Practical guide to photography

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PRACTICAL
GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY

PKACTICAL

GUIDE TO PHOTOGKAPHY

BY

MARION AND CO.

NEW EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED

MAEION AND CO.

22 AND 23 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.

1885

Printed by R, & R. Clark, Edmburgh.

CONTENTS.

PACE

Chap. I. Historical Sketch. — Boyle — Niepce — Talbot —

Daguerre — Daguerreotype process — Talbotype process 1

Chap. II. Historical Sketch {continued). — The wet-col-
lodion process — The dry -gelatine process — Britannia
plates 9

Chap. III. The applications of modern Photography. —
Photography b}'' ladies — Photogi'aphy indoors as well
as out-of-doors — Copying of pictures, flowers, etc. —
Photography for the artist, for the military man,
architect, engineer, etc. . . . . . . 15

Chap. IV. The Dark Room. — Red light no effect on the
films — Description of how to fit up a dark room —
Lamps used in the dark room — Marion and Co. 's new
portable tent 21

Chap. V. The Exposure of Plates. — Apparatus required
and description of the same — Putting the plate in the
■ dark slide — How to take a landscape — Focussing . 27

Chap. VI. Development. — The importance of under-
standing development — Description of a negative —
Formula for development — Description of how to de-
velop— Object of fixing bath 33

Chap. VII. Development (co/i/mi<c(/). — Compensation for
under and over exposure — Different subjects retjuiring
different times of development — The functions of
pyrogallic acid, ammonia, and bromide of ammonium 43

vi CONTENTS.

PAGE

Chap. VIII. Variations in Development. —Ferrous-
oxalate developer, its composition and how to use —
Sodic sulphite developer — Soda and potash developers
— Hydrokinone developer ...... 50

Chap. IX. Defects and Remedies in Negatives. —
General fog — Colour fog — Frilling — Flatness or thin-
ness of image — Too great density of image — Spots —
Flare spots — Ghost images — Bro-vni colour of the nega-
tive— Lines across the negative — Floreseent appearance
of films — A powdery deposit on the films — Halation —
Solarisatiou ........ 60

Chap. X. Photographic Optics. — What is a lens ? — Com-
binations of a lens — Flatness and roundness of field —
Distortion — Depth of focus — Width of angle — Rapidity
— Relation between aperture and focal length — The
single lens— Rapid rectilinear — Rapid symmetrical —
Wide angle — The portrait lens 72

Chap. XI. Optics. — Use of swing-back — Table of exposures 87

Chap. XII. The Camera in the Field.— The Enjalbert
— Photographing mountains — To make an artistic
picture — The use of the swing-back — Various lenses
required for the different sorts of work — Focussing and
focussing-glass ........ 96

Chap. XIII. Instantaneous Photography. — Shutters

for instantaneous exposure — The academy camera . 107

Chap. XIV. Portraiture out-of-doors. — Lighting —

Background — Placing of sitter . . . . . 117

Chap. XV. Portraiture in an ordinary Room. —
Camera and stand for this work — Head-rests — Descrip-
tion of lighting 122

CONTENTS. vii

PAGE

Chap. XVI. Portrait Groups . .... 132

Chap. XYII. Printing with Ready Sensitised Paper.
— Requisites in printing — Specimens of printing frames
— Cutting of prints — The operation of printing de-
scribed ......... 134

Chap. XVIII. Toning and Fixing of Prints. — The
toning -bath — The operations of toning and fixing
described — Washing — Various toning-baths — Acetate
bath — Carbonate of .soda bath — Platinum toning-bath 1 43

Chap. XIX. Varnishing the Negative ; Sensitising
Paper. — Hubbard's varnish considered good — Descrip-
tion of varnishing — Description of sensitising paper —
Ammonia fuming of paper 152

Chap. XX. Defects and Remedies in Printing. — The
prints refuse to tone — The prints tone sufficiently well,
but the greater part of the tone is lost in the fixing-
bath, and does not return — The prints tone unevenly
— The portions of the print which ought to be white
are yellow — The shadows of the print have a bronzed
appearance — There is a powdery deposit over the sur-
face of the prints ....... 164

Chap. XXI. Vignetting. — The operation of vignetting

described — Marion's vignetting frame . . . 172

Chap. XXII. The Alpha Paper and the Alpha Opal

Plates. — Alpha opal plates 180

Chap. XXIII. Printing Skies into Landscape Nega-
tives ; Combination Printing. — "Wlien and how to
take clouds — Description of printing in skies —
Hemery's printing frame . . . . 189

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Chap. XXIV. Retouching. — Working on the back of
the negative — Retouching with pencil on the film side
of the negative — A retouching desk — Retouching of
the face— Modelling— Spotting 204

Chap. XXV. Cutting up Paper ; Trimming Prints ;
Mounting Prints ; Rolling and Burnishing
Prints ; Enamelling Prints. — The amateur's scrap-
book — Mounting solution — Rolling press — Mounting
prints in optical contact with glass — Enamelling . 212

Chap. XXVI. The Ferro-prussiate Process ; Enlarg-
- ing; Lantern Slides. — Copying of plans — Enlarging
apparatus — Description of enlarging — Cowan's gela-
tino-chloride plates ....... 224

Chap. XXVII. Concluding Remarks .... 237

CHAPTER I.
HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Boijle — Nicpce — TaJhot — Daguerre.

So thoroughly has photography, the art of dra"sving by
light, entered into our every-day life that it is difficult
for us in the present day to realise how recently it has
come to be. So accustomed are Ave to hare scenes and
persons represented to us by its means, to become as
familiar with the features of our statesmen and famous
men and women of all classes as we are with those of
our own near relations, and to depend upon the art as
a means of truthfully recording almost all of our scien-
tific observations, that it is difficidt for us to conceive
how our forefathers managed without it. Yet half a
century ago the very rich only could possess portraits
of their friends or relations, the features of our great
men were unknown to the mass of the people, the
architectural and other beauties of foreign states and
towns were conveyed only by the fallible pencil of the
draughtsman, records of scientific observations were for
the most part the result of weary watching.

A tale of threescore years ago is told of a certain
Frenchman. We do not guarantee its truth, but give it

B

2 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

as showing, better than long description could, the state
of knowledge of the time.

The camera obscura was then kno"\vn. The beautiful
image which it Avould give of surrounding objects, in
which colour seemed to be even more vivid than in the
objects themselves, had been admired by many, and
some had sighed for the discovery of a means of fixing
the fleeting image so that it might become a lasting
record.

A woman called at the house of one of the greatest
French scientists of that time and explained that her
husband had, in spite of the discoui'agement of his
friends, got fixed in his mind the idea that the image
amid be made permanent. He Avas spending all his
time in vain experimenting, and she wished to know if
such infatuation might be considered as a symptom of
lunacy, or if there was really hope in the work he was
carrying on.

The scientist replied that, in his opinion, there was no
hope ; but that the infatuation of the lady's husband
could scarcely alone be considered as itself a proof of
insanity.

The woman was the wife of Daguerre ; the time was
fourteen years before the date of the publication of the
process known as Daguerreotype.

A brief sketch we must give of the history of jihoto-
graphy. It is usual in so doing to attribute the invention
of the art to some one of the earlier experimenters in it.
This we think is a mistake ; seldom does it occur that one
single man invents or discovers entirely by himself a great
scientific theory or fact. There is no new thing under
the sun. It will generally be found that the so-called

DAUGERRE— DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS. 3

discoverer or inventor but improved on what went before,
or put in a practical shape what had been floating in
men's minds as h}'pothetical truth. A step is made
which may be greater or smaller. The steam-engine
was not invented by Watt, nor the locomotive by Stephen-
son. These both took the materials wliich were at hand
and improved upon them.

So it is in photography. "We look in vain to find who
first discovered the fact that certain chemical substances
were changed in appearance by light. The credit of
the discovery is generally given to Boyle, who lived
about two hundred years ago.

From this we may take a great stride, to the time
when the first camera picture was produced ; — to the
time when the much -admired picture of the camera
obsciu'a was, in fact, caused to leave behind it some
more or less lasting trace of its beauties.

In 1816 Nicephore Niepce describes most accurately
in letters to his brother the taking of camera pictiu-es.
These were, however, but imperfect. They were in
negative. Every shade of nature was reversed, and,
moreover, the pictures, such as they were, very soon
faded. Nevertheless, the letters referred to show
wonderful penetration, and a knowledge in advance of
the time in which the experimenter worked. To those
who feel an interest in the matter we recommend a
perusal of IMr. H. Baden Pritchard's interesting little
book, About Photography and Photographers. Although
experiments made by Xiepce were interesting and in-
structing, and might, had they been carried farther,
have led to great results, we hear nothing fui'ther of
them than what is contained in the aforementioned

4 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

letters, until we hear the name of Niepce coupled with
that of Daguerre.

About 1825 Daguerre became acquainted with the
fact that Niepce had been Avorking in the same direc-
tion, and with apparently far greater success than him-
self. The two formed a partnership, and working
together invented the process known as Daguerreotype.
Before its publication Niepce had died, and Daguerre
purchased from his son the right to omit any mention
of him in connection with the publication of the process
which bears to this day the name of Daguerreotype.

The year 1839 was a momentous one in the history of
photography. Daguerre in France published his process,
which at once gained popularity ; and almost simultane-
ously Fox Talbot in England published his method of
photographic drawing on i^aper, which must be con-
sidered as containing the germ of the negative processes
of to-day.

And now there occurred what we almost always see
when a great discovery is made, what we have so
recently seen in connection with electric light, the tele-
phone, microphone, and phonograph. The public, at
first indifferent, passed over to the opposite extreme.
The most wildly-extravagant expectations of what the
new process was to do were entertained. Painters were
shortly to be no more required. A small step only in
advance seemed necessary to secure the rendering of
natural colours. The most impossible things were to be
done. From this there was naturally a reaction. The
Daguerreotype had so far obtained the larger share of
public favour. The appearance of a picture by this
process may not be known to all. The medium is a

DAGUERRE— DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS. 5

plate of polished silver, somewhat like a mirror, and on
the sui'face is a picture beautifully delicate, but neither
very bold nor distinct, requiring to be looked at from
a certain angle. Daguerreot}qDes are not in all respects
pleasing representations at the best, and it ^vill readilj^
be understood that the crudities which occur too often,
even in the present day, in photographs, from want of
artistic knowledge and taste, were much more conspicu-
ous at a time wlien few were trained to the process, and
when exjDosures were such as would now be considered
extravagantly long.

The Daguerreotype fell into comparative disrepute,
and the process of Talbot, which as improved in 1841 by
its originator was of far greater general utility than that
of Daguerre, advanced in favour but slowly.

It was not till Archer in 1850 invented the process
known as "wet-collodion," and which up till -^"ithin a
couple of years ago was the popular process with both
amateurs and professionals, that photography began to
assume the importance which has been attached to it in
late years.

A few words must be said in description of the
manipulations used in the processes which we have
mentioned.

That of Daguerre is the first which requires descrip-
tion, those before having never passed the experimental
stage.

In this a silver sm-face is required. For economy a
copper plate is used, which is thickly plated vrith silver.
The silver surface is polished and most carefully cleaned.
Afterwards it is exposed to the fumes of iodine. A thin
film of iodide of silver is thus produced, and this is sen-

6 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THOTOGEAPHY.

sitivc to light. The sensitiveness is, however, slight as
compared with the films which we use in the present
clay. An exposure of several hours was generally
required.

A great improvement was made by employing the
vapour of bromine combined with the iodine. The ex-
posiure was thereby reduced. The gTeatest improvement
in the process Avas, however, the discovery of develop-
inent.

Development is a process which requires some ex-
planation, as it is the point on which turns the success
of every modern process of photography.

A tale is told of the discovery of development by
Daguerre. It is as ill authenticated as the others which
are told of him, but may, nevertheless, be recounted,
as it will serve better to give an idea of the operation
than a long description would.

It is told that Daguerre, diuing his experiments,
had inadvertently given to several plates so short ex-
posures that little or no image was perceptible. These
he placed on one side in a cupboard, with the intention
of repolishing them at his leisiu'e, and of using them
again.

His sui^prise may be imagined when, on returning
after the lapse of some time to his cupboard, he found
that each plate had on it a picture apparently perfectly
exposed. His first idea was that his cupboard was be-
witched, his second that possibly some of the chemicals
which were stored beside the plates affected them. He
proceeded to place on the shelf where the first plates
had been other under-exposed ones, removing after each
was placed there one of the chemicals. Still, however,

DAGUERREOTYPE— TALBOTYPE PROCESS. 7

the apparently magical process went on. At last he
bethought him of some mercury which had been spilt
on the wood. This was indeed the magic substance.
Further investigation showed him that a portion of the
iodide of silver film, exposed to light for a period too
brief to cause on it a Adsible change, yet had acquired a
selective power and attracted to itself minute globules of
this vapour of mercurj^, thus becoming visible. After-
wards the process of "development," as it was called,
was regularly carried out by placing the plates, bearing
apparently no image, over a vessel containing mercury,
which was heated. This process of development shoidd
be well borne in mind. Something of the same kind —
that is to say, a strengthening by some means of an
image so weak as to be generally at first invisible, till it
becomes as strong as we desire — takes place in every
photographic process.

The chief difference between the process of Daguerre
and Talbot lay in this, that whereas the Daguerreotype is
a positive process, the Talbotype is a negative one. The
result of exposing a Daguerreotype plate was one finished
picture with the lights and shades correct, but, unless a
mirror or prism reflector was used, with, right and left
transposed. If a second copy were required, the whole
operation had to be gone through again.

A Talbotype represented the shades of nature reversed.
The darker shades are represented as white, the lighter
shades as black. From such a negative it was, however,
possible to get any desired number of copies "svith the
shades correct, and without transposition of right antl
left.

Talbot used paper as a support for his sensitive salt.

8 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

which, as in Daguerreotype, was iodide of silver. His
negatives were developed with a solution of gallic acid,
and afterwards the paper was rendered as transparent
as possible by the application of white wax so as to faci-
litate the taking of copies, or "printing," as it is usually
termed.

CHAPTER II.

HISTORICAL SKETCH {Continued).

The Wet-Collodion Process — The Dry-Gelatine Process.

We have now brought our historical sketch up to the
time of the invention of wet-collodion process, which,
as the one that has held the first place for a longer
time than any other, and has kept it till "ndthin the last
few years, deserves a somewhat more detailed account
than those which went before it.

As we have said, the collodion process was invented
by Mr. Archer, The novelties which this gentleman
introduced may be stated as follows : He proposed glass
as a support for the photograph instead of silvered
copper or paper; he proposed as a vehicle for the
sensitive salts collodion, which is a substance obtained
by dissolving gun-cotton or pyroxylin in a mixture of
alcohol and ether; and he proposed as a developer a
solution of pyrogallic acid, or, as it is more properly
called, pyrogallol, in water.

The results of the changes were that a very much
briefer exposure than had been required before was
sufficient, that either a positive or a negative picture
could be got as was desii-ed, and that there was more

10 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

delicacy in the negative obtained than in that by the
paper process, more boldness in a positive than in the
Daguerreotype.

As in the last-mentioned process, the sensitive salts
were iodide of silver and a small quantity of bromide.

Briefly described, the manipulations employed in the
wet process are as follows : —

A glass plate is cleaned with gi-eat care. A short
time before the exposure has to be made this plate is
coated mth what is known as iodised collodion, — that is
to say, collodion in which is dissolved a certain quantity
of soluble iodides and bromides. After the plate is held
for a few seconds the collodion "sets" on its surface.
Now the coated plate is dipped vnth great care into a
vertical vessel containing a strong solution of silver
nitrate, and kno-wn as the "bath." What is called
"double decomposition" takes place, and iodide and
bromide of silver are formed in the film. These are
sensitive to light, and when the action has gone on for
a few minutes the plate is ready for exposure. It is
taken from the bath and placed in the camera whilst
still wet in the manner which will be described for dry
plates farther on. After exposure, and whilst still wet,
it is treated with various diff"erent chemical substances,
the operations being kno'wn as development, intensifica-
tion, fixing, washing, drying, and varnishing.

Now this process, although a beautiful one and a
great advance on any which had gone before, left much
to be desired, and this especially for the amateur and for
the landscape photographer.

The operations which have been mentioned were very
delicate and required no little manipulative skill; the

WET-COLLODION PROCESS. 11

solutions were expensive and were liable to go out of
order ; especially the silver bath, the most expensive of
all, was liable to the most extraordinary, unexpected,
and inexplicable vagaries. Great has been the lamenta-
tion of many an amateur on suddenly finding that he
could get on his plates no result but what is technically
termed " fog," and that he would require to purchase
many ounces of silver nitrate to make up a new bath.

Then there was the dirtiness of the process. All
must remember well the bedabbled appearance of the
person and possessions of the "wet-plate amateur." He
was a terror to his friends. His silver solution appeared
to produce every result but the right one. Its devastat-
ing effects were found in the most unexpected places.
Clothes, carpets, and curtains alike suffered, and the
stains produced were generally indelible; but all these
inconveniences were less than what resulted from the
fact that the whole manipulation of the plate had to be
performed within the space of an hour or so, — that is
to say, before the plate became dry. It was therefore
necessary for the photographer, wherever he went, to
burden himself with the whole of the aj^paratus and
chemicals required to make and develop his plate ; and,
as the manipulations could only be carried on in a yelloAv
light, he had to carry with, him in addition a tent in
which to work. Besides this, the exposure, although
shorter than what photographers had been previously
used to, was generally inconveniently long. What are
known as instantaneous effects could only be produced
under the most exceptionally favourable circumstances,
whilst the amateur was unable to satisfy his desire to
portray the features of his friends unless he had the

12 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

means of doing so in the open air. To take a portrait
in an ordinary room required so prolonged an exposure
that it was out of the question.

The wet-plate photographer sighed for such a process
as would give him plates which might be kept for a
length of time before exposure, and between exposure
and development, so that he would not have to carry
with him a chemical laboratory and workshop ; and he
sighed for a process which would enable him to shorten
his exposures.

The first requirement was in a certain degree supplied
by "dry-collodion " processes. In these, as indicated by
the name, the plates Avere used dry. They could be kept
for some time both before and after exposure. They
had serious drawbacks, however. The results were gen-
erally inferior in quality to those got by the use of wet
plates, and the exposure required was longer. Besides
this, most of the plates required in their preparation the
use of the troublesome collodion and bath.

A few years ago a great change took place. A pro-
cess was invented which appears to embody everything
which the photographer could possibly desire. This is the
gelatine dry-plate process. The history of this process
we cannot give here, but may say that the names which
are most intimately connected with its discovery are
those of Dr. R L. Maddox and Mr. Charles Bennet.

In this process the plates are dry. They may be kept
for an indefinite time either before they are exposed or
between the time of exposure and development; how
long is not known, but certainly the limit of time is to
be measured by years. The exposure is less than one-
tenth of that which was required for wet plates. The

DRY- PLATE PROCESS. 13

manipulations are so easy that they can be performed by
any one almost without practice, and may be so cleanly
that the most scrupulous need no longer fear to take uj)
the practice of what used in the wet-plate days to he
sarcastically entitled the "black art." If we add to all
this that the results are artistically mperiw to those ob-
tained by wet plates, and that, whereas everything which
could be done with a wet plate can also be done with a
dry, many things Avhich were impossible with a wet
plate are no longer so when a gelatine one is used, we
will see that the stride made was immense.

What has, however, perhaps done more than anything
else to make the benefit of the change fully available to
the photographic public is that plates by the new pro-
cess have become an article of commerce.

It is evident that a wet plate, which has to be made
and finished within an hour or two, must be made by
the operator himself. The collodion dvy plates, it is
true, would keep for some time, but the time was com-
paratively limited and was somewhat uncertain. The
consequence was that, although these plates were pro-
duced commercially by one or two firms, they were never
largely used. Besides this, the price Avas so high as
to prevent the greater number of photographers from
adopting them had there been no other objections.

The amateur, as a consequence, if he used dry plates,
manufactured them himself at the cost of great labour,
considerable expense, and frequently Avith disappointing-
results.

It is true that there are even now in the days of gela-
tine plates a few amateurs Avho manufacture their own
plates, but those are such as have an experimental turn

14 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

and take pleasure in the work itself. They viiW gener-
ally be found "vnlling enough to admit that neither
economy nor better results arise from their labom^s.

The Britannia plates have now been before the public
for some years and have given uniformly satisfactory
results. They appear to possess every good quality
which is to be found in a photographic plate. At the
present stage, before we have commenced our actual
instructions for working plates, we cannot enter into
technicalities which would probably not be understood
by most of our readers, but may briefly say that the
plates are such that negatives of the best quality may
be produced by their means with the utmost certainty,
the shortest possible exposure, and the minimum of
trouble, whilst the price is most moderate.

CHAPTER III.

THE APPLICATIONS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.

We have brought our readers up to the present time.
We have contrasted the wet -plate photographer of
former days — who required to have at his elbow, whilst
he exposed his plate, a quantity of chemicals and a tent
to work in, and who consequently either was tied down
to a very small size of plate or had to have in attendance
on him several porters, or even a van or cart — with the
dry-plate worker of to-day, who steps out on his work
with a light leather case containing all that he requires,
and who without assistance can walk a long distance
carrying with him all the necessities for Avorking even a
comparatively large size of plate.

We have seen, on the one hand, the wet-plate photo-
grapher, who, having prepared his plate, dreaded lest it
should dry in the camera ere the effect, possibly of sea
and cloud, which he ■wished to secure had established
itself; on the other, the dry-plate worker, Avho can sit
by his camera for hours if the effects he -wishes come not
sooner, and may smoke his pipe in peace knowing that
his plate will in no way change.

Before entering on the practical working of the plates
we may take a brief survey of the various ways in which

16 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

photography as practised in the present clay may be useful
to members of the general public.

As we write rather for the amateur than for the pro-
fessional photographer, we shall place amusement first,
and amongst photographic amusements landscape work
first of all.

It would be difficult to think of any more delightful
amusement than that aff'orded by amateur landscape
photography. The occupation is a healthy one, and it
is one which can readily be combined with any of an
almost indefinite number of country occupations. The
pedestrian can carry with him the academy camera,
which will go into his pocket; the tricyclist may
without inconvenience burden himself with a somewhat
larger -sized apparatus; whilst the boatsman or yachts-
man IS hardly limited to size at all. Full scope is given
to any artistic feeling which the amateur may have,
and many a picture will be taken which in after years
may serve to bring back the memory of happy days.
The enjoyment, too, of the scenes themselves is greater
far when they are looked at with the view of selecting
the spots and combinations of form and shade which
will make a picture than when gazed on merely with a
general idea of admiring what is beautiful in them.

Landscape work is that in which English photographers
excel, and it is the branch of photography in which the
amateur shows best, as compared with the professional
worker.

Nor is there any reason why the fair sex should not
in these days practise the art far more extensively than
they do. In the days of wet-collodion the difficulties of
carrying the necessary bulky apparatus were naturally

APPLICATIONS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 17

more felt by ladies than by men ; moreover, the dirti-
ness of the process was a fatal objection in the eyes of
most. Now these objections do not hold, and we should
be glad to see members of the fair sex, who surely
require rational amusement quite as much as their male
friends, taking greater advantage of the opportunities
which dry plates offer them. They would appear to be
specially suited for the work. They are quite as often
possessed of artistic taste as men, and more generally
have had at least some slight rudiments of artistic
training ; they are also neat and quick at manipu-
lation.

If the advantage to the amateur landscape photographer
by the introduction of dry plates has been immense, that
to the amateur portraitist has been possibly even greater.
The shortening of the exposure which dry plates make
possible renders it practicable to take portraits in any
ordinary room.

Very excellent portraits can be taken out of doors
if advantage be taken of surrounding objects to modify
the light, but there is a certain roundness of lighting
Avhich is scarcely to be got except indoors. This is
afforded in perfection in the studio, but very fairly in an
ordinary room, especially if it have a large ^^^ndow.
Besides the superior lighting ol)tainal)lc indoors, we have
to consider that many have not available space for por-
traiture out of doors. To those will be specially wel-
come the facilities for indoor work which dry plates
offer. So cleanly are all the operations in connection
with exposure that there need be no hesitation, on that
score at least, in converting the drawing-room into a
temporary studio.

C

18 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

Even in the months of winter portraiture in the house
is possible, except perhaps in the very heart of London,
where the yellow fogs are prevalent ; but there are other
means of using the art if the light become too poor for
portrait work. Pictures may be copied — paintings
either in oil or water-coloui", engravings, etchings, and
so forth, are all equally Avell reproduced by the aid of
the dry plate.

When flowers are in season, beautiful pictures may be
made by those who have skill and taste in arranging
them. Special sets of apparatus are now prepared for
boys and girls at school.

So far for amusement ; but there is no reason why
the photographer, although he be an amateur — that
is to say, although his profession is something different
from the photographic — should make nothing more
than a plaything of his hobby. There is scarcely
a profession in which photography is not at times
useful.

How useful photography may be to the soldier and
naval man is proved by the fact that the art is taught
in naval and military colleges.

To the artist photography may often be useful, and in
fact it is greatly used by many painters, although, we
are sorry to say, a few of those who do make use of it
are not very willing to let the fact be known. Artists
too often look on photography with a mingled feeling of
contempt and jealousy.

To the architect the art is possibly more useful than
to almost any other professional man. Photographic
reproductions of buildings must always be infinitely
more faithful and useful for his purpose than the most

APPLICATIONS OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY. 19

elaborate and laboriously prepared sketches or dra"vnngs.
The same applies of coiu'se to the builder.

To the engineer, possibly as much as to the architect,
photography is useful, and "o-ith him it is indeed con-
tinually in force. "We know of civil engineers in charge
of contracts far from home whose weekly report of pro-
gress is accompanied by a photograph, which, we need
scarcely say, will tell more than volumes of description
would. To the mechanical engineer a special benefit is
to be found in the use of photographs when work is
being tendered for or ofi"ers are being made for erecting
machinery. A photograph of a machine will in many
cases give a much better idea of the general construction
and arrangement of parts than -will the most elaborate
drawing ; Avhilst, on the other hand, there is less of
dimensional design revealed, because on account of per-
spective, foreshortening, etc., there is difficidty in taking
measurements from a photograph, except in certain
special cases where it is taken with a view to measure-
ment. The engineer thus gives to his customer a
better general idea of his machine by the use of a
photograph than by that of a draAving, whilst he is less
likely to have his designs stolen.

To the medical profession j)hotography is invaluable.
Typical cases of all kinds are recorded, and the pro-
gi'ess of disease or cure may be shown. To the Ahenist,
or as he is generally jocularly called the "mad doctor,"
does this perhaps apply more than to any other specialist.

In fact there is scarcely a case of any set of profes-
sional men to whom photography may not be useful as
something more than a mere plaything, and we might
multiply cases without end.

20 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

In pure science photography is used in every direction.
Tliere is scarcely "a branch of science in which it is not
used, either as a means of keeping records or in some
other capacity, whilst for some scientific pursuits a know-
ledge of it is absolutely necessary.

CHAPTEE IV.

THE DARK EOO:\I.

"We now enter upon a practical description of the mani-
pulations which take place in the production of negatives
and finished prints, and of the apparatus which is used
to assist such manipulations.

Oar intention is to go through every manipulation,
attempting to make it as clear to the mind of the be-
ginner as possible, describing in brief and general terms
as we go on the apparatus u.sed. Afterwards we shall
describe more particularly and at some length the various
modifications of this apparatus, so that the would-be
photographer, having got an idea of what he will have
to do to secure photographic pictiu"es, may then judge
on what scale he will work and of what nature his
camera and suchlike are to be.

We must descril^e first of all what can scarcely be
called a piece of apparatus, but what is nevertheless
the first requirement in the manipulation of photo-
graphic plates of any kind. This is the Darh Boom.
Without entering into a disquisition on light or on the
sensitive photographic film we may say this much. The
plates with which the photographer is about to work,
and which consist of pieces of glass with a film spread

22 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

on them of a white creamy material called gelatine
emulsion, are affected by the most inconceivably small
amount of light which may reach them. This is true of
white light, or of light of any colour except red. Red
light has little or no effect on photographic films. Taking
this into consideration, it will readily be seen that the
only means of manipulating the plates without getting
them affected — and consec^uently spoiled — is to work in'
a room which is illuminated with red light onlj'. To
such an apartment has been given the name of the
"dark room." It is needless to say that the title is
an incorrect one, and that "red room," or something
of that kind, would have been better. The expres-
sion "dark room" is so well known and universally
used by photographers that we retain it throughout
this book.

In the old wet-collodion days, or even now, where
wet plates are used for enlarging and suchlike pur-
poses, the dark room is of necessity a somewhat elabo-
rately fitted apartment, because there the plates have
to be prepared as they are required. Moreover,
in the case of wet - plate work, the all - pervading
" silver bath " makes it almost impossible to use a com-
mon apartment temporarily for the purposes of a dark
room. The dark room has to he j^ermanent and estab-
lished. ■ AVith dry plates the thing is different. The
only necessities are a room which can be darkened, a
plain deal table to work upon, and a lamp gi^^ng a red
light to work by. The writer has often performed all
his manipulations in the bedroom of the hotel at which
he might be stopping after it was dark in the evening,
iising the wnsh-hand stand to work on, and for a lamp

THE DARK ROOM. 23

to work by having nothing but a night light covered
with a cone of red paper. Such make -shift arrange-
ments are, however, rather for the advanced photographer
in an emergency than for the beginner, who may meet
with difficulty enough without making them for him-
self. He should, if possible, have some room, no matter
how small, which he can devote to the purpose of dark
room solely. If a room ^yith a sink and water laid on
can be got he will have as perfect a dark room as could
be desired. A deal table is, as we have said, necessary
to work upon, and there should be one or two shelves
on which to place bottles, etc.

Sujjposing the beginner have the means of either build-
ing or fitting up a room, the following is the way in
which it should be done : —

Somewhat to the right of the centre of one of the
longer Avails and against it there is fitted the sink. This
should be of stoneware so that it may readily be cleaned.
It may be about three feet long by one foot six inches
wide. It should be supplied b}' a tap about eighteen
inches above it, and projecting several inches from the
wall.

Immediately to the left of the sink is the operating
table. It should be somewhat high. Three feet six
inches is not too much. The height prevents the neces-
sity of excessive stooping whilst watching the progress
of the various operations. The table may be three feet
long or more, if there is s})acc to spare, and two feet
wide. It is best covered with sheet-lead of the thick-
ness known as 5 lb. It may slope slightly towards
the sink, so that any spillings may find their way into
this latter, and in this case it should ha^e a narrow

24

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

ridge along the front edge, standing, say a quarter of an
inch above the level of the rest, so as to direct such
spillings. There should be a shelf about a foot below
the table on which to lay dishes.

The only further question is, how to supply the neces-
sary red light, — it being, of course, understood that all
extraneous white light is entirely shut out. If the side
of the room against which the sink is fixed be an outside
wall, there may be made in it, at a height of six inches
above the operating table, a window, say two feet long
and one foot six inches high, glazed with one thickness
of ruby and one of orange glass. Whether this be

done or not, a "ruby
lamp" of some kind
will be required for
night work. Several
varieties of such are
here illustrated ; but
we would specially
recommend our Reflec-
tor Developing Lamp,
which is fitted Avith a
new orange glass, al-
lowing of much" more
light and yet perfectly
safe for even the most
sensitive plates. An excellent arrangement when a
"borrowed light" can be had is the following: We
suppose the wall against which the sink is fixed to be
a "partition dividing the dark room from another apart-
ment which is well lighted. A window is made as before,
but in this case it may be considerably larger, possibly

THE DARK ROOM.

25

two and a half feet square, and need be only glazed with
one thickness of ruby glass. Opposite this window,
several inches from it, and on the light room side there
is fixed an ordinary gas-burner. "When the daylight
wanes this burner is lighted, and affords the necessary
illumination.

In any case there should, if possible, be in the dark
room at least one ordinary burner, so that there may be
a comfortable light if it
be desired to do any
work which does not
involve the exposure
of sensitive films, — for
example, the washing
up of utensils, etc.

The door of the room
should fit light-tight,
and there should be an
opaque black curtain hung just inside it, so that the
photographer may make his entrance and exit -onthout
letting in a flood of light.

Any available space on the walls may be occupied by
shelves on which to place bottles, etc. Besides this, a
useful piece of apparatus is a box which shuts light-
tight, in which sensitive plates may be placed if it be
Avished to turn up the gas.

Such is the form which a permanent dark room usu-
ally takes, and if the student be fortunate enough to
have the means of fitting up such a room he will find it
most convenient ; but it is not by any means necessary
that he should do so. As we have said already, almost
any room or closet may be used for a temporary dark

26

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

room, and this not for the production of second-class
work, but for the very best. Or oiu" (Marion and Co.'s)
new portable tent and table may be used; it answers
the purj)ose admirably, and has the great convenience of
permitting its being put up in any room, outhouse, or
even in the garden or courtyard. It is easily fixed, and
as easily taken to pieces and stowed away.

It will be seen that the room which we have described

very closely resembles an
ordinary pantry; and, in
fact, if a pantry can either
be secured altogether, or
if one can be darkened for
the tinje being, when the
photographer wishes to
operate, there will be com-
pleted as good a dark
room as can be desired.
If a room with a sink
cannot be secured, it is
sufficient to have an ordi-
nary table, to place imder
it a large pail or tub to
act as a sink, and on it
a water-jug to supply the necessary water.

For outdoor work it is not uncommon even in these
days to use a tent, and for the amateui* this may take
the place of the dark room altogether. The tent A\ill be
described farther on.

CHAPTEE V.

THE EXPOSURE OF PLATES.

"We now come to the actual beginning of operations, and
have to describe the exposure of a plate.

The apparatus required for this is the following :
A camera wnth a dark slide, a lens, a camera stand, and
a focussing cloth.

The photographic camera is simply a portable form of
the camera obscura. It is a box, at one end of which is
fixed the lens, whilst at the other there is a piece of
ground glass on which falls the inverted image which
the lens forms of any brightly-lighted object which is
opposite to it. The dark slide is a light-tight case to
hold one or more, generally two, sensitive plates, and
so constructed that when the groimd glass is removed
from the camera it (the dark slide) may slide into a
groove, and so that after this, on drawing out a thin
slab of wood, the sensitive plate finds itself in the precise
position in which the ground glass before was, — the image
formed by the lens now of course falling on it in place
of on the ground glass.

The lens will be fully described hereafter in a chapter
on photographic optics. It may be called the chief of
photographic tools. The first experiments may be made

28 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

with any of the several forms of lenses. Every camera
is fitted with an adjustment for altering the distance
between the lens and the ground glass or sensitive plate
so as to perform the operation known as focussing.

The tripod stand is the three-legged support for the
camera, which must be familiar in appearance to all. In
most modern tripods the legs slide one half into the
other, and the whole packs into a very small space.

The focussing cloth is a piece of square opaque cloth
to cover the head of the photographer and shut out the
glare of light so as to enable him with ease to examine
the image on the ground glass of his camera. The size
may be from one yard to a yard and a half square
according to the size of the camera. The best material
is velvet. Black waterproof cloth is also good, but any
cloth which is opaque and black will do very well.

We now commence our first experiment. The smallest
size of plates which are sold should be used, as the first
results may not be of great use, and the smaller the
plates wasted the better. The smallest size of plate com-
monly used is five inches by four inches. If the dai^k
slide be constructed for larger plates it may be fitted
with a carrier for the size mentioned. Dark slides for
dry plates are now always made to hold two plates each,
and are called "double dark slides."

The dark slide is taken into the dark room, and is
placed open on the table opposite the red light. All
other light that may be in the room is now extin-
guished.

The box in which the dry plates are purchased is
opened. A plate is taken out. On careful examination
it Mall be seen that this plate is difi'erent on the two

EXPOSURE OF PLxiTES. 29

sides. One side shows the ordinaiy siu'face of a sheet of
glass, the other is covered 'snth emulsion, and looks
something like a ground-glass siu"face. Care must be
taken not to touch with the fingers this last-mentioned
side. The plates should be handled by the edges. It
is placed in the dark slide with the film side downwards,
so that when the shutter of the slide is withdrawn this
side will be exposed. The other plate is placed similarly,
and the piece of blackened tin which is used with every
dark slide goes between the two plates.

