Columbian.
Java Black and mottled.
Dominique Rose comb.
Rhode Island Red . Single comb and rose comb.
Buckeye Pea comb.
Asiatic Brahma Light and dark.
Cochin Buff, partridge, white, and
black.
Langshan Black and white.
Mediterranean . .Leghorn Single-comb brown, rose-
comb brown, single-comb
white rose-comb white,
single-comb buff, r o s e-
comb buff, single-comb
black, and silver.
Minorca Single-comb black, rose-
comb black, and single-
comb white.
Spanish White-faced black.
Blue Andalusian .
Ancona
English Dorking White, silver grey, and col-
ored.
Redcap Rose comb.
Orpington Single-comb buff, single-
comb black, and single-
comb white.
26 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Class Breed Variety
Polish Polish White-crested black, bearded
golden, bearded silver,
bearded white, buff laced,
non-bearded golden, non-
bearded silver, and non-
bearded white.
Hamburg Hamburg Golden spangled, silver
spangled, golden pencilled,
silver* pencilled, white, and
black.
French Houdan Mottled.
Crevecoeur Black.
La Fleche Black.
Game and Black-breasted* red, brown-
Game Bantam . Game red, golden duckwing, sil-
ver duckwing, birchen, red
pyle, white, and black.
Game Bantam .... Black-breasted red, browri-
red, golden duckwing, sil-
ver duckwing, birchen, red
pyle, white, and black.
Oriental Cornish Dark, white, and white-laced
reds.
Sumatra Black.
Malay Black-breasted red.
Malay Bantam . . . Black-breasted red.
Oriental
Bantam Sebright Golden and silver.
Rose comb White and black.
Botted White.
Brahma Light and dark.
Cochin Buff, partridge, white, and
black.
Japanese Black-tailed, white and black.
Polish Bearded white, buff-laced,
and non-bearded.
Miscellaneous . . . Silkie White.
Sultan White.
Frizzle Any color.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS 27
Economic Qualities of Breeds. — It is difficult to classify
breeds and varieties of fowls by their utility or economic
qualities. When it comes to practical qualities it should
be understood that no hard and fast classification can be
given, because so far as egg production is concerned there
is no known type or shape of fowl that indicates laying
qualities with any measure of certainty. It has been dem-
onstrated that 'there is a wide range in productiveness of
fowls. Individuals 'of the same breed vary from no eggs
to as many as three hundred in a year. High egg-laying is
not a fixed breed characteristic; there are good and poor
layers in all breeds. It is a question of individuals rather
than of breeds.
And yet it may be conceded that high egg production is
more often found in fowls- of small size and active nervous
temperament than in larger, less active kinds. The ability
to go in the horse is usually associated with high energy
and spareness of flesh. The cow that does things in milk
production is spare in flesh, small in bone, and nervous in
disposition. The little Shetland pony, it is said, produces
power cheaper than the Clydesdale or Percheron It seems
to require less fuel or food in the small animal to produce
a given result, whether the result be milk, eggs, speed or
power, than in the large animal. As the size is increased
the cost of maintenance is increased. The large fowl is
not the most economical producer of eggs. Frequently
the large fowl will lay more eggs than the small fowl.
There is however, a relationship between size of fowl and
egg-laying. But it cannot be said that high egg-laying is
a fixed characteristic of any breed, or that there is any type
that indicates with any certainty the laying qualities of
the fowls when it comes to a question of selecting the good
from the poor in any flock of any breed.
The system of trapnesting has shown us how widely in-
28 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
dividuals of the same breed and same type vary. There
are "star-boarders" in every flock, birds that live on the
thrift of others, possessing all the apparent external char-
acteristics of their breed, but lacking the ability to lay.
Whatever wonders modern breeders may have accomplished
in the making of new breeds they have not given us a clear
definition of egg type. So much has been accomplished
by the fancier in the way of color breeding during the
past fifty years that one is led to wonder what might have
been performed if breeders had as persistently and intel-
ligently bred for an egg type as they have for color types.
Practical Utility Classification. — All breeds and vari-
eties of fowls may be grouped in four classes: 1, Egg
Breeds. 2, Meat Breeds. 3, General Purpose Breeds. 4,
Fancy Breeds.
1. Egg Breeds. — The most noteworthy characteristics
of the egg breeds are : Small size, active and nervous tem-
perament, early maturity, non-broodiness, good foraging
habits, and sensitiveness to cold. The principal represen-
tatives of the egg breeds are Leghorn, Minorca, Spanish,
Andalusian and Hamburg. All except the Hamburg, be-
long to the Mediterranean class.
2. Meat breeds. — Among the characteristics of the
meat breeds may be mentioned large size, gentleness in dis-
position, slowness in movement, poor foraging proclivities,
as a rule poor laying qualities, late maturity and persistent
broodiness. Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans are the
principal meat breeds.
3. General-purpose breeds. — These are of medium size,
are good table fowls, fair layers, less active than the egg
breeds, but more so than the meat breeds, and are good
sitters and mothers. Plymouth Rocks, "Wyandottes, and
Rhode Island Reds belong to this class.
4. Fancy breeds. — Bantams of various varieties ; Polish
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS 29
and Silkies come under this head, and are raised chiefly for
some peculiarity of form or feather without regard to use-
ful qualities. This class will be eliminated from further
discussion.
This classification, however, is an arbitrary one. Some
breeders may object to the place given some of the breeds.
It may, for instance, be claimed that the Langshan is as
much a general purpose breed as the Orpington, and it may
be that the Orpington is a better meat breed than the
Langshan. The Orpington has a slightly greater weight than
the Langshan, and if weight alone were to be considered
these two breeds might exchange places. In making the
classification, account is taken of the fact that the Lang-
shan is largely, if not wholly, of Asiatic origin, while in
the making of the Orpington several egg breeds were used.
Again, placing the Orpington in the general purpose class
does not mean that its meat qualities are not equal or
superior to some of those in the meat class. The Dorking
also, might fairly be placed among the table breeds because
its table qualities have probably been more highly de-
veloped than its laying qualities, but on account of its
medium size and its wide reputation as a general-purpose
fowl it has been placed in the general-purpose class.
The classification includes only those breeds and varieties
that have been admitted to the "American Standard of
Perfection." There are many European breeds that are
not illustrated in or recognized by the "American Stan-
dard.' Some of them are of considerable economic value.
CHAPTER V
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
IMPORTANT EGG BREEDS
The Leghorn. — The poultry industry owes a great deal
to the Leghorn fowl. It is not a made breed, as breeds
are made to-day ; it was ' ' ready-made. ' ' "Where the breed
originated nobody knows. It is not the product of scien-
tific breeding, but rather its type and characteristics have
been developed through the centuries by the slow process
of natural or unconscious selection. Nature early decreed
that the high producer, whether the product be eggs or
milk or speed, must be small in body, spare in flesh, and
full of nervous energy. Nature did the work in the case
of the Leghorn. "While the Leghorn is a ready-made breed,
our modern breeders have by careful selection given it
greater uniformity, especially in color of plumage, ear lobe,
etc. The development of different varieties has been the
work of modern fanciers. Later and more productive
strains have been developed, but the Leghorn of to-day is
largely the Leghorn in type and characteristics of a century
or two ago. Of all breeds of fowls, few have the apparent
lasting qualities of the Leghorn. While the Leghorn is a
large class at all poultry shows, and has therefore been
bred along fancy lines, it has also been bred for special
egg-laying qualities. The White Leghorn has the distinc-
tion of being found on special poultry farms more than
any other breed.
ORIGIN.- — The Leghorn is sometimes spoken of! as an
American breed. It received its name in the United States,
30
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
31
but the fowl came from Italy and derived its name from
the city of Leghorn, Italy. In Italy and other European
countries it goes under the name of Italian fowl. As a
fancier's fowl it may fairly be said to be an American pro-
duction, its finer exhibition points being put on by Ameri-
can breeders; but its general breed characteristics were
developed in the Mediterranean country before the fancier
himself was developed in America. In Italy not so much
attention has been given
to color, Alfredo Vi-
tale, of Naples, in a
letter to the writer, ex-
presses the opinion that
the blacks are the most
productive strain. It is
claimed that the Black-
Red Game was crossed
with the Brown Leg-
horn to improve the
color of plumage, also
that the Buff Cochin
blood was used to se-
cure the proper buff color in the Buffs.
There is little difference in laying in different varieties of
Leghorns. A mixture of Cochin blood in the Buffs and
Game blood in the Browns may have had an influence to-
ward lower egg yield, but it would hardly seem probable
that the effect of that infusion of blood from less pro-
ductive breeds would still remain. It was ill-advised, how-
ever, to jeopardize well-known laying qualities by crossing
with meat breeds because of a color demand.
The Minorca. — Among the egg breeds, next to the Leg-
horn, the Minorca ranks in popularity. Like the Leghorn,
its type was fixed long ago. It is larger in size than the
* WHITE LEGHORN COCKEREL
Exhibition type.
32
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Leghorn and has light colored skin and dark shanks. Its
strong point is that it lays a large white egg. No other
breed of fowls lays an egg as large and attractive as the
Minorca. In markets where the white egg is preferred
Minorca eggs should command the highest price. The Leg-
horn excells the Minorca in number of eggs, but it may be
possible to secure a
price for the Minorca
eggs so much higher as
to make the product of
the latter equal that of
the former in value.
Minorca eggs frequently
weigh as much as 28
ounces a dozen, and a
good average would be
26 ounces. Large size
of egg is characteristic
of the Spanish breeds.
Under proper condi-
tions, the Minorca is an
excellent breed to keep.
In the southern or
warmer sections of the country it thrives, but its excessively
large comb and wattles make it hardly desirable for the cold
sections. "With proper shelter, however, it will do well. The
Minorca derives its name from the Island of Minorca off
the east coast of Spain. There are two varieties, Black
and "White. ''The Standard" subdivides the Blacks into
single and rose comb varieties. The characteristics of
white skin and dark shanks depreciate their value somewhat
in American markets.
The Ancona. — During the past few years the Anconas
have been receiving considerable attention. They have
BLACK MINORCA MALE
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 33
mottled white and black plumage. This fowl is undoubt-
edly of Italian origin, and outside of the distinguishing
feature of color it is pretty much a Leghorn in type and
characteristics. Compared with the Leghorn it is com-
paratively rare; in this country, and its egg-producing
qualities have not been so well demonstrated.
The Hamburg. — "The American Standard of Perfec-
tion" classes the Hamburg as a Dutch breed, while Edward
Brown classes it among the British races of fowls. There
are six varieties, namely, Golden and Silver Spangled,
Golden and Silver Pencilled, White and Black. The Ham-
burgs all have rose combs. They lay a rather small egg,
though the Blacks, owing probably to an infusion of
Spanish blood, lay a fair size egg.
The Blue Andalusian. — This is another of the Spanish
egg breeds. The fowls have a considerable popularity as
egg layers, and lay an egg of fair size. A peculiarity of
this breed is that though blue is the recognized color the
mating of two blues together produces offspring that are
either black or splashed white. In mating the blacks and
whites together usually blue offspring results.
The Black Spanish. — This was a very popular breed
thirty years ago. The fowls were splendid layers of a
large white egg, but are now very seldom found in any
section of the country. The breed has fallen the victim of
a too general tendency for fanciers to accentuate in their
breeding special points or peculiarities. In this case the
peculiarity was the long white face; breeders engaged in
a rivalry to increase its length. This was encouraged by
the " Standard " which says of the white face: "The
greater the extent of surface the better. " The Black
Spanish is of the same family as the Minorca.
The Campine. — This is the most popular egg breed in
Belgium. "We give a description of two Belgium breeds
34 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
for the reason that in that country, as might be expected
from the character of the people, fancy characteristics have
been given slight consideration in the breeding of fowls.
The frugality and thrift of the Belgian peasants would
lead one to expect that they would exercise great care in the
selection of breeding fowls, and the chances are that these
very characteristics make them more skillful in selecting the
best for breeding. This breed is of great antiquity, and as
the Belgians believe strongly in the egg basket the seeking
after abnormalities or fancy points was not permitted to
deter them from their pursuit of the egg-layer. It is a non-
sitting breed, an excellent layer of white eggs of good size.
In size it is about the same as the Leghorn ; it has dark slate
blue legs and feet. There are two varieties, the Gold and
Silver.
The Braekel. — This is another breed that has been bred
a long time in certain districts of Belgium. Its origin is
probably the same as that of the Campine and any differ-
ences now in size and characteristics are probably due to
differences in environment. It is larger than the Campine,
females weighing from 4 to 6 pounds, and males 5 to 7
pounds. It is very precocious. One writer says: "The
chicken is no sooner out of the shell than its comb is de-
veloped; at three weeks the cockerels commence to crow;
at six weeks they begin to drive about the hens." The
Braekel, it is stated, is as much developed at six weeks as
some other breeds at about six months.
The Houdan. — In France more attention has been given
to developing meat qualities in fowls than laying qualities.
In this line the French poultry keepers are particularly
apt. Much may be learned from the poultry raisers of
France in the production of a fine quality of table meat.
Mr. Edward Brown in his classification of fowls places only
one French breed — the Houdan — among the egg breeds.
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 35
Even the Houdan may properly belong to the general pur-
pose class on account of its weight and meat qualities. The
weight of the adult female is 6 pounds. The crest is more
ornamental than useful and this peculiarity' has undoubt-
edly had a great deal to do with the lack of appreciation
shown for it among utility poultry-keepers. It lays a white
egg, the color of legs is pinky-white, mottled with black.
GENERAL PURPOSE BREEDS
American breed makers have run altogether to the gen-
eral purpose type of fowl. In the American class we have
the Plymouth Rock, the Wyandotte, Java, Dominique,
Rhode Island Red, Buckeye, all of medium size and of
general purpose characteristics. Out of those six breeds
twenty varieties have been made, there being of the Wyan-
dotte alone eight different varieties, the differences in
varieties being wholly in color. It is true that American
breeders have "made over" other breeds that have come
from foreign countries until some of them would scarcely
be recognized as of the same breed, but the work has been
chiefly confined to fixing external points of color, not in
altering type.
The general-purpose fowl is a modern innovation. Be-
fore the days of the modern breeder there were practically
but two types of fowls — the large, slow, fleshy Asiatic, and
the small egg-laying Italian. The modern breeder has con-
cerned himself not so much in improving these two types
as in making various combinations of them. Our American
breeds are therefore the result of crossing the two pure
races mentioned. The poultry industry has doubtless
gained from the making of these varieties. A question
naturally arises as to whether it would not have been better
if the breeders had confined themselves to improving exist-
36 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
ing breeds or races and keeping them pure rather than mix-
ing them and making new breeds.
If it be true that crossing improves the vigor and fer-
tility of the offspring and saves races from annihilation, it
may readily be conceded that the amalgamation of the two
races for the purpose of making new breeds has been al-
together an advantage. If it be denied that the crossing of
pure races can ever be beneficial we will have to confess
that our American breeds and varieties are without excuse
of origin. It is certain that the Italian or Leghorn has not
been replaced by a better laying breed, nor has there been
produced a breed superior to the Cochin and Brahma as
meat breeds. In American breeds the excessive weight of
the Cochin and Brahma has been avoided and the prefer-
ence of the largest proportion of consumers for a medium
size table fowl has influenced American breeders in the
making of new breeds, to the undoubted advantage of the
industry as a whole.
When we speak of a general-purpose breed reference is
made to meat and egg-laying qualities. In other words, a
general-purpose fowl is a fair layer and a fair table fowl,
and that idea has been kept in mind by the originators of
the Plymouth Rock and other breeds of that type. They
wisely eliminate feathers on legs, which are objectionable
in a utility fowl. They also eliminated some of the natural
wildness of the Leghorn. Breeders have been somewhat
hampered by the demands of the show which required them
to select for various other points, and for this reason our
Plymouth Rock and other general-purpose breeds have not
been bred up to that perfection of flesh that has been at-
tained in some of the French and in some of the English
breeds. Undoubtedly the craze for fine barring in the
Barred Plymouth Rock has engaged the attention of many
breeders to the exclusion of points demanded in a good
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 37
table fowl. As a result there is more uniformity in the
barring, for example, than in the proportion of edible meat
to bone in the Plymouth Rock. As a rule the Plymouth
Rock is too heavily boned for a fine table fowl.
Another objection to the Plymouth Rock and other gen-
eral-purpose breed may be urged; the "Standard" weight
is larger than is demanded by the great body of consumers.
The general-purpose fowl should fill a general purpose
demand. ' ' The Standard ' ' weight for the Plymouth Rock is
9~y2 pounds for the cock and iy2 for the hen. If the judge
must not cut for over-size they are placed practically in
the Asiatic class so far as size is concerned. And as the
size is increased the breed is getting that much away from
the general purpose type. Increasing the size does not
necessarily mean better meat qualities.
A fowl that exceeds 7 or 8 pounds in weight borders too
closely on the Asiatic or meat type for a general-purpose
fowl. When it reaches 8 or 10 pounds it gets into a special
class and there must be a special market for it. The de-
mand is limited for the large meat type of fowl, and if the
poultry raiser is to meet the requirements of the largest
body of consumers he must breed a fowl of medium size.
It would be an economic mistake to advocate a large fowl
of Asiatic type for the general farmer, because if all were
to adopt that type it would mean one of two things: The
cutting of the consumption of poultry in two, or cutting
the price in half. There is a greater demand for a fowl
weighing 4 to 5 pounds dressed than for one of any other
size. The problem then for the breeders of a general-pur-
pose fowl is to adhere to a type that will meet the largest
consuming demand, and then develop laying qualities on
that basis.
Again, breeders of the Plymouth Rock might render a
real service if they should eliminate the tendency of the
38 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Plymouth Rock to put on excessive abdominal fat. How-
ever, this result will largely be secured in breeding for
eggs. It will be found that this characteristic is usually
absent in the heavy producer.
In our American breeds many of the Asiatic character-
istics are retained. In some respects American ideals differ
from European. We get the brown egg from the Asiatics,
but this is one of the accidents of choice, for American
markets generally prefer the white egg shell. On the other
hand we get the yellow leg and skin from the same source,
the color preferred in the markets. In England and other
European countries, the white skin, it is believed, indicates
superior excellence of meat, but with this white flesh they
get something they don't want — a white egg. Here are
apparently antagonistic characteristics, a white egg and a
yellow skin in general purpose breeds. Whether it is
possible to overcome this barrier of nature remains to be
demonstrated.
Speaking of American breeds, Edward Brown pays a
high compliment and at the same time extends a warning
to American breeders in the following language: "'That
these breeds have proved most valuable additions to our
stock is unquestionable, and their wide distribution and
universal recognition is a great tribute to American breed-
ers, who have kept prominently forward the general
economic qualities and not exaggerated special points to the
extent met with in Great Britain. Whether that will be
so in the future remains to be seen, for present signs are in
the direction of an exaltation of fancy points, which would
be regrettable."
If we are to judge from the success of one English
breeder in American laying competitions, the warning has
been better heeded in England than in America.
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
39
The Plymouth Rocks. — There are five varieties of Ply-
mouth Rocks recognized by the "American Standard of
Perfection"; namely, the Barred, "White, Buff, Partridge,
and Columbian.
The Barred Plymouth Rock is the great American farm
fowl. Its popularity among farmers exceeds that of any
other one breed. The
White Eock, the Wyan-
dotte and the Rhode
Island Red may be of
equal utility value, but
the Barred Rock has
been lo-^er established,
is more widely known,
and its qualities of meat
and egg production, and
possibly its color, have
given it a place second
to none. The Barred
Plymouth Rock was
about the first American
production in the poul-
try world, and on this
account it no doubt se-
cured a popularity that
later productions did
not. To the fancier fine barring in the Plymouth Rock rep-
resents the highest achievement in breeding. When asso-
ciated with this is good shape and carriage, the Barred
Plymouth Rock is a most attractive fowl.
As to the origin of the Plymouth Rock, several Asiatic
and Mediterranean breeds are represented among its an-
cestors. It is believed that the first or original cross was
a mating of Dominique male and Black Java or Black
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK
COCKEREL
First prize at Los Angeles show.
40
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Cochin hen. The Minorca, Cochin and Brahma are all
believed to have been used in making the breed. Mr. D. A.
Upham and Mr. Joseph Spaulding, both of Connecticut,
claim the honor of originating the Barred Rock. The
former exhibited the first specimens in 1869. Close breed-
ing for fine barring has injured some strains of the breed,
but its wide dissemination has averted ruin. A peculiarity
of the Barred Rock color
is that the male off-
spring are lighter than
the female. The ten-
dency is for the cock-
erels to be lighter than
the parents, and the
pullets darker. The
''Standard" says that
show specimens must
have the same shade of
color, male and female,
and this has led fan-
ciers to follow in breed-
ing what is called
double mating.
Double mating means
the use of two sepa-
rate matings, or two
separate pens of fowls, one to produce males of proper
exhibition color,, (the other females. The pen producing
the cockerels is darker in color than the pen producing
the pullets.
The White Plymouth Rocks. — There is no difference in
the shape and size of the different varieties of Plymouth
Rocks. The difference is in color only. The White came
as a sport, or what might be called a " mutant " from the
BARRED ROCK HEN
Showing fine barring. (Courtesy of
Miller Purvis.)
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 41
Barred variety about 1880. The White is fully the equal
of the Barred in economic qualities. It has not been sub-
jected to the same degree' of intense inbreeding as many
strains of the Barred Rock have been for barring, and on
that account there may be excuse for the claim that it has
better maintained its original utility value. However,
there are strains of the Barred variety that by good
breeding have preserved their utility value to a high
degree.
The Buff Plymouth Rock.— This variety of Eock is an
independent creation. It is not related to the Barred or
White varieties, but breeders have so moulded it and shaped
it that in size and type and general external characteristics
it is a duplicate of the others. The Buff Leghorn, Buff
Cochin and Light Brahma were used in producing the Buff
Rock. Some strains, it is claimed, have originated from the
Rhode Island Red. While it is a fowl of much merit, the
Buff Rock is not a popular breed on the general farms, or
on special poultry farms, and it has never been demon-
strated that it has any useful qualities not possessed by the
Barred or White variety. From an economic point of view
there can be little excuse for the Buff variety.
Columbian Plymouth Rock and Partridge Plymouth
Rock. — These newer .varieties of the breed, vary only in
plumage color. They have been established, as other varie-
ties have been, by a system of cross and inbreeding and ad-
mitted to the "Standard" as a new breed because they have
a distinctive color, not because of any difference in real
practical value.
The Wyandottes. — The Wyandotte was the second pro-
duction of American breeders. As a breed, the Wyandotte
has a type of its own. In size and shape it meets the require-
ments of a general-purpose fowl probably better than any
other American breed. In size it is a little smaller than the
42 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Eock, and of a more blocky build. Its blocky shape and
comparatively early maturity make it a good broiler breed.
The originators, therefore, had a valid excuse for giving it
to the world as a new breed. An objection may be urged
against the "Wyandotte that its type is not very firmly fixed.
Wyandottes are frequently found of the type of Plymouth
Rock or Rhode Island Red rather than of the blocky, com-
pact build. While they are fully the equal of the Plymouth
Rocks in egg produc-
tion, their eggs average
smaller in size. These
are points that the
breeders may rectify.
If it should develop that
high egg production is
found in fowls of the
long body or rangy
type, then the Wyan-
dotte would have little
excuse for existence as
a general-purpose util-
ity fowl. However, it
has not been proved that
a long body is a sure in-
WHITE WYANDOTTE HEN dication of good laying
(Courtesy of A. G. Duston, Massachusetts.)
qualities.
As to origin, the Wyandotte came by accident rather than
by design. If some authorities are right, a Sebright Ban-
tam and a Cochin hen were mated together to produce an
improved Cochin Bantam. Silver Spangled Hamburg blood
was added ; then another cross and a half-bred Cochin hen
was used. The breed was given the name of the American
Sebrights, later the Wyandottes. The first Wyandottes
were produced in the 70 's.
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
43
Variety makers have found a fruitful field in the Wyan-
dotte family. There are now eight different varieties of
Wyandottes, as follows : Silver, which was the first, Golden,
White, Black, Partridge,
Silver Pencilled, Buff
and Columbian.
The Rhode Island
Reds. — This is one of
the most popular breeds
in America. More than
any other American
breed it owes its distinc-
tion to its practical
qualities. For many
years it had been bred
as a farm fowl, estab-
lishing a reputation for
real merit, before it was
taken up by' ' Standard ' '
breeders and admitted
to the "Standard" as a
breed. In weight it is the same as the "Wyandotte, but in
type it shows more of the Plymouth Rock characteristics
than the Wyandotte. It is less suggestive of the Cochin
than the Wyandotte. That it is a fowl of great merit is
attested by the fact that in the Little Comptor poultry dis-
trict of Ehode Island, where the poultry industry has been
developed to a larger extent than in any other district of the
continent, with the possible exception of Petaluma, Cal., it is
almost universally kept on the farms. The Rhode Island Red
has been in existence possibly more than a century, but fan-
ciers were slow in taking hold of it, and not until a few
years ago was it admitted to the "Standard of Perfection."
It is now a prominent class at all poultry shows of the
WHITE WYANDOTTE COCK
(Courtesy of W. D. Kelley, Oregon.)
44
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
country. This breed originated on the farms as a prac-
tical fowl and with little or no thought of making a new
breed ; that it has gained so great a popularity is proof that
the poultry-keepers are alive to the importance of utility
qualities.
Considerable obscurity naturally attaches to its origin.
It is believed, however, that its foundation was the com-
mon farm fowl on which were crossed breeds of Asiatic
RHODE ISLAND REDS
(Courtesy, Howard H. Keim, Oregon.)
as well as Mediterranean blood. There is only one variety
of Keds, though there are both single and rose comb
strains.
McGrew says that this breed is: " The result of fifty years
of careful outbreeding, and it would have been better for
the stamina of many of our breeds if they had been bred on
the same plan, instead of inbred." To Dr. N. B. Aldrich of
Fall River, Mass., is generally given the credit of intro-
ducing the Rhode Island red to the public as a new breed.
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 45
The following interesting facts as to the making of this
breed are given by Miller Purvis: "All over the country,
men who had sailed the seas, brought home fowls from India,
China and Europe. These fowls were crossed and mixed in
indiscriminate confusion. Red Malay, Shanghai, Chitta-
gong, Brahma and Leghorn were bred and crossed in every
conceivable way. ' ' The idea of making a new breed finally
came to Dr. Aldrich and Mr. Buffington. "They did not
agree on the exact shade the bird should be, and each se-
lected those which suited his fancy. Mr. Buffington called
his Buff Plymouth Rocks and Dr. Aldrich invented the name
of Rhode Island Reds for his, and each took hold of the
public fancy and two new breeds were born from the
same flock, both of them being of mongrel blood pure and
simple. ' '
The Dorking. — The Dorking has frequently been spoken
of as the grand old breed of Great Britain. It is an ancient
breed, attaining popularity long before the introduction of
the Cochin or Brahma into Europe or America. So ancient
is it that some enthusiatic writer has said of it : ' ' It would be
vain to attempt to trace the origin of a breed which was ac-
curately described two thousand years ago by a Roman writ-
er ; and as Roman stations abound in Cumberland it is quite
possible ;that a poultry-fancying praetor fifteen hundred
years ago might send or carry in the same year the first
couple of Dorking fowls to the bank of the Thames/'
Be that as it may, it is certain that Dorking is a breed of
antiquity, as well as a breed of great merit for meat qual-
ities. The Cochin craze of sixty years ago threatened its
existence, but the English breeders stood to their guns and
saved it from amalgamation with an inferior race. "While
a large proportion of our general-purpose and meat breeds
have an infusion of Asiatic blood to the extent of dominance,
the Dorking successfully weathered the craze, and is to-day
46 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
as pure in blood apparently as though the Cochin had never
been known. As evidence that it does not owe its size to the
influence of Asiatic blood it is pointed out that there are
records which show that the Dorking attained a weight of 14
pounds more than a hundred years ago, or fifty years before
the introduction of the Cochin. Brown says that the Dork-
ing ' ' by its fineness of flesh and delicacy of skin, the white-
ness of the flesh and legs and the abundance of meat carried
upon the body, must be regarded as one of the best table
fowls that it is possible to obtain." In spite of the fact
that it lays a white egg it maintains much popularity in
Britain. It cannot be said to be a heavy layer, though we
are inclined to place it among the general-purpose breeds.
The Orpington. — The modern Orpington is now dividing
honors in England with the Dorking as a general utility
breed. From the English standpoint;, in one respect at
least, the Orpington has an advantage over the Dorking;
that is color of egg. The combination of white legs and
skin with tinted or brown eggs is the peculiar achievement
of the Orpington makers, just as the Plymouth Rock lay-
ing a white egg would be an achievement for American
breeders in meeting the market demands. This new com-
bination is no doubt largely responsible for the popularity
of the Orpington in Great Britain. The combination of
white skin and brown egg, however, though commending
it to the buying public of Great Britain, handicaps it as
a competitor in America with general-purpose breeds.
Brown places it among the general-purpose breeds, but
from its weight and meat qualities it might well be placed
among the meat breeds of this country. If our market
preference for yellow legs and skin and white egg is to be
maintained, it is difficult to see why our American general-
purpose breeds should be replaced by the Orpington. If
we wish to discard our American breeds it would be more
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 47
consistent to take up the Dorking, which is fully the equal
of the Orpington as a table fowl and in addition lays a
white egg.
The Buff Orpington. — The origin is somewhat clouded
in obscurity. Brown and other English authorities argue
that the Buff Orpington came from a farm fowl known
locally as the Lincolnshire buffs, and that its real origin
was the Dorking crossed on the common fowl, intercrossing
with Buff Cochin. William Cook, however, is usually given
credit in this country for originating the breed, and he
claims that he crossed the Golden Spangled Hamburg and
the Buff Cochin, and then the Dorking. Brown states
that there is abundant evidence that the great majority of
the present-day Buffs are directly bred from Lincolnshire
buffs without the slightest relationship to Mr. Cook's
strain. Mr. K. de Courcy Peele says: "The foundation
had been laid many years previous to Mr. Cook's time in
the shape of the Lincolnshire buffs, a variety, if it may be
so called, which has for many years been the acknowledged
farmer's fowl in and about Spaulding and the neighbor-
ing towns."
The Black Orpington. — There seems to be no question
that William Cook was the originator of the Black Orping-
ton. The interesting point in its origin, according to Mr.
Cook himself, is that its ancestors were rejected specimens
of Black Minorca, Black Langshan, and Plymouth Bock
(black). The Minorca had such marks as red earlobes;
the Langshan no feathers on legs, and the Plymouth Rock
fowls were black. This is a mongrel origin, so far as pres-
ent exhibition points are concerned. From such an origin
we have one of our most beautiful breeds of fowls and
one of considerable utility.
The White Orpington. — The White Orpington is said
to have been produced by a combination of White Leghorn,
48
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Black Hamburg and White Dorking. Brown offers objec-
tion to this origin on the ground that as two of these
breeds have rose combs, the White Orpington of the pres-
ent day would show the rose comb very frequently. Later
knowledge of breeding,
however, teaches that if
proper selection be made
of the crossed offspring,
the characteristic rose
comb need not ever
show in subsequent gen-
erations. Data on this
point is given in Chap-
ter III, page 79. Brown
declares his belief that
the White Orpington
originated as a sport
from the Blacks.
The recent popularity
of the White Orpington
in this country is strik-
ing evidence of the power of printers' ink. While
the breed undoubtedly has great merit, there is no
real reason why it should displace our American breeds
which are not handicapped by white skin and legs. Unless
a new breed can be shown to have superior egg-laying
qualities it is a mistake to advocate it as a utility breed
when it possesses other characteristics which depreciate its
value as a market fowl. If. certain breeders wish to cater
to the fancy trade, well and good ; if their effort is to pro-
duce something which will delight the eye and sell for
fancy prices on that account, that should be clearly under-
stood. But utility values should not be set by the amount
of printers ' ink used in advertising. Where the real
WHITE ORPINGTON HEN
A noted prize winner.
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
49
standard is the market demand for meat and eggs, it is a
self-evident business proposition that we should choose
fowls possessing in greatest measure the characteristics
demanded by the market. These suggestions apply to
other breeds as well as to the White Orpington, but few
breeds have been boomed as the latter has. It is a breed,
however, of distinc-
tive merit, but as a
market fowl it fills
the English rather
than the American
market demand.
The Sussex.—
Some authorities
would place the Sus-
sex ahead of the
D o,r k i n g as the
grand old breed of
England. It seems
to be an equally
ancient breed. Its
chief point is its
meat quality.
Wright speaks of
LIGHT SUSSEX
Owned by J. H. Barker, California.
it as surpassing
* ' every other
has made the
breed on earth " in this respect. It
fattening industry of certain districts of England
famous. It has something of the shape and type of the
Dorking, but somewhat smaller ; it has four toes, and lays
a tinted egg. It is broad in back, full-breasted, fine boned,
and hardy. Barring the defect of white skin, it is a type
of fowl that might well be used in this country for a market
fowl. There are three varieties : White, Speckled, and Red.
The Faverolle. — In studying general-purpose fowls ac-
count should be taken of the French breed, Faverolle. In
50
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
SPECKLED SUSSEX HEN
Owned by J. H. Barker, California
size it belongs to the
general-purpose class.
In quality of meat it is
excellent, and is a fair
layer. It has a large,
deep, and broad body,
rather short in legs and
small in bone. Other
characteristics are white
earlobes, white skin,
heavy beard and muffs,
slightly feathered on
legs. The fowls are
very tame, and stand
confinement well. In
meat qualities they probably surpass our American breeds,
but they have the same handicap as the Orpingtons — white
skin and brown
eggs.
IMPORTANT
MEAT BREEDS
There are few
breeds, and
none of them
have originated
in America, that
are specially
made for meat
production.
Breeding for
meat in this
country is prac-
tieallv an nn SPECKLED SUSSEX COCK
.icany an un- Qwned by j H Barker> California
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
51
used term. Very little
earnest concerted atten-
tion has been given to
breeding for excellence
of table qualities. This
will be a development of
the future. Were there
a standard of excellence
that would disqualify a
fowl, or throw it out of
the market, that did not
show at least 25 to 30%
more meat than bone
and offal at six months
of age, there would soon
be a change in the meat
qualities of the fowls
found in the markets.
DOMESTICATED
FAVEROLLE HEN
(Courtesy, Editor "La VTie a La Champagne,"
Paris.)
In a good table
fowl there should be
a large percentage of
edible meat and a
relatively small
amount of bone and
offal. Heavy bone
and frame should not
be developed at the
expense of meat.
Fowls vary greatly in
this respect. Mons. E.
Lemoine, of France,
has published the re-
sults of some investi-
gations on this point,
as follows:
52
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
WEIGHTS OF MEAT AND BONE ON FOWLS OF
Weight of meat on
fowl 6 mos. old
Ibs. oz. grs.
Barbezieux 4 10 92
Cochins, buff 4 9 0
Courtes Pattes 3 10 99
Crevecceurs 4 9 66
Dominiques 3 11 66
Dorkings, silver-gray . . 5 4 282
Du Mans 4 6 64
Game, brown-red 3 15 233
Hamburghs, pencilled . 1 15 335
Hamburghs, spangled . 2 3 236
Houdans 3 7 0
La Bresse, gray 3 7 67
La Bresse, black 3 7 375
La Fleche 3 5 339
Langshans 5 4 359
Leghorns 3 15 233
Polish, spangled 2 12 348
DIFFERENT BREEDS *
Weight of bone,
etc., on fowl 6
mos. old
Ibs.
oz.
grs.
4
15
0
5
4
327
2
8
316
4
14
197
2
8
279
4
13
403
2
11
11
2
7
301
2
7
224
2
7
301
2
10
140
2
8
163
2
8
240
2
9
269
5
1
78
2
10
140
2
8
18
There were evidently inaccuracies in the work on which
this table is based. The Leghorns are given a weight of
over six pounds. They were not the Leghorns that we
know to-day. It is evident, however, that breeds vary
greatly in respect to the point under consideration. It
would be instructive if the data could be extended to in-
clude our several American breeds.
The table on p. 54 gives further data on this subject
from work at the Oregon station. The fowls used were
the Barred Plymouth Rock and White Leghorn, and first
crosses of those breeds:
1From ''Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and Cot-
tagers, ' ' by Brown.
THREE BREEDS OF DIFFERENT TYPES
Representing heavy, medium and light breeds,
record in its year
more a question
heavy, medium and light breeds. Each made the highest egg
ir in Australian Laying competitions. High egg production is
of breeding than of breeds, of heredity than of type.
54
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
BREED OF FOWL
Plymouth
Roclt
B.E.&W.L.
Cross
White
Leghorn
Number of fowl ....
74
90
269
276
85W
£6';
Live weight (Ibs. oz.)
7-0
7-0
5-0
4-7.7
2-14.94
3-6.82
Picked and bled
(Ibs. oz.)
6-8
7.14
6-8
7.14
4-11
6.41
4-1.6
8.41
2-10
10.43
3-1
9.66
Per cent loss in pick-
ing and bleeding . .
Weight after drawing
(Ibs. oz.)
4-12.9
26
0-8.2
5-0.7
22.42
0-7.9
3-11.6
20.39
0-6.6
3-1
25.32
0-6.4
1-14.2
27.99
0-3.9
2- .8
31
0-3.9
Per cent loss in draw-
ing .
Weight of head, bones,
shanks (Ibs. oz.)
Total weight of meat
(Ibs. oz.) . .
4-4.7
4-8.8
3-5
2-10.6
1-10.4
1-12.9
Per cent of edible
meat to live fowl
61.33
64.9
66.2
59.4
56.1
52.7
It is seen from the above that there is a larger percentage
of edible meat in the Plymouth Rock than Leghorn. In
this test there was 15% more. The cross-bred showed prac-
tically the same amount as the Plymouth Rock. This indi-
cates an important difference in the meat value of different
types of fowls.
Meat breeds should possess a finer quality of flesh than
general-purpose breeds ; but this may not always be evident
in the breeds as we find them. Heavy egg production is
not and probably never will be associated with excellence
in meat quality. The active nervous disposition of the
egg breeds is not favorable to the production of meat of
high quality. Good meat quality, therefore, should be
looked for among the slow, inactive, docile breeds. Again,
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS 55
good meat quality will not be found in fowls of large bone
and heavy feathering. In addition the meat breeds should
have large size. The only breeds of any prominence in
America that will come under this classification are the
Cochin, Brahma and Langshan.
The Brahma. — There are two varieties of Brahma, the
light and the dark. The light Brahma is the largest vari-
GOOD UTILITY BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK BREEDING COCKERELS
(Oregon Station.)
ety of fowls of any breed. The Dark Brahma is a pound
lighter according to ' ' Standard ' ' weights. The chief char-
acteristics of the Brahma are : Large size, gentle dispo-
sition, slow, easily confined by low fences and long in
maturing. The fowls lay a brown egg, have yellow skin
and shanks, and have heavily feathered legs. There are
good layers among them, but to breed them specially for
laying they would most likely degenerate in their meat
qualities. To maintain them as a meat breed, egg-laying
should be secondary. The breeder should choose his
breeding stock from those of good meat type and be satis-
56 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
fied with a fair yield. The special point of the Brahma
is in filling a demand for large roasting chickens. In some
markets there is a strong and growing demand for large
roasting chickens, and the Brahma fills the demand pretty
well. The Brahma as a utility fowl should fill an impor-
tant place in the poultry industry, but in breeding it the
market demands must be the only standard of excellence.
LIGHT BRAHMAS
(Courtesy of E. Shearer, Oregon.)
The origin of the Brahma has occasioned some contro-
versy. It has been claimed that it was made in America,
but this is disputed by the best authorities. There is no
doubt of its Asiatic origin. Brown asserts that the original
type of Brahma is met with in the Brahma-pootra district
of India. The original Brahmas were light in color, the dark
variety being the result of breeders' work in England and
America. They were imported into the United States about
1846, and a few years later into England. The type has
ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF BREEDS
57
been changed considerably, more especially in England
where the breeding of fancy feather points, especially leg
feathering, has been carried to the extreme.
The Cochin. — The meeting of the yellow Asiatic race with
the white race took place in 1846 — speaking of races of poul-
try. Nothing disturbed the poultry world like the invasion
of the yellow Cochin.
It was lauded to the
skies, just as it was bit-
terly execrated. Wright
says: "It was averred
that there was no prop-
erty that a good fowl
should have, but this
possessed it; it was de-
licious roasted or boiled,
and the hens laid two or
three eggs a day."
Again, he says: "Loud
and long were the pro-
tests made by the best
utility breeders, but these were written down by the glib
pen of the ignorant but ready writer." He tells us fur-
ther: "One of the greatest evils that befell the splendid,
large, well-formed and profitable table fowls of the southern
counties was the introduction of the Shanghai or Cochin."
Again : ' ' Then came the Shanghai fowls and the craze for
size, novelty and colored eggs ; and ill it fared with our old
breeds." "The Cochin or Shanghai craze was the first
blow that our ancient and almost perfect farm poultry
received. ' '
Then he sarcastically says of the Cochin : ' * They were to
furnish eggs for the breakfast, fowls for the table, and better
morals than even Doctor Watts' hymns for the children, who
BUFF COCHIN HEN
Exhibition type of present day. (Courtesy
of Dr. J. J. Hare, Ontario.)
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
were from them to learn kind and gentle manners and
thence forward to live in peace. " In 1847 it was declared
that ' ' all England was given over to a universal hen fever ' '
— the Asiatic had invaded England, and the Britisher had
bowed the knee. It is asserted that $250 was freely paid
for a cock bird, and $25 for a sitting of eggs. The Queen of
England had received an importation in 1845. Poultry
LE MANS
(A special French meat breed. (Courtesy of Editor, "La Vie a La
Campagne," Paris.)
shows became fashionable and great crowds attended, but
in process of time, as Brown says, "the bubble burst."
Wright declared valiantly against the crime of ' ' mongreliz-
ing" the ancient fowls of England with the Cochin.
The invasion occurred. The Cochin disappeared, but not
before the fowls of two continents had been ' ' mongrelized ' '
as Wright would have it. The Cochin has practically ceased
to be a part of the poultry industry. It is unknown as a
practical breed. It has passed from the stage. But it has
left its stamp. The yellow leg and the yellow skin came
ORIGIX AXD DESCRIPTION OK BREEDS
59
from the Asiatic, so did the brown egg. All our prominent
American-made breeds and many prominent European
breeds have a mixture of Cochin blood. They are all tainted.
Like the bee that stings and pays the penalty with its own
life, the Cochin has suffered annihilation.
What the practical effect has been of the amalgamation
of the two races, the yellow and the white, it would be diffi-
POINTS OF THE FOWL
cult to say; but there will be few who will now take the
stand that the poultry industry was badly stung by the
Asiatics. As the case now stands, the Cochin blood is found
in a great many breeds that excell the present-day Cochin
in practical qualities. The extinction of the Cochin as a
practical breed was due not so much to any glaring demerits
of the fowl, but rather to a system of breeding for fancy
feathering which made it impossible to maintain in the breed
whatever useful qualities it may have possessed. The com-
paratively little emphasis placed on meat qualities by poul-
60
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
try-keepers in general was no doubt also a factor in its ex-
tinction.
There are four varieties of Cochins; namely, Buff, Par-
tridge, White and Black. The chief characteristics of the
Cochin are its large size — loose feathering giving it a more
massive appearance,
and gentle disposi-
tion. In shape it is
short, broad and
blocky.
The Langshan. —
The Langshan also
originated in China,
but like the Cochin
and Brahma it has
been improved in ap-
pearance by the fan-
ciers. It has a greater
popularity for laying
than the Brahma and
Cochin, but inferior
LA FLECHE
(Courtesy, Editor "La Vie a La Campagne," Paris.)
as a meat fowl. A
pen of Langshan fowls made a wonderful egg record at the
Australian laying competitions, the particular pen being
from stock imported direct from China, and represented a
different type of fowl than the Langshan now found in this
country.
The La Fleche. — The La Fleche is one of the leading
fowls of France. High prices are paid in France for large
fowls of good quality, and this breed is largely used to sup-
ply this demand. The males weigh up to ten pounds and the
females to eight. The plumage color is black. In this breed
the French poultry-keepers have evolved a fowl of great
merit. Its flesh has exceptional delicacy.
CHAPTER YI
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING
The breeding of poultry for definite types or characteris-
tics is a modern art. Even at this day, in its general prac-
tice, it is largely a hit or miss business. It cannot be said
that it has been reduced to a science if by that is meant that
the breeder can predict with accuracy the results of his
work. It has been contended only within the present decade
that, on the one hand, the hen does, and, on the other hand,
does not transmit laying qualities. The preponderance of
evidence seemed to favor the view that heredity counted for
little or nothing in the science or art of poultry breeding as
it related to improvement of egg-laying qualities. The stage
had been reached, it was contended by some, where the breed-
er must look for defeat if he expected heredity to come to
his assistance in producing fowls of higher fecundity. Where
was the luckless breeder to look ? Was he to rest on his oars
and confess himself beaten?
Before poultry-keeping may become a more profitable and
certain business, the egg-laying efficiency of the hen must be
increased. The average production of the flock is lower than
it should be. How to increase production is probably the
greatest of the problems that concern poultry breeders. If
they are to secure the fullest measure of success, they must
set themselves resolutely to the task of solving this problem.
Recent poultry breeding history offers assurance that steady,
persistent work will bring rich rewards.
While the interest in poultry breeding has centered large-
ly around the egg, it is only a question of time when the prob-
61
62 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
lem of developing meat qualities will command attention.
There is an inviting field here for the breeder, one that has
barely been touched upon in this country. Notwithstanding
the great consumption of poultry, there is only one reason
why this is not double what it now is : namely, the poultry
that goes to market has not been bred for market ; or rather
not much consideration has been given to market qualities
in breeding. An inspection of the poultry that goes to the
average city market amply demonstrates the fact that more
attention has been given to breeding for weight than to
amount of edible meat on the carcass. There is too large a
proportion of bone to meat. What the breeder should aim
at, is to increase the amount of edible meat on the carcass
without increasing its weight. To accomplish such result
would be a worthy achievement for American breeders. The
growing demand for greater perfection in meat qualities in
the fowl must be met, and one of the developments of the
poultry industry that is bound to come in a few years will
be a keen competition among poultry breeders to meet the
ideals for a perfect table fowl.
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN BREEDING
Poultry breeding will never be a business of mathematical
certainties. The final result of the breeding must rest large-
ly on the skill of the breeder himself. In other words, poul-
try breeding is more of an art than a science. The success-
ful breeder, however, follows, consciously or unconsciously,
certain laws or principles that have been established or
proved by science. A brief explanation of some of these laws
follows :
Heredity. — The transmission of qualities or characteris-
tics from parent to offspring is controlled by the law of
heredity. Brahma chickens may be hatched from eggs of
the same size as Leghorn chickens ; the chicks may be the
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 63
same size when hatched, but from, that time on the influence
of heredity will be shown in the larger growth of the chick
that has an ancestry showing large size. When a pure-bred
Leghorn is mated to a pure-bred Leghorn it is almost a cer-
tainty that the offspring will be fowls of small size.
When the male offspring begins to crow, it does so be-
cause of this same law ; its male ancestors for thousands of
years have crowed. Sometimes the breeder, and often the
nearby neighbor in the early hours of the morning would
prefer that this law was more flexible and that it were pos-
sible to breed chickens without a crow, but the breeder
knows by experience that there are certain characteristics
that have become fixed and that if he attempted to change
them he would get nothing for his pains. So is egg-laying
a fixed characteristic. It is a law of nature or heredity that
the hen lays eggs. The law is that like begets like. The
practical breeder is guided by this law first and foremost.
But while the law of heredity is persistent and inflexible,
while like begets like, there is the strange contradiction in
nature that no two individuals are alike. The male chickens
all crow; they are alike in that respect, but there are dif-
ferences in the crow which are easily discernible. So the
females are alike in regard to laying eggs ; they all lay eggs,
but there are differences in the layers; some will lay five
eggs a week, others one ; some 200 a year, others 20. Another
law is seen here.
Variation. — It is the law of variation. This law of varia-
tion has already been referred to. Some fowls of the same
ancestry or breed vary in number of points in the comb, in
size of comb, in length of wattles, in color of eye, in length
of limb, in color of plumage, in amount of meat, in size or
weight of bone, in number of eggs laid, in size and color of
egg, etc. This is variation. Variation is the opportunity
for the breeder. The problem that confronts him at the out-
64
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
set is first to recognize the limitations due to heredity, and,
second, to discover wherein certain points or characteristics
may be improved by taking advantage of variation.
How may desirable variations be fixed ? Is it an evolution-
ary process ? In other words, is it a process of breeding that
requires years to accomplish; or may it happen at once?
VARIATION THE OPPORTUNITY OF THE BREEDER
Hen (left) laid 239 eggs in a year.
Hen (right) laid 7 eggs in a year. (Oregon Station.)
If a 200-egg hen be bred from a strain of fowls that lay only
100 eggs a year, will her female offspring lay 200 eggs a
year, or will they take after the more remote ancestors and
lay only 100 eggs ; or will there be a tendency to lay more
than 100 due to the influence of the immediate parent ? Will
the immediate parent transmit her qualities to the offspring,
or will the influence of all the ancestors be apparent ? Is it a
variation that is called continuous because it has been grad-
ually evolved, step by step, or is it discontinuous, appearing
suddenly, having none of the characteristics of its imme-
diate ancestors? The old theory of breeding was that all
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 65
variation was continuous, or, if a sport or mutation did ap-
pear, it would suddenly disappear. In other words, all im-
provement was the result of selection — selecting the best,
generation after generation, until finally the desired type
or characteristics became firmly fixed. This was the theory
of Darwin; but it has been shown that all improvement
is not a slow evolutionary process; that it is not all a
matter of selection, but that a new type may suddenly
appear and start a new variety or a new breed. The
vast majority of ''sports" or mutants may not breed
true; they may disappear as suddenly as they came,
but the breeder with a knowledge of the history of
new varieties of plants and animals will carefully test any
variations that point to higher excellence.
During the past half century at least one breed of fowls
owes its existence to the appearance of the mutant. A white
"sport" came from a dark breed and resulted in one of our
popular breeds. The mutant may disgrace the yard of the
fancier who is breeding for uniformity, but the breeder who
wishes to perpetuate new and desirable characteristics or
establish a new breed must be on the lookout for and care-
fully preserve such characteristics when they appear.
Two-hundred-egg hens may or may not breed true. Some
of them may and some may not, but the progressive breeder
will take his chances. So far as it is now known, it is a
chance, and the sure way to determine whether one hen or
one male will breed true is to test them in the breeding pen.
Reversion. — Variation, however, is not always in the line
of progress. Sometimes the offspring may vary away from
the line of improvement. Sometimes characteristics that have
a counterpart only in remote ancestors, appear suddenly.
This is called reversion or breeding back. The scientific
name is atavism. What causes reversion is one of the great
mysteries. There is a latent tendency, largely unknown,
66 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
for breeding to evolve backward. It sometimes happens
that the offspring shows characteristics that have not been
known to appear for centuries in the history of the breed.
Reversion works for desirable as well as undesirable traits.
The causes which produce reversion are not always ap-
parent, but factors such as a change in food or climate are
known to cause reversion. Characteristics that have ap-
parently been lost, but are not lost, only latent, may reap-
pear when the system of breeding is changed.
The reader is referred to page six for reference to Dar-
win's experiments on reversion, wherein Darwin claimed
that he secured a fowl that reverted to the pattern of the
jungle fowl, showing characteristics that had been latent for
possibly two thousand years. The experiment was repeated
by Dr. Davenport of the Carnegie Institution with similar
results.
The point* has not yet been reached that the origin of any
particular breed or variety may in this way be demonstrated
with certainty, but it is possible by crossing a Plymouth
Rock, for example, with some other breed, and then recross-
ing the offspring to discover strong circumstantial evidence
as to what breeds were used in producing the Plymouth
Rock.
At the Oregon Station a White Wyandotte and a Black
Minorca were mated. The offspring were white. Mating the
white offspring together chicks were secured that were strip-
ed in the down on the back. Neither the Minorcas nor the
Wyandotte chicks show stripes in the down. This was evi-
dently a reversion to some remote ancestor, possibly to some
of the breeds that were used in the" making up of the Wyan-
dottes. It is known that the young of all wild fowls of the
Gallinaceous species are hatched with stripes in the down
of back, and it is possible that by the proper crossing this
characteristic, though latent possibly for a thousand years,
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING
67
would appear in the chick. These stripes still appear in the
down of newly hatched chicks of the Brown leghorn breed
and some others.
A third cross from the same breeds produce fowls that
were barred in the feathers, though barring was not a char-
acteristic of any of the different breeds known to have been
used in producing
either. It might have
been that later, if not in
the making1 of the breeds,
by accident, or design,
a cross was made with a
barred breed, and the
characteristic of bar-
ring, though latent so
long as no crossing was
resorted to, reappeared
when crossing and inter-
crossing took place. The
fact that a hen may lay
only a dozen eggs in a
year may be accounted
for by reversion to the
wild ancestor. In cross-
ing the Barred Ply-
mouth Rock and the
White Leghorn, some 90
per cent, of the progeny were white. In crossing the
white crosses together, a few of the offspring were blue in
color.
Reversion is usually an evil, not always. Where improve-
ment has been going steadily on, reversion must always be
an evil. Sometimes, however, progress has gone backward
in breeding, and in that case reversion may restore the lost
RESULT OF CROSSING WHITE WYAN-
DOTTE AND BLACK MINORCA
Female of second generation. Note barring.
68 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAQEMENT
character. The practical lesson to the breeder is that he
should eliminate everything in the breeding and manage-
ment that may cause reversion when he is making satisfac-
tory progress.
The Pure-Bred, or Purity in Breeding. — We are accus-
tomed to considering pedigree as synonymous with purity
of breeding. The Shorthorn that can trace an unbroken
ancestry back to the Duchess family is a pure-bred. The
Berkshire that has a clear line of descent from Longfellow —
an animal of superior excellence that belonged to a breeder
of Missouri about twenty years ago — is a pure-bred Berk-
shire. If one of its ancestors had been crossed with a Poland
China a number of years ago, even though no trace of Poland
China could now be detected, and it would win in the show
ring, it would not be pure bred. The pedigree was every-
thing. But Mendelism has given a new meaning to pure
bred. It has shown us that purity of breeding has a physio-
logical basis. A bird or animal may be pure bred in respect
to one character and inpure in respect to another. A bird,
for example, may be pure in respect to the character
"comb," but not pure in respect to some other character.
If a cock and a hen of a single comb breed when mated
breed offspring with single combs, they are pure bred so far
as comb is concerned.
If, however, some of the offspring are black and others
white they are not pure bred in respect to color of plumage.
They would be mongrels in color, but pure bred in comb.
It is a question of unit characters, not individuals. Again,
if a hen laying 150 eggs in a year, mated to a male from a
150-egg hen, produces offspring that lay less than 100 eggs,
she would not be pure bred in respect to egg production.
The parents are pure-bred when their own characteristics
are reproduced in the offspring with reasonable certainty.
A hen is a pure-bred egg producer if she transmits her egg-
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 69
laying qualities to her offspring, even though her offspring
come in various colors, sizes and shapes.
A noted exponent of Mendelism says that purity of type
"has nothing to do with a prolonged course of selection,
natural or artificial. ' ' Again he says : ' ' An organism may
be pure-bred in respect of a given character though its
parents were cross-bred in the same respect. Purity depends
on the meeting of the two gametes bearing similar factors,
and when two similarly constituted gametes do thus meet in
BREED IMPROVERS
Pedigreed cockerels, all from stock, with records of over 200 eggs in a year.
They were sent to breeders in various sections of the United States and to
several foreign countries to breed better layers. Bred at the Oregon Station.
fertilization the product of their union is pure. The belief,
so long prevalent, that purity of type depends essentially
on continued selection is thus shown to have no physiological
foundation. Similarly, it is evident that an individual may
be pure in respect to one character and cross-bred or impure
in respect of others." (Bateson) Again, "An animal may
have one thirty-secondth of the blood of some progenitor,
and yet be pure in one or more of its traits. ' '
A fowl may be mongrel in one respect and pure in another.
70 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
A Plymouth Rock may be "barred to the skin" and trans-
mit that characteristic to the offspring. It is pure in that
respect, but she may not be able to transmit to her offspring
the yellow leg color ; if so, she is not pure in that respect.
The Blue Andalusian is considered a pure breed, and yet
from the standpoint of purity it is mongrel so far as
color is concerned, for when both Andalusian parents are
blue, the offspring are blue, black, or splashed white. Ex-
perimenters have found that, on the average, half the off-
spring will be blue, one-fourth black, and one fourth splash-
ed white. Now when the blacks are mated together the off-
spring are all black; and white with white gives all white.
The blacks and whites breed pure, but the blues are not pure,
in other words mongrels, so far as color is concerned. Again,
if blacks and whites are bred together the offspring are all
blue. No amount of selection, line breeding, or inbreeding,
will overcome this peculiarity, or trait of the Andalusian;
the Blue Andalusian will remain forever a mongrel race
so far as color is concerned.
What then is a Pure-bred Fowl? — It may be denned as
one that possesses the characteristics of the breed to which it
belongs and reproduces those characteristics in its offspring
with reasonable certainty. Purity of breeding refers to
the blood lines or pedigree of the fowl and to its ability to
transmit the breed characteristics to the progeny. The
makers of poultry standards have not been able to incor-
porate in their standards anything signifying egg-laying
points, because it has never been demonstrated that there
is any particular shape or type of fowl that indicates its
laying qualities, nor has it been possible or practicable up to
date to include in the standard a requirement as to perfor-
mance, or a record of eggs laid. On the other hand, the
only requirement to admit a horse to the Trotting Register
is speed. He must have speed and an ancestry of speed.
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING
Breeders of dairy cattle have a register of merit, and no
animal is admitted to that register without a certified per-
formance record.
If some such plan could be worked out for poultry breed-
ers, it would place utility poultry breeding upon a more
certain and profitable basis. It is doubtful if this can be
accomplished without state aid. The dairy records are
authenticated and certi-
fied by state agricul-
tural college officials.
It would be possible to
maintain breeding sta-
tions to which a poultry
breeder might send a
few fowls to be trap-
nested for a year, or the
state could keep on a
farm of its own suffi-
cient stock to furnish at
nominal cost a limited
amount of stock of good
laying pedigree to cer-
t a i n poultry - keepers
and farmers in different
counties of the state. This would form a nucleus for a
strain of good producers in each community, from which
could be sold stock and eggs for breeding purposes in that
community, using the state farm from which to secure
breeding males with which to maintain the egg-laying
qualities of their flocks.
A third method would be for a few reliable private
breeders in each county to trapnest a flock and keep pedigree
records, selling eggs and breeding fowls only from pedigreed
stock. It is not clear, however, how satisfactory progress
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE
Son of a 218-egg hen. (Oregon Station.)
72
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
could be made without state aid or state supervision in some
way that will relieve the poultry-keeper or farmer of the
burden of keeping the necessary individual records and
guarantee the reliability of the pedigree. To be of value this
work must be continued year after year. To trapnest the
flock for one year and pick out a few of the best layers for
breeding, would amount to little. The pedigree to be of
value must have several generations behind it, and this
means not only that trapnesting must be done each year, but
also that a record must
be kept showing the in-
dividual parentage of
the chicks hatched.
In any event, there is
opportunity for private
breeders to do a profit-
able business, if they
have the time to devote
to it and the necessary
knowledge for the keep-
ing of pedigree records
and for the proper mat-
ing of breeding stock.
In regard to show
standards, it has not
been made clear how
A GOOD TYPE OF BREEDER
From 200-egg stock. Note vigor and alert-
ness. Has good show points also. (Oregon
Station.)
they can be changed so
that the poultry judge
in making awards may be able to place proper value on pro-
ductive qualities as shown by the trapnest record or pedigree
of performance. But if the poultry show is to keep pace with
the development of productive poultry-keeping, something
is due to be done that will change poultry standards and
give a different meaning to pure-breds other than that they
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING
73
breed pure or true to certain characteristics of color and
shape, but are impure from the standpoint of egg produc-
tion.
Cross Breeding. — In considering poultry breeding from
the farm standpoint, it should not be overlooked that a large
proportion of poultry products come from fowls that are not
pure-bred. A great
many farmers practice
crossing ; others practice
grading — possibly
a large majority; while
not a few follow another
system which may be
called mongrelizing.
This chapter has to do
with the first, crossing.
Probably most of the
farmers of the country
recognize the necessity
o f introducing new
blood into the flock and
of avoiding inbreeding,
but they have not • BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE
chosen, intentionally or
otherwise, to preserve
breed characteristics as
they are described in the "Standard of Perfection." Com-
paratively few of them pay attention to exhibition points.
It is contended that the farmer makes a mistake in not
keeping strictly standard-bred fowls, but he excuses him-
self on the ground : First, that the initial cost of stocking
up with standard-breds is greater than the business would
warrant ; second, it has not been demonstrated to his satis-
faction that standard-breds are better producers than cross-
Oregon Station. Dam laid 214 eggs and
sire's dam 218. A fine type of Plymouth
Rock, but rather large as a breeder of high
egg producers.
74
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
breds or grades ; third, that the great bulk of animal prod-
ucts of all kinds come from grade stock. Those who are
making money out of pure-bred, fancy-bred livestock are
those who are in the business partly or wholly of producing
and selling breeding stock. Fourth, there would not be
enough standard-bred chickens in the country to stock
up the farms.
Advantages of crossing. — (1) The crossing of two dis-
tinct breeds usually results in greater vigor. This is more
apparent where pure-
breds have suffered
from close breeding or
inbreeding. Many breeds
of poultry have been in-
jured from too close
breeding. It is common
history that several
breeds, once prominent,
are now practically ex-
tinct as a result of too
much inbreeding. A
number of years ago
the Black Spanish had a reputation on two continents as a
splendid egg-producer, but as a result of insensate breed-
ing for a fancy point it is practically unknown to-day. Its
most striking characteristic is its long white face, and the
fancier set about making it longer, sacrificing every other
point, with the result noted. It may not follow that close
breeding is necessarily fatal. It may not be impossible in
the hands of expert breeders to intensify fancy points, or
any other points, by long-continued inbreeding, without an-
nihilating the breed. It means a great sacrifice in the mean-
time ; its numbers are so diminished, its breeding powers so
impaired, that practical poultry-keepers cast it aside.
RESULT OF BREEDING FOR A FANCY
POINT
The photograph on the left shows the head
of the original Spanish male. The one on
the right is the modern bird. (From "Poul-
try for Table and Market.")
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 75
Wright says, * ' There can be no doubt that too close inter-
breeding has greatly injured the Spanish fowl, and that not
only size, but also constitution and prolificacy have been
sacrificed to the white face alone. ' '
Other examples could be given where close breeding for a
fancy point has removed breeds from the arena of practical
poultry-keeping. The Buff Cochin is another that now gets
little consideration from practical poultry breeders, largely
because it has been sacrificed by close breeding to the fad of
profuse leg feathering. The Brahma has been similarly in-
jured. The Plymouth Rock was in danger from the fad of
giving the prize to the bird showing the best barring, other
points being given slight consideration, but owing to its
wide distribution on the farms of the country and to the fact
that there were enough breeders to ignore the extreme de-
mands for barring, it has not suffered as some other breeds
have.
The present popularity of the Rhode Island Red is largely
due to its vigor, which came from its outgrowth origin, and
it would have been better, as McGrew intimates, if many
other breeds had been bred on the same plan.
' ' The effects of too close interbreeding on animals, judg-
ing from plants, ' ' says Darwin, ' t would be deterioration in
general vigor, including fertility, with no necessary loss of
excellence of form." That is, there will be a loss in vigor,
but this may not be evident in the form or appearance of
the fowl.
1 'The evidence convinces me," he says again, "that it is
a great law of nature that all organic beings profit from an
occasional cross with individuals not closely related to them
in blood." Again, "The crossing of varieties adds to the
size, vigor, and fertility of the offspring. ' *
Edward Brown, in "Poultry-Keeping for Farmers and
Cottagers," says: "Recrossing very largely remedies this
76 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
[deterioration in profitable qualities], for it is found that
first crosses between suitable breeds give us hardier and
more prolific birds than were either of the parents. ' '
The evils of close breeding of animals are pointed out by
Shaler, in * ' Domesticated Animals. ' ' He says : ' " Among
the evils which are to be corrected we may also count that
which arises from the unguided development of what are
called fancy breeds. Thus among our horned cattle the
Jersey has been bred to a point where, from the iniquitous
inbreeding, which is against what may be called the moral-
ity of nature, they are fearfully subjected to tuberculosis."
"It is a generally received opinion," says Tegetmeier,
"that cross-bred chickens are the hardiest and most easily
reared."
(2) The use of cross-breds enables many people to en-
gage in poultry-keeping who would otherwise be debarred
owing to the comparative scarcity of pure-breds and to the
high prices that are demanded for them. If the object is
to develop the industry as a means of food supply, it would
be a mistake to advocate the slaughter of the cross-breds. If
cross-breds were to be eliminated at once, it would mean an
immediate and serious decrease in poultry products.
(3) Crossing, where it increases vigor, improves the lay-
ing. The productive hen has good vitality. Heavy egg
production requires a high expenditure of energy, and to
maintain this production the fowl must have stamina. While
the loss of vigor may not be apparent in the form or out-
ward appearance of the fowl, it will show in lower produc-
tion. Vigor is not so essential in breeding for type or for
show qualities, but it is very essential in breeding for eggs.
In experiments conducted by the writer, a hen weighing
three pounds produced 29 pounds of eggs in a year, about
ten times her body weight. Another weighing less than five
pounds produced 42 pounds of eggs in a year. To with-
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 77
stand this strain on her reproductive organs, her vitality
must not have been impaired by any system of breeding.
To demand production of that intensity from a strain of
fowls that have been bred and inbred for generations for
any special point is to demand the impossible. It is not
here claimed that standard-bred fowls or show birds are
necessarily poor layers. It is not impossible for the breeder
to breed show birds and at the same time maintain the vital-
ity necessary for the high production, but close breeding
for either fancy points or utility points will not insure
good layers, any more than the same kind of breeding with
mongrels will produce good layers.
(4) New breeds and varieties are produced by crossing.
Most of our modern breeds are the result of cross breed-
ing. Crossing induces variation, and it is in taking ad-
vantage of these variations that new breeds and varieties
arise. Some crosses or hybrids possessing desired charac-
teristics breed true, and the type at once becomes fixed. On
the other hand, the great majority will not breed true, and
years of careful selection will be necessary to fix the type.
The Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and
other breeds are all the result of crossing. The Orpington,
of more recent origin, resulted from crossing many breeds,
and William Cook, the originator, said that he got "so many
more eggs than he did when the breeds were pure that it
gave him a new idea."
Jordan and Kellogg, in "Evolution and Animal Life,"
say, ' ' Often as much progress can be made in a single suc-
cessful cross or hybridization as in a dozen or even a hun-
dred generations of pure selection. ' '
The Primus berry was produced by Luther Burbank with
a cross between the Siberian raspberry and the California
Dewberry. Its fruit excells either parent in abundance
and size, and ripens before the two parents begin to bloom.
78
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
BARRED ROCK AND WHITE LEG-
HORN, FIRST CROSS
Male. White is dominant color.
The Loganberry, the
product of a cross, is
greatly superior to
either parent in produc-
tivity.
Breeders are just be-
ginning to learn a little
as to what may be ac-
complished by crossing,
and it is not unreason-
able to expect great im-
provement in the eco-
nomic qualities of fowls
when breeders master
the science and art of
crossing. There is an
inviting field for developing by crossing new strains or
varieties of fowls where egg and meat production forms
the chief object sought,
but it should only be
undertaken by those
having skill, experience,
and patience.
The first cross will
give offspring of one or
two kinds: either they
will resemble in one or
more characteristics one
of the parents exclus-
ively, or they will show
resemblance to both.
Certain characteristics
blend; others do not.
BARRED ROCK AND WHITE LEG-
HORN, FIRST CROSS
Female. White dominant color.
Where the offspring re-
semble one parent, and
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 79
the males and females of that cross are bred together, some
of the second generation will resemble the other parent, and
when these are bred together they will breed true, the off-
spring will all resemble their parents. This was shown at
the Oregon Station in breeding Barred Plymouth Rock and
White Leghorn fowls. The first generation were all white, or
practically so, taking after one parent. When these crosses
were bred together there was reversion to the Barred parent,
some of them being barred, and in mating these barred
crosses together they bred true and produced only barred
offspring. Again, in crossing a White Wyandotte with a
BARRED ROCK AND WHITE LEGHORN, FIRST CROSS
Flock showing dominant color white.
Single Comb White Leghorn, the offspring had practically
all rose combs. Breeding the crosses together, tha off-
spring reverted to the Leghorn, some of them showing single
combs. Breeding this single-comb offspring together, they
bred true to the character single comb. Rose comb is a
dominant characteristic, single recessive, and recessives
breed true, while the dominants do not. Thte is Mendelism.
A knowledge of these facts will often prove useful to the
poultry breeder.
Disadvantages of Crossing. — In the foregoing the ad-
vantages of crossing have been enumerated. If the dis-
cussion were to stop here it might be inferred that the poul-
80
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
tryman must necessarily cross his fowls. But there are cer-
tain disadvantages, some of which will now be considered.
First, before there can be any crossing, there must be
breeds to cross. Why, then, should breeds be made and then
unmade ? It is not necessary that they should be unmade,
if the breeds remain in their original purity. The only ex-
cuse for crossing is that
breeds have been partly
unmade, or they have
lost some of their origi-
nal utility. They may
have lost vigor, and size,
and productiveness, and
the excuse for crossing
is to restore those lost
characteristics.
There is no need of
crossing, however, i f
sane methods have been
followed in breeding.
But in crossing, if vigor
and fertility be restored,
other characteristics
will be 1 o sj , a n d
it wjll be for the breeder to decide whether the gain is
equal to the loss. For example, he is breeding White Leg-
horns and they have lost in vigor and productiveness ; a cross
with Brown Leghorns will restore these, but he has lost the
perfection in white color, and it will take several years to
eradicate this taint. If color is all important to him, or if
other points that may have been lost by crossing are more
important than the points gained, then he should hesitate
to cross, and depend rather upon the introduction into his
breeding yards of birds from other strains of the same breed
WHITE WYANDOTTE— BLACK MIN-
ORCA MALE, FIRST CROSS
White plumage color and rose comb
dominant characteristics.
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING
81
and preferably from other sections of the country, to im-
prove vigor.
Tlie two alternatives are crossing and outcrossing. The
theoretical objection to crossing is that it disturbs blood
lines, and the influence of ancestry is lost. In other wqrds,
while it may " improve the breed it spoils the blood. "
While crossing often results in improved strains that excel
their parents, causing a tendency upward, it is also true that
THE RECESSIVE COLOR BARRING
Barred Rock and White Leghorn Cross. D621 laid 275 eggs; D. 622 laid
272 eggs in a year. (Oregon Station.)
crossing sometimes reverses the engine of evolution and
throws backward. This usually happens when it is con-
tinued beyond the first generation. Crossing cross-breds
with cross-breds will start the engine going backward; in
other words, reversion will happen, and the result is likely
t6 be mongrels, or even a type resembling in some charac-
teristics the wild ancestor. Indiscriminate crossing will
lead to degeneracy just as surely as will indiscriminate in-
breeding. The first cross will give vigor, as much, probably,
82 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
as a dozen crosses. While the benefits of crossing cannot
be ignored, it must be remembered that the mongrel con-
dition of many farm flocks is due to indiscriminate cross-
ing.
Grading. — Probably the kind of poultry breeding fol-
lowed by the majority of farmers would be better charac-
terized by grading them by crossing. Grading may be de-
fined as the breeding up of common or mongrel stock by
the use of pure-bred sires. The object is not to restore lost
vigor or other lost characteristics, nor to establish new
breeds, but to improve the flock by means of the sire only.
' ' The failure to make the most of grading, ' ' says Daven-
port in * ' Principles of Breeding, " " is the largest single mis-
take of American farmers." The great bulk of cattle that
furnish the meat supply of the world are grade Shorthorns
and Herefords. The same thing is true of farm poultry-
keeping, the failure to make the most of grading by the use
of pure-bred males is the farmer 's greatest single mistake. In
four or five generations, by the use of pure-bred males, a
variegated mongrel-looking lot of chickens may be bred up
to a uniform type resembling closely the breed to which the
male belongs. If the male is chosen, however, as he naturally
will be, from a strain of heavy layers, the farmer will have
the satisfaction and the pleasure not only of receiving
greater profit as a result of his labor, but also of witnessing
an object lesson in breeding of supreme interest through the
gradual but sure realization of his ideals both in increased
production and in the gradual unfolding of a distinct type
and color.
The important thing in grading is to begin with an ideal
and stick to it. If the result sought is higher egg produc-
tion, the breeder should use preferably one of the smaller
breeds, but certainly a strain that can show records of high
production. Under no condition should this purpose be
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 83
departed from. If uniformity of excellence in laying is
desired, the object will be quickest secured by using each
year a male that has a good pedigree in that respect.
Changing the breed or type of male each year will result in
getting nowhere. The failure to make the most of grading
has been due to the occasional or frequent use of grade
males.
A grade may have apparently all the characteristics of
the pure-bred ; he may look so attractive that the breeder is
tempted to take a chance and use him for breeding, with
the result that improvement is likely to go backward. The
grade may himself have all the characteristics, but he has
not the ancestry or blood lines behind him to insure the
transmission of those qualities, and instead of grading up,
the process is liable to become mongrelizing. It should also
be clearly understood that the male should not only be pure-
bred, but he should have that purity of breeding that ex-
tends to egg-laying; in other words*, he should be from a
strain that is known to consist of good layers.
Prepotency. — The reason a grade male may not transmit
his characteristics has been ascribed to a lajck of what is
called prepotency. Prepotency, therefore, is the ability of
the parent to fix his characteristics in the offspring. All
parents have not this power in the same degree. This is the
significant fact for the breeder. It is not enough to know
that a certain male or female has a long pedigree, or that
the blood lines have been carefully preserved for years.
Prepotency does not always follow blood lines. Later knowl-
edge has given a modified meaning to prepotency, and the
fact has been proved that one individual may be prepotent
and another of the same blood lines, possibly of the same
parentage, is not. It is true that the individual having been
bred pure to a certain type for a great many generations is
more likely to transmit his characteristics than would a
84 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
grade; the chances are much in favor of the pure-bred,
otherwise all the laws of heredity would be of no avail. But
it is certain that fowls of the same breeding are not equally
prepotent. The Mendelian law of dominance furnishes the
explanation.
Dominance. — There are certain characters that are domi-
nant. For example, white plumage is a dominant color.
This was shown in the cross mentioned between Barred
Plymouth Rocks and White Leghorns, where the offspring
were all white. They resembled only one parent in color.
Color, however, is only one .character. The offspring of a
cross may take after one parent in one point and the other
parent in some other point. For example, in crossing a
black Wyandotte with a White Leghorn, the offspring will
resemble the Wyandotte in the kind of comb, but the Leg-
horn in color of plumage, a white chicken with a rose comb.
It is said, then, that the white color and the rose comb are
dominant characteristics, and that single comb and black
color are recessives, and no matter what breeds may be
crossed, the dominant characters of white plumage and rose
comb will show in the offspring, and the recessive charac-
ters will not. It is not a question of ancestry or blood lines.
While the offspring have all rose combs they are impure
rose, and this is brought out in the next generation, when
the cross-breds are bred together. In this generation re-
version takes place, and on the average 25% of the offspring
will have the recessive character of single combs ; 75% will
have rose combs; but of these, 25% are pure rose, that is,
they will forever breed pure to rose combs, but the 50%
are impure. This 50% when recrossed will segregate in
the same way, 25% single combs, 75% rose combs, but of
the 75% only 25% will breed pure rose combs, and so on.
It resolves itself into a question of testing the breeding
powers rather than a question of selection. The 25%
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 85
recessives will breed pure single combs and no amount of
selective breeding will make them purer. This is the dis-
covery of Mendel. Twenty-five per cent of the dominants,
rosecombs, will breed pure; that is, a third, but the only
way to pick out the third or determine which will breed
pure rose combs, is to test them by breeding. The way to
test them is to mate them to single comb fowls, and if the
progeny have rose combs, the rose comb parent is pure and
will always breed pure rose combs. This requires, of
course, individual mating. All this gives a new meaning
to prepotency. Prepotency is not altogether dependent
upon length of pedigree.
Egg Color and Dominance. — It has been discovered, how-
ever, that not all characters segregate in this way, and
herein comes some confusion. Some characters segregate,
others unite or blend. In place of resembling one parent,
the offspring resembled both in part. Again referring to
the experiment of Barred Plymouth Rocks and White Leg-
horns, the color of eggs laid by the female offspring of the
cross showed a blend. The color of the Leghorn egg is
white, while the egg of the Plymouth Rock is brown. The
eggs from the cross averaged medium, showing the influence
of both parents. This character, color of egg, did not act
like the character color of plumage. In the one case there
was a blend, in the other, segregation. In one, the offspring
took after both parents, in the other, after one parent,
Pure-bred not Always Prepotent. — In carrying this ex-
periment further, white cross-bred pullets from the mating
of Barred Plymouth Rocks and White Leghorns, were mated
to pure-bred Barred Plymouth Rock males, with the result
that the offspring had white plumage. They took after the
cross-bred parent, rather than the pure-bred parent. Other
white pullets of the same cross were mated to pure-bred
Brown Leghorn males, and out of over 150 chicks from this
86 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
mating less than a dozen took after the pure-bred male in
color; the balance were all white. The practical point
brought out in this experiment is that prepotency does not
follow blood lines, and that in mating a cross-bred or mon-
grel to a pure-bred it does not necessarily follow that the off-
spring will take after the pure-bred in all characters. Pre-
potency is not always measured by length of pedigree
While Mendelism is yet in an " embryonic " stage, and
while confusion prevails as to its teachings in certain re-
spects, a clue has undoubtedly been found that will lead
the way to important developments in the future.
Outcrossing. — The term outcrossing is frequently used
by breeders. It means the use of males from strains dif-
ferent from those of the females, but belonging to the same
breed or variety. It is breeding within breed lines, but not
within family lines. If a careful system of outcrossing be
practiced, resort to crossing will probably seldom be neces-
sary to keep up the stamina of the breed. This is the main
purpose of outcrossing. Another object in outcrossing is
to improve the family or strain in some point or character
which it may lack by introducing blood from another strain
which is strong in the character the other lacks,
Inbreeding. — The mating together or breeding together
of closely related males and females, is inbreeding. Where
the relationship is close, inbreeding is the term used, but
where the relationship is more or less remote it is called by
many authorities line breeding. The only difference, if
there should in reality be any difference, between inbreed-
ing and line breeding, is a difference in degree of relation-
ship. It is doubtful whether it would not be just as well
to call it all by the one name, "inbreeding."
Breeding of brother and sister together is the closest
kind of inbreeding. Mating parent to offspring is also
close breeding, though this is frequently called line breed-
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 87
ing. The subject of inbreeding is a much debated one, and
until there is a better and more perfect understanding of
its effects the debate should continue. It is unquestionably
a most important problem.
There are those who steadily maintain the ground that
inbreeding is necessary to breed improvement. It is prob-
ably true that most of our breeds of poultry, as well as of
live stock, were largely inbred in the making. It may be
open to doubt whether this was not largely due to cir-
cumstances or to the fact that in the making of new breeds
there were not at hand two or more families unrelated by
blood lines from which to draw upon, rather than to the
merit of the system itself.
It is undoubtedly true that close breeding or inbreeding
has been a costly blunder, and it is playing with a danger-
ous weapon when inbreeding is held up to poultry breeders
as always desirable or necessary. It is a problem that can
be solved only after long experiment, and it appears to the
writer that the data is not at hand upon which to base final
judgment. In the meantime a common-sense view should
be taken by the breeder, which should prompt him to avoid
close breeding and suggest that where it seems necessary to
fix or maintain some desirable characteristics, the breeding
together of distant relatives may possibly be practiced to
advantage.
The purpose of the breeding should be considered in
discussing the effect of inbreeding. The evil effect of in-
breeding may not 1*3 apparent in the form or beauty of
the fowl, but may result in reduced vigor and lower breed-
ing power. It may show in the egg yield, in the fertility
of the eggs, and in the vigor or mortality of the chicks, but
not necessarily in the type or prize-winning qualities.
Again, it may be possible to breed a larger proportion of
prize winners through inbreeding than by outcrossing, but
88 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
at the same time the 'egg-laying characteristics may be in-
jured. The explanation is that the reproductive organs,
i.e., the egg-laying organs, are more closely related to vigor
than is the shape or type of fowl.
It is denied by many that a loss in vigor necessarily
results from inbreeding. By careful selection of breeding
stock, it is claimed, no loss in vigor will follow. Let us
see.
What is the Purpose of Inbreeding. — It is to fix desired
characteristics. If a superior fowl be found, one that
possesses in a high' degree certain points of value to the
breeder, it is claimed that by breeding her to her son her
characteristics will be more quickly fixed in the offspring
than would be the case by any other system of breeding.
The points of superiority may be color of plumage, shape
of comb, shape of body, or number of eggs laid, and various
other points that the breeder wishes to fix. If the hen has
proved to be a good layer, the theory of inbreeding is that
by breeding her to her son, there will be more probability
of getting good layers than if she be mated to a male that
is not related to her.
If the point bred for be color or type, it may be that
inbreeding or line breeding will give a larger proportion
of offspring strong in those points than would outcrossing,
even though the males in either case be equally good in
those points. But it is a different matter when the point to
be bred for is one that has to do with their productive or
reproductive qualities, because those points are so inti-
mately related or correlated to vigor of the fowl that it is
doubtful if the theory will hold.
Inbreeding Experiments. — Recent experiments at the
Oregon Station indicate that the evil effects of inbreeding
overbalance the possible good. Fowls with no apparent
lack of vigor, and no defects in external points of shape and
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 89
color, showed, first, in a lower fertility of eggs, in a lower
percentage of fertile eggs hatched, and in a higher rate of
mortality in the chickens, that there was a loss of vigor
due to inbreeding mother to son. Second, the result showed
OREGON STATION HEN C543, AND THE EGGS SHE LAID IN
A YEAR— 291
An exceptional layer though inbred.
decreased egg yield in the pullet offspring. From different
matings the inbred pullet offspring showed a lower average
egg yield than other matings not inbred.
Again, it is claimed that inbreeding tends to uniformity
90 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
of type and that it "discourages variability." ("Prin-
ciples of Breeding," Davenport, p. 610.) That may be
true of type, but these experiments with fowls gave results
in production exactly the opposite. There was less uni-
formity in egg production from those inbred than from
those not inbred. An inbred pullet, a daughter of hen 250
(record 402 eggs in two years) inbred to her son, laid 291
eggs in a year, one of the most remarkable layers ever
produced at the Station. The same mating that produced
this phenomenal layer (291 eggs) produced the second
poorest layer in the flock, which laid 124. The average
of all the inbred pullets of this mating was 181 eggs.
The same thing was shown in the production of pullets
of another mating, hen 034 (record 229) inbred mother
to son — greater variability and lower production than the
other matings. The results in this case showed a high
record of 237 eggs, and a low record of 119, the lowest of
all the flock, the average being 187 eggs. Those of the flock
inbred averaged 182, against an average of 219 of all not
inbred, or 20% more. In the latter case, the highest was
303 and the lowest 163. In the previous year, the daughters
of 034, not inbred, averaged 210 eggs, and the daughters
of 250, not inbred, averaged 221. In all these matings
males from high producing hens were used. The egg yield
from the inbred fowls while 20% lower than the others is
above the yield of the average flock of fowls, indicating that
a good yield may be secured by inbreeding, not because of
it, but in spite of it. It will pay to inbreed some, rather
than use breeding stock that are indifferent or poor layers.
So far as fixing the character of egg production, inbreeding
proved a failure. Not only was there lower production but
there was greater variability in production.
If as these experiments strongly indicate that heavy egg
production demands a high vigor and that the reproductive
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY BREEDING 91
organs of the fowl are peculiarly sensitive to inbreeding,
then the breeder whose object is higher egg production must
not follow inbreeding, even though it may have accom-
plished in the way of improving type in both live-stock and
poultry all that its strongest supporters claim for it.
CHAPTER VII
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
Various factors relating to environment, such as feeding,
housing, and management, affect the egg yield, and are
discussed in other chapters. Unless these conditions are
favorable the egg yield will be low. It has also been seen
that systems of breeding and mating that affect vigor in-
fluence the egg yield.
It is another question whether high egg-laying is trans-
LIKE BEGETS LIKE
Two full sisters. Oregon Station. C119 (left) laid 241 eggs. C166 (right)
laid 233 eggs.
mitted from parent to offspring. This is probably the most
important problem of all. It would seem that any doubt
on this point could very easily be set at rest by actual dem-
onstration, but experimenters have found the problem a
difficult one. The actual experimental data at hand are
not very extensive and possibly not conclusive enough to
92
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
93
LIKE DOES NOT ALWAYS BEGET LIKE
Two full sisters. C48 (left) laid 268 eggs. C60 (right) laid 3 eggs.
satisfy scientific demand
in regard to the mode
of inheritance, if not of
the fact of inheritance
itself.
The breeding work of
the Maine Station, be-
gun by Professor Go-
well and continuing
nine years in co-
operation with the
Bureau of Animal In-
dustry during part of
that period, produced
negative results so far
as raising the standard
of egg production of the
OREGON STATION HEN D18
271 eggs in a year. From same dam as C119
and C166, but different sire. Note short
body.
flock under investigation was concerned. After a thorough
study had been made of the trapnest records the an-
94
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
nouncement was made in 1908 (Bulletin 157) that "there
is no evidence of any increase in the average production
of the flock." The average production and the number of
fowls in the experiment are given herewith for the differ-
ent years :
Number of fowls Actual average
YEAR AND PEN completing production
the year per Tien
1899-1900 70 136.36
1900-1901 85 14344
1901-1902 48 15558
1902-1903 147 13542
1903-1904 254 117.90
1904-1905 50 bird pens 283 134.07
1905-1906 50 bird pens 178 140.14
1906-1907 50 bird pens 187 113.24
In a subsequent bulletin (Number 166, 1909) it was stat-
ed: " The aim so far has
been to set forth in as
clear and unequivocal
manner as possible the
definite fact that in the
S t a t i o n 's experience
thus far the daughter
of a 200-egg hen is on
the average an excep-
tionally poor winter
layer instead of an ex-
ceptionally good one."
In this case the mothers'
average winter produc-
tion, November 1 to
March 1, was 55.8 eggs,
and the daughters' 15.29 eggs per fowl. The results further
showed that the daughters of hens laying less than 200
BARRED ROCK HEN A78
Record 212 eggs. A good type of Plymouth
Rock.
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
95
eggs gave a higher winter egg production than those from
the 200-egg hens.
Again, in Bulletin 192 (1911), the following statement
is made : ' 1 There does not exist any critical evidence that the
selection of the highest laying birds on the basis of the trap-
nest record as breeders will insure or guarantee any definite
permanent improvement in the average flock production."
' * It now seems quite gen-
erally agreed," quoting
from the same bulletin,
"that about the only prof-
itable function of the trap-
nest in practical or com-
mercial poultry-keeping is
in connection with special
needs or problems, as, for
example, in the work of the
fancier. ' '
The publication of these
results was somewhat dis-
couraging to breeders and
provoked widespread dis-
r>n««mn TViP pritipfll rpflflpr Son of A78— 21£ eggs. Sire's dam 259
CUSSlOn. J eggs. Oregon Station.
will observe, however, that
the failure to show an improvement in production by selec-
tion is not put forward as proof that it is impossible, but
only that there is no evidence in the records of that Station
that it is. Again, in the case where the daughters of 200-
egg hens were poorer layers than the daughters of layers
not so good, it is not held that this result must always be
expected, but only that " in the Station's experience" this
was obtained.
The statement in regard to the value of the trapnest is
rather difficult to understand because all improvement must
A GOOD PLYMOUTH ROCK HEAD,
WITH THE STAMP OF VIGOR
96
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
rest upon individual performance. A knowledge of indi-
vidual performance is only possible where the trapnest is
used.
It seems to the writer that the extreme difference in the
yield of 55 eggs as the winter production of the dams and
15 eggs for the daughters, cannot be satisfactorily explained
except upon the theory
that environmental con-
ditions were unfavor-
able in the case of the
daughters — that the
conditions surrounding
their breeding and man-
agement were in some
way unfavorable to high
production.
mThe methods followed
in selecting the breeding
H stock, in the nine years'
experiment, was to use
only hens that had
records of 150 eggs or
more, and after the first
year male birds only
were used whose dams
laid 200 eggs or more.
At the Oregon Station, later experiments produced dif-
ferent results. The records of six years' breeding work
with Barred Plymouth Rocks are summarized on the next
page.
The original flock of 95 pullets were purchased from six
different breeders. The first and second years' results have
little significance so far as the question of inheritance is
concerned. There had not been time enough to make selec-
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN 65—
218 EGGS
Oregon Station's first 200-egg hen. Her
daughter and granddaughter on p. 97.
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
97
PRODUCTION IN FIRST YEAR OF LAYING
Per cent laying 200
eggs or more
1.05
0.00
25.58
22.22
23.12
1908-09
95
year
84.7
218
Lowest
6
1909-10
28
121.2
183
70
1910-11
43
164.6
259
6
1912-13
108
179.2
268
3
1913-14
160
176.5
271
7
tions of breeding stock on the basis of individual produc-
tion. In the third year the pullets were from the original
stock, except that a 'third of the poorest layers were dis-
carded at the end of the first year. This flock of pullets,
however, had not individual pedigrees. The fourth year
records are not given as they were not fairly comparable
with those of other years. In the fifth year the pullets,
108 in number were all from pedigreed high producers.
A116 — DAUGHTER OF 65
Laid 218 eggs.
D172, GRANDDAUGHTER OF 65
Laid 221 eggs.
98 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
The average production of the dams was 202 eggs in a
year. Their sires were from dams, one with record of 218
eggs, the other 169. In the sixth year there were 160 pul-
lets which averaged 176.5. Their dams averaged 187.9,
sires' dams 219.8 and dams' dams 211.7. Hens that died
are eliminated in the calculation for each year.
No "new blood" was introduced during the six years,
but inbreeding was avoided. The parent stock was selected
A122— MOTHER
Laid 259 eggs in a year. Some of her daughters and granddaughte
shown on following pages. All of medium size and, with one exct
are short in body.
rs are
exception,
each year on the basis of trapnest records, no attention
being paid to shape or type. The breeding fowls, however,
represented fairly well the general characteristics of the
breed.
"Were further evidence needed as to the inheritance of
fecundity it is brought out in the table on p. 102 compiled
from the Oregon experiments, in which it will be seen that
the progeny of selected high layers produced 207.3 eggs per
hen, while the progeny of selected poor layers averaged
138.1 eggs. Male X of unknown ancestry, mated to poor
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
\ B
C146— 209 Eggs
D84— 236 Eggs
D90— 240 Eggs
D177— 268 Eggs
A FAMILY OF HIGH PRODUCERS— DAUGHTERS AND
GRANDDAUGHTERS OF A122
100
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
D118— 233 Eggs D119 — 209 Eggs
GRANDDAUGHTERS OF A122
A77— 214 Eggs
A GOOD TYPE OF PLYMOUTH ROCK AND A PRODUCER OF
GOOD LAYERS
Three daughters on opposite page, and two granddaughters on page 102.
PROBLEM OF
101
layers, produced daughters
that averaged 117.1 eggs
each. Mated to good layers
the daughters averaged 179.7
eggs. The same result is
shown in the case of the sire
whose dam laid 218 eggs.
Selection and Cross Breed-
ing. - - Is the problem of
higher fecundity a question
of selection altogether, or is
it a question of constitutional
vigor alone? Does the work
of the breeder begin and end
with selection, or does it begin
and end with vigor in the stock ? It is well known that many
strains of pure breeds, due to close breeding or other causes,
lack in vigor. It is also known that crossing two breeds or
varieties will restore the vigor lost by close breeding, and
A
D39— 270 Eggs
C58— 205 Eggs D74— 244 Eggs
DAUGHTERS OF A77
102 POULTRY
AND MANAGEMENT
D52— 214 Eggs D106— 225 Eggs
GRANDDAUGHTERS OF A77 (on page 100)
EGG PRODUCTION OP PULLETS FROM BOTH GOOD AND
POOR LAYING ANCESTORS
Year »amslaM Number Sire'S.^am Dauffhters Number
first year laid
1912-13
1912-13
1913-14
1911-12
Average
1911-12
1912-13
1912-13
1912-13
1913-14
1913-14
20
1
169
144.4
74
1
218
136.5
91.9
7
20
156.1
122
2
*
117.1
138.1
215.5
2
*
179.7
187.7
9
218
185.2
226
229
215.6
402$
1
402^
187
385:):
11
204
223.7
211.8
4
259
185.5
207.3
Average
*Male is of unknown pedigree.
^Two years' record.
67
32
3
50
28
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY 103
this is accomplished in one cross. Experiments at the
Oregon Station showed that crossing Barred Plymouth
Rocks and White Leghorns gave a decided increase in yield,
but a still more decided increase was obtained by following
up the crossing with selection. Crossing alone was not suf-
ficient, Only by high constitutional vigor, aided by selec-
tion, can the highest production be secured.
WHITE LEGHORNS FIRST YEAR, CROSSES IN SUBSEQUENT YEARS
PRODUCTION FIRST YEAR OF LAYING
Per cent laying
Tear hens year Hig1iefit L°West ^0 eggs or
1908-09 50 106.9 183 2 0.00
1909-10 63 135.6 211 14 4.76
1910-11 39 149.5 257 28 15.38
1912-13 23 218.2 303 124 69.52
1913-14 50 223.7 278 92 70.60
In these experiments 50 pure-bred White Leghorns aver-
aging 106.9 eggs were crossed promiscuously with Barred
Plymouth Rocks that averaged 84.6 eggs. The cross-breds
in the first generation averaged 135.6 eggs. Breeding them
back to pure-bred Leghorns the pullets with three-fourths
Leghorn blood, averaged 149.5. In the latter flock of cross-
bred hens, those with records averaging 208 eggs were se-
lected for breeding. Five of them were mated to males
from a Leghorn hen with record of 229 in her first year
and 407 in two years. Three were mated to a cross-bred
male of three-fourths Leghorn blood whose dam laid 402
eggs in two years. The daughters from these matings
averaged 218.2 eggs, one of them laying 303 eggs. In the
next year (breeding females of the same grade were used —
three-fourths Leghorn blood, average production 385 eggs
per hen in two years, dams' dam 402 eggs in two years.
These were mated to a pure-bred Barred Rock male whose
dam laid 204 eggs in one year and sire's dam 218. The
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
105
resulting flock of 50 pullets — five-eighths Barred Rock and
three-eighths Leghorn blood — averaged 223.7 eggs.
These and other results secured by the writer at the
Oregon Station indicate clearly not only that high egg-lay-
ing is transmitted, but that vigor and selection are both
D166— 217 Eggs
D34— 234 Eggs
Eggs D5— 233 Eggs
GRANDDAUGHTERS OF A79
106 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
necessary if the highest results are to be secured in pro-
duction.
It should not be assumed from, this experiment that
crossing of different breeds is always necessary to secure
vigor. The same result may be secured by crossing different
strains of the same breed, in other words by outcrossing.
Mode of inheritance. — Granting that the fact of trans-
mission of high egg-laying has been demonstrated, there
remains the further question as to the mode of inheritance.
Does it come about all at' once according to the Mendelian
law of dominance and recessiveness, or is it an achievement
that comes bit by bit after years of patient selective breed-
ing? Is high egg production a sex-limited affair in its in-
heritance? Is it inherited from the dam and dam alone,
or does it come through the sire and sire alone ?
So far as the Oregon investigations have gone, the results
do not bear a Mendelian interpretation. They do not show
that high egg production is either dominant or recessive to
low production. When high producers were mated to sons
of high producers the daughters were neither all high nor
all low producers. Mating high producers together, the
daughters did not equal the production of the parents on
the average. When low producers were mated the daugh-
ters did not take after either or both of the parents, but
showed a higher egg production than the dams or sires'
dams. In the one case there is a pulling down, in the other
a pulling up to a general level. Apparently the daughters
do not take the characteristics of the mother to the exclusion
of the sire's mother, or the reverse.
It appears as though high egg production is the accumu-
lated result of the selection of high production breeding
stock carried on for many generations. The breeder, how-
ever, will make rapid progress in reaching the high standard
in proportion as he is successful in identifying the excep-
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
107
tional individuals that
possess in a high degree
the power of transmit-
ting desired characteris-
tics to their offspring.
Is High Fecundity
Sex-Limited. — In other
words, is high fecundity
inherited through the
sire alone, or from, the
dam alone? This ques-
tion has been the subject
of investigation by Doc-
tor Pearl of the Maine
Station, and his con-
clusions are given in
these words (Maine Bul-
letin 205 ) : ' ' High fecundity may be inherited by daughters
from their sire, independent of the dam." . . . "High
fecundity is not inherited by daughters from their dams. ' '
WHITE LEGHORN HEN O34
229 e
years.
Station.
; in first year, 786 eggs in five
wo daughters below. Oregon
B12 251 eggs in 1 year C551 607 eggs in 3 years
DAUGHTERS OF O34
108 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
OREGONA— OREGON STATION WHITE LEGHORN HEN A27
987 eggs in five years. At beginning of sixth year had laid more than 1,000
eggs. The greatest Icng-distance trapnest record known: first year, 240 eggs;
second year, 222 eggs; third year, 202 eggs; fourth year, 155 eggs; fifth year,
168 eggs.
. . . "A low degree of fecundity may be inherited from
either sire or dam." To state Doctor Pearl's conclusions
in another way : High fecundity may be inherited from the
sire, or may not. In other words, some sires will transmit
this characteristic and some will not. Whether nine in ten,
or one in a hundred have this power, we are not informed,
and Doctor Pearl does not presume to know. Breeders
therefore will not be misled into the belief that all males
have the power of transmitting the egg-laying characteris-
tics of their dams. Pearl, however, is definite when he says
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY 109
that "high fecundity is not inherited by daughters from
their dams."
The Oregon experiments which have shown a remarkable
increase in production, with strong evidence that it was
due to selective breeding, do not appear to show that it
came in a sex-limited way. They show, on, the average,
that both sire and dam exert an influence, but that the in-
fluence is not confined to the immediate parents. It is true
that some males, as well as females, have a greater pre-
potency or power of transmitting fecundity than others,
but it cannot be said, so far as these experiments have gone,
that it comes only from "one side of the house." Table
on p. 102 may be studied in this connection.
Progression and Regression. — The production of the
progeny never reaches that of the parent stock when the egg
production of the parents exceeds the average of their
generation. There is, however, a progressive increase each
year when the parents have been selected among the indi-
viduals that have production records higher than the
average of the flock. (See table p. Ill Oregon Station ex-
periments.) This is the principle or law of progression.
There is another principle or law operating in the other
direction ; that is regression. There will be regression or a
decrease in production unless the breeding stock be selected
among the highest producers. When no selection of any
kind is practiced, the tendency is downward. The average
of all the ancestry is pulling backward. Selection is neces-
sary if the breeder is to do no more than maintain the
standard of production. He cannot "rest upon his
laurels" without going backward. He must select and
continue to select.
Variability versus Uniformity. — High excellence is not
correlated with uniformity of production, as the Oregon
experiments show (page 111). Breed improvement does
110 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
not mean that all individuals of the flock are bred up to
the same level of production. It is not a leveling process.
The gulf between the high and the low individuals is not
bridged by selective breeding. The experiments indicate
that breed improvement, so far as egg production is con-
cerned, means the raising of the standard of production of
the individual. In other words, variability does not de-
crease with improvement in production. There are fewer
poor layers as a result of selection and more good ones, but
the range between the high and the low remains practically
the same. In the case of the Barred Plymouth Rocks the
mean of production moved up from between 61 and 80 in
the first year to between 161 and 180 in the sixth year.
In the case of the Leghorns and crosses, practically the same
law is shown.
Breed improvement, therefore, depends upon raising the
mean or average production at the same time as the maxi-
mum production is raised. This is what happened in the
Oregon experiments. The maximum individual production
was raised each year while the average of the flock was also
raised. As the average production of the flock is raised,
the probabilities are that individual high records will in-
crease in like manner. The true breeder, therefore, will
ignore a fixed standard of production and breed for a pro-
gressive increase, and no one can yet say what the maximum
production of the hen is. (See page 111.)
Hen's Potential Capacity. — That the conditions under
which a hen lives affect her egg yield and determine, in a
measure at least, her degree of fecundity, is a truth dis-
cussed elsewhere. This is supported by investigations
made by Pearl as to the number of oocytes (eggs) in the
hen's ovary. It is apparently not from lack of eggs or
oocytes in the hen that the egg yield is low, for the count
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HENS GROUPED ACCORDING TO
PRODUCTION, SHOWING PROGRESSIVE INCREASE
J.V C*/M L/C / t//
ev/#s laid
1908-09
1909-10
1910-11
1912-13
1913-14
1-20
1
. .
2
1
1
21-40
6
. .
41-60
19
1
61-80
27
5
1
2
81-100
17
3
. .
1
6
101-120
11
8
4
11
121-140
7
6
8
" 10
15
141-160
4
o
6
15
22
161-180
1
3
9
27
41
181-200
1
1
6
27
26
201-220
1
9
14
18
221-240
. .
1
7
11
241-260
. .
. .
. .
1
4
261-280
. .
1
3
281-303
••
••
••
Total hens
95
. 28
43
108
160
HENS GROUPED ACCORDING TO PRODUCTION
SHOWING
PROGRES-
SIVE INCREASE
(First
year, White
Leghorn hens;
subsequent
years, Crosses.)
Number of
eggs laid
1908-09
1909-10
1910-11
1912-13
1913-14
1-20
3
o
21-40
2
1
. .
41-60
1
. .
61-80
6
o
. .
81-100
8
6
3
1
101-120
9
15
4
121-140
9
16
5
1
. .
141-160
5
9
6
1
1
161-180
5
8
12
1
4
181-200
1
5
3
5
6
201-220
2
2
7
16
221-240
2
6
241-260
. .
1
2
9
261-280
. .
2
7
281-303
.
. .
. .
2
. .
Total hens 50 63 . 39 23 50
112 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
showed in some cases, even in poor laying hens, the presence
of over 2,000 oocytes.
So far as the number of eggs in the ovary is concerned,
hens are all "born" with the inherited tendency to lay.
The lowest number in any one hen, as reported in Maine
Bulletin 205, was 914; the greatest number 3,605. By
using a low-power dissecting lens to aid the eye, the enor-
mous number of 13,476 oocytes were counted in one hen's
ovary.
It should be understood that the ovary of the hen, even
before she lays any eggs, contains all the eggs, called
oocytes, that she will ever lay. More than that, she has
many times more eggs than she will ever lay. Why doesn 't
she lay them? That is the problem. Is it a lack of in-
herited ability to lay, or is it because of improper feeding
and care ? Is it the business of the poultryman to so mate
his fowls that the ability to lay the greatest possible number
of eggs will, in some manner, be transmitted from parent
to offspring? Or is it his business to so feed and house
the hen, in other words put her under such favorable en-
vironment, that she will empty her egg reservoir, so to
speak, during her natural laying life
The poultryman who is gifted, however, with the faculty
of using common sense, will not neglect either the breeding,
the feeding or the care and expect to get the largest possible
egg yield. A knowledge of the fact that the hen has a po-
tential possibility of several thousand eggs, strongly empha-
sizes the importance of environmental factors, in other
words, good feeding, proper housing and care.
Actual Limit of Production. — Before the count of the
oocytes had been made the idea was somewhat prevalent
that 600 eggs was the limit of production of a hen. This
theory seems to have originated with a French writer named
Geyelin, who said: "It has been ascertained that the
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
113
ovarium of a fowl is composed of 600 ovula or eggs ; there-
fore a hen during the whole of her life cannot possibly lay
more eggs than 600, which in a natural course are distribu-
ted over nine years in the following proportion.*'
This has been abundantly disproved by trapnest records.
At the Utah station, prior to 1905, a number of egg records
B42— CROSS-BRED HEN, LEG-
HORN BLOOD PREDOMI-
NATING
A60— CROSS-BRED HEN, H LEGHORN
AND y PLYMOUTH ROCK
Laid 834 eggs in four years at
Oregon Station. A world's record
for four years. First year, 228 816 eggs in four years and 958 eggs in
eggs; second year, 250 eggs; third five years.
year, 184 eggs; fourth year, 172
eggs.
were secured exceeding the 600-egg limit in less than four
years of laying. (Bulletin 92, by the writer.) Since then
one hen has laid 816 eggs in five years. At the Oregon sta-
tion the writer has secured many records exceeding 600
eggs.( In one case 664 eggs were laid in three years, and
819 in four years by the same hen. In her fifth year she
reached a total of 987 eggs. At the beginning of her sixth
year she passed the 1,000-egg mark. Another laid 958 in five
114 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
years. Remarkable are the records of hens, B42 which has
laid 834- in four years, arid of B14, 827 in four years.
If they continue in their present condition of health, all
these hens should next year reach and pass the 1,000-egg
mark. These are the highest authenticated four- and five-
year records known.
Long Distance Laying. — Some idea of the possible limit
of production is given in the following table, which records
the egg yield of 12 sisters at the Oregon Station for three
years :
Hen No. First year Second year Third year Totaled
B4 217 214 172 603
B8 246 160 159 565
B13 206 226 206 638
B14 215 206 208 629
B170 226 220 177 623
B177 193 212
B213 198 ' 224 230 652
B222 188 199 231 618
C425 235 199
C543 291 150
H81L 161 194 138 493
H53N 168 196 173 537
Average 211.1 200 188.23 593.3
Dam's record: First year, 200 eggs; second year, 202.
These hens laid an average of 211.1 eggs in their first
year, 200 in their second year, and the remaining nine hens
in their third year averaged 188.23. The total average pro-
duction for the three years was 595.3 eggs each. The dam
of these pullets laid as many eggs the -second year as the
first, and it would appear that this characteristic in the
dam was transmitted to the daughters in a noticeable
degree.
The high limit of production is further shown in the fol-
lowing compilation from the Oregon experiments.
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
OTHER LONG-DISTANCE EGG RECORDS
115
Hen
First
Second
Third
Fourth Fifth Sixth
Dam's
No.
year
year
year
year year year
Total
record
B12
251
152
..
403
229
0551
214
203
190
607
229
H81N
142
224
179
. . . .
545
229
B2
223
203
188
. .
614
155
0457
250
175
. .
425
0459
261
191
• . .
. .
452
0463
232
202
. .
. .
434
B42
228
250
184
172
834
034
229
178
140
144 95 6
792
A27
240
222
202
155 168
987
. .
A60
177
234
226
179
816
0504
243
178
. .
. .
421
240
0515
241
182
423
240
0589
211
204
415
240
0516
267
174
441
215 '
0519
272
182
. .
454
205
0552
217
185
. .
402
209
0483
265
145
410
177
0512
217
217
. .
434
177
0490
231
216
. .
447
257
0521
303
209
168
679
201
0547
250
225
214
. .
689
201
090
215
188
. .
403
191
Average 233.86 197.34 188 159.33 212.2
Laying Longevity. — The more important point brought
out in these long distance records, however, is the evidence
that the period of longevity, or the profitable laying period,
may be considerably lengthened. The third year record of
the 12 sisters — 188.2 eggs — is remarkably good laying for
first year hens or pullets, and considerably higher than the
average flock of pullets. The average or unimproved flock
of hens does not pay for its keep after the second year when
eggs are sold for market purposes. If by proper breeding
this period could be lengthened to four years, it would
mean that once in four years, instead of once in two years,
the flock would need to be renewed, thus cutting out half
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
117
V W V
THREE CORNELL LONG-DISTANCE LAYERS
Cornell Supreme, 665 eggs; Lady Cornell, 648 eggs; Madam Cornell, 539 eggs
in three years.
of the great cost of incubating and rearing the chicks. The
first result would be a reduction of the number of market
chickens, as with half the number hatched there would be
half the number of surplus cockerels and half the number of
hens sold. But poultry producers would find a better
market for meat chickens, the production of which would
develop into a more specialized industry.
LADY MACDUFF
Oregon Station hen CS21. Photograph
taken day after she laid her 303d egg. The
world's greatest layer so far as authentic
trap-nest records show. She laid 303 eggs
in 12 months; 512 eggs in 24 months; 679
eggs in 36 months.
THE 303d EGG OF LADY
MACDUFF
Weight of first year's eggs
approximately 42 pounds.
Her three years' production.
95 pounds. Weight of hen, 5
pounds.
118
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
LADY MACDUFF AND 10 DAUGHTERS
The daughters averaged 250 eggs in year.
Highest Annual Records. — The table on page 120 gives
the highest official individual records. They may be consid-
ered world's records, so far as official reports have been pub-
lished.* They were all secured at the Oregon Station.
*One exception should be made. Lady Showyou (p. 121) made her
record of 281 eggs in her second year at Missouri.
Pedigree ofC5dl
and
Flock Average
106.9 eqqs
PEDIGREE OF LADY MACDUFF
Qrajon Experiment 5taf/'oa
120 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
No. o
First laying year (1912-13), Hen C521 303
Second laying year (1912-13), Hen B42 250
Third laying year (1913-14), Hen B222 231
Fourth laying year (1913-14), Hen B14 198
For two years (1912-14), Hen C521 512
For three years (1912-15) , Hen C547 689
For four years (1911-15), Hen B42 834
For five years (1910-15), Hen A27 987
Type in Layers. — There are certain characteristics that
are present in the good layer and absent in the poor — not
always, but on the average.
Weight Correlated with Laying Capacity. — It has been
found that within the breed or variety the heavier pro-
ducers on the average are those of lighter weight. Some-
times some of the heavy hens are heavy producers, but this
is not true of the average. At the Oregon Station a pen of
47 Plymouth Rock hens averaged 160.9 eggs. Separating
them according to weight into three groups the following
result was secured :
A66— MOTHER OF LADY MACDUFF
201 eggs first year.
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
121
Production
Number
Heavy 10
Medium 18
Light 19
Average weight
1 pounds
6 "
5 «
First y ear t Two years
141.1 236.1
163.4 268.5
173.7 293.5
The eleven heaviest layers, — those hens laying over 200
eggs each — averaged in weight 5% pounds.
It would be a serious
mistake, however, to
select year after year,
the smallest individuals
for breeding purposes
without regard to other
considerations. Vigor
and health must always
be uppermost. Con-
tinued selection of the
smallest would, in the
Leghorn breed, for ex-
ample, finally evolve a
Bantam type so far as
weight is concerned. On
the other hand, it is a
mistake to pick out the
nice large hens and the
nice heavy males and
save them for breeding,
better send them to the
pot.
Shape or Conformation. — Much, importance cannot be
attached to various theories regarding shape as indicative of
laying qualities. The good layer, however, is usually
medium to long in body, and rather deep and broad. These
are relative terms and subject to breed differences. Em-
LADY SHOWYOU
White Plymouth Rock hen, laid 281 e
in the Missouri Contest in 1911-12.
record was made in her second year,
wide-awake, active temperament. '
pounds.
iff
Note
Weight 6
r-H W
.M bo
en <U
II
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
123
A122 laid 259 eggs
A77 laid 214 eggs
A84 laid 44 eggs
A94 laid 20 eggs
THE UK AD INDICATING LAYING QUALITY
Masculinity is apparent in the head of the poor layers. In other words, the
poor layer has a suggestion of a rooster head. The head is large, the comb
coarse and the face fleshy. (Oregon Station.)
124
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
BREEDER OF POOR LAYERS
A94 — 20 eggs in a year. (Oregon Station.)
phasis is placed on these
points as indicating di-
gestive capacity, for the
heavy layer must have
good digestion. No great
reliance, however, can be
placed on shape of body
as a method of identify-
ing the good layer.
There are good layers
with short bodies and
poor layers with long
bodies. (See Page 93.)
The truth is that hens have not been bred systematically
for high egg laying long enough to fix or develop any par-
ticular type as it relates to shape.
The same can be said of the angle of the tail and the
shape of the comb, though preference should be given to a
rather large comb and a
tail carried rather high.
The head should be
rather small, and leg
bones not too large. In
general make-up the
fowl should not have
what might be called a
beefy build; rather, a
trim, muscular build. A
poor layer will usually
have at the end of the
laying year a better ap-
pearance than one that
has made a heavy rec- WHITE LEGHORN HEN
Ord. The hen at the Laid 1 egg in a year. (Oregon Station.)
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
125
end of the year that is
ragged in plumage and
wrinkled in face — in
other words, one that
shows the effect of hard
work — is more often the
one that has been doing
the laying. The hen
that looks best at the
end of the year, in the
fall, is not usually the
one that should be kept
for breeding.
Hen Temperament. —
The poultryman who is
a close observer will
A GOOD LAYER FROM POOR LAYING
STOCK
Laid 223 eggs. Dam laid 142; dam's
dam, 74; sire's dam, 20. (Oregon Sta-
tion.)
D33 laid 67 eggs — a good poser but D7 laid 7 eggs — good looker but poor
poor actor. layer.
POOR LAYERS FROM GOOD LAYING STOCK. (Oregon Station.)
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
127
find that temperament is
correlated with egg-lay-
ing- qualities. The good
layer has an active, ner-
vous temperament. She
moves around quickly,
and is ' ' on the go ' ' more
than the poor layer. She
doesn't pose well either
in the exhibition coop or
before the camera. She
will be found scratching
and hunting for food
after the poor layer has
gone to roost, and she
will usually be at work
early in the morning.
First Year's Production the
WHITE LEGHORN HEN E248
302 eggs in a year; dam C516; sire's dam,
Oregona.
WHITE LEGHORN HEN C516
267 eggs in a year; 421 eggs in two years.
Note high tail and erect comb. Mother of
E248 (302 eggs) and other good layers.
(Oregon Station.)
Best. — Where fowls are
kept under the same con-
ditions each year and
come to laying maturity
in the fall, the produc-
tion in the first or pullet
year will exceed, on the
average, the production
of any subsequent year.
Occasional individuals
lay more the second than
the first year, but this is
exceptional. The pro-
duction of a flock of
fowls in the first and
second years is shown
128 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Laid 44 eggs. Laid 79 eggs.
TWO POOR LAYERS
Note heavy, coarse build. (Oregon Station.)
Laid 104 eggs. Laid 190 eggs.
UTAH STATION WYANDOTTES
Note the business appearance of the one and absence of it in the other.
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY 129
NEW ZEALAND WHITE LEGHORNS
Winners in the British Columbia laying contest 1913-14, averaged 221.7 eggs
in 11 months.
WHITE WYANDOTTES
Averaged 208.5 eggs in the Storrs 1913-14 contest. Owned by Tom Barren,
England. Note absence of the blocky type demanded by the "Standard."
on page 131. There were 43 fowls in the flock. Among
the 21 making the best record for the two years, it is seen
that only two of them laid less than the average of 153 in
the first year. Among the 22 of the poorest layers for the
second year, only five laid more than the average in the
first year. If those laying less than 153 in the first year—
18 in number — had been killed off at the end of the first
130 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
WHITE LEGHORNS
Averaged 208.8 eggs in the Storrs 1913-14 Competition. (Owned by F. F.