It must be explained that there are two Avays in
which double dark slides are constructed. In the one
kind the slide opens on hinges into two di^nsions like a
book, a plate is placed in each division, and the slide is
then closed. In the other kind both plates are put into
the slide from one side. In this latter case the first plate
is placed in film side doicnicarch, the blackened tin-plate is
placed on it, and, last of all, the second plate is placed
in the slide film side upwards. There is also a third
kind, such as in our student and Oxford set cameras.
In these the blackened tin-plate is fixed ; consequently
the emulsion plates must be placed one on either side,
with the film upwards. Whatever the constn;ction of
the slide, Avhen it is closed the plates must be in it
hack to bad; and with a piece of blackened tin or paper
between them.

When the slide is filled and closed, and Avhen the
remaining plates have been again carefidly wrapped up
or have been placed in a light-tight box, the photo-
grapher may issue from the dark room. The dark slide
should be placed under the coat, or may be -wrapped up
in a piece of black cloth. It is not advisable to leave it

30 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

for any length of time in bright hght, as the smallest
fault would result in the destruction of one or both
plates.

A subject must be chosen to make an exiDerimental
exposure on. The best thing is a brightly-lighted land-
scape, which should show as broad contrasts of light
and shade as possible. The composition of the scene
as a picture need not be considered at this stage. The
camera is placed so that the subject will be lighted from
the side, — that is to say, the position is such that the
sun is neither before nor behind the camera.

The lens is fixed in position and the operation of
focussing commences. As we said, the lens may be of
any of the diiferent varieties which are used. It is best,
if possible, however, that it be not a portrait lens. If
the lens have movable diaphragms or stops, they must
be removed, so that the aperture or opening is the
largest which the lens is constructed to work with.

On covering the head with the focussing cloth, so that
the focussing screen or ground glass is in comparative
darkness, and looking at this latter, an inverted image
more or less distinct of the object opposite the camera
will be seen. Now we work the adjustment which
alters the difference between the lens and the ground
glass, and which generally is either a screw or a rack
and pinion. "NVe try first one direction and then another
till we find the image getting sharj). We then look at
some bold object near the centre of the ground glass,
and adjust till this appears quite sharp. We have now,
in those lenses which are fitted with diaphragms or stops,
to select a stop to insert in the slit of the lens. These
are generally small plates of thin blackened brass, with

EXPOSURE OF PLATES. 31

various-sized holes in the centre of them. The plates
may, any one of them, be slipped into a slit in the brass-
work of the lens, which is made for their reception.
In the case of some lenses there is, in place of the set of
separate stops or diaphragms, a disk, which is an attach-
ment to the brasswork of the lens, but which can
revolve so as to let any one of several different-sized
holes in it take the desired central position. The use
of the diaphragms will be fully explained in the chajjter
on photographic optics. Meantime, for the preliminary
experiment, it will be best to use the smallest stop with
which the lens is supplied. When this is adjusted we
are ready to expose.

The cap is jDlaced on the lens, the ground glass is
removed or hinged up according to the construction of
the camera, and the dark slide is jnxt into its place.
This latter operation is best done under cover of the
focussing cloth, which should remain over the whole
of the camera •^^^th the exception of the lens till the
exposure is complete.

The shutter or sliding part of the dark slide is
Avithdra^vn, when it ^vill be understood that nothing
prevents the image from falling on the sensitive film
except the lens cap. This latter is now gently removed.
If the subject be a brightlj^-lighted landscape it may
be kept off for two or three seconds, when it is replaced.
The shutter of the slide is replaced. It will be best
to make another exposure of longer duration on the
other plate before the camera is shifted or the stop
removed. A comparison of the two resulting negatives
afterwards will be instructive. We may then, im-
mediately after we have replaced the shutter, take

32 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

out tlie dark slide, reverse it, replace it, withdraw
the other shutter and expose once more, giving this
time, say, ten seconds. The times may be counted from
the seconds hand of a watch, or if the photographer be
tolerably good at counting seconds he may use that
method. It is quite accurate enough.

After exposure the shutter is once more wrapped up
or placed under the operator's coat, and the process of
development may be performed.

CHAPTER VI.

DEVELOPMENT.

We would here pause for a few minutes to explain in
as few words as possible what has taken place during
exposure, and what is to take place during development.
We request the special attention of the student to this
explanation, because if he once thoroughly understands
the matter — that is to say, the relation which exists
between exposure and development — he will have passed
the photographic |w?(S asinorum, and mil find his further
way clear before him.

In the first place it is necessary to understand what
is the meaning of a negative. We may define it as
a picture where all the shades of nature are reversed,
where what is in reality black is shown as white, whilst
what in reality is white is shown as black. When we
hold up a photographic negative between us and the
light this is what Ave see. For example, if the subject
be a man dressed in a black coat, with white collar, etc.,
his collar Avill appear quite black, and his face nearly so,
whilst his coat will appear white.

We here give a print which will explain the appear-
ance better than words can do. The first cut shows a
negative, the second the positive, which may be produced
from it by the printing process.

D

34

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

What we wish to produce thus by the camera is a
negative representation of the picture on the ground
glass. By the exposure which we have given we have
got this negative, so to speak, in potential, — that is to

^

*rnr

tti^^l #^^

say, there is on the plate what is called a "latent image,"
that is to say, although there is as yet nothing visible,
yet there is such a change of the silver bromide particles
that, when the operation of development is performed,
the negative Avill appear. We must further explain
what is the effect if we have continued the exposure for
a time either too short or too long, and how we can tell
by the appearance of the negative whether or not the
exposure has been sufficient.

Let us examine closely the landscape which we have
chosen for our first experiment. "We shall see that
different parts of the subject reflect very different
quantities of light ; in other words, there are different
degrees of brightness. Possibly, to take an extreme

DEYELOPMEXT. 35

case, there has been inchided a glaring whitewashed wall,
or a line of clothes himg out to dry, whilst near this
there is a widespreading tree with deep shadows under
the branches. If we look with attention we shall see
that certain small portions of the deepest shadow appear
to be quite black. Apparently they send no light at all
to the eye.

Now let us consider what takes place when the cap is
removed from the lens. The image, which, as we know,
is an exact counterpart of the landscape in front of the
camera, and shows all the same gradation of light, falls
on the plate. The brighter shades, or, as they are usually
called, the " high lights," naturally impress themselves
first, and were the exposure stopped at a very early stage
nothing but these Avould be visible in the negative. All
the half-tone and the darker tones, or, as they are usually
called, the " detail in the shadows," would be quite un-
represented. To take the case that we have supposed, a
very brief exposure would show nothing but the white
wall or line of clothes. As the exposure is continued,
however, darker and darker shades find their representa-
tion until at last every detail which is visible to the eye
is impressed on the film, — not visibly, be it understood,
but in a form which may be made visible by the after
process of development. "When this stage is reached the
correct exposure has been given. It might be supposed
that no harm could come of giving a much longer
exposure, and it is true that less harm results from over-
exposure than from under-exposure, yet excessiA^e ex-
posure has its evils as well as under-exposure. It must
be understood that there is always in the camera, besides
the light forming the image, a certain amoiuit of diff'used

36 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

light which arises from reflection from the sides of the
bellows. If the exposure be much protracted this faint
light ■will act on those portions of the plate which repre-
sent the blackest parts of the subject, and which ought
to be represented by transparency, or a near approach
to it.

Assuming that the student understands this explana-
tion of what Ave may call the rationale of the matter, we
pass on to the practical development of a plate.

The chemicals which we require are the following : —

Pyrogallic acid.

Strongest liquor ammonia ("SSO).

Bromide of ammonium.

Nitric acid.

Alum (powdered).

Hyposulphite of soda (usually called hypo).

The following solutions are j^repared from these : —
No. 1. — Stock Solution.

Pyrogallic acid

1 ounce.

Bromide of ammonium .

600 grains.

Nitric acid ....

20 drops.

Water, up to

G ounces.

No. 2. '*

Strongest liquor ammonia (-880)

3 drachms,

Water

1 pint.

(This will keep some time if a\

•ell stoppered.)

No. 3.

No. 1 . . . ' .

1 ounce.

Water

19 ounces.

These are the developing solutions. They should be
accurately prepared by weighing and measuring. Guess
work will not do.

DEVELOPMENT. 37

To prepare No. 1 the twenty drops of nitric acid are
added to four ounces of water. This is poured over the
pyrogalhc acid and bromide of ammonia, and the quan-
tity is then made up to six ounces. This solution will
keep for a considerable time, certainly for some months.

Xo special precautions are necessary in mixing No. 2.
It will keep as long as the bottle is kept quite securely
stoppered.

No. 3 will keep for only a few hoiu's, and is made
by diluting No. 1 just before development is to be
performed.

To save the amateur time and trouble we prepare
bottles of developing solution ready for use.

Besides these solutions the following are required : —

Alum Solution.

Alum . . ...

2 ounces.

Water

1 pint.

Fixing Solution.

Hyposulphite of soda

5 ounces.

Water, up to ... .

1 pint.

These latter solutions are best made by pouring warm
water over the chemicals mentioned, and stirring till
complete solution takes place. They may be used when-
ever they are cool, and will keep indefinitely. There is
no necessity to be Avith them so exact as regards quan-
tities as in the case of the develoi)ing solutions.

The only apparatus necessary is the following : —

A measuring glass to hold four or five ounces, and one
to hold an ounce.

Three flat dishes of such a size as to hold the plates
to be developed. These are best made of vulcanite or

38 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

papier-mache for the sake of hghtness, and to prevent
the breakage which is likely to take place if porcelain
dishes be used. We here illustrate a flat or developing
dish : —

When we are about to commence operations we take
the three dishes and place them in a row along the front
edge of the operating table. One dish is opposite the
red light, the others are to the right of this one. Space
is left between the dish opposite the light and the next
one for the glass measure. The l)ottles containing the
developing solutions may go beside the light, so that we
may easily place a hand on them in the comparative
obscurity in which Ave are about to work.

Into the middle dish we pour alum solution to a depth
of about quarter of an inch. Into the right-hand dish
we pour a similar quantity of fixing solution.

The dark slide being placed in readiness in any handy
position on the table, Ave pour into the measure an ounce
or an ounce and a quarter of developing solution No. 2,
and a similar quantity of ISTo. 3.

All light, except the ruby lamp, is noAV shut out or
extinguished. The plate AAdiich Avas exposed first, and
Avhich received the shortest exposure, is removed from
the dark slide and is carefully placed, film side upAvards,
on the bottom of the left-hand dish, Av^hich is the only one
that is empt}^ The dish is noAV taken in the left hand
and the measuring glass in the right. The edge of the

DEVELOP-MEXT. 39

glass is lowered to the edge of the dish, aud the develop-
ing solution is rapidly tipped on to the plate, a quick
rockinsc motion beiuo; iriven to the dish to make it cover
at almost the same instant the whole of the film. All
splashing must be avoided, so as to have as few bubbles
formed as possible.

The dish is now gently rocked, so as to keep the
solution in motion, and the result is closely watched.

After a time, which may vary from five seconds to
half a minute, a change will be seen to take place on
the surface of the plate, which at first was quite Avhite.
Certain portions will be seen to darken. These are the
high lights of the picture. To return to our example,
the whitewashed wall or line of white clothes : next
will appear the half-tones, probably the sky appearing
first after the white objects just mentioned. Xow we
can judge whether or not oiu' exposure has been correct.
If it has, the whole of the plate ^nll darken more or less,
or, as it is said, Adll be "full of detail," except those
parts representing the portions of the landscape which
appeared to the eye quite black. These and these only
Avill remain white, or Aery nearly so. If large portions
of the negative remain white, it is a sign that the
exposure has been too short. If the whole of the surface
blacken, it shows that the exposiu-e has been too long.

After it would appear that all action of the developer
has ceased, which will probably be after a minute or
two, we have to do what is the most diflficult thing
in connection "with development, or indeed vrith the
whole of dry -plate photography — we have to judge
whether or not the density of the negative is sufiicient.
It will readily be understood that to get a print of the

40 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

desirable brilliancy from our negative the most opaque
parts of it must have just a certain definite amount of
opacity, not much more and not much less. We can,
of course, only tell this by looking through the negative.
To do so we take it out of the dish and hold it between
our eyes and the ruby light. To judge of the correctness
or otherwise of density requires some practice, as there
is a certain loss dimng the after processes. We may
say here that the very densest portions should appear
nearly if not quite opaque. If they do not the plate is
returned for a time to the solution, and is again
examined after the lapse of half a minute or so. When
the density is sufficient development is complete.

The plate is now taken from the dish and is well
washed for a minute or two under the tap, or by pouring
water on it from a jug. It is then placed in the alum
solution, where it remains for five minutes. It is taken
out and is again thoroughly washed. If the back of the
plate be observed at this or any previous stage it will
be found that it is still quite white. After the second
Avashing the plate is placed in the dish containing the
fixing solution. The whiteness Avill gradually disappear.
When it is quite gone light may freely be admitted,
but the plate must still be kept for a few minutes in the
solution. In fact, a very long time in either the alum
or fixing solution will in no way hurt it.

The negative is now complete, and requires only to
be washed and dried. The washing should be very
thorough. The plate should be kept in running water,
in one of the zinc tanks made for the purpose, for at
least an hour. It is then reared on edge in a plate-rack in
any dry place to dry. Heat must on no account be applied.

DEVELOPMENT. 41

If the beginner be able to secure a good negative to
make comparison with, it will be well for him to notice
whether the density of his is equal to that of the other,
and be guided by the result in developing the next
plate.

The plate which has received the longest exposure
should be developed immediately after the first one, and
whilst the action of the developer is fresh in the
memory of the operator. A new quantity of solution is
used. The image will come up more quickly than the
first.

If the stop used with the lens has been as small as
the smallest usually sent out with landscape lenses it is
probable that the first plate will have been considerably
under-exposed, — that is to say, there will remain after
development considerable portions which have not been
blackened. The second plate will very likely show
signs of over-exposure, — that is to say, no portions of the
film will remain quite, or nearly c^uite, white. It is,
however, to be remembered that unless the deepest
shadows darken or " veil over " very much indeed, this
latter fault is not so grave as the other. In fact, the
best result is produced when no portion of the plate
remains quite white.

It should be noted that it is best to mix a fresh
developer for every plate. The alum and hypo solutions
may be used several times, but when they begin to be
discoloured they should be replaced by fresh.

The object of the alum solution is to harden the
gelatine film on the plate, and to improve the colour of
the negative. It is quite possible to dispense with the
use of it, but it is not desirable.

42 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The object of the fixing-bath is to dissolve away such
bromide of silver as is not reduced or blackened by the
combined action of light and the developer.

"We have described the process of development as
taking place immediately after exposure. It must be
borne in mind, however, that there is no need for this.
It may be delayed for a very considerable length of
time; how long is not known with certainty, but at
any rate for some months. Thus the amateur may, if
he be away from home, keep all his plates for develop-
ment till he returns.

CHAPTER YII.

DEVELOPMENT {Continued).

Compensation fw Under and Over Exposure .

We have so far been considering merely a case of " nor-
mal exposui'e " and " normal development," but we must
go farther than this and give examples of abnormal
exposures and the corresponding variations which recj[uire
to be introduced in development to correct these.

One of the greatest advantages of dry plates is that,
although there certainly is for every subject a correct
exposure, any considerable deviation from which is to be
as far as possible avoided, still it is quite possible to
correct or compensate for considerable differences from
this "normal exposure," as it is generally termed.

Thus if the normal exposure for a certain subject were
ten seconds — that is to say, if ten seconds were the
exposure which, with the developer as commonly
mixed, would give the very best result — it Avould be
quite possible, by somewhat varying the manner of
mixing the solutions, to get an equally, or almost
equally, good result with an exposure as short as seven
or eight seconds or as long as sixty seconds, or even
possibly longer.

U PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

This power to compensate gives what we term " lati-
tude of exposure," and is one of the most useful powers
which we possess in Avorking dry plates, because it is
impossible to judge with certainty of the intensity of
light, and could we not compensate in some way for a
slight error it would only be on rare occasions that we
could have a perfect negative.

This compensating for under or over exposure is
the chief reason for ever altering the proportions of the
solutions used in development ; but there is still another.
The nature of the subject to be treated varies very much,
"We have some subjects which tend to give very strong
contrasts of light and shade, whilst others exhibit no
such strong differences of brightness. As an example
of the first we may return to our old illustration, where
we had side hy side a whitewashed wall and a tree with
widespreading branches and deep shadows. As an ex-
ample of the other we may take an open landscape, a
scene with possibly a river in the foreground, and beyond
that roads and houses all brightly lighted. Now, were
the plates exposed on these two very different subjects
developed in precisely the same manner, the result would
probably not l)e satisfactory. The first would make a
chalky picture, in which the wall came out in a pure
Avhite mass showing no detail, the tree a deep black mass
showing also almost no detail. The second would not
show contrast enough, but would be flat and wanting in
sparkle.

It is necessary then, at any rate occasionally, to vary
the developer to suit the subject, even if the exposure
have been correct.

Before going into these c[uestions of variation of

DEVELOPMENT. 45

developer we must say a few words on the functions of
the various chemicals of which the developer is made up.
The three constituents are : (1) pryogallic acid; (2)
ammonia ; (3) bromide of ammonium. The function of
the nitric acid is merely to preserve the pyrogallic acid.

This latter is the true developer. It is possible, if
sufficient exposure be given to the plate, to develop with
a solution of pyrogallic acid only, but not "«dth either of
the other chemicals.

The greater the portion of pyrogallic acid used, the
denser Avill be the negative ; but the addition of pyrogallic
acid beyond what is necessary to make the image appear
does not tend to increase the amount of detail which
can be brought out on the plate.

The ammonia greatly increases the energy of the
action of the pyrogallic acid. A certain quantity of it
is necessary to secure sufficient density with normal
exposure, but any increase beyond this has the effect of
bringing out more detail until a point is reached where
the developer has so much energy that it will reduce or
blacken a film even Avhen it has had no exposure to
light.

The effect of the bromide of ammonium is to restrain
the action of the developer. It may at first be thought
strange that there should be added to the pyrogallic
acid, first, a chemical to increase the energy of its actions,
then another to restrain it, and it might be supposed
that these two would merely counteract each other.
This is not the case, however. The chief effect of the am-
monium bromide is to make the action of the developer
slower merely, but not to prevent it from ultimatel}'
doing its work. When in considerable quantity, how-

46 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

ever, it does actually counteract the effect of the am-
monia. If a develojier be used without bromide as a
restrainer the action is so rapid that it cannot be watched,
and it is consequently not under control. If very little
ammonia be used with the idea of preventing this very
rapid action, then sufficient density is not gained.

The result of increasing ammonium bromide is to
make the action of the developer much slower, to keep
back detail, and to increase the density of the image.

Now we will see how we can alter the proportion of
our developer so as to suit different circumstances. The
solutions are so mixed that the bromide and the pyi'o-
gallic are together, as these are in some respects similar
in their action.

If we have under-exposed we have merely to increase
the quantity of No. 2 — the ammonia solution, and we
shall increase the energy of the developer and thus bring
out more detail. The power of the ammonia is, how-
ever, limited. When increased beyond a certain amount
the effect is, as we explained before, that even those
portions of the plate which have received no impress of
light are blackened, the result being to produce a foggy
negative which is useless.

On the other hand, if we have over-exposed we have
merely to increase the proportion of the pyrogallic
solution (No. 3), when we prevent the appearance of
detail on account of the bromide, whilst at the same
time the increased pyrogallic acid enables sufficient
density to be gained. Unlike the last case, there is
scarcely any limit to the amount of compensation which
is j)ossible in the case of over-exposure. It will thus be
seen that where we are at all doubtful of what exposure

DEVELOPMENT. ' 47

to give, we had better err on the side of over-exposure
rather than under-exposure.

So far we have indicated the variations in the de-
veloper which it is necessary to make to compensate for
errors of exposure, and it is evident that there is no
difficulty involved if we know whether we have exposed
too little, or too much, as may often be the case after we
have developed the first of a series of plates which have
been exposed at the same time.

It very frequently happens, however, that we have to
develop plates concerning which we are quite unceitain
as to whether the exposiu-e has been too little, correct,
or too much. We now describe the procedure to pursue
when we are thus uncertain. First we will take the
case which is common, for example, in studio work,
where we know that our exposure cannot be much too
little or too great. In this case we begin with the
normal developer, but have in readiness the vessel con-
taining No. 3. We watch the process very closely to
see the first symptom of over-exposure. WTien a plate
is over-exposed this is indicated by the manner in which
the details appear. The high lights are a little quicker
in showing themselves, and after they do so, the rest of
the details, instead of coming up gradually in the order
of their brightness, appear rapidly one after another, so
that in the case of a very much over-exposed plate the
whole surface darkens within a few seconds of the time
when the high lights appear.

Whenever the operator observes by this quick coming
up of detail that his plate is over-exposed, he pours away
the solution that covers it, and pours No. 3 into the dish
in place of it. This vdW stop the further appearance of

48 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

detail, but vnll allow density to continue increasing, and
it is quite possible that the development may be thus
completed. If, however, there appear to be insufficient
detail the solution in the dish is emptied into a measure,
and a little of Xo. 2 is added, and the solution repoured
over the plate.

If, on the other hand, the high lights have been
slow of appearing, and shortly after they do come action
ceases, leaving large patches of unblackened film, this
indicates under-exposure, and a certain quantity of
solution No. 2 must be added as described above. The
addition of this may be continued until the desired effect
is produced, or until there is two or three times as much
of No. 2 in the developer as there is of No. 3. It is not
safe to go beyond this or fog aWII probably result. If
sufficient detail be not by this time gained it may be
assumed that the plate has been so much under-exposed
as to be useless.

We now take the case which is very common in land-
scape work, where we do not know but that our plates
may be very much over-exposed indeed. It would now
be dangerous to begin with the normal developer, as detail
would fla.sh out before we had time to pour off the one
solution and pour on the other. "We now start with a
solution consisting of one part of No. 2 and three parts of
No. 3. For example, if we are about to develop a quarter
plate we will take half an ounce of No. 2 and one and a
half ounce of No. 3. With this developer the image "v^^ll
appear but slowly even if the plate has been over-exposed,
and very slowly if it has been correctly exposed. Only
practice enables us to be able to tell at once from the
rapidity with which the image appears whether we have

DEYELOPilEXT. 49

over-exposed, under-exposed, or correctly exposed. If
the fomier be the case we may continue development
Avdth the solution as we began Avith it, or even may in-
crease No. 3 if it appears that the exposure has been very
much too great. If the exposure appears to have been
correct we add No, 2 till we have as much of it as there
Avas of No. 3. If it appears to have been too short, we
have to continue adding No. 2 as described before.

"We have now only to explain how it is, at times, desir-
able to vary the developer so as to suit different subjects.

A consideration of what we said Avith regard to the
properties of each of the constituents of the developer
will show that, apart from considerations of exposure,
the effect of increasing No. 3 in proportion to No. 2 is
to increase density or contrast, whilst the effect of in-
creasing No. 2 in proportion to No. 3 is to reduce con-
trast. All that we have to do then, if we have a subject
in which contrast is excessive, and from which we expect
to get a chalky print, is to increase the quantity of No.
2. If, on the other hand, our subject presents but weak
contrasts we have to increase No. 3. AVe may thus at
times, even if exposure has been correct, use the two
solutions mentioned in proportions of three or four parts
of one to one part of the other.

Some operators like to have in readiness, besides the
solutions mentioned, a concentrated solution of bromide
of ammonia and a strong mixture of ammonia and water.
These may be usefid in certain circumstances. One
ounce of bromide of ammonia may be made up with
water to ten ounces, and a mixture may be made of one
ounce ammonia to nine ounces water; these will then
each be ten per cent solutions.

E

CHAPTER VIII.

VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT.

FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER — SODIC SULPHITE DEVEL-
OPER— SODA AND POTASH DEVELOPERS — HYDRO-
KINONE DEVELOPER.

Ferrous O.mlate BevelojJer.

The developer which we have described, and which is
usually called the " alkaline pyrogallic developer," or, for
the sake of brevity, simply the "alkaline developer," is
the one which is the most popular in this country, and
is admitted by almost all to be the one which allows the
greatest latitude of exposure, and admits of the greatest
amount of variation to suit different classes of subjects.

The ferrous oxalate or iron developer is, however, by
far the most popular on the Continent, and with some
few photographers in this country, and certainly it has
some advantages.

AVere the negative, instead of the print, the end at
which the photographer aims, certainly the iron devel-
oper would be the one to adopt. The colour of the
image given by it is very much more pleasing to the
eye than is the colour given by the alkaline developer.
Moreover, the manipulations are cleaner. It is quite

VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT. 51

true that with ordinary care it is possible to work the
alkah'ue developer without staining the hands, and it is
also true that the stain even if made is not as indelible
as a silver nitrate stain. The oxalate developer has,
however, this advantage that it produces no stain at all.

The following chemicals are required for this de-
veloper : —

Suljjhate of iron.

Oxalate of potash.

Bromide of ammonium.

Of the first two of these saturated solutions in water
are made, — that is to say, as much of each of them is
dissolved in Avater as it will take up.

This may be done in the following manner : —

A pound of protosulphate of iron is placed in a pint
bottle. Over this is poured hot Avater almost to fill
the bottle, and the whole is shaken till as much of the
crystalline substance as will dissolve has done so. As
the solution is used water may be added, the bottle
being shaken each time that this is done.

The very same process is gone through with a pound
of oxalate of potash.

It is qrdte true that this plan of using saturated solu-
tions is not a very accurate one, as the amount of the
chemicals which remains dissolved varies with the tem-
perature. It appears, however, to be quite good enough
for all practical purposes.

The solutions must, of course, not l>e used till they
are cold.

The bromide of ammonium may be used in a ten per
cent solution, as was described at the end of the last
chapter.

52 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

We now have —

No. 1. Saturated solution of protosulphate of iron.

No. 2. Saturated solution of oxalate of potash.

No. 3. Ten per cent solution of bromide of ammo-
nium.

Nos. 2 and 3 will keep indefinitely. No. 1 will keep
for a considerable time in a well-stoppered bottle, but
not indefinitely. It should be of a bright gi"een colour.
If it turns reddish it is a sign of deterioration.

Just before we commence develoiiment we take two
ounces of No. 2 ; into this we poiu" half an ounce of
No. 1 ; immediately the solution assumes a beautiful
ruby-red colour, due to ferrous oxalate, which is formed.

Development is performed with this solution precisely
as with the alkaline developer, but will, as a rule, be
found to proceed more slowly. It is necessary also to
make the apparent density of the negative somewhat
greater than with the alkaline developer, as the colour
of the film is less non-actinic. The time taken with most
subjects will be about from three to five minutes.

It is not in most cases necessary to use any bromide
of ammonium at all, unless the plate has been over-
exposed, when a little is added to the developer to re-
strain its action. Many operators, however, prefer to
have a little bromide in the solution in all cases, as
clearer shadows are thereby obtained ; but, as the re-
straining action of bromide is much more energetic in
the case of the iron developer than is that of the alka-
line, a less quantity is sufficient. Not more than about
two or three drops of the ten per cent solution should
be added to each ounce of developer unless there has
been decided over-exposure. Ten drops to the ounce is

VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT. 53

enough to compensate for very considerable excess of
exposure.

^Yith the oxalate developer there is no accelerator
which can be used as ammonia is "vvith the alkaline
developer, but a slightly similar effect may be brought
about by using a little hyposulphate of soda.

It is best to prepare a very weak solution of this. One
containing five grains to the ounce of water is sufficient.
A few drops of this added to the oxalate developer brings
up somewhat more detail on a plate, but great care must
be exerted or a reversed action will commence which "svill
destroy the negative. More than twenty minims of the
weak solution mentioned should never be added to each
ounce of the developer.

Unlike the alkaline developer, the ferrous oxalate may
be used to develop several plates in succession without
the mixing of a fresh solution, if more than an hour or
two do not intervene. By long exposure to the air,
however, the strength of the developer is lost.

A more concentrated and consequently more ener-
getic oxalate developer may be made in the following
manner : —

A bottle — holding, say, a pint — is nearly filled with a
saturated solution of oxalate of })otash. The whole is
slightly warmed, and protosulphate of iron is dropped in
in crystals. The bottle is shaken to dissolve these, and
more crystals are added till no more will dissolve. The
solution will keep for some weeks in a tightly-stoppered
bottle.

The operation of development with ferrous oxalate
is, as we indicated, much cleanlier than that with
alkaline pyro. For this reason it is likely to be a

54 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

favourite with many, and especially with ladies. We
shall therefore briefly describe how it may be used so
as to secure the greatest latitude of exposure which it
is possible to have with it.

For the method of working which we are about to
describe, three "dipping baths," large enough to hold
the plates to be developed, are required, and one dipper.
We illustrate a dipping bath. It will be seen that it is

simply a vertical vessel so shaped as to hold a plate
siuTounded with solution. The best material is glass.
The dipper is a little piece of apparatus for lowering a
plate into the bath.

We shall call the baths Nos. 1, 2, and 3.

Into No. 1 there is poured concentrated ferrous
oxalate solution, made as just described.

Into No. 2 is poured the ordinary ferrous oxalate
developer, made as described first of all.

Into No. 3 is poured the same developer as goes into
No. 2, but there is added ten minims of the ten per cent

VARIATIONS IX DEVELOPMENT. 55

solution of bromide of ammonium to each ounce of this
developer.

When we have a plate to develop and do not feel
certain whether the exposure is correct or not, we place
it on the dipper and lower it into bath No. 2 or 3,
according to the amoimt of our uncertainty. If we
know that oui' exposiu'e cannot be very much ■wrong it
goes into No. 2. If all proceeds satisfactorily it remains
there till development is complete. If exposure appears
to have been too great it goes into No. 3 to be finished.
If it appears to have been too little it goes into No. 1.

If we are very uncertain of our exposure, and think
that it may have been very much too great, we com-
mence with No. 3. It is less necessary to use the alum
solution after ferrous oxalate development than after
alkaline pyro. The fixing is performed in exactly the
same manner in the one case as in the other.

Sodic Siblphite Developer.

The brownish or yellowish colour which a gelatine
plate negative, which has been developed with the
ordinary alkaline pyi'O developer, exhibits is considered
objectional by many.

To avoid it an addition to the developer was proposed
by Mr. Herbert Berkeley some time ago, and the result
obtained by his modification is certainly very excellent.

The addition consists of sodic sulphite or sulphite of
soda, which is used in the proportion of four parts to
every one part of pyrogallic acid.

The stock solutions may be mixed in the following

56

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

No. 1.

Pyrogallic acid

.

1 ounce.

Bromide of ammonium .

600 grains.

Sulpliite of soda

.

4 ounces.

Citric acid

60 grains.

Water, wp to

1 2 ounces.

No.

2.

Strongest liquid

ammonia

(•880)

3 drachms

Water .

1 pint.

No.

3.

No. 1 .

2 ounces.

Water .

18 ounces.

No. 1 is mixed in the following manner : The sul-
phite (not sulphate) of soda is dissolved in eight ounces
of water, a little heat being used. The citric acid is
added. The solution is poured over the pyrogallic
acid and bromide of ammonium, and is then made up
to twelve ounces with cold Avater.

Solutions Nos. 2 and 3 are used precisely as the
solutions of the ordinary developer which bear the same
numbers.

Development will be slightly slower, but the result
will be a negative of a very fine black colour.

Soda and Potash Developers.

Some operators prefer to use common washing-soda or
caustic potash instead of ammonia. It would appear
that thereby a slightly shorter exposure may be given.
For this developer solutions may be mixed as fol-
lows : —

VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT.

57

Pyrogallic acid
Nitric acid
Water, up tn .

No. 1.

No. 2.

1 ounce.
20 drops.
6 ounces.

Carbonate of soda (common wasliing-soda) 6 drachms.

Water, up to .

1 pint.

No. 3.

No. 2
Water

Or,

No. 1.

Pyrogallic acid
Bromide of ammonium
Nitric acid
Water, up to .

No. 3.

1

ounce.

19

ounces.

1

ounce.

600

grains.

20

drops.

G

ounces.

3 drachms.

1

pint.

1

ounce.

19

ounces.

No. 2.
Caustic potash
Water, up to .

No. 1 .
Water .

These solutions are used precisely as the ordinary
solutions.

Hydrohiiione Developer.

Two or three years ago Captain Abney recommended
hydrokinone as a developer instead of pyrogallic acid.
At that time the substance was so dear as to prohibit its
being used except experimentally. Now it is compara-
tively cheap, and the developer is becoming a popular

58

TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

one. It may be used without a restraiuer, and Avhen
first it was described it was claimed for it that it would
enable plates to be worked Avith from one-half to one-
third the exposure required when the ordinary developer
is used.

It would appear that this is a mistake ; nevertheless
some prefer the developer to any other. It is at least
wortliy of a trial by those who are of an experimental
turn.

Solutions may be mixed as follows : — *

No. 1.

Hydi'okinone

i

ounce.

Nitric acid .

20

drops.

Water, up to

No.

2.

6

ounces.

Strongest liquor

ammonia

(•'

B80) .

80

minims.

Water

No.

3.

1

pint.

No. 1

1

ounce.

Water

No.

4.

19

ounces.

Bromide of ammonium

1

ounce.

Water, ujd to

10

ounces.

Nos. 2 and 3 are used as with the ordinary developer
when exposure is normal. No. 4 is only to be used
in cases of over-exiDOsure when a few drops are added
to the developer.

This may be a good place to illustrate and briefly
describe " MacDougald's Patent Developing Tubes."

These consist of two a;lass tubes with closed ends

VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT. r,9

and fitted into a solid block of wood, so that they can
be carried in the pocket or sent per post without fear of
breakage. One contains the "stock solution" No. 1, given
on page 36. The other contains — in a concentrated form
— the " stock solution " No. 2, given on the same page. It

BCOTVtentFtoIlow info a Ami". I

DEVELOPER TUBES

(MACDOUGALD'S PATENT) .

SOLEACEHTS-MARION&C0..22&23 SOHO SqDARE.LONOON. W.

^^^^^^^Heerisar^ ^i[sEoun«s of WMo.r (atou

is simply necessary to break the tubes and to dilute the
solutions Avith water, when Ave have all ready for imme-
diate use — the stock solutions Nos. 2 and 3 of page 36.
The tubes are made of two sizes. In the case of the
smaller .size the contents of each tube is diluted to six
ounces Avith water, in the case of the larger to twelve
ounces.

"When travelling at a distance from home, or even
Avhen near home, in the case where we wish to develop
in the field, these tubes will be found specially useful, it
being difficult or inconvenient to carry the solutions in
the ordinary form.

CHAPTER IX.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES.

No photographic manual would be complete without a
description of the defects which may occur in the pro-
duction of negatives and the remedies which may be
applied. Now that the manufacture of dry plates has
reached the state of perfection that it has, hy far the
greater number of defects which occur are due to faults
in manipulation. Here we must remark that beginners,
and occasionally too those who are not beginners and
ought to know better, are very liable to lay the blame
of faults on the i:)lates when they themselves ought in
reality to bear it.

Of the defects which, for the sake of completeness, we
mention as existing in plates, few will ever be come
across in the present day, whilst we think we may say
with confidence that none of them will be found in the
Britannia plates, as every batch of these is tested, not
only by ourselves, but by an independent photographer,
])efore a plate is allowed to go to the public.

If the enthusiasm of the amateur at any time reach
such a pitch that he determines to make his own plates,
he is likely to meet with any or all of the faults which
we describe.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 61

General Fog.

When "we described the development of a plate we said
that small portions of the film should remain quite white,
and after fixing should appear quite transparent. If
there be no such transparent portions, but on the con-
trary every portion of the plate be more or less opaque,
it is said that there is fog ; and according as the least
opaque portions are of the same colour as the denser or are
of a difi"erent colour, the terms "general fog," "green fog,"
etc., are applied. General fog may be of any degree of
intensity, from the smallest possible veil over the shadows
to such density that the whole negative is almost opaque.
It almost always exists in a gelatine negative to a slight
extent, and in fact a negative which shows absolute clear-
ness in any part is not so good as one which shows a
very slight veil.

Apart from a defect in the plates rarely met with in
commercial articles of the present day, the fog must be
due either to the access of light at some time or another
or to development. Most probably it is due to the first-
mentioned cause.

Light may act in either of the three following manners :
First, by an unsafe light in the dark room ; second, by a
defect in the camera ; and third, by over-exposure.

If the plate after fixing be examined and it be found
that the portions which are protected in the camera by
the wires or rebates of the dark slide are clear, then Ave
know that the fog-producing action is exerted in the
camera, and must be either one or other of the following.
There must be a defect in the camera, or the plate must
have been over-exposed.