Lincoln, Connecticut.)
WHITE LEGHORNS
Winning pen in the Panama-Pacific International egg-laying competition.
(Owned by Oregon Agricultural College.)
year, the average for the two years of the 25 remaining
would be 320.6 instead of 283.5 as the average of the whole
flock. The 18 poorest averaged in the second year 92.
The 25 best averaged 158 eggs in their second year.
The unprofitable hens in the first year are, therefore, on
the average, unprofitable in the second year. Knowing
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
131
THE LONG AND THE SHORT WAY
In breeding for eggs slower progress is made in reaching the goal if various
other points are bred for at the same time.
the production of each hen in the first year it is good busi-
ness to kill off the poor layers at the end of that year.
Further corroborative data are given on this subject in
chapter on incubation.
RECORD OF A FLOCK OF 43 FOWLS
At the Oregon Station for two years, showing that, on the average, the best
layers in the first year maintain the distinction in the second.
132 • POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Measure of Hen's Laying Capacity. — The egg record
in the first three months' laying (November, December,
January) will enable the poultryman to pick out the hens
that will, on the average, prove to be the best layers
during the year. If the poultryman will trapnest his
fowls during those three months, he will find that the
hens that lay 30 eggs or more in those months will lay
during the year about 200 eggs. These should be kept
for breeders. Those that lay less than 10 or 12 will,
^JSP
HENS
AVERAGE PRODUCTION PER HEN
FOR FIRST TWELVE MONTHS OP LAYING
Nt
&*.
IOTAI
NOV. DEC. JAN.
BALANCE OP YEAR
nfiPfc
101 - ZOO
OVER £00
15
161
36
&5
5&J
SI
160.7
BU
19.2
4.2
s
16.6
OREGON EXPERIMENT STATION
GOOD FALL AND WINTER PRODUCERS THE BEST LAYERS
on the average, prove to be unprofitable, and should
be disposed of. Those that lay 20 may make a profit. The
above conclusions are based on the Oregon experiments,
which are shown above in detail.
Early Laying Maturity Characteristic. — Summarizing
the Oregon Station records, it was found that pullets that
began to lay under 200 days of age (approximately 6^
months), laid on the average about 200 eggs in the year. As
this age advanced the number of eggs laid decreased. This
is shown graphically on page 133. "With or without the aid
of a trapnest, the poultryman, by observing the date the
first egg is laid, may pick out the pullets that will lay the
best throughout the year. If the pullets have been hatched
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
133
in March and April, and begin to lay in less than 200 days
of age, they will prove to be, on the average, 200-egg layers.
These should be marked and kept for breeders. Those that
do not lay till 300 days of age should be killed off im-
mediately or sold for market. There are exceptions, but on
the average it works this way.
EGG-LAYING ORGANS
The egg-laying organs of the hen are the ovary and ovi-
duct. Originally eggs were laid only that chicks might be
ACE.
SfcGAN
TO LAY
(IN DAYS)'
HE
'IT.C
AVERAGE, PRODUCTION PE.R HEN
POR FIRST TWELVE: MONTHS OP LAYIN.C
THAN 200
201-250
251 300
OVER 300
23
156
65
20
SI
511
Z4.fe
7.6
1370
H)
VK
112.7
UM
37
ZB.SJ
m
153
»
DM!
OREGON EXPERIMENT JtATIOH
THE FIRST LAYERS THE BEST LAYERS
hatched from them; in other words, the purpose was re-
production. Later, when it was found that eggs were good
to eat, egg-laying became a productive as well as reproduc-
tive process. They were to be used for food as well as for
producing young, and it would be proper to call them pro-
ductive organs as well as reproductive organs.
The ovary lies at the forward end of the kidney attached
to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. The ova or eggs may
be seen hanging like a bunch of grapes, though some are
larger and some smaller than grapes. Some are so small
as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. From that they
vary in size to the fully formed egg yolk. Each ovum or
134
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Average 97.2,
aqe
129.6
INHERITANCE OF EGG PRODUCTION, SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY
These diagrams show the production of four flocks in four different years.
Flock 4 is the pullet progeny of the best layers in flocks 1, 2 and 3. The hen
numbers are given at the left and the eggs laid by each at the right. The
dam is represented by the same line or symbol as the daughters, except in the
case of the black lines, where the ancestry of pullets is not given. A son of
034 was sire of all pullets except the daughters of 250, this hen being inbred
to her son.
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY
135
A6
Average .212. 2.
INHERITANCE OF EGG PRODUCTION, SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY
These diagrams shows the production of four flocks in four different years.
Flock 4 is the pullet progeny of the best layers in flocks 1, 2 and 3. The hen
numbers are given at the left and the eggs laid by each at the right. The
dam is represented by the same line or symbol as the daughters, except in the
case of the black lines, where the ancestry of pullets is not given. A son of
034 was sire of all pullets except the daughters of 250, this hen being inbred
to her son.
136 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
EGG ORGANS OF THE HEN
1. Ovary — Young follicles or
2, 3, 4 — Larger follicles. 5 — Ovum or
egg yolk in upper part of oviduct. 6 —
Part of the oviduct where yolk receives
the albumen. 7 — Lower part of the ovi-
duct showing complete egg in shell gland,
ready to be laid. 8 — Anus. (Oregon Ex-
periment Station.)
egg is covered with, a transparent sac. A normal hen has
more than a thousand such eggs in the ovary. All the eggs
that a hen may lay in a lifetime will be found in the ovary,
PROBLEM OF HIGHER FECUNDITY 137
in size from the smallest ooycote, visible only with the aid
of a magnifying glass, to the mature yolk ready to burst
from its sac. It has been found under normal egg-laying
conditions that it requires about two weeks for the egg yolk
to grow from the size of a pea to a full-sized yolk. The
yolk is matured in the ovary. "When matured it detaches
itself and falls into the oviduct.
The rest of the egg is "made" in the oviduct. This is a
large coiled tube, whitish in color, extending from a point
just below the ovary to the cloaca. The albumin and shell
are put on in the oviduct. This is accomplished more
rapidly than is the development of the yolk. The perfect
egg with its hard shell can be retained in the cloaca a short
time, or several hours, before being laid.
In passing through the oviduct the egg travels about 24
inches. It is forced through this passage by contraction of
the oviduct. As the yolk passes into and through the ovi-
duct it becomes surrounded by albumin, and finally by the
shell. The time occupied by the egg passing through the
various sections of the oviduct is estimated by Kolliker as
follows : In the upper two-thirds of oviduct, where albumin
is formed, three hours; in the isthmus where the shell
membrane is put on, three hours, and in the uterus for the
formation of shell and laying, 12 to 24 hours.
Recent investigations by Pearl and Curtis would modify
the above statement. (Maine Bulletin 206.) It was shown
in their investigations that only 40% of the albumin was
formed in the albumin portion of the oviduct; 10 to 20%
was formed in the isthmus, or that portion where the mem-
brane of the shell is made, and 30% to 40% of the total
weight of albumin was added to the egg in the uterus,
passing through the shell by osmosis.
CHAPTER VIII
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING
Various methods are followed in keeping poultry and it
is well at the outset to form a clear conception of the busi-
ness of poultry husbandry in its different aspects.
Mixed Husbandry. — The great bulk of the poultry and
egg supply of the country is produced under a system of
mixed husbandry. This type of farming constitutes the
most promising field for increasing the production of
poultry staples. Under present conditions poultry and
eggs are produced at greater profit by the general farmer
than by any other class of poultry-keepers. Poultry-
keeping fits in well with about, any system or type of farm-
ing. It is usually a side line, though sometimes it is the
leading feature of the farm. The farmer may or may not
specialize in poultry-keeping. Mixed husbandry may be
carried on where the production of poultry and eggs is the
leading feature and brings in the largest revenue of any
branch of the farming operations.
Specialization. — This in poultry-keeping does not neces-
sarily mean that the poultry-keeper must confine himself
exclusively to poultry production. He may be a poultry
specialist and grow the feed for his poultry and a large
part of the food for the family. Specialization does not
mean one-crop farming. The railroad business is a highly
specialized business, but the railroad grows more than one
kind of crop on its right-of-way. There is a freight crop
and a passenger crop, and other crops, such as express,
mail, etc. If the railroads were to specialize on passengers
alone they would probably fail to make ends meet.
The best poultry specialization is that which makes the
138
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING 139
POULTRY KEEPING AND DAIRYING
A Petaluma ranch where cows and chickens use the same range. More than
5,00(X laying hens and three dozen Jersey cows are kept on this farm, owned by
T. B. Purvine. The hens' feeding troughs are fenced in from the cows, "the
fence," as well as houses, being portable. (Two views.)
best use of land and secures the highest profit per head of
fowls kept. Where mixed husbandry poultry-keeping is
followed the cost of feed is comparatively low. The smaller
the number of fowls kept per acre the lower the food cost
will be. The ordinary by-products of other branches of
farming and the waste grains will be sufficient to keep a
small flock of fowls without any apparent feed cost.
Dairying and poultry-keeping is a good combination, the
poultry furnishing a profitable market for the skim milk
or butter milk. Possibly on the grain farms poultry may
140 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
be kept at lowest cost. A combination of poultry with
fruit growing may be successfully followed. Apart from
the return in eggs and chickens the farm is benefited by
the flock of poultry in the destruction of weed seeds and
insects and in the manure furnished. The chickens often
rid the fields of grasshoppers and other injurious insects.
The manure from 50 fowls will maintain the fertility of
an acre of land for the growth of crops. Poultry-keeping
fits in well with a system of crop rotation.
There is undoubtedly an advantage also to the poultry
themselves, under conditions obtaining in mixed husbandry.
The large range is conducive to health and vigor in the
fowls. There is no overcrowding of the land and the
danger of soil contamination is largely eliminated. On the
general farm the best conditions are available for the health
and vigor of the stock and for low cost of production.
Looking at it from the standpoint of the state or community,
the development of this type of poultry farming offers the
surest and quickest means of bringing production of eggs
and poultry up to the demands of the consumer.
Examples. — Examples of profitable poultry farming
under mixed husbandry conditions may be found in any
county, but general farms on which poultry-keeping is
conducted on rather a large scale or as the main feature
of the farm, are not numerous. Little Compton, E. I., and
Petaluma, Cal., are two districts referred to more generally
than others where extensive specialized poultry farming
prevails. The Petaluma district is largely given over to
extensive poultry farming and examples of the same type
of poultry farming may be found in Little Compton, but
the latter could hardly be characterized as a district of
exclusive or special poultry farmers.
A great many, if not the majority of the farms in this
district, come more or less under the designation of mixed
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING
141
An Oregon fruit and poultry farm. — N. C. Jorgensen, owner.
A California poultry and fruit farm. Houses are portable. — H. A. George, owner.
COMBINATION OF FRUIT AND POULTRY
husbandry farms with poultry production as the leading
feature. Under those conditions poultry-keeping has been
a profitable business for more than half a century. The
extensive system prevails; that is, there is wide range for
the fowls. The colony system of housing is used. The
hatching and rearing of the fowls is done by natural means
almost universally, and in feeding, the general practice is
to feed a moist mash in the morning. Farm crops are
grown to a limited extent.
142 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Exclusive Poultry-Keeping. — This may be defined as
that type or kind of poultry-keeping that is carried on by
the poultry-keeper as an exclusive business in itself and
as an exclusive means of support and profit. All the feed
for the fowls is purchased. There are sections in the
United States where this type of poultry -keeping has been
carried on successfully for years. It is true, however, that
1,000 PULLETS IN A PRUNE ORCHARD
Owners, Rev. M. C. Wire & Son, Newberg, Oregon.
a great many failures have resulted. This branch or type
of poultry-keeping has been more or less uncertain in the
past but there is not now so much excuse for failure because
the available information on the subject is more reliable
than formerly. Exclusive poultry-keeping must not be
gone into by the novice without experience or he is almost
certain to fail.
There are only certain districts or locations where poul-
try-keeping should be made a special or exclusive business.
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING
143
Nearness to good markets and shipping points, reasonably
cheap feed, low land cost, suitable soil and climatic con-
ditions, are points that must not be overlooked when de-
ciding whether to embark in this kind of poultry farming.
These conditions being favorable, a man with the proper
knowledge and experience, may successfully engage in ex-
clusive poultry farming, and by giving special attention
to the quality of the product, whether it be eggs and fowls
EGGS AND PEACHES FROM THE SAME GROUND
Chas. G. Weaver, Los Angeles.
for select market or breeding stock and eggs for hatching,
he will be able to add considerably to his revenue and
profits. It is here that a special or exclusive poultry-
keeper has an advantage over the farmer with the small
flock. He has enough eggs and poultry to make it a point
to develop special markets.
Examples of Exclusive Farms. — Examples of exclusive
poultry farming may be found in any state but there are
few sections where any considerable area is given over to
144 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
this type of farming. No doubt the district of Petaluma,
Cal.; offers the best opportunity for a study of this type
of farming of possibly any district in the world. In this
district a whole county is practically given over to poultry-
keeping, and though it does not all come under the desig-
nation of exclusive farming, a large proportion of it does.
Different types of poultry farms are here found varying
from the intensely intensive to the very extensive, or in
area from an acre of ground to over 500 acres. "While
intensive poultry-keeping is practiced the industry has been
built up largely along extensive lines. There are also
poultry farms of the mixed husbandry type, and combina-
tions of poultry raising with dairying and with fruit grow-
ing are frequently seen.
Among the large, exclusive farms, there is much simil-
arity in the methods or system followed. The colony house
and free range system is almost universal either on the
large or small farms. The success of the Petaluma district
is doubtless largely due to this system. The house is one
that may be easily moved by a team of horses. On some
farms, though the houses are easily portable, they are al-
lowed to remain for several years without moving. The
usual size of the house is about 7 x 12 or 8 x 12 feet with
gable roof. It is built on the box plan of construction,
the frame consisting of runners, to which the cross-pieces
are bolted at the ends, the plates and four rafters. The
siding is nailed on vertically and serves to support the
sides without studding. On some houses shingles are used,
on some roofing paper and on others shakes. Floors are
used in the houses on some of the best types of farms.
As understood in Petaluma the colony system is this:
A colony of fowls on the large farms is usually 200 hens.
For this colony two roostmg houses and one laying house
are provided, a section of the latter being used on many
146 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
farms for storing feed. The different colonies are so
widely separated that the grass is never eaten off the fields.
The laying house is placed between the two roosting houses
and is usually smaller than the roosting house. There is
nothing in the roosting house except the perches, the whole
space being used for roosting. With 100 hens in a house
the roosting space per hen is about one square foot floor
space. This, of course, is crowding them to the limit and
PETALUMA FARM OF 120 ACRES AND 6,000 HENS
A boy on horseback feeds the hens wheat in half an hour. Wm. Reardon,
owner.
it is not the universal practice. In any less favorable
climate it would not be advisable to do business on this
basis, and even here it is very questionable whether better
financial results would not be obtained if not more than
75 hens were kept in the house.
As to the system of feeding, the practice is to heavily
feed a wet mash in the morning, with wheat in the after-
noon. The feed troughs are fenced in if cattle or sheep
are in the same field.
The White Leghorn breed is almost exclusively kept.
Larger and less active breeds would not be suited in some
particulars to the methods followed. It may not seem
reasonable to say that a man with 5,000 hens on a farm
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING
147
of 100 acres or even 200 acres can get better results from
his labor by colonizing his hens all over the farm than
the man with 20 acres and 5,000 hens closer together, but
the poultrymen with the large farms are undoubtedly
handling the business at better profit than those on limited
acreage near town. The saving of steps by building houses
CLEANING OUT THE HOUSES ON THE REARDON FARM
There are no dropping platforms. The roost perches are pushed out at one
end of the house, the manure scraped out the door and thrown onto a sled,
then lime is scattered on the floor.
close together does not necessarily lessen the labor or re-
duce the cost of producing a dozen eggs.
The important question is the maintenance of vigor and
productive qualities in the fowls. Where the acreage is
so limited that the ground is kept bare of vegetation the
year around, is muddy in wet weather and hard and warm
in dry weather, the conditions are more favorable for loss
148
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
A LARGE POULTRY FARM IN RHODE ISLAND
Where land unfit for cultivation is used.
of vigor and consequent lower production. On the wide
range it should be understood that the work of feeding is
much simplified. For instance, on a farm of 120 acres of
which the author has knowledge, with 6,000 hens, the after-
noon feeding was done by a boy of fourteen in half an hour.
He jumped on a horse at one o'clock and made the rounds of
all the scattered colonies in that time, doing the work of
feeding wheat by opening a self-feeding bin. Under in-
tensive conditions greater care must be exercised in the
2,000 HENS ON THREE ACRES
S. A. Bickford, near Los Angeles.
150 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
feeding. The problem of exercise is practically eliminated
under the extensive free-range system. Under the inten-
sive or yarded system more frequent feeding is necessary
in order to induce exercise. Straw or other scratching
litter must be furnished and the work of cleaning out the
old straw and putting in new involves considerable labor
and expense. The yards must be cultivated and possibly
disinfected. Green feed must be furnished every day,
4,000 HENS ON FOUR ACRES
Swanson & Johnson, near Los Angeles.
involving expense both for the green stuff and for labor in
feeding. The opening of gates through the yards is
troublesome.
On some soils there is sufficient grit for the fowls on free
range. This saves the expense of buying and feeding grit.
Some animal feed will be found on free range. Under
certain conditions there will be waste grain in stubble
fields and weed seeds. These will lessen the feed bill.
Again, as to equipment. There is considerable expense for
fencing yarded fowls which is not necessary on free range.
The increased cost for all these items under the intensive
plan will largely offset the added labor cost of caring for
fowls under the colony house system.
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING 151
Suburban Poultry-Keeping. — As a result largely of the
development of electric systems of railroads the keeping
of poultry in the suburbs of cities is a type of poultry
farming that has been making much headway in recent
years. City people, with a love for the soil, build homes
near electric lines a few miles from the city, and on an
THE INTENSIVE PLAN
A thousand hens eating green feed, southern California.
acre or two of ground are able to add to their income by
keeping fowls. Where other members of the family can
help with the work a profitable business may be done on
an acre or two in the suburbs. With special care in the
production of eggs and chickens of good quality accessible
to markets, it will be possible to obtain good prices. The
product may be delivered direct to the consumer either by
private delivery or parcel post. If located on a good auto-
mobile road many eggs may be sold at good prices to
passers-by.
152
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Backyard Poultry-Keeping. — Chickens may be kept on
a city lot at a profit. The waste food from the table of
an average family, in addition
to a little grain, will feed
enough fowls to furnish the
needed fresh eggs for the
family. With good hens and
careful attention to the houses
and yards, a piece of ground
25 x 50 feet will accommodate
enough hens to produce as
many fresh eggs as the aver-
age family will consume, be-
sides a considerable number
of broilers. It must be under-
stood, however, that the
chickens will require daily at-
tention throughout the year.
The feeding must be done reg-
ularly and intelligently and
the premises be kept clean and
sanitary. It is not necessary
that a chicken yard should be
a disfigurement to the back
premises; a chicken yard may
be made a thing of beauty as
well as profit on a town lot.
It is not necessary to make
the chicken yard a nuisance
ground, or dumping-place for
old shoes and tomato cans.
Chickens do not thrive on
such things. The spectacle of
BACKYARD EGG FARMING
Clarence Hogan, winner of a
$100 prize in a poultry contest
at Portland, Oregon. He was
13 years old and finishing the
eighth grade in school. He fed
the chickens, cleaned their
houses, spaded the yards for
them, weighed the food they
ate and counted the eggs. In
addition to all that he was an
editor — editing a small paper and
publishing it with the aid of a
typewriter and a mimeograph.
What can a boy not do?
SYSTEMS OP POULTRY FARMING 153
a chicken yard made into a dumping-ground for rubbish
and the chickens treated as scavengers is disgusting, and
should not be tolerated in any community.
A nice flock of chickens properly cared for and housed,
BACKYARD EGG FARMING
Miss Ruth Hayes, winner of second prize, $50. A poultry yard may be
made an attractive feature of the backyard.
and yarded in becoming style, may become an attractive
feature of the vacant lot ; and besides furnishing the daily
fresh egg, will afford a mental diversion to some of the
older people and a pleasure to the younger members of
the family. Young boys and young girls of the town,
lacking something to do, will find in a flock of chickens in-
terest and instruction. The more ambitious youngster
will find opportunity for a study of the problems that are
of absorbing interest to all students of plant and animal
breeding ; for though the chicken is a chicken, it is subject
to the same laws of heredity as are plants and livestock in
general. Profit therefore may be realized in different ways
154
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
from chickens on the city lot when given proper care and
attention.
A Plan. — On a piece of ground 25 x 50 feet enough
fowls may be kept to furnish the eggs needed for an
average family. It should not be attempted, however, on
unsuitable ground. It is not expected that the plan submit-
ted can be followed
^^ under all conditions.
HHHHB^/ ''''"' '1011S(~ suggested
m is 6 x 8 feet with a
*B Bk I shed roof. The style
or shape of the house
may be changed to
suit the tastes of
the owner, but the
amount of floor
A BACKYARD HOUSE
space or air space
as provided for in
In this house 25 hens were kept for a year.
The hens were never out of it. They laid an the sketch should
average of 188 eggs.
be available what-
ever the shape of the house may be, for 12 or 15 hens.
At least a fourth of the side of the house should be open to
admit fresh air. In cold sections a curtain of muslin may
be hung over the opening at night, but this may not be
necessary, as shown in the chapter on Housing. If there
is not sufficient light a window may be put in the end of
the house at a point where the maximum sunshine will be
admitted. The illustration shows a little flat roof and it
is covered with building paper. If shingles be used at
least one-fourth pitch will be necessary. It will be best
to face the house to the south to admit the sunshine, but
it may be faced in any other direction to avoid strong
wind, or for other reasons. (See illustration on page 156.)
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING 155
The plan shows double yards each I2y2 x 50 feet, less the
space occupied by the house and the small lot at each
corner. This means there will be "rotation of crops/'
The chickens may be rotated with the vegetable garden.
The garden will be in one yard while the chickens are in
the other. Chickens should not be kept on the same yard
two years in succession. It is a mistake to crowd the yards
beyond ability to keep them clean. The yard should be
spaded frequently to prevent accumulation of droppings
ANOTHER BACKYARD SYSTEM
The original "Philo method" of close confinement. The system shown here
entails a heavy labor cost when large numbers of fowls are kept.
and to keep the soil in better condition for the fowls to
scratch in. This will furnish exercise for the fowls and
help to keep the ground in a sanitary condition.
At the end of the house there is a small enclosure, 6x8
feet, which may be used for hatching the chicks if it is
desired to rear them instead of to purchase mature pullets.
Where it is possible to purchase the pullets in the fall from
a breeder of good laying stock at a reasonable price, it
will be more satisfactory to do so than to continue rearing
the fowls on the small lot to reproduce the flock. The
layers may be kept two years and then replaced with
pullets.
156
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
The Crowing Rooster. — Where the method of buying
the pullets is followed, the rooster is unnecessary. The
hens will lay as well without him, and the objections of the
neighbors to chickens on account of the early morning
crowing will be overcome. If desired to keep a male, he
may be discouraged from crowing by placing a board or
hanging canvass over his perch at such a height as to
prevent him stretching his neck. A rooster in crowing
A PLAN FOR BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING
raises his head at a considerable height, and if he cannot
raise it the desired height there will be little crowing.
Fancy Poultry-Keeping. — Another type of poultry-
keeping is that of breeding fancy or show fowls. It is not
assumed that fancy or utility are not and cannot be com-
bined, but there is a class of poultry-keepers whose chief
business or profit is made in the production of fowls that
excel in qualities demanded by the Standard of Perfec-
tion in the show bird. These breeders have been called
fanciers probably because many of the points they breed
for and make a profit on are matters of fancy rather
than utility. Poultry fanciers have done a good deal in
creating an interest in poultry-keeping through the medium
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING 157
of exhibitions. The breeding of fancy show specimens is
a business in itself, requiring special fitness, and when by
superior knowledge and skill in the mating of fowls the
breeder is able to produce specimens so near perfection in
exhibition points that others are willing to pay from $10
to $50 for single birds, he is not receiving more, probably,
than reasonable recompense for the labor and skill ex-
pended in their production. Prices as high as $500 and
more have been reported paid for single birds.
The standard followed by the fancier is not altogether
based on points foreign to utility, but from the utility
standpoint the fancier's standard emphasizes too highly
many points of color and shape that have no correlation
with useful qualities. So long as the leading poultry shows
are judged according to this standard there will be a
profitable business for the fancier, who has the necessary
skill, in breeding prize-winning show specimens, even
though he may not find a strong demand for his stock from
the commercial poultry-keepers or farmers.
When the fancy standard is brought more in line with
the utility viewpoint and show birds are judged more on
a utility basis, the fancier will readjust his breeding
practices and produce stock that is in demand not only in
the show room but on the commercial farm. The business
should then be more profitable and need not lose any of
its fascination. If this is not done a double standard will
be needed — one for the purely fancy, another for the
utility.
A Financial Statement. — The following table gives the
actual results secured on three different types of farms in
the Willamette Valley, Ore., in one year. Similar types of
farms could be found in any state of the Union.
Farm A represents that type of farming, mixed hus-
bandry, which produces most of the poultry and eggs of
158
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
the country, with the difference that the poultry branch
of it is accentuated more strongly than on the average
general farm. Farm B shows a combination of fruit grow-
ing and poultry raising on which poultry raising is of
nearly equal importance with fruit growing in the average
year. This farm shows heavy production for the acreage.
Farm C represents the exclusive or special poultry farm
type.
It is not assumed that these represent the best results
obtainable on any one class of farms, but they are given
because they show satisfactory results and at the same
time give the necessary data for a study of different types.
FARM ABC
No. acres owned 307 31 24
Value per acre $93.48 $606 $1,000
Horses needed 7 2 1
No. of fowls kept 300 770 776
Estimate per fowl :
Cost of feed $1 $1.50 $1.25
Eggs per hen 125 140 125
Prices received :
Highest $0.47 $0.45 $0.65
Lowest $0.18 $0.20 $0.271/2
RECEIPTS
Hay and field crops $1,381.20
Animal husbandry 996 $ 10
Dairy 300 50
Orchard and garden . . 5,270
Value of poultry and eggs sold . . . 839.30 2,715 $2,708
Total $3,766.50 $8,045.30 $2,708
Net receipts $2,077 $4,554.30 $520
Net gain 2.944 5,379.30 1,420
Per cent gain on investment... 8.6 19.7 5.3
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY FARMING 159
EXPENSES
FARM A B C
Hired labor $250 $1,000 $ 8
Operating expense 782.50 2,716 1,288
Total expense 1,689.50 3,491 2,188
CAPITAL
Land $28,700 $18,800 $24,000
Dwelling's 1,500 2,000 500
Other buildings 500 4,000 800
Machinery and tools 200 500 50
Live stock 2,914 485 670
Peed and seed 100 50 100
Cash to run farm 75 1,000 400
Total $33,989 $26,835 $26,520
CHAPTER IX
HOUSING OF POULTRY
Environment has much to do in the matter of getting
eggs; that is, there is a close relationship between en-
vironment and egg yield. "What is environment? The
house or shelter is part of the environment of the hen.
The kind of soil the hen ranges on or scratches in; the
climatic conditions, — rain-fall, snow-fall, wind movement, —
the size of yard or the amount of land, mode of getting
feed, disturbing elements or noise that will cause fright,
number of fowls in the flock, all these and many other
things are part of the environment of the hen. If these con-
ditions are favorable her environment is favorable for egg
production.
Changes in environment have had a great deal to do
with improvement in egg-laying qualities of fowls since the
days of domestication. This point, however, is discussed
under breeding. Taming the wild hen, putting her under
more favorable environment as to shelter and feeding, is
responsible for a large part of the increase in her egg-
laying. Probably no other domestic animal is so sensitive
to environment as is the laying hen. A dog running past
the poultry yards and scaring the hens, and strangers
going into the poultry houses, will cut down on the egg
yield perceptibly, so sensitive is the hen to her environ-
ment. A slight disturbance in mode of living — a change
from one yard or one house to another, a change in atten-
dant, neglect or sudden change in the feeding — is reflected
immediately in a lower egg yield.
160
HOUSING OF POULTRY 161
If the business of egg production is harder or requires
greater skill than the business of butter production, it is
because of this one fact — the extreme sensitiveness of the
hen to her environment. This lesson should be thoroughly
remembered in embarking in the poultry business and
especially in planning the poultry houses and yards.
Changes and Progress. — Probably in no other branch of
poultry husbandry have ideas and methods changed more
radically during the past ten years than in that relating
to housing of poultry, and we are bound to say that the
changes have been along the line of progress. There are
still problems in poultry housing but they are being
worked out surely. At the end of the last century dense
ignorance of simple, elementary principles of housing might
well characterize the state of knowledge on this subject.
Not that there were not some isolated examples of proper
housing ; there were. But there was no general agreement
among authorities as to what constituted some of the
essential principles of housing. There were fierce conten-
tions on the subject but lacking actual demonstration the
contenders got nowhere. The change of methods has
amounted to a revolution. No one agency has been re-
sponsible for this change, but probably without the demon-
strations made at experiment stations there would not
have been the progress that has been witnessed. The lesson
has also been learned and taught by costly experience and
experiment of practical poultry-keepers. Professor Gowell 's
work at the Maine Station deserves strong commendation.
Not that he discovered any new thing in poultry housing
but he put conflicting ideas to test and by actual demon-
stration brought poultry-keepers face to face with the
problem.
Notwithstanding the great progress that has been made
since the beginning of the century, the last word has not
162 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
been said upon this subject. Progress has been made,
though sometimes it has been made by going backward;
and it would not be surprising if ten years from now
some of the things now advocated are thrown on the scrap
heap.
The difficulties come mostly from failure to understand
the essential conditions of housing. There have been many
costly experiments in the poultry business; there will be
many more, no doubt, but few have been more costly than
the experiment in housing. Fifteen years ago a great
many poultry houses were built on the theory that warmth
was the first essential of winter egg production. Houses
were double-boarded and lined with sheeting paper. Even
brick or cement houses were sometimes built. Some were
built on the hot house plan with plenty of windows to
admit the sunshine. The fallacy of this theory has been
pretty well demonstrated and it is now fairly well under--
stood that the first essential of winter egg production, as
well as summer egg production, is the health and vitality
of the fowls, not warm houses. Whatever kind of house
best meets the conditions of health and vigor is the one
that will give the most profitable egg production.
The following quotations taken from an early edition
of Lewis "Wright's "Poultry Book," will be of interest
here. It describes conditions obtaining in 1813, a century
ago, and it points a lesson. In speaking of Scotch fowls
it is stated: "The hens are kept in as dry and warm a
place in the house as possible; in cottages they generally,
during the night, sit at no great distance from the fire-
place; the consequence is that the farmer whose poultry
are in the night time confined in places without a fire ob-
tain no eggs; the poor people have them in abundance. "
Warmth is not inimical to egg laying. It is the attempt
to make fowls warm without ventilation or artificial heat
HOUSING OF POULTRY
163
that is impossible. In the case of the Scotch cottagers a
century ago the fowls were kept near a fireplace, and ven-
tilation and dryiiess were furnished by the fireplace.
Natural and Artificial Conditions. — It is a well estab-
lished law that domestication tends to enfeeblement. The
fact that fowls have been under domestication two thou-
sand years or more nullifies this law only in degree. But
then, how is greater production secured under domestica-
tion than in the wild state? It is secured in spite of
domestication. The fowl is placed under more favorable
THE EVOLUTION OF THE POULTRY HOUSE
The first and not the worst poultry house that was ever built.
conditions for production. She is furnished a regular and
copious supply of food. Under the wild state the food
supply is often precarious. That is one reason why in
spite of domestication there is high production. But it
requires the highest skill of the feeder and the breeder to
offset this law of enfeeblement.
Houses and Vigor. — The hardest problem in poultry-
keeping is how to maintain the health and vigor of the
fowls. Housing has considerable to do with health and
vigor. Ages ago, before domestication, chickens roosted
in trees, and they still have a little of the wild nature.
164 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Did you ever notice when the curfew of the poultry
yard summons the fowls to their roost, that they usual-
ly go to bed on the branches of the trees if there is
one near by ? Not long ago the writer watched a flock of
fine chickens "retire" for the night. The farmer had
built good houses for the flock, but near the houses there
was a giant oak tree decorated by nature with mistletoe.
One after another the hens flew into this tree, hopping
from one branch to another until some of them reached
A HOUSE WITH INSUFFICIENT VENTILATION
About the worst ever built.
the topmost branches, higher than the highest barn on
the farm. It was interesting to see the chickens nestle
down under the mistletoe for the night while the roosts
in the poultry houses were vacant.
On another occasion the writer watched a flock of hens
retire for the night where they had the choice of two
houses. One was a sort of shed affair with one side about
all open ; it was a fresh-air house. The other was a closed
house with a few small holes for ventilation. About nine
out of every ten of the hens crowded into the open house,
HOUSING OF POULTRY 165
though they had originally been equally divided between
the two houses. They preferred the fresh air house. If
there had been a tree in the yard they probably would
have preferred that to either of the houses.
On still another occasion the writer watched a flock of
1,500 Leghorns go to roost. Their houses were in a cherry
orchard, but when dusk came on the cherry trees were
covered with white fowls while the poultry houses were
AN UNSATISFACTORY POULTRY HOUSE
A house 800 feet long being torn down because it proved unsatisfactory. It
had two bad points: (1) It was built on an incline, with no tight partitions, and
there was a strong draught from one end to the other. (2) It was too closely
built up in front.
practically deserted. The tree was the first but not the
worst poultry house that was ever built.
There are times, of course, in severe storms when chick-
ens prefer the shelter of a roof to roosting in a tree ; but
the lesson is, that fowls prefer the outdoor life, or the
" simple life," and when put in close houses and com-
pelled to live there under the mistaken notion that this
is being good to them it is imposing conditions that will
result in decreased vitality. Housing is really an arti-
ficial condition for chickens and it is a serious mistake
in poultry-keeping to follow too closely artificial lines.
166 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
It should not be concluded, however, from what has
been said above, that the best kind of housing for chickens
is in the trees. It should not be inferred, either, that we
should avoid all so-called artificial methods in poultry-
keeping. "While housing may be an artificial condition
for fowls, nevertheless good housing is necessary if we wish
to get the greatest profit. In a state of nature, fowls lay
only during the breeding season, and it is necessary in
order to get eggs during the winter season to surround the
hen with conditions that are more or less artificial. If
winter egg production is an artificial condition, then we
must resort to artificial means to induce the fowl to lay
in that season. The danger is that we are liable to forget
the nature of the hen and compel her to live under con-
ditions too highly artificial.
In a state of nature where the only purpose of egg pro-
duction is reproduction, the hen does not lay all the year.
The spring is the natural breeding season. A hen will lay
in the spring under all sorts of conditions, but when eggs
are 50 cents a dozen about the easiest way to make her
lay is to chop her head off. Winter egg production is a
fight against nature, against the wild nature of the hen.
The troubles in housing poultry come from failing to
recognize the nature of the hen, and in forcing the process
of domestication too far. In a state of nature her wings
answered the purpose of a house; she flew into a tree to
get away from her natural enemies. She does it yet,
but the enemy now is the man who builds houses that are
as deadly as the prowling jackal of the jungle. Her wings
were given her to escape her enemies. But we have no
use for her wings. They cause the poultryman a good
deal of trouble and expense. But the wings teach us a
lesson. If the house doesn't suit, the hen will use her
wings to get away from it. She prefers the tree to a
HOUSING OF POULTRY 167
poor house, and very often prefers the tree to any kind
of a house.
The lesson is that the hen has still a little of the wild
nature, and when we modernize her, when we put her
under artificial modes of living, we are liable to get the
same result that the nation got in putting the Indian under
conditions of modern civilization. They cannot stand it,
not until they have been bred to it by a long process of
selection. "We will get better results if we remember this
fact and plan our houses accordingly. That is a condition
that the hen imposes.
Purpose of Housing. — When we build houses for chick-
ens we have in mind their health and comfort. We may
be influenced in this by kindness for the fowls but more
often by selfishness that looks for a full egg basket; that
is, we usually build houses for fowls to make them lay
more eggs. We may say, then, that the purpose of
housing is to increase productiveness; poor housing will
decrease it.
Location of Houses. — 1. Soils. — Chickens will thrive on
a great variety of soils, but certain kinds are more adapted
than others to successful poultry-keeping. If possible,
heavy clay soils should be avoided. They are hard to keep
clean or sanitary. A rather light, porous soil is preferable.
This is drier in wet weather and not as hard in dry weather
as a heavy clay soil. A wet soil is colder than a dry one.
The house should not be set in a mud puddle. That is as
bad as setting it in a snow bank. It was Pasteur who
tried to inoculate the chicken with anthrax, he did not
succeed until he made the chicken stand in cold water.
The temperature of the chicken was too high for the germ
to develop, but after reducing the temperature by cold
water on the feet and legs, he succeeded in inoculating it
with the disease. .This will show why certain diseases
168 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
make greater headway where the chickens are kept in
wet, muddy yards.
2. Drainage. — If the ground selected has not good
natural drainage, provisions should be made either by
under-drainage or by open ditches for carrying off the sur-
plus water. The water should not be allowed to stand in
the yard. Muddy feet mean muddy eggs. Dampness
means catarrh, roup, rheumatism, tuberculosis, etc.
Sometimes the poultry house is put on a part of the
farm that cannot be used for anything else and occasion-
ally on a low sour soil too damp for the growth of cereals.
Such a place should never be selected as a location for the
poultry house. On the other hand it is possible to select
land that is too dry. The nature of the soil undoubtedly
has an influence on the growth and development of the
chickens. Chickens make a more thrifty growth if kept
on a soil that retains some moisture. A soil that becomes
extremely dry and warm in the summer months is not the
best. Hot sand soils, as well as clay soils that bake hard
in the summer, do not afford good conditions for profitable
poultry production.
The question as to how many fowls may be kept on an
acre of ground depends a good deal on the nature of the
soil. Many more chickens may be kept on soil that is
rather light and porous than- on heavy clay soil. Soil con-
tamination will not have the same danger on the porous
soil as on the clay soil.
3. Air Drainage is sometimes as important as soil drain-
age. Cold, moist air seeks the lower levels. It is better
to locate the house and yards on higher levels, where there
is some air movement to carry off the cold, damp air or
prevent it becoming stagnant. Fowls should not, however,
be exposed to high winds. You will notice that on windy
days they mope around in sheltered corners or in houses.
HOUSING OF POULTRY 169
This is not favorable to high egg production. Sufficient
air drainage, without interfering with the comfort or ac-
tivity of the hen, is the ideal condition. The houses may
be built on the leeward side of an orchard or in the shelter
of buildings. A wind-break of trees may be set out where
necessary to provide shelter.
4. Sunshine. — If possible the houses and yards should
be built where they will get the full benefit of the sun-
shine. Face them south unless the prevailing winds are
from that direction. If the prevailing winds and storms
come from the west or south the house may be faced east.
It may even be necessary in cases to face the house north.
In such cases windows may be put in the south side of
the house to admit the sunshine. Sunshine is a germ de-
stroyer and a better egg producer than red pepper or
other condimental foods.
5. Other Points. — Other points that should be con-
sidered in locating the houses are (a) the convenience of
the attendant, nearness to the feed and water supply will
save in labor; (b) building the houses away from the
other buildings will make it easier to keep the premises
free from insect pests and rats.
Chickens that roost in trees have good health. They
have constitutional vigor. They lay well except in severe
weather. Their eggs are of good weight and hatch well.
They very seldom have colds in coldest weather, while
their sisters in warm houses will be running at the nostrils
and have swelled head and ruffled feathers.
If the greatest problem is to maintain the health and
vigor of the flock, and hens will maintain health and vigor
without any houses, why then are houses needed for fowls ?
It is true that hens usually prefer to roost in the trees
rather than in the houses.
170 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Protection from Cold and Storms. — A good poultry
house should afford protection from storms and severe
weather. A little shelter from the winds and the storms
will add to the comfort of the fowls and therefore to the
egg yield. A cold wave or a sudden change to colder
weather, means an immediate demand for increased fuel
to keep up the heat of the body. In this case the fuel is
the food that the hen eats, and the food that has been
A BOY WITH A "SAFE" HORSE AND "SPRING" WAGON
GATHERS THE EGGS
Reardon Farm, Petaluma.
going into the making of the eggs will be drawn upon for
fuel purposes. It is the food that furnishes the heat of
the body as well as the material for eggs. Any shelter
therefore that protects fowls from storms or sudden
changes in temperature is an incentive to egg production.
Fowls maintain rugged health roosting in trees, but sudden
and frequent changes in the weather to which they are
subjected in the trees interfere with egg production.
Storms More Objectionable than Cold. — In most
sections under most climatic conditions fowls will spend
their nights in the trees in preference to the best poultry
HOUSING OF POULTRY 171
houses. Severe storms — driving snows or heavy rains —
will send them into the house. It is the storm more than
the cold that the hen objects to. In a scratching shed
where the fowls are sheltered from the wind the hen will
sing and keep busy all day with the temperature at zero;
but hard winds, even on a summer day, will drive her from
her picking and bug hunting in the fields to the leeward
A REAR VIEW OF THE MISSOURI HOUSE, SHOWING VENTILATION
side of the poultry house, where she will stand humped up
and look as though she did not care whether school kept or
not. In other words, you can keep the hen busy at a low
temperature if she is sheltered from the winds and storms.
Feathers will keep out cold but will not keep out wind.
On one occasion I watched several thousand hens at
Petaluma hunting the shelter of fences during the middle
of the day to escape the strong breeze that was blowing
from the coast, though the day was otherwise nice and
sunshiny. It is shelter rather than warmth that the
house should furnish. If the proper shelter be furnished
the hen will take care of the heating apparatus. All notions
of the warm house should be abandoned, and a shelter
built. This does not mean that warmth is injurious to
health and vigor. Fowls maintain good health in the/
172 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
warm months. As the winter departs and the warm spring
days come, the hen is at her best, her comb is the reddest.
Nor does it mean that warmth is inimical to egg produc-
tion. In the writer's experiments at the Utah Station a
little artificial heat increased the egg yield (Bulletin 102),
but it was apparently at the expense of vigor, for the
fowls in the cold house weighed heavier than those in the
warm house at the end of the winter. A proper system
of artificial heat may stimulate egg production, but an
economical, and safe system has not yet been found.
THE MISSOURI POULTRY STATION HOUSE
Ventilation is secured by slatted shutter and by opening windows.
A warmly built house cannot be made warm and com-
fortable without artificial heat in cold weather. Let us
see. To make it warm the practice has been to double
board it. It is tight boarded on each side of the studding,
and under the boards there is building paper to make it air-
tight. Then glass windows are put in to give light and
sunshine, and there must be double windows also. If the
hens are to have fresh air there must be openings in the
walls to let in fresh air and when fresh air is let in cold
air comes in. A double wall of that kind, even without
the ventilation, will not keep out the cold. It will keep
it out a little longer than single walls; the changes in the
HOUSING OF POULTRY 173
temperature may not be felt so soon inside the warm
house; but there is something else that makes houses cold.
The thermometer does not always tell us how cold we feel.
It does not always tell us how warm we feel. Dampness
in the air in the summer intensifies the heat.
A house cannot be both warm and dry in cold weather
without artificial heat. "Why? During the day the sun
strikes through the windows and raises the temperature
inside. At night the heat will escape through the glass.
The temperature will fall rapidly at night. There will
be a great difference between night and day temperature.
Now, warm air holds more moisture than cold air. During
the day with a high temperature the air will be relatively
dry ; at night it will be relatively damp though the same
amount of moisture may be in the air. If the temper-
ature falls low enough the moisture in the air will con-
dense on the walls. Moisture or frost on the walls indi-
cates that the air in the room is as damp as it can be ; in
other words it is totally saturated. It also means that the
house is cold, otherwise it would not condense. A warm
house that is at the same time dry in cold weather without
artificial heat, is an impossible proposition.
A damp house is a cold house. Chickens can stand cold
air, but not cold damp air. By opening the windows
during the day we keep down the temperature of the
house and this keeps the air drier. Dampness on the
walls indicates that the air is damp, not that the walls were
damp. The moisture in the air condenses on the cold
walls. Dampness is taken out of the air and put on the
walls. The moisture was taken into the air during the
day when the temperature went up, and at night as the
temperature falls the capacity of the air to hold the
moisture decreases and is condensed on the walls. With
more ventilation this moisture would escape. "With such
174 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
a house the thing to do is to keep the temperature down
during the day — equalize the temperature more between
night and day by opening the doors or windows — and you
will add to the comfort and health of the fowls.
A knowledge of this fact shows at once how futile it is
to build double walls and put in double windows with the
idea of making the house comfortable; it shows also how
we may save about half the cost of the building. It means
a saving in cost of building as well as in the condition of
the fowls and in the egg yield.
We have not found that we can keep enough fowls in a
house to keep its temperature up perceptibly. Horses and
cattle keep a stable warm from the heat of their bodies,
but we cannot crowd enough chickens into a poultry house
to keep it at the same temperature of the horse and cattle
barn and expect the fowls to maintain good health. This
shows that the poultry house must have greater ventilation,
must furnish more fresh air than is required in the cow
barn or in the living room of human beings. There must
be a more rapid change of air in the poultry house than
in the horse stable, and if we keep exchanging the air
rapidly enough by means of ventilators or open windows,
there will, of course be little difference between the tem-
perature of the house and the temperature outdoors. "We
must have plenty of ventilation, and we cannot expect to
keep the house warm from the body heat of the fowls.
The attempt, therefore, to reproduce spring in winter,
or to make the hen imagine in mid-winter that the natural
laying and breeding season is upon her, by building warm
houses, has not been a success. The failure is due to the
wide range of temperature in them. The "warm" house
is a hothouse during the day and a refrigerator at night,
unless artificial heat be used. A so-called warmly built
house is unreasonable without artificial heat, and artificial
HOUSING OF POULTRY 175
heat, in our present state of knowledge, is also unreason-
able.
Ventilation. — A good poultry house should be well ven-
tilated. Fowls require considerably more fresh air than
farm animals. It has been estimated that a hen, in pro-
portion to her weight, requires double the weight of oxygen
that a man or a horse requires. The amount of air
breathed per thousand pounds live weight of hens is given
by King as 8,272 cubic feet in 24 hours ; the requirements
of a man being 2,833 and a cow 2,804 cubic feet.
Experiments at the Wye (England) Agricultural Col-
lege showed that the health of the fowls bears a close re-
lation to the amount of carbonic acid gas in the house.
It was found that air in houses with proper ventilation
should not contain to exceed nine volumes of carbonic acid
gas to ten thousand volumes of air. The ordinary air in
country districts contains about three parts. It would be
impossible to arrange ventilation so that the air in the
poultry house would be as pure as that of outdoors, but
from the experiments quoted it is safe to assume that
nine parts or under is not injurious.
When we speak of air being impure we think of the
carbonic acid gas in it, yet this gas in itself is not poison-
ous. It is harmless, but associated with it is some other
impurity, the exact nature of which is not known, that is
poisonous. The presence, however, of carbonic acid gas
is a sure indication that the air is impure.
Ventilation, therefore, resolves itself into a question of
maintaining a low carbonic acid gas content in the poultry
house. The more and larger the openings in the house,
the more rapid the exchange of air and the lower the
carbonic acid gas content. Reducing the number of fowls
in the house decreases likewise the carbonic acid gas.
Again, weather conditions will influence the amount. In
176 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
cold weather there will be necessarily a more rapid ex-
change of air than in warm weather. Likewise high winds
will decrease the amount bv causing a greater circulation
of air.
Methods of Ventilation. — Elaborate ventilation systems
are not called for in poultry house construction. Usually
the cost of such systems precludes their use by the practical
poultry-keeper. For the larger portion of the United
States the best condition of ventilation will be secured
by leaving one side or one end of the house open.
Open-Front House. — In sections where the temperature
gets no lower than zero the open-front furnishes the best
method of ventilation. This much is beyond controversy.
By open front is here meant a house with one side en-
tirely open where the fowls roost practically in the open
air. There is, however, a problem as to how low a tem-
perature fowls will stand and maintain a satisfactory egg
production. Ordinarily zero temperatures will not injure
their health, because fowls roost in the trees all winter
and maintain good health and vigor, but when the tem-
perature reaches a certain degree of cold, egg production
will be cut off. It is a question of the happy medium, and
there is a lack of definite information as to the lowest
temperature in the open-front house at which fowls may
be profitably kept.
Fowls, however, that roost continuously in a cold house
become hardy and stand low temperatures better than
those that have been accustomed to warm quarters. Fresh
air furnishes the necessary oxygen to keep up the heat of
the body. The more pure air in the roosting room the
better will the fowls be able to stand the cold. It may
further be said that this method of ventilation will be
better in any section, north or south; will give better re-
sults both in egg production and in health of fowls, than
HOUSING OF POULTRY
177
that type of ventilation which is found in houses that have
more warmth but less pure air.
Curtain-front House. — The curtain-front house has also
been used successfully in cold climates. Instead of leaving
the front of the house open at all seasons adjustable cur-
tains of muslin or burlap are used. They are closed at
night as necessary during the winter. The objections to
the adjustable curtain are, first, that it may not admit
enough air, and second that it requires nightly attention
OREGON STATION'S FIRST OPEN-FRONT COLONY HOUSE
in cold weather to adjust it. There is the further disad-
vantage that it may be closed or open when it should be
the reverse, as the temperature or weather conditions in
the evening do not always indicate what they may be
before morning. In other words, it may be necessary to
close the curtain in the evening but not necessary toward
'the morning, or the reverse. It will be better in cold
climates to keep the curtain closed continuously during
cold weather. "When this is done there should be win-
dows in the house to admit light and sunshine.
178
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Adjustable Open-front House. — The wide open-front is
impracticable in sections where the temperature gets much
below zero. On the other hand, the curtain-front is im-
practicable for reasons stated. The curtain may be elimi-
nated by using a modified form of open-front. By de-
creasing the size of the opening, the same purpose will be
served as by covering the larger opening with canvas or
burlap. In a section where the minimum temperature is
zero, one side of the house may be practically all open.
In such a climate sufficient ventilation for fifty fowls will
THE IMPROVED OREGON STATION PORTABLE HOUSE, ADMITTING
MORE LIGHT AND AIR
be obtained by an opening 3x8 feet or 24 square feet of
opening equal to about one-half square foot per fowl. In
colder climates, with a temperature of 20 below zero, the
opening may be decreased to a fourth or a fifth the size.
A small opening in a cold climate will give better venti-
lation than a larger opening in a warm climate. In sum-
mer the opening should be larger than in winter.
Space Required per Fowl. — When poultrymen estimate
the capacity of their poultry house on the basis of so many
HOUSING OF POULTRY 179
square feet of floor space per fowl, they are figuring on an
insufficient basis. A few years ago it was enough to know
that 8 or 10 square feet of floor space had given good re-
sults and half that poor results ; therefore the fowls must
have 8 to 10 square feet of floor space. That conclusion,
however, was based on the warinly built, double-boarded,
poorly ventilated house. Now the capacity has been in-
creased by putting more openings and more ventilation into
it, and the fowls do as well with 4 square feet of floor space
as they did with 10 square feet in the old houses. The rea-
THE OREGON STATION PULLET TESTING YARDS
Showing portable open-front houses.
son is that there is a more rapid exchange of air, or more
fresh air in the former than the latter. The capacity of the
house, therefore, should be measured rather on a basis of
purity of the air in it than by the amount of floor space.
In the "Wye experiments it was found that in the winter
months with the temperature near zero a house 7% x 7l/2
feet and floor space of l1/^ square feet per fowl gave good
results when ventilated well. The carbonic acid gas varied
in the tests from 4.8 to 8.5 parts by volume in 10,000, the
latter result being on a still day. The air changed in this
house about four times an hour. It was concluded that
about 10 cubic feet of air space and 1% square feet floor
180
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
space in a house with proper ventilation are essential, and
that the carbonic acid gas content should not exceed nine
parts in 10,000 by volume.
The capacity, however, of any particular house must not
be determined absolutely by a standard of air purity. It
must also provide sufficient space for the activity or exer-
cise of the hen. Where there is little or no snow, or where
the chickens can be out of doors every day in the year, about
2 square feet of floor space per fowl will be sufficient. This
SPECIAL BREEDING YARDS, OREGON STATION
Showing portable open-front houses, portable fencing and double yards.
will apply to flocks of twenty hens or more. For smaller
flocks a more liberal allowance of space should be made.
"Where the climate is such that the fowls will seek shelter
part of the year rather than go out of doors in the yards
and fields, 4 to 5 square feet per fowl should be provided.
The house should be built high enough for a man to work
in without bumping his head. The height will allow suffi-
cient air space for the fowls.
The Final Test of a House. — The egg yield is the best
test of the merits of a poultry house. The completeness of
the egg records in different houses may well form the basis
HOUSING OF POULTRY 181
for a study of the relative merits of different kinds of
houses. A profitable study may be made of the housing
used where high egg records have been secured.
The Australian laying competitions conducted at the
Hawkesbury Agricultural College for a number of years
have produced very high records. The houses used were
small, being 11 feet long and 6 feet wide, divided into two
I
A COLONY HOUSE WITH CURTAIN WINDOWS
At the Utah Station the temperature reached 12° below zero and the Leghorns
shown in the picture escaped without injury to their combs.
pens for six fowls each. This is equal to 5^ square feet
floor space. The outside yards were 87 x 17 feet. During
the winter the front of the house was closed up, and there
were wire openings at the bottom of the back of the house
and at the top. The fowls had more yard space than is
usual under intensive methods. Here we have a small
house with open front in which records averaging over 200
eggs per fowl were secured. The climate is mild there, some-
182
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
what similar to some of the Southern states and to certain
portions of the Pacific coast.
At the Utah Station excellent records were secured under
more intensive conditions. The house was 100 feet long
and 10 feet wide, divided into pens 5x7 feet, leaving an
alley at the back. The outside runs were 5 x 40. There
was a glass window in each pen which was opened during
A SCRATCHING SHED
This shed is an advantage where house room is limited. The ventilation^ in
this house is secured through the door, which is covered with poultry netting
only, and between the plate and roof at the rear.
the day except during severe cold weather. Here with 7
square feet floor space and 40 feet yard space, one pen
averaged 201 eggs, and individual records as high as 241
were secured. At the Oregon Station the portable colony
house has been used exclusively. This house is 8 x 12 feet
with open front. A pen average of 212 eggs from 40 fowls
was secured, with an individual record of 303. The yard
space was about 150 square feet per fowl, the house being
moved once during the year on to another yard of equal
size.
HOUSING OF POULTRY 183
Iii the Missouri laying competition, a well-ventilated,
small house was used. In this house Lady Showyou made
her remarkable record. The Storrs laying competition
house is also a small, separate house. In this house Tom
Barron's Leghorns and Wyandottes made their great re-
cords. The highest record secured at Cornell University,
that of Lady Cornell, was made in a small house. At the
Ontario Agricultural College the best records were made in
a small house.
It is thus seen that good egg yields have been secured in
houses of different construction. Namely, in long, con-
A CHEAP SHED
In this shed a pen of two-year-old Leghorns were housed for a year. One of
them laid over 200 eggs. Lowest temperature about zero. (Oregon Station.)
tinuous houses, and in small colony houses of different
types. All of the houses, however, have been either open-
front or curtain-front. As between the continuous or long
house and the small or colony house, while good records
have been secured in both, most of the good records,
and all of the high records, have come from colony or small,
separate houses.
Hatching Quality of Eggs as Affected by Housing. —
The kind of house and the conditions of housing have a
marked influence on the fertility of the eggs and their
hatching quality. The hatching quality of the eggs is even
184 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
more dependent upon good housing conditions than is the
egg yield. A system of housing may be, in a measure, suc-
cessful so far as egg yield goes, but it may be a failure when
it comes to securing eggs of good fertility and that will
produce chicks of good vitality. The poultryman may be
successful in getting eggs, but fail in getting chicks and in
the business of reproducing his nock. Under some systems
of close confinement in houses he may get a satisfactory
egg yield if he puts into the house fowls of strong vitality,
COLONY HOUSES ON THE ALMY POULTRY FARM, LITTLE
COMPTON, RHODE ISLAND
but the chances are that the breeding or hatching quality of
the eggs will not be as good as where the fowls have wide
range.
It is practically impossible to make a permanent suc-
cess of poultry-keeping where the fowls are confined in
houses all the time if the eggs from the same stock are used
for breeding purposes. If it is desirable to confine laying
stock in such houses the layers should be produced by
breeding stock kept under more or less free-range condi-
tions. The natural tendency to enfeeblement under
HOUSING OF POULTRY
185
domestication asserts itself more clearly and strongly in the
breeding qualities of the fowls than in their laying qual-
ities.
The Floor. — Floors are not always necessary nor desir-
able in poultry houses. "Where the ground is inclined to
be damp, a floor will be an advantage, but where it is well
drained and porous there need be no floor. Fowls prefer to
scratch on the ground rather than on the floor. A wooden
floor gives protection for rats underneath, and for this rea-
son a cement floor is preferable. Where an earth floor is
used it should be higher than the ground outside the house
to prevent water running in. It is a good plan to fill the
floor with 6 or 8 inches of clean, coarse sand and once a year
or oftener take off part of this and replace it with clean
sand. This will keep the floor comparatively clean and
sanitary.
The Roof. — There are three types of roofs generally
used, namely, the shed roof, the gable roof, and the combin-
ation roof.