62 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO rHOTOGRAPHY.

To judge which it is, the cap is placed on the lens ;
the camera is placed in the most brightly-lighted spot
which can be found, the ground glass is removed or
hinged back, the photographer covers his head with the
focussing cloth and looks for any hole which may admit
light. A few seconds' examination is not sufficient. He
must keep his head under the covering till his eyes have
become accustomed to the darkness before he can be sure
that there is no defect. If there be one discovered it
has of course to be made good. If there be none,
the dark slide must be examined, and if this also be
perfectly light-tight there can be no other assumption
but that over-exposure has been the cause of the fog.

If it be found that the protected portions of the plate
have fogged as well as the others, then it may be assumed
that the fog is produced either by unsafe light in the
dark room, by error in development, or is clue to defect
in the plates.

To discover which of these it is we may develop an
unexposed plate in total darkness. This is easily done,
the operations being guided by feeling alone. The plate
need be only developed and washed. Fixing is unneces-
sary. If there be still fog it is due to either faulty plates
or faulty developer. If there be no fog this time it may
be assumed that the fog which was visible before Avas
produced by unsafe light in the dark room. To corrobo-
rate this a plate is placed in the dark slide. The shutter
of the slide is drawn half-way up, so that one half of the
plate is exposed to the light of the dark room. The
slide is placed in the position usually occupied by the
plate during development, and is left there for three to
five minutes. The plate is now developed. If the half

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 63

which was unprotected by the shutter of the dark slide
blacken, it is proof positive that the light in the dark
room is not safe. The red and all other lights are ex-
tinguished, and the photographer looks for any chink or
cranny which might admit white light. If he finds none
the assumption is that he is using too much red light.
It must be understood that dry plates are slightly sensi-
tive even to red light. An unlimited amoimt of this
must therefore not be used. The lamp must be turned
lower or the developing dish must be placed farther from
it during development.

If fog has appeared on the plate developed in total
darkness, we must try the efTect of mixing a little fresh
developing solution, being very careful to adhere to the
instructions given. We remember a case of one amateur
who had persistent fog, and eventually discovered that he
had forgotten to put any bromide of ammonium into
the No. 1 solution. Another discovered at last that ho
was using ounces of strong liquor ammonia instead of
drachms ! If the developing solution is certainly correct,
then the plates are at fault.

Colour Fog.

This includes red, brown, yellow, and green fog, all
of which ajipear to be different degrees of the same
disease, the fii'st-mentioned being the most malignant
variety, the last-mentioned the least so. It is unusual
in the present day to meet with any but the green fog.
When a negative showing the defect is examined by
reflected light, a dark object being behind it, the shadows
or most transparent parts appear of one or other of the
three last-mentioned coloiu's — brown, yellow, or green.

64 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRArHY.

If the case be a bad one, on looking tlirougli the plate
these shadows will appear of a red colour, the intensity
of which may vary from ruby to a faint pinkness. If
the defect be the slight green fog which may be met
■with under certain circumstances in the case of the best
of plates, it is not visible by transmitted light, and is
quite harmless.

In good plates colour fog makes its appearance only
when insufficient exposure has been given, and excessive
forcing with ammonia has been resorted to, and then
particularly in hot weather. The remedy is to give
ample exposure, or to use ferrous oxalate developer, with
which latter the defect is never ^■isible imless the chemi-
cals be impure.

FriUing.

In the early days of gelatine work frilling was one of
the commonest of defects. The film of gelatine adhered
so loosely to the glass that it frilled off when washing
was being performed. The frilling generally commenced
at the edge of the plate, and extended inwards, possibly
only a quarter of an inch, possibly to the very centre
of the plate. As the frilled portion stretched it could
not be caused to lie flat on the plate, but, if the attempt
were made, folded itself into wrinkles and spoiled the
negative. At times frilling commenced in the centre,
and the film rose in bhsters.

At the present time frilling seldom makes its appear-
ance unless very soft water be used for washing. If
only soft water can be had, a few grains of Epsom salts
shoidd be added to each ounce of it, and the alum bath
should be used without fail.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 65

Flatness or Thinness of Iimuje.

With good gelatine plates there is never any impossi-
bility in obtaining plenty of density or opacity, but it is
([uite likely that an error of judgment may be made,
especially if the plate has been over-exposed, and the
development may be stopped too soon. In this case
it is necessary to intensify the plate, — that is to say, to
increase the densitj' of the image.

The following solutions are prepared : —

A.

"Water ..... 1 (j^iiart.

Bichloride of mercury ... 5 drachms.

Bromide of potassium ... 5 drachms.

B.

Water 1 quart.

^ Cyanide of potassium . . 5 drachms.

Nitrate of silver .....") drachms.

After fixing, A is poured over the plate in a develop-
ing dish till the film appears to be whitened or bleached
through its entire thickness. A very thorough washing
f(jllows, and then B is applied till the required density
is got. Again the plate is thoroughly Ava.shed.

It is well, if a plate be found on printing to require
intensification, to give it (juarter of an hour or so in the
tixing-bath first (afterwards washing). Intensification
often reveals the fact that a plate, which appeared to be
thoroughly fixed, is in fact not.

^ Cyanide in crystals is the only kind that will answer the
purpose.

F

66 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

Too Great Density of Image

is an error of the precisely ojDposite nature to that de-
scribed last. It occurs if the development be allowed to
go too far.

A solution of thirty grains of ferric chloride in three
ounces of water is prepared. The plate is placed in a fiat
dish, and the solution is allowed to act on it for a short
time. The plate is then washed and is placed in the fixing
solution. It will now be found that the density of the
image is considerably reduced. If it be not sufficiently
so the operation may be repeated.

Spots.

Various kinds of spots appear in the finished negative
at times. Opaque spots are due to defect in plates.
Transparent spots with irregular outlines are also due
to defect in the plates.

Perfectly circular transparent spots with well-defined
outlines ai^e due to bubbles in the developer adhering to
the film ; they are liable to occur if too little solution
be used. If the photographer be much troubled with
this defect he should use a broad camel's-hair brush in
development, sweeping it across the plate immediately
after the solution is applied.

Flare Spot

Sometimes it "svdll be noticed in the case of a landscape
negative that the central portion of the plate for a space
of possibly a third of its length is fogged, whilst the rest
remains clear. This defect is called "flare spot." It is
due to a defect in the lens, and makes itself evident in

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 67

the case of certain subjects. If there be a very bright
light ahead, as, for example, may be reflected from the
sky, and at the same time there be very deep shadows,
so that a comparatively long exposiu'e is necessary, the
defect may be seen. It scarcely ever occurs except when
a lens of the kind known as the single achromatic is used.
The lens may be so altered as to make it cease giving a
flare spot by slightly changing the distance between the
stop and the glass.

Gliost Images.

This is a defect somewhat similar to the last. If a
subject consist almost entirely of dark shadow, but with
a few points of very bright light, as, for example, would
be the case with a cathedral interior in which there
were small windoAvs through which the sky could be
seen, a second faint image of the bright spots may be
impressed on the films. This second image would appear
to be due to reflection from some part of the glass of
the lens. AMien a subject such as the one we have
described is attempted, we should avoid the use of a
lens which we find produces the defect.

Brown Colour of the Negative.

Sometimes a negative, instead of sho^nng a black or
olive-green colour in the densest parts, shows a brown-
ness in these, and a yellowness in the parts which ought
to be transparent. This defect is to be distinguished
from the yellow variety of colour fog by the fact that it
is visible only by transmitted light and not by reflected
light at aU. It does not in any way aftect the quality
of the print which is got from the negative, but it

68 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

greatly protracts the time taken in printing. It occurs
if alkaline development have been continued for a very
long time, and if the alum bath have not been used
between development and fixing. To get rid of it we
take half a pint of the alum solution, and pour half an
oimce of hydrochloric acid into it. If the plate be
dipped in this solution for a few minutes the broAvn or
yellow colour Avill disappear. The plate must be after-
wards very carefully washed.

Lines across the Negative.

If the developing solution has not been caused to How
in one wave across the plate, but has left one portion
of the film dry whilst another has been wetted with
the developer, the result is that there is a line which
distinctly marks the outline of the wetted portion. A
camel's-hair brush, used as we directed to prevent air-
bubbles, Avill also prevent this defect if the operator
has not enough skill to avoid it otherwise. A better

plan is, however, to make use of the rocking developing-
dish, which we here illustrate.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 69

In this not only is there the advantage that there
can be no difficulty in flowing the developer, but besides
this the negative may be examined in regard to density
•\Wthout removing it from the dish.

It A\nll be seen that the apparatus consists in a dish
suspended on "trunnions," so that it ma}' rock, and
having a trough at one end to contain developing solu-
tion. The bottom of the dish is of glass, so that all
that is necessary to watch the course of development is
to raise the dish till it is nearly vertical, when we ma^-
look through the plate at the red light.

Florescent Appearance of Films.

It will sometimes be found after a negative is finished
that there is upon it, and particularly towards the edge,
a peculiar florescent or metallic lustre ; the negative
appears at these places somewhat fogged when examined
by transmitted light.

This occurs if the plates have been kept for a long
time — say, many months — in an impure atmosphere;
for example, if they have been kept on a shelf near
the roof of a room in which much gas is burned. The
defect is, so far as Ave know, incurable. To prevent
it, the plates, if they are to be kept for long, should
be stored in an attic or some such place where the
air is pure and dry. They will there keep for a very
long time ; we do not know for how long, but certainl}''
for a time measured by years. Dampness is to be par-
ticularl}' avoided. Heat to any moderate extent appears
to be harmless.

70 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

A Poirdery Deposit on the Film.<i.

This sometimes occurs after ferrous oxalate develop-
ment. It also may occur in the fixing bath if the
negative have not been sufficiently "washed after the
alum bath. The cause is different in the two cases. In
the first case the deposit may be removed by placing the
negative in a mixture of one pint of water to a quarter
of an ounce of hydrochloric acid. In the other case it is
to be avoided by thorough washing of the negative after
it has come from the alum bath.

Halation.

Sometimes when particular!}- trying subjects are
photogi'aphed a peculiar defect is produced which goes
under the name of "halation" or sometimes "blurring." If
there be a very bright part in a scene which is so dark
in parts as to require a long exposure, halation vnW be
visible round the bright spot. The case which we gave
as an example of a scene from which a ghost image
might be expected will do as an example of one which
■^'ill possibly give halation also. Around the dense
portions of the negative which represent the windows
there will be found a halo of fog, extending to possibly
only one-eighth of an inch, possibly to one or two inches.
In the print this shows as a light halo, and the effect is
very disagreeable.

Where subjects have to be treated in which there are
very bright parts in close juxtaposition to deep shadows,
the plate, before exposure, should be laid face downwards
on a pad of clean blotting-paper, and over the back of it

DEFECTS AKD REMEDIES. 71

there should be brushed a sohition of bitumen in coal-
tar naphtha. The precise strength of this solution is not
of importance, but it should be of such strength that
when spread on glass the film is nearly opaque.

The application of the solution prevents reflection
from the back of the glass plate. Before development
the " backing " is rubbed off by the help of a rag dipped
in coal-tar naphtha.

Solanzation.

This curious defect is seen when the conditions men-
tioned as giving rise to halation are present in an extreme
degree. The appearance is sometimes entitled " reversal
of the image," and this term well describes it. The very
brightest parts of the subject, instead of being represented
by great densitj^ in the negative, are represented by
comparatively transparent portions. In fact a positive is
produced instead of a negative. In the days of collodion
dry plates reversal of the image was very common ; so
much so that at times the sky would be a positive whilst
the landscape was negative. AVith gelatine plates it only
occurs in very extreme cases. If, however, for example,
the sun be included in the negative there may be reversal.
If it be suspected that there may be such the only pre-
caution which can be taken is to use a somewhat in-
creased amount of bromide in the developer and to keep
the solution in very rapid motion during development.

Reversal may be produced if too much hyposulphite
of soda be added to the oxalate developer to accelerate
its action.

CHAPTER X.

rHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS.

We do not intend to enter at all deejjly into the subject
of the principles involved in the chief instrument used
in the photographic art, — namely, the lens ; but to give
very simple explanations of the why and wherefore of
certain properties which it possesses, and of certain of
the manipulations connected ynth it.

If a room be completely darkened, and if there be
made in the shutters of the Avindow a small hole so
bevelled away on each side that it shall not be in the
form of a tube, we shall have on the wall opposite an
inverted image of any brightly-lighted oliject which may
be over against the window.

Here we see opposite the shutter with a hole in it a
tree. From every point in the tree there passes in a
straight line through the hole and against the wall oppo-
site a beam of light. "We show in our sketch three
such beams, and all three go to make up an image of the
tree on the wall.

We should here have a very perfect camera obscura
but for one circumstance. The hole in the shutter must
have some definite size. The consequence is that the
rays reflected from a point of the tree do not come to-

PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS.

73

gether at a point on the wall, but spread over a disc a
little larger than the hole in the shutter. If we make

the hole very small, so as to get sharp definitions, we
let through so little light that the image is scarcely
visible at all.

AMiat we want in this case is a Jens. The effect of plac-
ing a lens in the hole will be that, although the opening-
is of large size, the rays of light will nevertheless meet at
a point instead of forming a disc. This we illustrate here.

The lens which we show here is the simplest possible,
and is one wliich, although by its means photographs of
a kind might be taken, yet is not by any means a very
perfect instrument. Still, however complicated a photo-
graphic lens may he, its sole object is to produce the

74 PEACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

effect which we have shown here, — that is to say, to bring
a set of rays of light which are either diverging or
parallel to meet at a point. Photographic lenses are
never made of one piece of glass only, but always of
two at least, various valuable qualities being thereby
obtained.

We must here explain certain terms which are con-
tinually used ^Yith. relation to lenses.

Comhiiudions of a lens. — When a lens consists of several
distinct pieces of glass, although these appear each to be
only one piece, they are, as a matter of fact, built up of
two or even three pieces. Each of these built-up struc-
tures is called a "combination," and we speak of the front
and back combinations of a lens, meaning those which
are nearest and farthest from the object to be photo-
graphed.

A-perture is the opening of a lens Avhich admits light.
When a stop is used, it is the opening of this. Where
no stop is used, it is the opening of the smallest of the
combinations of the lens, or, if these be all of the same
size, the front one.

Focal length is the distance between the lens and the
ground glass where the image is sharply focussed. It is
measured from the lens in the case of a single combina-
tion one, from the stop or diaphragm in a double com-
bination one. It is common to speak of focus instead
of focal length. When we say that the focus of a lens
is so many inches, it Avill be understood that we mean
the focal length. Unless it is stated to be otherwise,
it is to be understood that the focal length of a lens is
measured when a distant object is focussed.

Flatness and roundness of field. — In the last diagram

PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS.

75

which we ga^-e, we showed the various rays of light as
if they all met on the fiat plane of the wall. As a matter
of fact, with the lens which we showed, they wonld not,
but would all meet at points equally distant from the
lens, so that a sharp image could only be got by the use
of a spherical screen, could such be had. AVe illustrate
this here. The field is said to be round. Certain of

the complications found in photographic lenses are in-
troduced with a view to get rid of this roundness of
field, and to give a comparatively /«^/f/f/.

Distortion is produced at times by certain kinds of
lenses. That known as the single achromatic, or simply
the single lens (see page 81), is the only one which gives
this defect to any marked extent. If such a lens be used
to photograph any object which is made up of straight
lines which are near to its edge, these lines will not appear
quite straight in the negative, but ^rill be slightly curved.
Thus a square object will appear somewhat like the fol-
lowing cut.

We have exaggerated the amount of the distortion,
which is slight even if the square co^'cr almost the whole

76 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

of the plate. If it cover only a small portion toAvards
the centre it may be disregarded altogether.

It is almost unnecessary to say that when the subject
is such that there are no straight lines — as, for example,
in an ordinary landscape^the distortion is not perceptible.

Depth of focus. — The beginner, the very first time that
he focussed a landscape or other object, \d\\ have noticed
that objects whose distance from the camera is greatly
different are not in focus at the same time, and that to
bring a nearer object into focus he has to increase the
distance between the lens and the ground glass. He
will also have noticed that this difficulty of getting ob-
jects of various distances into focus is greatly decreased
when a stop is inserted.

The qualit}' which the stop has introduced is entitled
"depth of focus." Depth of focus decreases with the
aperture of a lens, and also with its focal length. No
other modification (form, etc.) has any eflect on it.

JFidth of anr/Ic. — If we cannot get far enough away
from an object, but j'et wish to include the whole of it
in a photograph, we must include in our picture a very
■wide angle. Certain lenses are so constructed that they
will include a very wide angle, and are called "\nde-angle
lenses. The accompanying sketch, which shows, slightlj^
exaggerated, the differences of form which exist between
narroAv and wide angle lenses, will illustrate the point.

riiOTOGUAriiic optics. 77

^^^len we want to iuclude a Avide angle we must either
use a larger plate or a lens of shorter focus than if we
Avish to include only a narrow angle.

It may be asked, Why not use at all times the wide-
augle lens, and simply employ a smaller plate, if we do
not wish to include all the angle which it will take in ?
The reason is this : — The surface of the glasses of a lens
which has to include a very A\"ide angle are so ground
that even for a narrow angle it will not give definition,
unless a small stop be used, and therefore it is at best a
slow lens.

Rapklit)). — With different lenses the length of the ex-
posure necessary with the same subject and with the
same light varies enormously. According as a long or
short exposure is required with a certain lens, that lens
is said to be slow or rapid.

The relation between the focal length and the aperture

78 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

regulates the rapidity of a lens. This we can explain
by a very simple illustration. The lens may be con-
sidered as lighting the ground glass or sensitive plate just
as a window Avould light the wall of a room which is
opposite it. Let us imagine a large room lighted by only
one small window. We will now notice that if the size
of the window were increased the wall opposite would
be more brightly lighted, while if the size of the window
were decreased the wall would be less brightly lighted.
Here we have precisely what takes place when the aper-
ture of a lens is increased or decreased. There is, how-
ever, still another means whereby the light on the wall
may be increased or decreased, besides increasing or
diminishing the size of the window. Let us suppose
that the wall opposite the window is not fixed, but is in
the form of a movable screen. We are now quite aware
that if we move the screen nearer the window it will be
more brightly lighted ; if we move it away it will be less
brightly lighted. If, on the other hand, we both increase
the distance between the screen and the window and
increase the size of the Avindow proportionately, the
amount of brightness will remain the same. Thus, if we
increase the size of the window to twice its former size
in each direction, and at the same time increase the dis-
tance between the screen and the window to twice what
it was before, we shall not in any way alter the brightness.
The precise same as this takes place in the case of
lenses. If we use two lenses having the same aperture,
but one of longer focus than the other — that is, involv-
ing a greater distance between the lens and the ground
glass — it will give less light on the ground glass or sen-
sitive plate than with the other.

PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS. 79

If, however, the relation between the aperture and the
focal length remain the same, the amount of light or
rapidity will remain the same. For example, however
different in size two lenses be, if in each the diameter
of the aperture is one c[uarter the focal length, the
rapidity Mall be the same in both cases. This relation
between the aperture of a lens and the focal length is
usually expressed thus — '

/ / /
4' 8' lO'

These various expressions would refer to lenses in

the first of which the diameter of the aperture is

one- fourth the focal length, in the second of which

it is one -eighth, in the third of which it is one-

tenth.

Now Ave have in this means of stating the ratio of
aperture a means of performing a most useful operation,
— namely, of testing not only whether one lens is less or
more rapid than another, but by what precise amount it
is less or more rapid. That this is a thing most useful
to be able to know must be evident. We are continually
using different kinds of lenses, and, as we explained
before, we require at different times to use various sizes
of stops. Now it is most useful to be able to say, when
we are about to expose, "On such and such an occasion
a subject just like this took so many seconds with such
a lens and such a stop ; therefore, with the lens and stop
which I am at present using I shall have to give so many
seconds of exposure."

The calculation necessary to make to be able to do
this is a very easy one.

We have only to square the denominator of the

80 rRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

iff
fiactions j, r-, — -, etc., when "vve ^^dll have precisely the

relative exposures. We would remind those who are

rusty in their arithmetic that the denominator of a

fraction is the lower figure, and that to square a number

is to multiply it by itself. Thus 4 X 4 or 16 is 4 squared,

8 X 8 or 64 is 8 squared, 10 X 10 or 100 is 10 squared.

And in the examples given of three lenses, one working

f f • f

at -, another at -, and the third at—, the relative ex-
4' 8 10'

posures will be 16, 64, and 100, — that is to say, if the

first required an exposure of 16 seconds, the others

would require respectively 64 seconds and 100 seconds ;

and if the first recpiired a half or a quarter of 16

seconds — that is to say, 8 or 4 seconds— the others would

require respectively a half and a quarter of 64 and 100

seconds — that is to say, 16 seconds and 25 seconds.

Possibly one more case will be useful. We have been
working in an ordinary room using a lens of the " rapid
landscape " type for portraits. We find that we have
had to give 12 seconds. We want to discover Avhat
advantage we would gain by using a })ortrait lens.

We measure the aperture of our landscape lens, and
find that it is 1 inch. The distance between the
diaphragm and the ground glass we find to be 9| inches.
We may disregard the fraction and say that the lens

/
works at -. AA e take a portrait lens and on measure-
ment find that the aperture of the front lens is 2i inches,
Avhilst the distance between the diaphragm and the
ground glass or the focal length is 10 inches. This lens

/
works at exactly -. We now square 9 and 4 and wc

PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS. 81

get 81 and 16. The exposures -with the two lenses will
be as 81 to 16, — that is to say, with the portrait lens
they will require a shade less than a fifth of what was
required with the landscape lens. The landscape lens
required 12 seconds, the portrait lens will require about
2| seconds. The ability to make this simple calculation
might be enough to determine us Avhether or not to
purchase a lens of the last-mentioned description. A
little further on is given a table where the average ex-
posures under various conditions are given for different
apertures.

We now pass on to a description of the various forms
of lenses which have been designed to suit different
kinds of photographic work. We take first of all, as
being the simplest, that known as

The Single Lens,

or at times the single achromatic or the single combination

lens. The particular variety of this lens, which we

illustrate, is known as the ivide- angle landscape lens ;

it difi"ers from all other single lenses inasmuch as there

go three pieces to make up the combination instead of

two only, as is commonly the case. Certain advantages

accrue from this.

The single lens is the most generally useful of all for

landscape purposes. Its simplicity of form, there being

only two reflecting surfaces, is a great advantage. The

definition which it gives is exquisite ; it is fairly rapid,

f
its largest aperture being about r^ ; and it will, if it be

desired, include a fairly wide angle. In fact, it will take
in far more than is necessary except in certain circum-

G

82 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

stances, which will be described in connection with land-

scape work. Its only drawback is that, as explained before,
it will with some subjects give slight distortion.

The Rapid Rectilinear or Rapid Symmetrical Lens.
We here illustrate the lens which bears the above

PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS. 83

title. It may be taken as typical of a class of lenses
which are generally known as "rapid" landscape lenses.
The different kinds vary slightly, but each consists essen-
tially of two lenses like single achromatic lenses fixed a
little distance apart, and Avith the concave sides tOAvards
each other. The " rapid " lens is about the most useful
of any, and is the one Avhich the amateur should purchase
if he AAashes to work with one lens only. It Avill do for
any kind of landscape work. It is specially adapted for
instantaneous photograph}-. It may be used for por-
traiture even in an ordinary room if the light be good
and it gives no distortion.

f
It works Avith a maximum apertiu-e of about — , and is

therefore four times as rapid as the lens described last. It
does not, however, include quite so Av^ide an angle as the
Avide-angle variety of the single lens. Still, the angle
Avhich it Avill include is enough and more than enough
for all ordinary cases.

The Wide-angle Rectilinear and IVide-anfjle Symmetrical
Lenses.

"We here illustrate the wide-angle rectilinear lens,
Avhich may be taken as typical of a number of lenses
Avhich are made to include a very AAdde angle. They
are all constructed of tAvo combinations placed opposite
each other, Avith the concaA'e sides facing one another.

Such lenses should only be iised Avhen it is absolutely
impossible to get far enovigh aAvay from the subject to
use a lens of longer focus — that is to say, they should
never be made to include all the angle Avhich they are cap-
able of doing, unless it is unavoidable. There is no harm

84

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

in using for ordinary circumstances a long focus lens of
this type so as to take in only a narrow angle, but then

the special property which the lens jjossesses, and to
obtain which other properties are sacrificed, is not utilised
at all, and another lens might be used instead.

The subjects for which a very wide-angle lens are most
useful are chiefly interiors, when it is impossible to get
far aAvay from the object to be photographed.

The lenses of this type give no distortion,

not rapid, having a maximum aperture of about
Indeed, they are the slowest lenses which

They are

/
18-
are made.

except certain old-fashioned forms of the single lens.

Tlie Portrait Lens.

This lens is the one on which the optician has expended
his greater ingenuity. It was the outcome of working
the slower photographic processes, which are now things
of the past. In it everything has been strained to get
rapidity, so that the exposure for portraits might be as

PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS.

85

short as possible. Rapidity has certainly been gained.

f .
The largest apertures of portrait lenses vary from j in

the ordinary portrait lens to ^ in the extra rapid portrait

3

lens. It is thus from four to ten times as rapid as the

rapid landscape lenses. At the same time that rapidity
has been gained the qualities which are required in a
lens to be used for portraitm-e only have not been
sacrificed. The definition given through a very narroAv
angle is exquisite, and the field is fairly flat. The great
difficvdty in the portrait lens is that, especially in large
sizes, the depth of focus is very slight, unless a small
stop is used, in which latter case the sole advantage
which a portrait lens possesses — namelj', rapidity — is
sacrificed.

The Ch'ouj), <yr Universal Lens.

This lens may be considered as a compromise between
the rapid landscape lens and the ordinary portrait lens.

86 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRArHY.

It is not so rapid as the latter nor so slow as the former.
It may be considered as a slow portrait lens, whilst on
the other hand, if it be used with a small stop, it will
include a moderately wide angle, and may be used for

landscapes. It works at about — , and is therefore about

twice as quick as the rapid landscape lens and twice as
slow as the ordinary portrait lens. We do not consider
it necessary to illustrate this lens, as in construction it
does not materially diflfer from those already described.

The Use of One of the Combinations of a Duuhle
Combination Lens.

One of the combinations of a double combination lens
may be unscrewed and removed, and the other com-
bination being left in its place may be used alone. In
this case we get a lens of double the former focal length
of the instrument complete, which is often useful if our
camera will open wide enough, but we cannot expect to
get any but a very slow lens by this device. The com-
bination not being specially ground to work as a single
lens will probably not work at a larger aperture than

f f

about — or even -^.
20 30

Either combination may be used, except in the case of
a portrait lens, in Avhich case the front combination is
the only one which will do.

CHAPTER XL

OPTICS.

The Use of the Swing-Back — Table of Exposures.

The use of the swing-back Avill be found to be referred
to both in connection with landscape work and with
portraiture. It is therefore advisable that a few words
be said in explanation of the function of this very valu-
able adjunct to the camera.

The very first time that any object was focussed it
will have been observed that the nearer the object was
to the camera the greater was the distance required
between the lens and the ground glass to make the
object sharp. In other words, the focus of a lens is
longer when a near object is focussed than when a dis-
tant one is. Now, if we consider almost any subject
which we are likely to photograph, it will be evident
that there are in it different parts which are at different
distances from the camera. Could we so arrange our
ground glass and our sensitive films that those portions
which received the impressions from distant parts of the
subject were nearer the lens than those which received
the impression of near parts, we might have everything
in sharp focus even with the largest aperture of any

88 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

lens. Now something approaching this can be brought
about in certain cases. If we have either at the top or
bottom of our subject a portion which is nearer the
camera than the rest is, or if the same takes place with
regard to the two sides, we may have such a state of
affairs that, by sloping the ground glass, and conse-
quently afterwards the sensitive film, either backwards
or forwards, or to one side or the other, we may get
both the nearer and the more distant parts in focus.

The sloping of the ground glass is made possible by
what is called the "swing-back." This arrangement is
shown in the cut on the chapter on portraiture. It
simply consists in causing the back j^ortion of the camera
to be movable on a hinge, instead of being rigid. There
is of course a means of clamping it tightly after the
desired obliquity to the axis of the lens has been given.
When the back can be adjusted backwards and forwards
from the perpendicular the swing is called a "vertical
swing." This is the most useful adjustment, and in many
of the best cameras it is the only one. In some, however,
there is besides this a side -swing, whereby one side or
end of the plate may be caused to be farther from the
lens than the other.

All this of the differences of focal lens-th and smn^ina:
of plates, so as to be oblique to the axis of the lens,
sounds complicated when it is put in words, but we think
that an illustration will make it very clear.

We illustrate the case of a subject in which one jjor-
tion is nearer the lens than another. We take the case
of a sitter who sits with his face pretty well towards the
camera and lens. His feet are placed somewhat forward,
and are nearer the camera than his head.

THE USE OF THE SWING-BACK. 89

It will be seen at once that if the ground glass were
to have the position A B perpendicular to the axis E F of

the lens, the rays of light coming from the head would
focus in front of it, those coming from the feet would
focus behind it. If, however, we siving the ground glass
so as to occupy the position C D, then both the rays from
the head and the feet "vnll come to a focus approximately
upon it.

This is about the commonest use to make of the swing-
back in connection -snth portraiture. It is also used to
bring both the face and chest into focus when a head
and shoulders form the subject of a picture.

In landscape work there are quite as many cases in
which the swing-back is as useful as in portraiture. A
moment's thought will show that in almost every case
the foreground is nearer the camera than is the rest of
the picture. The rays from it will focus farther from
the lens — that is, farther back — than will the rays from
the rest of the subject. Consequently it will be an advan-
tage to swing the ground glass backwards.

Again, in landscape work the side-swing is frequently

90 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO rHOTOGEAPHY.

useful. For example, we may have on one side of our pic-
ture a tree or a house or what not, which is comparatively
near the camera, Avhilst the rest of the picture is more
distant. Here Ave may use the side -swing, swinging the
back of the camera so that the side of the ground glass
which receives the image of the near subject shall be
farther from the lens than the other side. It is c|uite
possible to use both swings at the same time.

It will be understood that in every case mentioned the
same effect of bringing different planes into focus could
be produced by the use of a small stop quite as well as
by the use of the swing-back, the result being, however,
the necessity of giving a nuuli longer exposure. This
may not be objectionable in the case of landscape sub-
jects, but it always is in the case of portraits. The
s"\ving-back is therefore particularly useful in portraiture,
and specially so where this is conducted in an ordinary
room where every possible saving in exposure is to be
taken advantage of.

In the chapter on landscape work will be found
reference made to the use of the swing-back for quite a
different purpose from that which we have just described,
and for one which must by no means be confounded with
it. This is for the mere purpose of keeping the groimd
glass vertical when architectural subjects, which are on
the whole above the level of the camera, are being
treated.

"Without our giving any detailed explanation of the
matter, we may here state that if the ground glass of the
camera is not vertical when a subject including vertical
lines is included, these lines Avill not come out parallel
in the resulting photograph, but will converge or diverge

TABLE OF EXPOSURES. 91

at the top according as the camera has been tipped back-
wards or forwards. Accordingly, when the camera has
to be tipped up so as to inchide the top of a building,
the swing-back is used in the reverse direction to what
is shown in the last cut. It is leaned forwards so as to
make the ground glass again A'ertical instead of hachcards.
This will cause the vei'tical lines to be shown as parallel,
but Anil by no means enable a larger stop to be used than
would otherwise be required. On the contrary, it Anil
necessitate the use of a much smaller one. It will there-
fore be understood that the swing-back is an appliance
not to use for the purpose just described until the lens
has been raised as high as the movable front of the
camera renders possible.

We now pass on to the subject of the length of ex-
posure which it is necessary to give to plates on various
subjects.

We append — by permission of the author — a table
which was first constructed by ]\Ir. W. K. Biuton, and
was published in the British Journal of Photofjra])hij.

AVe have altered one or two of the figm-es, somewhat
reducing them, as we have found necessary, to agree
Avith the exposures which we have been giving on
Britannia plates.

A few words must be said as to the subjects which
have been chosen as typical. It will be understood
that even with the same light every different subject
requires a different exposure. It has been stated as a
golden rule that we should "exjjose for the shadows,
and let the high lights take care of themselves;" and
although the high lights do not always take particularly
good care of themselves, at times going in for solariza-

92 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO rHOTOGRAPHY.

tion and such like vagaries, the rule is on the whole
sound. It is the darker parts of our picture that must
be considered in guiding us to the exposure which
should be given.

A little consideration will show that all subjects can-
not come under any of the headings which we find
given to the various columns of the table, but that many
will come between the one and the other. Besides this,
certain of these headings — such, for example, as " Fairly-
lighted interiors," and "Badly-lighted interiors" — are
exceedingly vague. It is probable that the subjects
chosen are as good typical cases as could readily be
found, but they must only be taken as giving an idea of
the exposure, nothing more.

We will take each column and say a few words on it.
First, we have one headed " Apertures calculated on the
standard system of the Photographic Society" (of Great
Britain).

A committee of this Society decided some time ago to
take as a standard, with which to compare other lenses,
one whose aperture is one -fourth of its focal length, or

/
which works at -—, and to call this No. 1. A lens which
4

necessitated twice the exposure, or a stop which reduced

the same lens to twice the slowness, had attached to it

the figure 2. That which reduced it to four times the

slowness was called 4, and so it went on — 8, 16, 32, etc.

" Sea and sky " refers evidently to such marine sub-
jects as will make pictures without any further objects
than the two mentioned, no boats or ships being intro-
duced, except perhaps in the distance.

" Open landscape " means that type of landscape sub-

TABLE OF EXPOSURES. 93

ject in which there are no very dark shadows. We have
such subjects often in river scenes, or, in fact, in ahnost
any scene where there are no heavy shadows in the fore-
ground. It must be explained that a shadow in the dis-
tance never has to the photographic fihn the same or
nearly the same darkness as a shadow in the foreground.
The water vapour, dust, etc., which intervene between
the distant shadow and the lens reflect a small amount
of excessively actinic light.

These two subjects are the ones most suitable for
instantaneous work. Sea scenes Avith yachts, ships,
boats, etc., in the foreground require exposures lying
between these two.

The heading of the next column, "Landscape with
heavy foliage in the foreground," if taken in conjunction
■with what we have just said, explains itself.

In connection vdth it, it is well to say that green is a
colour which does not have a very energetic action on
the photographic film, and that if there be trees or
shrubs — especially those of the evergreen nature — in the
foreground the exposure must be long.

"Under trees, up to" is what is given in the next
column. We may say that the exposure of woodland
glades, and such scenes as are entirely under the cover
of foliage, is much longer than would be imagined. A
great portion of the light is entirely shut off by the
foliage, and a great portion of that which penetrates has
been filtered through the leaves, and is of a green colour.

The exposures which are given in this column would
be required under trees even when the subject appeared
to a person who had been for some time in the shade to
be pretty good.

94 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The interiors must be taken as those of cathedrals,
churches, etc.

The portraits out of doors are supposed to be taken
under such conditions as vnW be described in the chap-
ters on portraiture.

The exposures in studios are such as would be re-
quired Avhen a someAvhat large portion of the glass is left
uncovered.

The portraits in ordinary rooms are supposed to be
taken under the conditions which will be described in
the chapter on portraiture.

Where there is a very large window the exposure
may be only one-half that given, or where there is a bow-
^Wndow it may be only one-third.

We may say that all the exposures will be found to
apply rather to work in the country, or in small towns,
than in large towns. The atmosphere in large towns,
and especially in London, is always more or less yelloAv.
It is only in exceptionally fine weather that exposures of
less than double those given will suffice in London.

The remark concerning yellowness of atmosphere ap-
plies to all parts, both of country and to"\\Ti, for certain
parts of the year. During the winter months, when the
sun never rises high above the horizon, it will be found
necessary everywhere to give two or three times the
exposures mentioned.

[Table.

TABLE OF EXPOSURES.

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CHAPTEK Xll.

THE CAilESA m THE FIELD, THE V.ORK.SHOP, ETC.

We have, we hope, given in the foregoing chapters
snch instruction as will teach the student everything
that can be learned about the manipulation of plates
after exposure, except what can be acquired by practice
and experience only.