Shed Roof. — Practically the same amount of material
will be required for each style of roof, if the ground plan
and the air space con-
tent of the house are
the same. There
will be a little less
labor in constructing
the shed roof than the
others. The type of
roof used will depend
mainly on the width of
the house and the pitch
of the roof. If shingles
-, PIANO BOXES UTILIZED* FOR HEN
are used, a comparative- HOUSES
ly Steep roof mUSt be Two such boxes used in making this house.
186 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
made, about one-third pitch. If roofing material is used
instead of shingles, a roof nearly flat may be made. An-
other advantage of the shed roof is that the rain drains
off at the back of the house. This will obviate much
of the mud, caused by the dripping from the roof, without
the use of eave troughs.
A shed roof house may be made as much as 14 feet wide.
For a house of that width to be shingled a gable roof of
one-third pitch should be used. In most sections the cost
of the roof will be lessened by making it comparatively
flat and covering it with roofing material. In sections
where shingles are cheaper there will be little difference in
the cost between the shingles and a good quality of roofing
paper. The cost of laying the shingles, however, is greater
than for laying the roofing paper. Heavy tar or rubber
roofing should be used. A good shingle roof is the most
durable type of roof, though roofing papers are now made
of good quality. It takes 750 shingles for each square of
100 square feet, laid 5 inches to the weather. A man can
lay about 3,000 to 6,000 shingles a day, the latter by an
expert shingler working on a large roof.
Foundation and Floor. — Where a permanent or station-
ary house is to be built, it will pay to put in a good foun-
dation. Either brick, stone or concrete may be used, de-
pending mainly on the cheapness of these materials.
CHAPTER X
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD
Poultry houses may be divided into two classes : 1, port-
able houses; 2, stationary houses.
Portable House. — The portable house is used where the
colony system prevails. Much of the trouble from diseases
comes from keeping the chickens on the same ground year
after year. By keeping them on clean ground, which is
possible with portable houses, they are under natural and
hygienic conditions. This system, moreover, fits in with a
system of crop rotation on the farm. About fifty fowls to
the acre will keep the land in high fertility. Besides, the
chickens will find a considerable portion of their food in
the waste grain and weed seeds, grasshoppers and other in-
sects. They often rid the farm of grasshoppers and other
injurious insects, thus saving valuable crops. Another im-
portant advantage of the colony house system is the fact
that the fowls are more active when they have the liberty
of fresh fields than when confined in yards. Finally, with
the colony system there is no expense for fencing. "Where
fowls are kept on an extensive scale this system is un-
doubtedly the best.
While the advantages of the colony portable house are
more apparent in sections where there is little or no snow-
fall in winter, they may also be used where the snow covers
the ground in northern sections several months during the
winter. In such cases it is usually advisable to pull the
houses near together to avoid the inconvenience of the deep
187
188 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
TEONT ELEVATION
CONCEE.TF. FM>o*
GEOUND PLAN
END. SECTION
STATIONARY 100-HEN HOUSE. (OREGON STATION.)
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD
189
snows. When the snow covers the ground and the fowls
have not the use of the range, being practically confined to
the house, they will do just as well when the houses are
brought together.
Stationary House. — "Where little land is available, sta-
tionary houses may be used. The portable house, shown
on page 193 may serve as a stationary house for a small
flock. For larger flocks either a long, continuous house
may be used, or small, separate houses. The separate houses
may be placed in a row 40 feet apart. By this arrangement
A CURTAIN-FRONT HOUSE
Built by A. F. Hunter, at Abington, Mass. The curtains are shown in the
second pen. This is a modification of the scratching shed-house of which Mr.
Hunter was the originator.
the yards may all be on one side of the house, and one can
walk or drive a team on the other side from one end to the
other without opening of gates. Another advantage of this
arrangement is this: by having every other yard vacant
the trouble from males fighting through the fence is avoid-
ed. Another advantage is that there is less danger of con-
tagious diseases spreading from one flock to another than
in the continuous house ; every flock is practically isolated
from the other.
190 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Keeping large flocks in a long, stationary house requires
less time for the feeding and caring for the fowls than in
portable houses scattered widely apart over the farm. It
does not necessarily follow, however, that the advantages in
this regard are all in favor of the long, stationary house.
The profit in the business does not hinge altogether or
mainly on the convenience of the attendant or on the
amount of time necessary to do the actual work in feeding
and caring for the fowls. The final result must hinge rather
on the results or on the returns in egg yield from a given
amount of labor.
The portable house and free-range system is most con-
ducive to health and vigor in the stock, and in the long
run the financial results must be decided in favor of the
system most favorable to vigor. A man may care for more
fowls in a long, stationary house than under the free-range
colony house system, but in a series of years will there be
greater return in egg yield from his labor than from the
labor of the man who keeps his fowls under the exten-
sive free-range system? The greater risk from loss of
vigor, from death, from contagious disease, from lower
fertility of eggs, and greater mortality in the chicks makes
it certain that in ten years, more or less, there will be a
greater return from the labor on the colony free-range
farm.
It is possible that under certain conditions of soil and
climate the long, stationary house system may be successful
for a long term, such as in sections of maximum sunshine
and on porous soils. The sunshine will ward off many
bacterial diseases which would be more common where there
is not very much sunshine. Again, in a very porous soil,
soil contamination has not the same dangers as in heavy
clay soils. The poultryman who uses stationary houses and
follows the intensive system must utilize to the utmost tho
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 191
assistance of the sunshine in warding off diseases which in
many sections of the country have followed in the wake of
intensive poultry culture.
Cultivation of Yards. — If the intensive system be used
it is imperative that it include a system of cultivation or
crop rotation. To allow the fowls to run in large numbers
on the same ground, year after year, without any cultiva-
tion and growth of crops will result in certain failure. The
cultivation and cropping of the yards will keep them in
good condition. The crops will use up the manure and
lessen the danger from spreading of disease. The cultiva-
tion also keeps the surface of the soil loose; unless culti-
vated, some soils of a clayey nature will, from continuous
use, become hard and packed. The expense of building the
extra fence for the double yards will be offset by the value
of the crops that may be grown on the vacant yards. Cul-
tivation has a double purpose; first, it cleans the yards;
second, it offers the fowls more exercise. Whether it will
require cropping every year or every other year, or twice
a year, will dep'end first on the nature of the soil; second
on climatic conditions, and third on the number of fowls
kept on the ground. The control of tuberculosis is render-
ed comparatively easy by crop rotation and keeping the
fowls off the ground for six months each year.
Capacity of an Acre. — A light, porous soil has a greater
capacity for fowls than a heavy soil or a damp soil. At the
Oregon Station on clay soil it was found that the day drop-
pings from 200 laying hens on an acre in four years made
the soil too rich for the successful growth of cereal crops
where cropping the ground was done every other year. The
night droppings were put onto other land. If the soil con-
tains too much manure for the crops it is safe to assume
that it is not in the best condition for poultry. Sooner or
later it is bound to show not only a failure of grain crops
192 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
but failure of poultry crops. For a permanent system
under average conditions of soil and climate the following
points are suggested for consideration.
1. Maximum number of fowls per acre : 100 laying hens.
2. Disposing of the night droppings on other land.
3. Dividing the ground into at least two divisions or
yards, and growing a crop on each yard at least every
other year. In sections where crops may be grown every
year the maximum number of fowls may be increased.
4. Growing crops that will use up the maximum amount
of manure.
5. Keeping the ground vacant at least six months in the
year.
6. Thorough underdrainage, where necessary, to carry
off surplus water.
The above points are suggested as worthy of careful at-
tention where more or less intensive poultry-keeping is to
be followed and where the location is expected to be a per-
manent one. It cannot be assumed that they will be appli-
cable or practicable under all conditions of soil and climate.
But under average conditions of soil and climate they af-
ford a safe basis of estimating the capacity of an acre in a
permanent system of poultry culture. It is not assumed
that as many as 500 hens may not be profitably kept on an
acre for a few years under favorable conditions. It has
been done, but it is a different matter when it is planned to
make a permanent business of it.
Crops to Grow. — Different kinds of crops or vegetables
may be grown on the vacant yards. Green food may be
grown for the fowls, or vegetables may be grown for the
family. The droppings of the fowls will keep the soil in a
very productive condition. If it is not desired to use the
yards for garden purposes, such crops as vetch, clover, kale,
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 193
rye, etc., may be grown. Where it grows well, clover may
be sown early in the spring and the chickens turned on
it in the fall. Vetch sown in the fall will furnish a great
quantity of excellent green food in the spring and summer.
Where it thrives, probably no other forage plant will fur-
nish more green food per acre than the thousand-headed
kale. If planted early in the spring, it will furnish a
great quantity of green food in the fall and following
winter. Eye sown in the fall will make considerable green
food in the following spring and summer.
NOTE. — In a personal letter to the writer Edward
Brown says: "For those who keep their fowls within
restricted areas, I believe we shall have to come to a
four-course rotation, fowls being one part to three others,
by which is meant, supposing we have four acres of
land divided, the fowls shall occupy one acre only each
year and no more, the three vacant lots being culti-
vated. In some cases the three-course rotation has been
tried, but that does not seem to get rid of the manure
completely. However, it is a question of experiment
and therefore your observations are very important. "
Portable Colony House. — A good size for a colony house
is 8 x 12 feet. A team of horses will pull a house of this
size and it will accommodate from 30 to 50 fowls. Thirty
to 36 fowls will be enough in northern states, where the
fowls have not the liberty of outdoors all the time. This
house is built on runners and may be moved several times
a year. It will cost to build, about $15 for lumber, $5 for
hardware and paint, and $10 for carpenter work, the cost
varying in different localities as the prices of material
vary.
On page 177 is shown the kind of house used at the Oregon
194 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Station up to the fall of 1913. If the proof of the pudding
is in the eating, this Louse has been satisfactory. An aver-
age of over 200 eggs per hen has been secured in this house
with a flock of 40 hens, and it was in this house that hen
C521 made a record of 303 eggs in a year.
Improved Oregon Station House. — This house, how-
ever, has been modified with the idea of furnishing a still
more copious supply of fresh air. A study of conditions
led to the opinion that the exchange of air at night in the
roosting end of the house was not rapid enough for the
number of fowls in the house. For thirty fowls the ven-
tilation is ample, but for forty or fifty it was decided that
the fowls were too close together to avoid re-breathing the
exhaled impure air. It had been noted that several of the
highest record hens at the Station had roosted close to the
door on a step up to the trapnests. Hen C543, with a
record of 291 eggs ; C508, with record of 268 ; A122, with
record of 259, and a number of other high-record hens had
formed this habit of roosting at the open door instead of
back among the other fowls on the perches. This was roost-
ing practically in the open air so far as fresh air was con-
cerned, and it might lead to the inquiry as to whether
fresh air is not, in itself, a good egg producer.
The improved colony house is shown on page 178. In
the cooler parts of the north or where the temperature gets
down to zero and snow covers the ground two or three
months of the year, and for 30 to 35 fowls, the house with
the end open instead of the side is probably preferable,
because where the temperature is lower there will be natur-
ally a more rapid exchange of air. In warmer sections the
house with the side open instead of the end is to be pre-
ferred. In this house single walls are used made of rustic
siding. Trapnests are placed under the dropping platform.
Nests may be placed at the end wall of the house, in which
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 195
case the roosts and platform should be lowered 10 or 12
inches. A three-quarter inch hole is bored through the
ends of the runners. Bolts are placed through these holes and
a chain attached for moving the house. A team of horses
pulls the house. No curtains are used. The opening and
door are covered with 1-inch mesh wire. The dimensions
and bill of lumber and hardware follow:
BILL OF MATERIALS FOR PORTABLE COLONY HOUSE,
8 FT. X 12 FT.
Lumber
2 3x6 14 feet long runners.
2 4x4 8 feet long sills.
5 2x4 8 feet long sills.
14 2x3 5 feet long studs.
4 2x3 7 feet long studs.
2 2x3 8 feet long studs.
3 2x3 12 feet long plates.
14 2x3 6 feet long rafters.
8 2x3 12 feet long nest frames, etc.
2 2x2 12 feet long roosts.
3 2x2 3 feet long roost supports.
175 board feet 8 inch ship lap for flooring and dropping
boards.
125 board feet 6 inch roosting boards and slats for dropping
boards.
260 board feet 8 inch channel rustic siding No. 2.
1,250 shingles.
4 1x4 corner boards, each 6 feet long.
4 1x3 corner boards, each 6 feet long.
5 1x3 door and door opening, each 12 feet long.
2 1x4 14 feet long cornice finish.
4 1x4 6 feet long cornice finish.
1 1x3 14 feet long ridge board.
1 1x4 14 feet long ridge board.
5 1x4 16 feet long miscellaneous use.
1 1x2 14 feet long stops for oil-can nests,
196 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Hardware
6 Ibs. 8D case.
10 Ibs. 8D common.
3 Ibs. 16D common.
4 Ibs. shingle nails.
1 pair of strap hinges.
6 feet of heavy wire.
18 feet of 1 inch mesh wire for door and front.
8 10x10x15 oil-cans for nests.
2-3 of one end cut-out.
4 xlO anchor bolts.
The Nests. — Nests for laying hens should be somewhat
secluded, for fowls are less liable to acquire the egg-eating
habit when the nests are in a darkened place. They should
be from 10 x 12 to 12 x 14 inches in size and 8 to 10 inches
high, the larger breeds requiring the larger size. A cheap
and serviceable nest may be made out of a five-gallon oil
can by cutting the end out, leaving about 3 inches at the
bottom to keep the nest material in the nest. Such a nest
can be easily cleaned either by scalding or spraying. The
illustration shows top of can taken off; this makes the nest
more roomy. Several of these nests may be set on a plat-
form about 2 feet from the floor, turning the entrance of
the nest toward the wall and leaving a space of 8 inches
between the nest and the wall for the hens to walk along.
The nest platform should be nailed to a cleat on the side
of the house and braced from top of sill. Over the nests,
to keep the chickens from standing on them and to help
to darken them, is fitted a sloping top. This top should be
built high enough, so that the attendant can see into the
nests from the rear. Ten nests to fifty hens should gener-
ally be provided.
Another plan for nests frequently adopted is to place
them under the droppings platform high enough to permit
the hens to have full use of the floor. If this plan is follow-
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD
197
K '"; -
ed it will be necessary to raise the platform 3 feet from the
floor. This is higher than desirable, especially for the
heavier breeds, as they are liable to injure themselves in
jumping to the floor from the roosts. However, there is
little danger from this in a house without a floor or with
a floor if it be covered deeply with litter as it should be.
The coal oil can nests may be used under the platform, or
a row of nests may be made with lumber. "Whatever is used,
they should be made in
a way that they may be
easily removed for clean-
ing and disinfecting.
Another plan for
nests more desirable
than either in mild sec-
tions where the fowls are
out of doors all the year,
is to put them outside
the house either on the
end or side of the house
least exposed to rains or
the hot sun. Still an-
other plan is illustrated in a Utah colony house. In this case
the nests are placed in the back wall of the house. The hens
enter from the inside, while eggs are gathered from the out-
side.
Separate Laying House. — Where the colony system is
used, as in Petaluma, Cal., a separate laying house has
many advantages. It may be used in part for feed storage
and feed hoppers. The space in the roosting house is all
used for roosting or taken up with perches ; the nests must
either be on the outside wall of the house or in a separate
house for that purpose. On the large Petaluma ranches no
scratching houses are used, dependence being placed on the
NESTS UNDER THE DROPPING
PLATFORM
The front board is hinged at the bottom and
is shown open for gathering the eggs.
198
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
free range furnishing the necessary exercise. With heavy
breeds, however, scratching sheds should also be provided.
Broody Coop. — Where an empty pen or yard is not
available, a broody coop should be provided for the broody
hens. This may be made from an ordinary box with a floor
of slats. The slats make it cleaner and also prevent the
hen sitting. Cold air circulating underneath will also help
to overcome the brooding tendency. At the first symptoms
of broodiness the hen should be removed to the broody coop,
A GOOD BROODY COOP
On farm of H. A. George* Petaluma.
unless wanted for hatching. This coop may be hung on the
wall inside the house if there is room enough, otherwise it
may be hung outdoors on the shady side of the house or in
some other convenient place. If there is a vacant yard
available it is a good plan to use that for breaking up the
broody hens. Where large numbers of fowls are kept and
broodiness becomes a considerable problem, a separate
house built for that purpose may be used, such as illus-
trated above.
The Trapnest. — The main or essential points in a good
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 199
trapnest are simplicity, cheapness, and accuracy in opera-
tion. The Oregon Station trapnest has been in use 12
years (Utah Station Bulletin 92 and Oregon Station Cir-
cular 4). As the hen enters this nest her weight closes the
door, making it impossible for her to get out or another
hen to enter. The opening in the nest is made just large
enough for one hen at a time to enter.
It is necessary to visit the nests several times during the
day to release the hens, and there should be enough nests
so that there will always be some vacant, otherwise eggs are
liable to be laid on the floor. For a flock of fifty hens, 10
or 12 nests will be sufficient if they are visited often enough.
The nests may be built singly or in groups. They may
be set in the wall of the house, or inside the wall. They
may also be made and set up outside, separate from the
house. It is sometimes an advantage to release the hens
from the top instead of through the door. This can be
done where there is only one tier of nests. Occasionally a
hen is slow in coming to the door to be let out, and by pull-
ing the nest out or raising the cover, the operation of releas-
ing the hens may be more quickly performed. With the
small, active breeds there is not much trouble on this score.
They come quickly to the door. The heavier breeds, like
the Plymouth Rock, usually take their time in coming out,
and sometimes have to be pulled out. Where they can be
reached from the top this trouble is overcome.
The dimensions given are for small fowls and medium-
sized fowls up to about six pounds. It will be necessary to
add an inch or two to the dimensions for the large breeds
and increase the size or width of opening for the door.
How to Make It. — The Oregon trapnest can be made
by any one who can use a saw and drive a nail. It can be
cut out of a 12-inch board, 10 feet long. The material con-
sists of: one board 1 x 12 inches x 10 feet; six screw eyes,
THE OREGON STATION TRAPNEST
Trapnesting is revolutionizing poultry breeding.
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD
201
No. 210 bright ; two pieces of iron rod 3-16 x 12 inches, and
two pieces belt lacing 9x^/2 inches.
Yards. — If the poultry houses are located near a neigh-
bor's fields or yards, it will be necessary to yard the fowls.
For other reasons, such, as the keeping of more than one
variety or strain of fowls, separate fenced enclosures must
be maintained. "Where these reasons do not exist, it is bet-
ter to give the fowls
free range, either in
large or small flocks
or in large or small
houses. They will
do better running
together, as many as
500 in a flock, on
free range than if
separated into yards
with fifty or 100 in
each. The house
may be divided into
pens with partitions
between each, and 50
or 100 fowls in each
pen. When once ac-
customed to their
pen they will usual-
ly go back to their
own roosting places.
Importance of Keeping the Yards Clean. — When chick-
ens are confined throughout the year in yards, care must
be taken to keep the yards clean, otherwise there will in
time be serious losses from diseases and general loss in
vitality. "When they are kept year after year on the same
ground the yards sooner or later become contaminated with
LADY MACDUFF
Being taken from the trapnest when she laid
her 303d egg.
202 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
disease-producing germs, and losses through sickness and
decrease in vitality will render it unprofitable to keep
fowls. Dr. Salmon says: "Accumulations of excrement
harbor parasites, vitiate the atmosphere, and breed conta-
gion/' It may be possible, but it is doubtful, to keep yards
sufficiently clean by disinfection and other means to pre-
vent troubles of this kind. At any rate, the expense of
disinfection and cleaning would render it impracticable.
Size of Yards. — The size of yards will be governed
largely by, first, amount of land available ; second, nature
of the soil ; third, the cost of fencing ; and fourth, number
of separate breeds or breeding yards.
As to the first, the larger the yard the more exercise the
fowls will take. Large yards, therefore, mean greater vigor
in the stock. "Where the soil is dry and porous with plenty
of sunshine, probably double the number of fowls can be
kept on the same area or yard as where the soil is heavy
and wet. The larger the yard, the better for the fowls;
but it is possible to make them so large that the cost of
fencing will offset the advantages. In other words, the
fencing becomes prohibitive when a certain limit of yard
is exceeded.
The main, if not the only excuse for small, separate
yards, is for keeping distinct strains or breeds separate for
breeding purposes. Where as many as 500 fowls are kept
and there is no object in making up small breeding pens,
one large yard may be fenced in and the fowls allowed to
run together in the yard. So far as there is any reliable
data or experiments, the results in egg yield will be prac-
tically as good as where they are separated into small yards
of 50 or 100 fowls. Again, the larger yard is more easily
cultivated and cropped than small yards.
Fencing is expensive, and if the yards are very large the
cost may exceed that of the houses. It requires more fenc-
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 203
ing to fence a given area in a rectangular yard than in a
square yard. The estimates of yard space vary from 20
to 100, or more, square feet per fowl. For 100 hens the
size of yard under favorable soil conditions, should not be
less than 20 square feet per fowl with a double yard, making
40 square feet as a minimum.
Double Yards. — Where fowls are kept yarded the only
practical method of keeping the yards clean or to lessen
the danger of soil contamination, is to furnish at least two
yards for each flock. If the long, continuous house be used
and it is divided into small pens it will be better to have
the yards on each side of the house, rather than two yards
on one side, in order to get width enough in the yards for
cultivation. The yards being shorter and wider, less fenc-
ing will be required. Where the yards are too small for
horse cultivation, spading will have to be resorted to.
Portable Fence. — Portable fences may be used, such as
illustrated on page 204. When the fowls are moved from
one yard to another the fences are moved, so that half the
amount of fence is needed, as for permanent fences. They
take half the amount of wire, save the digging of post-holes
and the cost of posts. In the case of continuous houses,
with yards on each side, the fence is moved from one side
of the house to the other, leaving the old ground open and
free for cultivation. This saves in the cost of labor in
cultivating. More labor, however, is required to build the
portable fence, and the moving of them once or twice a year
is likely to damage them somewhat, but if built of good
heavy material they will last a number of years.
Portable System for the Farm. — On the general farm
where 50 or 100 hens are kept, the portable fence plan may
be used to advantage where it is necessary to fence in the
fowls, as, for example, during seeding time and while the
grain is getting a start. Part of a grain field may be used
204 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
for a poultry house and flock. During part of the spring
a quarter of an acre may be fenced off with a portable fence,
and the flock put in a portable house, such as illustrated
below. The flock would be turned loose on free range
during the summer, and the following year the house and
fence moved onto fresh ground. A fresh quarter acre should
be given them each year for four years and in the fifth year
PORTABLE FENCE
Designed and used at Oregon Station.
they would be put back on the original quarter to follow
the same rotation. The manure from the 50 fowls would
keep the acre of ground in good fertility for the growth of
crops, and soil contamination, with consequent diseases in
the flock, would be practically eliminated. If the ground is
fairly dry and the flock be not kept shut in the yard more
than three months, 100 fowls could be kept on the same
acre, using two colony houses. In northern sections where
snow covers the ground two months or more in the winter,
additional scratching room should be provided in the form
of a cheap shed illustrated on page 183.
The farm flock of 50 or 100 fowls could be made the unit
of larger and extensive plants. For every 100 fowls an
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 205
acre of ground with two colony houses and a portable fence
would be required. A system of this kind followed in com-
bination with grain growing may be conducted with practi-
cally no cost for land. The chickens will do little if any
damage to the grain crop, if the crop is pretty well grown
before they are turned into it. They will eat some of the
grain, but the grain will not be wasted and when the crop is
harvested they will pick up the waste grain in the field. The
SHOWING HOW FENCE MAY BE CONSTRUCTED
house would then be moved out farther into the stubble
field.
Fencing. — Evolution and poultry breeding have not yet
produced the hen without wings. In some of the heavy
meat breeds the wings are of comparatively little use. A
very low fence serves to confine them. The wings of the
tame duck are practically valueless to protect them from
the wild animals of the forest, which was the particular
use or purpose of wings in their wild state. Long disuse
has lessened their power of flight and put them practically
out of commission. The turkey, more than any of the
206 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
domestic fowls, retains the power of flying. This is another
instance of where the poultry breeder is helpless in chang-
ing the nature of the hen. In another thousand years or
two the wings of fowls, through disuse, may diminish in
size and strength to such an extent that poultry fences will
be cut down to a height that will serve only to keep the hen
from walking over them. As it is, the wing is a part of the
hen which, no matter how valuable it may originally have
been to her, is now positively a detriment not only to the
poultryman, who is making a considerable investment in
fences, but to the neighbor engaged in gardening.
The Height of Fences. — In practice, fences are usually
made from 4 to 6 feet high, the lower fence for the heavier
meat breeds and the higher for the light breeds. Even 6
feet is too low for some of the Leghorns or other small
breeds, but fences are seldom made higher than this. By
clipping the wings, or one wing of each fowl, the 6-foot fence
will be high enough for the smallest or most active fowls.
"Where it is not desirable to clip the wing, it will be neces-
sary to make the fence about 8 feet high for the active
breeds.
Material. — Poultry fences are almost invariably made of
poultry netting. It is made of galvanized wire and the
size ranges about 18-gage to 20-gage, usually 19 or 20. For
a durable, substantial fence, the 18-gage is recommended.
The durability of the wire depends upon its being well
galvanized. For adult fowls 2-inch mesh wire is used ; for
small chicks 1-inch or %-inch mesh. The posts should be
set 10 feet apart, not more than 12. A 2 x 4-inch post
treated with a preservative is heavy enough, though a 4 x 4
will last longer.
Shade and Fruit Trees. — Shade is very necessary for
fowls in summer. This may be secured from fruit trees
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 207
or other trees. Two or three fruit trees — such trees as will
do best in the particular soil and location — in each yard
will furnish some revenue, as well as shade. Most varieties
of fruit do well in poultry yards. Prunes, apples and
cherries do exceptionally well. The droppings fertilize the
trees and the poultry aid materially in keeping in check cer-
tain of the fruit pests. Sour apples should be fed sparingly
to fowls. Sour varieties of apples should not be planted.
Where it is not desirable to plant trees, sunflower or corn
may be planted early in season in part of the yard, fenced
off temporarily. The sunflower is a rapid grower and
furnishes excellent shade.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS IX AND X
1. No one style of house is essential to a good egg yield.
2. Good egg yields have been secured in long houses, and
in small, portable colony houses, but the highest records
have been made in the latter.
3. On one point all experiments agree, that is, the neces-
sity of an abundant supply of fresh air.
4. Even in the cold climates of Maine, Canada, and
Minnesota the cold fresh-air houses have given better re-
sults than warmly built houses.
5. Fowls require shelter more than house — shelter from
winds, rains and snow, rather than from cold.
6. The open shed, or the open-front house, is the most
serviceable house that has yet been invented. "Without it
the poultry industry would have gone to the bad before
now.
7. As to how much of the front should be open will de-
pend largely upon weather conditions. The opening may
be smaller in cold climates than in warm. Additional ven-
tilation should be given during summer.
208 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
8. Samples of air should be taken at night with the nose
to determine whether the fowls are getting enough of the
cheapest and best poultry food on earth — fresh air. A
good nose, therefore, is part of the equipment of a poultry
farm.
9. Records are not much in favor of movable curtains.
It is doubtful whether they are necessary or desirable in
any section.
10. Portable houses render the control or prevention of
diseases much more easy.
11. After all, the house is not guilty of all the things that
have been charged against it. Probably the yards should
more often get the blame. A good house should not be
hitched on to an unsanitary and poorly kept yard.
PRESERVATION OF POULTRY MANURE
Poultry manure has a high fertilizing value. It is es-
pecially rich in nitrogen. Unlike farm animals, fowls pass
the urinary excretions in the droppings. The urine is rich
in nitrogen as well as in potash, and this accounts for the
high fertilizing value of the droppings.
The average fowl produces at night about thirty pounds
of manure in a year. This varies somewhat as the method
of feeding varies. Fowls fed a soft mash in the evening
produce more manure at night than fowls that have whole
grain as the last feed of the day. The night droppings, on
the average, based on the value of commercial fertilizers,
should be worth 15 to 20 cents per fowl ; or at the rate of
$30 for 100 hens during the year, counting both night and
day droppings.
A large part of the value of the manure, however, will be
lost unless some care is taken to preserve it. Much of the
loss will be prevented if the droppings be mixed with dry
KIND OF HOUSE TO BUILD 209
loam. If stored in a shed or in barrels there should be al-
ternate layers of loam (not sand) and manure in the pro-
portion of about 2 inches of the former to 1 inch of the
latter.
There are other methods of preserving the fertilizing
constituents of the manure. One is to use gypsum. It
is a pretty good plan to sprinkle the dropping board with
gypsum and then mix more of it with the manure when
stored. In experiments at the Maine Station it was found
that t ' from the dung stored by itself or with sawdust, more
than half of this had escaped during the summer. The lot
stored with 40 pounds of plaster lost about one-third, while
the lot stored with 82 pounds plaster and 15 pounds saw-
dust suffered no loss/' The best preservation was secured
with kainit and acid phosphate, both with and without saw-
dust. For a flock of one hundred hens a good method of
preserving the manure would be to use about thirty pounds
of acid phosphate or kainit to about half a bushel of saw-
dust. Good dry earth or muck will take the place of saw-
dust. Lime and wood ashes should not be mixed with the
manure as they accelerate the loss of nitrogen.
CHAPTER XI
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING
Feeding is one of the very important subjects in poultry
husbandry. It is true that some hens will not lay many
eggs, no matter how well they may be fed ; that is because
they have not the inherited ability to lay ; in other words,
they have not the proper breeding. This is discussed in the
chapter on breeding. It will be seen there that food is
efficient in producing eggs largely as the hen has been bred
for laying, and that it is a waste to feed it to some hens.
At the same time feeding must not be underrated. While
it is true that some hens will not lay no matter how well
they may be fed, it is equally true that some will not lay,
no matter what their breeding may be, unless well fed.
The problems in feeding cannot be settled by a set of
rules and regulations. That is to say, any system of feed-
ing cannot be followed blindly under all conditions. If
fowls were all alike, if climatic conditions were always the
same, if foods never varied in composition, if the feeding
were done with a single purpose, it might be possible to re-
duce the problem of feeding to one simple ration and one
single way of feeding. If conditions were always the same
it would be possible to say to the poultrymen in effect : Feed
this ration and follow this system of feeding and you will
be successful.
The successful poultryman of course will follow a system,
but no system will relieve him of the necessity of doing a
little thinking for himself if he will get the best value from
the foods he feeds. His success in securing a good egg
yield and, therefore, a good profit will depend very largely
210
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 211
upon his knowledge of foods and the skill he exercises io
feeding.
That the fowls of to-day lay considerably more eggs than
their wild progenitors did is due in part to better feeding
and a more abundant supply of food. But the hens are
not laying on the average half what they should. To secure
the maximum egg yield the poultryman must give earnest
attention to the feed bucket and to methods of feeding.
High success in securing eggs can only come where the sub-
ject of poultry feeds and feeding is given earnest study.
A Knowledge of the Composition of Foods will enable
the poultryman to gain a clearer conception of their values.
The advance in poultry feeding in recent years has been
due in part to a better knowledge of the composition of
foods. While our knowledge of poultry foods and feeding
may never reach a point where we can say that certain
foods or rations will produce certain results, yet a great
deal of valuable information is available as a result of ex-
perimental feeding at the stations and of chemical analysis
of poultry foods. In addition we have the experience of
practical poultry-keepers, which constitutes a fund of val-
uable information to draw upon. But poultry feeding has
not yet been reduced to a so-called scientific basis. While
this is true, the student of poultry feeding will be agreeably
surprised to find much data of such a character as to well
repay diligent study and research. The manufacture of
eggs — for egg production is really a manufacturing pro-
cess, the hen being the factory — requires a careful study
of the raw materials as well as of the finished product, and
the working of the factory itself. If the poultryman wishes
to achieve the highest measure of success, it is imperative
that he avail himself of the information that is available as
a result of costly experience and experiment.
212 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Limitations of Feeding. — Most poultry-keepers do not
realize the importance of good feeding; others place the
whole responsibility upon the food and feeding. Before
telling what food will do, let us first tell what it will not
do ; let us understand some of its limitations
First. — Good food and good feeding will not make some
hens lay ; they are not bred to lay. At the Oregon Station
one hen laid 259 eggs in one year ; another, fed on the same
food, laid six eggs. In another case one hen laid 268 and
a flock mate on the same ration laid three. Many other
similar instances might be given. This is referred to in
detail under the chapter on breeding.
Second. — Good feeding will avail little unless the fowls
have good housing or care, or, in other words, favorable
environment.
"With good fowls and good housing, what will good feed-
ing do in the production or manufacture of eggs?
Food Affects the Quality of Eggs. — The hen is very
particular about what she puts into the egg, so particular
that probably no food could be fed that would render the
eggs totally unfit for consumption. At the same time it
has been demonstrated by experiment that food affects the
quality of the egg, and that to produce eggs of the highest
quality attention must be paid to the quality of the food.
Flavor of Eggs. — Heavy feeding of onions, for example,
will give a distinct flavor to the eggs and make them almost
unpalatable. Hens eating large quantities of beef scrap
will lay eggs of strong flavor. These facts the writer per-
sonally demonstrated by experiment. No doubt other foods
will also give a flavor to the eggs, desirable or undesirable.
It is said that a diet of fish will give a fishy taste to the eggs.
It is not necessary, however, to discard these foods on this
account, for when fed in normal quantities they will not
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 213
give a perceptible flavor to the eggs. Only when the hens
have been starved on green food or animal food, and then
given all they will eat of either for a few days, will any
flavor from onions or animal food be noticed in the egg.
But this shows that the hen puts into the egg what she finds
in the food, even the flavor of the foods. It is therefore
important that good wholesome food be fed at all times.
Feeding Color Into the Egg. — It is possible for the skill-
ful feeder to flavor the eggs; it sometimes happens from
unskillful feeding, as indicated above. It is possible also
to "paint" them. The variation in the shade of yellow in
the yolk is due to a difference in the food. The coloring of
the egg shell is beyond the feeder's art, but food affects the
color of the yolk as we have demonstrated. A pen of fowls
fed dried alfalfa leaves produced eggs of good yolk color.
A similar pen fed sugar beets instead of alfalfa leaves laid
eggs very pale in color. In an experiment at the Oregon
Station kale " painted " the yolks a good color of yellow.
Experiments at other stations have shown that the feeding
of yellow corn will color the yolk. (West Virginia Bulletin
88. ) When eggs are pale in the yolk it is a sure indication
that the hens are not getting green food enough. Clover,
vetch, rape, grass, or other green food, and doubtless cer-
tain grain foods, will color the yolk. A yolk too highly col-
ored is not desirable, and it is possible for the hens to eat so
much of certain foods as to color it too highly. Where the
ration is right this should not occur. Food, therefore, af-
fects the quality of the eggs.
It has been further demonstrated that it is possible to
color both the yolk and the white of the egg by the feeding
of certain aniline dyes. Khodamine Red dye fed at the rate
of 100 grams daily will, in a few days, color the white a
pink color, while Soudan III dye will in about two weeks of
feeding color the yolk a dark red. An egg laid two days
214 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
after feeding this dye to the hen will show the outer rim or
layer of the yolk colored. An egg laid at the end of two
weeks of feeding will show each layer of yolk distinctly
colored.
So far the experiments referred only to color and flavor.
Both color and flavor in the egg are points that have a
market value. Eggs either too pale or too highly colored
in the yolk will be objected to by consumers who pay a
fancy price and expect a fancy article. So, too, the flavor
must be unobjectionable if fancy prices are to be received.
These experiments might indicate that it is possible, by
feeding certain foods, to change the chemical composition
of eggs or feed into them certain things that will improve
their nutritive value. So far, however, this is only a pos-
sibility. Little investigation has been done and what has
been done seems to show contradictory results.
Investigations by Cross at Cornell showed that ' ' in feed-
ing a ration high in fat or a ration high in protein there
is no material change in the amount of fat and protein in
the egg. ' ' There is need, however, of further investigation
and it would seem that the matter is of practical importance
enough to warrant it.
Food Affects the Yield of Eggs. — Other conditions be-
ing right, good feeding makes the hen productive, and the
productive hen is the healthy hen. In a pen of four fowls
at the Utah Station 804 eggs were laid in' one year.
Another pen of four, sisters to the others, fed a different
ration, laid 532 eggs. The difference in the ration made
the difference in the egg yield. In another test one pen
laid 574 eggs in a year, and a similar pen on a different
ration laid 404.
In a West Virginia experiment fowls fed a nitrogenous
ration laid 7,555 eggs, while other fowls fed a carbonaceous
ration laid 3,431 eggs. (West Virginia Bulletin 60.)
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 215
Food Affects the Size of Eggs. — Food and feeding in-
fluence the size of eggs. Do not always blame the hens or
the breed for small eggs. An experiment has shown that
the size of egg is influenced by factors under the control of
the poultryman.
The size of egg, of course is influenced by other factors.
The'size varies to some extent as the vigor of the fowl does,
and vigor is very largely dependent upon the food and
method of feeding. This fact was brought out in an ex-
periment by the writer at the Utah Station. Fifty Leghorn
pullets were divided into four lots, as follows :
Pen 2, 10 fowls. In a continuous house, closed front, slightly
artificially heated.
Pen 14, 10 fowls. In a continuous house, closed front.
Pen 26, 10 fowls. In a continuous house, open front.
Colony house, 18 fowls. On free range.
The average weight of eggs for the six months beginning
December 1, was as follows:
Colony house 25.3 ounces per dozen
Pen 2 23.4 " " «
Pen 14 23.5 " « «
Pen 26 22.5 "
Eleven eggs from the colony house, it is seen, weighed
as much as 12 from the other pen. The increased size of
the eggs from the colony house flock was due to one or two
factors, or to both, namely, to greater exercise and natural
foods secured on the range. It was not a question of fresh
air or type of house, because in the open-front house the
eggs were no larger than those from the closed-front house.
That there is a relation between the size of egg and vigor of
the fowl is evident from the fact that the fowls in the colony
house and on free range weighed heavier than those in the
216 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
other houses at the end of experiment, though their weights
were equal at the start. The size of egg is undoubtedly in-
fluenced by the physical condition or vigor of the fowl.
The food affects the vigor of the fowl and therefore affects
the size of egg. In more recent experiments at the New
Jersey Station, rations deficient in protein produced un-
dersized eggs. (New Jersey Bulletin 265.) Other recent
experiments at "West Virginia indicate that scanty feeding
produces undersized eggs (West Virginia Bulletin 145).
Food Affects the Profits. — A proper study of foods and
feeding must include prices as well as composition. A ration,
although it may give good results in egg yield, may not be
profitable because it is made up of too high-priced foods.
There is no patent on egg-producing foods. It is not neces-
sary to use any certain kind or brand of foods. It is not
necessary to pay more for the chickens7 food than for the
food for the family table. There are rations that are im-
practicable because they are too high-priced.
Different Elements of Food. — If we look upon the hen
as a factory for the production of eggs and the eggs as the
finished product, the food will be the raw material. If we
had never seen a hen eating wheat we should hardly sus-
pect that eggs were made out of wheat. Eggs and wheat
do not look much alike, and yet when the chemist analyzes
them he finds that they are pretty much alike in composi-
tion. The farmer manufactures wheat from the soil, with
the assistance of the heat from the sun and the rain from
the clouds. The crop it produces he separates into straw,
chaff and grain. The chemist takes the grain and separates
that into water, protein, carbohydrates, fat and ash. The
poultryman feeds wheat to the hen and the hen produces
eggs. The chemist analyzes or separates these eggs as he
did the wheat and he finds that they contain the same ele-
ments as he found in the wheat, namely water, protein, car-
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 217
bohydrates, fat and ash, with the difference that the car-
bohydrates have been converted into fat. The main differ-
ence between a bushel of wheat and a bushel of eggs is that
the eggs are more palatable and more nutritious. They are
also more valuable in the market.
A study, therefore, of the composition of the finished
product gives us a clue as to what the raw material
should be.
Composition of Eggs. — Without the shells a dozen eggs
weighing l1/^ pounds, contained 13.57 ounces water, 2.32
ounces protein, 2.26 ounces fat and 0.22 ounces ash. A
pound of eggs is worth from 10 to 30 cents, depending upon
the season and markets ; a pound of wheat runs from 1 to 2
cents. When wheat is given to the hen it is converted by
a delicate process of manufacture into a form of food so
valuable that it is worth many times as much as it was in
the grain sack. More than that, the hen is thrifty; for
every pound of wheat she puts into eggs she puts a pound
of water, as will be seen later ; and she gets a good price for
the water. In selling eggs at 40 cents a dozen the poultry-
man is getting 25 cents a pound for the water in them. It
is more than the dishonest dairyman gets for the water he
puts into his milk.
An average egg weighs two ounces: 10.81% of it is shell,
32.47% of it is yolk, and 56.42% of it is white.
The yolk is composed of about 50% water, 15.5% protein,
33.4% fat and about 1% mineral matter.
The white is composed of about 85% water, 12.1% pro-
tein, 0.23% fat and 0.34% mineral matter.
Relation of Food Eaten to Eggs Laid. — There is a close
relationship between the character of the raw material or
food and the finished product. The skill of the poultry-
man comes in in properly adjusting the ration to meet the
requirements of heavy production. The hen does not ad-
218 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
just the composition of the egg to the food that may be fed.
If the right elements are not present in the food she refuses
to make eggs. The composition of the egg does not vary to
any extent.
The egg contains one-quarter ounce of protein. If the
hen be fed on wheat and nothing else she may eat four
ounces per day. Of that she will need about three ounces
to supply bodily needs. This leaves one ounce to make eggs
with. In an ounce of wheat there is about one-tenth of an
ounce of protein. Now, supposing the protein is all digest-
ed, which is not the case, she will not get enough protein to
make half an egg a day. But an egg every two or three
days would not be so bad at certain seasons. The egg, how-
ever, contains other things. It contains also about one-
quarter ounce of mineral matter, chiefly lime for shell. An
ounce of wheat contains less than one-tenth as much min-
eral matter as one egg of two ounces contains. The egg also
contains fat. It contains less than one-quarter ounce of
fat, but the wheat would contain three-quarters of an ounce
of fat formers.
"What would be the result if the hen were fed on wheat
alone ? She would get enough protein to make an egg about
every three days ; enough lime to make an egg every 12 days
and enough carbohydrates and fat to make three eggs a
day. "What will the hen do in such a quandary ? She could
put more fat into the egg to make up for lack of protein.
She could make a counterfeit article, but she will not. Un-
less she has the right materials to make it with, she will not
make the egg. "What would probably happen would be that
she would lay an egg every three or four days, every two out
of three soft shells, and the surplus fat and carbohydrates
would be wasted or put on the hen in the shape of surplus
fat. This is assuming that the hen would continue to con-
sume four ounces of wheat a day and maintain health. In
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING
219
practice, however, the result would be different. She would
not long continue to eat four ounces of wheat and nothing
else. There would soon be a loss of appetite and health.
It is poor economy to feed wheat alone. The same thing
is true of corn and all the cereals. None of them are " bal-
anced " for egg production.
A Balanced Ration. — This raises the question of what
is a balanced ration ? A balanced ration is one containing
the right kind of nutrients in
right proportions for the pur-
pose for which it is fed.
"We must know the composi-
tion of foods before we can
figure up a balanced ration.
It may not be necessary in
practice for the poultryman
to figure up balanced rations
for his flock. His experience
or the experience of others, or
the results of tests at experi-
ment stations, are a pretty
safe guide for the poultry-
man ; but in order that he may
intelligently plan improve-
ments in rations, and adjust
his feeding to the available
food supply, he should under-
stand something of the com-
position of ordinary poultry
foods.
What Use Does a Hen Make of the Food She Eats? —
In other words, what is the purpose of feeding ? The first
use she makes of the food is to supply the needs of her
A BALANCED RATION
Wheat, oats, bran, and beef
scrap in the above proportions
make up a balanced ration for lay-
ing hens. In addition, green food,
grit, and oyster shell must be fed.
220
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
body. The maintenance of her body is her first concern.
The body of the hen, like that of other animals, needs con-
stant rebuilding. There is constant wearing or breaking
down of tissues, and the food rebuilds
the body or repairs its wastes. The
work of the poultryman, therefore, does
not end with the making of the hen, with
the hatching and rearing of the pullet:
he must maintain her, and the skill of
the feeder shows itself in so compound-
ing rations and so feeding them that the
health and vitality of the hen may be
maintained. That is the first considera-
tion of good feeding — the maintenance
needs of the hen, the maintenance of
health and vigor.
In feeding laying fowls, the second use
to which food is put by the hen is to
make eggs. After the body's needs have
been supplied, if there is any food left,
the hen will use it for the making of
eggs. Eggs are made from surplus food.
After she has eaten enough to supply
bodily needs she turns attention to the
egg basket. It is poor economy, there-
fore, if the purpose is egg production, to feed just
enough to maintain the hen. More must be fed or our ef-
forts will be wasted.
If the purpose is meat production and a fattening or
fleshening ration is being fed, the purpose will be defeated
if only enough is fed to maintain the fowl. The profit in
feeding in both cases comes from the food consumed above
that necessary for maintenance.
On the. other hand, heavy feeding does not necessarily
TohfVshlafate
and water in eggs,
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING
221
mean a heavy yield of eggs. In an experiment by the writer
two pens of fowls consumed an average of 75.6 pounds
food, not counting the green food, and laid an average of
167 eggs per fowl. With the same amount of food two
other pens averaged 117 eggs each. The nutritive ratio
was practically the same in each case. While the heavy
layer must consume plenty of food, the manner of feeding
and the kind of food must be taken into account. In other
words, the efficiency of feeding rests largely on the kinds of
food fed and the skill with which the feeding is done.
?EED REQUIREMENTS OF CHICKENS PER DAY FOR EACH 100
POUNDS OF LIVE WEIGHT (AFTER WHEELER)
Digestible nutrients (pounds')
'
Total
Protein
Fat
Carbo-
Ash
dry
hydrates
matter
Growing chicks:
First 2 weeks ....
2.00
0.40
7.20
0.50
10.1
2 to 4 weeks
2.20
0.50
6.20
0.70
9.6
4 to 6 weeks
2.00
0.40
5.60
0.60
8.6
6 to 8 weeks
1.60
0.40
4.90
0.50
7.4
8 to 10 weeks
1.20
0.30
4.40
0.50
6.4
10 to 12 weeks. . .
1.00
0.30
3.70
0.40
5.4
Adults (maintenance
only) :
Capon, 9 to 12
pounds
0.30
0.20
1.74
0.06
2.3
Hen, 5 to 7 pounds
0.40
0.20
2.00
0.10
2.7
Hen, 3 to 5 pounds
0.50
0.30
2.95
0.15
3.9
Egg production:
Hen, 5 to 8 pounds
0.65
0.20
2.25
0.20
3.3
Hen, 3 to 5 pounds
1.00
0.35
3.75
0.30
5.4
Food Requirements. — The food requirements vary with
the age and size of the fowls. The younger the chick the
more food is required per pound weight of chick. The
222 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
larger the laying hen, less food is required per pound
weight of hen. It has been shown in experiments by Wheel-
er that 100 pounds of chicks under two weeks of age re-
quired 10.1 pounds of food (digestible nutrients) per day;
from four to six weeks the requirement was 8.6 pounds;
at 10 to 12 weeks the requirement was 5.4, so that accord-
ing to the weight of the chick, or for every 100 pounds of
chicks regardless of number, nearly double the amount of
food is required during the first two weeks of their age as
is required from the 10th to the 12th week. It is also shown
that the small chick requires double the amount of food
that the laying hen needs, per pound weight. For a hen
not laying, the difference is still greater. More food, of
course, is eaten per chick as it grows older, but less is eaten
per pound weight of chick.
Natural and Artificial Feeding. — The business of poul-
try keeping is more or less artificial, even the feeding of
the fowls. Artificial methods, however, can be followed
successfully just so far. The lessons of feeding will be
more easily learned if account be taken of the manner in
which fowls secure their food under natural conditions.
Where they have their liberty to range over fields they pick
up weed seeds and waste grain, nibble at the grass and
grass roots, chase flies and grasshoppers, hunt for bugs and
worms, and finish off with grit for dessert. Under such
conditions the hen balances her own ration, maintains her
health and vigor and produces eggs abundantly, if the sup-
ply of these foods is large enough so that she can secure
her meals regularly each day. The exercise secured in
hunting for the food enables her to better digest and as-
similate her food and maintain her in good health and vigor.
But under natural conditions the daily food supply is un-
certain, and here is indicated the advantage of artificial or
systematic feeding, or the necessity of cooperation between
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 223
the farmer and the fowl, if the highest production is to be
secured.
The Purpose of Feeding is not merely to maintain the
fowl in health and vigor; she can take care of that herself
if given her liberty; the purpose of feeding is to secure
higher production, and that is possible only where the food
supply is sufficient and regular for the needs of the hen.
Account must be taken of the nature of the hen. She must
be fed artificially, but artificial foods or nutrients must not
be substituted for the foods obtained naturally. Neither
may a life of ease be substituted for her natural life of ac-
tivity. She is a creature of great nervous activity and the
poultryman must take account of that also and in his feeding
make sure that the activity or exercise is provided. Nature
calls for food of certain kinds and for activity or exercise
that will make the food efficient in production. We cannot
improve on the kinds of foods, nor do away with activity.
But the intense production called for in the modern im-
proved egg-producing hen calls for systems of feeding that
will furnish unfailingly a full supply of all the food
nutrients demanded by the fowl.
Composition of Foods. — This does not mean that the
feeder must limit himself to weed seeds and bugs and grass-
hoppers. Wheat and corn are made up of the same in-
gredients as wild weed seeds, namely, protein, fat, carbohy-
drates; so the modern meat scraps contain the same ele-
ments as grasshoppers and worms. The difference is that
we furnish the vegetable protein, carbohydrates and fat, in
the form of wheat and corn instead of weed seeds, and the
animal protein and fat in the form of meat scraps rather
than in the form of bugs and insects.
The Mineral Matter called ash, which is that part of the
food that remains after burning, is found in varied amounts
in all foods. The hen is a concentrator ; she takes the min-
224 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
eral in the food, concentrates it into egg shells and mixes
a little in the contents. All grain foods contain insufficient
lime with which to make egg shells and the laying hen must
eat grit, oyster shells, or other things, to supply the de-
ficiency. "Where high egg production is called for, the
mineral matter is a most important part of the food. Its
importance should be more fully emphasized.
The Oregon Station hen that laid 42 pounds of eggs in
12 months used in the manufacture of shells practically
3y2 pounds of lime. In addition there was a small quan-
tity of mineral matter in the egg contents. The grain foods
she ate contained about two pounds of ash. More than
half the mineral matter, therefore, was secured from other
sources than the grain foods.
Mineral nutrients are also demanded by the fowl for
building up or repairing the bones or skeleton of the body.
The flesh and internal organs also contain certain com-
pounds of ash. The importance of ash in feeding has been
brought out in feeding experiments with hogs. Corn alone,
which is low in mineral matter, produced small gain in
weight and developed an undersized, fine-boned, over-fat
animal ' t characterized by proportionately small kidneys,
lungs, heart, liver and muscles, and by a high percentage
of fat." A German physiologist proved that animals will
live longer with no food at all than with food containing no
mineral matter. As to the effect of insufficient calcium
(lime) Sherman quotes the following: "Voit kept a pigeon
for a year on food poor in calcium without observing any
effects attributable to the diet until the bird was killed and
dissected, when it appeared that, although the bones con-
cerned in locomotion were still sound, there was a marked
wasting of lime salts from other bones, such as the skull
and sternum, which in places were even perforated. The
injurious effects of an insufficient intake of lime is, of
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 225
course, more noticeable with growing than with full-grown
animals. ' '
As the egg-producing capacity of fowls is improved there
is increased demand for the mineral elements, and the suc-
cessful poultryman will see that there is no deficiency in
this respect in the ration. The mineral matter in the body of
the fowl is largely phosphate of lime, while the egg shell is
almost entirely carbonate of lime.
Ground bone is the most available form in which to fur-
nish the mineral matter for body growth. Eapidly growing
young chickens require much mineral matter in the form
of lime phosphates which are found in bone. It is different
in the case of the laying hen. The shell of the egg is almost
all carbonate of lime and this is found in its most available
form in oyster shells.
But little is known of the effects of the specific mineral
elements, phosphorus, iron and sulphur, on production or
growth. It will be a distinct advance in the practice of
feeding when more definite knowledge has been gained of
the part played in the economy of feeding by these dif-
ferent mineral compounds of ash.
Protein is the most valuable part of the food, because,
though it is found in all poultry foods, it is not found in
the cheaper foods in sufficient amount for the needs of the
fowl, especially the laying fowl. Foods containing a high
percentage of protein are usually the most expensive. Pro-
tein makes the lean meat and the muscle and a large per-
centage of the contents of the egg. The white of the egg,
lean meat, gluten of the flour, and milk casein are practi-
cally all protein.
The value of the food must be determined largely by the
amount of protein which it contains, and high prices should
not be paid for food of any kind unless it has a guaranteed
analysis of high protein content. Generally speaking, foods
226 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
are cheap or dear in proportion as they contain a high or
low percentage of protein.
Carbohydrates and Fats furnish the fat of the body and
of the egg. From them are derived the heat necessary to
keep up the temperature of the body. They are burned
in the body to furnish the heat and also the energy. It
requires energy to digest food; it requires energy to walk
and to fly and to scratch, just as it requires steam to drive
AMOUNT FOR. ONE HEN ron One.
BALANCED RATION FOR ONE HEN FOR A YEAR
Showing the amount and sources of the different chemical constituents.
the steam engine ; and a considerable amount of food in the
form of carbohydrates and fat is used to produce this en-
ergy. Most poultry foods contain a larger percentage of
carbohydrates and fat for egg production than is necessary,
while there is usually a deficiency of protein. To what ex-
tent fat in the food influences the egg yield is not definitely
known. In experiments by the writer rations containing
a liberal amount of fat gave a better yield than others of
little fat. The experiments have shown that fowls eat
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING
227
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF FOODS
Carbohydrates
GRAIN
Watff
Ash
Protein
Fiber
N-Free Extract Fat
Wheat
10.5
1.8
11.9
1.8
71.9
2.1
Corn
10.9
1.5
10.5
2.1
69.6
5.4
Kaffir Corn
9.3
1.5
9.9
1.4
74.9
3.0
Oats
11
3
11.8
9.5
59.7
5
Peas
10.5
2.6
20.2
14.4
51.1
1.2
Barley
10.9
2.4
12.4
2.7
69.8
1.8
Rye
11.6
1.9
10.6
1.7
72.5
1.7
Buckwheat
12.6
2
10
8.7
64.5
2.2
Cow peas
14.8
3.2
20.8
4.1
55.7
1.4
Sunflower
8.6
2.6
16.3
29.9
21.4
21.2
Millet
14
3.3
11.8
9.5
57.4
4
Sorghum
12.8
2.1
9.1
2.6
69.8
3.6
Flaxseed
9.2
4.3
22.6
7.1
23.2
33.7
Wheat bran
11.67
5.18
14.05
8.16
57.34
3.6
Wheat middlings
11.73
2.85
15.22
4.88
60.85
4.47
Wheat shorts
11.8
4.6
14.9
7.4
56.8
4.5
Linseed meal
(N. P.)
9.9
5.6
35.9
8.8
36.8
3
Gluten meal
8.1
1
28.3
1.1
50.8
10.7
Cottonseed meal.
8.2
7.2
42.3
5.6
23.6
13.1
Soy bean meal . .
10.8
4.5
36.7
4.5
27.3
16.2
Brewers' dried
grain
8
3.4
24.1
13
44.8
6.7
GREEN FOODS
Alfalfa
71.8
2.7
4.8
7.4
12.3
1
Clover (Red)
70.8
2.1
4.4
8.1
13.5
1.1
Kale
88.2
1.82
2.57
1.47
5.32
.61
Cabbage
C0.5
1.4
2.4
1.5
3.9
0.4
Vetch
69.18
2.71
3.76
9.64
14.22
.40
Mangel Wurzel..
91.2
1
1.4
0.8
5.4
0.2
Turnip
C0.5
0.8
1.1
1.2
6.2
0.2
Sugar beet
86.5
0.9
1.8
0.9
9.8
0.1
Dried beet pulp..
6.4
3.3
10.8
19.8
58.4
1.3
Carrot
88.6
1
1.1
1.3
7.6
0.4
Potato
78.9
1
2.1
0.6
17.3
0.1
Artichoke
79.5
1
2.6
0.8
15.9
0.2
ANIMAL FOOD
Skim milk
90.6
0.7
3.3
...
5.3
0.1
Buttermilk
90.3
0.7
4
.. .
4.5
0.5
Whey
93.8
0.4
0.6
...
5.1
0.1
Cottage cheese.. .
72
1.8
20.9
...
4.3
1
Milk Albumen...
18
3
43
?
?
1.5
Beef scrap
10.7
4.1
71.2
.. .
0.3
13.7
Cut bone
34.2
22.8
20.6
...
1.9
20.5
Dried blood
8.5
4.7
84.4
...
...
2.5
Dried fish
10.8.
29.2
48.4.
,,,
»•»
11.6
228 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
more food during the cold weather than during the warm.
This is because it requires more food to keep up the heat of
the body, and for heat-producing purposes cheap fat foods
serve the purpose as well as expensive protein foods.
Nutritive Ratio. — The hardest problem, therefore, in
poultry feeding is to compound suitable rations containing
the necessary protein in its most available form and at
reasonable cost for heavy production. The nutritive ratio
is the ratio of digestible protein to digestible fat and heat-
producing foods. For egg production a narrow nutritive
ratio should be fed. A ratio of one of protein to four or five
of carbohydrates and fat is a narrow ratio and will give good
results in egg production. In figuring the ratio the fat is
multiplied by 2^ as it is estimated that one pound of fat
is equal to 2% pounds of carbohydrates.