We mnst now say a few words on the diflferent sub-
jects which come to be dejected by the camera, for it
mnst be evidait that the manipulations and apparatus
will be very different according as the desire is to por-
tray possibly a building, or shipping in motion, or the
face of a friend.

We will first take the case of landscape work, -^shich
is what the amatenr more often confines himself to.

Tliis will possibly be the best place to say a few
words on the size of plate to be used By reference
to advertisements at the end of the book it will be seen
that not only are the designs of cameras various, but
that the size of plates for which cameras are made also
varies greatly.

It is true that very .sati-factory results can be got by
the use of the .simplest of cameras — of srrjall .size, fitted

LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 97

with only one lens, such as is comprised in our " Students'
Set" On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the
various adjustments with which some of the more com-
phcated instruments — for example, the "Enjalbert" —
are fitted aflford great facilities for the production of
eflects which could not otherwise be obtained, nor can
it be denied that much more scope is given to the artist
if his camera is furnished with several lenses of different
focal lengths, any one of which may be used, than if he
had but one. Besides this, many photographers ai'e not
satisfied with a picture of the smallest dimensions, but
aspire to the taking of something considerably larger
than 5 by 4.

"We would suggest 8i by 6i as a good size for such as
intend to take the field unassisted. All the necessary
apparatus may easily be carried in the hand by a man of
average strength. An active man can carry apparatus for
a somewhat larger size — say up to 10 inches by 8 inches.
For any size be)*ond this it is necessaiy, if any distance
is to be walked, that the photographer should have some
assistance. Two men can easily cany all that is neces-
sary for working very large plates — say up to 1-5 inches
by 12 inches.

As regards the subjects which maj* be selected for
photographic representation, we may make the some-
what wide statement that almost an}' brightly -lighted
object which appears beautiful to the eye, and which
owes its beauty to form or hght and shade, not to coloiu\
will make a picture.

Landscapes which include trees and houses, rivers,
lakes, quiet pools of water, or any of the objects which
make a pleasing pictiu'e to the eye, will make a pleasing

H

98 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

picture by the assistance of the camera. Buildings and
all that is of interest to the architect, archaeologist, or
antiquary will be rendered with a truth and reality which
excels what is possible by any hand process. Admirable
pictures have been made of mountains, but the subject
is not an easy one to treat. The difficulty of giving a
faithful rendering of distance by photography is great.
It can, however, be done by taking advantage of proper
atmospheric conditions, and particularly by avoiding
those conditions of intense transparency which cause
distant objects to appear even to the eye near and
small.

In selecting subjects it should be borne in mind that
if the object is to make artistic pictures something more
than mere beauty is required. A landscape may be most
beautiful and may give the utmost pleasure to one who
looks upon it, whilst we know that it does not possess
the elements of a picture.

It would appear that what is necessary for a picture
is that there should be a certain harmony of the whole ;
that it should not consist of a number of disjointed
objects of beauty, but that every part should appear
to bear a certain relation to every other.

We often look about us when in a picturesque country
and see with pleasure and admiration the objects around
us, and yet are not looking on a picture. AVe are
glancing our eyes from one object to another, and get a
general impression of beauty. It is when we can look
at some certain object and find that others near it appear
to so fall in with it as to compose well, or give a harmony
of form, light, and shade, that we should bring out our
camera and try to make a picture,

LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 99

To descend from the general to the particular, it is
common to say that there is necessary for a landscape
picture a foreground, a middle distance, a distance, and
a principal object which is usually situated well forward
in the middle distance. It is impossible to lay down any
such rule as absolute, but it is certain that these elements
enter into the majority of good pictiures.

The foreground may be a few shrubs, boulders or
large stones, a pool of water, a fallen tree, or almost
any object which does not look inappropriate to the rest
of the pictiu'e. Often a very slight alteration of the
position of the camera will enable various objects to be
selected for foreground, without changing the middle
distance, or distance to any considerable degree. The
middle distance may consist of any of the objects which
we have mentioned, and forms the greater part of the
picture. Of the distance it may be said that it is only
necessary that a very small portion of the picture be
occupied by it, although there is no harm in allowing it
to cover as much as a third or a fourth of the surface.
A small spot of distance, seen, it may be, between the
branches of a tree or through a gateway of a stone wall,
Avill just make the difference between a picture and no
picture. The finished picture should generally show
some sky. This is generally best " printed in " from a
separate negative, as will be described hereafter. If,
however, there be — when the plate is exposed — clouds
which appear to be particularly appropriate to the sub-
ject, these should be secured. Unfortimately it is seldom
that the same plate ■wall secure both clouds and landscape,
— exceptions to this rule ■wall be mentioned in connection
with instantaneous work, — because the exposiu-e which

100 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

is sufficient to bring out all the necessary detail in the
landscape generally over-exposes the clouds, so that no
trace of them is to be had. The photographer, there-
fore, if he mshes to secure the clouds which he sees with
a certain landscape first exposes for the landscape,
then gives an exposui'e of about one-fifth as long for
the clouds, a second plate being used. These two
are used for doul^le printing, which we shall explain
hereafter.

Let us suppose Ave have selected a subject which we
think will make a picture. There must be no hurry in
the selection of the precise spot from which we are to
take it. A few yards to the right or left raa^y, as we
indicated before, so alter the foreground as to vastly
improve the composition. If now we are working with
the most simple of apparatus, as indeed is the best at
first, we have only to erect our camera and focus as we
described in a former chapter. To use the tripod-stand
properly requires a little attention. It should be placed
on the ground with its three legs fairly wide apart, and
Avith one leg inclining toAvards the position of the centre
of our proposed picture. BetAveen AA^hat then forms the
two back legs the operator stands. If his picture be a
landscape he may tijD up the camera by draAAdng the front
leg toAvards him. If the picture be of an architectural
design, or of such a nature that vertical straight lines
are included, the ground glass must be kept in a vertical
plane, otherAvise the lines Avill appear in the picture not
vertical, but couA^erging either to the top or to the bottom,
according as the ground glass has sloped backAvards or
forwards.

It is here that the various motions which are included

LA^'DSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 101

in the more expensive class of cameras vrill be found
useful. These motions are chiefly a means of raising or
lowering the front of the camera, on to which the lens is
attached, and a means of swinging the back, — that is to
say, of sloping it either somewhat backwards or some-
what forwards relatively to the lens. There is also in
some cameras a side-swing whereby the back can be
swung backwards. We here illustrate the camera which
will show these motions.

Let us now return to our manipulations. We have so
far selected our view, have planted our camera, and have
focussed to such an extent that we can jvidge somewhat
of how much will be visible on our ground glass. AVe
shall generally find that, if the camera be horizontal, there
is too much foreground and too little height. If we are
not right as regards horizontal direction we simply swing
the camera on the screw which attaches it to the tripod-
top.

To get more height, if there are no vertical lines, we
may simply tip up the camera to a moderate extent.
If we are taking an architectural subject we must not do
so, but must raise the lens, being carefiU to keep the
ground glass of the camera vertical. If we require to
take in still more height we must tip up the camera and
bring the ground glass once more to the vertical position
by the use of the swing-back.

102 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

We have so far written on the assumption that we
have l3ut one lens for use in landscape work, and that
therefore we have no choice as to the amount of subject
or width of angle which we can take in.

It is evident, however, that we are very limited in
the effects which we can obtain if we have the use of
but one lens. It requires but little reflection to show
that different subjects subtend very different angles to
the eye. To take two typical cases : We require to
take the photograph of a large house, but are unable to
get very far away from it. It will be evident that the
house occupies a very large field of view, or, in other
words, subtends a large angle. But suppose, on the
other hand, that we "vvish to photograph a yacht or ship
on the sea. We are seldom able to get so near it that
it occupies a large field of view. On the contrary it
subtends a very small angle, and were our picture to
include as wide an angle in the second case as in the
first, the result would be that we should see' a long
stretch of sea-line with the ship on it showing as a mere
speck.

To enable different angles to be included, the photo-
grapher usually employs several lenses of different focal
length, — that is to say, certain of these are so constructed
that the distance will be greater between the lens and
the ground glass, which requires the camera to be
farther racked out than in the case of others. This
we have already explained in the chapter on optics.
The greater the focal length of the lens the less will be
the angle included, and the larger will appear such
objects as are included.

Now we will suppose that we have not only selected

LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 103

our subject, but have considered where our picture is to
stop on each side, — that is to say, how much subject is
to be included in it. Here a word of warning must be
given. The beginner always inclines to include too
much subject. He casts his eye about, and, seeing several
picturesque points, wants to include all of them in his
picture. By this means he fails to get a real picture,
but has what possibly might have been the elements
of several. He should understand that no more should
be included in his picture than he can see with his eye
at one time and -vWthout altering in the least the direction
of his gaze.

There are certain cases in which it is impossible to hold
to this rule. Such, for example, is the case with the house
which we took as an illustration some time ago, where
the photographer cannot get far enough away. Here, if
he have to photograph at all, he will have to include more
subject than he can see ■vnth his eye without mo\'ing it.

We will suppose, then, that we have determined what
are to be the limits of our picture. We tr}' the lens
which previous experience has taught us is likely to take
in as nearly what we want as may be. If we find that
we have taken in the right amount or not much more,
we may rest satisfied. If we have taken in much more
than enough or too little, we must try the next lens — a
longer-focus one if we have taken in too much, a shorter-
focus one if we have taken in too little.

Three is a sufficient number of lenses for almost all
cases, especially if some or all of these be double-com-
bination lenses, as then one-half of the lens may be used
as a lens of double the focal length of the whole. (See
Chapter on Optics.)

104

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

We now come to the process of exactly focussing the
view. We use the lens' full aperture, — that is to say,
Ave put no stop into the diaphragm slit, or if the dia-
phragms be rotary we turn the diaphragm disc so that
the largest hole occupies the central position. We now
focus very accurately for the principal object. We may
Avith great advantage make use of a focussing-magnifier
to do this. We illustrate the instrument here.

ISToAv we have to select the diaphragm to use. We shall
probably perceive that, although the principal object is
now quite sharp, neither the distance nor the foreground
is so. We place the stop Avith the largest aperture in
position, when we shall perceive a notable improvement
on the definition of these parts. We try another and
another stop till we get to the one Avhich gives every-
thing/».?^ sharp. With this Ave expose.

The time of exposure can only be judged by ex-
perience. We have given, hoAVOA^er, at the end of the
chapter on optics, a short table, which Avill be of some
assistance.

We have said that the best lighting is a side lighting.

LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 105

This holds generally true, but is by no means to be
taken as an absolute rule. Lighting from behind occa-
sionally gives good effects. Lighting from the front
very often does, but the -work is difficult to do. The
sun itself should never, or at least very rarely, be in-
cluded in the picture. It must be either above or to
one side, a shade being used to prevent the direct rays
from falling on the lens ; or the shadow of a tree or
some such object may be taken advantage of.

On pages 18 and 19 we have referred to the use
which photography may be to the architect and to the
engineer.

Concerning the photographing of buildings Ave need
say little except that the following conditions should be
observed : —

When a photograph is to be taken very close to the
building the lens should be of the type kno^uTi as the
" wide-angle rectilinear," or a " rectilinear," when more
distant, otherwise the straight lines of the building will be
represented by curves towards the edges of the picture.

The ground glass — and, of course, afterwards the sen-
sitive plate — should be vertical, otherwise vertical lines
in the building will be shown in the picture converging
either towards the top or the bottom.

Except where it is impossible to avoid it a wide angle
of view should not be included, — that is to say, the
camera should not be placed very near the building,
otherwise a strained perspective will be the result.

With regard to engineering i)liotography we may
say that whether the subjects be bridges, etc., or be
machinery, the same conditions should be observed as
for architectural subjects ; whilst in the case of machinery

106 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

an additional condition ought to be observed — namely,
that the painted parts of the machine have a suitable
surface. A very disagreeable effect is generally pro-
duced if the dark-coloured and gloomy paint "with which
machinery is commonly painted is photographed. We
are indebted to The Year Book of Photogra2)hy for the
following receipt for a "colour for coating machinery
previous to photographing " it : —

Dry Avliite lead ... 5 lbs.

Lamp-black . . . . 2 to 5 ounces.

Gold size .... 1 pint.

Turpentine . . . . li pints.

" The amount of lamp-black is varied to suit machine
and lighting. This paint is easily removed with tur-
pentine."^

The use of photography by engineers, builders, etc.,
for keeping records of their work, and so forth, is now
so much on the increase that we have thought it advis-
able to get up a special set for their use. This we have
called " The Engineers' and Builders' Photographic Set."
There is contained in it complete apparatus of a sub-
stantial and efficient nature for taking negatives of any
size up to 12 X 10.

1 The Year Boole of Photography for 1885, p. 204.

CHAPTER XIII.

INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY.

It is in the particular branch of the photogi-aphic art
which bears the above title that the greatest revolution
has been brought about by the use of dry-gelatine plates.
The photographing of objects which, being in more or
less rapid motion, required that the exposure should be
very brief, so that the motion might not produce notice-
able blurring, was, previous to the advent of dry plates,
a very difficult matter, and one in which only occasional
success was met with, even when the conditions were
most favourable. Everything had, so to speak, to be
strained. The light required to be at its very best, the
lens required to be one more rapid than would give the
best of results as regards depth of focus, etc., and the
chemicals had to be used in certain conditions which
made the working of them even more troublesome than
usual. It may be conceived what an alteration was
brought about when plates were invented which re-
quired but a tenth or twentieth of the amount of light
action to impress the image. Immediately all straining
ceased, and conditions very slightly different from those
required for ordinary landscape photography were foimd
to be adapted to instantaneous work.

108 rPvACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The subjects which are adapted for instantaneous
treatment are innumerable. We may mention a few.
First Ave may place sea-views, either sea and sky alone,
which often make a beautiful picture, or the sea "odth
all the various forms of vessels which float on its surface.
Yachts, steamers, pleasure-boats, and such like may be
depicted and may be made to afford beautiful pictures.

Eiver scenes may be rendered as well as seascapes.
Crowds of people in the street may be portrayed, and
afford marvellous studies of life as it is in our crowded
cities. Horse-races, foot-races — subjects without end —
may be thought of ; thus not merely dead life, but living
things and motion are portrayed.

These are the subjects which make pictures. There
are others which may be treated that do not give in
themselves results that can be considered as artistic ;
3'et they are highly interesting and instructive from a
scientific point of xievf. More has been learned in the
last few years of the positions which the limbs of
animals take in rapid motion than had been learned
through all the time which had gone before, and this is
solely on account of the use which has been made of
instantaneous photography.

The only condition necessary in any of the subjects
which we have mentioned is that it should be brightly
lighted, and that it should not be of such a nature as to
consist in great part of heavy shadow.

The only apparatus necessary, in addition to that
used for ordinary landscape work, is a lens of the " rapid "
landscape type (which may constitute one of the several
which most photographers use for ordinary view-taking)
and an instantaneous shutter.

INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 109

A rapid lens we have mentioned as a necessity, al-
though, in fact, it can scarcely be said to be so. It is a
most useful piece of apparatus to be in the possession of
photographers who take up instantaneous work, because
it enables them to work on subjects and under conditions
which would othermse be impossible. "We have seen a
very fair picture of a train in motion taken with the
camera of the Students' Set and the single achromatic
lens which accompanies it.

There are certain subjects which can almost always
be taken without the use of a rapid lens, or an instant-
aneous shutter either, and these are the ones on which
the beginner at instantaneous work should make his
first essay. They consist of sea and sky without ship-
ping, or with such only in the distance, and of river
scenes in which it is desired to secure the ripple of the
water but not boats in motion.

Whilst mentioning sky, we should point out that one
of the chief charms of instantaneous work is that almost
always it is possible to secure not only the land or sea-
scape alone, but at the same time any clouds which there
may be along with it. The subjects being such as have
no very deep shadow require comparatively short ex-
posures, and as a consequence the sky is not greatly
over-exposed.

Suppose such an easy subject selected as we have
mentioned ; we operate in the following manner : —

"We take our standpoint and manipulate our camera
as we would were we taking an ordinary landscape.
We then put the dark slide in position, cover the camera
with the focussing-cloth, and wait for the eflfect which
we desire, which may be a certain formation of cloud in

110 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGEAPHY.

relation to the sea or river which we are photo-
graphing.

We then draw out the shutter of our slide, gently
ease the cap of the lens till it is almost loose, then with
a rapid motion lift it a few inches, and replace it. The
exposure given should not exceed one-third or a quarter
of a second, and will be quite brief enough to ensure the
faithful rendering of a ripple on the Avater, or of any
waves, except such as may be breaking violently on the
shore.

For the majority of subjects which come under the
heading of instantaneous an instrument usually desig-
nated an "instantaneous shutter" is required; and indeed,
even for the subjects which we have mentioned, it
vrill be found far more convenient to expose by the
means of a shutter than by hand, although with a little
care perfect results can be got by the latter method.
The object to be effected by every instantaneous
shutter is the quick opening and again closing of the
aperture of the lens, so that the image of whatever is
opposite the camera falls on the plate for a very brief
space only.

The duration of so-called instantaneous exposures
varies according to the subject. It is evident that the
more rapidly an object is moving the briefer must the
exposure be. For almost any subject an exposure of
from one -fifth to one -twentieth of a second is brief
enough, but for some special ones shorter exposures are
necessary. In most instantaneous shutters there are
provided means of giving exposures of various different
lengths.

We here illustrate Cadett's patent pneumatic view

INSTANTANEOUS SHUTTERS.

Ill

shutter. This shutter fills all these requirements, for it
will give exposures from the one-hundredth part of a

second to any longer period of time without limit, and
these results are obtained by the simplest of means ; — a
revolving ebonite disc, worked by a coiled spring in the
centre, two catches, and "vvith Cadett's pneumatic ap-
paratus. Five minutes' careful inspection will enable
any one to work it.

Chadwick's patent view shutter, with Cadett's patent

pneumatic apparatus, is a very serviceable one, and per-
mits an adjustment for various times of exposure, but
not to such a full extent as Cadett's view illustrated
above. It is simple, light, and easily adjusted.

Since we published the first edition of Marion's Practi-

112

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY

cal Giiide to Photography Mr. Cadett has invented a
new shutter of most ingenious construction. We illus-
trate it here. The principle on which it works is as

follows : The disc which is seen towards the top will,
when a trigger is released by pressure on the pneumatic
ball, revolve, performing a complete circle. As it
revolves the pin which will be seen near its circum-
ference works in the slot of a rectangular shutter, which
it lifts and again lowers, uncovering and again covering
the lens in a marvellously brief space of time if desired.
The little button which maj^ be seen at the side of the
instrument is for adjusting the tension on the spring
which carries the disc round, so as to vary the length of
exposure at will. Besides this there is an adjustment, by
applying which the shutter will remain open as long as

INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 113

the pressure on the indiarubber ball is sustained, closing
as soon as the pressure is relieved. This adjustment
makes the instrument very useful for portrait work.

It should be mentioned that the shutter is made of
ebonite, and that the moving part is so exceedingly light
that, although the motion is a reciprocating one, the camera
is not shaken even when the briefest exposure is given.

The method of using these shutters is simple. The
point of view is selected, and the camera is fixed up
and manipulated up till the time of exposure, precisely
as for ordinary work, the only difference being that the
instantaneous shutter replaces the lens cap.

The effect is again waited for. The shutter is set to
give the length of exposure which is judged to be the
best. Shortly before the expected combination of boats,
ships, crowd of people, or whatever may form the
picture, the shutter of the camera is "svithdra\\aa, and
the photographer Avaits and watches Avith the pneumatic
ball in his hand. At the correct instant he squeezes the
ball, and the picture is taken.

If the subject be such as a ship, yacht, or boat, cross-
ing the field of view not far from the camera, it wants
great nicety of judgment to be sure of getting it properly
on the plate. It is not unusual, when the photographer
makes sure that he has such a subject right in the centre
of his plate, to find on development that only half his
subject is on the glass, the remainder being nowhere, or
even to find that there is no trace of the subject at all.

To obviate this difficult}-, " finders " have been con-
trived. These arc arrangements whereby, a su})ple-
mentary lens and groimd glass being used, the operator
is able to keep his eye on this, and thus knows better

I

114 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

when the image Avill occupy the centre of the sensitive
film.

A very compact apparatus of this kind has been
designed, and is entitled the Academy Camera. We
illustrate it here. The lower portion of the cut shows
the instantaneous shutter, behind which is the principal
lens. Above this is the supplementary lens. The in-
strument is so constructed that a dozen plates are carried
in it, and can be exposed one after another without the
use of any dark slides at all.

The photographer may hold the instrument in his
hand, watching the ground glass behind the upper lens,
till the effect he wishes is produced, when he lets off the
shutter. The larger sizes are constructed to hang on a
stand of such construction that motion in any direction
can be obtained, so that the subject may be as readily
followed as if the instrument were held in the
hand.

A piece of apparatus, possibly still more compact
than the Academy Camera, is that which we here illus-
trate. It is known as "the Miniature Camera."

The picture shows the camera half size, so that it will
be seen that it is indeed in miniature. The principal

INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY.

115

differences between the Academy and the Miniature are
that in the case of the latter, instead of, as in the case of
the Academy, watching the picture to be taken on the
ground glass, it is "sighted" — after focussing on a separate
groimd glass — through the little tube which is seen on
the top. This is a far easier operation than watching

the inverted image on the ground glass. Also that the
shutter is a drop instead of a revolving one. This
makes sheeling of the camera less likely. Lastly, that
instead of the plates being carried in the apparatus, they
are carried in small separate shutters, of which the
photographer may carry any number he pleases. By
this arrangement the bulk of the apparatus actually to

116 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO rilOTOGRAPHY.

be held in the hand during exposure is reduced to a
minimum. The cut shows the apparatus Anth a slide in
position, ready for exposure.

Of course it will be imderstood that the very small
negatives produced in the Academy and Miniature cameras
may be enlarged to a much greater size. For the
method of performing this operation the reader is re-
ferred to a subsequent chapter.

With regard to the development of pictures which
have received so-called " instantaneous " exposure, little
requires to be said, as it scarcely differs from that ap-
plied to ordinary subjects. "We may, however, say that
patience is the great thing. Development must not be
hurried. It is better to wait than to hurry on the pro-
cess by the use of an excessive c^uantity of the ammonia
solution. "We may start with a developer containing a
slightly larger proportion of the ammonia solution than
we generally use. Possibly three parts of ammonia
solution to two of pyro and bromide, or even one part
of the one to two of the other.

A final piece of advice we may give to the instant-
aneous photographer. Let him aA'oid hurry and nerv-
ousness in exposing. It is difficult to do so, but the
effect, unless everything be done with calmness and con-
sideration, generally is to expose either just too soon or
just too late.

CHAPTER XIV.

PORTRAITURE OUT-OF-DOORS.

We have now arrived at the description of that depart-
ment of photography the practice of which will, in all
probability, afford more pleasure to the amateur than
any other. Even under all the difficulties of the wet-
plate process the amateur was prone to portraiture.
The difficulties he had to contend with were such that
his results were seldom successful, in spite of which he
persevered. Now his labours may be rewarded with, at
least, very fair success. If it is true that he cannot hope
to produce anything which will compare with the beauti-
fully lighted and posed portraits of actresses and pro-
fessional beauties which are exhibited in so many of our
shop-windoAvs, it is equally true that he may quite hope
to produce pictures which may be of a very satisfactory
quality, and give great pleasure to himself and his friends.
The amateur will naturally make his first attempts
out-of-doors, because there the light is so good that he
will be able to operate with precisely the same apparatus
which he uses for landscape work. If he has a rapid
lens, such as we mentioned as desirable for instant-
aneous Avork, so much the better, but such is by no
means a necessity.

118 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The two conditions which we must secure for a por-
trait are — first, a suitalale lighting; and, secondly, a
suitable background.

With regard to the first, a few words may be said which
■will apply to portraiture both out-of-doors and indoors.
On looking at any set of good portraits, either photo-
graphic or otherwise, it Avill be at once evident that a
great deal of the pleasing effect which is produced de-
pends on the fact that the face is not lighted equally
from all sides, but that the light coming from one direc-
tion is stronger than that coming from another. This
has the eff'ect of causing the features to stand in relief,
and gives roundness. There is nothing worse from an
artistic point of view than a portrait lighted in such a
way that there is no shadow — mouth, nose, and eyes
appearing merely as so many spots on the face. On the
other hand, there is to be avoided too much contrast,
such as gives a harsh effect ; and it must be borne in
mind that the shadows on the face of a photographic
portrait almost always ai3pear darker than they in
reality were.

It will be observed that unless advantage be taken of
some object which shades the light from one side, the
lighting out-of-doors will be equal on all sides, or nearly
so. It is taken for granted that direct sunshine is
avoided. It -n^ill also be found that the general direc-
tion of the light is from above. There is a great deal of
what artists term "top light." Indeed, there is far too
much, and vmless care be taken to shade off a portion of
it the effect will be to produce an unpleasant likeness.
The lines under the eyes will be intensified, and there will
be produced an effect as if the cheek bones were abnor-

PORTRAITURE OUT-OF-DOORS. 119

mally high. The general effect vnW be an unfavourable
portrait, making the sitter look old and ill-tempered.

In working out-of-doors we have to take advantage
of some objects which will give a certain shadow on one
side of the sitter, and "will shade off some of the top light.
To get shade on one side is almost always easy, but to
stop oft' the top light is not always so. It is often
possible to take advantage of the spreading branch of
a tree or such like, but where this is not to be had a
sheet or shawl should be used, so as to form a sort of
a'VATiing.

With regard to a background, it is best when out-of-
doors to have a natiu-al one if possible. An ivy-covered
wall, the stem of a large tree, an evergreen bush, a rock,
or even at times a wall "with a little curving to relieve
the monotony, may make a good background. The
sitter should be caused to sit or stand not very far
from the background, so that both may be fairly well
in focus.

The position ha"sang been decided upon, and it having
been determined how much of the figure is to appear, —
Avhether the portrait is to be a full-length standing or
sitting, or a half-length, or merely a head and shoulders, —
the next thing to do is to pose the sitter. This is the
point at which the amateur may show whether or not he
possesses any artistic feeling. Even presuming he has
he must not expect all at once to achieve success in this
most difficult art of posing. It is needless to say that
the object to be attained is to place the sitter in such a
position that he (or she) Avill look his (or her) best. No
rule can be given for this. Pleasing portraits have been
made "snth the sitter looking in any possible direction,

120 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

towards the lens, at right angles to it, and looking up-
wards and do"\vnwards. The best course to pursue for
the beginner is to cause the sitter to place himself in a
chair in an easy attitude, and to make him look in first
one direction, then in another. When what appears to
be the most pleasing phase of the face is obtained,
the next thing is to get a corresponding satisfactory pose
of the body that shall harmonise with the features.
The photographer must now direct the subject as
to the placing of his hands and feet so as to give
an appearance of unconstraint. It should be borne
in mind that it is well to avoid having a hand or a
foot projecting much forward, as such may then come
out too large, especially if the lens be not one of very
long focus.

The height at which the camera is placed is of import-
ance in the case of a portrait. It should be, as a rule,
about level "with the face. In the case of a sitting
figure this involves shortening the legs of the camera
considerably, and the operator Avill find it most con-
venient to sit Avhilst focussing. A focussing magnifier is
particularly useful in portraiture, as the lens -vWll, as a
rule, be used full aperture or nearly so, so that if there
be a small error in focussing, this will not be improved,
as would be the case were a small stop used.

The eye of the sitter is, as a rule, the best spot to
focus most sharply. If the face be three-quarters, so
that both eyes are seen, but are not at the same distance
from the camera, it is usual to focus first for the one,
then for the other, then to divide as equally as possible
the distance between them, so that there may be an
equal slight want of definition in each. To bring into

PORTRAITURE OUT-OF-DOORS. 121

fairly good focus portions of the figiu'e which are at
different distances from the camera — for instance, the
face and the chest, or, with a sitting figure, the face and
the knees — the swing-back may be used if the camera be
fitted with such.

After all the prehminaries are arranged as we have
described, the exposiu:-e is made, the manipidations being
precisely the same as in landscape work. From the
table given at the end of the chapter on optics will be
gained some idea of the length which this should last.

The sitter should be instructed to keep his eyes fixed
on the same spot dimng the whole of the exposure.
Any motion of them will spoil the expression. There
is, however, no harm in his blinking.

CHAPTEE XV.

PORTRAITURE IN AN ORDINARY ROOM.

The effects in portraiture which may he produced in-
doors are superior as a rule to those which can be got in
the open air, but, on the other hand, there is a Httle
more skill required in the various operations.

First, as to the extra apparatus which is required.
Cameras and camera - stands are made specially for
studio work, and these will be found much more con-
venient for indoor work than the cameras prepared for
field work. It is not, however, by any means necessary
that the amateur should provide himself with such. He
may use his landscape camera and ■svill produce quite as
good results vnth. it as with any other. The only differ-
ence is that he will require to work a little harder and
to suflFer some inconvenience in finding places for the
legs of his tripod and so forth.

We illustrate here a camera and stand specially de-
signed for studio work. It will be seen that the camera
differs from the ordinary one, chiefly in being more
massive and not folding up into so small a space, porta-
bility being no object. The same may be said of the
stand. There are also in the latter motions for raising
the camera and for tipping it forwards.

PORTRAITURE INDOORS. 123

The next question has regard to a lens. The portrait
lens, which is an expensive article, is not nowadays an

absolute necessity for portraiture indoors, as it was in
wet -plate days. If a room can be used which has a
large window facing the sky, and more especially if the
place be either in the country or in a small town where
the atmosphere is clear, the light may be so good that a
landscape lens of the "rapid" type may be used, and
the exposiu-es "o-ill not be excessive. If, however, the
operator desires to excel, or the conditions of lighting be
imperfect, a portrait lens will be found a desideratum.

A head - rest is another instrument which may be
dispensed -sWth in the case of good sitters, but which
vn\[ be found a very great convenience when unsteady
sitters are taken, or if the light be poor. It will be

124

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

found almost a necessity if lenses of the landscape class
be used. The object of the head-rest is, as is implied
in the name, to give rest to the head. There is also in
most cases proAision made for rest for the body.

^Ye here illustrate head-rests of the ordinary type.

The frame is made of cast-iron so as to be heavy and
give a sufficient support. There is an adjustable piece
for the waist and another for the head.

The head-rest is an instrument against which many
have a prejudice, but this is merely because it is at
times used without discretion. "We often hear people
who have been photographed talking of having had
their heads "clamped up in a machine." There is no
excuse for doing this, as it is quite unnecessary. "When
the rest is used, the sitter should be first posed mthout

PORTRAITURE INDOORS. 125

any regard to it, and then gently supported by the
instrument at the head and waist. If the exposure be
of short duration, the shoulders may be supported instead
of the head.

In regard to lighting, the difficulty will be found to
be the exact opposite to that which is experienced in
the case of work out-of-doors. Indoors the difficulty is
to get enough shadow to give relief and roundness. To
do so, we must be very careful in selecting the position
for our sitter and for the camera.

The best form of room to use, when it can be had, is
one which has considerable length and which is lighted
on one side by one or more windows. The broader
these windows are the better. A bow window is the
best of all, not so much on account of its particular form
(although that too is sometimes useful) as because it
offers so great an extent of lighting surface. "We have
mentioned several windows, because a long room gener-
ally is lighted by several, but it will be understood that
only one is effective in throwing light on the sitter.
Indeed, many prefer to darken all the windows except
one. If there be any window behind or nearly behind
the sitter, that at any rate should be darkened.

Here Ave have two sketch plans of rooms such as the
photographer is likely to have at his command. The
first is the most usual shape, and therefore we "will
consider it before the other.

Here we have three windows which we may call A, B,
and C. A sitter directly opposite one of those windows,
and very close to it, aahII be on one side of the face
most brilliantly lighted, probably more so than in most
photographic studios. The other side will, however.

126

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

be in comparatively deep shadow, even if reflectors be
used to the best possible advantage. Moreover, wher-
ever the camera be jolaced it will be impossible to get
more than one-half of the face lighted.

E

-;? B

D

If, on the other hand, the sitter be j^laced a little
away from and behind the window, at such a position as
D, the shadow will not be so deep in comparison with
the light, and, moreover, it will be possible, by placing
the camera anywhere between E and F, to get more than

rORTRAITURE INDOORS. 127

one -half of the face lighted. Therefore, at about D
will be found the best position to place the sitter ; and
for the style of portrait which is likely to be most
popular with amateurs — that is, the head and shoulders
— the best place for the camera will be a little on the F
side of E.

Even \\'ith the sitter at D it will be found that there
is too deep a shadow on one side of the face. It may
not appear so to the eye, but a photograph taken as an
experiment will prove it to be a fact. A reflector is
therefore required, which is placed or held at about Gr.
If the photographer can secure assistance, the very best
reflector consists of a sheet held by persons standing
on chairs. A slight degree of motion given to the
reflector during exposure will somewhat soften the
gradation from light to shadow. If the photographer
has no assistance he must use either a light wooden
screen with white paper stretched on it, or he may
throw a sheet over either a clothes-horse or a folding-
screen. A little experience will show that practically
the whole of the light which falls on the sitter comes
through the Avindow A, and that B and C may be
entirely darkened without much altering the effect.
On the whole, it is an advantage to do so. "False
lights" are thus avoided, and there is less chance of
dazzling the sitter.

Now, as to the other form of room. It will be found
that the effects which can be procured by its means are
superior to what can be obtained with the first men-
tioned. This especially applies to head and shoulder
portraits, the lighting of which will be quite as good as
can be got in any studio. For these effects the sitter

128 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

is placed at A, and the camera anywhere between B
and C, according to the relative amount of light and
shadow which is required. The reflector is used at D.
For full-length portraits, either standing or sitting, the
subject is placed at E, and the camera between C
and F.

As to background something must be said. For
mere head and shoulders, a quite plain background is,
in most cases, to be preferred. The same is often suit-
able for half-length portraits ; but is seldom so for full
length.

At times, especially noAv, when distemper is so much
used for colouring walls, the side of the room which
is behind the sitter may make a good background.
Possibly this may not be the case, however, and as no
one tint is suitable for all cases, it would not do ever to
rely on it. Still it may be used occasionally.

An artificial background is the best. The amateur
can make one by stretching brown paper (sold in great
\ndths and in continuous rolls as carpet -paper) on a
wooden framework, and colouring it with distemper.
Probably, however, he will find it best to purchase a
background ready-made. He should have two different
shades — a light one for vignettes, and a dark one for
ordinary heads. Backgrounds are made "snth a suitable
colour on each side, and go under the name of the
Empire Background.

For full-length portraits it very often happens that
one of the modern wall-papers makes an excellent back-
ground. No finer background can be had than a curtain,
if of suitable colom-, gracefully draped. In distemper
the amateur may prepare backgrounds himself if he

PORTRAITURE IK DOORS.

129

be sufficiently an artist. The carpet -paper is again
good enough. It is stretched on a large light Avooden
frame, and the design is produced with distemper. It
is made very sketchy A\-ith the gradation noAvhere hard.
It is to be understood that the background must be
distinctly subordinate to the figure. Here again, in
most cases, the photographer will find it best to purchase
his backgrounds, either selecting from the stock of the
dealer or getting it painted to order.

The beginner will use an ordinary chair for posing ;
but the amateur who goes the length of making photo-
graphy a hobby should purchase a studio -chair, the
form and colour of which are particularly adapted to
photography.

A few words on the manipulation.

In posing the photographer should give freedom to
the sitter so that he may have the opportunity of freely
arranging himself into .suitable posture.

It has been of course by this time decided whether
the portrait shall be bust, half-length, or fidl-length.
The beginner will have observed that to get a large scale

K

130 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

for head alone, or for head and shoulders, he must bring
the camera nearer to the sitter, whilst for the small scale
necessary in sitting or standing figures he has to do the
reverse. It is somewhat difficult for the beginner to be
quite sure, in the case of head and shoulder pictures,
that he has not got the head either too small or too large.
If he finds this difficulty he should look out from his
album a portrait, the head of which is about the scale
desired. He should measure this, from the top of the
forehead to the bottom of the chin, and should focus his
camera till he gets the head on the groiuid glass of the
same size. Great care must be given to get the head
the correct height on the ground glass. It should be
remembered that, especially Avhere a portrait lens is
used, the definition is much better towards the centre of
the plate than near the edges. The nearer therefore the
head is kept to the centre the better, but care must be
taken that it Avill not be too low on the paper in the
resulting print.

The use of the stop and swing-back may be explained
here. Focussing is performed for the eyes, as explained
before. It will now probably be found that the chest
if a head and shoulders be taken, or the knees and feet
if a sitting position be adopted, "will be much out of focus,
because they are nearer the camera than the eyes.

If the camera is fitted with a swing-back, this is tilted
somewhat backwards, — that is to say, away from the
sitter and towards the operator. Focussing is again
performed, when matters will be found to be vastly
improved.

By trying various angles of the swing -back any hco
points may be brought into correct focus ; if the camera

PORTRAITURE INDOORS. 131

have no swing-back, stops must be introduced till the
desired definition is secured. If the camera be with-
out swing -back a much smaller stop will have to be
used than if it be fitted with this adjustment. The
exposure will consequently be longer.

In working indoors it is not necessary to keep the
camera or the dark slide covered "with cloth during
manipulation.

CHAPTER XVI.
GROUPS.

GrROUPS, at any rate of more than two or three together,
are seldom very artistic productions ; the taking of them,
nevertheless, is one of the most pleasing departments
of photography, and the photographs, if not, strictly
speaking, very good pictures, are very often greatly
valued for the associations connected with them.

The taking of groups out-of-doors is, since the intro-
duction of dry plates, a very easy branch of photography.

If the number of persons to be taken be small — two
to half a dozen — an attempt shoidd be made to group
them with some purpose or intention. The ordinary
method is to attempt the representation of a grouj) in
ordinary conversation. More ambitious subjects to
attempt the representation of are such as may be im-
agined when the members of a family receive a letter
from one who is abroad ; or when a book or a paper is
read to a set of young j^eople or children who are each
occupied in some especial employment ; or a card-party
may be represented, and so on. Out of certain of these
subjects very perfect pictures have been produced, but
great artistic taste is necessary to do this.

Where the group consists of a lai'ge number the

rORTRAIT GROUPS. 133

attempt to pose each individual may be at once put on
one side, and the only thing to look to is to so arrange
the members that all may be as much in focus as possible.
To do this it is best to place them in a semicircle, or
something approaching it, so that the end figures may be
nearer the camera than the centre ones. There may be
a row reclining on the ground, immediately behind them
a row sitting on chairs or other seats, and behind these
again a row standing up.

Groups in an ordinary room are never easy. If more
than two or three persons are included they are very
difficult, because it is impossible to get all in focus
without using a small stop in the lens, ^^^len this is
done the exposure is much lengthened, whilst the likeli-
hood of a number of persons remaining still is manifestly
much less than when there is only one.

It is unnecessary to add much on the method of
operating, as almost all necessary information is to be
found in the instructions on taking single portraits
indoors and in taking groups out-of-doors. Even the
professional photographer is not likely to have a head-
rest for every member of a group, far less is the amateur.
Such positions should therefore be selected as it is easy
to retain during some space of time. If it be found that
any one individual is a bad sitter he may have the bene-
fit of the head-rest.

Out-of-doors the same remarks apply to backgrounds
for groups as for portraits. Indoors the same back-
ground which serves for a sitting or standing figure ma}-
do for a group of two or three. For a number a special
background is required, or, failing tliat, the walls of the
room are made use of.

CHAPTER XYII.

PRINTING WITH READY SENSITISED PAPER.

The photographer who has reached the stage of having
produced a finished negative is sure to be impatient to
see some more agreeable result than the reversed picture
which the negative presents.

This is to be brought about by printing, a process
whereby the shades of the negative are reversed, and a
positive is obtained as has been already explained.

There are many printing processes, but there is one
which has held its own against all competition, and
which, in spite of the prophecies which were ventured
when first rival processes took the field, is still the
popular process of the day. This is what is known as
" silver printing," or to be more precise, printing on albu-
menised paper, rendered sensitive with chloride of silver.

It is useless to disguise the fact that this process has
certain drawbacks, or rather has one very great drawback.
The results cannot be relied on as permanent. Silver
prints of thirty years' standing are to be met with as
fresh as they were on the day when they were done, but
they are the exception rather than the rule. Fading of
some sort generally sets in after some ten or fifteen
years. To be placed against this, there is the incom-

PRINTING WITH READY SENSITISED PAPER. 135

parable beauty of the results. There is something in a
silver print which cannot be imitated by means of any
other process ; and, Avhatever may be said as to the inad-
visability of issuing prints which are not permanent, the
fact remains the same that the silver -printing process
continues the favourite one both "s\ath professionals and
amateurs, and bids fair to do so for many a long daj'.
For this reason we describe it here.^

Most professional photographers purchase what is
known as salted albimienised paper. This is paper
coated with albumen containing a certain quantity of
chloride in it — either chloride of sodium (common
salt) or some other chloride, or a mixture of several.
This is sensitised, as will be afterwards described, the
nitrate of silver which is used decomposing the chloride
in the albumen and forming chloride of silver.

Until recent years the amateur as well as the pro-
fessional could follow no other course than this one,
which was troublesome, and involved the very great
inconvenience of having to prepare paper, print on it,
and finish it all within a few hours, — twenty-four at the
most, — because the paper once prepared would not
keep, but turned brown by exposure to the air, even in
a dark room.

Some twenty years ago a paper was invented which
will keep for months without turning in colour. This is
now a regular article of commerce. It is called "ready
sensitised paper," and the convenience of it is enormous,
especially to amateurs Avho have very often to print,
tone, etc., at such odd hours as they can spare from other

^ See subsc(jucut chapters on "Alpha paper," whicli had not
been produced when this was written.

136 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

duties. Indeed we can only compare the difference be-
tween an amateur working ordinary paper — sensitising
it as he requires it, and finishing his prints immediately
afterwards — and one purchasing ready sensitised paper —
printing at what times he can, and possibly finishing
his prints at the end of the week or even the month — to
the worker with wet plates and that with dry.

The writer has worked both ready sensitised paper and
has sensitised paper himself, and he is of the opinion
that, with such sensitised paper as is sold by Marion and
Co. at the present day, better results can be got than by
sensitising paper as it is required.

The necessary appliances for printing with ready
sensitised paper are —

(1) One or more printing frames.

(2) Three porcelain flat dishes, somewhat larger than

the largest print to be manipulated.

(3) Some ready sensitised paper.

The chemicals required are —

(1) A tube containing fifteen grains of chloride of gold.

(2) An ounce or tAvo of eitheracetate of soda or of borax.

(3) Hyposulphite of soda (already mentioned as the

chemical used for fixing dry plates).

A printing frame is a frame for holding the negative,
having a back hinged in two pieces, Avhich is pressed
against the negative by two springs. One spring bears
against each half of the hinged back, and it is thus
possible to open away from the negative either half of
the back. It Avill be seen that if the negative be placed
in the frame, if a piece of paper be laid upon it, and if
the back be laid on this paper and be pressed into . it

PRINTING FRAMES.

137

by the springs, then the paper will he kept in close
contact with the negative, whilst at the same time, by
easing one spring at a time, and by opening one-half of
the back, one-half of the print can be Adewed without

danger of shifting the relative positions of the print
and the ne<;ative.

Wc here illustrate the more common style of frame,

138

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

such as is used for small negatives, usually not for
sizes larger than whole plate (8| x 6J-). In this the
negative itself is laid on to the rebate of the frame,
so that such a frame serves for one size of negative
only.

Here, on the other hand, we have one of the better
class of frames, such as is used for printing large
negatives. There is in it a piece of plate-glass, against
which the negative is placed. By this device all danger

of breakage is avoided, whilst it becomes possible to
use the same frame for different sized negatives. Such
a frame is, however, too cumbersome for very small
plates, and as common printing frames are very cheap,
the photographer should have several by him for such
small plates as he works.

The porcelain dishes are much the same as we have
already been using for development. They have the
advantage over black-coloured dishes that it is easier to
see Avhen they are thoroughly clean, and it must be under-

SILVER PRINTING. 139

stood that for the delicate process of printing the utmost
attention to cleanliness is absolutely necessary.

The sensitised paper is purchased in sheets tightly
rolled up, and should be kept so until it is desired to use
it. We believe that in the original rolls in which it is
issued it would keep for years. After it is unrolled it
will still keep for at least a month or two.

The paper is sensitive, — that is to say, it is darkened
when light acts upon it, but it is not sensitive in at all
the same degree that a dry plate is. No special room is
necessary to work it in. It may be manipulated in a
room brightly lit by gas or into which there is admitted
qmte enough white light to see easily to work by. If
the photographer happen to have a room, the window
blinds of which are of the very common 3'ellow colour,
he may pull those doAvn and may afterwards work with
complete freedom.

When prints are to be taken the paper is unrolled,
and a sheet is cut up of about the size which the prints
are required to be. A quarter of an inch should be
allowed in both length and breadth beyond the ultimate
size of the print. This is afterwards trimmed off.
In a future chapter will be found hints on the best
way to cut paper so as to get the greatest possible num-
ber of different sized pieces from one sheet.

During the operation of cutting and all subsequent
ones the operator must be careful to let his fingers rest
as little as possible on either side of the paper, but
especially on that which is albumenised. If his hands
have, a tendency to perspire he should wash them in cold
water immediately before handling the paper.

Before any number of prints are taken from a negative

140 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

it should be varnished; but as a proof — or indeed, when
sensitised paper is used, several proofs — may be taken
before varnishing Avithout endangering the negative,
we describe the process of varnishing after that of
printing.

A printing frame to suit the negative from which a
proof is wanted is placed front do^vnwards on a table.
The back of the frame is removed. The neaiative is
placed film side upicards in the frame, and on it there is
placed the paper albumenised side downwards, all dust
having first been removed from the negative by a camel's-
hair brush or a handkerchief. If the paper is of the same
size as the plate the back of the frame is immediately
api^lied, but if, as is very often the case, it is desired to
have the print somewhat smaller than the negative, we
have to adjust the paper. To do this the frame is lifted
in both hands, so that it is held between the face of the
operator and a light — say from a window. The side on
which is laid the paper is towards the operator. The
thumb of each hand bears on the paper, and both serve
to keep the negative from falling out of the frame, and
to adjust the paper by pushing it in any desired direc-
tion. After the correct position of the paper is set it is
kept in that position with the thumb of the left hand,
whilst with the right hand the back is placed over the
paper and the springs are applied. This sounds very
complicated, but it is the work of a few seconds. We
have at the moment of writing a half -plate printing
frame before us, and have gone through all the manipu-
lations in less than ten seconds.

When the negative and paper are in the frame the
whole is placed out-of-doors to print, and here we may

SILVER PRINTIXG. 141

say a few words about the best light to print in. After-
wards Avill be found described special cases in Avhich it is
best to print in a particularly strong or a particularly weak
light, but for the majority of cases it is safe to say that
the brightest diffused light {that is, light other than direct
sunshine) which can be had is the best light to print in.
The light which can be had on the window sill or balcony
on the north side of a house is excellent, or in fact any
place where shade can be had ; but if no place can be
found except such as where the sun shines on, the diffi-
culty can be entirely got over by placing white tissue
paper over the frames.

The time which a frame must remain in the light be-
fore the print is completed varies enormously ; but as it
is always possible to examine the print and ascertain how
far the process has gone, this need not trouble the photo-
grapher. The time varies of course with the light, but
also very greatly with the nature of the negative. Those
which show great contrast and are fogged in the shadows
require a very long time for printing. Those which are
not very dense and are quite transparent in the shadows
3'ield prints very quickly.

The shortest time in which we can reasonabl}- expect
a print from a good negative with the brightest diffused
light is ten minutes, and many negatives ^Yi\l be found
which require one or two hours, or even more.

After the exposure has gone on for a few minutes the
frame may be taken into a room where the light is moder-
ate, and one-half of the back of the frame being opened,
the progress may be examined. The print must be made
considerably darker than it will eventually be required,
for the reason that the after processes somewhat reduce

142 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

it. The precise amount of depth of tone which is re-
quired will soon be ascertained by practice. Those parts
which it is intended shall be eventually white should
appear slightly coloured when printing is complete.
If the negative be of the proper density the deepest
shadows will by this time have turned as dark as the
paper is capable of becoming.

The prints when they are finished are placed in a
drawer or in any other place where they Avill be kept
from the light, and when the desired number is done,
they are kept for toning.

CHAPTER XVIII.

TONING AND FIXING OF PRINTS.

The photograiDlier has now arrived at what is one of the
most delicate of photographic processes, that is, the
toning of the prints which he has just produced. The
process is one in which there is scope for exercise of
much taste and discrimination. The most casual glance
at any collection of photographs will show that there is
a great variety in the colour, and that whilst some are
of a beautifully artistic warm purple or brown, others
are of a slaty gray and altogether disagreeable shade, or
show a general want of clearness and brightness of colour.
These differences are due to the manner in which toning
is performed. The process consists in treating the print
Avith a weak solution of chloride of gold till the colour
changes. The change is supposed to be due to the
deposition of a very thin film of gold on the silver
which forms the image.

Various toning - baths are used by different photo-
graphers, each one as a rule considering that he finds
some special virtues in the bath which he uses. Wc
will give several l^aths, all of Avhich we have found to
work excellently with both ready sensitised paper and

lU PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

paper prepared as required. "We will give first that
known as the borax bath.

The tube of chloride of gold which contains fifteen grains
is dropped into a pint bottle. A glass rod is taken and the
tube is broken with it. Fifteen ounces of water are now
poured over the chloride of gold, and the bottle is labelled
" Chloride of gold solution ; one grain to the ounce."

When we are about to tone we count our prints and
calculate how many sheets of paper there are, or how
great a fraction of one sheet if we have been printing
only a few small proofs. This is for the sake of finding
how much toning solution we ought to mix up. For
each sheet of paper measuring 17x22 inches we take
ninety grains of borax, which should be in the form of a
poAvder. On this Ave pour a few ounces of hot water
to dissolve the salt. "We noAv make up with cold Avater
to fifteen ounces, and add one ounce of the stock solution
of chloride of gold.

This forms our toning -bath. It must be mixed
Avithin an hour or so of the time Avhen it is to be used,
as it does not keep Avell. Care must, moreover, be taken
not to add the gold Avliile the borax solution is still very
warm, or the gold may be throAATi down.

All the processes in connection Avith toning and fixing
of prints must be performed in a light not strong enough
to act upon them. The best arrangement of all is to
have a yellow light for all processes except that of toning,
for Avhich white light is necessary to enable judgment of
the colour to be made. It is quite possible, hoAvever, to
perform all the processes in a Avhite light so feeble that
no hurt Avill come from its use.

The first operation is to Avash the prints. If a special

TONING AND FIXING. 145

piece of washing apparatus is not used this is best done
in the following manner : One of the flat dishes is laid
on the operating table filled with water, and the prints
are laid one by one face doA^Tiwards in this. "When all
have been so laid in the dish the water is poured off".
More water is poured into the dish over the prints, and
a second dish is placed, full of water, alongside the first.
The prints are lifted one by one from the first to the
second dish till all are in the latter, when the water is
once more drained away. Clean water is again poured
into both dishes, and the transference from the second
to the first is commenced.

It will be noticed that the water which is poured from
the prints is no longer clear, but has a milky appearance.
This is because some of the silver nitrate — which it is
the object to wash away — combines with salts, which
are always present in tap water to a greater or less
extent, and produces a precipitate. This is a very con-
venient test for the amount of washing which is necessary.
As long as the water which drains from the prints
appears Avhen placed in a tumbler or glass measure to
be in the least cloudy, the washing process has to be
continued. WTien there is no more cloudiness we may
commence toning.

The three dishes are arranged in a row along the
front of the operating table. In the first or left-hand
dish there are the prints which are about to be toned,
the dish being kept full of clean water. In the second
or middle dish is poured the toning solution. In the
third or right hand dish goes clean water, into which
some like to place a little common salt, so as to quickly
arrest the toning process when the prints are placed in

146 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

it. If salt is used it does not matter very much what
quantity is taken, but there should be enough to make
the water taste briny.

It will have been noticed that, whilst the washing
was going on, the prints turned from the brown colour
which they had in the frames to something very nearly
approaching brick-red.

The prints are now placed one by one face do"\vnwards
in the toning-bath, great care being taken that each print
is thoroughly saturated with the toning solution, and
that no two are allowed to stick together. When about
half a dozen prints are in the toning-bath the lowest is
drawn from under the others. It is placed on the top
face upwards for a moment to enable the colour to be
judged of when it is again turned face do^vnwards, and
the one which is now at the bottom is similarly treated.
Before this has gone on for many minutes it will be
observed that the colour of the print begins to change.
It becomes gradually browner and bro"\vner, and eventu-
ally turns to a purplish colour, and, if the process be
allowed to go far enough, to a slaty gray colour.

It depends upon the taste of the operator at what
stage the process is to be stopped. At one time almost
all photographers preferred to get a deep purple colour
in their prints, and allowed the toning process to go
very far. At the present time most prefer a light brown
colour, the most admired tone of all being an approach
to sepia. When the desired colour is reached in the
case of any print it is lifted from the toning solution
and is placed face downwards in the salt-water dish.
Another print may at the same time be taken from the
left-hand dish.

TOXING AND FIXING. 147

The time which toning takes, if the bath is correctly
mixed, varies from five minutes to fifteen or twenty. The
best results are got Avhen it is taking from ten to fifteen
minutes. AYe have mentioned half a dozen prints as a good
number for the beginner to have in his dish at one time,
but when he gains confidence in himself, and has acquired
the little skill necessary to enable him easily to turn
over the prints without the likelihood of tearing them,
he may have a much greater number of prints in his
dish at one time. During toning the prints should be
kept in constant motion.

When all the prints are toned, they have to be washed.
This is best done in the same manner that was described
for the untoned prints. Ten minutes of washing is sufii-
cient at this stage. After this washing then comes fixing.
The fixing solution is mixed as follows : —

Hyposulphite of soda . . • ^i ounces.

AYater, up to . . . .1 pint.

This is placed in one of the dishes, and the prints are
placed in it one by one. After all have been placed in
the fixing solution, they are turned over, the bottom
one being raised to the top, as described before. This
may be done once or twice, after which the prints may
be left at rest in the solution for quarter of an hour.
After once they are in the fixing solution, it is of no conse-
quence whether they lie face doAvnwards or face upwards.

It will be noticed that besides the change of colour
which takes place in the toning-bath, there is a general
reduction of the darkness of the print both in the ton-
ing and in the fixing-bath. AYhen the prints are first
placed in the fixing-bath there is likely to be an almost

148 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

complete loss of tone, but in a few minutes there will he
a return of the colour.

Any hyposulphite of soda left in the prints will in-
fallibly produce fading. It is for this reason necessary
to have recourse to very thorough washing to get rid of
all trace of the fixing solution.

When a sufficient stream of water can be had, it is
a common practice to let the prints remain in a large
vessel of water vnth a constant stream through it. An-
•other plan is to pour water on the prints in a large
vessel, and to change this every half hour. In either
case this process is usually continued from twelve to
twenty-four hours. There are various ingenious auto-
matic washing appliances whereby prints may be very
thoroughly washed in a much briefer space of time than
this, and there is a great advantage in this brief washing,
inasmuch as the very long Avashings mentioned appear
to cause a slight deterioration in the colour of the print.
If the amateur has patience to continue for an hour the
pi'ocess of washing by transferring the prints from one
dish to another, he will get as good a result as can be
got by any other means. But all the trouble may
be saved by using the washing apparatus, which we
illustrate here, and which will be found fully described
in our advertising columns.

In this apparatus the system of inflow and outflow of
the water is such that the prints circulate continually in
the trough, neither curling up nor sticking together, so
that the washing is very thoroughly performed in a
comparatively brief space of time.

After washing is finished, the prints have next to be
dried; then they are finished. Some place them between

TONING AND_FIXING. 149

sheets of ordinary white blotting-paper, but this is not a
safe proceeding, as hyposulphite of soda is often used in

paper- Avorks in an " anti-chlor, ' — that is to say, as a
means of getting rid of the chlorine which has been used
to bleach the paper. As a consequence, hypo may be
transmitted to the prints, Avhich may fade. What are
knoAATi as drying boards may however be used, and this
is the very best way of drying prints. A drying board
is a piece of very thick, stiff, and smooth blotting-paper,
the surface of which is free from all "fluff," and into the
composition of which there enters no "hypo." Next
to the use of drying boards the best method of drying
prints is to spread a clean sheet or table-cloth on a table
or floor, and to place the prints face upwards on it,
haAing previously drained off such water as will run
from the surface.

150

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

Various Toning-Baths.

The borax toning-bath which we have described above
gives with us at all times excellent results, and has the
great advantage that it is ready for use immediately
after it is mixed. Either of the following baths will,
however, also give excellent results, and may be pre-
ferred by some. The first is perhaps the best bath of
any to use if purple tones be desired. The second is a
very good one, where very warm or light browns are
wished.

Acetate Bath.

Stock solution of cliloride of gold . 1 ounce.
Water . . . . . .14 ounces.

Acetate of soda . . . .20 grains.

This bath must be mixed at least twenty-four hours
before it is required for use. If it be used immediately
after mixing, it will give what are termed " mealy "
prints, — that is to say, prints of an uneven and dis-
agreeable dull colour.

The bath will not keep indefinitely, but will remain
good for at least some weeks if it be kept out of any
strong light. If it be found that a black powdery
deposit is forming at the bottom of the bottle, it will
be known that the solution is becoming useless, this
deposit being in fact the gold.

Carbonate of Soda Bath.

Stock solution of chloride of gold 1 ounce.

Water . . . . . .14 ounces.

Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) . 3 grains.

TONING OF PRINTS. 151

This is mixed immediately before use. More should
not be mixed than is required, as it does not keep very
well.

Pla tin u m Ton ing-Ba ih .

There are certain subjects for which a very black
tone is considered desirable. Copies of engravings and
such like may be taken as examples. Such a tone may
be had by using chloride of platinum instead of chloride
of gold. We believe that any of the formulae may be
used, but our experience has only extended to the ace-
tate bath. By using varying proportions of platinum
and gold different tones may be got.

CHAPTER XIX.

VARNISHING THE NEGATIVE ; SENSITISING PAPER.

We said that a negative should not be extensively
printed from till the film is protected by coating it with
varnish. This is the case when ready sensitised paper
is used. When paper which has been recently sensitised
is employed it is not advisable to print from an un-
varnished negative at all.

There is a double object in the varnish. The first
is simply to protect the gelatine film from accidental
abrasion. The second is to protect it from dampness.
Dry gelatine has a great affinity for water, soaking it up
readily. If ready sensitised paper is used there is little
danger from damp, but paper recently sensitised is some-
times put in the frames before it is absolutely dry, thus
an unvarnished negative is likely to be spoiled.

A varnish particularly suitable for dry plates is now
extensively sold. That known as Hubbard's will be
found excellent.

A little skill is necessary to varnish plates properly,
and possibly the first few attempts may result in
failure. The j^late to be varnished is Avarmed to a
temperature of about 100" Fahr, This is a tempera-
ture which feels pleasantly warm to the hand. The

VARNISHING A NEGATIVE. 153

plate is held with the film side upwards by the left-
hand bottom corner, and on it sufficient varnish is
then poured to form a pool. This pool should cover
about half the area of the plate. This latter is now
gently " tipped," or sloped, so that the varnish will flow
towards the corner opposite that by which the plate is
held. The tipping must be very gentle, or the varnish
will flow ofl" the j^late. When the varnish has reached
the corner opposite the one by which the plate is held,
the position is slightly altered so as to cause the varnish
to flow to the left, and in that direction roimd to the
corner by which the plate is held, and eventually to the
corner immediately to the right of this. By this time
the whole plate will be covered, but there will be on it
far too much varnish. The bottle is brought under the
last corner to which the varnish has flowed, and the
plate is gently brought up to a vertical position. AVhilst
it is being so raised it is rocked in its own plane, other-
wise crapey lines will result. On the two lower edges
there will now be a thick edge of varnish. This is re-
moved by running a piece of blotting-paper along each
of these edges whilst the plate still retains the vertical
position. For a few minutes the plate is now laid on
one side to set. It should if possible be placed in a
plate-rack with that corner downwards from Avhich the
varnish runs. It may, however, be laid against a wall
standing on either of the edges next to this corner. In
a minute or two the varnish will have set stiff, and it is
only necessary to heat the plate once more when the
process is complete. This time the temperature should
be raised considerably higher than before. About 150°
Fahr., or quite as high a temperature as the hand can

154 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

bear to touch for a second or so, will not be too high.
The plate is now set on one side to cool.

The warming of the plate before varnishing, and the
heating afterwards, may be jjerformed either before an
ordinary clear fire or over a gas burner, the plate being
kept a few inches clear of the flame. Better perhaps
than either of these is an Argand burner or a large
paraffin lamp with a chimneJ^

The plate is ready to be printed from after it has
become cool for the second time. The varnish should
cover it in a perfectly even film, although even in the
case of skilful operators there is at times found a line
marking a thick edge along each of the edges next the
corner from which the varnish was returned to the
bottle. Such a slight defect as this is of no consequence,
but as the beginner is likely to have much more serious
faults it is well to know how the varnish may be re-
moved so as to go through the process a second time.

One of the flat dishes is thoroughly cleaned, and is
warmed to about as high a temperature as can be con-
veniently borne by the hand. The plate from which Ave
wish to remove the varnish is similarly warmed, and is
placed in the dish film side upwards. Over it there is
now poured sufficient methylated spirit to cover the film.
It is allowed to remain so for a few seconds, the dish
being rocked. A small piece of cotton wool or a camel's-
hair brush is now gently passed over the film under the
surface of the warm spirit. The greater quantity of the
varnish is thus removed, and if the desire be simply to
varnish the film again it may be done at once. It is,
however, sometimes required to remove the varnish very
completely so as to enable, for example, intensification

SENSITISING PAPER. 155

to be performed. In this case the plate is removed from
the dish after what has been described is done, is warmed
again to about the same temperature as before, and is
held over the flat dish whilst some clear methylated
spirit is poured over it.

The spirit which is now in the dish may be put into
a separate bottle, to be used again for the same purpose
if there be need of it.

Sensitising Paper.

The process of sensitising paper, although it presents
no grave difficulties, is one which is somewhat trouble-
some and is rather messy. It is almost impossible to
perform it unless some special apartment can be put
aside for photographic work, at least for the time being.

The apparatus, materials, and chemicals necessary are
as follows : —

A flat dish, somewhat larger in each direction than
the largest piece of paper to be sensitised.

A number of American clips.

Albumenised paper — as much as may be required.

Nitrate of silver — enough to make up the solution to
be afterwards described.

An argentometer.

A small quantity of kaolin.

A funnel and filtering paper.

The flat dish differs in no Avay from the ones which
we have been already using in the manipulation of
prints. It should, however, be kept for the one purpose
of sensitising paper alone.

American clips are after the nature of diminutive

156

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

letter clips, and are used to suspend a piece of paper
from a string stretched across a room.

The albumenised j^aper is bought in rolls like the
sensitised paper already described, and does not differ
from it in appearance. It will keep for a very long time.
The argentometer is an instrument used to discover
the strength of the silver solution to be
afterwards described. It is simply a
cheap form of hydrometer, — that is to
say, it consists of a bulb of glass with
a stem, as shown in the cut. The bulb
is so weighted that when the whole
apparatus is dipped into clean water it
will sink till the stem is nearly sub-
merged. When, however, the specific
gravity of the water is increased by
dissolving nitrate of silver in it, the
stem is floated up to a certain extent,
and by observing to what degree this
takes place we can tell the strength
of the solution. The stem is graduated,
and by reading off the figure at the
surface of the liquid we can find, with
a sufficient degree of correctness, how many grains of
silver nitrate there are to each ounce of solution. An
argentometer is usually provided with a tall glass vessel,
which will hold just enough solution to float it.

The funnel used for filtering is a well-known piece of
apparatus. It is best to have a good large one. It is
usual to support a funnel on a retort-stand whilst filter-
ing is being performed, and if the photographer happen
to have such a piece of apparatus he may by all means

SENSITISING PAPER. 157

use it, Init it is scarcely advisable to purchase one for the
special purpose. If a fairly wide-niouthed bottle be used
to hold the silver nitrate solution, the funnel may be
caused to stand in the neck of the bottle.

Preparation is made for sensitising paper in the fol-
lowing manner : The room is either lighted through a
yellow calico blind or else all outside light is shut out,
as much lamp light as is desired being used. If the
weather is cold, a fire is lighted, or there may be used a
gas or other stove of any description, so long as there
are provided means of getting rid of the products of
combustion. Strings are stretched across the room in
any direction convenient, to be used to attach pieces of
paper to for drying.

The paper is cut up into pieces of the size which is
desired. If ver}^ small prints are to be used, it is best
to sensitise the paper in such sizes as will cut up to make
several prints. Of course the size of the pieces of paper
to be sensitised regulates the size of the bath.

Enough solution to cover the bottom of the dish to a
depth of a quarter of an inch is prepared as follows : —

Silver nitrate . . . . 60 grains?.

Distilled water .... 1 ounce.

The solution is poured into the dish.

A piece of the paper is taken by two opposite corners ;
it is allowed to drop in the middle between these, so
that when it is lowered on to the solution the first part
which will touch the liquid will be a line between the
two corners not held in the hand. When the paper has
been so lowered on to the solution, the corner held first
in one hand, then that in the other, is gently lowered,

158 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

till the whole is floating on the surface of the silver
bath.

The object of this particular method of laying down
the paper is to avoid any air-bubbles being imprisoned
under it, as such would leave white circular spots when
printing was performed. If the process be carefully
performed there will probably be no bubbles, but it is
always best to make sure, for which reason, after the
paper has remained floating for one minute or so, it is
taken in the fingers by two adjacent corners and is
gently lifted till all except a narrow portion of the other
end is lifted from the solution. If we see any bubbles,
they must be broken. This can generally be done by
moving about the piece of paper, whilst one portion
is kept floating on the solution and the rest is held
above it. If the bubble will not break with this treat-
ment it may be touched Avith the end of a glass rod or
with a clean quill.

During the whole of this process great care must be
taken not to allow any solution to get on to the back of
the paper.

After we have assured ourselves that there are no
air-bubbles under the paper it is left floating for tAvo
or three minutes. It is probable that, whilst the paper is
so floating, the edges may be noticed to curl up and rise
from the solution. If we breathe gently upon these, they
will be lowered.

At the end of the time mentioned the paper is to be
removed from the solution. To do this, it is taken by
two adjacent corners and is lifted very slowh/ from the
solution. By this means all superfluous liquid is drained
from the surface by capillary attraction.

SENSITISING PAPER. 159

The paper is fixed by one corner to one of the pieces
of string by an American clip. A fragment of blotting-
paper about an inch scjuare is brought into contact viiih
the lower comer. It ^\i.\\ stick to the albumenised paper
by capillary attraction, and will absorb a drop or two of
silver solution which otherwise would fall.

Another piece of paper is meantime floated on the
bath. It has to be borne in mind that as paper con-
tinues to be sensitised the bath loses strength. After
a time it will require some silver nitrate added. Each
sheet of paper, measuring 17 x 22 inches, ■nill extract
something like 40 or 50 grains of the silver salt from
the solution. The solution is reduced both in quantity
and in strength. For this reason we should add to it,
after every three sheets of paper 17 x 22 inches have
been sensitised, one ounce of a solution made up as
follows : —

Silver nitrate . . . . 90 grains.

Water, up to ... . 1 ounce.

This will keep the liath approximately constant both
as regards quantity and strength. At the end of a day's
work we must test the strength of the solution by means
of the argentometer, and correct any slight error which
may have arisen even in spite of the additions of strong
solution made. It will probably he found that the bath
is slightly reduced in bulk, because, except in the most
careful working, every three sheets of paper take up a
little more than an ounce of liquid. In the first place,
then, we make up the lu;lk to the original amount. "\Vc
now pour a little of the solution into the argentometer
tube and place the argentometer floating in the liquid.

160 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

We will suppose that we find that the surface of the
liquid crosses the stem at 55. This indicates that we
have lost 5 grains of silver nitrate for each ounce of
solution. AVe therefore add this amount to each ounce
of " bath " that we liaA'e made up. If, as is quite pos-
sible, the solution indicates about 60, Ave may reduce the
strength by the addition of a little water.

The bath which we have given is a very strong one,
and no ill will result if it become considerably weaker
dming use. It will certainly work well when reduced
to 45 grains of silver per oimce of solution.

After we have done using the bath for the day we
must filter it before replacing it in its bottle. We may
then shake it up with a little of the kaolin, which is a
white chalky-looking powder. It takes some time to
subside, and as it does so carries with it such organic
matter as was in too fine a state of division to be re-
tained in the filter.

One of the greatest troubles in connection Avith sensi-
tising paper is that, if it be allowed to hang up till it is
dry it will curl up so tightly as to be almost unmanage-
able. The writer has found the following plan an ex-
cellent one to prevent such curling up : —

The paper is allowed to hang up only till, if the piece
of blotting-paper be removed from the corner, no solution
will drop from it. It is then laid, albumenised side up-
wards, on one of the " drying boards " — already described
— a second drying board is placed over the paper, and the
greater portion of the solution is blotted off. The paper
is now laid face down on a second drying board, and
other pieces are treated similarly. As soon as the first
piece of paper has so far dried that the edges begin to

FUMING OF PAPER. 161

turn stiffly inwards, it is laid face upwards on a piece of
drying board a little larger each way than itself. A
second piece of diying board is placed over it, and above
this a flat wooden board with a weight over it. ^Yhen
the next piece of paper is ready it is placed over the
second piece of drying board, and a third piece of drying
board is placed over if. In this waj* all the paper is
piled, and it will dry quite flat.

The paper gives the best results when not absolutely
dry, but when very nearly so. It Avill be in the very
best condition after it has been between the drying
boards for perhaps half an hour or an hour.

If before use the drying boards be dipped in a satu-
rated solution of carbonate of soda (washing soda) and
be then dried, the paper lying between them will keep
white for at least a week.

For paper to become surface dry requires only a few
minutes if the draining have been properly performed
and if the room be dry. If the paper become quite dry
it curls up in a way which at times makes it very diffi-
cult to get it flat enough to lay it in the frame. It may
in this case be straightened in the following manner : A
pad of blotting-paper and a blunt paper-knife are re-
quired. The print is laid out as nearly flat on the
blotting-paper as it can be by hand, the back being
upwards. The paper-knife is now drawn across the
back, considerable pressure being given by the edge.
After this has been done for some time the paper will
retain its flatness.

Ammonia Fuming of Paper.

When paper is sensitised as it is required it is com-
M

162 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THOTOGRAPHY.

mon to fume it with ammonia. If such be clone the
paper will print somewhat more quickly than when un-
fumed, and, at least with some operators, gives a more
brilliant print.

Boxes or chests are made specially for fuming paper.
The operation consists simply in exposing the paper to
fumes of liquor ammonia. The boxes are pieces of
apparatus wherein the paper is laid on string nettings,
or is otherwise supported whilst it is acted upon by a
mixture of one part of ammonia and three or four of
water, which is placed in a dish under it.

The amateur who wishes to fume his paper on a small
scale aWII easily think of means whereby such may be
done. For example, in an ordinary cupboard or ward-
robe a dish of ammonia may be placed whilst over it
the paper flattened out, as already described, hangs on
American clips. The usual time of fuming is a quarter
of an hour or twenty minutes.

The operations of printing, toning, fixing, and wash-
ing of prints are almost precisely similar for the paper
sensitised as we have described as for paper purchased
ready sensitised.

It will probably be found, and especially in the case
of fumed paper, that the print fresh from the frame has
none of the brown colour which the print on ready sensi-
tised paper had, but appears as if it were already toned.
Sometimes this colour will go off in the washing, giving
place to the brick -red colour which we have already
mentioned. If it "svill not, the desired change may be
brought about by dipping the prints in water into
which a little salt has been put. The precise amount
of salt does not signify. The water should be made to

FUMING OF PAPER. 163

taste slightly briny. The prints are dipped in this
salt water, after they have been washed, till they are
fairly free from silver nitrate. They are left in it for a
few minutes, and are again washed for a like period.

It might be supposed that if a print appear when it
comes from the frame to have the same colour as a toned
print there can be no need to tone at all. This is by no
means the case, however. The fixing-bath would soon
remove the apparent tone, reducing the print to a very
disagreeable j^ellowish-red shade.