It should be understood, however, that the nutritive ratio
in itself does not necessarily indicate the true value of the
ration. Palatability and other factors have to be consider-
ed. At the Utah Station two rations having the same nutri-
tive ratio were fed to two different pens of fowls for a year.
One of them gave a yield of 201 eggs per fowl; the other
133. There was a difference in the kind of the food, but not in
the nutritive ratio. Two other pens having rations of simi-
lar nutritive ratio gave yields of 101 and 143 eggs respec-
tively. At the West Virginia Station laying hens fed a
narrow ratio, or nitrogenous ration, produced 17,459 eggs,
while the pens with a wide, or carbonaceous ration, laid
9,708 eggs. During the experiment the former fowls gained
in live weight 1 pound 4 ounces each, while the latter gain-
ed only about one-tenth of a pound each, Other experi-
ments have shown the superiority of the narrow ratio, or
the ration rich in protein or nitrogen.
The proper nutritive ratio, however, does not guarantee
a good egg yield. Regard must be had to the kind of foods
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 229
fed, and the feeder must be guided by the results of feeding
tests that indicate the feeding value of different foods.
It has been shown, for example, that there is a difference
in the protein. Fowls require a certain amount of protein
in the ration, but to be effective in egg yield part of
that protein must come from animal sources. It is protein
just the same, but why there should be this difference in
feeding value between animal and vegetable protein is not
yet known.
Experiments by Wheeler showed that an animal food ra-
tion for laying hens was superior to others in which all the
organic matter was derived from vegetable sources, and for
growing ducklings very much superior. In the case of
growing chicks where bone ash was fed in the place of ani-
mal food the results were equally satisfactory. (Geneva
Bulletin 171.)
In New Jersey experiments (Bulletin 265) it was found
that : ' ' The addition of animal protein in the form of meat
scrap materially increases the efficiency of a ration
relatively high in vegetable protein, both for egg produc-
tion and for flesh growth, " and that: "Phosphoric acid
from an organic source (animal bone) is much more ef-
ficient than phosphoric acid from an inorganic scource. "
ANALYSES OF FOWLS AND EGG*
(The analyses of the fowls include the feathers, bones, blood, etc.)
Water Ash Protein grates Fat
Hen 55.8 3.8 21.6 .. 17
Pullet ' 55.4 3.4 21.2 .. 18
Capon 41.6 3.7 19.4 .. 33.9
Fresh egg. . 65.7 12.2 11.4 . . 8.9
*Prof. W. P. Wheeler, Geneva (N. Y.) Station.
Computing the Ratio. — The nutritive ratio may be com-
230 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
puted as follows : Suppose the ration is 10 pounds wheat,
3 pounds oats, 2 pounds bran and 1 pound beef scrap. By
referring to the table of composition of feeds, page 227, it
will be found that wheat contains 11.9% protein; so that in
10 pounds wheat there are 1.19 pounds protein ; it contains
73.7% carbohydrates, and in 10 pounds there are 7.37
pounds carbohydrates. The percentage of fat is 2.1, or
0.21 pound fat in 10 pounds wheat. Figuring the other
foods in the same way, we get the results shown in the
following table :
10 Ibs. 3 Us. 3 Us. 1 Ib. beef
wheat
oats
bran
scrap
Total
.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Protein . .
119
0.35
0.29
0.66
2.49
Carbohydrates
737
2.08
1.31
10.76
Fat ..
0.21
0.15
0.07
0.14
0.57
To get the nutritive ratio, multiply the total fat by 2*4
(0.57X21/4=1.28) . Add this to the carbohydrates (10.76+
1.28=12.04). Divide this by the total protein (12.04-^2.49)
and we get the nutritive ratio of 1 :4.8. In other words,
this ration contains one pound of protein to 4.8 pounds
carbohydrates and fat. This is not given as a good ration,
but simply to show how the nutritive ratio is computed.
In point of fact, this method of computation is not correct
because it is figured on the total nutrients, not on the
amount actually digestible.
Digestibility of Poultry Foods. — In the above compu-
tation it is seen, for example, that there are 1.19 pounds
of protein in 10 pounds wheat, but according to Henry's
compilation of digestion coefficients for livestock, there is
only 0.88 pound digestible protein in 10 pounds wheat.
The amounts digested are shown in the following table,
using the standard coefficients for livestock;
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING 231
10 Us. 3 Ibs. 2 Ibs. 1 Ib. beef
wheat oats bran scrap Total
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
Protein 0.88 0.26 0.24 0.61 1.99
Carbohydrates 6.75 1.47 0.84 .. 9.06
Fat 0.15 . 0.13 0.05 0.14 0.47
Eatio — 1:5.0
Foundation of Scientific Feeding. — The composition of
foods affords a means of estimating fairly well the value
of the food. Foods are usually valuable in proportion as
they contain a high or a low percentage of protein. For
instance, a. pound of protein may be worth so much,
whether it be found in corn or wheat bran. A hundred
pounds of corn containing 10.5 pounds protein is not worth
as much as 100 pounds beef scrap containing 60 pounds
protein. That is the fundamental lesson that the chemical
analysis of foods teaches.
Chemistry gave to the world only some fifty years ago a
feeding standard based upon the chemical composition of
fot)ds. Previous to that time, as Henry says, "the farmer
gave his ox hay and corn without the least conception of
what there was in this provender that nourished animals. ' '
The discovery of the vital differences in the amount of
nutrients in different foods was the foundation of scientific
feeding.
Percentage Digested. — But that is not all. It was found
that not only did the foods vary in composition, or total
nutrients, but a few years later a German scientist formu-
lated a new standard based, not on total amount of nutrients
—protein, carbohydrates and fat — but on the amount or
percentage of these nutrients digested by the animal. For
example, there are 3.8 pounds crude protein in corn stover,
but only 1.4 pounds of that is digestible, or 36%, the rest
of the protein is wasted.
232 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
58 per cent of the protein of clover is digested
76 per cent of the protein of corn is digested
77 per cent of the protein of oats is digested
89 per cent of the protein of linseed meal is digested
So do the carbohydrates and fat vary in digestibility in
different foods.
The percentages of these nutrients digested by animals
have been determined for practically all animal foods, and
tables of digestion coefficients for livestock have been made
and published. Unfortunately, the same information is
not available for poultry feeds. It has been assumed that
the digestibility of feeds will not be the same with poultry
as with livestock; that poultry may or may not digest the
food better than livestock ; and that before the digestibility
of poultry foods may be known digestion experiments must
be made with poultry. Some work has already been done
with fowls, but hardly enough to definitely establish feed-
ing standards. So far the results indicate that the digesti-
bility of certain foods does not vary much whether fed to
fowls or to farm animals.
In the above table the figures for lives cock were used in
computing the nutritive ratio.
Digestion Coefficients. — This is the term used in speak-
ing of the percentage of foods that is digestible. The
digestion experiments that have been made with poultry
haVe been mainly those by Bartlett of the Maine Station
(Bulletin 184), Brown of the Bureau of Animal Industry
(Bulletin 156), and Fields and Ford of the Oklahoma
Station (Bulletin 46). A table of the digestion coefficients,
giving the average results of all these analyses, has been
compiled by Bartlett and published in the Maine Station
bulletin 184. This includes the results of work of several
European investigators.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING
233
AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OBTAINED WITH POULTRY
TO DATE
II
KJ
Bran, wheat
3
46 70
71 70
46
37
Beef scrap
Beef (lean meat) . .
Barley
2
2
3
80.20
87.65
7717
92.60
90.20
7732
8509
95
86.30
67 86
Buckwheat . . .
2
69.38
5940
86.99
8922
Corn, whole
16
86.87
81.55
91.32
88.11
Corn, cracked
Corn, meal
Clover
2
2
3
83.30
83.10
27.70
72.20
74.60
70.60
88.10
86
14.30
87.60
87.60
35.50
India wheat
3
72.70
75
83.40
83.80
Millet
2
62 40
98 39
85.71
Oats
13
62.69
71.31
90.10
87.89
Peas
3
77.07
87
84.80
80.01
Wheat
10
82.26
75.05
87.04
53
Eye
2
79.20
66.90
86.70
22.60
Potato .
6
78.33
46.94
84.46
' These results should be taken as more or less tentative
until further work has been done and the final results based
on the averages of a great many analyses.
It is noted with interest that this compilation gives a
higher coefficient for corn than for wheat. If this finding
should prove to be final it would mean that the value of the
protein in the corn was about 8% greater than that of
wheat; the carbohydrates about 5% greater, and the fat or
ether extract about 66% greater. These results are not
presented as final, but rather as a record to date of progress
in a very important line of research. On the whole, the
work indicates that the digestibility of foods may not vary
a great deal whether fed to poultry or to livestock.
234 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Palatability. — It has been pertinently said that it is pos-
sible to make a mixture of wet leather and a petroleum
jelly that would give the same result as meat by the ordin-
ary food analysis. Palatability comes in here. Leather and
petroleum jelly would scarcely be as palatable as meat, nor
would it be expected that the one would give as good an
egg yield as the other.
Again, while a high digestibility of food is important,
yet digestibility is not a certain measure of the value of
the food. Sherman in "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition/'
says: "Foods similar in chemical composition and equally
well digested, may or may not be of equal nutritive value, ' '
and again : ' l The coefficient of digestibility is but little in-
fluenced by the palatability of the food."
Summing Up. — We have here three factors — there may
be others — that must be taken into account in arriving at
the true value of a food ; namely, composition, digestibility
and palatability. While any of these factors, standing
alone, may not mean much to the feeder, no one of them
must be disregarded. In proportion as his knowledge cov-
ers all three factors he will be able to feed intelligently;
but after all the knowledge that comes from practical feed-
ing experiments is all important and necessary to a com-
plete knowledge of the value of any particular ration.
Digestive Organs. — The organs of the fowl concerned
in digestion of food are shown on p. 235. This photo-
graph shows the various organs beginning with the man-
dibles or beak used for picking up food. The tongue moist-
ens the food with saliva, after which the food passes
through the esophagus, or gullet, on the way to the crop,
where it remains about 12 hours. The food is here soften-
ed and then passes into the stomach where it is mixed with
gastric juices and passes on into the gizzard. The gizzard
is the largest organ of the hen, and its office is to crush or
DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF THE FOWL
1, 2. Upper and lower mandibles. 3. Esophagus. 4. Crop. 5. Esophagus.
6. Stomach. 7. Gizzard. 8. Duodenum. 9. Gall bladder. 10. Spleen. 11. Bile
ducts. 12. Liver. 13. Small intestine. 14. Ceca. 15. Pancreas. 16. Rectum.
17. Cloaca. 18. Anus. (Oregon Agricultural College.)
236 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
grind the food. The tough muscular walls of the gizzard
aided by the grit that the hen picks up takes the place of
teeth which in domestic animals grind the food. The
moistened ground grain passes from the gizzard into the
large intestine, or duodenum, where it is acted upon by
the pancreatic juices. The bile from the liver also enters
the duodenum and aids in the digestion of the fats of the
food. The digestive process is here completed and the di-
gested portions of the food are absorbed into the blood and
the waste or indigestible portions forced on to the cloaca.
The ceca correspond to the appendix in man, and their
function is not understood. The total length of the diges-
tive canal from beak to vent is 4 to 5 feet.
The digestive process of the fowl works with extreme
rapidity. Investigations have shown that in about two
days after eating, the food has entered into the making of
the egg yolk. In two days after being eaten certain foods
have given a color to the outer layers of egg yolk.
To keep this complex system of digestion in proper work-
ing order requires a variety of good food, abundant exer-
cise, and fresh air in the house.
What Foods Should be Fed. — The table of composition
of foods contains the names of foods that are used for poul-
try. This table does not, however, exhaust the list, as there
are doubtless other foods that are used to a limited extent in
different localities. The composition of any food not on
this list may usually be obtained from the experiment
stations.
CHAPTER XII
COMMON POULTRY FOODS
Among the Grain Foods wheat is more largely used
for poultry than any other cereal, taking the country over.
It is a safer food than most other grain foods, and there is
probably no other cereal that is better relished by the fowls.
It has a near competitor in corn, and whether the one or
the other should be fed is largely a question of their prices.
If fed exclusively on one grain, fowls would probably give
better results in egg yield on wheat than on corn. Judging
from the composition, wheat has a slight advantage over
corn for egg production, while corn is better for fattening.
It is not a question, however, of one kind of grain ; no one
should expect a profit from fowls when fed one kind of
food, no matter what kind of food it may be. "When fed
in combination with other foods it is an open question
whether wheat or corn is the more economical to feed at the
same price per pound for each. No serious mistake will be
made by the poultryman if he makes the market price the
basis for selecting wheat or corn.
Corn is an excellent poultry food. A few years ago
poultry writers generally advised poultrymen not to feed it
to laying hens. Chemical analysis had shown it to contain
more fat-forming elements than wheat, and on this account
it became very unpopular, and higher priced wheat was fed
in its place. Later, however, experiment stations, in actual
feeding tests, showed it to be the equal of wheat when fed
in proper combinations. The Massachusetts Station secured
as good, if not better, results in egg yield from corn as from
wheat.
237
238 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
But neither wheat nor corn is a perfect ration, and other
foods must be fed to ''balance" it. It is a waste of food
and labor to feed either wheat or corn alone.
It is an interesting fact that those states which are the
largest producers of corn are the heaviest producers of
poultry and eggs. This does not, however, prove the
A THRESHING SCENE
The chickens will thresh their own grain and save the threshing bill.
superiority of corn, but it disproves the old notion that
corn is not a good poultry food.
Oats. — Pound for pound, oats are not worth as much for
chickens as wheat or corn. Fowls do not relish oats as
well as those grains. The large amount of hull on the oats
is an objection. The hulls are largely indigestible. Minus
the hulls, oats would be an excellent food for laying or
fattening fowls. Oats are not as fattening as corn or wheat,
and many poultrymen feed considerable quantities of oats
to prevent the hens becoming too fat. Special care should
be used in selecting oats, as they vary a good deal in quality.
Only heavy, plump oats should be fed. The chief value of
COMMON POULTRY FOODS 239
oats is in furnishing a necessary variety to the ration. This,
of course, is true of other foods. Hulled oats, if they could
be obtained at a reasonable price would be superior to corn
or wheat.
9 Barley is not extensively fed to poultry. Chickens will
not eat it if they can get wheat or corn, or, at any rate, they
will eat but little of it. Where the price is not more than
that of other grains, a little may be fed to give variety.
Many poultry feeders use rolled or chopped barley in the
mash.
Wheat Bran. — Bran is the outer covering of wheat and
other grains, separated from the flour in the process of
milling. "Wheat bran is richer in protein than whole wheat,
and has considerable ash or mineral matter other than lime.
Investigations have shown bran to be low in digestibility,
but nevertheless it is one of the most popular of poultry
foods. There is no cereal by-product more universally used
by poultry feeders than bran. Practical experience long
ago demonstrated its high value for poultry, especially for
egg production. For fattening it has not the same value.
Its high feeding value for egg production and for growing
chickens is undoubtedly due to its high mineral content, as
well as protein content. It contains also more fat than either
wheat or barley. These facts, added to its relative cheap-
ness, make it an economical feed.
Middlings and Shorts. — These are other by-products of
wheat that are extensively used. They have a high protein
content compared with the whole wheat, and on this account
and their relative cheapness make a liberal use of them in
the mash desirable. Middlings and shorts are composed of
the finer parts of the bran with some of the coarser parts
of the flour separated in bolting.
Peas. — Where peas can be grown successfully they should
be used quite extensively as a poultry food. They are
240 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
richer in protein than any of our common cereals. They
contain twice the quantity of protein that corn contains,
and on that account are worth more pound for pound than
corn or wheat.
Rye. — Rye grain is not a satisfactory poultry food.
Fowls do not relish it though they eat it in small quantities.
It lacks palatability. When planted in the yards in the
fall it furnishes an early green food in the spring. Before
the grain is fully ripe in the straw the fowls eat it more
readily, and they may be allowed to thresh the grain out
of the straw in the yards.
Rice. — Broken rice is used to a considerable extent in
certain sections as food for small chickens. Rice polish is
rich in the mineral element phosphorus.
Linseed Meal. — The meal of flaxseed from which the oil
has been largely extracted in the process of manufacture
of linseed oil is largely used as a poultry food. Old process
meal contains more oil than the new process meal, and on
that account is more valuable. Linseed meal has also a
high percentage of the mineral compounds phosphorus,
iron, sulphur and magnesium. It is a rich food and can
only be used in limited quantities. If it can be purchased
at a reasonable price, or on the basis of its protein content,
it may well be used profitably as a part of a laying ration.
Buckwheat. — This is a good poultry food, but its use is
limited on account of an uncertain supply and its high
price in most sections.
Sunflower Seed. — The sunflower plant may be profitably
used for a double purpose. It is largely used for furnish-
ing shade. The seeds contain a high percentage of oil.
They ripen about moulting time when foods of a consider-
able oil content are desirable. The seed may be fed in
limited amount throughout the year, but during the moult-
ing season in the growth of new feathers there is an extra
COMMON POULTRY FOODS 241
demand for food of this character. It has been observed
to give a glossy and attractive appearance to the plumage.
Animal Foods. — The hen is a meat eater. Animal food
of some kind is necessary for fowls to maintain their health
and vigor, and to make them productive either in meat or
eggs. A knowledge of this fact has done more to increase
the poultryman's profits than any other one thing in poul-
try feeding. The scarcity of eggs in winter is largely due
to a lack of animal food. The fact that chickens when
given the liberty of the fields in summer find animal food
in the form of bugs, angleworms, grasshoppers, etc., escapes
the notice of the farmer, and in winter he does not see the
necessity of feeding it. In most parts of the country, dur-
ing the winter, chickens are unable to obtain animal food in
the fields, especially in sections where snow covers the
ground. In sections with mild and open winters, they find
many angleworms, especially during the rainy season.
But in most sections, if not in all, fowls must be liberally
fed with some kind of animal food to obtain best results.
, There are a number of forms in which animal food may
be fed. Fresh, lean meat is undoubtedly the best kind of
animal food. It is the lean meat that furnishes the protein,
but there is no objection to having the lean mixed with a
little fat ; this may be an advantage at times. Fresh meat
scraps or cut "bone from the butchers' stalls are an ex-
cellent egg-maker. Some butchers keep a bone cutter and
sell the meat and bones all ready ground or cut up. When
one has a sufficient number of hens, say 25 or more, it
will pay to buy a good bone cutter and cut the bones. The
scraps contain a large proportion of bone, and the fowls
eat these very greedily, as well as the meat. They furnish
the mineral matter necessary for bone making and for egg-
shell making.
Skim milk will take the place of animal food if fed
242 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
liberally enough. The trouble with skim milk is that it is
not concentrated enough; that is, it is largely water, 90
pounds in a hundred being water. In other words, in 100
pounds skim milk there are only 10 pounds food. Even
with milk kept before them all the time to drink, laying
hens will not get enough of it to supply the demand for
animal food. If wet mashes are fed, by using skim milk
to mix the mash they will get more of it in this way. By
feeding it clabbered the fowls will get more food out of
it. Probably the best way to feed milk is to make ' ' cottage
cheese " out of it. This is a splendid food when properly
made. In that form fowls will consume enough to supply
the demand for animal food.
It is made in this way : Set a can of skim milk in a place
having a temperature of 75 to 80 degrees. In 18 to 24
hours the milk will coagulate (thicken). Then break up
into pieces the size of large peas or smaller; set can in a
pail of hot water, stirring the curd until a temperature of
90 to 95 degrees is reached; hold at this temperature for
15 or 20 minutes, without stirring. Then pour the con-
tents of the can into a cotton sack and hang up where the
whey can drain off. The milk should not be boiled. Salt
it a little. It will keep a day or two.
Buttermilk is largely used in fattening poultry, the
large fattening establishments using it generally for mixing
the ground grain. In the feeding of small chicks it has
special value as a preventive of white diarrhrea. It is also
profitably used in the laying ration. The mash may be
mixed with it and the fowls also given all they will drink
of it. At the Ontario Agricultural College, Professor
Graham has used it successfully as a substitute for other
forms of animal food, and also as substitute for water.
Sour milk has much the same value as buttermilk. By
withholding water more buttermilk is taken by the fowls.
COMMON POULTRY FOODS 243
Unless they can be made to use large quantities of it,
enough of the animal nutrients will not be secured to supply
the need for animal food. In 100 pounds of skim milk or
buttermilk there are only about 10 pounds of solids or
food, and this should be considered in arriving at an
estimate of its value.
Whey also may be used as a source of animal food, but
as may be seen in the table of composition of foods, it has a
lower value than skim milk and buttermilk.
Milk Albumin. — This is a by-product of the manufacture
of milk sugar. It contains little moisture and a high per-
centage of protein, but it is low in other nutrients. All
forms of milk foods lack in mineral matter, also in fat.
Where milk is used bones should be fed either dry or green
to furnish the required mineral matter.
Beef Scrap is the most convenient form in which to
feed animal food. This is a by-product of the large packing
houses, and contains meat and bones in varying propor-
tions which have gone through a boiling and drying process.
It contains, therefore, little moisture compared with fresh
meat scraps." It varies considerably in composition, but
should contain from 50% to 60% protein. Beef scrap varies
also in quality. It should be light colored with a meaty
flavor and somewhat oily to the touch. "When boiling
water is poured over it, it should have a fresh, meaty flavor.
If it gives off a putrid odor, do not feed it.
Fish Scrap is coming into use as a substitute for beef
scrap. Its practical value, however, compared with beef
scrap has not been experimentally determined, but the
practice of feeding it is growing, especially on the Pacific
Coast. The oil being largely removed in its manufacture,
there is no fishy taste transmitted to the eggs and chickens
by its use. If fresh fish, however, is liberally eaten there
will be a distinct flavor given to the egg.
244 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Green Foods. — Green food of some kind is an essential
part of the ration or diet. The health of the fowls and the
demands of egg production require it. The lack of a suffi-
cient supply of green food is one cause of the scarcity of
eggs in winter. During the summer the farmers' flocks,
which furnish the markets with the large proportion of
eggs and poultry, usually find all the green food necessary,
but in winter, since the farmer does not realize the im-
portance of providing green food, the chickens do without
it and we do without the eggs. Spring is the natural laying
season ; but by seeing to it that the fowls get the same kind
of food in winter that they do in spring or summer, it is
.possible to overcome largely the egg famine in winter.
Fowls should have all the green food they will eat at all
times. Green food is cheap, or should be grown cheaply
with good management.
Green food may be fed in different forms. Clover or
alfalfa or grass in the fields ; clover leaves or alfalfa leaves
in the haymow or in the haystack, make excellent green
food; vetch, peavine, rape, rye, kale, mangels, sugar beets,
cabbages, lettuce or turnips will fill the bill. It will be
noticed that these green foods have a larger percentage of
mineral matter or ash, and of protein, than the grain foods.
Alfalfa and kale are especially rich in protein and ash.
Clover, alfalfa, grass, rape, kale and vetch, will give good
color to the yolk of the egg; beets will not. Alfalfa and
clover will give eggs of good quality and flavor. Kale,
cabbages and rape will give a slightly undesirable flavor to
the eggs if eaten heavily, but not enough to injure their
selling value materially, if at all. If fed regularly, how-
ever, so the fowls may eat it at will, there is no evidence
that an undesirable flavor will be imparted to the egg.
In western Oregon and the Pacific Coast generally
thousand-headed kale is probably the most profitable crop
COMMON POULTRY FOODS 245
to grow for winter forage. Here it grows to perfection,
and an acre may be made to produce 40 tons of green forage.
For winter green food, kale is transplanted in July from
seed sown in May or June. For summer forage it is planted
early in the season. It is possible in western Oregon to
have green kale the year round. For a flock of one hundred
hens, about two hundred plants will furnish green food
enough for a year where the soil has plenty of fertility and
moisture. The plants should average 20 pounds each.
The chickens will eat about half the weight of the plant,
the balance being stalk which they do not use. Cattle will
eat most of the stalk. Planted in July, the kale may be
fed from October to April. Planted early in the spring
from seed sown in the fall, it will be ready for use in the
summer. In the early part of the season the lower leaves
may be stripped off and the rest of the plant will continue
to grow.
The plants are set about 3 feet apart each way. A very
small piece of ground, therefore, will grow enough kale
(or one hundred hens. A strip of good land 16 feet wide
and 100 feet long should furnish enough green feed in the
form of kale for one hundred hens. At that rate, an acre
of kale will furnish green food for 2,000 hens throughout
the year. Kale may also be utilized for shade for fowls.
Where fowls are yarded, by having double yards, it is
possible where kale grows the year around to make it
furnish the green food and shade all the year. Kale will
keep the yards in sanitary condition, turning the manure
and filth into a revenue.
Vetch and Oats. — This makes a good combination for
early spring green feed in sections where vetch grows well.
Vetch is a leguminous crop, like clover and alfalfa.
Beets. — Sugar beets and mangel-wurzels are used by
many poultrymen for green food. The tops may be fed
246 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
green and the beets stored for winter use. One peculiarity
of beets is that they do not furnish the coloring matter for
the egg yolk, as do clover, alfalfa, kale, and other greens.
In case the yolk is too highly colored, beets may be sub-
stituted for part of the other green feed that is responsible
for the color.
Beet Pulp. — Dried beet pulp is now used to a consider-
able extent in stock feeding. It may be used as green food
for poultry. In addition to its value as a succulent food,
it contains a fairly high percentage of mineral matter.
This makes it of more value than some other green foods.
There is little authoritative data on the subject of beet
pulp as a poultry feed, and at the present time it should
be used experimentally.
Sprouted Oats. — Sprouted oats may be resorted to
where other forms of green feed are not available. This
green food is very greatly relished by the fowls.
Oats and Peas. — "Oats and peas sown together very
thinly, with a liberal seeding of red clover and a very little
rape, make a good combination. The oats and peas furnish
a rapid growth of green food, a good deal of which will get
tramped down and some will go to seed, but it will serve
to protect the clover and rape, which will make good food
for the late summer and fall pasturage. Three pecks of
oats, two pecks of peas, one pint of rape seed and five quarts
of red clover seed will be a good proportion for seeding.
The oats and peas should first be harrowed in deeply, then
the clover and rape seed should be mixed and sown, then
lightly scratched in with a weeder." — PROF. JAMES E. RICE.
Potatoes may sometimes be fed for variety, if boiled and
mixed with mash, but they are not a good egg food; they
are better fitted for fattening.
Cabbages are very much relished. Apples of sour
varieties should be sparingly fed to poultry. On the whole,
COMMON POULTRY FOODS 247
clover and alfalfa are probably the most satisfactory green
food we have. In coast regions, where it grows throughout
the year, the thousand-headed kale by reason of its heavy
yielding quality is probably the most profitable green food
to grow. But it may be supplemented by other green food
such as clover, alfalfa or lawn clippings.
Grit. — ' l The hen coins silver out of sand. ' ' The chickens
need grit as well as the poultryman, but of a different kind.
There are two views about chicken grit, and I do not pre-
tend to reconcile them. One view is that the -chief function
of grit is to grind the food; the other is that grit itself is
food. Whatever the function, we know that grit is a neces-
sary part of the diet, and the health and productiveness of
the fowls require a liberal consumption of grit. On most
farms, where the fowls have the liberty of the fields, they
will pick up all the grit necessary, but on soils having little
or no sand or gravel, and where the fowls are confined in
yards, it is absolutely necessary to furnish grit just as
regularly as food. With a gravel bed located near the
'poultry * yards, the grit question is easily and cheaply
solved. Give them plenty of sharp gravel and sand to work
over. Where this is not available, grit may be cheaply
purchased at the poultry supply houses. Keep it where
the hens can get it at any time.
Egg-shell Material. — Ordinary grit probably furnishes
material for egg shells, but in addition it will be found ad-
visable to feed special shell material. The grains do not con-
tain lime enough to furnish sufficient shell material for
heavy laying hens. Ordinary sea shells and especially oyster
shells are largely used for this purpose. They are very
readily dissolved in the gizzard. The egg-eating habit
among hens is sometimes acquired because of a scarcity of
lime or shell material in the ration.
Charcoal is a bowel regulator, and most of the successful
248 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
poultrymen feed it regularly. It may be kept in a box or
hopper where the fowls can eat it at will. Salt is an aid to
digestion. It may be fed at the rate of about an ounce or
two ounces per day to one hundred hens.
Pepper is stimulating and should not be fed except in
very small amounts. Hens in good health do not need it.
It is sometimes useful in case of sickness in the flock. If
the flock should be afflicted with colds a little red pepper
may be mixed in the soft feed.
CHAPTER XIII
METHODS OF FEEDING
While a knowledge of the composition of foods should
be possessed in order to feed successfully, it is equally
important that there should be a knowledge of how to feed.
It is not sufficient that the poultryman should have all the
best available poultry foods. He may have all the neces-
sary foods, and fail in the purpose for which he feeds. The
laying hens may have all the best available foods and yet
refuse to lay eggs unless the food comes to them in a cer-
tain way. Success in feeding for egg production will be
measured largely by the methods followed in feeding.
Exercise and Activity. — The secret, if there be any
secret, in how to feed to get eggs is to feed in such a way
that the natural activity of the . hen may be maintained.
In the production of flesh or meat in domestic animals as
well as in poultry, activity or exercise counts for little, nor
is exercise so important for the cow that is producing milk,
but activity is the life of the hen. She is given toe-nails to
scratch with, legs to walk with, wings to fly with. If there
is any one characteristic more than another that indicates
the good layer, it is the active use of those organs in her
every-day life.
The vigor of the hen comes largely from her activity, and
it is the vigorous hen that lays. The reason hens on free
range often do better than others confined in yards, is
largely because of the active life they live. Under the
free-range system the poultryman need concern himself
little on this point, but when fowls are confined in yards,
249
250 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
which is an artificial condition, great care must be taken
to furnish the exercise or the incentive to exercise. A hen
that ' t stands around ' ' all day, only exerting herself enough
to eat out of a hopper, is an unproductive hen.
The exercise is best furnished by providing a roomy
scratching floor or shed covered with a deep litter of straw.
This may be from 8 to 12 inches deep, and should be kept
reasonably dry. The whole grain food should be scattered
in this straw. There will be no waste in this, as the fowls
will find about every kernel. The skill of the poultryman
comes in feeding enough at a time, without having to feed
too often, to keep the hens busy at work a large portion of
the day. If too much is given at a feed the fowls will soon
satisfy their appetites, while if too little is given they will
soon clean it up and there will be nothing to scratch for.
It is not necessary to keep them scratching all day. Leg-
horns, for instance, will do nearly as well when fed in a
hopper or box. If they have a yard and a floor they will
exercise themselves whether compelled to dig for their
food or not. Forced exercise, however, is necessary for
the larger or less active breeds.
In an experiment three pullets kept in a small pen on a
board floor without any litter, laid 116 eggs in a year, an
average of 38 2-3 eggs each. One of these was a Leghorn
pullet which laid 52 eggs. Leghorns fed in straw averaged
169 per fowl, and others fed in boxes or hoppers averaged
161. Both were kept in pens without floors and had access
to an outside yard. They exercised a good deal by scratch-
ing in the earth. Two pens of Plymouth Rocks averaged
141 fed in straw, and two fed in boxes averaged 118 eggs
each. In each case the ration was the same. It is seen that
the method of feeding was responsible for a variation in
yield of from 38 eggs per fowl to 169. The experiment
showed that no exercise, or forced idleness, was ruinous
METHODS OF FEEDING 251
both to production and to health of fowls. Second, it
showed that Leghorns, or the active breeds, will do well
even though they are not forced to scratch; but that the
heavier breeds need some ' ' forced ' ' exercise.
Feeding yarded fowls in the litter, therefore, is a de-
cided advantage with some breeds, and it is an advantage
with any breed. A Leghorn given the liberty of a yard
and a floor to scratch on, even though all grain be fed in a
hopper or box, will take exercise enough to produce fairly
well. The chief disadvantage of feeding in the litter is
that the grain is liable to become contaminated with the
droppings of the fowls, which is a fruitful method of carry-
ing disease from one fowl to another. This method, how-
ever, is usually necessary with most fowls, and with care in
renewing the straw often enough, little danger need be
feared from this source. The droppings from the fowls at
night should not be permitted to mingle with the litter.
Ground or Unground Grain. — It pays to feed part of
the grain ground. It is a saving of energy, and energy is
furnished by the food ; therefore, it will save food to grind
some of the grain for the fowls. Ground food is more
quickly digested and assimilated than whole. The hen can
manufacture the eggs faster with ground food than with
whole grain. Experiments by "Wheeler showed that fowls
having half their grain ground and moistened required
20% less food to produce a dozen eggs than fowls having
all whole grain. Fowls, however, relish the whole grain,
or a large percentage of it whole. Probably one-third of
the grain ground would be a safe limit to feed. The danger
in feeding one-half or more of it ground would be that the
fowls would be liable to lose appetite and not eat enough
to fill the demand for heavy egg yield.
Best Time to Feed Wet Mash.— If fed heavily on wet
mash in the morning, the fowls would gorge themselves and
252 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
would not be as active the rest of the day as if fed a light
feed of grain in the litter in the morning. A good feed of
mash about an hour before going to roost, followed by a
feed of whole grain, will give satisfactory results. In cold
weather especially the practice of feeding whole grain
liberally the last feed of the day is a good one. "Whole
grain will "stay with them" better throughout the long,
cold night than mash, and keep up the heat of the body
better. It will save feeding in the morning if at the last
feed at night enough grain is thrown on the litter to more
than satisfy the fowls, and leave some for them to begin
scratching for in the morning. Where wet mash is fed
the first thing in the morning, this should not be done. The
writer prefers to feed the mash in the morning, just as soon
as the fowls come from the roost, but to feed only as much
as they will eat up readily so they will go to work scratch-
ing in the straw for the whole grain. It is not so material
at what time of the day the soft food is fed, as it is that the
fowls be kept active and retain their appetites.
Length of Day and Egg Yield. — There is no doubt some
connection between the lower egg yield in winter and the
shorter days. When the spring comes and the feeding day
lengthens there is an increase in production. Some of this
increase is probably due to the longer period of activity
and the necessarily greater consumption of food. Some
support is given to this theory by recent private experi-
ments in the use of electric light in the poultry house. It
is a point worthy of further investigation.
Wet versus Dry Mash. — Dry feeding saves labor. Fowls
relish the wet mash better. Wet mash economizes in the
ration. By feeding the mash dry, it may be fed once a
week in hoppers. When fed moist it must be fed once a
day. Fowls will eat wet mash more greedily than dry, and
for that reason more care is required in feeding it. If
METHODS OF FEEDING 253
given too much, they will gorge themselves and stand
around lazily most of the day; this should be guarded
against. Where skim milk is available it is possible to
cheapen the ration by feeding wet mash. Cheap by-
products, such as bran and middlings, may be made to
make up a large proportion of the ration by mixing them
with milk. By making a mash with milk, more milk may
be fed to the fowls. It will also cheapen the ration where
skim milk is cheap by saving on higher-priced animal foods.
Where heavy feeding of ground grain is desired, it should
be fed wet. On the majority of the large poultry ranches
of the Petaluma, Cal., and of the Little Compton, R. I.,
districts the wet mash method is used.
When skillfully fed, the wet mash will give better re-
sults in egg yield than dry. The high egg records of the
Oregon Station were secured by wet mash feeding. Results
of experiments by Rice are slightly in favor of dry mash.
Gowell also secured results favorable to dry feeding. In
mixing wet mash, enough water or milk should be used to
make the mash crumbly. It should not be sloppy. Usually
about as much ground grain, by weight, as milk or water
will be about right.
The results in feeding mash do not depend upon the
moisture or lack of moisture in it, but upon the amount of
ground grain consumed. It matters little whether the water
is put into it by the feeder, or whether the hen herself
drinks the water from the creek or the water fountain.
Feeding Dry Mash. — The dry mash is fed in hoppers
large enough for a week's supply or more, and the fowls
allowed to eat it at will. The dry mash may have the same
composition as the dry material in the wet, but about 10%
of its weight should be beef scrap. The fowls will eat it
more readily then. Without the beef scrap they will not
eat enough of the ground grain. In addition a hopper of
254 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
beef scrap may be kept before them all the time. This will
insure that they get enough of tlie animal food.
Cut Bones may be fed every day, or three times a week,
as much as the fowls will clean up in 15 minutes. Three to
four ounces per hen per week is about right. More will
be consumed during heavy laying than at other times.
Cooking Food. — It does not pay usually to cook feeds.
Most feeds give better results when fed raw. Starchy
feeds, such as potatoes, are improved by cooking, but usually
it is better not to cook feeds. In feeding raw meat foods,
there is some danger of the fowls contracting disease. If
liver or lights are fed, they should be boiled to kill any
disease germs there may be in them. Digestion experiments
at Geneva (New York Report, 1885), show that the digesti-
bility of the protein in several of the common stock feeds
was injured by cooking.
Hopper Feeding. — There are two fundamental consider-
ations in methods of feeding. The first is the method of
weighing out at each feeding a certain definite amount of
feed. The second allows the hen herself to make good from
the hopper any lack of nutrients of any particular kind.
The writer believes it imperative that the hen be allowed
considerable latitude in satisfying her wants and in making
good any shortage of at least the mineral and animal feed
in the ration. It is not conceivable that in a flock of one
hundred hens where the individual egg production varies,
as we know it does, the same amount and kind of feed will
satisfy all of them. The heavy producer requires more of
the animal protein foods and more of the mineral, and the
only practicable method is to furnish those nutrients
ad libitum to the flock.
No Hard and Fast Rules. — In what has gone before the
attempt has been made to give to the reader in concise form
information in regard to the general principles of feeding,
METHODS OF FEEDING
255
OREGON STATION OUTDOOR DRY FOOD
HOPPER
This hopper has four divisions for different
foods. The fowls do not pull the feed out of it
onto the ground. (Designed by C. C. Lamb.)
and the composi-
tion and values of
various foods. It is
not presumed t o
lay down any hard
and fast rules
which must be fol-
lowed by the poul-
try feeder.
The Food Re-
quirements vary
and methods o f
feeding- vary in
different sec tions
of the country and
even on different
farms in the same
section. A large latitude must be allowed the individual
farmer or poultry-keeper. The highest success will not be
attained .where the
poultryman is con-
tent to follow set
rules and blindly at-
tempt to make his
conditions and en-
vironment conform
to the feed rations
rather than make
the rations conform
to his special condi-
tions. II av i n g a
knowledge of foods
i • 1 „ -P OREGON STATIONARY OUTDOOR DRY
and principles of FOOD HOPPER
feeding, and the Showing inside construction.
256 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
food requirements of the fowl, he is master of the situation
and will be able to formulate rations that will give him the
most profitable returns.
The Price of Foods will largely govern choice of a
ration. Profitable poultry production is not a question of
the best foods any more than it is a question of the cheapest
foods. That is to say, the best foods from the standpoint
of composition and palatability may produce more eggs
or more meat but may produce less profit than other foods
that are not so valuable, pound for pound, on account of
their lower cost. The feed bill may be so high that the
poultryman is robbed of his profits. No one kind of food
is so essential that the poultryman must feed it no matter
what its price may be. If this one fact were thoroughly
understood and acted upon it would save probably millions
of dollars to the poultry-keepers of the country.
Rations. — With this understanding a few sample rations
for egg production are here given. The weights of feed
are in pounds, and are figured on the basis of one average
hen for one year. It will be understood that these amounts
will vary, first, as the size of hen varies ; second, as produc-
tion varies, and third, as the climate or temperature varies.
The amounts given approximate closely the amounts re-
quired in egg production. The safe rule to follow is to in-
crease or decrease these amounts daily as demanded by the
fowls. There must be no stinting of food if a steady pro-
duction of eggs is to be maintained.
The choice of animal food is left to the feeder, 50 pounds
skim milk or buttermilk, 10 pounds cut bones, and 5 pounds
beef scrap being estimated as of about equal value. The
same is true of green food, 15 pounds of green alfalfa or
clover being equal in value to 20 pounds kale. This does
not exhaust the list of animal food nor of green food. It
may be, for example, that fish scrap is more available in
METHODS OF FEEDING
257
some sections, and various kinds of green feed may be fed
with satisfactory results. Such, foods are discussed in
another place.
SAMPLE RATIONS PER HEN PER YEAR (iN POUNDS)
Number of Ration
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Wheat
60
40
30
20
Corn
60
10
20
Oats
. .
10
10
10
Bran
. .
. .
10
10
10
Middlings
. .
5
5
5
Linseed Meal . .
. .
. .
. .
5
5
Skim Milk, But-
termilk (with
dry bone) . . .
50
50
50
50
50
Cut Bone
10
10
10
10
10
Beef Scrap . . .
5
5
5
5
5
Vetch, Alfalfa,
Clover
15
15
15
15
15
Kale
20
20
20
20
20
Oyster Shell . . .
3
3
3
3
3
Salt .
14
14
*/i
*/i
34
COMPOSITION OF RATION 4 (NOT INCLUDING GREEN FOOD AND
SHELL)
Water 8.12 pounds
Ash 2.14 «
Protein 13.32 "
Carbohydrates 48.33 "
Fat 3.09 "
Total 75.00 "
Ratio of protein to carbohydrates and fat 1 : 4.14
It is estimated that 30 pounds milk is about all that a
hen will ordinarily consume in a year. If no water is
given, the fowls will use a great deal more milk or butter-
milk, probably enough to supply the full demand for animal
food.
258 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Under farm conditions, however, where fowls have free
range and find a good deal of animal food in the fields, 30
pounds should be sufficient. They should have access to it at
all times. The amount they will consume will be governed
in part by the amount of insects found in the fields. By
making the milk into cottage cheese and feeding the fowls
all they will eat of it, they will get all the animal food re-
quired. Milk when closely skimmed has very little fat,
while bones and beef scrap have a large amount of fat ; it
can, therefore, be fed to advantage in rations that in other
respects are richer in fat than would be necessary or ad-
visable where cut bones are fed. Good fresh cut bones fed
regularly will give better results than either milk or beef
scrap, but the cost is sometimes prohibitory, and there is
danger of the meat not being fresh. "Where milk is used as
animal food it should be supplemented with dry or ground
bone that will furnish the necessary mineral matter that is
lacking in the milk.
It is not very material what kind of green food is fed.
The important thing is to give the fowls all they will eat.
Alfalfa and clover have about equal feeding value. In
winter, alfalfa and clover leaves make good green food.
Kale has a higher percentage of water than green alfalfa
or clover or vetch.
The table gives five rations, numbered from 1 to 5. No.
1 is rated as the poorest and No. 5 the best. Corn is the
only grain in ration 1. In No. 2 wheat is fed in place of
corn, but in other respects they are the same. Number 2
is placed ahead of No. 1 because it has slightly more pro-
tein. Both of them are deficient in the egg-making material,
protein. Though not an ideal ration by any means, either
1 or 2 would be an improvement on many rations fed on
the farms, but for heavy egg production neither has enough
protein. No. 3 is better than Nos. 1 or 2 because it has a
variety of grains and a little more protein. Nos. 4 and 5
METHODS OF FEEDING 259
should give a heavy egg yield if properly fed. They are
equal in protein, but No. 5 has more fat than 4. Corn,
which has more fat than wheat, should be fed more liberally
during the cold weather than during the summer. Ration
5 therefore should be a better winter ration than 4.
How to Feed the Rations. — To get the best results from
rations 1 and 2 the fowls should have free range on the
farm. These rations would be altogether impracticable for
yarded fowls. A light feed of corn or wheat should be
given in the morning, and all they will eat up at night.
If the fields contain bugs and worms and other animal food
they will get exercise hunting and scratching. There will
be weed seeds and waste grains of different kinds at differ-
ent seasons and these will give them incentive to exercise,
and at the same time help to balance the ration. Under
such conditions it would be possible to secure a fairly good
egg yield from rations 1 and 2.
But where other grains may be secured it would be a
serious mistake to confine the feeding to such rations.
These two rations may be very much improved by the
simple method of keeping a hopper of dry bran accessible
to the fowls at all times. They would be further improved
by adding a little middlings or shorts and a small amount
of linseed meal to the bran in the hopper. This would
give us ration No. 3. Adding the bran, middlings and lin-
seed would cut down the amount of wheat necessary. This
makes a very good ration for the general farm. It is prac-
tically a balanced ration, at any rate it gives the hen the
opportunity to balance her ration ; besides it requires very
little labor in the feeding. If cheaper than wheat, corn
may be substituted for wheat.
Ration No. 4 is an improvement on ration 3. Ten
pounds of corn is substituted for 10 pounds of wheat. Even
if corn costs a few cents more per bushel than wheat, it will
260 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
pay to feed this quantity. Ration 5 is an improvement on
No. 4. If corn is as cheap or cheaper than wheat this
ration should be fed.
The Mash Feeding. — If it is desired to feed a dry mash,
the bran, middlings and linseed should be put together in
a hopper where the fowls can help themselves at will. The
hopper should never be empty. It will improve the dry
mash still further if beef scrap be added, using from 10 to
15 pounds in 100 pounds mash. This will induce the fowls
to eat more of the dry mixture. Where milk constitutes
the animal food, it will be better to use a soft mash, mixing
it with milk ; also keeping milk where the fowls can drink
it whenever they want it. If no milk is available and the
mash is moistened with water, a hopper of beef scrap should
be supplied. In place of beef scrap, cut bones may be fed.
There is. no danger in the fowls eating too much beef scrap,
assuming of course that its quality is good. The only
danger is in permitting the hopper to get empty, for, after
being without animal feed for a few days, they will eat too
much of it when it is given to them again.
Five pounds beef scrap is given as the amount necessary
for an average laying hen for a year. This amount will
vary with different hens. The fowls may not eat 2 or 3
pounds, or they may eat 6 or 7, but it is safe to permit each
hen to eat just what she requires.
Oregon Station Method. — Ration No. 4 is practically
the one used at the Oregon Station. The mash is fed moist.
Sour milk or buttermilk is used in mixing it, a little more
milk than ground grain being used.
On account of the high prices of corn some years, less of
it has been used than is shown in table. Unless corn gets
down to about the price of wheat, the corn that is fed is
ground and put in the mash. The whole grains are then
wheat and oats.
METHODS OF FEEDING 261
The mash used during the year 1912-13 was as follows
by weight:
Bran 4 parts
Middlings 1 part
Ground Barley 1 part
Ground Corn 1 part
Linseed Meal V<z part
Milk 8 parts
Salt is added at the rate of about 4 ounces per hen per
year. The proportion of bran is reduced in case the drop-
pings show a watery condition.
The mash is thoroughly mixed and fed as soon in the
morning as the fowls are ready to eat and before they have
had anything else. The amount of mash, dry material,
averages about one ounce per hen per day. The amount
fed does not vary very much from morning to morning, but
if there should be any left in the trough for more than an
hour after feeding, it is taken away and next day less is
fed. Then the amount is increased as their appetite for
mash increases, until they are getting the normal amount.
The idea is to get them to eat as much as possible in about
an hour.
The Skill of the Feeder comes in largely in so feeding
that the fowls will eat the required amount of the mash
of ground grains. A heavy laying hen requires a full crop
of grain at night, but there should not be any whole grain
left over night for them to eat in the morning, otherwise
enough mash will not be eaten.
Feeding the Oats. — About ten to eleven o'clock a feed
of oats is given. This is thrown in the litter, just enough
to keep the fowls busy scratching for an hour or two.
Feeding the Wheat. — In the afternoon or evening, or
between two and three o'clock during the short days, be-
262 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
tween three and four in the long days, whole wheat is fed
in the litter, as much as the fowls will clean up before
going to roost, and they must have as much as they will
eat, and no more.
Beef Scrap is kept in a hopper all the time, care being
taken that the hopper never gets empty before being re-
filled. In addition, fresh cut bone is fed three times a week,
about an ounce per week per fowl.
Oyster Shell, Charcoal and Grit are also kept in sep-
arate hoppers.
Green Food is before the fowls all the time. It is usually
kale. They help themselves at will. A head of kale is hung
up fresh in the morning, and they pick at it whenever they
want it. This is supplemented at different seasons by vetch,
clover, and other green stuffs that grow in the yards. The
fowls are changed twice a year to clean ground and green
stuff is growing in the yard when the fowls are put into it.
Cleanliness. — It is important that feeding troughs and
drinking vessels be kept clean. They should be scalded
frequently with boiling water. Do not throw feed on dirty,
filthy ground.
Changing the Ration. — Radical changes in the ration
should be avoided. The feeder should first map out his
system of feeding and stay by it. Remember that the food
is not everything, and when the fowls are not laying do not
conclude that it is the fault of the ration unless you have
definite knowledge that it is. A sudden change to new
food, even though the new food may be better than the old,
will check egg production for a considerable time. If
changes are to be made, it is better to make them gradually.
Regularity. — Stated times should be given to the feed-
ing. A " feast and a starve" will not satisfy the laying
hen. During the winter the hen should go to roost with a
full supper to sustain her through the long night, and just
METHODS OF FEEDING 263
as early as she can see to eat in the morning her breakfast
should be ready.
Summing Up. — Feed wholesome food; feed liberally;
feed regularly ; feed a variety. After that, the only secret
in feeding is to feed activity into the hen.
Cornell Rations for Laying Hens. — The following whole
grain mixture is fed morning and afternoon in a straw
litter :
By weight By weight
Winter Summer
60 Ibs. wheat 60 Ibs. wheat
60 Ibs. corn 60 Ibs. corn
30 Ibs. oats 30 Ibs. oats
30 Ibs. buckwheat
The following mash is fed dry in a hopper kept open dur-
ing the afternoon only :
By Weight By Measure
Winter and Summer Winter and Summer
60 Ibs. corn meal 57 qts. corn meal
60 Ibs. wheat middlings 71 qts. wheat middlings
30 Ibs. wheat bran 57 qts. wheat bran
10 Ibs. alfalfa meal 20 qts.. alfalfa meal
10 Ibs. oil meal 8 qts. oil meal
50 Ibs. beef scrap 43 qts. beef scrap
1 Ib. salt y2 qt. salt
The fowls should eat about one-half as much mash by
weight as whole grain. Regulate the proportion of grain
and ground feed by giving a light feeding of grain in the
morning and about all they will consume at the afternoon
feeding (in time to find grain before dark). In the case
of pullets or fowls in heavy laying, restrict both night and
morning feeding to induce heavy eating of dry mash, espe-
cially in the case of hens. This ration should be supple-
mented with beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover or
264 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
other succulent food, unless running on grass-covered
range. Grit, cracked oyster shell and charcoal should be
accessible at all times. Green food should not be fed in a
frozen condition. All feed and litter used should be strictly
sweet, clean and free from mustiness, mould or decay.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF EGGS, EGG PRODUCTS AND CERTAIN
OTHER FOODS
•**
^j
g
a
1
1
i
1
1
1
1
11
1
1
^
u
il
«
il
<jT
1*
£
?1
o !p
g^
e S
^ §
|
53
0
4?
|l
^
'I Ss
£
fe
I
S
5
^C
1
Hen:
Whole egg as
purchased .... 11.2
Q5.5
11.9
9.3
0.9
635
Whole egg, edible
portion
73.7
13.4
10.5
1
720
White
86.2
12.3
0.2
0.6
250
Yolk
405
15.7
33.3
1.1
1,705
Whole egg boiled,
edible portion
73.3
13.2
12
0.8
765
Evaporated
hen 's egg ....
6.4
46.9
36
7.1
3.6
2,525
Cheese as pur-
chased ....
34.2
25.9
33.7
2.4
3.8
1,950
Sirloin steak as
purchased .... 12.8
54
16.5
16.1
0.9
985
Sirloin steak,
edible portion
61.9
18.9
18.5
1
1,130
Milk
87
3.3
4
5
0.7
325
Oysters in shell
as purchased.. 81.4
16.1
1.2
0.2
0.7
0.4
45
Oysters, edible
portion
86.9
6.2
1.2
3.7
2
235
Wheat flour
12
11.4
1
75.1
0.5
1,650
Potatoes, as
purchased .... 20
62.6
1.8
0.1
14.7
0.8
310
Potatoes, edible
78.3
2.2
0.1
18.4
I
385
METHODS OF FEEDING 265
FEEDING SMALL CHICKENS
Different rations may be successfully fed to chicks. The
following have been tried and are recommended by the
respective stations:
Oregon Station Ration
Starting food Grain mixture Mash mixture
Bran mixed crumbly 1 Ib. cracked wheat 3 Ibs. wheat bran
with soft-boiled egg; 1 Ib. cracked corn lib. wheat middlings
or stale bread or shorts
squeezed dry out of 1 Ib. corn meal
milk. Pinch of salt added
when mixing
FIRST FEEDING TIME (24 TO 36 HOURS OF AGE)
First Week. — Starting food twice a day; grain mixture
three times a day on clean sand; after two or three days,
grain in litter; clean water; grit, charcoal, cracked bone,
in separate dishes ; green food.
One to Three Weeks. — One feed a day of moist mash,
what they will clean up in an hour ; grain mixture in litter
two or three times a day ; grit, charcoal, cracked bone, and
beef scrap in hoppers ; water ; green food.
Three to Six Weeks. — Morning feed of moist mash; two
feeds of grain mixture ; dry middlings in a hopper, if signs
of diarrhoea appear ; hopper-fed beef scrap ; water, grit,
charcoal, cracked bone, always available; milk to drink;
green food.
After Six Weeks or On Range. — Morning meal of moist
mash; two feeds of grain mixture; milk (or beef scrap),
charcoal, grit, bone, water. Oats may be added to the grain
mixture, if desired; the proportion of wheat may be in-
creased or decreased as it becomes lower or higher in price
than corn.
266
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Starting food
8 Ibs. rolled oats
8 Ibs. bread crumbs
2 Ibs. sifted beef
scrap
1 Ib. bone meal
•Moistened with
skim milk.
Cornell Ration
Grain mixture
3 Ibs. wheat
2 Ibs. corn
1 Ib. hulled oats
Fine cracked for
the youngest chicks;
whole wheat and
hulled oats and larger
cracked corn for
older chicks ; oats
omitted for range
chicks.
Mash mixture
3 Ibs. wheat bran
3 Ibs. wheat mid-
dlings
3 Ibs. corn meal
3 Ibs. beef scrap
1 Ib. bone meal
Fed dry from
first meal ; moist,
and dry after
five days.
FIRST FEEDING TIME (36 TO 48 HOURS )
First Five Days. — Starting food five times a day, what
they will eat in 15 minutes; grain mixture in tray of dry
mash always available; fine grit, charcoal, bone, and green
food scattered over other food ; water.
After Five Days. — Grain twice a day in litter; scanty
feed of moist mash three times a day ; as chicks grow older,
two feeds of moist mash, then only one — at noon; water,
grit, charcoal, cracked bone, always at hand, and hopper-
fed beef scrap if desired ; milk to drink. Chicks should be
hungry once a day, preferably in the morning.
On Range. — Grain, dry mash, beef scrap, grit, shell, bone,
water, always at hand. One meal of moist mash if desired.
Maine Station Method
Starting Food
Ibs. wheat bran
Ibs. corn meal
Ibs. screened beef scrap
Ib. alfalfa meal
Ib. linseed meal
Grain Mixture
15 Ibs. cracked wheat
10 Ibs. pinhead oatmeal
15 Ibs. fine cracked corn
3 Ibs. fine cracked peas
2 Ibs. broken rice
5 Ibs. chick grit
2 Ibs. charcoal
METHODS OF FEEDING 267
Mash Mixture No. 1 Mash Mixture No. 2
2 Ibs. wheat bran 1 Ib. wheat bran
3 Ibs. corn meal 2 Ibs. corn meal
1 Ib. Daisy flour (or other 1 Ib. wheat middlings
low-grade flour) 1 Ib. beef scrap
1 Ib. screened beef scrap
l/2 Ib. linseed meal
FIRST FEEDING TIME (36 TO 48 HOURS )
To Three Weeks. — Two feeds of starting food, scalded
and mixed with rolled oats, two parts of oats to six of
mixture ; two feeds of grain mixture in light litter ; green
food; fine grit, charcoal, cracked bone, and clean water
always before the chicks.
Three to Six Weeks. — Substitute mash mixture No. 1
(moist) for the starting food; otherwise as above.
On Range. — (After six or eight weeks.) Constant sup-
ply of wheat, cracked corn, beef scrap, cracked bone, oyster
shell, and grit in separate troughs or hoppers; hopper- fed
mash mixture No. 2.
Ontario Agricultural College Ration
Starting Food Grain Mixture Mash Mixture
4 Ibs. bread crumbs 30 Ibs. cracked wheat 10 Ibs. wheat bran
1 Ib. hard boiled 30 Ibs. granulated 10 Ibs. shorts
egg oatmeal 10 Ibs. corn meal
Fed dry 80 Ibs. fine cracked 3 Ibs. animal
corn. meal
10 Ibs. small grit
FIRST FEEDING TIME (24 TO 48 HOURS )
First Two Days. — Starting food, fed five times a day;
lukewarm water to drink.
After Two Days. — Three feeds of grain mixture, with
one of bread and milk, and one of whole wheat; or with
two feeds of moist mash ; fresh boiled liver twice a week,
if obtainable — in that case, animal meal omitted from the
268 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
mash ; for chicks on range with the hens, the grain mixture
may be hopper-fed.
After Eight Weeks. — Moist mash in the morning; grain
noon and night. An increase in the proportion of animal
food will hasten the development of the chicks.
FEEDING AND MANAGING THE GROWING STOCK
Food requirements vary according to stage of maturity.
The fact that most fowls have more or less free range and
are able to find much natural food, which helps to supply
any lack of nutrients in the ration fed them, in other words
enables them to balance their ration, lessens the importance
of varying the feeding according to special needs of pro-
duction. It is true, nevertheless, that the food require-
ments are very different for the chick from the shell to the
end of the brooding period, and from the end of the brood-
ing period to maturity; also for the laying hen and the
developing pullet and for the pullet and old fowls. The
small growing chick must be furnished with materials for
the growth of frame and feathers; the laying hen for the
making of eggs; the market fowl for the production of
meat. The non-laying moulting hen requires foods rich in
feather-making material. Young chicks eat more accord-
ing to size than mature fowls. During the growing stage
a large part of the food goes to produce frame or bone and
feathers. The young fowl, or chicken, has less flesh or fat
than the mature fowl. It has a smaller percentage of
edible meat than the mature fowl. The reason is, the food
is used more largely for frame building. The fowl, there-
fore, that is building a frame needs more frame material
than one whose frame is already built. The skeleton of the
fowl is made up largely of mineral matter — lime, phos-
phorus, iron, etc. — which are all grouped together under
the name of ash in the ordinary food analysis.
METHODS OF FEEDING 269
The food requirement varies, therefore, as the stage of
maturity varies. The young growing fowl requires more
ash or mineral matter than the mature fowl that is not lay-
ing. The importance of this fact is brought home to the
poultryman who keeps his fowls in enclosures where all
their requirements must be met from the supplied food.
After the chicks have passed the brooding stage, which
is usually at the age of six weeks to two months, depending
upon weather conditions, they are past the critical period
of their growth. If they reach this stage in good health
and vigor, only mistaken feeding and management will
result in stunted growth.
Management of Growing Stock. — While chicks may be
successfully grown under more or less restricted conditions,
the best practice is to give them free range. There are two
reasons for this. First, the chickens are able to find feed
that is often lacking in the ration when kept in confinement ;
and second, in hunting for feed they get exercise that they
often do not get for lack of incentive when kept in yards.
The importance of exercise for the growing stock cannot
be over estimated.
Clean Range. — The range should be clean. It should
not be overstocked with chickens. "Where large numbers
are kept the best conditions are obtained where fowls are
kept in limited numbers in colony houses, separated widely
so that they have plenty of clean ground to range over.
There are many advantages of free range for growing
chickens, among which may be mentioned: Less danger
from contagious diseases ; greater vigor due to greater ex-
ercise; greater profit because much feed otherwise wasted
is found in the field; and the destruction of insects, such
as grasshoppers, which may be an important item in cer-
tain localities. The chickens may run in the orchard, in
the pasture fields with the cows and in the stubble fields
270 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
after the crops are harvested. A flock of five hundred
cockerels were kept on thirty acres of wheat stubble by the
Oregon Station for two months in the fall, without addi-
tional food, the houses being moved several times.
Clean Yards. — Where it is necessary to keep the grow-
ing chickens in yards it is important that they be kept
clean. If possible a crop should be grown on the yards
every year. By plowing them and seeding them in the fall
there will be a green crop in the spring on which the
chickens may run. This will also help to keep the ground
in a sanitary condition. If the yard is small, frequent
spading or cultivation will lessen the danger of soil contam-
ination and the fowls will scratch in the loose soil and get
exercise in that way.
Shade. — Another essential of success in growing chickens
is that they have an abundance of shade. Fruit trees or
other trees may be planted in the yards, or part of the
yards may be planted to corn or sunflowers. The latter
make an excellent shade and at the same time furnish con-
siderable feed. Where the shade cannot be secured in this
way, artificial shade of some kind should be provided, such
as frames covered with burlap or building paper.
Houses. — Ventilation or fresh air should be the first con-
sideration in housing growing chickens. For a small house
one side should be entirely open. If used in the cold
weather of spring it would be an advantage to have the
opening adjusted so as to prevent chilling during the cold
nights when the chicks are small and not feathered fully.
A house 7x10 feet will accommodate one hundred grow-
ing chicks or 5 x 8-foot house accommodate fifty chicks.
Before they approach maturity the number should be re-
duced. The perches should be about 12 inches apart.
Size of Flock. — Where kept in colony houses on range,
one hundred chicks in a flock should be about the maximum.
METHODS OF FEEDING 271
A house large enough to accommodate this number may be
pulled by a team of horses. Keeping them in smaller flocks
than fifty will offer no special advantage and the extra
amount of labor in caring for them in smaller numbers
offsets any possible advantage. The cost of the house will
be greater in proportion to number for the smaller house
than for the larger. The tendency to be guarded against
is crowding too many together in a small house or coop.
Great losses are incurred each year from this cause. The
size of flock for the two houses mentioned may be 25%
greater at the start and in two or three months, as the
cockerels are marketed, the number will be reduced to the
proper size.
Rations. — The feeding of the chick up to the end of the
brooding stage has already been discussed. No sudden
change should be made in the ration from small chicks to
growing chicks. One of the great secrets in feeding
chickens for any purpose is to avoid radical or sudden
changes. Free-range chicks may safely be hopper-fed.
Where the range is good, hopper feeding or part hopper
feeding will give probably as good results as any other. A
satisfactory method is to keep before the chickens all the
time a hopper of dry ground grains and a supply of animal
food. And in the afternoon or evening give a feed of
whole grain, wheat or cracked corn, or a mixture of both.
The following are suggestions for a hopper of dry mash :
No. 1. Bran 3 pounds. Ground corn 1 pound
No. 2. Bran 3 " Ground oats 1 pound
No. 3. Bran 3 " Ground barley 1 pound
No. 4. Bran 3 " Coarse middlings
or shorts 1 pound
If the animal food is beef scrap add 10 pounds of it to
100 pounds of the mixture. There should also be a hopper
or box of broken or granulated bone and another of grit.
272 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
If the range is good and they find many bugs and insects,
10 pounds of beef scrap in 100 pounds of the dry mash
will be sufficient, especially as they grow older and range
farther.
If milk is available, that should be substituted for the
beef scrap, though the addition of a small quantity of beef
scrap to the mash makes it more palatable, otherwise the
fowls may refuse to eat as much of the mash as may be
desirable. The milk may be either fresh skim milk or sour
milk or buttermilk, whichever may be the most economical
or convenient to feed ; either sour milk or buttermilk being
preferable.
Moist Mash. — A daily feed of moist mash in place of
the dry mash will result in more rapid growth. The real
values, however, of the two methods have not been very
clearly demonstrated. The difference will depend some-
what upon the character of the range and the amount and
kind of insect food available. Either method, however,
will give good results and whether one or the other method
is used may safely be left to the convenience of the feeder.
It will be better in feeding pullets to follow the method
that will be followed in feeding them as layers. Changing
from one method to the other at the beginning of the lay-
ing season will interfere with the laying for some time and
a loss result. If necessary to make a change, it should be
made gradually. The moist mash should be fed in the morn-
ing, preferably, and enough fed to last them about an
hour. It may be made of the same grains as the dry mash,
mixed, if possible, with milk or buttermilk.
Culling. — If the pullets have come from good breeding
stock and have been properly hatched and brooded little
culling will be necessary, but it would hardly be possible
to find a flock in which some culling will not be desirable.
It has been seen how important a thing is vigor, and though
METHODS OF FEEDING 273
the lack of vigor may not be always apparent in the young
stock, it is always apparent in some and when found the
poultryman should cull rigorously. "Where there is a con-
siderable percentage of culls and this persists under best
methods of hatching and brooding, the breeding stock should
be changed. A change of males may be all that is neces-
sary.
Poultrymen who use artificial hatching and rearing
should set a hen or two at the time incubators are set and
with the same kind of eggs and compare the results with
those in the incubator. This will give a check on the breed-
ing stock, as well as on the incubator. If the chicks under
both methods show equally good growth and low mortality
the poultryman should be satisfied that both the breeding
stock and the incubation are all right. If, however, the
chicks show poor results both in mortality and rate of
growth, the evidence would point to the breeding stock as
lacking in vigor ; but if the hen-hatched chicks show good
vigor and the incubator chicks poor vigor, the trouble is
in the incubator or brooder. To determine whether the
trouble is in the incubator or brooder, some of the in-
cubator chicks should be brooded by hens. If the chicks
show good vigor brooded under hens and poor vigor in
brooders, the fault is in the brooding, not in the incubation.
Under best conditions, however, some culling will be
found to be necessary. If at the age of two months some
chicks have failed to make growth the poultryman will be
money in the pocket if Dr. Hatchet is given a job. They
are taking up room, eating food that will bring no return
and are more or less of a menace to the rest of the flock.
The Cockerels. — rA mistake is often made in retaining
the cockerels too long. If they are hatched early in the
season they will come to broiler maturity at a time when
prices are at their highest for broilers. That is the time to
274 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
sell them, usually. A broiler weighing a pound and a half
will often bring as much money in April, May or June as
a three or four pound cockerel in the fall. As weight is
being put on the cockerel during the summer the price is
falling, and the price often falls faster than the weight
increases. By keeping the cockerels till the fall, therefore,
or until they get their growth, the farmer or poultry man
will very often get nothing for the feed he has fed them.
There are, of course, exceptions to this rule. A farmer
may have a bunch of cockerels on free range where the
food costs little or nothing. "Where stubble fields are avail-
able till late in the fall and in sections where chickens can
range out on stubble fields till near Christmas, it may pay
to keep the cockerels over or until the time the prices have
risen. Again, it may be that a farmer can caponize his
cockerels in the summer and by keeping them till January
or February, sell them at a good price for roasters.
Feeding Broilers. — If the chickens have been hatched
early and it is desired to market the cockerels when the
broiler market is good, the cockerels should be separated
from the pullets when they weigh about a pound and given
special feeding. In place of feeding the ground grain dry,
as may be done with the growing stock, it should be mixed
with sour milk or buttermilk. When feeding for flesh
rather than for growth the proportion of bran should be
reduced. For fattening broilers equal parts of bran and
ground grain should be used, reducing the proportion of
bran during the last week to one-half part. As much of
the mixture as they will clean up in an hour should be
given early in the morning. In the afternoon or evening
whole grain should be fed. In other respects the same
feeds should be given as for growing stock if the broilers
have free range. If crate-fattened, they should be given
soft feed exclusively for eight or ten days before market-
METHODS OF FEEDING
275
ing, feeding three times a day. Enough milk should be
used to make the mash into a thin gruel and no water given
to drink. No beef scrap or green feed will then be needed.
FATTENING OR FLESHENING FOWLS
Special feeding before
marketing greatly im-
proves the quality of
poultry. Unf attened
poultry respond very
readily to feeding. The
period of fattening is
about two weeks. In the
case of beef animals it
requires months of feed-
ing to put them in condi-
tion for the best mar-
kets. The same evolu-
tion is accomplished for
the fowl in two weeks.
In spite of the ease
and rapidity with which
the finishing or fleshen-
ing process is done, the
great bulk of the poultry
that goes to market
lacks this finish. In re-
cent years the fattening of farm poultry has been under-
taken by the meat packers. The fowls are collected in large
numbers and sent to feeding stations where, under proper
conditions, great improvement is made in the quality of the
chickens.
The objects of fattening may be stated to be, first, to add
additional weight, and, second, to improve the quality of
A GOOD ROASTER
8 1-3 months old, weighing 1024 Ibs. Fed
on farm of Geo. H. Hyslop, Deslar, Ohio.
276 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
the flesh. The profit in feeding comes as much from the
improved quality of the meat as from the additional flesh
put on. Fattening is especially desirable for young
cockerels that have had free range on the farm. They
have good frame and constitution, and when confined and
properly fed put on flesh rapidly and economically. The
farmer might well secure the benefit of the extra weight
and the consumer the extra quality. The skillful feeder
feeds for both quality and weight. The fowl that is simply
fat has the fat distributed over the intestines and under
the skin and when cooked this fat will run out into the pan.
With the fowl properly fattened the fat will be distributed
in small globules throughout the fibres of the flesh and when
cooked the flavor of the meat will be retained and the meat
will be more tender. The consumers in purchasing fowls
at so much per pound are paying for bones as well as meat,
and they prefer the fattened fowl at a higher price because
they get more edible meat in each pound purchased. Proper
fattening increases the proportion of meat to bones, and
this is the special benefit of fattening.
Methods of Fattening. — There are three methods fol-
lowed in fattening. First, pen fattening; the fowls are
confined in small pens or yards. Second, crate fattening;
by this method specially made crates or feeding batteries
are used. Third, cramming ; in the last stage of the fatten-
ing period a cramming machine is used.
The first method is largely used on the farm where the
business does not receive special attention. The second
method is used at the large packing-house stations and by
others making a special business of marketing fowls of
extra quality. The cramming method is not very generally
used in this country. In England and France great num-
bers of chickens are "crammed."
In egg production one of the essential factors is exercise
METHODS OF FEEDING
277
for the hen, while non-exercise is just as essential in fat-
tening. The good laying hen must have vigor and this is
associated with hard muscles. Proper fattening means a
softening of the
muscles to pro-
duce a flesh that
when cooked is
tender, and this
is produced only
by restricting or
preventing exer-
cise. In fatten-
ing it is not the
object to secure
vigor in the
chicken ; rather
it is the initial
process leading
to loss of vigor. FEEDING BATTERY FOR FATTENING
The fattening
process could not continue long beyond the two weeks fat-
tening period without the fowl showing decided loss in
vigor.
Another essential in fattening is that soft foods must be
fed altogether. Lack of exercise interferes with the proper
digestion of whole or hard grains. The grain is ground
finely and mixed with water or milk to about the con-
sistency of cream, or thin enough so that it will drip from
a spoon. No water is given to drink.
Cost of Fattening.* — The cost of feed consumed by
498,681 chickens at four large packing-houses in the middle
"West in 1912 was as follows :
'Bulletin 21, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
278 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Cost of feed Cost of labor
per per
pound gain pound gain
Packing house A 8.74 cents 1.63 cents
Packing house B 7.70 cents 1.99 cents
Packing house C 6.61 cents 1.37 cents
Packing house D 9.95 cents 1.59 cents
The cost was figured on the following prices of feed :
Corn meal $1.39 to $1.74 per 100 pounds
Low grade wheat flour 1.38 to 1.52 " "
Shorts 1.18 to 1.25 " "
Buttermilk 1 to 2 cents a gallon
Fattening Rations. — The best results were secured by
feeding either of the three following rations :
1. 3 parts cormneal. 2 parts low grade wheat flour; 1 part
shorts.
2. 3 parts cornmeal, 2 parts low grade wheat flour.
3. 5 parts cornmeal, 3 parts low grade wheat flour, 1 part
shorts, and 5 per cent tallow.
Oatmeal produced better gains than low grade wheat
flour, but was less profitable on account of its higher price.
Buttermilk is used by the packing-houses in mixing the
food. No other animal food is given. Buttermilk or sour
milk is preferred to sweet milk. The milk or buttermilk
bleaches or whitens the flesh. All milk-fed chickens have
light-colored flesh. This whitening may be partly offset
by feeding yellow corn meal. If milk is not used, beef scrap
or other animal food must be fed.
The feeder must use the foods that are reasonable in
price. No one grain is essential. In most sections of the
United States corn will be most largely fed because of its
cheapness. In the fattening districts of England oats are
considered the most satisfactory. In France buckwheat
and barley are largely used. Where oats that are good and
280 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
plump and cheaper than other grains can be secured, they
should form the large part of the ration. They must, how-
ever, be specially ground to cut up the hull in small
particles. If corn and oats cost the same pound for pound,
then the ration may be made up of half of each by weight.
If corn is not available, a little middlings or shorts, or
low-grade wheat flour, may be mixed with the oats. The
famous Sussex fat chickens in England are produced on a
ration of oats. The important thing, however, is that the
oats be heavy and finely ground.
CHAPTER XIV
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS
Structure of the Egg. — The principal parts of the egg
are, in the order of their growth, the yolk, the albumin or
white, and the shell. The yolk is built up carefully layer
upon layer and requires about two weeks to develop from
the size of a pea to the full-sized yolk. It contains the
blastoderm or germ cell, which may be seen as a white speck
one-eighth inch in diameter on its upper surface. This
speck enlarges when the egg is kept in a warm room or in
a high temperature. The blastoderm, as Lillie says, "is
the living part of the egg from which the chick embryo and
all its parts are derived." There is more or less develop-
ment of the embryo of a fertile egg before it is laid, due
to the body temperature of the hen. Should the egg be
retained in the uterus, as sometimes happens, a day or
two before being laid the development may proceed so far
that the egg will be unfit for eating. Retarded laying,
however, seldom happens. The yolk furnishes the embryo
a large part of its nutriment, and the unassimilated part
of the yolk furnishes the chick food for several days after
hatching.
The Albumin in different layers surrounds the yolk.
Close to the yolk there is a dense layer which forms at each
end of the egg two spirally twisted cords. These are called
the chalazae, the apparent function of which is to hold the
yolk in place. The albumin is a protection for the germ or
blastoderm. It keeps it from coming in contact with the
shell and lessens the force or effect of jarring. Another
function of the albumin is to prevent the entrance of bac-
281
282 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
teria to the yolk or germ cell. The oviduct appears to be
germ-proof and the albumin to have certain bactericidal
properties.
The Yolk has a lower specific gravity than the albumin
and will be found floating near the side of the egg upper-
most, with the germ cell on the upper side of the yolk.
This brings the germ cell always near the source of heat
during incubation. Should the egg remain long in one
PARTS OF A FRESH EGG
position without turning, the albumin becomes thinner and
the yolk will adhere to the shell. This is fatal to the
embryo.
There are two layers of shell membrane, the inner and
outer. The inner layer lies next to the albumin and the
thicker outer one next to the shell. After being laid, the
egg contents contract, and at the large end the inner layer
draws away from the outer, causing the air space.
The Shell, which forms about 11% of the weight of the
egg, plays an important part in the embryonic develop-
ment of the chick. Until recently the shell was supposed
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 283
to be merely a protective device, but it is now known that
the developing chick draws upon the shell for a large part
of the lime necessary for its proper growth. The shell is
porous or permeable to gases ; this permits evaporation of
the water of the egg and also permits entrance of oxygen
necessary for the development of the embryo.
How Long Should Laying Hens Be Kept. — The pro-
ductive life of the hen is short compared with that of
domestic animals. It is apparently a natural characteristic
of the hen to lay more eggs in her first laying year than
in the second, and in each succeeding year a smaller num-
ber. The results of experiments by the writer at the Utah
Station showed average pen results from Leghorns in the
first year of 164 eggs, and in the second 126 per hen. In
exceptional individual cases more eggs were laid the second
year than the first. For instance, one hen laid 201 the
first year and 241 the second. Forty-one hens of different
breeds averaged 178 eggs the first year and 125 the second,
or 40% more the first than the second year.
At the Oregon Station later results were secured as
follows : Fifty Barred Plymouth Rocks laid 160 eggs the first
year, and 105 the second year, and 50 White Leghorns and
crosses, 153 eggs the first year, and 130 the second year.
In these experiments the laying year began November 1.
Out of the 100 hens, 17 laid more eggs the second year than
the first.
Other records showed, what might be expected, that
where the conditions for egg production were more favor-
able during the second year than the first, a better egg
yield was secured during the second year. Again, where
the period of maturity varied, or where the laying year
began in the spring, the second year records were better
than the first. The moulting period did not vary, making
the first laying year short
284 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
THE BEGINNING OF THE END OF INCUBATION
The prison walls being broken down.
Where maturity is reached in the fall and laying begins
then, the average flock results invariably showed that the
first year is the most productive or profitable, and that
there is a gradual decrease each succeeding year.
This means that the hens must be killed off at the end of
their second laying year and their places taken by pullets.
Some poultry-keepers practice renewing the flock of layers
every year • others keep them three years.
Renewal of the Flock. — The point is that the frequent
renewal of the flock constitutes a large and costly part of
the business of egg production. If the productive life of
the hen could be lengthened to say five years instead of
THE YOUNG GRADUATE
It has broken its way out into the world — the fruits of successful incubation.
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 285
two years, one of the most troublesome as well as expensive
features of poultry-raising would be very much simplified.
The cost of incubation, or the hatching and raising of the
pullet, is a no small initial charge on the cost of every dozen
of eggs produced. This initial cost would be less significant
were it possible to eliminate a large part of the losses
usually incurred in the hatching and rearing of the chicks.
In renewing the flock the utmost care must be taken in
hatching and rearing to preserve in the new flock the
vitality of the old. If the health and vitality of the stock
may be injured by improper methods of incubation and
brooding, and these methods are persisted in year after
year, disastrous results will soon be brought about by the
very frequency with which the flock is renewed. Decrease
in egg production, which we may seek to overcome by fre-
quently renewing the flock, will as certainly result from a
gradual lowering of vitality as from keeping the hens till
they have ' ' lost their teeth. " It is the opinion of the writer
that there are harder problems to solve, and greater diffi-
culty to be encountered by the poultryman, in incubation
and brooding, than in any other part of the poultry
business.
Eggs for Hatching Must Be Produced by Hens of Good
Vitality. — Successful rearing of chickens depends very
largely on following closely nature's way. If we study the
way of the hen that hatches every egg in the fence corner,
we shall find this fact : The hen that laid the eggs was not
confined in close yards ; she had the liberty of the fields. This
guaranteed good health and vigor. Eggs laid by such hens
will hatch better than those from hens cooped up under
artificial conditions. Health and vitality in the hen are trans-
mitted to the chick. Eggs that hatch well come from hens
that have good vitality. Chicks that live well come from
eggs laid by hens of good vitality. The method of hatch-
286 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
ing or the method of brooding is not always responsible
for eggs failing to hatch and for chicks failing to live or
grow well. The parent stock, or the condition under which
the parent stock is kept, is sometimes to blame.
Breeding stock, therefore, should be carefully selected,
only those individuals being retained that are up to a cer-
tain standard of shape, size and vigor.
It is not claimed here that lack of vigor in the parents
will inevitably be transmitted to the offspring. Parents
of apparently weak constitution may breed vigorous off-
spring. A chicken may have been injured in its rearing
and show weakness, without, however, impairing its value
as a breeder of strong, healthy stock; but the poultryman
cannot afford to retain in his flock fowls showing con-
stitutional weakness. Lack of vigor in the parent stock
may not always show in the offspring, but it will invariably
show itself in smaller egg production and in eggs that do
not hatch a high percentage of chicks. There may not be
constitutional weakness in the fowls that lay the eggs, but
if there is lack of vigor there will be correspondingly few
eggs that are fertile and fewer of the fertile eggs that
hatch.
Methods of Hatching Sometimes Responsible for Poor
Hatches and for Lack of Vigor in the Chicks. — Do not
always blame the parent stock for poor hatches and for
poor chicks. At the Oregon Station one method of hatch-
ing gave an average of 78.8 chicks from a hundred eggs
set, while another method gave 60.6 chicks. When brooded
in artificial brooders, 90% of the chicks hatched by the
first method were alive at the end of four weeks, while
only 67% of the others were alive. When brooded under
hens, about 98% of those hatched by the first method were
alive at the end of four weeks, and only 51% of the others.
While it is true, therefore, that lack of vigor in the
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 287
parent stock may sometimes account for poor hatches and
low vitality in the chicks that hatch, it is also true that
poor methods of incubation may produce the same results.
Methods of Brooding are sometimes faulty and result
in a high death-rate among the chicks and in impaired
vitality in those that grow to maturity.
Feeding and General Care of the chicks is an important
part of this subject. It is true that chicks of good vitality
will stand a good deal of abuse in the rearing; it is true
that expensive foods and much labor in feeding are not
necessary to get the best results; but at the same time, to
get the rapid growth required of the chicks, they must
have proper foods.
With the above outline as a guide, let us now discuss
some of these points more in detail. Omitting further
reference to the first topic, let us consider different methods
of hatching.
NATURAL VERSUS ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION
There are two ways or methods of hatching chickens,
namely, natural and artificial ; in other words, hen-hatching
and incubator-hatching. On the general farms the larger
part of the hatching and brooding is done by hens, while
a majority of the special poultry farms use incubators and
brooders.
There are advantages and disadvantages in each. The
poultry-raiser must choose the method that best suits his
individual conditions. Each method has its place, but
there is a difference of opinion as to how far artificial
methods should supersede the natural. On the general
farm where fifty or a hundred fowls are kept the natural
method is undoubtedly the most satisfactory, first because
of the limited number of chicks to be hatched to renew the
288 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
flock ; second, because farmers, as a rule, have not the time
to give the necessary care to the incubator and brooder;
third, because the cost of equipment is much less; and
fourth, that under farm conditions better chicks will be
reared by the natural way.
The advantages of the artificial method are mainly ap-
parent on the large special farms. Incubators are a neces-
sity on these farms first, because non-sitting breeds are
kept on many of them; second, because not enough sitters
can be secured early in the season for hatching chicks to
supply the market with early spring broilers; third, it is
claimed that the incubator lessens the labor where large
numbers are hatched. A fourth, and important advantage,
is that the use of incubators makes it possible to keep the
chicks free from lice and mites and certain diseases.
There are, however, large poultry farms, where egg pro-
duction is the chief object, that use the natural method,
noticeably that of the Little Compton district of Rhode
Island. Artificial methods would be more generally used
than they are were it not for the fact that there are
problems in artificial incubation and brooding that are not
encountered in natural incubation and brooding. What-
ever may be the real merits of the two ways of hatching,
it is certain that the incubator has become a considerable
factor in the poultry industry, and it may be that with
improvements in manufacture and methods of operating
the machine it may in the future still further supersede
the hen.
Comparisons of the Two Methods. — Reports of experi-
ments on the relative efficiency of the hen and incubator,
are somewhat contradictory. In tests at the Oregon Station
that extended from April to July comparative results were
secured. These experiments were made in the spring and
summer months, and it has been the experience at this sta-
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 289
tion that incubator chicks hatched earlier in the season, or
in the colder months, have greater thrift. Chickens hatched
by incubators in January, February and March are more
easily reared than those hatched later. It is not assumed
that the results secured were the best that may be obtained.
It was an incubation experiment. Chicks hatched in differ-
ent ways were put under like conditions of brooding, and
even though the brooding might not have been the best,
the value of the incubation comparison should not thereby
be lessened. The following is a summary of the results :
1. From 879 eggs set, incubators hatched 533 chicks, or
60.6%.
2. From 279 eggs set, hens hatched 219 chicks, or 78.8%.
3. Eliminating eggs broken in nests, the hen hatched
88.2% of eggs set.
4. The incubators hatched 78.5% of "fertile" eggs, and
the hens hatched 96.5%.
5. Eggs incubated artificially tested 22.7% as infertile,
while those incubated by hens tested out 11.8%.
6. The incubator's showed 16.6% of chicks "dead in the
shell," and the hens 2.8%.
7. Chicks hatched under hens weighed heavier than
chicks hatched in incubators.
8. The mortality of hen-hatched chicks brooded in
brooders was 10.8% in four weeks, and of incubator-
hatched chicks 33.5%.
9. The mortality of hen-hatched chicks brooded under
hens was 2.2%, and of incubator chicks 49.2%.
10. In other tests the mortality was 46.5% for incubator
chicks brooded by hens and 58.4% brooded in brooders.
11. Hen-hatched chicks made greater gain in weight
than incubator chicks, whether brooded by hens or brooders.
At the Ontario Agricultural College, experiments gave
the following results: "Nine hundred and fifty-eight eggs
290 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
were set in the machines and 436 chicks were hatched, or
45.5% of the eggs set. Three hundred and thirty-five were
set under hens and 196 chicks were hatched, or 58.5% of
the eggs set. As the same hens' eggs were used in each
method, the hen has the advantage, and had she not been in
cramped quarters for a portion of the hatches, her hatches
would have been larger." (Ontario Agricultural College,
Bulletin 163.)
Prof. Edward Brown, President of the International
Association of Poultry Instructors and Investigators, in
the "London Illustrated Poultry Record," says: "The
most ardent advocate of artificial methods of hatching can-
not but acknowledge that there is something yet to learn,
or rather that incubators are second best and hens are
first."
Natural Incubation and Brooding. — By the natural
methods of hatching, the cost of the incubator is eliminated,
hens taking its place. In the same way brooders are dis-
pensed with. Hens may be set and chicks reared in one
coop, or house, such as is illustrated on page 293. Assuming
that it requires as many eggs to hatch one hundred chicks
with hens as with an incubator, three coops costing not
more than $8 each will be required, each coop accommodat-
ing four sitting hens. By setting the hens at one time the
chicks hatched in one coop may be given to two hens to
brood. The hens need not be included in the cost of the
equipment, for they will be worth practically as much after
hatching and rearing their chicks as before. Neither is it
necessary to charge the method with eggs that might have
been laid by the hens if they had not been used for hatch-
ing. It is doubtful if the hen will not lay as many or more
eggs during the year if she has hatched and reared a brood
of chicks than if her natural instincts had not been gratified.
By taking a month or six weeks off for hatching in the
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS
291
spring when eggs are cheap, the hen is usually in better
condition and will begin to lay earlier in the fall when
eggs are a good price. It is not certain, therefore, that the
yearly production of a hen will be lessened by -allowing her
to hatch and rear a brood of chicks.
Two Methods of Hen Hatching. — If a proper system
be followed, chickens may be conveniently and successfully
NESTS USED FOR SITTING HENS
Showing apparatus used for drawing air from under sitting hens for determina-
tions of humidity and carbon dioxide in the nests. (Oregon Station.)
reared in large numbers by natural methods. In hatching
with hens a system should be followed that will economize
in the labor in caring for the hens. On most farms very
little attention is given to furnishing convenient hatching
facilities. A little thought and a few dollars spent for
equipment will make the work less troublesome and uncer-
tain. One of two methods may be followed. The first re-
quires daily attention in letting the sitters off the nest and
292 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
seeing that they go back again. By the second method the
hen leaves the nest and returns at will.
Where it is desired to set a large number of hens, they
will be conveniently looked after by making a bank of
nests along the side of a poultry house or in some unused
shed. The nests should be about 12 x 12 x 14 inches in size,
made by taking two 12-inch boards for the top and bottom
and cutting another 12-inch board into 14-inch lengths for
the partitions, then nailing them together, as many as de-
sired. The top of the bottom row will furnish the bottom
of the second row, and four or five rows of nests may thus
be placed together. There should be a hinged board at
front to confine the sitters. The hens should be let out every
day to eat and drink for about 15 minutes, the length of
time depending on weather conditions. Several inches of
fine waste hay should be placed in the bottom of the nests.
Short-cut straw or clean chaff will answer the purpose.
The second method of hatching and brooding by hens
requires less care on the part of the attendant. "We have
found it to work well at the Oregon Station. One coop
serves for both hatching and rearing the chicks. It serves
the triple purpose of an incubator, a brooder, and a colony
house.
A convenient size of coop is 5 feet long and 3 feet wide,
with a shed roof 3 feet high at front and 2 feet at back.
It is large enough to divide into separate apartments for
four sitting hens. Movable partitions of canvas or burlap
are fastened to a 4-inch or 6-inch board at the bottom and
to a cross-piece at the top. It has an outside run 3 feet
long for each hen, covered with wire netting. The runs
are hooked on to the house and may be dispensed with when
the chicks are hatched. These runs give the hens oppor-
tunity for dusting and exercise. By keeping feed and
water before them all the time, the sitters may be allowed
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS
293
to leave the nests
and return a t
will. In this way,
very little labor
is required in
caring for sitting
hens. The door
on the front is
hinged at the top.
Underneath this
there is a frame
of wire netting of
1-inch mesh ; in
mild weather the
door may be kept
open. This makes
it an open - front
house, and during
the summer
months, when the
growing chicks
use it as a roost-
ing-house, it will
be ifound that this
provision for
fresh air is a
necessary one.
More convenient-
ly to get at the
nests or sitters,
there is an open-
ing at the back of
the coop. The top
board, which is
(1) Arranged for hatching, with doors closed.
(2) Showing door and top open.
(3) Arranged for brooding, with runs detached.
THE OREGON STATION COMBINATION HATCH-
ING AND BROODING COOP
For four sitting hens, each in separate_apartment.
294
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
10 or 12 inches wide, is hinged at the bottom and cut
in the center, one door serving for two nests. It is also
an advantage to put hinges on the roof so that it may be
opened. In dry locations and where the house can be
moved to fresh ground occasionally, floors are not neces-
sary or desirable. In some localities where rats are a pest,
a floor will serve to prevent losses of eggs and chicks.
When the chicks hatch, about twenty of them may be
given to a hen to brood, and the remaining hens reset. The
hen and chicks may be
put in a coop such as is
shown on this page. This
will afford them shelter
for a month or six weeks,
after which a larger
coop in which they can
be brought to maturity
will have to be provided.
Or the small coop may
be dispensed with, and
the hen and chicks
transferred at once to
the larger coop. A coop the size of that illustrated 011
page 293 is large enough to rear the chicks of two hens,
or forty chicks.
A New Brood Coop.— A brood coop which may also
be used for sitting hens is shown on pages 294 and 295. It
is ratproof and rainproof. The wire front affords pro-
vision for fresh air. The netting is of 1-inch mesh. The
door which slides up and down may be fastened with a
wooden pin, to allow the chicks to come out and confine the
hen. The bottom is separate to afford easy cleaning. To
clean, the floor is pulled from under the coop, or the coop
lifted to one side. Where there is no danger from rats or
A NEW BROOD COOP
Oregon Station.
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS
295
END VIEW
other vermin and the ground is not too damp, the floor may
be dispensed with. The
roof is likewise separate.
This makes it more con-
venient to catch the hen
or the chicks. The roof
is made of flooring and
the sides of shiplap. To
prevent rain beating in-
to the coop and also to
protect from the sun in
hot weather, a shield is
provided, hanging a t
different angles. When
not in use this shield is
pushed back under the
roof. To keep the shield
from falling down when
it is pulled out, two
pieces of strap iron,
with proper bent, are
fastened to the board.
For further details, see
working plan, this page.
Points on Setting a
Hen. — The best sitters
are the breeds of the
American and Asiatic
classes. The Mediterraneans, such as Leghorn, Minorca,
Andalusian, are not good sitters. Hens of gentle dis-
position should be chosen if possible. The normal tem-
perature of the hen's body is about 106 degrees. One
good broody hen will take care of twenty chicks. An-
other advantage of setting several hens at a time is that
PLAN OF HEN BROOD COOP
296 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
the chicks may be "doubled up." For an average hen,
13 eggs are enough for a sitting.
Dust the hen with insect powder when taking her off
the nest. Examine the heads of the chicks two or three
days after hatching, and if lice are found, rub a little lard
on the head and under the throat. If the hen has been
properly treated for lice while sitting, there will be no
necessity for treating the chicks for lice. But watch them.
Moistening the eggs before hatching is not necessary.
HEN BROODING AT OREGON STATION
The hen attends to that herself. Keep the hen and chicks
on clean grass runs if possible. If properly managed, the
hen may be got to laying after being with the chicks two
or three weeks. In warm weather the chicks may be
"weaned" when a month old.
Feed the sitters corn or wheat, all they will eat, and pro-
vide grit, water, and a little green food. Provide also a
box of earth for dusting ; earth should not be too dry.
The hen will usually hatch best in a nest on the ground,
but the ground should not be too hard. Cover it with
chaff, or short straw or hay. If the hen is set on a board
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS
297
floor, put in two or three inches of moist earth, hollow the
nest slightly in the center and cover with straw or hay.
Planer shavings are also good nesting material.
Dust the hens with a good insect powder or tobacco dust
when setting them, and again ten days later rub it well
into the roots of the feathers. Put a spoonful of the same
material, or a
moth-ball, in the
center of the
nest. "With this
treatment the
hen should be
free from these
pests during the
period of incu-
bation, if the
house or box in
which she is sit-
ting is not in-
f es t ed with
them. If it is found necessary, dust the hen oftener.
Period of Incubation. — The period of incubation for
different species of poultry is shown in the following table :
Species Days Species Days
Hen 21 Peafowl 28
Pheasant 22-24 Guinea 26-28
Duck 28 Ostrich 42
Duck (Muscovy) 33-35 Goose 30-34
Turkey 28
Selecting Eggs for Hatching. — It is not possible to de-
termine whether a fresh egg is fertile or will hatch. The
egg must be under the sitting hen or in the incubator
several days before its fertility may be determined. Neither
ANOTHER TYPE OF BROOD COOP
Made out of a shoe box.
298 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
is it possible to tell from any differences in shape of the
egg whether it will hatch a male or female chick. The
shape or size of the egg has nothing to do with the sex of
the chick. There are, however, certain points in shape and
structure of the egg that should be considered in select-
ing eggs for hatching. Normal eggs should be selected.
This does not mean that the eggs should all be of the same
size. Eggs laid by different hens vary in size even when
BROODING COOPS
The brooding coops on the farm of F. W. C. Almy, Rhode Island, where 5,000
chicks were hatched and brooded by hens in a year.
the hens are of the same breed. One hen may lay an egg
weighing more than two ounces; another, less than two
ounces.
The most profitable hen is not necessarily the one that
lays the largest egg. The hen that lays a small egg may
produce so many more of them in a year that she will lay
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 299
a greater weight of eggs in a year even though her eggs
average much less in weight. The large egg may be normal
for one hen and the smaller egg for the other. Other
things being equal the one will hatch as well as the other.
The size of egg is a matter of breeding or heredity. It is
well to use the larger eggs for hatching, because in that
way it will be possible in a few years to breed up a strain
of fowls that will lay larger eggs. Abnormally large or
small eggs should not be used for hatching. Eggs that are
not normal in shape should also be discarded. Ill-shaped,
rough-shelled, dirty eggs should not be used.
It is very important to select fresh eggs, the fresher the
better. It is possible to keep eggs several weeks and have
them hatch, but eggs lose in hatching quality the longer
they are kept. They will keep in a cool place better than
in a warm place. They should not be kept in a moist, damp
room. It is a good plan to turn them once a day and to
handle them with clean hands.
There is great difference in eggs in fertility and hatch-
ability. One of the chief causes of infertility in eggs is
close confinement of the layers. Experiments have shown
that eggs produced by fowls on free range are more fertile
and hatch better than those from fowls confined in yards.
(West Virginia Bulletin 71.) In these experiments about
three times as many eggs tested infertile from the confined
fowls as from those having unrestricted range. Whether
the increased fertility from the latter was due to possibly
greater exercise or to natural foods found on the range,
the experiment does not show. So much importance, how-
ever, is placed on this point that many of the large
hatcheries refuse to use eggs that have not been laid by
hens that enjoy free range.
Testing the Eggs. — After six or seven days of incuba-
tion, the infertile eggs may be taken out and saved for the
300
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
chicks. Rotten eggs should also be removed. If a number
of hens are set at one time, they may be doubled up after
testing; that is, if as many as a sitting are tested out, one
hen may be reset on fresh eggs. An egg-tester may be pur-
chased from a poultry supply house, or a small box may be
used in which an electric light globe may be put. A coal
oil lamp or candle may be used instead of an electric light
bulb. (See pages 353-354.)
In one side of the box cut a hole about the size of an egg.
Testing is done in a dark room or at night by holding the
egg to the light at the hole in box. Eggs may be tested by
daylight by holding the egg at the end of a tube or funnel
and pointing it toward the light. "Where the incubator
room is fairly dark the
eggs may be held at a
hole in the wall and
tested. "With two holes
a little smaller than an
egg, two eggs may be
held up at one time.
In testing incubator
eggs the tray may be
taken outdoors in the
light and by using the
funnel looking down on
the eggs they may be
quickly and easily
tested. Another method
of testing without hand-
ling the eggs is to use a
flashlight under the tray
in a dark or moderately
dark room and looking
down on the eggs direct-
DIVISION OF POULTRY LABOR
Some of the poultry farmers at Peta-
luma, Cal., take the eggs to the hatchery
and pay the hatcher 3 or 4 cents apiece for
hatching the chicks. The photo shows part
of a hatch of 1,500 chicks at a Petaluma
hatchery, which are to be taken by another
party to raise.
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 301
ly above the flashlight. The latter two methods obviate
touching the eggs with hands. An infertile egg will look
clear, just like a fresh egg, only it has a little larger air
cell. A fertile egg will show dark.
Artificial Incubation. — The hatching and rearing of
chicks by artificial means has been practiced by Egyptians
and Chinese for centuries. The ancient methods were
crude, and their success depended upon skill obtained by
long years of practice. The secret was handed down from
THE SAME CHICKS LOADED ONTO THE WAGON OF THE MAN WHO
CONTRACTS TO RAISE THEM
father to son. No thermometer was used, the temperature
being judged by the "feel" of the operator. Large hatch-
ing ' * ovens ' ' were used. The eggs were purchased, and the
chicks sold for about $1 a hundred. The business of hatch-
ing was confined to a few hatcheries or a few families who
appeared to have a monopoly of the business. The same
methods are followed to-day in Egypt, China and other
countries.
In Europe and America artificial incubation is of com-
paratively recent origin. So far as a practical application
is concerned its history goes back less than 50 years. In-
cubators had been used before. The first of which there is
302 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
account was that of Reaumur, a Frenchman, who made and
used a machine in 1749. Development has been along
different lines than in Egypt and China. The monopolistic
tendency is absent; the effort is to place machines on the
market whose essential points are ease of operation and
availability to all poultry-raisers. In recent years, how-
ever, there is a distinct tendency toward centralized hatch-
ing where the business is turned over to large hatcheries,
and the poultrymen purchase the chicks as they come from
BROODER HOUSE
The chicks were loaded onto a wagon by the man who contracts to raise
them, taken two miles into the country and put in brooder houses shown above.
The farmer takes the eggs to the hatchery, where Mr. A., the hatcher, hatches
the chicks at so much per, and Mr. B. takes them and rears them at so
much per.
the incubator. In place of incubators with capacities from
a few dozen eggs to two and three hundred eggs, there are
now machines with capacities of 3,000 to 10,000 eggs.
The Incubator House. — For successful hatching the
temperature of the room in which the incubator is operated
must be controlled within certain limits. The first require-
ment of an incubator room is a fairly even temperature.
The less the temperature varies, the more easily may the
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 303
temperature of the incubator be maintained. It is not
necessary that the room have the same temperature night
and day. Within a reasonable range of temperature, say
10 degrees, the temperature inside the incubators as now
constructed may be fairly well maintained.
Ventilation of the Room. — Of equal importance is the
ventilation of the room of the incubator house. The de-
veloping chicks make a constant demand for oxygen, and
OREGON STATION INCUBATOR HOUSE
unless the ventilation of the room be ample the chicks
will not develop and hatch with high vitality. It is the
opinion of the writer that low vitality in the chicks is often
the result of an insufficient supply of oxygen during incu-
bation, more often than the result of variations in the
temperature of the incubator house or in the machine,
though that also is important.
A cellar or underground room is often used for the in-
cubator. "While it may afford the best conditions for con-
trolling the temperature, it offers the poorest conditions
for maintaining proper air purity. Fresh air is as im-
portant as a uniform temperature, and success will not be
304
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
made where one or the other of these factors is absent.
During cold weather there will be less difficulty in securing
good ventilation, because there is a more rapid exchange of
air where the difference between the inside and outside tem-
perature is great. In warm weather when the temperature
inside and outside the incubator room is about the same,
the air will be stagnant, and the growing embryo will
suffer from a lack of oxygen.
Analysis of air in an underground incubator cellar at the
INTERIOR OF OREGON STATION INCUBATOR HOUSE
On the left tests are being made of carbon dioxide in the incubators.
Utah Station while incubators were running showed as
high as thirty parts carbonic acid gas in 10,000 parts. This
is undoubtedly much beyond the limit of safety. At the
Oregon Station in an incubator room above ground, analysis
showed 9.9 parts, the highest, and an average of 7.5. Tests
in May showed more carbon dioxide than in April.
This is a possible explanation of the fact that chicks
hatched in the cool weather have better vitality than those
in the warm weather of summer. Incubators are now
built with sufficiently sensitive temperature regulation that
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS
305
it is not essential that the temperature of the room be so
constant that an underground cellar is necessary. A house
above ground, properly constructed, is more desirable than
an underground room or cellar. In warm sections of the
country it will aid in maintaining a more uniform tempera-
ture if the house can be shaded by other buildings or trees.
Choice of an Incubator. — There are probably half a
hundred different incubators in general use, and many of
them differ only in name. The essential features of the
A ISO-EGG INCUBATOR, KEROSENE LAMP HEATED
majority of incubators are alike. The source of heat is
usually a kerosene lamp. Others are heated by gas or elec-
tricity. While the source of heat may be the same, the
methods of distributing the heat over the eggs varies in
different machines. Because of this difference, incubators
have been divided into two classes ; the one in which the
heat is radiated from a tank of hot water over the eggs,
or from hot water pipes ; the other type, in which, the hot
air is diffused through cloth or muslin directly over the
306
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
eggs. In the former, the hot water tank heats air already
in the egg chamber ; in the latter, fresh air is heated by the
lamp as it enters the machine and the same air enters the
egg chamber by diffusion. So that there is the diffusion
type of machine and the radiated heat type. In the latter
the ventilation is independent of the source of heat. It
A 250-EGG INCUBATOR, KEROSENE LAMP HEATED
requires longer to heat up the hot water machine than the
hot air.
On the other hand, the former maintains the heat longer,
and this is an advantage in case the lamp goes out. To
secure the same ventilation, or the same rate of exchange of
air in the hot water machine as in the hot air, or the same
degree of air purity, there must be more openings for
ventilation in the former than in the latter. If the ventila-
tion be arranged, therefore, so that there may be the same
rate of exchange of air, or the same degree of air purity,
there should be little, if any, difference in efficiency due to
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 307
the different methods of furnishing heat to the eggs in the
two types of machines.
The tank in the hot water machine adds to its cost. The
tank is also likely to get out of repair and leak after a few
seasons' use. The hot air type of machine is more generally
used, and on the whole is the more satisfactory. Whatever
may be the type of machine decided upon, however, one
that is well made should be chosen.
Size of Machine. — Machines vary in capacity from fifty
eggs to several thousand. Those of less than 100-egg capac-
ity have not proven as satisfactory as larger machines. A
machine of 125 to 150 capacity should give as good results
as larger machines. A machine of this capacity may be
used for any number of eggs less than that. It is a question
whether the machine would not hatch better if not crowded
to its full capacity. The size of machine to select should
be governed, first, by the number of chicks it is desired to
hatch, and, second, by the number of suitable fresh eggs
that may be secured. Where chicks are to be hatched for
fall and winter layers they should all be hatched at about
the same time, or within a period that will bring the pullets
to maturity at the proper time for laying. On this account
it will be better to confine the hatching to two runs of the
incubator. That would make a difference in about four
weeks in the ages of the two lots of pullets. A mistake is
made in hatching too early as well as in hatching too late
where good fall and winter layers are desired. If the pur-
pose is to produce about one hundred pullets for fall and
winter laying, two runs of a 150-egg machine will be neces-
sary. As to the egg supply, the fresher the eggs the better,
and an assured supply of eggs of good hatching quality is
necessary before purchasing the incubator. (See page 299.)
Operating the Incubator. — Space need not be taken
here with elaborate directions for running the machine.
308 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
The purchaser of an incubator is furnished directions for
its care, and those directions should be carefully followed
until, at least, experience has demonstrated that they may
be modified with advantage. Second, the construction of
machines varies more or less, and no set of directions will
suit all machines. The safe plan, therefore, is to study the
directions that come with the machine. While different
machines require different methods of operating, on some
fundamental points, however, there should be agreement
in directions.
Humidity Conditions. — On the question as to whether
moisture should be supplied to the incubator, there is a
great diversity of views among incubator makers. In ex-
periments by the writer at the Utah and Oregon Stations,
it has been found that moisture or humidity conditions have
a great deal to do in the successful incubation of hen eggs.
Experiments reported in Utah Bulletin 92 (1905)
showed that there was a greater loss in weight of eggs in
incubators than under hens during incubation. This loss
is largely water evaporated. In the first 18 days of incuba-
tion the average loss in incubators was 18.4%, and of eggs
under hens the loss was 15%. In later experiments at the
same station (Bulletin 102, 1907) machines with no
moisture averaged 17.8% loss, medium amount of moisture
14%, and with maximum amount of moisture the loss was
12.3%. At the Oregon Station, as reported in Bulletin 100
(1908) , eggs under sitting hens in dry nests averaged 14.8%
loss. In later tests the average was lower than this. The
results were for no-moisture machines 16.6% loss, medium
moisture 12.8%, and maximum moisture 10.8%. The loss
is also affected by the amount of ventilation, as discussed
in another place.
Some startling differences in the hatching were secured.
In the Utah experiment (1907) maximum moisture pro-
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 309
duced 329 chicks, medium moisture 319, and no moisture
278 chicks from the same number of eggs put in. At the
Oregon Station (Bulletin 100) medium moisture produced
424 chicks, maximum 420, and no moisture 330. In each
case the same kind and number of eggs were used in the
different machines. Many subsequent experiments showed
similar beneficial results from the use of moisture in num-
ber of chicks hatched. They showed further that larger
and heavier chicks were hatched where moisture was used.
These experiments were made with a "moisture" machine.
Amount of Moisture to Use. — The experiments showed
that extreme dryness as well as extreme humidity were
alike detrimental. The amount to use depends largely
upon the amount of ventilation. It was also shown that
the range between the temperature of the incubator and
the room influenced the humidity of the machine. As the
difference increased the humidity decreased. It is this
difference or range of temperature between the machine
and the room that causes the circulation of air through
the machine. As the difference decreases there is less cir-
culation and consequently higher humidity. To maintain
a uniform humidity, therefore, account must be taken of
the range of temperature, and the supply of moisture
governed accordingly. One machine required double the
amount of supplied moisture to maintain the same humidity
conditions as another machine of different make, due to
difference in ventilation. This was shown by the reading
of the wet bulb thermometer.
The Wet Bulb as a Guide for Moisture. — The wet bulb
thermometer may be used to advantage as an indicator of
the proper degree of humidity in the incubator. This is
an ordinary thermometer, the bulb of which is covered with
a muslin or silk wick, one end of which is inserted in a cup
of water. Evaporation is a cooling process, and as the
31Q POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
water evaporates on the bulb of the thermometer the tem-
perature is lowered. The rate of cooling depends upon the
rate of evaporation. If the evaporation is great or rapid
the temperature is lower; if the evaporation is less the
temperature rises. The rate of evaporation is influenced
by the amount of moisture in the air surrounding the ther-
mometer. The reason for this is that the air takes up
moisture fast or slow as it approaches or departs from the
point of saturation. "When the wet and dry bulbs have
the same temperature the point of saturation has been
reached and instead of being taken up by the air, moisture
is given off; this is what causes rain. The drier the air,
therefore, in the machine the greater its thirst for moisture,
therefore the more rapid the evaporation of moisture from
the wick on the bulb the greater the consequent cooling of
the bulb. The drier the machine the more moisture will
evaporate on the bulb and the lower the temperature of
the wet bulb will be. The more moisture in the air the
higher the temperature of the wet bulb will read.
What is the Best Wet Bulb Temperature for Hatching?
— In machines with no supplied moisture there was an
average wet bulb temperature of 84 to 85 degrees. Machines
of the same make, with a tray of wet sand covering half
the floor of the egg chamber, averaged about 88 degrees;
and in others with a tray of wet sand covering the entire
bottom of the machine the temperature was 90 to 91 degrees.
As reported in Oregon Bulletin 100: "An average wet
bulb temperature of 87.6 gave 32.6% better hatches than
one of 84.5% and slightly better than one of 91%."
Later experiments at the same station confirm these re-
sults. The importance of moisture is strongly indicated.
The efficiency of the particular incubator used was in-
creased over 30% by using an amount of moisture that
maintained a wet bulb temperature of 88 degrees instead
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 311
of 85. A wet bulb temperature, therefore, of about 88
degrees seems to indicate the best humidity conditions of
the incubator.
It is not assumed that it is necessary to supply moisture
to the incubator to maintain the proper humidity conditions
of the egg chamber. Further experiments showed that
different incubators required varying amounts of moisture
to maintain the same readings of the wet bulb thermometer,
one incubator requiring double the amount of another. The
explanation is that the ventilation in the one machine was
greater than in the other. The humidity conditions there-
fore are strongly influenced by the amount of ventilation.
Again it was demonstrated that by cutting off the ventila-
tion, the proper wet bulb temperature could be maintained
without supplying any moisture.
Moisture and Carbonic Acid Gas. — An explanation, or
partial explanation, of the results obtained from supplied
moisture was discovered in another experiment. Carbonic
acid gas with moisture decomposes calcium carbonate. The
egg shell is 93.7% calcium carbonate. Eggs emptied of
their contents were put in glass fruit jars, some with water
and some without. The jars were then put in an incubator
for 21 days, and a strong current of carbonic acid gas was
forced through them. At the end of the incubation period,
the egg shells in jars containing water in the bottom were
broken down or dissolved, while those without the moisture
in the jars were unaffected and apparently as strong and
hard as at the start. From this it appeared that the shell
is something more than a mere covering to preserve the
egg. A German experimenter found that there was a loss
of lime in the shell during incubation.
What becomes of it? Chemical investigations at the
Oregon Station showed that the chick as it was developing
within the shell was drawing upon the shell for nutrition ;
312 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
that there was a gradual increase in the ash or lime con-
tents of the chick, and that the chick was able to break
through the shell with strength derived in part from the
shell itself. It was also found that the chick contains con-
siderably more lime than the contents of the egg itself.
Without the mineral elements of the shell the chick would
be unable to grow its frame or skeleton. The shell there-
fore has a vital function to perform in the hatching
process, in the development of the chick. Moisture with
carbon dioxide does not merely weaken the shell so the chick
will be able to break through, but the dissolved lime of the
shell goes to assist in the formation of the chick and de-
termines to a certain extent the future strength and vitality
of the fowl.
But is not the moisture within the egg sufficient for this
purpose? With certain machines, or those that gave over
30% better hatches with supplied moisture than without,
the development of the chick was more complete, there was
more ash, phosphorus and protein in the chicks hatched by
the machines that were supplied with moisture. The im-
portant point brought out here is that the chemical com-
position of the chick, its strength and vitality, is influenced
by the moisture in the machine.
It is highly important that the incubator operator should
understand the moisture requirements for best chick de-
velopment and that he should be able to test the machine
for moisture.
There are other methods of determining the amount of
moisture in the machine. Thermometer makers have de-
vised different instruments, usually called hygrometers,
for determining the humidity of the incubator. Some of
these are successful, others are not. When properly con-
structed they answer the purpose. The percentage humidity
as shown by the hygrometer should average about 60%.
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 313
These instruments, however, do not give the actual relative
humidity in the machine. To get a reading of the hygro-
meter that will represent the humidity of the whole egg
chamber, it is necessary that the bulb be fanned. That is
because the moisture which is evaporated from the bulb
remains near the bulb, and that part of the egg chamber is
therefore more moist than other parts of the machine.
By fanning the bulb, if that were possible in the in-
cubator, the stagnant moisture in the machine would be
driven from near the bulb, and the reading would then
represent actual conditions of the whole egg chamber. It
is in this way that the Government weather bureau obser-
vations of the humidity of the air are secured ; the hygro-
meter is fanned. It is not practicable to do this in the
incubator, nor is it necessary in practice to know the cor-
rect humidity. It is sufficient to know that a certain read-
ing of the wet bulb thermometer, or a certain percentage
of humidity as determined without fanning gives the
desired condition for successful hatching.
Loss in Weight of Eggs a Guide to Moisture. — Another
method of learning whether the humidity is right is to
weigh at intervals of a few days during the hatch a number
of eggs and note the loss in weight. A dozen eggs may be
marked and weighed when put in the machine, then again
every six days until the 18th day. An accurate scale of
course must be used. Different eggs vary in the amount
of loss due to the difference in the texture or structure of
the shell, but an average loss within the following limits
has been found to be about right :
During the first 6 days 3.5 to 4 % loss
During the second 6 days 4 to 4.5% loss
During the third 6 days 4.5 to 5 % loss
Total 12. to 13.5% loss
(Utah Bulletins 92 and 102. Oregon Bulletin 100.)
314 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
After the operator has once tested his machine and
learned how much moisture is needed it will not be neces-
sary to continue the use of a moisture test.
Methods of Supplying Moisture. — Moisture may be fur-
nished in the following ways : First by putting a tray of
sand under the egg tray and wetting as much of the sand
as is necessary. The amount of surface of the sand to
moisten will depend upon the make of the machine and
upon weather conditions. Second, a pan of water may be
put under the egg tray. The sand tray is more satisfactory
than the pan inasmuch as the amount can be regulated by
increasing or decreasing the area of wet surface. This can-
not be done with a pan of water. Third, the eggs may be
sprinkled with water at intervals. This method is not very
effective. The supply of moisture should be steady through-
out the hatch. Fourth, sprinkling the floor and walls of
the incubator room is a practice frequently followed. This
is not a very effective method of increasing the humidity
in the incubator.
Temperature of Incubation. — The proper hatching tem-
perature is about 103 degrees Fahrenheit at the top of the
egg. It has been found that this is the average temperature
under the sitting hen. During the latter part of the incu-
bation period the temperature is slightly higher than dur-
ing the first week, due to heat given off by the growing
embryo. Good results have been obtained by starting the
incubator at 1021/o and gradually raising the temperature
to 103 at the beginning of the second week; then main-
taining it at that temperature. When the chicks begin to
hatch the temperature usually rises to 104 ; that is all right ;
but it should not be permitted to go higher than 103 for
more than an hour or two at a time.
It is very necessary that the temperature be kept steady.
A difference of a degree, either higher or lower, for a short
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 315
time, may not injure the hatch, but the best results can
only be secured when the temperature is kept steady. This
refers to temperature conditions in all parts of the egg
tray. The operator should test the machine by putting a
thermometer in each corner and one in the center of the
egg tray.
The successful operator is not satisfied merely to hatch
a large percentage of the eggs ; he hatches them well.