Paper sensitised as required, and not fumed, takes
somewhat longer to print than ready sensitised paper.
That which is fumed takes about the same length of
time to gain the same amount of darkness in the frame,
but as it loses somewhat more in toning and fixing
than ready sensitised paper does, it is necessary to print
a little longer.

Before concluding our remarks on printing we must
say a few words on the diflferent effects produced by
l)rinting in a weak or a strong light. If a print be taken
from a negative of average density in the fullest mid-
summer sunshine, and if another be taken in light so
dull that it will require say a dozen times as long to
print, the two will on comparison show a marked differ-
ence. The print taken in bright sunshine will show
less contrast than the other. From this it follows that
if we have a negative which gives a print slightly hard,
but not so hard that we incline to api)ly a reducer, our
best course is to print in bright sunshine. If, on the
other hand, the print got is a UtUe too soft we should
print in a very weak light.

CHAPTER XX.

DEFECTS IN PRINTS, AND REMEDIES.

Tlie Print refuses to tone.

Sometimes the change of colour which ought to take
place in the toning-bath fails to appear. This is usually
caused by the fact that the bath is in an acid state. It
must be understood that chloride of gold is usually
somewhat acid, and that borax, bicarbonate of soda, or
whatever is used with it is intended to neutralise this
acidity and, moreover, to render the solution slightly
alkaline. If the bath refuse to tone, the test papers
must be used to find out Avhether it is alkaline or not.
If red litmus papers be placed in an alkaline solution its
colour is changed to blue. A book of test paper slips
should be purchased, and a little piece of red litmus
should be placed in the toning solution. If no change
of colour takes place in the paper after a minute or so
we may assume that the solution is either acid or neutral.
In either case we have to add some more of the salt
which was mixed with the chloride of gold to constitute
the toning-bath. We may add a little at a time till
the red litmus shows signs of changing its colour. If
we add so much that the red colour of the paper is

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 165

changed to blue the moment it is placed in the solution,
we have rendered it too alkaline.

If the bath adopted be one which has to be kept for
some time before it is used vre must notice that the gold
has not deposited itself at the bottom and on the sides
of the bottle as we described already. The stock gold
solution without any alkaline reaction is generally very
stable, but we have known cases in which the gold has
throMTi itself down. Of course when the gold has
l)ecome deposited in the bottom of the vessel we have
not far to go to seek for the cause of the refusal of
the bath to tone.

If the toning solution be very cold, toning may take
a long time, or the prints may even refuse to tone at
all. In winter time the temperature of the bath may
be raised somewhat, but never above 70° or 80° Fahr.

Some paper.s, ■snthout being in any way defective,
require a toning-bath of greater strength than the one
we have given. If we find that prints take too long
to tone, and at the same time we are sure that our
bath is not faulty, we may strengthen it by adding
gold and whatever other chemical we are using. The
bath may be made even double as strong as we have
described.

The Prints tone snfficienthj icell, hut the greater' part of the
Tone is lost in the Firing-Bath and does not return.

Before entering on particulars of this fault we should
say that all photographers are not agreed as to the
necessity of giving to the prints before they are toned
the thorough washint;- that we have described. There is

166 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRArHY.

no doubt that if but a slight washing be given, the
process being stopped whilst the water which runs from
the prints is still cloudy, indicating that, considerable
silver nitrate remains still in the paper, toning will go on
much 7nore rapidhj. It is our experience, however, that
the tone thus readily gained with only partially washed
prints is very liable to be lost, or at least to deterior-
ate in the fixdng-bath. We have, moreover, reason to
believe that prints toned whilst there is still considerable
free silver nitrate in the paper are less permanent than
those toned after thorough washing. The greater
number of photographers prefer to wash their prints
thoroughly before toning them.

Another cause of loss of tone in the fixing-bath is
the use of too strong a solution of hyposulphite of soda.
The fixing solution for plates may be made up by guess
after a little experience, but weighing should always be
resorted to for the print-fixing solution. Some recom-
mend for prints the use of a fixing-bath containing five
ounces of hyposulphite of soda to each pint of solution.
This Ave consider far too strons;.

The Prints tone iinevenly.

The most common cause of this defect is to be found
in the sticking together of prints through insufficient
motion during toning, and especially if a solution so
strong as to bring about the change of colour in a few
minutes be used. The prints should be kept in constant
motion till they are all toned.

Finger-marks on the albumenised side of the paper
are liable to come out as untoned marks in the print.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 167

Finger-marks on the back of the paper, although they
always show A'ery plainly whilst the print is wet, usually
disappear entirely when it is dry.

If paper has been fumed, and the action of the am-
monia has not been even, unevenness of tone is sure to
result.

The portions of the Print ichich ought fa be ichite are yelloic.

This is a very common and most annoying defect.
A great portion of the beauty of a photographic print
depends on the pureness of the whites ; and this is
especially true in the case of ^-ignettes.

There are several causes of the defect. The first which
we Avill take lies in the paper itself. If ready sensitised
paper be kept too long, or be kept for a comparatively
short time, in a damp place, or in a place where it is
exposed to gas fumes, it will turn first yellow then brown.
It is unreasonable to expect from such paper prints which
will have pure whites. Exposm-e to the air Mill also
cause the change of colour. The paper therefore should
be kept tightly rolled up ; it will then keep almost in-
definitely. If it be found necessary to keep for any length
of time paper which has been unrolled and cut up, it is
best to put it under pressure ; it may be placed under a
flat board with a weight over it, or it may be placed in
a printing frame, the back of which will afford the neces-
sary pressure. In this latter case a sheet of ordinary
paper should be placed between the sensitised paper and
the back of the frame ; otherwise there Avill appear in
time a dark line on the paper corresponding with the
division between the tAvo halves of the back.

168 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

Printed paper, such as newspaper, etc., should on no
account be placed in contact "svith sensitised paper, other-
Avise the printing will become risible on the sensitive
surface.

It has already been said that paper sensitised as re-
quired will not keep, except under certain conditions,
for more than about twenty-four hours. It sometimes
happens that it is necessary to leave a negative in the
frame for a longer time than this before a single proof
can be got from it. This may be the case with very
dense negatives, and when the Aveather is xevy dull. In
this case there should be placed between the sensitive
paper and the back of the frame a piece of blotting-paper
which has been soaked in a saturated solution of washing
soda, and has been dried.

The yellowness and brownness which we have de-
scribed is unobjectionable compared with that Avhich we
are about to describe, inasmuch as it is evident on the
paper before this is even put in the frame, so that we
know what to expect. Moreover, it is much reduced in
the toning and fixing baths. In fact, a piece of paper
which is quite perceptibly brown before it is put in the
frame may give a perfect print. There is, however, a
defect which is caused in the toning or fixing-bath, and
which is, so far as we know, incurable, and moreover is
accompanied by a general degradation of tone which
makes the print totally useless. It is often accompanied
by a curious metallic lustre on the surface of the print.
This is to be distinguished from bronzing (to be after-
wards described) by the fact that, whereas bronzing
appears only in the deeper shadows of the print, this
metallic lustre covers the whole surface, or, at any rate.

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 169

the whole of that portion of the print which is affected
with the fault, irrespective of lights and shadows.

There are several parts of the process at which this
defect may make its appearance. The first is when the
print is first being washed before toning ; and this is, we
believe, the most common. If the prints are allowed to
remain for any length of time in the first washing water,
which contains a considerable qiiantity of nitrate of silver,
they will almost certainly be turned yellow in the high
lights. This is still more certain to take place if they be
allowed to stick together, and yellowness "\W11 give place
to brownness if too much light get access to the washing
water at this stage.

The prints should be kept in as constant motion as
possible in the first and second waters, and should be as
quickly as possible transferred from the first to the second,
and from the second to the third waters.

The next possible cause of the fault is in the toning-
bath. If too much light reaches the prints whilst here,
the defect will occur. Further than tliis, if any of several
foreign substances find their way l)y accident into the
toning-bath, the same is likely to occur. The most likely
substance, and one which will infallibly bring about the
defect, is hyposulphite of soda. If a few drops of the
fixing-bath get into the toning-bath the latter is ruined.

Another danger of the defect is to be found in the
fixing-bath itself. If this be acid, it is likely to come
about. It is well to make sure that the fixing-bath is
not acid by putting into each pint of it a piece of wash-
ing soda the size of a hazel-nut, or by pouring into it a
few drops of ammonia until the solution slightly smells
of it, thereby indicating that it has been rendered a little

170 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PPIOTOGRAPHY.

alkaline. The alkalinity of the fixing-bath can do no
harm, and ensures its not being acid, which latter is
most hurtful.

If the prints be allowed to stick together, either during
fixing or immediately after in the washing water, yellow-
ness of the lights may occur.

The Shadows of the Print have a bronzed appearance.

This appearance only occurs when a negative having
very strong contrasts is used with paper which has been
sensitised on a very strong silver bath. Very often the
disagreeable appearance will pass away in the fixing-bath.
At times, however, it is so strong that it does not. In
such a case we must use a weaker sensitising bath.

The Prints lack contrast.

If this defect be not due to the negative it is due to
the sensitising bath being too weak. In this latter case
there accomj^anies the lack of contrast a jjeculiar defect
to which the name of " mealiness " has been given. This
we describe here.

The Prints are "mealy"

This word is used to describe an appearance of print
which is most disagreeable. Instead of the deeper
shadows being of an even dark hue, they are of a freckled
nature, and as a rule the colour of them is not agreeable.

As just mentioned, this defect may arise from the fact
that the sensitising bath is too weak. In this case the
evident course is to strengthen it. It also arises from

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 171

the use of an acetate toning-bath which has been kept
for too short a period. If it be found that an acetate
bath which has been kept for twenty-four hours gives
mealy prints, the next one used should be mixed up with
boiling instead of cold water.

There is apoivdenj deposit over the surface of the Prints.

This defect may make its appearance if the prints
have been allowed to lie face upwards in the washing
Avater before toning. The evident remedy is not to
leave them so.

CHAPTER XXI.

VIGNETTING.

Every one who has looked at a set of photographs must
have observed in the case of some the very agreeable
effect of a certain class of print to which the name of
" vignette " has been given. In this, instead of the photo-
graph covering the whole of the paper, it is confined to
the central portion, there being a gradual shading off
towards the edges, which latter are pure white.

For a long time the means of producing this pleasing
effect was known only by a few, and was sold as a secret
process for large sums. There are now known many
ways by which it can be produced. Before describing
these a few words are necessary as to the nature of sub-
ject which is best treated in this manner.

Both landscapes and portraits make excellent vignettes
if certain conditions be observed. The first of these is
that the negative be one which may be described as
delicate, — that is to say, it must be full of detail and at
the same time without excessive contrast in large masses
of light and shade. A negative which might otherwise
be considered slightly over-exposed is excellent for a
vignette. Another necessity is that there should be no
very deep shadow of great extent, which in an ordinary

VIGNETTING. 173

print extends over the portion which is fully printed and
into that which in the vignette is to be white margin.
With such deep shadows it is impossible to avoid an
abrupt transition from dark to white, and the delicacy
of the vignette is destroyed. For this reason a portrait
with a dark background is not suitable for vignetting,
nor is a head and shoulders of a sitter with a dress having
a very dark body.

We will take first of all the case of a landscape, and
describe how the first experiments may be made. A
negative showing the qualities which we have described
is taken. A piece of ordinary cardboard is cut into such
a shape and size that it "will cover the whole front of the
frame. From the centre of this piece of cardboard there
is now cut an oval hole about two-thirds as long as the
length of the plate and also two-thirds as wide as its
breadth. The following cut will give an idea of the
relative sizes of the hole and the plate. The outside
line shows the whole extent of the piece of pasteboard,
the dotted line shows the size of the plate, and the oval
portion is that which is removed. It is not necessary to
draw the oval with any degree of accuracy. A rough
line such as we show is quite good enough.

The piece of cardboard is fixed to the frame. This
may be done either by means of a little glue or by drawing-
pins ; the latter method is the best. Printing is performed
in diffused light, or still better in sunlight, a piece of tissue
paper being placed over the opening. It is necessary to
get a broad expanse of sky opposite the frame to produce
good vignettes if diffused light be employed. The reason
of this is evident. The shading off is produced by light
which passes angularly under the edge of the opening in

174

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

the pasteboard. Now it is evident that if there be not
plenty of light striking the frame obliquely no rays will

pass beyond the edge of the aperture in the pasteboard.
It is therefore necessary if, as sometimes happens, espe-
cially in a to^ra, a light from only a narrow portion of
the sky can be obtained, to use tissue paper over the
opening even when we are printing by diffused light.
The effect of the tissue paper is to produce artificial
diffusion spreading the light in all directions.

It is best to cut the oval opening somewhat too small
at first, and after a proof is taken, or even when the first
is in progress, to alter it as apj^ears desirable.

The first proof that is taken will show whether the
arrangement of the pasteboard is correct. The distance
between it and the negative should be for small plates

YIGNETTIXG. 175

half to three-quarters of an inch, for large plates pro-
portionately more. "With this distance between the
vignettes and the glass the shading off should be soft
enough, but sometimes it happens that it is not. In this
case the follownng course may be pursued. The edges
of the cardboard are taken between the finger and thumb,
and are bent upwards as far as is possible -without pro-
ducing wide cracks. The section of the cardboard will
then be something Hke the following. We have tried
to show it as if it had been cut into two pieces, one
only of them being represented.

A very soft vignette will generally result from this.
Another course which is sometimes adopted is to serrate
the edges of the aperture as sho-\ra here. This also pro-
duces a soft vignette.

If it be considered that the vignette does not ex-
tend far enough at any place the aperture may be
widened, as in the following cut. If it extend too
far a piece of paper may be gummed on to the paste-
board so as to project beyond the edge. We show
in the accompanying cut, in dotted lines, an example
of hoAV such a piece of paper might be applied. At
times it will be found that the negative is of such a
character that the shading tends to extend farther in
one general direction than in another. In such a case
the vignettes may be brought nearer the negative at
that end or side where the shading tends to extend
too far.

For portraits the proceeding is quite similar to that

176 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

for landscapes. The opening in the paper is, however, in
this case usually unequal at the two ends— is, in fact, a

v,

true oval or egg -shape, the broadest end being down-
wards.

The background needs special attention in the case of
portraits which are to be vignetted. It must be light,
but should not be so light that it will print white. A
blanket generally gives just about the right shade of
colour for a background for vignetted portraits. This
may be used by amateurs, but if it is, care must be taken
to keep it at such a distance behind the sitter that
it aWII be so much out of focus that the textiu'e -odll not
be visible in the negative or print.

It is necessary, in cutting the oval for a portrait, to
be very careful as to its size. We here give a sketch

VIGNETTING,

177

which shows the general shape of a head and shoulders,
such as would be suitable for a vignette, and in dotted
lines we give about the shape of the aperture in the
piece of pasteboard.

A vignette should be printed scarcely so deeply as an

ordinary print, the great aim, as we have said, being to
secure delicacy.

The extemporised piece of apparatus which we have
described will do very Avell for the first experiments of
the amateur, and indeed is the only thing that is used

N

178

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

by many experienced photographers ; but there are
several very neat little appliances whereby the process
may be much facilitated. We may mention amongst
these vignetting- glasses. These are plates of glass of
about the same size as the negative to be printed from.
There is a transparent oval in the centre, Avhilst the
sides are of a ruby colour, so that no actinic light passes.
The ruby colour is gently shaded off, so that great soft-
ness is produced in the vignette. The vignetting-glass
takes precisely the same position that the cardboard Avith
the oval opening did.

One of the best vignetters which can be had is cut out
of a piece of wood a quarter to three-eighths of an inch
thick. A hole is cut in this precisely as in the case of
the cardboard, and this is bevelled away on the under

side so as to produce the same effect that the pinching
up of the cardboard at the edge did.

Marion's new vignetting-frame, which we here illus-
trate, is an extremely useful piece of ajiparatus. It will
be seen that besides the ordinary frame with a folding
back, there is a space for slipping in a piece of wood,

VIGNETTING. 179

Avith aperture cut and bevelled as we have described.
There are, moreover, means whereby the position of the
vignettes may be altered, and whereby it may be clamped
fast when the proper position is discovered. Several
vignetters are provided with each frame. It is very
easy to get others made if they are required for special
purposes.

CHAPTER XXII.

THE ALPHA PAPER AND THE ALPHA OPAL PLATES.

Whilst writing of prints on albumenised paper we
stated that the process commonly entitled "silver print-
ing " had held its own. against all competition.

We by no means wish to take up the business of
prophesying what may or what may not be the future of
photographic printing ; but we will venture to say that
in the Alpha paper, which has been brought before the
public since the first edition of this work was published,
albumenised paper Avill have a formidable rival, and that
for certain purposes at any rate the use of " Alpha " paper
will entirely supersede that of albumenised paper.

Prints produced on Alpha paper can scarcely be dis-
tinguished from those on albumenised paper, whilst the
new process has the following decided advantages : —

First. The time required for exposure, instead of being
from perhaps a quarter of an hour to several days, accord-
ing to the nature of the negative and the condition of
the weather, is but a second or two when daylight is in
question, only a minute or two even with gaslight or
lamplight.

Second. There is every reason to believe that the

ALPHA PAPER. 181

prints on Alpha paper are more permanent than those
on sensitised albumenised paper.

Concerning the matter of the reduction of exposure,
it is scarcely necessary to point out how advantageous it
may be in many circumstances. Xotably it will make
the paper useful where it is desired to produce a number
of impressions from a negative in a short space of time.
Possibly the amateur will feel the benefit of the intro-
duction of the new paper more than any other. It is
generally in the printing that he gets bothered ; it is
so slow a process with the ordinary paper. Then the
amateur is often engaged in business during the daytime
— the only time when printing on albumenised paper is
possible. His few holidays he likes to spend with the
camera in the field, and, as a result, he often takes
negatives from which he never gets a print, or he sends
his negatives away from home to be printed from by a
professional photographer. "With the Alpha paper he
will be able, vrith. an ordinary gas-burner or lamp, to
produce as many prints in an hour as he could on
albumenised paper in a day.

As to permanency, of course nothing absolute can be
said at present, — time alone can prove this. But it is
the general opinion of experts that the prints are at
least far more lasting than those on albumenised paper.
As we state this with considerable confidence we ought
to give our reasons.

There can be no doubt that in the case of prints on
albumenised paper, at least one cause of the deteriora-
tion which takes place through time — the chief cause,
in the writer's opinion — is the organic compound pro-
duced by the action of the excess of nitrate of silver on

182 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

the organic materials in and on the paper. An organic
compound is formed, — albumenate of silver we are told,
— and this compound gives rise to an unstable image.
Now during no part of the manufacture of the Alpha
paper is free silver nitrate brought into contact with
any organic substance. For this reason the organic
compound of silver already mentioned cannot exist in
the paper.

Briefly stated the method of working is as follows : —

Alpha paper is placed in a printing frame in the usual
manner, manipulations being performed in the dark
room, or, still better, in a room lighted with a good
amount of red or yellow light.

The paper is now exposed to light. There will be no
visible image with the correct exposure unless the nega-
tive is a very dense one, when the deepest shadows
will be faintly visible.

The paper is developed, an operation which takes less
than a minute.

It is then washed, treated for a quarter of an hour
with alum solution, washed for a few minutes again,
toned in the usual manner, then fixed.

It is necessary to go somewhat more minutely into
a description of these various processes.

The length of exposure necessary will, of course, vary
with the nature of the light and with the negative.

With a negative of average density, and a distance of
six or eight inches from an ordinary fish-tail burner, the
exposure will be two to four minutes. By the use of an
"albo carbon" light and a tin reflector the exposure
may be reduced from ten seconds to half a minute.
In bright summer diffused light the exposure may be

ALPHA PAPER. 183

about as brief as can be given. Certainly under a second
will do. The exposure to bright sunshine is too brief to
be under command, except in the case of negatives of
extraordinary density.

In an ordinary room, at about the distance from the
window at which we recommend portraits to be taken,
the exposure will be five to ten seconds. It is far better
to work with such exposures which are under control
than with the very brief ones which may be given with
a brighter light.

For development the following solutions are mixed :—

No. 1.

Oxalate of potash ... 1 lb.

Bromide of ammonium . . 320 grains.

Warm water, up to . . . 80 ounces.

No. 2.
Proto-sulpliate of iron . 4 oz. 250 grains.

Water, up to . . . . 80 ounces.

When prints are exposed a dish is taken somewhat
larger in size than the prints to be developed. Enough
developer is made by taking equal proportions of Nos.
1 and 2 to fill the dish to a depth of at least half an
inch. In mixing the solutions. No. 2 must be poui-ed
into No. 1, not vice versd. Doubtless the photographer
A\all recognise the developer as a modification of that
used for dry plates, and called the "ferrous oxalate"
developer.

The prints are placed dry into the solution, not more
than three or four at a time. They must then be kept
in constant motion. The development goes on more

184 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

rapidly than that of a dry plate, and it is necessary to
■\vatch intently as it gets near completion. The print
must be taken out of the solution immediately that it
has got as dark as it ought finally to be ; — if anything
hef(yre rather than after it looks dark enough, because
"whereas no depth is lost in toning and fixing, develop-
ment is liable to continue for a second or two after the
print is removed from the developing bath.

The print, as soon as development is over, is placed
in a dish of clean water, and is rapidly transfen^ed to a
second and then to a third dish, each containing clean
water. It then goes into a fourth, where it may remain
for three or foiu' minutes.

The develoj)er must not be used within more than
about a quarter of an hour of the time that the first
print has been placed in it ; but during that quarter of
an hoiu" as many prints as is possible may be passed
through it.

It is immediately after development that it is first
possible to teU whether or not the exposure has been
correct. This is ascertained chiefly by the colrnir which
the print assumes during develoj^ment. The print -srill
show a colour tending towards red if the exposure has
been correct. If it has been too short the prints will be
black or of a greenish-black. If too long they "u-ill be
very red, and will appear weak or lacking in contrast.

It is sometimes desirable to get prints of an engl'a^-ing
black tone. In this case an exposure of only perhaps a
third or a quarter of what we have mentioned must lie
given.

After the prints have been washed they are placed in
a bath composed as follows : —

ALPHA PAPER.

Ground alum

.

6 ounces.

Water, up to

80 ounces.

185

The water is poured over the alum hot, but the sohi-
tion must not be used till it has become quite cold.

The prints, after they have been for a quarter of an
hour in the alum, are vrashed as before. They are then
ready for toning. They may be toned by the aid of light
of the same nature as that in which prints on albumenised
paper are toned. Toning is performed in precisely the
same manner as in the case of prints on albumenised
paper, excej)t that when we wish to judge of the change
of colour we look through the prints, holding them in the
hand, not (\.o\nx upon them. The surface of the print
will have assumed a piu'ple tint long before toning is
complete.

The prints may be toned in any toning-bath, but as
the baths generally used for albumenised paper are very
slow in their action on Alpha paper the following bath
is recommended : —

"Water ..... 1 pint.

Acetate of soda .... GO grains.
Cliloride of lime (fresh) . . 4 grains.

Chloride of gold .... 2 grains.

The water is poured hot over the acetate of soda and
the chloride of lime, and when the solution has become
cold the gold chloride is added.

After toning the prints are washed once more. They
are then placed for five minutes or longer in a fixing
solution, composed as follows : —

Hji^o 1 lb.

Water . . . . .80 ounces.

186 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The colour will change to a foxy red in the fixing-
bath if the prints have been properly exposed, developed,
and toned ; but this red will give place to a colour vary-
ing from warm broAvn to rich purple when the prints
are dry.

After the prints have been fixed they are washed
exactly as are prints on albumenised paper.

This may be a good place to give a word or two of
caution.

Absolute cleanliness in manipulation is quite as
necessary in the case of prints on Alpha paper as in the
case of prints on albumenised paper. The dishes must
be most carefully washed before operations are com-
menced, and on no account must a drop of one bath be
allowed to get into another.

The prints must be kept in continual motion in all the
solutions and also in all the washing waters, othenv'ise
irregularity of tone and impure whites will result.

Prints which show large expanses of white, especially
vignettes, should be developed before others, so that they
may have the advantage of freshly-mixed developer.

After the final washing the prints may be mounted
in the same manner as albumenised prints, and rolled or
burnished in the usual way.

A beautiful enamel surface may be obtained in the
following manner : —

A piece of glass somewhat larger than the print is
thoroughly cleaned. Powered talc, commonly kno^^^l as
French chalk, is now dusted over one surface of the glass.
It is then polished off with a piece of dry flannel. The
wet print is placed face downwards on the glass and a
squeegee is gently passed over the back of it to expel the

ALPHA OPAL PLATES. 187

moisture. The whole is placed on one side to dry in a
warm room. When dry the print may easily be stripped
off the glass. When it is removed it will he found that
it has a splendid surface.

If it be desired to mount such prints so as to retain
the full gloss, the following method is pursued : —

On the back of the prints upon the glass, when they
have become about half dry, there is pasted with thick
starch a piece of "three sheet board." When the whole
is dry the print will strip, as in the former case, but will
of course come off attached to the thin board. This thin
board may be attached to an ordinary mount with glue
or mounting solution.

By pursuing a far simpler course a surface almost
equal to " enamel " is obtained.

On to the back of prints when half dried on the glasses
is brushed some very thick starch. The prints are then
allowed to dry and are stripped from the glass. For
each print an ordinary mount is taken. It is damped on
one surface with a wet sponge. The back of the print is
placed in contact with it, and the mount and print
together are passed through the rolling press cold.
Perfect adhesion of the print to the mount will ensue.

Alpha Opal Plates.

Positives on " opal " glass have a most charming effect.
The absolute purity of the Avhite of the matt-siurface of
the glass is like alabaster. There are various methods
whereby prints on o})al glass may be obtained, but the
one to which we now refer has certain advantages over
others. In regard to briefness of exposure and perma-

188 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

nence of results it has precise!}- the same advantages that
the Alpha paper has, "whilst it is the only process that sve
know of in which the positives may be toned to any
colour that is desired, exactly as silver prints are.

If the opals are to be ^dewed as prints by reflected
light the manipulations are precisely the same as for
the paper, except that, in the case of plates, it is of coui'se
possible to have but one in a dish at a time.

If they are to be viewed as transparencies hung up
against a ^vindow or in some such position the)' must be
somewhat more fully developed than in the other case.

CHAPTER XXIII.

PRINTING SKIES INTO LANDSCAPE NEGATIVES;
COMBINATION PRINTING.

A LANDSCAPE in which the sky is represented by an ex-
panse of white is a most inartistic production. One in
which there is a uniform light tint is somewhat better,
but it lacks much of what is wanted to make a picture.
A graduated sky — that is to say, one which is slightly
tinted all over, but is somewhat darker towards the top
than at the bottom — is again an improvement, but all
these fall very far short in effect to what is produced
by the introduction of a few clouds, even if there be
merely an indication of them.

We have already said that in certain cases suitable
clouds can be got on the same plate as the landscape,
but this is a very rare exception. In nine cases out
of ten a landscape negative shows no clouds or only
such as are unsuitable for making a picture. In this
case it is necessary to print in clouds from another
negative.

In our chapter on landscape work we mentioned cases
in which it is desirable to take a cloud negative for the
sole purpose of printing into a certain landscape. This
is a thing which may be done on the rare occasions when

190 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

the clouds which are in the sky at the time of exposure
appear to compose better with the picture than any
others could. The landscape photographer cannot, how-
ever, consider that he has all the necessities for printing
until he has a set of negatives of clouds of all the various
kinds which are to be seen, and lighted from all the
different directions, so that he may find one suitable for
any landscape which he wishes to print. These cloud
negatives are very easy to get if a suitable position be
chosen and when suitable weather occurs. It will be
noticed that by far the finest cloud effects are to be
seen Avhen the weather is somewhat unsettled. On a
breezy day in spring, when it appears just possible that
a shower may fall at any moment, the photographer, if
he can find a position which commands the whole four
quarters of the heavens, may secure as many cloud
negatives as will serve him for years. A word of warning
must be given. It will be found that the most striking
effects of clouds are always to be seen near the sun. At
a distance of ten to sixty degrees from the sun's position
the clouds usually have very beautiful outlines, and are
lighted in a very brilliant manner. A few negatives of
such clouds may be secured, but it is to be borne in mind
that it is comparatively seldom that they will be brought
into requisition. Landscapes are at times taken with
the camera looking towards or nearly towards the sun,
and some of these give very fine effects, but the vast
majority of landscapes are lit from the front or side,
and therefore the photographer should be careful to
secure cloud negatives similarly lighted. It will be
noticed that the effects produced when the sun is high
in the heavens are quite different from those seen when

PRINTING IN SKIES. 191

he is near the horizon. For this reason we should
secure negatives both taken near midday and in the
early morning, or late in the afternoon. The exposures
for clouds at midday are somewhat shorter than those
which we give in the table of exposures under the
heading " Sea and Sky;" for clouds when the sun is very
near the horizon they are somewhat longer.

A thiiig to be further borne in mind is this — the
more striking a cloud negative is, the finer a result
may be got by an artistic worker, but the more likeli-
hood is there, if he possess not the requisite skill,
that an incongruity ^'vi\\ result. "We must all begin
at the beginning, and it is well to remember that
the printing in of clouds is an operation requiring
great judgment, and that, until we have attained suffi-
cient confidence in ourselves, it is best to use negatives
which will give only a suggestion of fleecy clouds,
and not have such as show striking outlines and bold
lighting.

Nothing can be conceived more ridiculous than a
landscape showing clouds which were evidently lighted
in a totally different manner from the terrestrial
objects.

We have seen photographs of two landscapes lighted
from different sides, the sun evidently in the case of each
high and somewhat to the front (that is to say, rather
behind than in front of the camera). In each of these
landscapes there were sho-mi the same clouds. These
were unsuitable for either, being e^-idently lighted from
nearly behind, and to make the absurdity complete were
printed in vpside down/

AVe hope that none of oui' readers will fall into such

192 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

blunders as these, but it must be borne in mind that
there are many smaller errors which may be committed.

Cloud negatives may be pmchased. They are
generally on paper rendered transparent Avith wax, or
on films of transparent gelatine. They have the
immense advantage that they can be printed from
with either side towards the albumenised paper, so that
each negative presents two lightings.

.We think it is a poor thing for the amateur when he
becomes an experienced photographer to depend for his
skies on negatives taken by others, but the beginner
can do nothing better than purchase a few such nega-
tives as we have described. He will find them easier to
work than negatives on glass, and they will serve to
give him a good idea of what he is to aim at when he
commences to take sky negatives himself.

Before describing the method of printing from
sky negatives we will tell how a simple graduated or
shaded sky is j^roduced. This sky has an excellent
effect in the case of certain subjects. The effect pro-
duced is generally that of a loio sky, or one such as is
seen in eai^ly morning or shortly before the sun sets. It
is therefore suitable for subjects taken at these times or
in winter, the shadows being long. It is also suitable
for subjects with comparatively straight horizons.

First as to the landscape negative. Before a sky
of any kind is printed in, it is necessary that the
place which it is to occupy should be white in the
print. If the sky of the negative be so dense as to
print quite white, well and good ; if not, it is necessary
to block the sky out. This is done in the following
manner : Some ordinary water-colour vermilion is

PRINTING IN SKIES.

19

mixed, gum-water being used instead of pure water, so
that it Avill take readily on the varnished film, and is
used with a fine camel's-hair or sable brush. The out-
line of the horizon is now very carefully painted along
on the varnish. A line of vermilion, about a quarter
of an inch -wide, is thus put on. On the back of
the negative we now block out the whole sky, making
our blocking overlap that which has been done vnth
great care on the film side. We may use on the back
of the plate either Indian ink mixed with gum-water or
Bates' black varnish. Either is applied with a some-
what large brush.

If, before blocking out, the sky printed just a very
light tint it is sufiicient to block out on the back of
negative only, keeping the colour about a sixteenth of
an inch away from the horizon line. In this case the
narrow fringe of very light tint "\W11 not be notice-
able.

Having got our print with a white sky we proceed
as follows : We take a piece of cardboard, tin, or zinc,
somewhat larger than the print, and bend it to the

shape sho^vn in the sketch, — that is to say, we simply

0

194 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGEAPHY.

bend up an inch or two of one of the edges. We
noAV lay the print on a piece of wood or other
convenient rest, the landscape portion being covered
with the shade from A to B, the sky portions being
under the bent-up portion of the shade. The print is
taken into the light, when, as will be understood,
the top portion of the sky will rapidly begin to change
colour, whilst that under the shade does so more
slowly, a gradation being produced. The shade is kept
moving slowly backwards and forwards over the print
till the desired effect is produced. The very same result
can be brought about by the exercise of a little skill,
the focussing cloth alone being used. In this latter case
there is more necessity to keej) the shade (the cloth)
in constant motion than in the other, or lines be
produced.

Now Ave come to the use of sky negatives. In the
first place a suitable negative is to be selected. When
one is got we place the print with white sky in contact
with it and look through both, the negative being next
to us. We shift the position of the one with regard to
the other till it appears to us that we have got the
clouds in that position which will produce the best sky.
We now lay the negative with the print over it on to
a printing frame with plate-glass front, the frame being
considerably larger than the negative, so as to allow for the
probable fact that, when the best relative position of the
print and negative is obtained, the print will extend far
below the negative. The former must not be folded
back or the albumen will be cracked. According to
the nature of the negative the next proceeding varies.
If the negative has a tolerably straight horizon line

PRINTING m SKIES. 195

■we may use the same shade as we did for the graduated
sky. In this connection we must explain that if there
be only dark objects, such as trees, etc., against the sky
these may be disregarded and the sky may be printed
right across them, as it ■will not be visible. In the case
which we have imagined the shade is used precisely
as in the case before. Even if the horizon be not
straight, but if the line of it be not very crooked, it is
possible to use the focussing or other cloth; a little
skill and constant attention to the print is all that is
necessary.

When the horizon line is very crooked, and especially
when light-coloured objects project far into the sky, it is
necessary to use a mask, Tliis is a piece of some
opaque substance which may be placed between the
landscape and the cloud negative so as to shade the
landscape, the outline of the mask precisely correspond-
ing with the horizon line.

The best way to make a mask is to take a print as it
comes from the frame untoned and unfixed, and to cut
away the sky with a small pair of scissors. As it mil
be impossible to lay the print over the mask with ab-
solute precision it is best to cut away a very narrow
strip of the landscape matter when making the mask.
If the sky overlap the landscape by a thirty-second or
even a sixteenth of an inch it will be unnoticeable, but
if there be the smallest white space left between the
landscape and the clouds the effect will not only be
noticeable but disagreeable.

When the mask is made it is applied to the sky
negative Avhich is to be used, the printed side of the
mask being next the film side of the nesrative. The

196 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

position of the mask with relation to the sky is altered
till all the sky except what is to be printed into the
picture is covered up. If several prints from the same
negative are to have skies printed into them it is best to
fix the mask to the sky negative with a couple of wafers or
drops of gum at the lower corners. The print is now
placed on to the sky negative, the adjustment between
the two being made by looking through them from the
negative side. Some patience is necessary to get the
horizon line to correspond precisely with the outline of
the mask.

If it be desired to have the sky equally dark at top
and bottom the frame is put out to print just as it is.
It is usually best to have the sky somewhat darker at
the top than at the bottom, and for this reason the shade
is generally used for a part of the exposure.

When printing from paper or gelatine-film negatives
a printing frame is not always necessary. The print
may be laid on a board, over this the flexible negative,
and above all two pieces of glass, one covering the lower
part of the print, the other the upper, the line between
them being an inch or so below the horizon. The shade
or cloth is used over these precisely as over the frame,
and when we wish to inspect the progress of printing all
we have to do is to press firmly on the lower piece of
glass so as to secure the print from movement, while we
lift the upper glass and bend up the sky negative so as
to examine the print which is Ijelow it.

As we have said, great judgment is necessary in
determining how dark the sky is to be printed. The
best effects are often got by skies printed very boldly,
but great artistic skill is necessary in such a case. It

COMBINATION PRINTING. 197

is best in most cases to print very lightly. In any case
the highest lights of the sky should be pure white, and
the general tint of the sky should be lighter than the
distant portion of the landscape.

COMBINATION PRINTING.

Combination printing may be said to be the highest
development of photography as a fine art. It has not
been practised with any great degree of success but by
a few, and we shall only dwell on it briefly here. It
consists, as the name would indicate, in printing from
two or more negatives. The artistic skill and knowledge
necessary is vastly greater than is required for ordinary
printing ; still, to understand the results which may be
obtained, one requires to have seen one of the original
prints of Rylander's "Two Ways of Life," or some of
the compositions of Mr. H, P. Eobinson, or one of the
other leading photographic artists who have given their
attention to this special branch.