Chicks may be hatched but not hatched right. The effect
of a wide range of temperature may not show much in the
number of chicks hatched, but it will probably show more
in the kind hatched, though this fact often escapes notice.
The danger from improper temperatures is not so much
in the loss of chicks that fail to hatch, as in those hatched
with low vitality.
Ventilation. — Not only the incubator room but the in-
cubator itself must have good ventilation in order to carry
out the impure air given off by the growing chick within
the shell and to supply the required amount of fresh air
or oxygen for proper development. The questions of
moisture and ventilation are closely related. The greater
the ventilation, the more moisture is required. Some in-
cubators are built on the principle that no moisture should
be supplied, the proper humidity being maintained by re-
stricting the ventilation. How much ventilation is neces-
sary, is the problem. More data is needed on this point.
It has been very clearly established, however, at the Oregon
Station, that increasing the ventilation without increasing
the moisture reduces the number of chicks hatched and
gives chicks of lower vitality. This is due to the extreme
dryness of the air surrounding the eggs, not to the greater
supply of fresh air. Under such conditions the chick does
not make a normal growth. When this excessive ventila-
tion, however, was supplemented with sufficient moisture
316 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
to maintain the proper wet bulb temperature the results
were satisfactory.
Chemical Composition of Chick Affected by Incuba-
tion Methods. — It has been definitely shown by the Oregon
experiments that moisture and ventilation have a direct re-
lationship to the chemical composition of the chick hatched.
The amount of phosphorus, lime, and certain compounds
of protein, and even the amount of fat in the chick, is
shown to be markedly influenced by the amount of moisture
in the machine. Extreme dryness produced chicks that
weighed less in dry matter, and lower in protein compounds
and phosphoric acid, as well as lime, in tissue. This proves
definitely that the conditions or methods of incubation in-
fluence not only the number of chicks hatched, but the de-
velopment and vitality of the chick itself.
Turning the Eggs. — Daily turning of the eggs in the in-
cubator is necessary. This is following nature, for it has
been observed that the sitting hen turns the eggs frequently.
Unless turned, the yolk rises, being lighter than the white,
and the germ spot comes in contact with the shell, or shell
membrane, which is fatal. Turning should begin after the
eggs have been in the incubator two days.
It is important that the eggs be handled gently. As to
method of turning, it is usually well to follow directions of
the incubator maker. The eggs should be turned twice a
day. Three turnings have given good results.
Cooling the Eggs. — A slight cooling of the eggs each
day after the second day is necessary. In cool weather,
or when the temperature of the incubator room is lower
than 60 degrees, little more cooling will be needed than in
the time the eggs are being turned on top of machine. In
warmer weather and toward the end of the hatch further
cooling is advisable. The amount of cooling given by the
sitting hen to the eggs was determined at the Oregon Station
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 317
by means of a minimum thermometer in a glass bottle filled
with water. In 29 tests under five sitting hens the average
cooling temperature was 88.9 degrees. The lowest was 81
degrees. This represented the temperature of the interior
of the eggs after the hen had been oif the nest. Tests made
in incubators with the same instrument showed an average
of 94.3 degrees, with usual methods of cooling. The tests
were made in summer and the eggs were left out of the
machine about half an hour.
An instrument of this kind may be used to advantage
by the incubator operator as a guide for cooling.
Carbonic Acid Gas and Chick Development. — The
hatching of the chick is a most marvelous thing. ,The shell
is the preserver of the egg. "Without it the egg could not
be kept wholesome more than a day or two. It also pro-
tects the germ of the chick from destruction. When it
comes to hatching, the shell is an obstacle. The chick be-
fore it can hatch and gain its liberty must devise some
means by which it can break down this prison wall. It
must grow a strong body, and it does it by making use of
its enemy, the shell. To break through the shell it must
put some of the shell into its body, otherwise it would not
be strong enough to hammer down the wall.
How does it turn this enemy into an ally? By another
miracle, making use of another enemy — a poison. A poison
that would kill the chick — that is deadly to any living
animal — the chick uses in obtaining nutriment and in break-
ing down its prison walls. A death-dealing poison under
the operation of this chicken chemistry is made to manu-
facture something that gives to the chick strength and a
right to live. Nature has decreed that fresh air is neces-
sary for the growing embryo, and while the shell protects
the contents and prevents the entrance of disease germs
and parasites, it admits air. As fresh air enters impure
318 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
air is given off, and in passing out of the shell these im-
purities aid in its decomposition; they dissolve certain food
in the shell, mineral nutrients, that the chick uses in the
growth of its body, and without which it would not come
to life. The impurities or poisons are contained in the car-
bonic acid gas given off by the chick, or exhaled by the
lungs. This thing that poisons the body is used by the
chick to dissolve the mineral elements of the shell needed
in the growth of its body. The shell is honeycombed, so
to speak, by this gas that has been cast off by the chick,
and the dissolved elements pass into its'body. Without the
lime extracted from the shell the chick would not have the
strength to break through the shell, or breaking through
would not have vitality to live.
More than that, the chick utilizes materials in the shell
itself for arming itself with a weapon concealed on the
point of its beak to puncture a hole in its prison wall and
escape.
Carbonic acid gas has an important function to perform
in the development of the embryonic life of the chick. A
healthy, strong-growing embryo is giving off considerable
quantities of this gas, and this gas in passing through the
pores of the shell dissolves the necessary minerals for the
nutrition of the chick. As the chick grows there is an in-
crease in the amount of carbon dioxide thrown off. Analysis
showed more carbon dioxide in the incubator in the later
stages of incubation than in the first. Analysis further
showed more carbon dioxide under the sitting hen than in
the incubator. There was a large amount found under the
hen when sitting on glass or china eggs, which led to the
discovery that carbon dioxide was being diffused through
the skin of the hen's body.
It has not yet been determined whether the same quantity
of carbon dioxide must be present in the incubator as under
METHODS OF HATCHING CHICKENS 319
the hen for successful hatching, but experiments at Utah
in supplying artificially a large quantity of this gas rather
injured than improved the hatching of the incubator. This
has been corroborated by experiments at Storrs. It has
not been proved that an artificial supply of carbon dioxide
will help matters.
Oil on Egg Shells. — Investigation at the Oregon Station
(Bulletin 100) has revealed another point in which it is
difficult to imitate nature. It was discovered that the shells
of eggs under the sitting hens contain a considerable
quantity of oil. A fresh unincubated egg contained a small
quantity of oil, but eggs that had been under the sitting hen
for two weeks contained six times more oil, while the eggs
that had been in the incubator contained practically the
same amount as fresh eggs, proving that oil was deposited on
the eggs by the hen. What the function of this oil is in in-
cubation, is not yet known.
Whatever may be the practical result, it is thus seen that
the sitting hen is slowly giving up some of her secrets to
scientific research.
CHAPTER XV
ARTIFICIAL BROODING
Artificial Brooding of chicks means furnishing them
with proper temperature conditions by either natural or
artificial heat during the stage of their growth when the
heat of their bodies is not sufficient to maintain life. After
they pass the age when they no longer require extra heat,
the term brooding does not apply.
The Length of the Brooding Period is about six weeks.
The period varies, depending somewhat on the season of
the year, or the weather. Successful brooding depends
very largely upon so adjusting the brooder temperature
that the chicks are able to do without artificial heat at the
earliest possible stage. The temperature must be gradually
lowered, so that the chick becomes gradually accustomed to
colder air.
Brooding Temperature. — The chick is hatched in the
incubator at a temperature of 103 degrees. Before it is
taken out of the incubator, which should be within a day
after the hatch is completed and the chick dry, this tem-
perature should be reduced. The nursery under the egg
tray is several degrees colder than the hatching tempera-
ture. The incubator should be kept at a temperature of
about 100 degrees until the chicks are removed, but extra
ventilation should be given. After the chicks are all hatched
and dry the door of the incubator should be left partly
open to furnish sufficient fresh air. The width of the open-
ing will depend upon the temperature of the incubator
room. The best guide is the behavior of the chicks them-
320
ARTIFICIAL BROODING 321
selves. The skilled attendant knows from the appearance
of the chicks whether or not they have both heat and fresh
air enough. If the chicks pant, the temperature is too high
or the ventilation is insufficient. On the other hand, if the
temperature is too low they will crowd together. It will
be found -that this is the only safe guide to follow in regu-
lating the temperature and ventilation of the brooders. It
is impossible to raise chicks successfully where the chicks
are not comfortable at all times, or where the temperature
is allowed to go too high or too low at any time.
The brooder should be thoroughly warmed up before
putting the chicks into it. The temperature should be
about 95 degrees about an inch from the floor before the
chicks are put in. There should be a gradual daily lower-
ing of the temperature until at the end of about four weeks
it should be about 75 degrees, at which temperature it
should be kept for two or three weeks, when artificial heat
may be discontinued. There should be always sufficient
heat during the day so that the chick when it gets cold
may go to the hover or heater and get warmed quickly.
If the temperature is too low they will get chilled and
crowd together. The safe plan is to furnish sufficient heat
so that the chicks will not crowd, but at the same time it is
important that they have room to get away from the heat.
They should have access to cool air as well as warm air.
The brooder temperature will vary some according to
the style of the brooder. With bottom heat the brooder
floor will show a higher temperature, but an inch above the
temperature should be lower than in a brooder with top
heat. But the guide for the attendant should, in all cases,
be the comfort of the chicks. If the chicks do not suffer
at any time from either too much or too little heat there
will be little danger of a high mortality, if other conditions
are right, and if chicks of good vitality are put into the
322 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
brooder. A too high or a too low temperature will result
in an inevitable loss of chicks, which may extend over a
period of several weeks, and also in weakened vitality in
some that live. It should also be remembered that when
chicks have once been overheated their powers of re-
sistance have been weakened and they will be unable to
stand the same degree of cold as others that have been kept
under proper temperature conditions.
Training the Chicks. — In artificial brooding the at-
tendant must do the training that in natural brooding is
done by the hen. Success will depend very largely upon
the attention given to the chicks during the first two or
three days of their brooder life. The chick for the first
two days does not know where to find the heat if it should
get out from under the hover. It must be taught. By fre-
quently pushing the chicks toward the heat they will soon
learn to find it. They should be taught to leave the hover and
seek the cooler fresh air occasionally for a time. They should
be "kept going" between the heat and the cold for the first
two or three days. At any rate, this training should be
done several times a day for the first two days, and under
no conditions should they be allowed to remain away from
the heat until they begin to peep and crowd against each
other for warmth. This is fatal. A little time spent, or a
little "puttering," for the first two days will save a great
deal of trouble and loss later.
Ventilation. — Where fifty or a hundred chicks are kept
together in a brooder, that means a great many lungs call-
ing for fresh air or oxygen. They need a little ventilation
at the start, but comparatively little to what they require
as they grow older. Ventilation as well as temperature
must be elastic or progressive. Every day there is an in-
creased demand for fresh air. A mistake is often made
in cutting off on the heat as the chicks grow older, instead
ARTIFICIAL BROODING 323
of increasing the ventilation. The temperature of the
brooder may be lowered by increasing the ventilation or
admitting more cool fresh air, and it is just as important
that the fresh air be increased as that the brooder tempera-
ture be decreased.
Floor of the Brooder. — The brooder floor should be
covered an inch deep with clean sand. (See "Feeding the
Chicks.") In two or three days when the chicks have
learned to eat well, a little chaff or cut clover or alfalfa
may be covered over the sand for the chicks to scratch in.
It is well to begin with the sand.
Sunlight. — Whatever type of brooder is used it should
be accessible to the sunlight. Disease germs do not thrive
or multiply when exposed to the sunshine.
Types of Brooders. — There are many types of brooders
in use, and each year sees a new crop of them. If some
of the chicks die, the brooder is very likely to be blamed,
and the next year another is tried. There is, as yet, a con-
siderable divergence of opinion as to what constitutes the
best type. All the sundry makes of brooders may be
divided into the following classes :
1. Individual lamp brooder, indoor and outdoor.
2. Colony brooder.
3. Hot water pipe brooder.
4. Room or stove brooder, with or without hovers.
5. Terra cotta brooder.
6. Electric brooder.
7. Fire! ess brooder.
The Lamp Brooder. — There are various types of lamp
brooders. Some of these are made for outdoors and some
for indoors use. There is more or less danger from fire
from the lamp, and proper care should be given it to avoid
burning the brooder and chicks. It is usually neglect
324 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
where -a fire occurs. Individual lamp brooders range in
capacity from about fifty to one hundred chicks.
Colony Brooders. — The colony brooder has many ad-
vantages over other systems of brooding. It is not only a
brooder but a growing house for the chicks after passing
the brooding stage; it is in use most of the year. An in-
dividual lamp brooder can be used only for a few weeks,
then a house must be provided for the growing chicks. The
colony brooding system is less expensive in equipment. A
good type of colony brooder is shown in illustration of the
Cornell gasolene brooder. This has a capacity of two
hundred chicks. The cost for heating by gasolene amounts
to from 2 to 10 cents a day, depending on the weather con-
ditions. The cost to build is in the neighborhood of $36.
A colony brooder may be heated by coal oil lamps.
Lamps may be placed inside or outside the house and a de-
tachable hover used inside.
A Hot Water Jug may be used to furnish heat in a
colony brooder and other brooders. A gallon jug, filled with
hot water twice a day will furnish heat enough under a
hover 2 feet square for fifty chicks. This is a fireless but
not a heatless brooder. Two such jugs and hovers in a
colony house 6x8 feet will take care of 100 chicks.
A "Fireless and Henless" Brooder. — Sometimes it is de-
sirable to rear hen-hatched chicks in a brooder without the
hen. We give an illustration of a home-made brooder on
page 325. It is made out of a dry-goods box, a little burlap
or flannel, and a gallon vinegar jug. The box may be 3 to
4 feet long, 2% feet deep and 2y2 feet wide, set on edge.
Larger sized boxes, however, may be used. The hover
should be about 2 feet square, high enough to put the jug
under it. Strips of burlap about 4 inches wide are tacked
on to the under side of the hover top, which is made of
plain matched boards. These strips hang down all over
ARTIFICIAL BROODING 325
the chicks, not merely around the edges of the hover, and
the chicks nestle among the strips of cloth. The jug is
filled with hot water and placed underneath in the center
of the hover. If the water is too hot a little felt should be
wrapped around the jug to avoid burning the chicks. This
will also help to retain the heat longer.
During the first week, the jug should be refilled night and
morning. As the chicks grow older, once a day will be
HOT-WATER JUG BROODER
A dry goods box, a hover and a gallon jug of hot water.
often enough. In warm weather the jug may be dispensed
with when the chicks are two weeks old. Later, the hover
may be removed and the box used for brooding the chicks
till they are about three months old. This brooder will
take care of fifty chicks easily. They should be given
more room when two or three months old. In such a
brooder, with felt or burlap strips hanging over the
chicks, it requires very little artificial heat to keep them
warm, as they keep themselves pretty comfortable when
all are close together under the hover. Such a brooder may
be used for both hen-hatched and incubator chicks. Fire-
326 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
less brooders of this kind will rear chicks successfully, but
a fireless brooder without heat of any kind is not practicable.
If the weather is not too cold and the chicks have close at-
tention the heatless brooder may raise chicks successfully,
but the labor cost is great.
Long Hot- Water Pipe Brooders. — Where large num-
bers of chicks are hatched at one time this is probably the
most convenient way of brooding them. A heater is located
at one end of the house, and from this hot-water pipes run
CONTINUOUS BROODING SYSTEM
(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station.)
the length of the house under hover but over the chicks.
A brooder house a hundred feet in length or more may be
heated in this way. This method has been largely used in
the production of broilers. The main objection to this
system is the cost of equipment. Where the purpose is to
raise pullets for fall laying, the chickens have to be trans-
ferred to other houses later.
Experience has shown that it is not practicable to use
this type of brooder house as a growing house for pullets.
Pullets do better when put in open-air houses and given
free range. With a brooder house of this kind it will pay
ARTIFICIAL BROODING
327
to transfer the chickens to free range in open houses, where
the purpose is to produce breeding stock or layers. "When
this is done the cost of producing the mature pullet is
greater than is necessary. The colony brooding house
system is more economical.
Stove or Room Brooding. — This system is used where
large numbers of chicks are hatched. A specially con-
ROOM OF STOVE BROODING— A NIGHT SCENE
At a certain radius from the stove the chicks find the proper temperature.
(Oregon Station.)
structed oil-burner stove set in the center of a room about
20 x 20 feet, furnishes the heat for 1,000 chicks or more.
Sometimes a coal-burning stove is used. There are no par-
titions or hovers. The heat is regulated so that at a dis-
tance of about 2 feet from the stove, and in a circle around
it, the chicks find a proper brooding temperature. Closer
it is too hot, farther away, too cold. At night the chicks
cover a space of about 12 inches wide and 2 feet from the
328 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
stove. During the day they run all around the room and
get exercise in that way.
During the first few nights a "fence" 12 inches high,
made of poultry netting covered with burlap, is placed in
a circle around the stove, but several feet farther away
from the stove than the chicks. This keeps the floor a little
warmer and prevents the chicks getting into the corners of
the room. Among the advantages of this system is con-
venience of operation and saving of labor. The oil is fed
A STOVE BROODER WITH HOVER
automatically to the burner from a tank on the outside
wall, and it requires very little attention. Occasionally the
soot clogs up the burner, and sometimes the stovepipe will
burn out, with some danger of setting fire to the house.
Should the heat for any reason be shut off, there will be a
large mortality where so many chicks are kept together.
This system has not given the results in growth of chicks
that is desirable in a good brooding system.
A Room Brooder with Hover. — A modification of the
room brooding system is to substitute for the stove in the
center of the room a gasolene or distillate heater placed in
a lean-to and lower than the floor. From this a hot-air
ARTIFICIAL BROODING
329
flue conveys the heat under the floor and up through an
opening in the center of the room. A hover 6 or 7 feet
square is set in the center of the room and over the hot-air
inlet. This system is more satisfactory than the stove
heater without the hover and is much more economical in
A STOVE BROODER, SHOWING HOVER AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF
BROODER
fuel or oil. A thousand chicks may be brooded in such a
brooder house with this system of heating and hovering.
The main contention, however, remains unsolved as to
whether it is possible to raise chicks as successfully in
flocks as large as 1,000 in one room as in smaller flocks.
It is undoubtedly true that as the numbers in the flock in-
crease the tendency is for the mortality to increase and for
330 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
ROOM BROODING, WITH OIL OR GAS HEATER, OUTSIDE OF
ROOM IN A LEAN-TO
Heat comes up through the floor, under the hover, which is shown raised in
the picture.
FLOCK OF 8,000 YOUNG PULLETS
Farm of J. W. George, Petaluma.
ARTIFICIAL BROODING
331
a retarded growth.
Whether the differ-
ence is great enough
to warrant the extra
labor cost involved in
keeping them in small
flocks, is open to
doubt. Where sev-
eral thousand chicks
are hatched, the old
system o f keeping
them in flocks of
fifty is hardly prac-
ticable on account of
the labor cost as well
as equipment cost.
Brooding Systems
in General. — It should
be understood by the
poultryman that the
brooder is not always
responsible for chick
mortality. The
chicks die sometimes
in spite of the brood-
er. If they do, the
poultryman should
not conclude at once
that the brooder is
wrong and proceed to
purchase or build a
new one. It has been
abundantly demon-
strated that the
CORNELL GASOLINE BROODER
332
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
chicks often come to the brooder with vitality so
low that it is impossible to raise them. The trouble
may have been in faulty methods of incubation, or it may
be traced back to a lack of vigor in the breeding stock that
laid the eggs. A simple experiment of setting a few hens
at the time the incubators are set, using the same kind of
eggs and brooding the chicks naturally, will show whether
the fault was in the breeding stock or not.
WAA/
t
1
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f CO CA.v*j
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I
F
* * L* _^ *
r5 ^M^'^-''^5!^!]
, i
**• -J pj "^
i
^•AS
HMK
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1
l ^
PIPE
CAPuc/rr BOO CHICKS
SIDE END
TERRA-COTTA BROODER
This brooder has been largely used by the Petaluma poultry raisers. Besides
being cheaply constructed, it is economical in fuel.
CHAPTER XVI
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY
During the past few years considerable attention has
been directed to the importance of improved methods of
marketing poultry products. This is a subject that con-
cerns the consumer as well as the producer. To the former
it is a question of how to get eggs and chickens of good
quality and at prices he can afford to pay. To the pro-
ducer it is a question of handling the eggs and marketing
them in such a way that he can get a satisfactory profit.
Improved methods of marketing would mean a larger busi-
ness, as well as a more profitable one, because there would
be a much greater consumption of eggs and chickens if the
consumer could always be assured of their good quality.
The poultry-keeper is vitally interested in anything that
will increase the consumption of poultry and eggs and also
in anything that will enable him, through better handling
of the product, to get it to the consumer in a condition that
will bring him a higher profit.
The poultryman must not give less attention to produc-
tion, but he must give more earnest attention to efficiency
in marketing if he would not lose what he may have gained
in efficiency in production. It is one thing to produce the
chickens and the eggs, it is another to get value for them.
There is a pleasure in producing a superior article, but the
producer measures his success finally by the market returns.
MARKETING EGGS
Two factors that the poultryman must consider in seek-
ing a good market for his eggs are quality and quantity,
333
334 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
in other words the two Q's. If he has both Q's there is no
reason why he may not develop a special market and reap
a special profit. A few cents difference in the price received
for his eggs may not amount to much in the course of a
week or a month, but in the course of a year, if he has only
a hundred hens, the difference between a good and a poor
market would amount to probably $50, or 50 cents per hen ;
or $500 on a thousand hens. This represents an increase
of 20 or 25%. The great majority, however, of the pro-
ducers do not keep one hundred hens. The average farm
flock is about 50 hens, and there is not much incentive for
the owner to work out better marketing methods.
In the first place he has not the quantity of eggs to make
regular shipments. He cannot go to a dealer or retailer or
to private consumers and guarantee a certain number of
cases a week or twice a week. He may produce the quality,
but without the quantity it will not profit him much. On
the other hand he may have the quantity, but not the qual-
ity, and he will lose a large part of his profits. The pro-
ducer cannot expect the highest prices unless he has in ad-
dition to quantity the quality that will command them.
The problem of marketing is a simple one to the pro-
ducer who has a large flock, but to the small producer it is
a difficult one, though the small producer in the aggregate
furnishes the great bulk of the poultry products of the
country. The producers are suffering a loss in marketing
the product of probably 20 to 25%, or anywhere from fifty
to a hundred million dollars a year in the United States,
because they individually have neither the quantity nor the
quality to interest them in better marketing methods. They
lack the two Q 's. Is this loss inevitable ? Not necessarily.
Where is the remedy, if there be any ? In the first place,
the remedy is largely educational. The trouble has been
located and the remedy is known ; it is a question of apply-
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 335
ing it. A study must be made of egg quality. The differ-
ence in quality of eggs and the factors affecting the quality
must be clearly demonstrated to the producer and con-
sumer alike. When the former understands fully that the
egg is a perishable product and that 15 to 20% of the real
value of the egg is lost in the handling under present
marketing methods ; in other words, that the quality of the
egg varies to this extent, it will not be very long before the
producer sets about rectifying this great marketing blunder.
He will set about improving the quality.
In the next place there must be developed a greater com-
munity of interest among the producers, in other words, co-
operation. If the business is going to continue to be a busi-
ness of small producers it is imperative that they get to-
gether to the extent at least that regular guaranteed ship-
ments may be made in sufficient quantity, if the direct
method of selling is to be followed.
If, on the other hand, the indirect method is to be fol-
lowed, that is, selling the product through dealers instead
of shipping direct to consumers, then the producers should
co-operate to the extent of compelling the dealers to modify
or reform their methods of buying. Egg production is a
part of a well regulated system of diversified farming, and
if this system of farming is to be permanently successful
there must be a greater community of interest developed.
Indirect Selling. — Two distinct methods are followed in
marketing poultry products. They may be called direct and
indirect. The indirect route varies somewhat in length
or efficiency. Shipping to the retailer comes nearest
to the direct method in efficiency. The most indirect way
is where the producer sells to the huckster, the huckster to
the local store or shipper ; the latter to the commission man
in the city, who sells to the jobber, and the jobber to the
retailer, the eggs finally reaching the consumer from the
336 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
retailer. That means five middlemen. Some of these mid-
dlemen, however, have been eliminated in many markets.
By far the largest proportion of eggs reach the consumer
by the indirect route. The reason is largely because the
community of interest or co-operative spirit is not highly
developed among the farmers or producers. It is fair to
say that during the past two or three years considerable
progress has been made in improving the service and lessen-
ing the cost of marketing eggs by the direct as well as in-
direct method. The business of buying eggs on commission
and the abuses that followed have been largely eliminated
in most of the large markets. The bulk of the business is
now done by large jobbers. The service has been improved
and the cost of marketing reduced. Many of these jobbers
have large storage plants, which afford an outlet for sur-
plus stock during the season of plenty.
How the Costs are Added. — The tabular exhibit on
page 337 shows how, through -the indirect method, the costs
are added to the egg in New York City before it reaches the
consumer. It is taken from a report of a State Food In-
vestigating Commission.
The cost of marketing is here shown to be over 50% of
the amount received by the producer. This would not apply
to all markets ; the cost would be less in some. In a western
state on July 30, farmers were receiving 22y2 cents a dozen
in trade from the local stores, or 21 cents in cash. The
local stores received 22^ cents from the jobbers after pay-
ing express charges to the city one hundred miles distant.
The retailer paid the jobber 27 cents, and the retailer sold
the eggs to the consumer at 30 cents to 35 cents, depending
on the grade. Good eggs that the producer received 21
cents for were sold to the consumer for 35 cents. Eggs
from another producer that were not as good were paid for
at the same rate, 21 cents, but were finally sold to the con-
sumer for 30 cents.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 337
ANALYSIS OF RETAIL PRICE OF EGGS IN NEW YORK CITY
Per dozen
Producer's price $0.20 $0.20
Shipper's charges :
(a) Labor in collection and packing 005
(b) Cases, fillers, and packing 0073
(c) Transportation charges to city 0106 .023
Commission for handling 01 .01
Jobber's charges:
(a) Cartage from dock to store 00133
(b) Candling and grading 00666
(c) Storage and insurance 016
(d) Jobber's profit and charges 01
(e) Delivery to the retailer 004 .038
Retailer's charges :
(a) Operating expenses, 10% 0271
(6) Retailer profit, 5% 01497 .042
Price paid by consumer $0.313
By direct marketing is meant selling direct to the con-
sumer by the producer, or an association of producers, and
indirect marketing is the method followed where the eggs
pass through the hands of one or more middlemen after
leaving the farm and before reaching the consumer.
Direct Selling. — The most profit will be made by ship-'
ping direct to consumers, in this way eliminating all mid-
dlemen charges. The producer should endeavor to establish
a trade with city customers. It is possible to furnish the
consumer eggs of first quality at prices lower than he pays
for eggs of the same quality through the regular channels
of trade, and at the same time secure a better price than he
could otherwise secure.
This was demonstrated by the poultry department of the
Oregon Agricultural College. For better eggs than he for-
merly got for 35 cents a dozen the consumer paid the pro-
338
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
ducer 27 cents, plus express, which was about 3 cents a
dozen. This was a gain of 6 cents to the farmer over the
usual method of selling to local stores, and a saving to the
consumer of 5 cents a dozen. The eggs were shipped in
crates of 12 dozen. Some of the customers divided the
eggs with their neighbors ; others used them all, though they
had to keep some of them two or three weeks. At the end
of that time they reported that the eggs were better than
those purchased at
stores. This is a trade
worth looking after.
The disadvantag-
es of direct selling
are, first, that the
express charges op-
erate against ship-
ping in small quan-
tities. The express
charges on a!2-dozen
case may be about as
much as on a 30-doz-
en case, and two
cases of 30 dozen may be shipped at the same cost prac-
tically as one case. If the express charges were to be fixed
at so much a dozen, irrespective of the size of crate or num-
ber of dozens shipped, it would encourage the extension of
direct shipment. As now, the rates make it an object for
the farmer who has good eggs to sell to take them to the
local shipper at the same price another farmer gets who has
poor eggs to sell, because the local shipper can ship the eggs
at less cost than the individual farmer on account of be-
ing able to make larger shipments.
Second, there will be times when the producer will have
A 12-DOZEN CRATE
This crate may be used for shipping eggs to
consumers by express or parcel post, direct from
the farm.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 339
a surplus of eggs that he has no regular customers for ; then
there will also be
culls. For these he
must find another
market. These
would usually have
to be marketed
through the indirect
way. Third, there
there would be the
cost of collection, or
the probable loss
from bad accounts.
A ROASTER By requiring a bank
Showing method of packing in a parcel post package, reference, <>r Other
satisfactory refer-
ence, there would be little probability of loss.
Selling to City Retail Stores. — Retail stores offer a
market that should not be overlooked. Shipping direct to
retailers comes near being direct selling. The producer
can ship in larger quantities than he can to private cus-
tomers and obtain a better express rate. Retail stores that
have a fancy trade
will pay a premium
for fancy eggs.
They have the mar-
keting machinery all
ready running.
They attend to de-
liveries and collec-
tions. The poultry-
man who can guar-
antee regular case
shipments of high A PARCEL POST PACKAGE
quality Stock Will Showing eggs wrapped.
340
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
often do as well by shipping to the retail stores as in any
other way.
Hotel and Restaurant Trade. — There is no reason why
the producers should not be able to furnish the hotel and
restaurant trade where they have the quantity and quality
of eggs. "Why it is not now done more largely is due
primarily to a lack of business management on the part of
producers more than anything else. If the producer has
the quality and quantity he should go to the best hotels and
restaurants and endeavor to find a market.
Parcel Post Shipments. — It has been fairly well demon-
strated that market eggs may be shipped successfully by
parcel post. By a recent ruling of the post office depart-
ment packages weighing as much as 50 pounds may be sent
by mail. The main objection to parcel post shipments has
been that the cost of the container
or parcel has been too great to
admit of a profit being made. Dif-
f e r e n t manufacturers, however,
have been at work on the problem,
and containers may now be ob-
tained at prices that are within
reach. It is not expected that a
profit can be made by the producer
unless he can get a little higher
price for the eggs than is paid for
second grade eggs in the city. The
producer in working up a parcel
post trade must cater to that class
of consumers who wish eggs of su-
perior quality and are willing to
THE CARRIER pay more for them than for eggs
The rural mail carrier takes of inferior quality. The consumer
the eggs from the farm to the . , -. ,, .
post-office. is able to secure in this way eggs
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 341
of first quality at the same price he pays for eggs of poorer
quality. There will, however, always be another class of
consumers who are unable or unwilling to pay the price
that will enable the producer to ship them by parcel post.
The post office department has made certain regulations
in regard to shipments that the shipper must observe. The
package must be made in such a way that the contents of
the egg, if broken, will not run out of the package and in-
jure other mail matter. To obviate this it is required that
each egg be wrapped separately, except when in packages
exceeding 20 pounds ; those are not required to be wrapped.
All parcels must be labeled EGGS. Parcels weighing more
than 20 pounds will be accepted, but the crates or boxes
must have tight bottoms. Such packages must be marked
"Eggs — this side up." They will be transported outside
mail bags. Producers wishing addresses of manufacturers
of shipping packages, may apply to their home state ex-
periment stations.
The larger the package or the more eggs shipped in one
package, the lower the cost per dozen for parcel post. For
instance, in the first and second zones the first pound costs
5 cents, while each additional pound up to fifty, costs but 1
cent. A twenty-pound parcel would cost 24 cents or 1.4
cents a pound. Five dozen eggs weighing, with container,
ten pounds, will cost for postage in a distance from 50 to
150 miles, 14 cents, or 2.8 cents a dozen. The return postage
would be 6 or 7 cents. The postage should be charged to
the customer, likewise the cost of the container. When the
container is returned the customer would be given credit
for it.
To make the business a success there must be mutual co-
operation between the producer and consumer. It must be
understood by the producer that the consumer will purchase
his eggs only so long as he can furnish a superior article.
342 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
On the other hand, it will be understood by the consumer
that he will secure from the producer better eggs than he
can secure through indirect channels at the same price.
It means a better profit to the producer and at the same
time a saving to the consumer.
The producer should be fully alive to the possibilities of
this method of selling and should take particular care to
grade his eggs as to size and color, separating the white and
the brown eggs and discarding all under-sized and over-
sized, ill-shapen and dirty or stained eggs. Above all, he
must be sure that he ships nothing that is not perfectly
fresh. He will not long retain his customers unless he
gives heed to those points. Again, it will pay well to use
neat and clean packages and also a wrapping-paper of
proper size and quality. By treating the customers fairly
and pleasing them he will be able to secure others because
a pleased customer will recommend others to him.
In regard to fixing the price, probably the most prac-
ticable method is to have an agreement with the consumer
that the price will be the highest wholesale quotations in
the daily papers plus so many cents premium. This should
be sufficient to pay the postage and package, and the cost
of the extra care given the eggs.
Comparison of Direct and Indirect Selling. — As be-
tween the two methods of selling — direct and indirect — the
former undoubtedly favors the maintenance of the higher
standard of quality. In shipping to consumers the producer
is directly responsible for his product. Any complaint will
come to him direct. He is able to retain his customers only
so long as he furnishes eggs of superior quality. He has
a direct interest in the quality of his product. By the in-
direct method the producer's identity is not known. "When
his eggs are marketed with those of a hundred other
farmers, there is no particular object in taking pains to
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 343
preserve the quality. Second, by the direct method the pro-
ducer of good eggs is able to get a price for them which he
is not able to secure when his eggs are marketed in common
with those of various other producers. Third, by shipping
direct to consumers he is able to add to his profits a part at
least of the profit that went to various middlemen. There
will always be needed, however, an outlet for surplus stock
which is only furnished at present through the medium of
the jobber and retailer.
Buying by Quality. — This brings up the question of buy-
ing by quality. The greatest objection to present methods
of marketing eggs is the heretofore almost universal prac-
tice of dealers paying for them by the dozen without refer-
ence to their quality. There is one price for eggs at the
local stores. A farmer who once a week gathers his eggs
from stolen nests under the barn and in the fence corners
and takes them to town, gets the i ( going price ' ' at the store.
Another farmer who gathers the eggs regularly from clean
nests once a day and twice a day in hot weather and takes
them to town every two or three days, gets the same ' ' going
price. ' ' He has no inducement to maintain the good quality
of his eggs. The system does not encourage it; rather it
encourages carelessness on the part of the producer. It
offers a premium on dishonesty. The wonder is, on the
one hand, that the producer is able to maintain his in-
tegrity, and on the other that the consumer is able to get
an egg of good quality.
Before the eggs reach the consumer the broody hen sits
on them a while, the sun incubates them a while, the rail-
road rides on them a while, the city storekeeper broods
over them a while, and the consumer raves over them quite
a while.
The storekeeper is not alone responsible for this method.
The dealers and commission men follow the same method
344 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
in buying from, the storekeeper. They buy them by the
case-count. It is called the case-count system. During the
past few years an active campaign has begun in several
states to do away with the case-count system and substitute
a system of buying on the basis of quality. This means
that the dealer in purchasing a case of eggs candles them,
computes the loss due to shrinkage, blood-rings, etc., and
pays accordingly. This is known as the "loss-off" method
of buying, which is really paying according to quality. If
this system comes fully into vogue it will result in saving
millions of dollars a year to the producers, for the loss
finally is charged up against the producer. It will also
fasten the attention of the producer on the importance of
breeding for size of egg, feeding for quality in the egg, and
on methods of handling the egg that will best preserve its
quality.
Grades of Eggs. — Under the old system, an "egg was
an egg," and at the present day, in the majority of primary
markets, one egg is as good as another. Now before eggs
reach the consumers in large cities they have to stand an
examination, and the expert finds that there are various
kinds of eggs, and a name or grade is given to each kind.
The different grades of eggs recognized by expert candlers
in the large markets are described in Bulletin 160, Bureau
of Animal Industry, as follows :
Fresh Egg. — An egg to be accepted as a first, or fresh
egg, must be newly laid, clean, of normal size, showing a
very small air cell, and must have a strong, smooth shell
of even color and free from cracks.
Checks. — This term applies to eggs which are cracked
but not leaking.
Leakers. — As indicated by the name, this term applies
to eggs which have lost a part of their contents.
Seconds. — The term "seconds" applies to eggs which
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 345
have deteriorated to a sufficient extent as to be rejected as
firsts. The several classes of eggs which go to make up this
grade may be defined as follows :
(a) Heated Egg. — One in which the embryo has pro-
ceeded to a point corresponding to about 18 to 24 hours of
normal incubation. In the infertile egg this condition can
be recognized by the increased color of the yolk ; when held
before the candle it will appear heavy and slightly darker
than in the fertile egg.
(b) Shrunken Egg. — This class of seconds can be easily
distinguished by the size of the air cell. It may occupy
from one-fifth to one-third of the space inside the shell.
(c) Small Egg. — Any egg that will detract from the
appearance of normal eggs on account of its small size will
come under this class, although it may be a new-laid egg.
(d) Dirty Egg. — Fresh eggs which have been soiled with
earth, droppings, or egg contents, or badly stained by com-
ing in contact with wet straw, hay, etc., are classed as
seconds.
(e) Watery Egg. — Those in which the inner membrane
of the air cell is ruptured, allowing the air to escape into
the contents of the egg, and thereby giving a watery or
frothy appearance.
(f) Presence of Foreign Matter in Eggs. — Often eggs
are laid which show small clots of blood about the size of
a pea. These are sometimes termed " liver " or "meat"
spots.
(g) Badly Misshaped Eggs. — Eggs which are extremely
long or very flat, or in which part of the shell's surface is
raised in the form of a ring ; in other instances a number of
hard, wart-like growths appear on the outside of the shell.
Spots. — Eggs in which bacteria or mold growth has de-
veloped locally and caused the formation of a lumpy ad-
hesion on the inside of the shell.
346 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Blood Rings. — Eggs in which the embryo has developed
to a sufficient extent so that it is quickly recognized when
held before the candle.
Rots. — Eggs which are absolutely unfit for food. The
different classes of rots may be defined as follows :
(a) Black Rot. — This is the easiest class of rots to recog-
nize and consequently the best known. When the egg is
held before the candle, the contents have a blackish appear-
ance, and in most cases the air cell is very prominent. The
formation of hydrogen-sulphid gas in the egg causes the
contents to blacken and gives rise to the characteristic
rotten-egg smell, and sometimes causes the egg to explode.
(b) White Rot. — These eggs have a characteristic sour
smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and white
mixed, and the whole egg offensive to both the sight and the
smell. It is also known as the ' * mixed rot. ' '
(c) Spot Rot. — In this case the foreign growth has not
contaminated the entire egg, but has remained near the
point of entrance. Such eggs are readily picked out with
the candle, and when broken show lumpy particles adhering
to the inside of the shell. These lumps are of various colors
and appearances.
White and Brown Eggs. — The color of the shell in cer-
tain markets affects the price of the egg. Most markets in
the United States prefer the white egg. New York markets
pay a premium for white eggs. Among the best grades,
brown eggs sell for about 20% less than white eggs. There
is no difference, however, in price of cheaper grades on ac-
count of color. In San Francisco the brown egg is also
discounted. In Boston the reverse is true, the brown egg
being preferred.
This does not mean that there is any difference in the
quality of the brown and the white egg. The difference
in price is, however, undoubtedly due in part to the mis-
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 347
taken notion that there is such a difference in quality. The
color of the shell has nothing to do with the quality of the
contents.
Classification of Eggs. — The classification of eggs is con-
trolled by city mercantile bodies interested in the buying
and selling of farm produce. The classification varies in
different cities. The average producer knows no classifica-
tion; in other words, on the farm "eggs is eggs"; but by
the time they reach the city markets there is a rigid
culling and they are separated into many grades or classes.
A study of these grades and classifications indicates that
the losses occur largely through wrong methods of handling
the eggs before they leave the farm, and the producer must
be the loser in the end.
The following, taken from the New York Times of
May 1, 1914, shows the many different classes into which
eggs are divided by dealers in that city and the range of
values placed upon them:
Fresh gathered extras, 23, 23% cents.
Storage packed firsts, 22, 22% cents.
Regular packed firsts, 21%, 22 cents.
Seconds, 20%, 21 cents.
Thirds and fourths, 19%, 20 cents.
Number 1 dirties 19% cents.
Number 2 dirties 16, 18 cents.
Checks good to prime, dry 18, 19 cents.
State, Penn. and nearby hennery, whites fine to fancy 24 cents.
Gathered whites, fine to finest, 23% cents.
State, Penn. and nearby whites, fair to good, 22, 23 cents.
Western gathered whites, 22, 22% cents.
State, Penn. and nearby hennery browns, 23, 23% cents.
Gathered brown and mix colors, 21, 22 cents.
Baltimore selected, 22, 23 cents.
Western, 20, 22 cents.
Tenn. and other good Southern, 19, 21 cents.
Far Southern, 17, 18 cents.
348 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
The following quotations from the Chicago Herald of
August 23, 1914, gives the grades recognized in that city
and the relative values placed upon different grades. The
range on that date was from 27 to 15 cents a dozen :
Extras 26, 27 cents
Firsts 22, 23 cents
Ordinary firsts 19%, 20% cents
CKecks 15, 16% cents
Dirties 16, 17% cents
Miscellaneous lots 16% to 22% cents
Conditions that Injure the Quality of Eggs. — While
the new-laid egg is "one of the most delicious morsels to
the human palate and one to fill the heart of man with
loving-kindness, ' ' it should be clearly understood that under
certain conditions it rapidly loses its peculiar excellence.
It is a perishable article. The rate of deterioration is in-
fluenced by many things, such as :
Insufficient Nests. — A new-laid egg may not be fresh;
that is, it may have lost its freshness by the time it is
gathered in the evening if there are insufficient nests for
the hens. If hens are continually on the nests throughout
the day the embryo may begin to develop in the fertile eggs.
At any rate, they will have lost some of their freshness.
When the nests are crowded all day it is a sign that there
are too few nests.
The Broody Hen. — At certain seasons of the year the
broody hens are responsible for a considerable loss in the
quality of the eggs. If permitted to remain with the flock
of layers the broody hens will injure a great many eggs by
sitting on them and starting incubation.
Stolen Nests.— Rotten and stale eggs often come from
the stolen nests. They are found by the children under the
corn-crib, in the straw or hay-stack or fence corner. When
these "finds" are mixed with the regular supply of fresh
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 349
eggs and the city consumer gets one on his breakfast table,
it will be "no more eggs for him," and the consumption
of eggs is curtailed. With proper nesting arrangements
the hens will not be so likely to steal their nests.
Dirty Nests. — Dirty nests affect the flavor and keeping
qualities of the egg. Germs of decomposition may enter
the egg ; dirt stains on the egg will spoil it for select trade.
The nests should frequently be examined and the nesting
material renewed. Clean, fine hay or straw in the nest
will help to keep up the quality and grade of the eggs.
Fertility of Eggs. — The starting of incubation or the
development of the embryo starts most of the trouble be-
tween producer and consumer. If there were no males in
the flock and the eggs were not fertile there would be fewer
complaints of bad eggs. It has been estimated that the loss
in quality of eggs due to the presence of males in the flock
amounts to millions of dollars a year in this country. Males
are necessary to fertilize the eggs for hatching, but not for
any other purpose. The infertile eggs have better keeping
qualities in warm weather than the fertile. There is no
difference in the egg yield whether the males run with the
flock or not. They should be removed from the yards after
the breeding season is past. If not desired for breeding in
another season the males should be marketed. Keeping
them till fall only means that a lower price will be received
for them. If, however, eggs are kept in a cool place, or at
a temperature low enough to prevent germ development, it
will make no difference in their keeping qualities whether
fertile or not.
Gathering the Eggs. — In cold weather if the eggs are
left in the nest over night they are liable to freeze, and in
warm weather if they are not regularly and frequently
gathered there is likely to be germ development. In cer-
tain sections of the country where the temperature f re-
350 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
quently reaches a point where incubation will begin, the
eggs must be frequently gathered. The rule for gathering
the eggs should be, once a day, except in warm weather
when it should be twice a day.
Storing or Keeping the Eggs. — Cooling the eggs checks
deterioration. After being gathered they should be kept
in a moderately cool place until shipped. The best tem-
perature is between 45 and 60 degrees. A cool, dry cellar
is the best place. Objectionable odors may pass through
the shell to the contents. The eggs should not, therefore,
be stored near decaying vegetables, coal oil, or other things
that may injure their flavor.
Shipping the Eggs. — The eggs should be shipped to
market as frequently as possible, at least once a week, and
in warm weather twice a week. The fresh egg soon be-
comes a stale egg.
Clean Eggs. — To grade as first quality the eggs must
be clean. The hen covers the egg contents with a clean
shell to preserve its purity; the poultryman should be as
careful to keep its exterior clean. Dirty nests and dirty
yards cause the dirty eggs. Dirty yards mean dirty feet
and dirty feet mean dirty eggs, and dirty eggs mean loss
of profits.
Washing the Eggs. — Washing the eggs may injure their
keeping qualities and spoil their natural appearance. It
is better, however, to wash the eggs than to market them
dirty. Rubbing with a clean, moist cloth may be all that
is necessary. A little washing powder or sapolio may be
used where necessary.
Taking the Eggs to Market. — Sometimes the quality of
the eggs is injured on the way from farm to town. If the
sun on a hot day in a long drive strikes on the eggs it will
injure them seriously. The sun is an incubator, and it is
not well to incubate eggs that are intended for the break-
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 351
fast table of some city customer who believes in pure food
and good living. Undue jarring of the eggs should also
be obviated.
Exposing for Sale. — A great many retailers treat eggs
as though their quality was improved by warmth. In cold
weather the eggs have a place near the stove very frequently,
and in summer they are put in the window where they can
get the benefit of the sunshine. This treatment should be
reversed. Displaying eggs in the window where the hot
sun strikes on them is not a good advertisement for the
eggs.
Grading Eggs. — In large markets eggs are graded ac-
cording to size, color, and quality. Consumers must have
some assurance of the quality of the eggs, otherwise they
will be afraid to eat them. The grading of eggs, therefore,
by assuring purchasers of their quality, tends to increase
consumption and the profits of the producer.
1. Size. — The poultryman should breed for size of egg
as well as number. The importance of this has not been
brought home to him very strongly, because his eggs have,
in most cases, been paid for by the dozen and not by weight
or size. In the future the size of eggs must be reckoned
with. "Whether they will be sold by the pound or the grade,
the larger eggs will command the higher prices. This is
now the rule in many of the leading markets. Poultry-
men should not be satisfied until their flocks produce eggs
that average two ounces per egg, or l1/^ pounds per dozen.
Hens laying smaller eggs should not be used as breeders.
Uniformity in size has also a market value. The very
large egg as well as the very small egg should not be used
for the special trade. The more uniform the size the better
the eggs look. Care and feeding of the fowls have an in-
fluence on size of egg, as explained in Chapter XI.
2. Color. — Uniformity in color has also a market value
352
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
as shown by market quotations in several of the large
centers. The preference of consumers for eggs of a certain
color is based on a fad, but so long as the fad does not
interfere with his business the poultryman will take
cognizance of it and endeavor to furnish eggs of the color
that will command the highest price, whether they be white
or brown. In many markets no importance is placed on
color, but if the poultryman has eggs of different colors it
will pay him to separate them, filling one end of the crate
with white and the other with browns if he has not enough
to make a case of each, or if cartons are used they may be
separated in this way.
3. Shape of Egg. — Abnormal eggs should be culled out.
These include double-yolked eggs, ill-shapen eggs and soft-
shelled eggs. "With proper at-
tention to breeding and man-
agement of the fowls the percent-
age of culls should be small.
4. The Egg Contents.— Eggs
that are either too highly colored
or too pale in the yolk are objec-
tionable. The color is controlled
by the feed. (See Chapter XI.)
5. Candling.— The quality of
the egg contents is determined by
candling. By candling it is meant
that tl^e egg is subjected to a light
that reveals, for all practical pur-
poses, its real market value.
There are various methods of
candling eggs. In early methods
a tallow candle was used, hence
the origin of the name candling.
A candle was put inside of a
COMMERCIAL EGG
CANDLING
(Courtesy, Bureau of Chemis-
try, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture.)
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY
353
small box in which a hole, a trifle smaller than
an egg had been cut, and by holding an egg at the
opening the condition of the egg could be seen. The
candling is done in a reasonably dark room. Instead of a
candle an ordinary oil lamp may be used, placing the lamp
in a box. A tin chimney, with a hole in the side, may be
A GOOD EGG TESTER
A kerosene lamp set inside of a shoe box or a
cereal box, with a hole opposite lamp flame, makes
a good tester.
put on the lamp in place of the glass chimney. Special
testers or chimneys of this kind may be purchased at poul-
try supply houses. An electric light bulb may be used in-
side of an ordinary shoe box, or other box. Expert candlers
usually use a tester having two holes so that he can take
two eggs up at one time, one in each hand. A length of
stovepipe, with two holes in the side and an electric light
354
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
bulb inside, is frequently used. An expert candler can
test 1,000 dozen eggs in a day.
Consumers Should Candle Their Eggs. — If the con-
sumer wishes to assure himself, before eating the eggs, that
they are all right, he
may very readily do so
by using a small shoe
box or breakfast cereal
box with the electric
light. It should not con-
sume more than a
minute to candle a dozen
or two dozen eggs in this
way. He may detect the
bad egg or determine
the quality of the egg
without first breaking it
on to his breakfast toast.
He can also check up on
the grocer or farmer as
to the age of the egg,
and assure himself that he has not purchased a stale egg un-
der the name of new-laid. If the eggs are not up to the
guarantee he can politely send them back to the grocer ; or
if the case is an aggravated or flagrant one, turn the eggs
over to the pure food officers for whatever action they may
take in the matter. Usually, however, if the consumer deals
with a reliable farmer he will very seldom have occasion
to complain of the eggs not being as represented. Nor will
there often be occasion for complaint against a reliable
grocer who candles and guarantees his eggs.
The Fresh Egg. — The test of a fresh egg is its trans-
parency and the smallness of its air space. There is no air
space in an egg just as it is deposited warm and moist in
Instead of a kerosene lamp, an electric light
bulb may be hung inside the box.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY
355
the nest. As the egg cools, the contents contract and the
air cell or air space appears. The shell being porous, the
air space grows larger by evaporation all the time the egg
is kept, the evaporation being fast or slow according as the
temperature is high or low. Commercially an egg is fresh
though it shows a small air space. If properly kept, an
egg may taste perfectly fresh and pass in the market as a
A FRESH EGG
Note small air space.
A STALE EGG
Note large air space, yolk settled to one
side, showing dark.
fresh egg when a week old, or more. In some state laws
it is enacted that when an egg has been kept or stored thirty
days it is no longer a fresh egg. Kept under improper con-
ditions, however, an egg would not test as a fresh egg, when
two or three days old. The egg itself furnishes the evidence
as to its freshness. The fresh egg is good legal tender at
the country store, but when so used it should be treated as
counterfeit currency by the time it reaches the consumer.
Marking Eggs. — The trade-mark of the egg producer is
frequently stamped on the egg. This is easily and quickly
done with a small rubber stamp one-half an inch in diameter
356 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
or less. The name of the producer or the name of his farm,
with address, may be stamped on the egg; also the words
"guaranteed fresh. " "Where eggs are shipped through an
association of producers the usual method is to give each
farmer a stamp on which is the name of the association,
with a number for each farmer. In this way if a consumer
finds fault with the eggs he purchases he will send his com-
plaint to the association, giving the number on the egg.
The association manager knows from this number where the
eggs came from, and the farmer is notified.
The stamp on the egg is the best advertisement the pro-
ducer can have. If he can always furnish eggs of good
quality it is worth his while to put his trade-mark on them.
Every pound of butter or coffee, every 5-cent can of con-
densed milk, or loaf of bread, in fact about everything that
the housekeeper buys from the grocer bears the stamp of
the manufacturer. This advertises his goods and at the
same time protects him against fraudulent imitation. If
the poultryman wishes to build up and hold a trade for
good quality eggs he should advertise by putting his stamp
on them.
"Where shipments are made direct by express or parcel
post to consumers this may not be necessary, but it might
happen that the customer would mix his eggs with some
others, and the blame, if any, if the eggs were bad, might
come back to him.
The eggs are frequently packed by the poultryman in
cartons holding a dozen, and his name and address are
printed on the carton. The carton is sealed, and the eggs
are guaranteed if the seal is not broken. In such case the
eggs are not stamped.
Summary. — The loss in quality of eggs is due to :
1. Improper feeding of the hens.
2. Dirty nests and yards.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 357
3. Cracked eggs.
4. Broody hens.
5. Stolen nests.
6. Irregularity in gathering.
7. Storing in a warm place.
8. Keeping too long before marketing.
9. Fertility, or keeping males with the flock.
10. Exposing near stoves or in the hot sunshine.
There is a financial loss due to :
1. A loss in quality.
2. A system of buying by the dozen or case-count with-
out reference to quality.
3. Indirect methods of buying which add to the cost.
4. Express rates which discriminate against shipments
in small quantities.
5. Lack of co-operative effort between producers on the
one hand, and between producers and dealers and con-
sumers on the other.
Conclusion. — Improvement in quality will come when
the producer who has eggs of good quality to sell insists
upon the purchaser paying him according to quality, and,
on the other hand, when the purchaser establishes the in-
flexible rule of grading eggs and paying according to grade.
Improvement in financial returns will come with im-
provement in quality; improvement in transportation; ex-
tension of the refrigerator service; more direct marketing
and with co-operation between producers and between pro-
ducers and consumers.
REFRIGERATION OR COLD STORAGE OF EGGS
The invention of the method and the growth of the busi-
ness of preserving eggs by refrigeration has been one of
the notable industrial developments of the United States
in recent years. Whatever may be the merits of the cold
358 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
storage product, the business must be recognized as one
of great importance not only as it affects the cost of living
or the food supply but as it affects the business and the
profits of the poultry producer. Investigations have shown
that there was put into cold storage during the year end-
ing April 1, 1911, the enormous total of about 10,000,000
cases of eggs of an estimated value of over $64,000,000.
Of this, practically 80% is handled in the three months of
April, May and June, the percentage of the total being
42% for April, 25% for May and 12.5% for June. The
cold storage of butter in the same period amounted to
$40,000,000. It was reported that there were 500 cold
storage plants in different sections of the United States
storing eggs in that year.
It cannot be definitely stated just how much the poultry
producer is the gainer or loser by the invention and de-
velopment of the modern system of cold storage. There
are those who claim that the business is an injury to the
poultry industry, but the public has come to accept it as
necessary for the proper distribution of food stuffs. In the
early days of cold storage of eggs, and even in later days to
a small extent, there was abundant excuse, for the violent
antagonism that the business frequently encountered. It
is true that cold storage eggs have been frequently sold as
fresh, and even to this day in certain states unscrupulous
dealers practice this fraud upon both the poultryman and
the consumer in the absence of a law that would send them to
jail for the act. But there is little excuse now for antagonism
to the business of cold storage, though unscrupulous dealers
and vendors of eggs may occasionally take advantage of it
to enrich themselves at the expense of the public. The
business of refrigeration has been more perfected and the
quality of the product improved. Again laws have been
enacted making it a criminal offense to sell storage eggs as
fresh eggs.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 359
The substance of the state laws that are now in force are
that keeping eggs or other products in cold storage for
thirty days makes them storage products. Any such product
offered for sale must be stamped as such either on the
package or product itself. The time limit of storage is, in
New York, ten months ; in some states nine months.
Effect on Prices. — With storage eggs thus stamped and
sold, the poultryman can have no valid reason for object-
ing to the product. It is doubtful if the high price of
selected fresh eggs will be appreciably affected by the sale
of storage eggs. The people who buy storage or second
grade eggs are not the ones who make the price for select
eggs. It is pointed out that twenty years ago eggs sold
during the surplus season in some states at 6 and 8 cents
a dozen. Now they barely touch 15 cents at the lowest.
There is no evidence, however, that this advance is wholly
or in part due to cold storage, nor can it be proven that the
much higher prices now received during the period of
scarcity is due to cold storage. The fact is, however, that
during the growth of refrigeration the price of eggs has
been climbing upward.
There may be reason for the claim that the higher pre-
vailing prices during the surplus season are due to the
taking from the market of a large proportion of the eggs
and putting them into cold storage. It is reported in the
evidence of a Senate Investigating Committee that the daily
consumption of eggs in New York City during the spring
of 1910 was 12,000 cases. The receipts were about three
times as much. "What would happen to the market with
receipts three times the consumption without a storage out-
let? Clearly, the only thing that would save the eggs from
being dumped into the harbor or thrown back on the farms
as fertilizer would be such a reduction in prices that the
people would consume the eggs. The storage business,
360 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
therefore, tends to raise prices during the season of heavy
production, but the tendency is in the opposite direction
in the season when there is a deficiency in the supply.
The Refrigerator Egg. — The keeping of eggs at a steady
low temperature is the most successful known method of
preserving eggs. The best temperature for cold storage is
29 to 30 degrees. The principle of cold storage is that
bacterial action, which causes decomposition or deteriora-
tion of the egg, does not take place at this temperature. The
colder the eggs are kept without freezing the better. Fresh
eggs of good quality may be kept at a temperature of 28
degrees, while those that are not perfectly fresh require a
temperature of 30 to 32 degrees for best results. A steady
temperature with a free circulation of air is absolutely
necessary in the storage room. The eggs are stored in
clean, odorless crates holding 30 dozen.
It is not possible to detect by candling any difference be-
tween a storage egg and a fresh one. There is a slight
evaporation of the contents of the stored egg, but a fresh
egg that has been laid for several days may show the same
amount of air space. In a case lot of eggs as it is taken
from storage, evidence of storage may be found in a slight
mold which will show in cracked eggs.
The success of storage depends very largely upon the
quality of the egg when it goes into storage. Storage does
not absolutely prevent deterioration of the egg, it checks it.
Under the best of conditions it is not as good as a fresh egg,
but under proper conditions storage eggs are better than a
great many fresh eggs that go to market during the warm
months. An egg may technically be fresh and yet not be
a good egg. Storage men have learned by dear experience
that the early spring egg, the April egg in most sections,
is the best for storage purposes.
Eggs laid in March, April and May and stored then are
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY
361
in better condition than eggs laid in July or August when
taken out of storage in November or December. During
the warm months deterioration has set in before the eggs
reach the refrigerator, and such eggs lose more in quality
in the short time they are in storage than early spring eggs.
This may not be due to a difference in quality of eggs when
laid, but to the higher temperature to which they are sub-
CANS OF FROZEN EGGS
These cans hold 30 pounds each of separated whites and yolks, or whole eggs.
Delivered to baker o>r confectioner in frozen condition. (Courtesy, Bureau of
Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.)
jected before they reach the refrigerator. It is a question
of handling the egg rather than a difference in the quality.
Limitations of Cold Storage. — The business is prac-
tically confined to large corporations with ample capital,
located in large cities. Mechanical or artificial refrigera-
tion is used, though ice plants are also used in a limited
way. On account of the rapid deterioration that takes
place after the eggs are removed from storage, it is an ad-
362 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
vantage to have the storage houses located near a large dis-
tributing center so there may be no unnecessary delay in
getting the eggs to the consumers. It is doubtful if the
business could be as successfully handled with smaller
plants located near the points of production rather than
centers of distribution, but in certain producing sections
where there is a considerable local market small co-
operative plants might be established with profit.
The Future. — "Will the business of storage increase?
With continued improvement in refrigeration and in ex-
tension of the service so that the egg will be better taken
care of after it leaves the refrigerator and till it gets to
the consumer, there will be a strong tendency to an in-
crease in the business. Another factor, however, will be
operating in the other direction. The producer by breed-
ing better layers, fowls that will lay a larger percentage
of eggs in the fall and winter, will be doing his best to put
the cold storage plant out of business. But that is not im-
minent, desirable as it might be from the standpoint of the
consumer as well as the producer. Greater progress must
be made than has ever been made in poultry breeding if
any one now living is to see the day when winter egg pro-
duction is to equal that of the spring and summer. The
best we can hope is that the poultryman will produce better
winter layers, and that the winter layers will, in part, re-
lieve cold storage of the burden of maintaining a proper
distribution of eggs throughout the year.
Liquid Preservation of Eggs. — For home purposes eggs
may be successfully preserved in a liquid preservative.
Liquid preservation was formerly used commercially to a
considerable extent, but the business has been largely
superseded by the cold storage method. Where cold storage
is out of the question a great many eggs are "put down"
in some liquid preservative.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 363
The Water-Glass Method. — A solution of water glass
(sodium silicate) is the most generally used preservative
for home purposes. Water-glass liquid or syrup may be
obtained at most drug stores. The price is about 75 cents
per gallon. It varies somewhat in quality. Thatcher, of
the Washington Station, states that it should contain ap-
proximately one part sodium oxide to every 2% parts
silicon oxide, and be of a consistency of about 38 degrees
Baume.
It has been found that the best strength to use is about
one part water-glass to 10 parts water. The water should
be boiled and to every 10 quarts water add one quart water-
glass, or in that proportion. The water must be allowed to
cool before putting the eggs in. The receptacles used should
be wooden buckets or kegs, or earthenware jars or crocks.
Galvanized iron buckets or tubs may be used. Fruit jars
may also be used. Metal vessels that will corrode in water
should not be used. The liquid must cover the eggs, and
then a little more, to allow for evaporation so that the
eggs will always be covered.
Approximately three dozen eggs will fill a gallon jar, or
ten times that number in ten gallons. It will require about
four pints of the liquid to the gallon of eggs. The eggs
should be kept in as cool a place as possible. The coolest
part of the cellar should be used. The fresher the eggs are
when preserved the better, but they may be kept a few
days in a cool place before preserving. No cracked or
thin-shelled eggs should be used.
Eggs preserved by this method will keep from the season
of lowest prices to season of highest prices and be in condi-
tion to be used. They will not have the taste of the fresh
egg, however. The white is thinner than in the fresh egg,
but they will be perfectly wholesome. The water-glass
closes up the pores of the shell, and in boiling the shell will
364 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
crack. A puncture with a needle in the large end will pre-
vent this.
The poultryman should understand, however, that no
matter by what method they may be put down, preserved
eggs are not as good as fresh eggs, and they should not be
sold as such. Laws affecting the sale of cold storage eggs
as fresh should apply equally to preserved eggs.
Selling Eggs for Hatching. — Improvement in breeds of
poultry rests largely upon the work of breeders who sell
eggs for hatching. The facility with which eggs may be
shipped great distances and the comparatively small cost
of shipping make it possible to secure good stock from suc-
cessful breeders in any part of the country. The introduc-
tion of new and better blood is accomplished more often by
the purchase of a setting of eggs than in any other way.
At slight expense for express or parcel post it is possible
to secure the best blood from the next county or from
across the continent. This is one of the factors that make
for the rapid upbuilding of the poultry industry. It is, of
course, true that distance too often lends enchantment and
that the farmer or poultryman could often secure as good
blood from his next-door neighbor than from a distant
state.
The facilities afforded by Uncle Sam and the express
companies for securing new blood has been taken advantage
of naturally by unscrupulous men who conduct a profitable
long-distance business with the help of printers' ink and
advertising. The very facilities for building up an in-
dustry are made the means for tearing it down. However,
the good over-balances the evil, and it is the few who suffer.
There is no remedy for the evil except that the purchaser
learn to use ordinary business judgment in making his pur-
chases and inquire into the reliability of the breeder before
he sends him money, sending money to no one that he knows
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 365
nothing about except what is stated in his advertisement.
Advertising, however, is a great factor in the distribu-
tion of improved strains or breeds of poultry. The busi-
ness of the breeder is built up largely through advertising,
and in proportion as he exercises judgment and skill in his
advertising in proportion will he reap the financial reward
of his success as a breeder.
Selecting Hatching Eggs. — The importance of exercis-
ing extreme care in the selection and handling of eggs for
market has been emphasized. Greater importance, if
possible, should be attached to the selection of eggs for
hatching. The breeder who is doing an honest business
will carefully cull the eggs before shipping. Only those
of normal size and shape should be used. If the poultry
"breeders would make it a universal rule to set or sell no
eggs for hatching that did not weigh two ounces each it
would soon result in a vast improvement in the eggs of the
country. That is one thing the breeder can easily control,
selection for size of egg. Eggs should be clean, and prefer-
ably not washed. Washing injures their hatching quality,
especially when shipped great distances. They should not
be more than a week old before shipping, and kept in a
clean, dry, cool place in the meantime. Further discussion
of selecting eggs for hatching will be found under chapter
on Incubation.
Packing Eggs for Hatching. — The result in hatching
eggs shipped long distances will depend very materially on
the method used in packing them. The packing must pre-
vent breaking and jarring the eggs as much as possible.
The package should not be air-tight, otherwise the eggs will
sweat if subjected to wide ranges of temperature. Dry,
clean excelsior, or wood wool, chaff or fine hay make good
packing material. The eggs should not be wrapped in
paper. Probably the most satisfactory shipping package
366 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
is the split basket with handle. The basket with the lid
is the most convenient. A muslin cover is sewed on to the
basket that has no lid. The handles make the package con-
venient for lifting and at the same time prevent placing
other boxes on top. There are other satisfactory shipping
boxes. They should have some spring or resiliency to pre-
vent undue jarring of the eggs. Each egg should be
wrapped in excelsior or some other good packing material.
MARKETING POULTRY
At the present time the largest proportion of farm poul-
try is sold alive. The killing is done by the dealers in the
city. It is done by them more cheaply and better, as a rule,
than it can be done on the farm. The farmer and his help
have not usually the skill to do the work properly. Another
advantage of shipping the fowls alive is that the dealers
in the cities, being in close touch with the demands of the
market, can even up the supply to meet the demand. In
the case of a surplus coming in one day, they can hold part
of it over for several days and kill only sufficient to meet
the immediate needs. If the poultry all came to market
dressed there would frequently be a glut ; that would mean
often putting considerable quantities into cold storage or
losing it. On the other hand, there would frequently be a
dearth of fresh-killed stock. This would compel handlers
of poultry to provide large storage facilities, and the con-
sumers would be using storage stock a large part of the
*time instead of fresh stock.
The evil of this system of live shipments is that in most
cases chickens are paid for on the basis of weight without
regard to quality, though one farmer may furnish chickens
with 25% more edible meat for the money received than
another farmer. While the great bulk of the poultry is
shipped alive, special markets may be worked up by farmers
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 367
or poultrymen for dressed chicken of special quality by
shipping direct to consumers. That is the best way and
about the only way to get full value for fowls of good
quality.
Large quantities of live poultry are shipped both east
and west from the Mississippi Valley states and to a limited
extent from other sections. Many carloads of such poultry
POULTRY HOUSE EXHIBIT
Part of an Oregon poultry demonstration train.
are shipped from the central west to Pacific Coast points
and as far east as New York. Special live poultry trans-
portation cars holding from 4,000 to 5,000 fowls are used.
A man accompanies the car, doing the feeding and water-
ing from an aisle in the center of the car. A rental is
charged for the cars in addition to the freight. Another
important development of market methods is the purchas-
ing by the meat packers of large quantities of farm poultry
368 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
for fattening. A large proportion of this poultry, after
being fattened, is killed and put into cold storage to hold
for a rise in price.
Killing and Picking Fowls. — Success in marketing
dressed chickens to a select trade depends very largely on
methods followed in killing and dressing. It should be
remembered, always, that cleanliness and neatness have a
market value when applied to dressing fowls and packing
UNLOADING A NEBRASKA CARLOAD OF POULTRY AT SAN
FRANCISCO
them for market. In other words, the basis of a select trade
must be superiority of goods.
Killing. — Before being killed the fowls should be starved
24 hours in order to empty the crop. This will make the
fowl more attractive. By starving, the intestines will be
largely emptied of their contents. This improves the keep-
ing qualities. It is important in killing that the fowl be
thoroughly bled. A well bled carcass looks better and
keeps better. The dressed fowl will not be select where the
bleeding has not been done thoroughly.
Sticking. — The best method of bleeding is that of stick-
ing the fowl in the mouth. It takes some practice to be-
come expert. The success in bleeding depends on the kind
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 369
of stick. Usually the bird is hung up on a level with the
shoulders of the operator. The head of the chicken is laid
in the left hand so as to have the comb down. The pressure
should be on the boney part of the head, not on the neck,
as pressure there will prevent proper bleeding. The bills
are held apart by inserting the first finger in the corner of
the mouth. The knife should be sharp pointed, about 2
inches long and a fourth of an inch wide. The blood vessel
is first cut on the right side of the roof of the mouth at the
neck where the bone of the skull ends.
The brain stick is necessary where the fowls are to be dry
picked. This is to "loosen up" the feathers. After cutting
the artery the knife is quickly inserted in the brain through
the groove in the roof of the mouth. This paralyzes the
muscles and makes dry picking easy, but it must be done
before the muscles contract. The picking commences im-
mediately after the brain stick is made and even before the
fowl dies.
Picking. — The breast feathers are first picked, then the
long tail feathers and wing feathers. The picking must be
done quickly when the feathers come off easily. Care, of
course, must be taken not to tear the skin. After the rough
picking comes the pin feathering. This is done sitting,
with the chicken on the knees. It is necessary to use a
knife to catch all the small pin feathers.
This method of killing and picking requires considerable
practice to be able to do it at a profit. In commercial estab-
lishments expert pickers kill and dress in this way as many
as 100 fowls per day.
Cooling. — When picked they should be immediately put
into cold water for about an hour. This removes the
animal heat and improves their keeping quality. It also
gives them a plumper appearance. They should never be
packed until the animal heat has been removed.
370
POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
Shaping. — After picking and cooling the bird is fre-
quently shaped on a shaping board to give it a more com-
pact appearance. It is placed breast down on a board and
a weight put on its back. This may be called a harmless
" trick of the trade." Fowls that are naturally well fleshed
and plump will not be improved by this treatment.
I
i
DRY PICKING, DRY COOLING AND DRY-PACKED POULTRY
Scalding. — For home use and immediate consumption
scalding is the almost universal method. It is also used by
dealers in many large centers. It is the easiest and quick-
est method of removing the feathers. The objections to
scalding are that it tends to disfigure the skin and change
its natural color. Water for scalding should be kept just
below boiling. The feathers rub off easily when properly
scalded. The legs and feet should not be allowed to touch
the water.
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 371
Drawn and Undrawn Poultry. — It is a much debated
point as to whether fowls should be drawn when killed.
In some markets the law requires poultry to be drawn be-
fore exposing for sale. In most markets, however, the prac-
tice is general to leave the drawing or dressing to the retail
dealer at the option of the purchaser. The evidence seems
to favor the view that undrawn poultry keeps better than
drawn. The theory is that in the drawn chicken the inside
of the intestinal walls are exposed to the invasion of bac-
teria which will hasten the process of decay. On the other
hand, it is claimed that the putrefactive bacteria of the in-
testines will infect the flesh of the fowl and cause more
rapid decomposition. Further investigations seem needed.
Meantime there is no ground for wholesale condemnation
of undrawn poultry. "With proper bleeding and chilling
no danger may be feared from either drawn or undrawn
fowls. One important point in favor of the undrawn is
that the housekeeper could see evidence of unfitness for
eating if she drew the fowl or removed the viscera herself.
Most of the important diseases of fowls are often indicated
by the appearance of the liver and intestines. In the case
of tuberculosis the evidence, in a great majority of cases, is
found in the condition of those organs.
Parcel Post Shipments. — While the practicability of
parcel post for dressed poultry has not been demonstrated
in an extensive way, it affords a medium not heretofore
available for direct shipments to consumers. For a special
trade in fancy stock it offers an opportunity to the poultry-
man who can produce the proper grade of stock to do a
profitable business. Dressed chickens can be taken direct
from the farm to the door of the consumer in the city within
150 miles at a cost of from 1 to 2 cents a pound, depending
on the weight of chicken in package. The great waste of
marketing should be saved to both the consumer and to the
372 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
producer by direct shipments. This should also encourage
a much greater consumption of poultry.
Loss in Killing and Dressing. — This loss is usually con-
sidered the weight of feathers plucked and the blood drawn
from the fowl. The head and feet are left on and the
carcass undrawn. The following table shows results secured
at the Oregon Station from 88 fowls :
Liveweight 348 pounds
Dressed weight 306.8 "
Loss 41.2 "
Per cent, loss 11.8
The dressing percentage varies with the condition, age
and breed of fowl. A fair average would be 88%.
Edible Meat on the Fowl. — The percentage of edible
meat varies with the breed, the condition of the fowl and
its age. Work at the Oregon Station indicated that a fowl
in fair condition has about 60% edible meat. The waste
was found to be about as follows for a fowl weighing seven
pounds :
Feathers and blood 8 ounces
. Offal 27 "
Head, bones, shanks 8.2 "
Total loss 2 Ibs. 11.2 "
Edible meat . .... 4 Ibs. 4.8 "
Capons and Caponizing. — Capons are castrated males,
or males with the sexual organs removed. The operation
of removing the testicles is called caponizing. These organs
are within the body cavity of the fowl attached to the back
and lie close to the lungs and heart. The operation is a
delicate one, and special instruments are made for the pur-
pose. By following directions closely the amateur may
soon become expert. Full instructions for operating are
MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY
373
furnished with the instru-
ments, and these need not
be repeated here. The
operation consists in mak-
ing an incision near the
thigh and between the two
last ribs and removing the
testicles with the proper
instrument.
The object in caponizing
is to produce a better qual-
ity of flesh and to make
the surplus cockerels more
marketable. A capon will
sell for practically twice
as much per pound, and
often more, than a mature
HENRY DANA SMITH (MASS.)
Who caponizes 4,000 cockerels a year and
sells them as "soft roosters." Mr. Smith is
very expert and averages about 50 an hour.
(Photo by A. G. Lunn.)
DRESSED CAPON
rooster. Under pres-
ent conditions, how-
ever, it will pay to sell
the males as broilers
when the broiler mar-
ket is good. This ap-
plies where the chicks
are hatched early. The
capon market, except
in isolated cases, is not
yet highly developed.
It will develop as con-
sumers become edu-
cated to the superior
meat quality of the
capon. As indicating
the possibilities, it may
374 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
be stated that capons, canned in France, are for sale in the
large cities of this country and at high prices. If cockerels
are to be kept till the fall it will pay the farmer to caponize
them and keep them till January or February, when the
market is good for roasting chickens. Capons are quiet
and docile, do not crow or fight, and sometimes make ex-
cellent mothers for chicks.
CHAPTER XVII
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS
A knowledge of poultry diseases is of value to the poultry-
keeper more in enabling him to locate unfavorable hygienic
conditions than in the curing of diseases. In the discussion
of poultry management in general the author has en-
deavored to keep prominently to the fore the great im-
portance of proper sanitary conditions as a means cl main-
taining health or of avoiding diseases as much as possible.
In other words, the poultryman must rely rather on pre-
ventive measures than on curative treatment to maintain
his flock on a healthy, profitable basis. It is an unprofitable
business to be continually fighting diseases and treating sick
fowls when a knowledge of simple hygienic rules will
enable the poultry-keeper to prevent diseases and obviate
treatment. As a rule, it does not pay to treat sick fowls.
An individual fowl, on the average, is worth too little to
pay to treat; besides fowls suffering from contagious dis-
eases are a menace to the rest of the flock and the sooner
they are gotten rid of the better.
There are, however, certain diseases or ailments that are
amenable to simple treatment, and if the poultryman
possesses the requisite knowledge of the ailment and its
treatment, he may often save himself considerable loss.
Hygienic Conditions. — The importance of the subject
warrants recapitulation here of what has already been em-
phasized in different chapters of proper sanitary or hygienic
conditions.
Fresh Air. — Fresh air is not only an egg producer but a
health preserver as well. Many of our pouftry diseases are
375:
376 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
the result of keeping the fowls in ill-ventilated houses. A
lack of vigor is often the result of impure air. Diseases of
the respiratory organs, such as catarrh, roup and colds,
thrive only in ill-ventilated houses. It is useless to treat
for such diseases fowls that are kept in houses that breed
disease by bad ventilation.
Fresh Ground. — Next to fresh air, fresh ground is the
best preventive of disease. Many diseases having to do
with digestive organs thrive where no attention is paid to
keeping the ground on which the chickens run fresh and
clean. Tuberculosis, cholera and other diseases are usually
contracted by the fowls picking up from the ground feed
that has come in contact with the germs of the disease.
Various parasites, such as gapes and tape worm, are taken
up by the fowl in this way. An unclean feeding-ground is
a fruitful source of disease.
Fresh air and fresh ground are the cheapest things at
the command of the poultry-keeper and when he learns to
make full use of them there will be comparatively little
danger from poultry diseases.
No flock of chickens, however, is entirely immune from
diseases. In spite of the best sanitary conditions, diseases
will sometimes get into the flock and remedial measures
will be necessary.
Cleanliness. — The nest boxes should not be a breeding
place for germ diseases and insect pests. They should be
frequently cleaned and disinfected. The droppings should
not be allowed to accumulate, and on no account should the
night droppings be allowed to fall and mix with the litter
on the floor if the floor is used for a feeding- or scratching-
ground. The litter should be kept reasonably clean and
dry.
Disinfection. — The culture treatment of yards is dis-
cussed in another chapter. If cultivation and cropping
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 377
can be regularly and thoroughly done there will be little
need of other treatment of the soil to destroy infection. It
may sometimes be necessary to disinfect the feeding-
grounds. The most common method, probably, is the use
of quick lime. Fresh lime should be air-slaked and broken
into a floury powder and sprinkled over the ground until
white. To prevent burning the chickens ' feet the earth
may be raked over it a little. For the houses various disin-
fectants are used. For bacterial diseases such as roup,
tuberculosis, and cholera, formaldehyde may be used at the
rate of 1 pint to 20 gallons of water. This should be ap-
plied with a spray pump. The walls, ceiling, floor, roosts
and nests should be thoroughly drenched with the spray.
Boiling water may be used for articles such as drinking
vessels, small feeding-troughs, etc., dipping them in the
water. Commercial germicides such as Zenoleum and
Kreso dip may also be used as disinfectants. In small
houses that may be closed up tight, probably the most
effective disinfection is to fumigate with formaldehyde gas.
Use at the rate of 16 ounces of 40% formaldehyde to 6
ounces of permanganate of potash, per 1,000 cubic feet
air space. Put the permanganate in a jar and pour the
formaldehyde into it and then quickly leave the house and
close the door. Leave the house closed for two or three
hours. This is a convenient and effective method of disin-
fecting incubators as well as houses.
Disinfecting Drinking Water. — Germ diseases such as
roup, canker and chicken-pox are frequently spread among
the flock through the water in drinking vessels. Where
there are any indications of such diseases it is well to use
permanganate of potash in the drinking water, using about
a fourth teaspoonful to a gallon of water. Permanganate
ordinarily is cheap, and should be liberally used.
It is known that disease germs are more virulent after
378 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
they have passed from one animal to another. The germs
may be passed in the excrement or droppings of the diseased
fowl even before the symptoms of the disease are manifest.
They may be passed in countless numbers, and if the drop-
pings come in contact with the food another fowl takes
them up and the germs, in all likelihood in a more virulent
form, enter the body of another and cause disease.
Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis is a germ disease and is
probably the most destructive of all diseases of mature
fowls. The disease progresses slowly and may be well ad-
vanced before the symptoms are noticed. Avian tuberculosis
was first reported in this country by Professor Pernot of
the Oregon Agricultural College in 1900 (Bulletin 64), and
to him the author is indebted largely for the facts herein
presented in regard to this disease. The most pronounced
symptoms of tuberculosis are lameness and loss of flesh.
Tubercular fowls, however, often have the disease without
lameness, but lameness is often associated with the disease.
On the other hand, lameness does not always indicate
tuberculosis, as it may be due to other causes. In advanced
stages there is great loss of flesh or wasting. There is no
loss of appetite.
Seat of Disease. — As the organisms enter the body with
food, the disease is more commonly found in the digestive
tract and the liver than in any other part of the anatomy.
Many cases of the disease in its advanced forms fail to
show any lesions of the lungs. There are two common forms
that are easily detected; one is a fibroid growth on the
intestines varying in size from a pinhead to a lump as large
as a walnut. In cutting through these tubercles, they will
be found to contain a substance varying from a serous
fluid to a rather dry, cheesy mass according to their size
and age. It frequently happens that when a tubercle on
the intestine becomes the size of a large pea, the mucous
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 379
membrane and wall of the intestine on the inner side of the
tubercle breaks down and discharges the contents of the
tubercle into the foecal matter that is passing through the
intestine, thus carrying out with the excreta a great num-
ber of living tubercle bacilli.
' ' The liver is the other organ commonly affected. When
the tubercle bacillus finds its way into the liver and begins
to grow, a yellowish spot is soon formed, increasing in size
as the disease progresses. The structure of the tissue at
this point is changed to a hard granular mass containing
within it the bacilli and the same substance as found in the
intestinal tubercle. The growth of the tubercles necessarily
increases the size of the liver until it sometimes becomes
twice its normal size, and the tubercles are frequently so
numerous as to give the liver the appearance of peanut
taffy.
" There are other spots of similar appearance sometimes
found on the liver that must not be mistaken for tubercles.
A crude way of distinguishing tubercular lesions is by the
fibroid tissue of a tubercle being tougher and harder than
the structure of the other spots mentioned, and by the
center being filled with a substance as before described.
Sometimes the disease is scattered all through the internal
organs, and tubercles may be found even on the heart." — •
Fernet.
The only certain method of diagnosing the disease is a
bacteriological examination. The germ is a small organism
measuring on an average 3/25000 of an inch in length and
can only be seen through a microscope. Poultrymen should
avail themselves of the services of the bacteriologist of the
experiment station if they are suspicious of this disease in
their flocks. Many of the stations have facilities for doing
this work without charge.
It is not definitely known that bovine or human tuber-
380 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
culosis is transmitted to fowls. Pernot, though recognizing
different types of tubercle bacilli, recognizes the possibility
of transmission and urges caution. Other investigators
have failed to produce the disease in the fowl with the
bovine or human bacillus.
Tuberculosis is not transmitted through the egg to the
chick. Some investigators point to the possibility of trans-
mission, but the possibilities are so remote as to be without
significance to the poultryman.
There is no known cure for the disease. Proper sanita-
tion and prompt destruction of affected fowls must be
relied upon to prevent the ravages of the disease. There
is no reason for alarm if the poultryman makes full use of
fresh air, fresh ground and sunshine in the management
of his flock. If particular care be taken in this respect the
disease will not get much headway. The .frequent renewal
of the stock, killing off the old and replacing them with
young, is a favorable factor in the control of the disease.
The poultryman would do well before purchasing fowls
to inspect the flock from which they come and secure them
only from flocks that show no indications of disease.
A Tuberculin Test. — Until the year 1914 there was no
known method of testing live tuberculous fowls. Bovine
tuberculin has been proved valueless for this purpose. In
that year Dr. Van Es of the North Dakota Station discov-
ered that avian tuberculin, when properly used, is an almost
certain test of the disease. The tuberculin is injected into
the comb or wattles. The injection must be made near the
surface, but not so near that the fluid may burst through
the epithelium. In the experiments noted the results were
ascertained in from 24 to 72 hours. The reactions consist
of a swelling and discoloration of the part injected, the size
of the swelling varying considerably in different cases. The
swellings or reactions, in Van Es's experiments, indicated
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS
381
a tuberculous condition in 88 cases out of 90. On the other
hand, 8 to 9% of the fowls showing no reactions were found
to be tuberculous.
Should this test prove to be as successful in the hands of
others as it has been in the experiments reported, it is a
discovery that marks a most important advance.
Roup. — Many poultrymen believe that roup and the
kindred affection, catarrh, are the most troublesome diseases
of poultry. Roup proper is believed to be a contagious germ
disease. Catarrh, exhibit- ,
ing practically the same
symptoms, is not conta-
gious, being produced usu-
ally by improper housing.
The specific organism pro-
ducing roup has not been
discovered.
Symptoms. — It usually
begins with a watery dis-
charge from the nostrils
and eyes, which as the dis-
ease progresses, becomes
thicker and of the nature
of pus. The nostrils become clogged, interfering with
breathing, and there is usually a swelling around the eyes.
The swelling often grows until the eye is closed entirely.
The disease frequently spreads to the mouth and throat and
assumes the character of diphtheria, when death soon
results.
Treatment. — The only hope of curing is in recognizing
the disease in its first stages and applying remedies.
Permanganate of potash of a 2% solution has been suc-
cessfully used. The head of the bird should be dipped
in the solution and held there as long as possible without
A BAD CASE OF ROUP IN ITS
ADVANCED STAGE
(Courtesy, Prof. T. D. Beckwith, Bac-
teriological Department, Oregon Experi-
ment Station.)
382 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
strangling the bird. The success of the treatment depends
upon getting the solution into the nostrils. This treatment
should be continued two or three times daily until a cure
is affected. Kerosene is also an effective remedy. The face
should be washed with a feather dipped in the oil and a
little oil injected up the nostrils. If the mouth or throat are
affected they should also be swabbed out with a feather
dipped in the oil. Peroxide of hydrogen is also used suc-
cessfully for injecting into the nostrils and swabbing out
the throat. If the swelling on the face has reached a stage
that pus has formed, an incision should be made, the pus
removed, and the sore washed out with the permanganate
solution or with the peroxide of hydrogen. When the dis-
ease has reached that stage, however, treatment will not
often be successful and it will not pay unless the fowl
has some special value. The sick fowls should be isolated
and the premises disinfected. Care should be exercised in
introducing new fowls, and it is a safe practice to put them
in quarantine several days before putting them with the
rest of the flock.
Catarrh. — Possibly in the large majority of cases, what
is thought to be roup is simply catarrh or colds. The
symptoms are practically the same. The treatment of
affected fowls recommended for roup may be followed for
catarrh. When colds or catarrh appear it is a sure indica-
tion that something is the matter with the housing. The
fowls may be crowded too closely together on the roost ;
there may be cracks in the walls through which the wind
blows strongly on the chickens, or there may be insufficient
ventilation.
Diphtheria. — This is not an uncommon disease among
fowls and it is very fatal. A false membrane grows in the
mouth and extends down into the throat. Treatment is not
often successful. Kaupp (Colorado, Bulletin 185) recom-
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 383
mends the burning of the diphtheritic patches of the
mouth with stick nitrate of silver (lunar caustic). A 2%
solution of pure carbolic acid in water applied three times
daily to affected birds is also recommended. When it can
be done without causing bleeding, the diphtheritic mem-
brane should be removed and the application of carbolic
acid continued. The germ of fowl diphtheria resembles
that of the human species. Attempts at the Oregon Station
to reproduce the disease in chickens by human baccili
failed, though further investigation seems necessary to
settle this point. In the meantime, poultrymen should ex-
ercise care in the handling of fowls affected with this
disease.
Chicken Pox. — This is a contagious disease and most
prevalent in damp weather. Small crusts or wart-like spots
appear, sometimes on the face, sometimes under the wings
and on different parts of the body. A simple and effective
remedy is to apply to the birds affected carbolated vaseline
or sulphur ointment.
Cholera. — This is the most fatal of all diseases, though
not as general as roup and tuberculosis. It is compara-
tively rare. The symptoms are diarrhoea, loss of appetite,
excessive thirst, pale comb and wattles and extreme ex-
haustion. Death occurs in from a few hours to two or
three days. There is no cure. Vigorous measures of disin-
fection must be taken.
Canker. — Canker is indicated by white or yellowish spots
in the mouth and throat and corners of the mouth. Per-
oxide of hydrogen is effective. Powdered chlorate of
potash blown through a glass tube or straw onto the spots
is also recommended. Use permanganate of potash in the
drinking water.
Diarrhoea. — There are various causes for diarrhoea be-
sides those already mentioned. It may be caused by im-
384 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
proper feeding, chilling, filthy drinking water, decayed
meat, and irritating matter in the intestines. A tablespoon-
ful of olive oil or 25 grains of epsom salts per fowl, dis-
solved in water, is recommended. Boiled rice and boiled
milk are also effective. Dry middlings are also beneficia]
in certain cases. Decreasing the quantity of laxative foods
such as bran and wet mashes may often be all that is
necessary.
Dropsy. — Abdominal dropsy is indicated by a heavy
hanging abdomen. The abdomen feels soft and watery.
It is due to a rupture of the blood vessel which permits the
water to escape into the abdominal cavity. Treatment is
not profitable, though temporary relief may be given by
puncturing with a needle, or milk tube, which will permit
the water to escape. Dropsy sometimes indicates a tuber-
culous condition.
Bronchitis. — Bronchitis is caused usually by draughts
in the poultry house. It is found associated with catarrhal
roup and is indicated by coughing and rattling in the
throat. An effective treatment is two or three drops of
spirits of camphor in a teaspoonful of glycerine, two days
in succession. Two grains of black antimony in the food
is also recommended. Swab the throat with permanganate
of potash.
Peritonitis. — This is an inflammation of the peritoneum
or membrane that covers the abdominal cavity. Successful
treatment is difficult. Three or four grains of tincture of'
aconite in half a glass of water, giving a teaspoonful three
or four times a day, is recommended. J^requent applica-
tion of moist flannel cloths is beneficial.
Rheumatism. — Poultry kept on damp ground or in damp
houses with restricted exercise, are subject to rheumatism.
The fowl in walking has a jerky gait. Lameness does not
always signify rheumatism. The limbs should be bathed
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 385
in warm water or the fowls made to stand in warm water,
then rubbed dry and a mixture of turpentine and sweet
oil or camphor oil applied.
Apoplexy. — Apoplexy is due to the bursting of a blood
vessel of the brain. Treatment is impossible, as the fowl
usually dies very suddenly without indicating the disease.
A fatty condition is usually the cause. Less starchy foods
should be fed and more exercise given.
Limber Neck. — Apparent paralysis of the neck muscles
is the symptom of this disease. The neck is limp and
stretched out in front of the bird with the beak usually
touching the ground. It is due to impaction or stoppage
of the stomach. A tablespoonful of olive oil or castor oil
will usually effect a cure.
Wry-Neck. — In this case the fowl has also apparently
lost control of the neck. Instead of the neck being stretched
out in a horizontal direction, the head is drawn back and
down toward the body, the bird twisting it from one side
to the other. This disease is usually associated with an
over-fat condition, produced by a lack of exercise and
feeding heavily on fat-producing foods. Epsom salts should
be given, the ration changed and more exercise furnished.
Crop Bound. — This is indicated by a full and extended
crop which is rather hard to touch. Foods of a fibrous
nature or indigestible articles such as long, tough grass,
which have been greedily eaten, produce crop bound or
crop impaction. Irregular feeding may cause the fowl to
over-eat at one time and produce the trouble. The
materials in the crop become so wrapped together and im-
pacted that the passage to the stomach becomes obstructed
and the fowl gets no nourishment. Hunger increases, the
fowl eats more, and the ball of food in the crop becomes
larger and larger. The grain foods swell, causing further
distention. The fowl finally dies of starvation with an over
386 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
full crop. Simple treatment, however, will save the life of
the fowl.
It is sometimes sufficient to give about a tablespoonful of
olive oil to soften the mass, then with the fingers manipulate
the mass until it becomes soft and moist. It may require
an hour to do it. If the mass does not break up try holding
the bird by the legs, head down, and gently work the food
out of the mouth. If this is unsuccessful, resort must be
had to an operation. After removing the feathers, an in-
cision li/2 inches long should be made in the outer skin of
the crop, then a small opening into the crop. With a small
spoon or pair of tweazers, or the fingers, the contents may
be removed, after which the lining of the crop and the
outer skin should be carefully sewed together, separately.
The wound should then be rubbed with vaseline. Feed the
fowl lightly for a few days with easily digested food.
Chick Mortality. — Poultry raisers sustain great losses in
the rearing of chicks. The losses have been so great in
many cases as to drive the poultry raiser out of business.
A large part of the loss is ascribed to what is called white
diarrhoea. It should be clearly understood that there are
different forms of diarrhoea in chicks. Diarrhoea may be
caused in many ways. Possibly in a great majority of cases
where the losses are heavy the diarrhoea in brooder chicks
is due to chilling. Improper feeding will also cause
diarrhoea. In such cases the loss is not due to an infectious
disease over which the poultryman has no control. Again,
large losses of chicks occur in the brooder from apparently
no other cause than a lack of vitality.
Wrong methods of incubation, which are discussed in
the chapter on hatching chickens, are often the direct cause.
Lack of vigor in the breeding stock is often the cause of low
vitality in the chicks. A hen failing to sit properly and
contentedly on the nest will hatch chicks that show lack
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS
387
NORMAL HEN'S OVARY
(Courtesy, Storrs Experiment Station.)
of vigor. Incubators
that have not held the
temperature steady or
have not supplied the
proper moisture condi-
tions, will hatch chicks
of low vitality. Such
chicks are susceptible to
bacterial and other dis-
eases that would not
affect strong, vigorous
chicks. Small chicks are
always very susceptible
to environmental condi-
tions, and where these conditions are found to be unfav-
orable it is quickly evident in the death-rate of the
chicks.
White Diarrhoea (Bacterium pullorum). — From recent
investigations, it is clear that bacteria are responsible for a
large part of the chick
mortality. A certain
germ, bacterium pullo-
rum, was isolated at the
Storrs Station which
proved to be the direct
cause of what is popu-
larly known as white
diarrhoea. Diarrhoea is
but a symptom of the
disease, which should
not be confounded with
various other kinds of
diarrhoea. The germ
was found in the fresh
DISEASED OVARY
Showing white diarrhoea condition. (Cour-
tesy, Storrs Experiment Station.)
388 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
egg and in the ovaries of the hen, as well as in the chick
when hatched. A diseased ovary produced a dis-
eased ovum or egg, and a diseased egg produced
a diseased chick, and a diseased chick may infest
many other chicks in the brooder. It was also
proved that the infection may be carried from the adult
hen to another through the medium of the feed. Chicks
of low vitality succumb more readily to the infection than
those of good vigor. Again, chicks hatched in winter and
late fall are not so subject to the disease as those in late
spring and summer.
The influence of vitality is very clearly apparent. How
far we can count upon vitality to ward off the disease or to
maintain immunity, is not clearly established by the ex-
periments. They emphasize the importance, however, of
maintaining at all hazards the vitality of the stock. They
also offer a possible explanation of the usually larger death-
rate of chicks in large flocks than in small ones. One hen 's
chicks may be affected, another's may not. If the chicks
from two hens are brooded separately, the chances are the
one lot will live and the other may die. If they are brooded
together, they all may become affected and all may die.
In white diarrhoea the deaths usually occur when the
chicks are under four weeks of age. In describing the
symptoms of the disease, Woods says: "The weakling is
almost always big bellied, the abdomen protruding to the
rear so that it punches out behind, and out of line with
the vent, with the result that the chick looks as if the tail-
piece and backbone had been pushed forward and in just
above the vent." Upon dissecting the chick the following
conditions will be found :
"Crop. — Empty or partially filled with slimy fluid or
with food.
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 389
"Lungs. — Apparently normal. ( Tubercles not observed. )
"Liver. — Pale, with streaks and patches of red. The
congested areas are usually large in size. Occasionally
epidemics will be met with in which the liver is more or
less congested throughout. In such cases the portion of
the stomach lying in contact with the liver is inflamed.
"Kidney and Spleen. — Apparently normal.
"Intestines. — Pale, and for the greater part empty. A
TWO WHITE DIARRHCEA CHICKS
Showing characteristic dumpy appearance.
small amount of dark grayish or brownish matter fre-
quently present.
Ceca. — With few exceptions but partly filled with a gray-
ish soft material. Only occasionally cheesy or firm con-
tents.
"U nab sorb ed Yolk. — Usually present, varying in size
from a pea to a full-sized yolk. The color may vary from
yellow to brownish green or nearly black. In consistency
there is also much variation. It may appear perfectly
normal, distinctly gelatinous, or watery. Frequently it
390 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
looks like custard and again it is more or less dry and firm.
Unless the chick has been dead for some time the yolk is
not putrid, but merely stale.
"The chick as a whole appears more or less anasmic and
emaciated. The muscles of the wings, breast and legs may
be almost completely wasted away." (Bulletin 74, Storrs
Station.)
The remedy suggested is the use of sour milk, though this
is rather in the nature of a preventive than a cure. The
chicks usually become affected before they are four days
of age and very seldom after that. It has been found that
by feeding sour milk just as soon as the chicks are ready
to eat or drink, the ravages of the disease may be checked.
"Whether the lactic acid germ of the sour milk kills the white
diarrhoea germ or whether from the sour milk the chick
derives the strength and vigor that enables it to throw off
the disease, has not been very clearly shown. At any rate,
the Storrs experiment offers strong endorsement of the
practice of feeding sour milk or buttermilk to young
chicks.
That there are other disease germs which prey upon the
young chick has been demonstrated at the Oregon Station.
A different organism was found in chicks dead in the shell
and in hatched chicks that died later with symptoms of
white diarrhoea. "When healthy chicks were inoculated
with the germ it proved fatal, though when healthy chicks
were brooded in the same brooder as the others they were
apparently unaffected.
So far as the white diarrhoea investigations have gone
it has been established beyond doubt that it is a bacterial
disease. No remedy has been discovered. It has not been
shown, however, that the poultry-keeper is helpless before
its ravages. The encouraging feature of the situation is
that high vitality in the chicks seems to carry a certain
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 391
immunity or power of resistance to the disease, and until
further light is thrown upon the subject, it is just as well
to accept the theory that it is a disease, which if not the
result of low vitality, need not be greatly feared where the
health and vigor of the stock is unquestioned.
The Agglutination Test. — While there is no known cure
for bacillary white diarrhoea, recent investigations by Jones
of Cornell University have indicated an accurate test for
TAKING A BLOOD SAMPLE FOR WHITE DIARRHCEA TEST
(Photo by C. S. Brewster.)
infected fowls. It is called the agglutination test. By this
test it is possible to determine whether or not adult fowls
are infected. The importance of the test lies in the fact
that it is possible for the poultryman to eliminate this dis-
ease in chicks by breeding only from fowls that the test
shows are free from it. Several of the experiment stations
have facilities for making these tests for poultry breeders.
392 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
An explanation of the test is given by Dr. Gage of Massa-
chusetts as follows:1
' ' The two important biological factors necessary for mak-
ing the microscopic agglutination test are (1) a test fluid
containing a suspension of the organism causing the dis-
ease, and (2) a sample' of blood serum from the individual
to be tested, and the test is based on the fact that the blood
sera of infected and non-infected birds when mixed with
the test fluid react differently. The serum of the former,
because of the presence of an agglutinin, a substance formed
in the body of the bird because of infection with Bacterium
pullorum, is capable of producing, when brought in contact
with a suspension of the organism, a clumping together of
the bacteria, a phenomenon which blood from non-infected
birds does not show."
PARASITES OF FOWLS
The poultry-keeper must be able to cope with parasitic
enemies or they will put him out of ^ business. If every
living thing has its own particular pest, the fowl has its
full share, probably more than its share. There are a
dozen or two insect pests or parasites that have no other
business in life, apparently, than that of making life a
burden to the chicken. "We do not know how many. The
number of varieties, however, is of no consequence com-
pared with the number of individuals of any one variety
that may be propagated or born into the world in a few
days. From one single louse in the third generation, there
may be produced in eight or nine weeks over 100,000 in-
dividual lice, each one hatched from an egg.
The different varieties work in different ways. One
variety sucks the blood from the chicken and when, tens
1 Massachusetts Bulletin No. 163.
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 393
of thousands of these bloodthirsty villains are plying their
trade, the hen will soon be pumped dry of blood. Others
do not suck the blood but irritate the fowl beyond endur-
ance by moving about or running foot races, possibly with
10,000 other entrants, on the skin. Others burrow into
the skin or flesh ; others suck the liquid contents from the
cells of the skin and exude a poison under the skin. Still
others do their damage by carrying infectious diseases from
one fowl to another.
The internal parasites affect the wind-pipe, the stomach
and intestines and cause various derangements.
Poultry parasites are divided, therefore, into two classes,
external and internal.
External parasites may be divided into two kinds, namely,
mites and insects.
Mites. — The chicken mite (Dermanyssus gallinea) causes
more loss to the poultryman than any other species of mite
and probably more than any other kind of insect or louse.
These mites breed on the under side of the roost porches,
especially where there is a rough surface and small cracks
or crevices. They also breed in the cracks of the walls near
the perches and in the nest boxes. Their presence will
often be indicated by white dust-like patches on the
walls. They are not found in any numbers on the fowl
during the day but they crowd out of their hiding-places
onto the fowls at night and suck the blood, then go back
to their hiding. During the warm days of spring and sum-
mer they multiply rapidly.
Frequently sitting hens die en the nest, being literally
bled to death by the pests. Sometimes they multiply so
rapidly that they can be gathered by handfuls in nests or
other places where they are undisturbed, especially under
sitting hens. They live several weeks after being filled with
blood. Under certain conditions they have been known
394 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
to live several months. In size the mite is about 1/40 of
an inch in length. If placed side by side 100 mites will
cover a space of one square inch.
Control. — The mite, though possibly the most destructive
of any poultry parasite, may be easily controlled. Various
control methods are used.
Treatment 1. — Kerosene, crude petroleum, and distillate
are effective. These will kill any mites they come in con-
tact with. The oil, however, may not destroy the eggs of
the mite. If the house is badly infested the whole in-
terior should be thoroughly sprayed. In a week or ten
days the application should be repeated to kill those that
may have hatched after first spraying, and if necessary a
third spraying should be given. If this is thoroughly done
the mites may afterward be controlled by spraying the
perches with kerosene or distillate, or a brush may be used
and the oil applied all around the roost. The nest boxes
should also be treated.
Treatment 2. — Instead of using coal oil or distillate in
spraying the roosts, carbolineum or other tar preparations
may be effectively used. Carbolineum is more effective
than kerosene for the reason that it will destroy the mites'
eggs as well as the mites when it comes in contact with them.
Nests of sitting hens should be thoroughly painted before
sitting; also the brooding coops. With any reappearance
of mites the application should be repeated. The paint
should be dry before the hens are allowed to use the nests
or roosts. It will soil the feathers and may affect the flavor
of the eggs. Brood coops should be thoroughly dried after
painting or the chicks may be injured. Crude carbolic acid
and kerosene or distillate, one part of the former to three
of the latter, is very effective for mites, applied as a paint
on the roosts and nests.
Treatment 3. — To five gallons whitewash add one pint
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 395
crude carbolic acid. Spray as above or use whitewash brush
for applying it.
Treatment 4. — Where lime sulphur spray is used for
fruit trees it may also be used for spraying the poultry
house. If thoroughly done this should control the mites.
Lice. — Lice are not so injurious as the mites but they
must not be allowed to breed unchecked. Unlike the mites
they do not suck the blood but subsist upon the productions
of the skin and the feathers. They live and breed on their
host. There are three kinds of lice generally recognized.
First, those that are found on the head and neck of the
fowl and especially on young chicks. The scientific name
is Goniodes eynsfordii. Second, the wandering lice
(Menopon pallidum). These are found on different parts
of the body. Third, those found between the barbs of the
wing and tail feathers (Liperurus variabilis).
The conditions which encourage the breeding of these
lice are filth, dampness and darkness in the poultry house.
The eggs are laid among the feathers and attached to them,
especially to down feathers. They hatch out in from six to
ten days, the time varying. Lice will live several months
without the hen or host. Theobald reports keeping Menopon
pallidum for nine months on fresh feathers, they apparently
eating the quill epidermis.
Dust Bath. — Domestication of the hen can be carried so
far and no farther, and this fact must ever be remembered.
It might seem a little more sanitary or civilized for the hen
to keep her body clean by using a white enameled bath tub
provided with hot and cold water taps, or to have a chicken
barber shop where a weekly shampoo may be had, but the
hen prefers to wallow in the dust of the road or in a crude
box filled with dust, that is not by any means germ-proof.
It would be as easy to make water run up hill as to change
the nature of the hen when it comes to her method of keep-
396 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
ing the body clean. The dust shampoo rids the hen of the
scurf of the skin ; besides it is nature 's protection against
the pestiferous louse that has no object in life but to make
living a burden to the hen. A dust bath at evening gives
biddy a restful sleep ; a dust bath during the day gives her
new hope and happiness and permits her to lay her daily
egg in peace and to chase and devour other larger insects
that prey upon the crops of the field.
The hen louse must breathe to live, and it breathes
through the pores of its skin. A knowledge of this simple
fact was doubtless the clew for some ancient Edison to
invent dust. There are some objections to dust, but there
is always some bitter with the sweet, and to biddy dust
tastes sweeter than plum jam to the average human young-
ster. The hen must have her daily dust bath. If she can-
not get it in the fields or the yards it must be furnished in
a box artificially, but she must have it to cleanse her body
in the old natural way. It fills up the pores of the louse
and prevents breathing, thus killing it.
The addition of sulphur, pyrethrum or lime to the dust
makes it more effective on account of their irritating nature.
If the poultry premises are kept in a sanitary condition,
the fowls will keep themselves practically free from lice if
they have access at all times to a good dust bath. By dust-
ing the hen by hand with a good insect powder, the lice may
be gotten rid of sooner, but this entails too much labor to
be practicable on a large or commercial scale.
Sulphur and slaked lime may be used as a dust powder.
Another good powder may be made by mixing crude car-
bolic acid 90 to 95% strength, with enough plaster of paris
to make a dry powder.
Head lice on small chicks, which make their appearance
a day or two after the chick is hatched, may be killed by
rubbing the head and throat of the chick with lard. A few
DISEASES AND PARASITES OF FOWLS 397
drops of kerosene to a teaspooiiful of lard will make it
more effective, but much kerosene may kill the chick. If
the hen be carefully treated for lice while sitting, there
will be less trouble from the head lice on the chicks.
Scaley Leg. — Another species of mite (Sarcoptes
mutans), produces scaley leg in fowls. The mite burrows
underneath the scales of the leg and white grayish crusts are
formed which gradually enlarge and raise the scales. In
severe cases lameness results and even the loss of toes. The
disease is contagious. Disinfective measures should be ap-
plied in the poultry house. Individual treatment is rather
tedious but a cure is easily affected. Where the case is bad
or advanced it will usually be necessary to soak the scales
thoroughly in warm water and remove them when it can be
done without causing bleeding, then apply an ointment or
vaseline. Kerosene is an effective remedy. Where the dis-
ease is not too far advanced it will be sufficient to dip the
legs in a can of oil and hold them there for half a minute.
Dr. Theobald is authority for the statement that there
are some 36 distinct species of worms that live as parasites
in fowls. Some' of these are of little importance. A few
of the more injurious ones will be mentioned here.
The Gape Worm (Syngamus trachealis) . — This parasite
is very destructive to young chicks in different sections of
the country. It attaches itself to the inner lining of the
windpipe or trachea. Contaminated soil is responsible for
the spread of this disease. This further emphasizes the
point that has already been made, that young chicks should
always be reared on clean, fresh ground. Gape worms be-
come so numerous in the windpipe when they once get
started that the bird finally dies for lack of air. Some of
the worms are coughed up, as well as some of the ova and
embryos and these are taken up by other fowls and the
disease rapidly spreads. The ground carries the infection
398 POULTRY BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT
from one year to another. By cultivating the ground and
disinfecting it with lime, the infection may be destroyed.
Where the disease is known to exist it is the safe plan not
to use the same ground for a year or two.
The chief symptoms are a gaping with open beak and
stretching of the neck forward. The worm may be removed
by twisting a horse hair in the windpipe and withdrawing
it, or a feather stripped to near the tip, dipped in oil or
turpentine may be used in the same way. The value of the
young chicks, however, will not usually warrant individual
treatment. Reliance must be placed upon keeping the
chickens away from contaminated ground.
Intestinal Worms. — There are numerous worms that
infest the digestive organs of the fowl. The round worms
are found in the gullet or esophagus. Another species is
found in the walls of the gizzard. The tape worms and
various other species are found in the intestines. For in-
dividual treatment, oil of turpentine is recommended, one
teaspoonful per fowl, preferably given in the morning fol-
lowed with olive oil or castor oil a few hours later. Heavy
feeding of onions or garlic will aid in controlling these
parasites. Another remedy is to use powdered pome-
granate root bark, one teaspoonful to 50 birds given in the
feed.
There is not space in this book for an extended discussion
of poultry diseases. Those readers wishing more detailed
information of various diseases and their treatment, will
find several books on this special subject. Among them
may be mentioned: "Poultry Diseases and Their Treat-
ment, " by E. J. Wortley ; "Diseases of Poultry," by Dr. D.
E. Salmon; "Diseases of Poultry," by Pearl, Surface and
Curtis; "Poultry Diseases," by Dr. B. F. Kaupp; and
"Parasitic Diseases of Fowls," by Theobald.
INDEX
Page
Albumin 281
Analysis of fowls and egg 229
Animal food 241
Ash . 223
B
Balanced rations 219
Barley 239
Beef scrap 243
Beets 245
Beet pulp 246
Bran 239
Breed, Ancona 32
Andalusian 33
Black Spanish 33
Braekel 34
Brahma 55
Campine 33
Dorking 45
Faverolle 49
Hamburg 33
Houdan 34
Langshan 60
La Fleche 60
Le Mans 58
Leghorn 30
Minorca 31
Orpington 46
Plymouth Rock 39
Rhode Island Red 43
Sussex 49
Wyandotte 41
Breeding, principles of 61
problems in 62
purity in 68
Breeds, economic qualities of . . 27
edible meat on different. . . 52
egg 30
fancy 28
general purpose 35
meat 50
origin of 30
"Standard" classification of 24
utility classification of 28
Broilers 274
Brood coop 198
Page
Brooders, colony 324
home-made 324
lamp 323
stove or room 327
types of 323
ventilation of 322
Brooding, artificial 320
chicks, training 322
period 320
temperature 320
Buckwheat 240
Buttermilk . . 241
Cabbages 246
Capons and caponizing 372
Carbohydrates 226
Catarrh 382
Charcoal 247
Chickenpox 383
Cholera 383
Cockerels 273
Cold storage 359
conditions of 360
effect on prices of 359
limitations of 361
Colony system 144
Corn 237
Crop bound 385
Culling 272
Cut bones 241
Cross breeding 16, 73
advantages of 74
disadvantages of 79
experiments in 78, 101
Diarrhoea 383
Digestibility of foods 230
Digestion coefficients 232
Digestive organs 230
Diphtheria 384
Diseases 375
Disinfection 377
Domestication of fowls 1
purpose of 1
Dominance 84
399
400
INDEX
Page
Drainage 168
Drawn and undrawn poultry. . . 371
Dressing, loss in weight in. ... 372
Dropsy 384
Dust bath 395
Edible meat on fowl 372
Egg-laying organs 133
Egg, structure of 281
Egg production, limit of 112
best in first year 127, 183
progression in 109
regression in 109
Eggs, candling 352
canned frozen 361
classification of 347
color of 351
composition of 217
conditions that injure 348
fertility and hatchability of 299
for hatching 297
fresh and stale 354
gathering the 349
grades of 344
grading 351
marking 355
preservation of 362
refrigeration of 357
selling, for hatching 364
size of 351
testing 299
washing 350
Fattening fowls 274
batteries 277
rations 278
Fats 226
Fecundity, inheritance of.. . 92, 134
influence of sire and dam. 107
Maine station's results. . . 93
Oregon station's experiments 96
sex limited 107
Feeding and exercise 249
cooked food 254
fundamentals of 210
ground and unground grain 251
growing stock 268
hopper . . .'.'.'.'.' 254
limitations of ..." 212
methods of 249
purpose of 223
rations 256
small chickens . , . 2(55
Page
Fencing 205
portable 203
Fish scrap 243
Food analyses 227
animal 241
carbohydrates and fat. . . . 226
composition of 223
computing the ratio of. ... 229
digestibility of 230
digestion coefficients of . . . 232
grain 237
green or succulent 244
mineral nutrients of 223
palatability of 234
protein 214
relation of, to color of egg 212
flavor of egg 212
quality of eggs 212
size of eggs 215
yield of eggs 214
requirements of chickens. . 221
Fowls, antiquity of 9
evolution of 11
origin of 2
Free range 144
Fruit trees for shade 206
Fruit growing and poultry-keep-
ing 140
Fresh air, value of 174, 375
Fresh ground, preventive of
diseases ... . 376
Gallus bankiva 3
Gape worm 397
Green food 244
Grit 247
H
Hen-hatching 291
Heredity 62
Hygienic conditions, import-
ance of 375
Historical 1
House, curtain-front 176
floor of 184
foundation 186
open-front 186
portable 187, 193
space required 178
stationary house 189
Housing, essentials of 160
purpose of 1C7
INDEX
401
I
Page
Inbreeding 86
Incubation, artificial 301
carbon dioxide and mois-
ture in 311
chemical compossition of
chick influenced by meth-
ods of 316
cooling the eggs 316
influence of moisture in.. 312
loss of weight in eggs 313
methods of 286
moisture in 308, 309
natural vs. artificial 287
oil on egg shells 319
period of 297
temperature of 314
turning the eggs 316
wet bulb temperature as a
moisture guide 309
Incubator, choice of 305
operating the 307
size of 307
types of 305
Incubator house 302
ventilation of 303
analysis of air in 304
Jungle fowl cock 3
hen . 4
Killing 368
Lady Mat-duff 117, 119
Laying longevity 115
maturity 127
Lice 395
Limberneck 385
Linseed meal 240
Locations for houses and yards 167
M
Manure, preservation of 208
Marketing eggs 333
rlnssifying eggs for 347
direct 337
express 338
how costs are added 336
indirect 335
poultry 366
Page
Middlings 239
Milk 241
Milk albumin 243
Mites 393
N
Nests 196
Nutritive ratio . . . 228
Oats 238
Oats and peas 246
Oregona 108
Oyster shell 247
Parasites 392
Parcel post shipments of eggs. 340
poultry 371
Peas 239
Petaluma poultry farming. . . . 140
Peritonitis 384
Picking 369
Portable fencing and houses. . 203
Potatoes 246
Poultry farming, systems of. . . 138
backyard 152
colony 144
dairying with 139
exclusive 152
fancy 156
fruit growing with 140
grain growing with 140
intensive 151
mixed husbandry 338
Petaluma 140
Rhode Island 140
specialized 138
industry 19
products 19
publications 19
Prepotency 83, 85
Preserving eggs in water glass 363
Rations 256
Reversion 65
Rheumatism 384
Rico 240
Roup 381
Rye 240
402
INDEX
Page
Pago
Scalding poultry 370
Scaley leg 397
Selection 14
Shade 206
Shaping 370
Shell, furnishes lime for de-
veloping chick 311, 316, 317
structure of 282
Soils 167
Sprouted oats 246
Sticking 368
Storms, objectionable 170
Sunflower seed 240
Sunshine 169
Variability 109
Variation 12, 03
factors influencing 13, 15
Ventilation in poultry house. . 174
Vetch and oats 245
w
Water glass 303
Weight correlated with laying. 120
Wheat 237
White Diarrhoea 389
Worms, intestinal 398
Wry neck 385
Transportation cars for poultry 367
Trapnests 198, 199
Tuberculin test 380
Tuberculosis 378
Type in layers 120
U
Use and disuse of parts 16
Yards 191, 201
crops for 192
cultivation of 191
double 203
hen capacity of 191
size of 202
Yolk 282
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