We shall take one of the simplest cases of combination
printing, and shall describe the operation.

The case which we will suppose is that in which a
figure forms the principal part of the picture, and in
which a landscape forming the background is subsidiary
to the figure. It may be asked, Why resort to combina-
tion printing at all in such a case 1 Why not place the
figure Avliere the landscape will of itself form a good
background and take the whole thing on one plate 1
There are many reasons whj' this can seldom be done
with a good result. In the first place, there is the diffi-
culty of having the figure and the landscape together. It

198 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

is more than probable that where we can gain the assist-
ance of a good model there is no suitable landscape ;
whilst where there is a suitable landscape one cannot get
a good model. Then there is the difficulty of getting
both the figure and the landscape in focus. In fact, to
get the figure to fill the greater part of the plate requires
it to be so near the camera that, except in the case of very
small plates with short-focus lenses, it is practically im-
possible to get both the figure and the distance in focus.
To do so Avould require the insertion of so small a stop
that the exposure would be greatly protracted. Further,
it is most unlikely that a pleasing lighting could be
secured for the face of the model.

When a combination is to be made the conditions
should be as favourable as possible for the landscape
itself, and again for the figure itself.

First, as to the landscape. It may be almost of any
nature, but as it is to be subsidiary to the figure it
should not be too bold or striking. It may with advan-
tage be what would otherwise be considered somewhat
over-exposed, so as to give a delicate print.

It is to be observed that the focus of the lens used
should be about the same as that which vdW be used
for the portrait. A slight difference will be in no way
noticeable.

The point which requires most attention is the
position of the horizon. It is to be remembered that
under no circumstances does the horizon appear as
appreciably below the level of our eye, — it may appear
much above it. The horizon line in the landscape must
therefore be at least as high as that point of the figure
which is on a level with the photographic eye or the

COMBINATION PRINTING. 199

lens. As we always endeavour to have the camera
level or nearly level with the face of our model, it
follows that the horizon line of the landscape must be at
least as high up as that on the portrait, — that is to say,
it will be about one-third of the height of the plate
from the top. It may be even higher. The only excep-
tion to this is when the figure is shown as on a piece
of raised groimd or some other high place, so that it
is reasonable to suppose that the observer is looking up
at it.

Our landscape should not have the sun shining, at
least in the foreground, otherwise the absence of a
shadow from the figure will be noticeable.

We now come to the figure. Unless a studio can be
had, it is best to take the negative of this out-of-doors.
The lighting in an ordinary room is far too strong, —
that is to say, there is too much shadow to be suitable
with the landscape. A broad enough lighting can
generally be got in a studio. If the figure be taken
out-of-doors it is necessary to observe the precautions
already enumerated "svith regard to out-of-door portraits,
and particularly to observe that the lighting be not such
as will appear inappropriate to the landscape. Another
precaution — the background must be pure white. A
sheet will do well.

A print is taken from the figure negative. If the
background be represented on the negative by sufficient
density to show quite white in the print, this negative
requires no further manipulation. If it print with a
tint only more or less nearly approaching to white, then
it must be blocked out as has already been described for
skies.

200 PEACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

The print is now taken, and, without its being toned
or fixed, the figure is very carefully cut out of it with
a pair of scissors. This cut-out figure is now placed
against the landscape negative with the albumenised
side against the film, so as to block out that portion
where the figure is to be in the finished print. The
cut-out figure may be fixed with a little gum, or may
be simply put in position by hand each time a print is
taken. The print which we now get from the laud-
scape negative will have the appearance of those pic-
tures in children's picture-books, where on one page
is represented a scene Avhich would be lively but that
all the figures are represented by white patches, whilst
on another page there are the figures ready to be cut
out and pasted over the patches. Indeed this child-
ish amusement most closely represents combination
printing.

The figure negative is now taken and the landscape
print is adjusted to it, so that the figure on the negative
precisely corresponds with the blank space of the print.
The process after this is quite simple. The printing
should be so conducted that the figure stands boldly out
against the landscape.

A sky may afterwards be printed into the picture.
We have now made a composition from three negatives.
There are photographers who have made compositions
from many more than this number.

Whilst on the subject of composition printing we
must not fail to mention a piece of apparatus Avhich will
be found very useful in many cases. This is Hemery's
patent automatic self -registering printing frame. We
illustrate it here, and shall briefly describe its use.

COMBINATION PRIXTIXG.

201

It will be seen that, unlike other frames, this one
has the back hinged to the frame, so that it cannot be

entirely removed. On the back there are two little
punches, which Avork into corresponding holes in front
of the frame. Now as to the working of the apparatus.
To take an example : — It is desired to print a foreground
from one negative together with a distance from another.
Two similar frames are used. The negatives are tempor-
arily fixed to the plate -glass of the frames by bits of
gummed paper along the edges. A piece of sensitised
paper is now placed over the negative from which the
foreground is to be printed, the paper being allowed to
project so far down that it will be perforated by the two
punches. The second frame has two precisely similar
punches, so that if the portion above the foreground
of the print just mentioned be cut away and the remain-
der be applied over the punches of the second frame,
a mask will be made, and if prints be taken from
the second negative, the punches being caused to per-

202

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

forate each i:)iece of jjaper, no further adjustment Avill
be necessary in printing the foreground than to place
these prints on to the first frame so that the punches of
it pass through the holes made by the punches of the
second frame.

To those "vvho ^nsh to go deeply into the matter of
composition printing we recommend a jjerusal of The
Art and Practice of Silver Printing, by H. P. Eobinson
and Captain Abney.

Another little piece of apparatus we must not omit
to mention whilst we are still on the subject of printing.
This is a marker used for registering the number of
prints taken from the frame. The ordinary way of
keeping count of prints is to glue a piece of paper to the
edge of the frame and mark each print with a stroke
from a pencil or pen, the sixth (or twelfth) stroke being
made to pass through the others, so as to mark a com-
pleted half-dozen or dozen, thus —

AMien this practice is carried on for long the frames

COMBINATIOX PRIXTIXG. 203

get covered ^nth paper till they are almost spoiled. By-
using the little appliances which we here illustrate the
frames are left undamaged.

A pair of these go to each frame. One is screwed
on to each side. The little tubes which are to be seen
on these bars can be slipped up and down, catching in
each notch. The left-hand marker is moved on one notch
for each single print finished, the right-hand one for
each dozen.

CHAPTER XXIV.

RETOUCHING.

Retouching is an art which is abused by many, and
Avhich undoubtedly is over-practised at the present day.
The elaborate modelling which is frequently performed
by photographers not only spoils a picture as a photo-
graph but generally produces a result far from artistic.
Still, to say that no retouching whatever should l^e per-
mitted is erring in the other direction. Who, for example,
can honestly say that he considers it an objectionable
practice to remove those blemishes which are peculiar to
the photographic process itself? Who even would say
that it is Avrong to touch out from the negative such
spots on a face as no painter would think of putting
on his canvas 1 Even farther than this Ave would go,
and would ask why those lines and indications which
mark age, and which are generally rendered somewhat
more strongly in an untouched photograph than they
appear to the eye, should not be softened by the re-
toucher's pencil, so long as he does not go too far?
Indeed, we think that a certain amount of retouching is
a necessity for the production of tolerable portraits, and
we shall therefore give instructions for performing such
of it as the amateur is likely to gain skill enough for.

RETOUCHIXG. 205

The term " retouching " is generally applied only to
such work as is done with a pencil on the film side of
a negative ; hut we use it in a wider sense, and intend to
include vmder it all cases where hand work is applied,
either to the negative or to the print.

We take first of all, as the simplest,

Worling on the Bach of the Negative.

The back of a negative may be worked upon when it
is desired to modify the shade of large portions of the
print, and especially where it is ^vished to lighten them.
Thus, if a negative is just barely dense enough, but is not
so much wanting as to make us incline to intensify it, if
a little be added to the high lights by colouring on the
back of the negative brilliancj' enough may be got.

Some prefer to apply the colour direct to the glass,
but we think it best to Avork on a piece of tissue paper,
which is fixed by the edges to the back of the negative
and covers the whole of it. On this tissue paper we may
work lightly with pencil, or more strongly with charcoal
or crayon. Effects may thus very often be much im-
proved. By a gradual shading off towards the part of
the negative which represents the distance an appear-
ance of atmosphere may often be given, and so forth.
In the case of a certain class of negative a sky may be
artificially produced. "When the sky in a negative is
quite clear, — that is to say, without accidental spots, etc.,
— and when it is of such a density that it gives a light
tint in the print, it is only necessary to work with the
})encil or crayon over that portion of the tissue paper
which covers the sky, when clouds are produced. Of

206 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

course, some taste and a little practice are necessary
before good results can be got ; and as, the working being
on the side of the glass which is at some distance
from the film, perfect sharpness cannot result, no clouds
with bold forms may be attempted, but merely such
fleecy things as show no very clear outline at any time.

Retouching with Pencil on the Film Side of the Negative.

For this retouching proper far more skill is required
than for that which we have described. The necessary
articles are, a retouching desk, a few pencils, and a small
quantity of some "retouching medium."

The retouching desk is the only requisite which is at
all elaborate. We illustrate it here. It will be seen

that it consists essentially of a frameivork or desk at
Avhich the retoucher sits, the negative being so placed
that he can see through a portion of it whilst his head
is shaded from the light. The negative rests with its
lower edge against a slip of Avood, so that it can be raised
or lowered, or canted to one side or to the other. There

RETOUCHING. 207

is a clear space about four inches square behind the
negative, and behind this space, so that the retoucher
looks on to it, there is a little shelf holding a piece of
Avhite paper. The angle of the shelf may be varied so
as to catch the light as well as possible. A mirror may
be put in the place of the piece of white paper when
very dense negatives are to be retouched. A piece of
bluish glass is placed between the negative and the illu-
minating piece of paper when it is desired to work by
lamp-light. There are also adjustments for varying the
angle of the frame itself to suit the operator, and to en-
able him to change his position when he gets tired.

The pencils are ordinary lead pencils of the best
quality. Those marked H and HH will generally be
found the best.

The object of the " retouching medium " is to give a
bite or tooth to the pencil so that it vnW be possible to
mark readily on the film. Of the many mediums which
are made we have known none which gives better results
than does Cadett's Mattline.

We will describe as accurately as we can the method
in which the pencil is used, premising our remarks by
saying that practice is in this branch of photography
more all-important than in any other.

The negative must be varnished first of all. "We "\W11
presume that it represents a head and shoulders portrait.
The retouching will naturally come on the face only. A
drop of the mattline is dropped on to the centre of it,
and is quickly spread over the portion which is to be
retouched, either the finger or a small pad of Avash
leather being used. The film is briskly rubbed in a
circular manner till it appears to be quite dry again.

208 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

There Avill now be a tooth, on which the pencil ^vill bite
excellently.

The first experiments may be made without a retouch-
ing desk, the negative being placed against the pane of
glass of a window, a piece of white tissue paper going
between the negative and the glass. The position neces-
sary for retouching in this manner will be found to be
very fatiguing, and the desk "s\dll be found a necessity
when even a moderate amount of retouching work is
done.

A print is taken from the negative before it is re-
touched at all. It will probably at once be seen that
certain points would bear improvement. Probably there
will be observed many spots somewhat more transparent
than the surrounding portions of the film. These prob-
ably are due to defects in the skin of the sitter, which
are too slight to be seen by the eye, but which, being of
a yellowish colour, are very visible to the photographic
film. The next thing we will notice is perhaps that
the oblique line Avhich passes down from the inside
corner of the eye to the cheek appears far more pro-
nounced in the print than in the model. The cause is
pretty much the same as it Avas in the last case. The
effect given is that of an expression of care and anxiety.
The exact same applies to the lines which generally fall
obliquely from the lower corners of the nose, at times
from the corners of the mouth. All these generally
appear stronger in an untouched photograph than in
nature, and, if they be left so, give a woebegone ex-
pression to the face of the sitter.

We shall first of all confine ourselves to the eradi-
cation of the evils which we have mentioned.

RETOUCHIXG. 209

The spots are the first thing to turn our attention to.
The pencil is made very sharp, and is gently worked over
one of these, beginning at the centre, and working round
and round to the edge. It will be found surprisingly
easy to make the spot disappear entirely, or nearly so.

The lines are not quite so easy. These must not be
entirely worked out, but must be lightened and shortened.
We begin at the lower end of each, and, working the
pencil in short strokes in the direction of the lines, make
these lower ends entirely blend into the rest of the face,
whilst we Avork over the whole line, somewhat increas-
ing the density.

The next defect which may be noticed is a general
roughness or want of evenness in the skin of the face.
This will not take place if the model have a skin of per-
fectly peachy smoothness, but any irregularities either in
texture or colour of the skin will be very strongly marked
in the negative, and must be softened or entirely done
away with. This is a thing rather difficult to do, as it
generally involves worldng over almost the whole face of
the negative, and it is quite likely that when one portion
has been made smooth it will be found that it does not
agree in density with those surrounding it — that, in
fact, we have made small individual patches smooth
whilst we have left a roughness on a large scale. To
avoid this we must frequently look at the negative
from such a distance as to get a general impression of
it, and assure ourselves that we are doing correctly.
The manipulation of the pencil is much the same as
when spots are being filled in.

The next defect which we have to modify is that
which makes itself most evident in the case of persons

p

210 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGEAPHY.

having at all angular featui'es, especially high cheek
bones. The print shows all these defects exaggerated.
If we look closely into the precise manner in which
this defect is brought about, it viiW be found that it is
on account of a too abrupt transition from high light to
shadow, and that to correct it we have to modify this.
To do so is not easy, and requires much more practice
than what we have already described. The pencil has
to be taken and lines have to be gently drawn around
the high light where it first passes off into transparency.
These are somewhat after the manner of the lines which
are made in an engra^^ng, and will, for example, take a
form such as we show here.

This modelling may be carried to any desired extent,
and when once the skill necessary to perform it is gained
it is common for operators to go too far with it.

It should be borne in mind that we are only justified
in modelling to such an extent as is necessary to oblit-
erate the exaggeration of defect which the camera pro-
duces, giving possibly here and there the benefit of a
doubt.

Xow we come to the case of the lines which mark
advancing age, and here a word of warning must be
given. It is true that the camera generally renders
these lines more strongly than they really are, but it

RETOUCHIXG. 211

must be borne iu mind that there are many faces of old
men and women which owe their beauty almost entirely
to those very lines which so many try to obliterate by
retouching.

It is onl}- when people are beginning to get old that
any intensification of these lines is objectionable, and it
is only in this case that we ought to soften them with
the pencil. It is , by no means difficult to do so. The
point is made very sharp and is worked over the lines.

If retouching be unsatisfactory it may be removed
by a drop or two of turpentine and a brisk rubbing with
a cloth.

Sjjotting.

This term is applied to all hand working which is
done on an ordinary print. Probably the name arises
from the fact that by far the greater quantity of such
work consists in removing white spots. Water-colours
are used, several being mixed to get a shade which
exactly corresponds to the colour of the print. The
three most useful colours are Indian ink, sepia, and
crimson lake. In fact Avith these three any desired
shade can be got. They are mixed on a palette A\-ith a
little gum-water or albumen (white of egg) and water,
and are applied by means of a sable or camel's-hair
brush.

CHAPTER XXV.

CUTTIXG UP PAPER ; TRDIMIXG PRIXTS ; MOUXTING
PRIXTS; ROLLIXG AXD BURXISHIXG PRIXTS;
EXMIELLIXG PRINTS.

When i^aper is being cut from the sheets, Avhich are
always of about the same size, — namely, 17 inches and 22
inches, — it is quite worth while to give some attention to
the best way to do this so as to waste as little as possible.
It is desirable to have about xV inch margin for trimming
in the case of every print, but beyond this the less there
is the better. "We here give a set of sketches showing
how paper may be cut with the best ad-s-antage for dif-
ferent sizes. When the sizes are small there is no great
difficulty in getting a very fair degree of economy.
When they are large it is far more difficult. Indeed,
for some large sizes the waste is excessive, unless smaller
sizes he ivorJced at the same time, in which case, by getting
several different sized prints from each sheet, we may
have fair economy.

We take first of all the smallest size which is likely to
be required — namely, carte. The smallest divisions in
Fig. 1 give sufficient for trimming on all sides, and it
will be found that there are forty-two of them.

CUTTING UP PRINTS. 213

Next we take cabinets, as this is the size next in
popularity to the carte.

Fig. 2 shows how fifteen can be cut from a sheet. A
strip 4 inches wide is first cut along one end of the sheet.
This is divided into three pieces. The remainder of the
sheet can then be cut up into twelve more.

7| X 4i is a popular size for landscapes. The dark
lines in Fig. 1 mark out nine pieces which are a little
larger than this. A strip cutting into six cartes will
remain.

Whole-plate, or 8h inches x 6| inches, is as near as
possible double-cabinet size. The thick lines in Fig. 2
mark out six whole-plate prints, leaving a strip cutting
into three cabinets.

A sheet cut into four, as in Fig. 3, gives 10x8 prints,
with some waste, but not very much.

One of these 10 x 8 squares will of course cut into
four 5x4 squares, as shown in one of the top squares
of the figure ; by cutting such a square in hvo as in a
lower corner two 7| x 5 prints are got, there being in
this case, however, a considerable margin of Avaste.

The most troublesome size of all is the 12 x 10. In
fact, if no size but this be required from a sheet the
waste is excessive. In this case the manner of cutting
shown in Fig. 4 is the only one to resort to.

The size 12 x 10 is, however, too nearly square for by
far the majority of subjects, and a print of that size will,
as a rule, be improved by cutting away from 1 to 2 inches
of the width. The same refers to 10 x 8 prints. Fig. 5
shows one good way of cutting up a sheet when both
12 X 10 and 10 x 8 prints arc required. It will be seen
that there is one full size 12 x 10 print got. Another

214 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

FIG 3.

izxr

12X10

10X7

10X10

FIG 5.

X

12X11

12 X 11

12X85

l2X8i

10

X

0

12X10

FIG G.

TRIMMING OF PRINTS. 215

is 1 2 inches long but only 7 inches broad. The size will
be found to give a very good picture from many 12x10
negatives. It may be cut down to 10 x 7 and make a
somewhat narrow print from a 10 x 8 negative. There
is another which without any further cutting is 10x7,
whilst there is one 10 inches square which will serve for
a full-sized 10 x 8 print.

\\Tiere 12 x 10 negatives are being printed from, but
no 10 X 8 ones, the method of division shown in Fig. G
will be found very useful.

There is one full -sized 12x10 print given; two
which are of the preferable size, 12 x 8| ; and there is
left a piece of paper Avhich may be used for a 7^ x 5 and
a carte, or for a 7^ x 4i and a carte, or for a cabinet and
two cartes.

TRIMMING PRINTS.

It ^Yil\ be readily seen that these sizes are only
approximate, and that there must be after printing a
trimming performed so as to get the precise size.

In the case of cartes, cabinets, and the other popular
portrait sizes it is necessary to adhere exactly to the
usual dimensions ; but in the case of other sizes, which
are generally used for landscapes, the prints being either
pasted into a book or mounted on large mounts with a
very considerable margin, it is by no means essential
to adhere precisely to any particular sizes, and indeed
there is great advantage in not doing so. As a rule the
photographer feels unwilling to curtail the size of his
photograph by trimming a considerable portion off it, but
in not doing so he often acts unwisely. Very frequently
a photograph may be vastly improved by cutting an inch

216 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

or two off either the length or the breadth of it. This
especially applies to the prints from negatives of the
sizes which somewhat approach a sc^uare, as, for example,
the 12x10 and 10x8. In the case of these it is seldom
that an improvement cannot be made by cutting an inch
or two, or at times even more, from the breadth, the
foreground being as a rule the part which is best re-
moved.

The implements used in trimming prints are the
following : —

Cutting shapes.

Scissors.

Cutting knives.

A trimming table.

A small drawing-board, and a

T-Square.

The cutting shapes are pieces of thick plate-glass with
edges ground accurately to the sizes which the prints are
desired to be. The edges are sometimes bevelled away.
For the reason given above it is desirable to have glass
shapes only for the popular portrait sizes, marking out
as appears best in the case of each print those which are
from large landscape negatives.

In cutting with shapes either a pair of scissors or a
trimming knife is used. Probably the amateur wiU find
the scissors the most convenient. The length of the
blades must be such that the print is cut with a single
snip along the longer edge of the largest shape used.
The print is taken up in the left hand and is adjusted
under the cutting shape, and is thus snipped round with
the scissors.

In cutting with the trimming knife the trimming

TRIMMING OF PRINTS. 217

table is used. This has a revolving top. The print is
laid on it, the glass shape being placed above, the left
hand bearing on it, so that the print is nipped between
the table top and the shape. The knife is now run
along first one edge then another, the table being turned
a quarter revolution after each is cut.

In trimming landscape pictures by whatever method
it is necessary to observe one or two points. A vertical
line, such as the corner of a house, must always be parallel
to the ends or sides of the print. If the sea is introduced,
no land being seen beyond it, the horizon line must be
parallel to the top or bottom of the print.

When prints of the larger sizes are to be trimmed it
is best to mark each one out with a pencil, using the
small drawing-board and T-square. In doing this it is
necessary to observe what we have just said with regard
to vertical lines and the horizon, and also what we said
a little time ago about occasional trimming away of a
portion of the photograph.

After the prints are marked they may be trimmed
by the scissors, but it is best to use the trimming table
and a ruler of plate -glass longer than the longer edge
of the largest print to be trimmed, and two or three
inches wide. This is used to clip the print down to the
table and as a guide for the knife.

Prints may be trimmed either before or after they
are toned. It is easier to do them before, as they lie
flat, and, moreover, the clippings are valuable as they
contain siher. If they are trimmed after toning, fixing,
etc., it is necessary to flatten them out first with a paper
cutter, as we described already when writing on the
preparing of paper sensitised as required.

218 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

MOUNTING PRINTS.

Prints may be mounted either on cards or in scrap-
books.

When the photographs are portraits it is usual to
have mounts which show only a narrow margin. In the
case of smaller sizes the mounted prints are put into
the well-known albums ; in the larger ones the mounts
themselves are commonly made with gilt sides, so that
when placed, for example, on a mantleshelf leaning
against the wall, the mounted print has a finished
appearance.

Landscapes, and at times large portraits, are mounted
on cardboard mounts with Avide margins, the length and
breadth of the mount being commonly nearly double
the length and breadth of the print. Gilt bevel-edged
mounts have been recently introduced, and when these
are used the photographs are mounted close up to the
edges. The effect is ver}^ good.

Scrap-books are very suitable for receiving photo-
graphic prints of all kinds, but especially landscape
prints. Indeed, it is a very desirable thing for amateurs
to make a rule of fixing a print from evenj negative
taken into such a book. This does not prevent them
from mounting in a more ornamental way such prints
as they consider their best. Amateurs are to be warned
against making the negative the end instead of the
means. It may seem strange that it should be so ; but
after some time the photographer gets to look with so
great satisfaction at the negative that he is perfectly
pleased if it is perfect, and is liable to place it on one
side without even taking a print from it ! It is for this

MOUNTING PRINTS. 219

reason that we urge that at least one print be taken
from every negative and be pasted into the special book
which is made for the purpose, and to which the name
of "The Amateur's Scrap-Book or Eegister of Work"
has been given.

On Avhatever the print is to be mounted the process
of mounting is the same. Various solutions are used for
the purpose. Starch and glue are the most common, but
both these have the drawback that they cockle or bend
the mount. This is objectionable in any case, but not
so much so when mounts are used as when the prints
are pasted into a scrap-book. In the former case the
cockling may be removed by the after process of burnish-
ing or rolling, which will be described, but in the latter
it cannot, "Marion and Co.'s moimting solution for
photographs" does not cockle the mount, and is
therefore preferable to either of the other mountants
mentioned.

The method of using it is as follows : — The prints are
first of all flattened, as has been already described.
The solution is warmed till it is quite liquid. The
prints are taken one by one and solution is applied
with a hard brush. Each one is then brought into
contact with the moimt, a clean cloth being used to
press it down. It is best not to apply the print the
moment that the solution has been brushed on, but to let
it remain for a moment or two till it becomes somewhat
sticky.

If a scrap-book made of thick paper instead of card-
board be used, photographs may be inserted without
any mountant at all. A slit is made for each corner of
the print, as we show, and the corners are inserted. It

220 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

will be seen that by this method prints can only be fixed
on one side of each leaf.

ROLLING PRINTS.

After prints have been mounted it is necessary to
perform some process to give a finish or gloss to them.
There are two methods of doing this, which are in
common use. One is burnishing, and is usually applied
to small prints on mounts with narrow margins ; the
other is rolling, and is generally applied to large
prints.

In the first of these the print is drawn across a hot
steel biu'nisher by means of a roller, which bears on the
back. In the other it is simply pressed between steel
rollers very much as clothes are mangled. The first
process gives the finest gloss, but unless the burnisher
is very carefully used the prints are liable to be torn
to pieces.

In Marion and Co.'s self-adjusting rolling-press and
burnisher, whicli we here illustrate, a compromise is made

ROLLING PRINTS. 221

between the t-\vo processes. It will be seen that the
two rollers are geared into each other. The one is
caused to travel a little more quickly than the other,
and the result is that, whereas a finer polish is produced

than even with the burnisher, there is no danger of
tearing the print.

Before either burnishing prints or rolling them Avith
the special press a solution of one grain of Castille soap
in one ounce of methylated spirit should be rubbed over
the surface, which is then ready for burnishing when-
ever it is dry.

MOUNTING PRINTS IN OPTICAL CONTACT WITH GLASS.

This is a method of mounting prints which gives
a particularly pleasing eflfect. A piece of glass free
from all air-bubbles or other blemishes is selected. A
porcelain dish Avhich will hold the plate is taken. A
solution of gelatine is made up in the folloAving manner :
Over 300 grains of hard gelatine is poured a half pint
of cold water. "When the gdatine becomes soft the cold
water is poured off and hot is added till the total
amount is ten ounces. If the heat is not sufficient to

222 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

entirely melt the gelatine, the vessel containing it is
placed in a basin of hot water or near the fire. The
temperature of the solution should be about 120° Fahr.
The dish and glass plate are warmed by pouring hot
water into the former. This water is poured off, and the
gelatine solution is poured over the plate. There must be
enough solution to cover it to a depth of at least a quarter
of an inch. The quantity which we mention is merely
taken so as to give the proportion of gelatine to water.
The print which is to be mounted on the glass is soaked
in warm water till it is quite soft, when it is placed face
do^vnwards into the gelatine solution. It is brought
into contact with the plate. The plate, with print on
it, is now removed from the solution, and a squeegee is
applied to the back of the print to press out the super-
fluous solution. A squeegee is a strip of pliable india-
rubber mounted on a piece of wood. For small prints
it may be dispensed with, the gelatine solution being
pressed out Avith the ball of the thumb.

Prints mounted on glass show a beautiful depth and
transparency of shadow. They may be framed in oak
frames, the glass taking the place of the glass of the
frame. A second glass may on no accoimt be placed in
front of the one supporting the print.

ENAMELLING.

If the plate of glass used in the process just described
be coated with plain collodion and be allowed to dry
before it is placed in the gelatine solution, the print may
be stripped from the glass after it is dry, and will have
a very highly -polished surface. Such prints must be

ENAMELLING. 223

mounted before they leave the glass, — that is to say, the
mount must be applied to the back of the print, and then
fixed with mounting solution before it is stripped from
the glass, which may not l)e done till the mounting solu-
tion is completely dry.

A special plain collodion is made for enamelling
prints.

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE FERRO-PEUSSIATE PROCESS ; ENLARGING ;
LANTERN SLIDES,

THE FERRO-PRUSSIATE PROCESS.

This is perhaps the simplest of all printing processes,
there being no toning or fixing to perform. The print
Avhich is got is of a bright blue colour. The chief use
of the process is for copying plans and drawings such as
are used by engineers and architects, the lines coming
out white on a background of blue. Yery pleasing effects
can, however, be got from negatives of certain subjects,
notably of sea-pieces.

The paper is manufactui'ed and sold by Marion and
Co., and is ready sensitised. It is placed in a frame like
albumenised j^aper, and the process of jDrinting is watched
in precisely the same way. Several changes of colour
take place. The print becomes first yellow, then greenish,
afterwards greenish-blue, deep bluish-gray, and lastly, an
olive tinge with a metallic tint is acquired. The deepest
shadows should reach this colour. The time taken is
about four or five times as long as for albumenised paper.
When the printing has gone far enough the piece of
paper is placed in a dish and clean water is poured on to

FERRO-PRUSSIATE PROCESS. 225

it. The water becomes yellowish, and the print almost
instantly becomes of a bright blue colour. The washing
is continued as long as the water comes ofif of a yellow
colour, which is only a few minutes. It should not be
allowed to go farther, otherwise the depth of the blue
may be somewhat reduced. The print is next pressed
between sheets of blotting-paper to remove surface
moisture, and is hung up to dry when it is finished.

When drawings are to be copied, they are best traced
first on transparent tracing-cloth or paper. It is, how-
ever, possible to take prints even from drawings on thick
drawing-paper.

The following is the course pursued in a large drawing
office attached to a mechanical engineering work : The
drawings are pencilled in as usual on drawing-paper, but,
instead of inking them in, a tracing on very transparent
tracing- cloth is made. The thing most necessary to
observe is that the ink be quite opaque. The best way
to secure very white lines in the prints is to mix a little
vermilion colour ^Wth the Indian ink used for the tracing.
This will not notably alter the appearance of the tracing,
whilst it will stop all chemical rays. The sectioning,
instead of being done in colour, is done in lines. The
tracing is now kept in the office as a finished drawing,
the pencil drawing being destroyed. "When copies are
wanted for the workshop or to send out they are taken
on the ferro-prussiate paper. As it is difficult to turn
over the very large frames which are generally used for
draAvings, it is best to leave a narrow margin of ferro-
prussiate paper beyond the tracing -cloth, so that the
change of colour may be watched. Another plan is to
put a very small drawing in an ordinary quarter or half-

Q

226 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

plate printing frame beside the large one, and look at
the progress of it from time to time.

Corrections or additions may be made on the blue
paper by writing or drawing with a solution of a few
grains of caustic potash to each ounce of water. The cor-
rection is made, and as soon afterwards as possible the
part is sjjonged Avith clean water to remove superfluous
potash, which would otherwise cause the line to spread.

If it be desired to have blue lines on a white ground,
a double process has to be gone through. A special paper
is made for taking prints Avith white lines on a blue
ground, which, being transparent, may be printed from.
In this case the exposure must be continued for several
times as long as if white lines on a blue ground only are
required. This print, taken on the transparent paper, is
now used precisely as the tracing was, and there results
a print with blue lines on a white ground.

It is almost needless to remark that the paper must
be kept from any bright light except during exposure,
just as sensitive albumenised paper is.

ENLARGING.

It may be said that, other things being equal, the larger
a photograph is the finer it is, at any rate within limits.
The apparatus for taking very large pictures is, however,
exceedingly cumbersome, and the plates necessary are
very expensive. ]\Ioreover, certain optical difficulties are
met with. It is exceedingly difficult, indeed impossible,
to make a large lens equal to a small one even in its
propei'ties of definition and flatness of field. But it is
in a want of depth of focus that large lenses show them-

ENLARGING. 227

selves most defective. When we get beyond such lengtlis
as fourteen and twenty inches Ave find that, to get the
foreground and distance both anytliing like in focus, we
have to use excessively small stops, so that the exposures
are prolonged and certain effects become impossible to
attain. For example, instantaneous views are most diffi-
cult to do with a lens of beyond about 20 -inch focal
length.

For all this the photographer need not despair of
getting prints as large as he likes of any subject which
may be taken on even the smallest jilate. He may have
recoui'se to the process of enlarging. Recently this process
has been made much more easy by the introduction of
gelatine bromide paper, which is simply paper coated
Avith a gelatine emulsion specially prepared for the pur-
pose.

First, as to the negatives to be used for enlarging.
These require, of course, to be very sharj). For this
reason focussing must be performed with great accuracy,
a focussing magnifier being used in every case. A nega-
tive which will give a perfect silver print will alwaj^s
give a good enlargement. The thing to be specially
avoided is hardness. AVe must therefore neither under-
expose nor over-develop. A negative Avhich Avill give
a silver priiit somewhat too soft will generally give an
excellent enlargement, especially if the shadows be
very clear.

Various designs of apparatus have been made for en-
larging, the most convenient of which is "Marion and
Co.'s Enlarging Apparatus," Avhich we illustrate here.
We believe that we shall most readily make the object
of this clear by saying that it is simply an improved

228

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

magic lantern, and that indeed it may be used as such.
^Vhen it is used for enlarging, the negative takes the
place of the magic lantern slide, and the enlarged image
is thrown on to the sensitive film. No lens is shown

in the engraving, but any photographic lens of suitable
focus will do well. A portrait lens, or one of the rapid
type of about six or seven inches equivalent focus, will be
found the best.

We illustrate also a cheaper form of apparatus designed

ENLARGING APPARATUS. 229

specially for amateurs. It is not quite so convenient or
perfect as the more elaborate appliance, but will be found
to give excellent results in use.

An easel is made to go with the apparatus. This has
an adjusting screw, so that its distance from the camera
may be varied. The sensitive paper is fixed to this.

We shall now describe the precise method of using
the apparatus. It may be used in any room which can
be darkened, or rather in which there is only non-
actinic light.

The lamp of the apparatus is lighted. Opposite the
lantern, and so that the disc of light shines full upon it,
is placed the easel at a distance of a few feet, care being
taken to ensure its being at right angles to the axis of
the lens. A piece of wdiite drawing-paper is fixed to it
with drawing-pins. If the disc of light appears evenly
illuminated we may proceed. If not, the lamp is moved
farther from or nearer to the condenser (the large lens
which will be found between the lamp and the groove
for the negative) until an even illumination is got. The
negative is now placed in its groove. We must deter-
mine of what size the enlargement is to be. We adjust
the distance between the negative and the lens till the
image is fairly sharp on the drawing-paper which is
pinned to the easel. We now measure the image to see
if it is the right size. If it is too large we move the easel
towards the apparatus; if it is too small we move it away.
We focus roughly once more, and measure again. When
we have got the size we want we make a final very
accurate adjustment by means of the screw of the easel
till we get the image quite sharp. We may say that it
is seldom that 2;elatine nea:atives will stand enlaraiinj; to

230 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

more than six or eight diameters, as beyond that the
texture of the emulsion itself becomes very evident. As,
however, such a degree of enlargement will give even
from a quarter-plate negative a print thirty -four inches by
twenty-six inches, it will be seen that it is ample. An en-
largement of four or five diameters is generally sufficient.

When the focussing is accurately pei'forrned the cap
is placed on the lens, the drawing-paper is removed, and
its place is taken by a piece of gelatino-bromide paper,
when the exposure is made. As the exposure may vary
according to the lens used, and the distance between
the lens and the sensitive paper, from a few seconds to
many minutes, it is best to make a trial exposure first,
using only a small piece of paper, which is at once
developed.

When the exposure is over the enlarged print may be
developed. This is done in almost precisely the same
way as a plate is developed, ferrous oxalate being
used. The directions which are issued with the paper
should be implicitly followed. If the enlargement be
of moderate size, say not more than fifteen inches by
twelve, it may be developed in a dish ; if it is larger it is
usual to construct a dish out of the paper itself, which is
laid on a board or piece of plate-glass, and the edges are
carefully turned up.

After development is complete the print is washed.
Then it is treated with the precise same alum solu-
tion which is recommended for negatives, is washed
again, and is fixed with the negative -fixing solution.
It is once more thoroughly washed, and when dried is
finished.

The remarks which we made with regard to the use

ENLARGING. 231

of opal glass for positives when treating on the alpha
paper and plates (see p. 180) hold equally good in the
case of enlargements. The Britannia argentic bromide
opal plates are made specially for the production of
enlargements, and very beautiful results can be got with
them.

It will be seen that for enlarging in this manner a
separate operation with the enlarging apparatus has to
be gone through for each negative which is required.
This is very troublesome if many enlarged prints are
wanted. Moreover, the colour of the gelatino-bromide
print, which is of an engraving black, although it
is liked b}^ many, is by some thought not so good as
that of a print on albumenised paper. If an enlargement
on this latter is required, it is necessary to take an
enlarged negative, usually on glass ; and if many enlarge-
ments of the same subject are required, it is best to do
the same.

There are two ways in which an enlarged negative
may be got. Before describing them we must mention
that a transparency is a picture on glass like a negative,
but with the shades correct instead of reversed. Such
may be got by simply placing a sensitive plate in contact
with a negative, and allo'^'ing the light from a gas-
burner or lamp at a distance of a couple of feet or so to
shine through the negative for a few seconds. Develop-
ment is performed as usual.

If a glass plate take the place of the scnsiti\-e paper
mentioned already, an enlarged transparency will result.
To get an enlarged negative wc may either take a trans-
parency by contact from the small negative, and place
this transparency in the enlarging apparatus, and thence

232 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPm'. '

get an enlarged negative, or we may place the small
negative in the apparatus, and get from it an enlarged
transparency, from which an enlarged negative may be
got by contact.

The former plan has the advantage of economy, — one
large and one small plate being used, whereas in the
latter two large plates are used. There are, hoAvever,
advantages in the latter case which more than counter-
balance the slight additional expense. In the first place
it is likely that the final negative will be sharper, but,
besides this, there is offered an excellent opportunity for
retouching which would not otherwise be afforded. If
our chapter on retouching be considered, it will be seen
that the only defects which can be eradicated are those
which appear too transparent in the negative and too
dark in the print. Such as appear too dense in the
negative and too light in the print can be corrected
only by manipulating each separate print. When, how-
ever, we have an enlarged transparency as Avell as an
enlarged print we can eradicate defects of both natures.
It might be supposed that the small transparency
would serve as well for retouching on as the large
one ; but it must be borne in mind that the marks of
the pencil on the small transparency, when magnified in
the enlarged negative, would appear excessively coarse.

Taking all this into consideration, we describe the
process for getting an enlarged negative by means of an
enlarged transparency.

The plates used are the same as those employed for
landscape work. The best thing to focus on is a piece
of glass whitened by rubbing a piece of putty on it.
This is fixed to the easel by drawing-pins, the edges of

ENLARGING. 233

the pin-heads being made to clip the glass plate. The
plate is of the same size as the enlarged transparency
and negative are to be, and its thickness ■nail allow for
the thickness of the former of these after focussing. The
small negative is placed in the lantern, and focussing is
performed exactly as for the paper.

The whitened glass is removed, and a sensitive plate
takes its place. The sensitiveness of this will be found
to be much greater than that of the paper, probably five
or six times as great. On the other hand, the time
allowed must be such as to give (allowing for difference
of sensitiveness) a far more complete exposure. "\Miere
a positive is desired the highest lights must remain pure
white. When a transparency is wanted it is necessary
to get printing density in all the details of the highest
lights. To make sure of this we must give such an
exposure that no part will remain quite white. The
exposure will therefore, allowing for the difference of
sensitiveness, most likely be about one-half that required
for a positive on paper. The development is performed
exactly as for a landscape negative. If ferrous oxalate
developer be used the transparency itself will be very
pleasing in appearance, and may be kept to hang iip
against a window, so as to be looked through.

After it is dry, and any retouching which is required
is done, a negative is taken from it by contact. It is
best to jjlace the transparency and the negative both in
a printing frame so as to ensure there being no motion
between the two. The exposure required will average
about ten or fifteen seconds at a distance of four feet from
an ordinary 15-candle gas-burner or good paraffin lamp.
The development is conducted precisely as for a land-

234 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

scape negative, and the negative should not be different
in appearance from one taken direct, except on very
close examination. It is treated precisely as an ordinary
negative.

MAGIC LANTERN SLIDES.

There is no way of exhil^iting photographs which shows
them to half so great advantage as the magic lantern, and
as the photographer who possesses Marion's enlarging ap-
paratus has in it a most excellent " optical lantern " — as
the magic lantern is now generally denominated — it is a
pity he should not know how he may produce slides to
use with it. It is often the case that a photographer,
seeing for the first time the projection on the screen
from a slide taken from one of his negatives, is aston-
ished at the amount which there is in it. Details which
were entirely overlooked in an ordinary print are now
clearly visible, and the whole appears to stand out in
bold relief.

The usual size of magic lantern slides is about three
and a quarter inches square. Quarter-plates are therefore
very suitable for their production. If the negative be on
the same sized plate the transparency which forms the
slide may be taken by contact. If the negative be of any
size from quarter to half-plate it is best to use the enlarging
apparatus, the focussing screen being brought very near
the lens so as to get the image very small.

If the negative be very large it is necessary to have
recourse to another plan. A room must be used in
Avhicli it is possil)le to fix the negative in an aperture
made for it in a shutter, and from which all actinic light
except such as comes through the negative is excluded.

MAGIC LANTERN SLIDES. 235

The camera is now placed opposite the negative, and the
distance is so adjusted that the size of the image on the
ground ghiss is three and a quarter inclies long. There
is fixed outside the window, at an angle of 45° with a
horizontal line, either a mirror or a board of wood with
a piece of white paper on it, so as to reflect light from
the sky on to the negative.

In developing the slides the utmost care is necessary
to have the high lights absolutehj dear. At the same time
any approach to hardness must be avoided. Indeed, the
density must be considerably less than what would be
required to make a transparency which would look well
when held up against the sky. To ensure getting these
qualities an ample exposure must be given and a ferrous
oxalate developer must be used, which is both weak and
considerably restrained, the development being stopped
before the highest lights discolour in the least.

AVe may add one ounce of the solution of protosulphate
of iron to five of the oxalate of potash, and, having diluted
this with an equal quantity of water, may add to the
whole four to six grains of bromide of ammonium or
potassium. The development with this will be very
slow, taking possibly ten minutes or quarter of an hour;
but if the exposure have been correct, perfectly clear high
lights will result.

Whilst we are writing the above we have just heard
of Mr. Cowan's gelatino - chloride plates, and we are
inclined to believe they give the best resiilts for all
kinds of transparencies, and at the same time are very
quick in printing, and very easy to develop. We do
not think it necessary to give directions here, for Marion
and Co., who have the sole sale of these plates, send

236 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGEAPHY.

out printed instructions in each box. They likewise
prepare the solutions ready for use. Therefore all diffi-
culties are smoothed away for the photographer.

Since the last paragraph was written for our first
edition Mr. Cowan's plates have come into very general
use amongst photographers, and it is now generally ad-
mitted that, except perhaps where enormous c^uantities
of similar slides or transparencies are required, they give
better results than can be got by any other process.

The special cjuality which gelatino- chloride plates
possess, and which distinguish them from all others, is
their power of giving an extraordinary range of tone in
transparencies. By mere variations of exposure and
development any colour, from a rich engraving black to
a crimson red, can be obtained.

CHAPTER XXVII.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

We have now finished our work of instruction. Our
endeavour throughout has been to give directions of a
nature so practical and so far devoid of technicalities
that any one quite unacquainted with photography might
take up our book and, beginning at the beginning of it,
might, without any further assistance, acquire a know-
ledge of the beautiful and fascinating art which forms
the subject of it. If we have succeeded in this we are
satisfied, and have but a word or two further to say to
our reader.

In every photographic operation care and deliberation
are above all things necessary. The beginner should
confine himself to one branch at a time, and, until he
has learned by experience what deviations can be made
from them with safety, should adhere absolutely to the
instructions given. As he advances he is sure — and it
ought to be so — to deviate in small matters from any
written instructions which can be given him ; but he
will always find that careful and cleanly working is a
necessity if good results are required.

Above all, let him endeavour to avoid making the
mere technicahties of his photographic work an object.

238 TRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHY.

instead of letting them lie but a means to an end. Let
him try at all times to produce pictures which will be
a credit not only to himself but to the art by Avhich
they are produced, bearing in mind that if photography
is not ranked by all as one of the fine arts, it is rather
because it is practised by so many who have not any
artistic feeling, or will not take the trouble to acquire
any artistic knowledge, than because it is incapable of
producing ti^ue works of art.

THE END.

Printed by R. & R. Ci.ARK, Edinburgh.

ADVERTISEM ENTS.

ADVERTISEMENTS

MARION & CO.'S

NONPAREIL SET

THE CHEAPEST & BEST

COMPLETE PHOTO-APPARATUS

That has ever been made.

Price 30s.

Size of Plate, 4^ x S^.
Comprising —
1 Mahogany Camera, 1 Good
working Lens, a Tripod Stand,
Focussing Cloth, Dry Plates,
Dishes, Solutions, etc. etc., and

Complete and Clear Instructions
how to work.

NONPAREIL PRINTING SET, with Stock of Material,
Dishes, Mounts, etc. . 12s. 6d.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

s

242 Advertisements.

MABION & CO.'S

A, B, C SET

FOR PLATES 41x3^.

Comjmsing — Camera Avith Double Dark Slide, Lens, Stand,
Dry Plates, Chemicals, Lamp, Trays, etc.

Packed in Cardboard Box, complete.

Price £2 : 5s.

The above Set has been specially got up for Schools. It
will be found a convenient size, and the Camera and Stand very
jjortable. The Lens is suitable for views, near or distant, and
groups can also be got vn.t\i it ; but for single portraits it would
be desirable to employ the Special Portrait Lens (see list of
extras below). Concise instructions are sent out with each Set,
and we assert that any youth using ordinary care will be enabled
at once to get a fair negative. The Printing Set is put up apart,
and comprises all the apparatus needful, as also a little stock of
material.

Printing Set for above . . . . £1 : 3s.

If packed for the Country, 2 s. extra is charged.

Prices of Extras and Materials.

Portrait Lens (double combination), 1.5s. ; Leather Case to
take Camera, Slide, Lens, and Focussing-Cloth, 10s. 6d. ; extra
for Double Slide, 6s. 6d. ; Britannia Dry Plates, per dozen, extra
rapid, 2s. 4d. ; ordinary, Is. 6d. ; Solutions, No. 1 and No. 2,
Is. 6d. ; Alum, per bottle, 3d. ; Hyposulphite of Soda, in jar, 4d. ;
Ruby Lamp, Is. lOd. ; Trays, each. Is. 9d.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

243

MAKION & CO.'S

STUDENTS OR BEGINNER'S SET

FOR 5x4 NEGATIVES.

I Comprising —

CAMERA, with Double Dark
Slide, Lens, Stand, Dry Plates,
Chemicals, Lamp, Trays.

Packed in Cardboard Box, complete,

Price £2 :10s.

"A Marvel of Cheapness."

The above Set is complete with
all the Apparatus and Material re-
quisite for the production of a realh'
good class Negative. Our aim has
been to produce a useful "Working-
Set at the minimum of cost The
Directions issued ■with each Set are
written expressly for the Amateur Avho knows nothing Avhat-
ever of Photograph^', and will, if carefully followed, enable such
to produce a fairly good negative even at the first trial. "We
have every confidence in recommending this to Beginners.

Printing Set for above

. £l:5s.

If packed for the Country, 2s. extra is charged.

Prices of Extras and Materials. — Portrait Lens (double com-
bination), 15s. ; Leather Case to take Camera, Slides, Lenses, and
Focussing-Cloth, 10s. Gd. ; Extra Double Slide, 7s. 6d. ; Britannia Dry
Plates, per dozen, 2s. 3d. ; Solutions, Nos. 1 and 2, Is. 6d. ; Alum,
per bottle, 3d. ; Hji^osulpbite of Soda, in jar, 4d. ; Ruby Lamp,
Is. lOd. ; Ruby Chimney, Is. ; Trays, each, Is. 9d.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

244

Advertisements.

THE "OXFORD" PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.

To make Negatives 6i x 4f (Cabinet Size),

^

U

s

o

The above Set is complete for working tlie pop\;lar Cabinet size, suitable
either for Portraits or Views. The Camera is well made, with leather bellows, and
has two double dark slides ; thus four dry plates can be worked with it. Printed
instructions are given with each Set sufficiently clear and precise for a
Beginner. It must be noted, however, that the plates are fitted into the
backs slightly different from the method given in the directions. The metal
plate in the backs or slides is a fixture, consequently each of the gelatine dry
plates is fitted in coated side upwards. The folding-board of the Oxford
Camera is made rigid by turning the brass bars at its side round into the
side of the Camera base.

Packing Charge (if sent into the Country), 5s.

Prices of Extras and Materials.

Superior Lens for taking single Portraits ....

Leather Case to take Camera, Slides, Lens, and Focussing-Cloth
Extra Double Slide ......

Extra Eapid Britannia Plates (per dozen)
Ordinary ,, ,, ■

Travelling Candle Lamp ......

Printing Set for the above, with supply of |^
necessary Apparatus and Stock of Material /

£3 5

0

0 15

0

0 10

6

0 5

3

0 3

6

0 5

0

30s.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Solio Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

245

THE COMPACT SET

For Plates 3^ x 4^

A light but strong Camera, Leather Bellows, Eack and Pinion, ami
with 3 Double Backs, 1 of

Marion's quick -acting Recti-
linear Lenses, Focussing-Cloth,
and "Waterproof Case to hohl
the above.

r(?®"

WtikkU

Measurements of Case —
Length, 8 in. ; width, 6 in. ;

depth, Sin. Complete. Price £7 : 15s.

Also Tripod Stand in "Waterproof Case.

This might well be called The LADIES' Amateur Photographic Set,
so light and so easj' to work.

THE ENGINEERS' AND BUILDERS' PHOTOGRAPHIC SET.
Specially prepared for the use of Engineers, Builders, &c., who
require records and copies of their works. The set is quite complete,
comprising everything requisite for the making of negatives (a good
strong Camera, an effective Lens), and it will take negatives up to
12 X 10 in.. Full partimlars on ap2)lication.

Price Complete, £22.
MARION & CO.'S

PRINTING SETS

(For 5x4 Plates, 25s. ; for 6^ x 4f, 30s.)
In Strong Cardboard Boxes, comprise —

Ready Sensitised Paper, Porcelain Dishes, Gold and Acetate of Soda
for toning, Hypo for fi.xing, Blotting-Paper, Cutting Glasses, Mounting
Boards, Mounting Solution, Printing Frames, etc.

{For Directions in Photographic Printing see previous
fart of this worJc.)

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

246 A dvertisements.

MARION & CO.'S

"UNIVERSITY" PHOTOGRAPHIC SET

(FOR NEGATIVES Sj x 61).

Comprising — Leather Bellows, Body Camera, Screw Adjustments,
Extending Back, Single Swing, with 3 Double Backs, Strong
Tripod in Twill Case, Single View Lens, 1 dozen Britannia Dry-
Plates, Bottles of Britannia Solution, Liquid Ammonia, Alum, and
Hypo, Nest of 3 Ebonite Trays, Glass measures, Euby Candle
Lamp.

Contained in Black Polished Fine Case, complete.

Price £10.

The unprecedented success which has attended the sale of our
" Student " and " Oxford " Sets has induced us to comply with
the repeatedly expressed desires of our friends, and to introduce
the above set for Avhole plates (8| x 6i-), which is constructed as
nearly as possible after the same manner. It will be patent to
all that with each increase of size there must be a proportionate
rise of cost ; but the above Set has almost all the advantages of
superior finished instruments, and, with careful usage, is in all
respects fitted for the production of good class work.

PRINTING SET suitable for the " University " Set . . . £2.

PRICE of MATERIALS, etc., that can be used with the
" University " Set : —

Portrait Lens for Cartes and Cabinets

Britannia Plates (S^- x 6|), ordinary series (per cloz.)

,, ,, „ extra rapid series „

Bottle of Britannia Solution (lialf-pint)
Bottle of Ammonia Solution (half-pint)
Leather Case for Camera, and 3 Backs

Packing Charge [if sent into the Country), 55.

s.

d.

80

0

6

0

10

0

3

6

0

9

21

0

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

A dvertisements. 247

MARION & CO.'S

SUPERIOR "HALF-PLATE" PHOTOGRAPHIC SET

(Size of Necjative, 6i x 4|).

Comprising — Best-make Spanish Mahogany Camera, Bellows Body,
Rack Adjustment, Double Saving, Horizontal and Vertical Sliding Front,
New Reversing Arrangement of Back to take Dark Slide either upright
or oblong, 3 Double Backs, Marion's No. 2 quick-acting Rectilinear
Lens, Strong Sliding Tripod, Velvet Focussing-Cloth, Leather Case (for
Camera, Lens, 3 Backs, and Cloth), Waterproof case for Tripod, | gross
B.D.P. Half-plates, Bottles of Britannia Solution, Liquid Ammonia,
Hypo, Alum, 1 Rocking Developing Tray, 2 Ebonite Trays, Zinc
Washing Apparatus, Ruby Lamp, Glass Measures, Draining Rack.

Packed in Blacit
Polished Pine Case.

Price £17.

Everything in the above Set is of excellent quality both in material
and workmanship. There is every convenience that may be required
both for tourists and home practice. It will be noted that all essentials
are included at a moderate cost consistent -with quality ; and the
possessor need have no fear but that his instrument will favourably
compare with that of any brother artist whom he may meet, both in
appearance or adaptability, while in durability it is surpassed by none.
{For Uliole-Plate Sets see next jKige.)

Printing Set for above . . . £2 : 5s.

Packing Charge {if sent into the Country), 5s.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

248 A dvcrtiscm cuts.

MARION & CO.'S

SUPERIOR

"WHOLE-PLATE" PHOTOGRAPHIC SET

(Size of Negative, SJ x 6j).

Comprising — Best-make Spanish Mahogany Camera, Bellows Body,
Rack Adjustment, Double Swing, Horizontal and Vertical Sliding
Front, with new Reversing Arrangement to allow the Slides being
used either upright or oblong, 3 Double Backs, Marion's No. 3
Rectilinear Lens, Strong Sliding Tripod, Velvet Focussing-Cloth,
Leather Case (to hold Camera, Backs, Lens, Cloth, etc.), Water-
proof Case for Stand, |- gross B.D. P. Whole-Plates, Bottle Britannia
Solution, Liquid Ammonia, Alum, Hypo, 1 Rocking Developing
Tray, 3 Ebonite Trays, Zinc Washing Tank, Ruby Lantern, 2
Glass Measures, Draining Rack.

Contained in Blacl( Poiislied Pine Case, complete.

Price £20.

The above Set is complete in every respect, and well worthy
the careful attention of intending purchasers. We can re-
commend each article for durability, compactness, and finish.
The advantage of a " Whole-Plate " Set consists in its being
capable of use for smaller pictures 'when the larger and more
effective size is not required. These Cameras are suited alike
for Portraiture and Landscape work ; and, when the effectiveness
of the size of picture is fully estimated, it is usually thought that
a whole jilate is, notwithstanding its l)eing somewhat more bulky,
the most desirable sized instrument.

PRINTING SETS suitable for above, £3.

Packing Charge (if sent into the Country), 6s. 6cl.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements. 249

MABION & CO.'S
SUPERIOR

Ten by Eight Photographic Set

(Size of Negative, 10x8).

'^omjmsing — Best -make Spanish Mahogany Camera, Bellows
Body, Rack Adjustment, Double Swing, Horizontal and Vertical
5liding Front, New Reversing iVrrangement at the back to allow
;h6 Slides to be used either upright or oblong way, 3 Double
Backs, Marion's No. 4 Rapid Rectilinear Lens, Strong Sliding
Fripod, Velvet Focussing-Cloth, Leather Case (to contain Camera,
;he 3 Double Backs, Lens, Cloth, etc.), "Waterproof Case for
5tand, 3 dozen 10x8 Britannia Plates, Bottle Britannia Solu-
,ion, Liquid Ammonia, Alum, Hypo, 1 Rocking Developing Tray,
2 Compo Trays, Zinc Washing Tank, Ruby Lantern, 2 Glass
Measures, Draining Rack.

All in a Black Polished Pine Case, loith divisions, and lined green baise.

Price £28.

The above Set is of the best material, and complete in every respect
'or making negatives. The Camera is suitable either for Field or
Studio work, and it is fitted with a new arrangement for working the
Backs, either horizontally or vertically, without disturbing the body
)f the Camera. This is a very great convenience for all kinds of
Landscape work. The 1 0 x 8 is an effective photographic size and is
argely used ; in fact, it ■n'ill always be found that a good size photo-
graph is far more effective and makes a better show in any collection
liati the smaller sizes, and as regards working there is no greater
lifficulty in using the 10 x 8 than in the smaller sizes.

Printing Set, Apparatus, and Stock of Material
suitable for the above, £4 :5s.

Packing Charge (if sent into the Country), 7s. 6d.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

250 Advertisements.

MAKION & CO.'S

SUPERIOR

Twelve by Ten Photographic Set

(Size of Xegative, 12x10).

Comimsing — Best -make Spanish Mahogany Camera, Bellows
Body, Back Adjustment, Double Swing, Horizontal and Vertical
Sliding Front, Xew Eeversing Arrangement at the back to allow
the Slides to be used either uj^right or oblong way, 3 Double
Backs, Marion's No, 5 Eapid Rectilinear Lens, Strong Sliding
Tripod, A^elvet Focussing-Cloth, Leather Case (to contain Camera,
the 3 Double Backs, Lens, Cloth, etc.). Waterproof Case for
Stand, 3 dozen 12x10 Britannia Plates, Bottle Britannia Solu-
tion, Liquid Ammonia, Alum, Hypo, 1 Eocking Developing Tray,
2 Compo Trays, Zinc "Washing Tank, Euby Lantern, 2 Glass
Measures, Draining Eack

All in a Black Polished Fine Case, with divisions, and, lined green baise.

Price £34.

The above Set is of the best material, aud complete in every respect
for making negatives. The Camera is suitable either for Field or
Studio work, and is fitted with a new arrangement for working the
Backs, either horizontally or vertically, -n-ithout disturbing the body
of the Camera. This is a very great convenience for all kinds of
Landscape work. The 12 x 10 is an effective photographic size, and
is largely used ; in fact, it will always be found that a good size photo-
graph is far more effective and makes a better show in any collection
than the smaller sizes, and as regards working there is no greater
difficulty in using the 12 x 10 than in the smaller sizes.

Printing Set, Apparatus, and Stock of Material
suitable for the above, <£5,

Packixg Charge (if sent into the Country), 7s. 6d.

MARION & CO,, 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisenunts. 251

THE ACADEMY CAMERA.

THIS small Camera, known as tlie ACADEMY CAMERA, is
invaluable to the Artist, ^lilitar}- Man, and others who require a
haudy instrument that will operate without a stand or the cumbersome
backs. The Tray underneath contains 12 Plates, which can be ex-
posed in rotation, and (a still further advantage) the Tray with exposed
Plates may be removed and replaced by another filled with unexposed
Plates, and this change may be safely made out-of-doors without danger
of spoiling the Plates. The Cameras are made in four sizes. For
particulars as to size and price, see next page. The following are the

DIRECTIONS FOR WORKING.

The under tray is filled A\-ith 12 plates, film side towards the front of Camera;
of course this must be done in a pliotogi-apher's dark room, or in fact in any
room from which tlie light is excluded, using our Candle-lamp with its ruby
chimney. The^ tray is now slipped on to the under part of the Camera, and
moved by the rack-work close up to the front. The plates are thus protected
from daylight, and the Camera may be taken anywhere.

In photogi-aphing, the Camera is generally held in the hand like a pistol
when aim is taken, or rested on any convenient place. Touch the little knob
which is behind the Camera front on the left ; this releases the ebonite
revolving disc, which must be turned toward the right by means of the brass
projecting head until it catches in a spring. It will be observed, as the
ebonite plate turns, the slot in it reveals the under lens. (This is the acting
lens, its fellow above merely serving to focus with.) When the ebonite disc
is pushed home, adjust the tray by the rack-work so that the brass finger on
the other side of the Camera covers the first notch of the brass plate. Now
turn the Camera upside dowm, lay hold of the brass-milled head at the back
of the Camera and pull it outwards, — this leaves free passage for the plate to
fall from the grooved tray through an ojjening at the bottom of the Camera.
When the plate is heard to fall into the Camera, let go the milled head ; the
spring released closes the apertures of the Camera and retains the plate in its
proper position. The Camera is now turned over to its normal position, and
the object to be photographeil is foiussed, the Camera being held a little
distance from the eyes ; the focus is obtained in No. 1 (Academy Camera) by
pulling outwards or pushing inwards the brass wire projecting beneath the

252 A dvertisements.

ground glass, until the object is sharp and distinct on the ground glass.
Nos. 2, 3, and 4 have a rack and pinion on the top of the instrument for
focussing. Now touch with the forefinger the brass knob on the right hand
behind the Camera front. The ebonite disc is released, revolves, and exposes
the plate, passes on, and is caught in the catch. The picture is now taken,
and the plate is released by pulling outwards the brass-milled head at the
back of the Camera — the plate falling through into its groove in the tray
beneath. When the click of its fall is heard, release the spring.

P.S. — When the plate has been dropped into the Camera from the tray
the tray must not be moved until the plate has been exposed and allowed to
drop back again into its place in the tray.

For another exposure repeat the operation, of course moving forward the
tray by the rack-work till the brass finger points to the next notch. There
is no difficulty in working— one j^oint only requires care and judgment — viz.
time of exposure. This difficulty can only be overcome by experience. The
revolving ebonite disc moves at a greater speed, as the steel spring beneath
the button 'on face of shutter is turned from left to right and fixed in the
bags. In dull weather it may be necessary even to hold it open by the hand.
This is done by holding the brass head between the finger and thumb.

The negatives, though small, have jyerfect definition, and give excellent
sharj} prints, and 77iake good enlargements.

N.B. — On the shutter of Camera is engraved an arrow. This
signifies, when extra speed is required, the direction in
which the wire spring must be turned and fixed into the
toothed wheel. The red star on disc is in centre when the
shutter is ready for release.

THE PRICES BELO^W INCLUDE THE LENSES.

No. 1. ACADEMY CAMERA, for Plates IJ in. square, including a
]iair of Lenses, and Tray with 12 Plates. Size of
Camera, 4 x 3 in. . . . . each £2 10 0

(Extra Trays for ditto, 4s. each.
\\ in. square Britannia Dry Plates, Is. per dozen.)
No. 2. ACADEMY CAMERA, for Plates 2 in. square, including a
pair of Lenses, and Tray with 12 Plates. Size of
Camera, 9 x 7 x 4f in. .... each 3150
(Extra Trays for ditto, 5s. each.
2 in. square Britannia Dry Plates, Is. 3d. per dozen.)
No. 2a. Superior Workmanship. — Academy Camera, best maho-
gany, with a pair of JIarion & Co.'s Rectilinear Lenses,
Tray, Porcelain Slab for Memoranda . . each 7 7 0

(Extra Trays, with Ivory Number Tablet, 6s. each.)
No. 3. ACADEMY CAMERA, for Plates 3^ in. square, including a
pair of Lenses, and Tray with 12 Plates. Size of
Camera, lOJ X 6f X 10| in. . . . each 5 0 0

(Extra Trays for ditto, 10s. each.
3| in. square Britannia Plates, Is. 6d. per dozen.)

A dvertisements. 253

No. 3a. Superior "Workmanship.— Ac.vdemy Camera, best maho-
gany, with a pair ot Marion & Co. 's Rectilinear Lenses,
Tray, and Porcelain Slab for memoranda . . each £10 10 0

(Extra Trays tor ditto, with Ivory Number Tablet, lis. each.)
No. 4. ACADEMY CAMERA, for Plates 4| in. x 3^ in., including
a pair of Lenses and Tray with 12 Plates. Size of
Camera, 11| x 61 x lOJ in. . . . each 6 10 0

(Extra Trays for ditto, 12s. each.
i\ X S^ in. Britannia Diy Plates, Is. 6d. per doz. )
No. 4a. Superior Workmanship. — Academy Camera, in best maho-
gany, with a pair of AIaiuox & Co.'s Rectilinear Lenses,
Tray, and Porcelain Slab for memoranda . each 12 12 0

(Extra Trays for ditto, with Ivory Numlier Tablet, 13s. each.)
CAPt. PLUCKER'S PATENT TELESCOPE STAND, with
Metal Attachment for the Academy Camera, for No. 2
size, 42s. each ; for No. 3 and No. 4, 60s. each.

For those who are not already supplied with chemicals and dishes,
we have prepared a set of the materials and apparatus for making and
developing the negative taken by the Academy Camera, likewise
everything reqtiisite for Photographic Printing- — all neatly arranged
in a mahogany box, including the Camera, which in addition has a
leather case for carrying it on exj)editions. Thus the Camera with
one or more trays can be taken on distant excursions in a A'ery small
compass, and the development can be made after the return ; but it
will be desirable to practise with the instrument first, so that there
may be a complete mastery of it before starting. (See advertisement
end of book.)

ACADEMY CAMERA SETS, complete with everything re-
quisite fur Photographic Negatives and Photographic Printing, fitted
in mahogany box, comprising Camera and Lenses, Leather Case,
Twelve Dozen Plates, Chemicals, Trays, Lamp, Measure, etc.
Also material for Printing and Mounting.

No. 1 Set •

2 „ .

3 „ •

4 „ . . .
Ditto, ditto, with superior workmanship. Camera and

Marion's Rectilinear Lenses.
No. 2a Set . • £11 17 0

3a ,, ■ • . 16 5 0

4a „ . 18 17 0

C6 10

0

8 5

0

10 15

0

12 15

0

N.D.— PACKING EXTRA.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

254

Advertisements.

CAMERA AND CHANGING BOX IN ONE,

CALLED AFTER THE INVENTOR,

The "ENJALBERT."

Singe the iutioduction of Dry Plates a want
lias been felt for a Camera that should cora-
lline in itself an arrangement for holding
^(\eial plates, permitting of their exposure
I ( ing made in rotation, thus avoiding the
iimbersomeness and inconvenience of several
vtia dark slides or backs, and which shall
1 I also of light weight, yet strong and rigid.
These requirements will be found fully met
in the Enjalbert. The simple way in which
the difficulty is overcome of changing success-
i\ e ])lates will, we are sure, be much appre-
ciated, and will be admitted as superior to
any other method employed.
The total weight of half-})late Camera, with its drawer complete, is under 4 lbs.
Extra Drawers are supplied, and being made to a gauge, are interchange-
able iu the Camera. Each drawer contains 8 Holders, and being light and com-
pact, a large number of Plates may be carried at a minimum of weight and bulk.
The Camera is adapted for use either upright or oblong way.
It is easily set up.

Its power of expansion or contraction allows the use of any Lens.
Its front shifts in all ways.

Focussing is easy, being adjusted by rack- work and fixed by a screw.
The Camera is well balanced.

The focussing-glass is in a supplementary groove in the body of the Camera.
The sliding bottom board has a scale, so that any of the plates may be
used after once focussing.

ISIIZES AND PRICES.

The Drawer with 8 Slides and the Ground-Glass Screen included.

6J X 4|, 200s. I 8i X 6|, 270s. | 10 x 8, 310s.

Made in Best Mahogany.

ACCESSORIES.

Telescopic Camera Stand, extra strong 45/
Extra Drawers containing 8 slides

or Holders . . . 61- x 4| 40/
Do. do. 8* X 6^ 50/

Do. do. lO' x 8 55/

Inner Carriers . . . . 6^ x 4J 2/6

Inner Can-iers . . . . 8^ x 6J 3/

Strong Leather Case for Camera 6i x 4| 30/

Do. do. Sj X 6} 35/

Do. do. 10 X 8 40/

Strong Waterproof Case for Telescope

Stand 10/6

THE ENJAUBERT SETS.

{N.B. — Eqiuil to a Camera ivith S Douhle Backs.)

Comprising Camera, Marion & Co.'s View Lens, Stand, 1 extra Drawer,

4 Inner Carriers, Leather Cases, 1 gross Britannia Dry Plates, Chemicals

Trays, Measure, Wasliing Apparatus, Lamp, Strong Box with partitions.

No. 1. For Plates 6J x 4| . . £25. | No. 2. For Plates SA x 6J . . £30.

No. 3. For Plates 10 x 8 (with only 4 Carriers), £39.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

J

Advertisements.

255

STUDIO SETS.

To those Amateurs who desire to
make a complete study of Portrait
Photography, MARION & CO.
can give an estimate for erecting
"Studio" and fitting it up com-
plete with Apparatus and Acces-
sories, etc.

MARION & CO.'S

Self-Adjusting Rolling Press & Burnisher

For CD. V.'s and Cabinets, Plain Nickle Rollers . . 47s. 6d.

For CD. V.'s and Cabinets, fitted with Hot Roller for Burnishing,', £5.

For Boudoirs, Imperials, Panels, etc. (9 in. Roller) . ." £9.

To roll Photographs 12 in. wide (12 in. Roller) .... £15'.
The pressure adjusts itself according to the thickness of the Mount.
There are no screws or levers ; the pressure is entirely self-acting. The
Rollers are of hardened polished steel, and the top one hollowed out to
receive a Burner, by which the Roller is heated. The glaze or burnish given
by these Rollers is more glossj^, and the photo is less scraped and pulled to
pieces than with the ordinary Burnisher.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

256 A dvertisements.

SHUTTERS.

CAD ETT'S

Patent Pneumatic Photographic Shutter.

Made to fit inside or outside the Camera. Price 42s. each.

It has often been remarked by eminent Pliotograpliers that any arrangement
which would enable persons to be photographed without their being aware of
it would be a most useful one. All that has been done in this direction
necessitated the operator being by the Camera ; here we have an instrument
which permits him to be at any part of the Studio that he pleases.

When using with very rapid Plates, we recommend the operator to put a
collar of velvet round the hood of the lens ; thus the velvet flap lies against
it, and is perfectly light-tight. The Shutter, we feel certain, with this pre-
caution, may be used for instantaneous view work.

Cadett's Patent Instantaneous View Shutter.

The gi'eat use of Dry Plates for landscape work has necessitated the em-
ployment of a Shutter capable of working with the utmost rapidity, at the
same time offering the means of readjustment for medium or slow exposures.
All these requirements are fully met by tliis Shutter.

The Shutter is fitted to the hood of the lens, therefore it is necessary to
state, when ordering, what Lens the Shutter is to lie used with.

No. 1. For Lens of a diameter l\h in. . . . 50s.

„ 2. „ ,, 2? „ . . . 50s.

„ 3. ,, ,, 3ft ,, . . . 60s.

If the ShiMers are required between the above sizes, Leather Collars are

supijlied at a small extra charge.

Just Introduced.

Cadett's Patent Pneumatic Drop Shutter

for the Studio.
Price 24s.

All the London Photographers are buying it. , It will fit the
largest size Dallmeyer's Lens, but the hood of the Lens must be
unscrewed.

In ordering, state for ichat Lens it is to be icsed tcith.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

257

EBONITE DROP SHUTTER

with Cadett's Patent Pneumatic Arrangement

Made in Five Siz<;s.

No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

Diameter of hood 1| .

„ U .

23s.
24s.
25s.
30s.
35s.

An extremely serviceable Shutter for
general landscape work, but when ex-
treme rapidity of exposure is required, we
recommend Cadett's Lis-htnin" Shutter.

DETT'S LIGHTNING EBONITE SHUTTER, HEATH'S PATENT FOREGROUND SHUTTER,

h. Cadett's Patent Pueumatic Arrangement. with Cadett's Patent Pneumatic Attachment.

}[,ii-Jr in .^/cfs ns nhnvr. Fits Oil in front nfthc Camera and behind the Lens.

I Shutter being now in course of manufacture, the
: are not yet establi?ihed ; they will be somewhat higher
the above list. By a simple and an ingenious arrange-
the exposures can be changed from a moderate one
the most extreme rapidity ; there is also an arrange-
for focussing.

S

It is so constructed as to give greater exposun
the foregi'ound than to the sky. The range of
posure in this Shutter is very gi'eat, from a slow
to a flash exposure. The mechanism is boxed
and working in a very shallow space. The app(
ance of the Shutter is very like an ordinary cam
front, only a little deeper. It being now only
course of manufacture, the prices are not yet ILs
but they will be moderate.

In ordering please state si:e of Lens.

258

Advertisements.

The Reflector
DEVELOPING LAMP.

Price 23s. 9d. each ;
Smaller Size 9s. each.

This new lamp, glazed with new
orange glass, permitting a clear light to
work by, yet perfectly safe for the most
sensitive dry plate, has a shade reflector
•which throws the light down on the
developing tray, but stops the raj'S from
ascending ; consequently the 63^6 of the
operator is well protected from the ^
orange light, and yet the plate is much ^^
bcttter illuminated than by the ordi-
narj-- lamp.

DEVELOPING LAMPS.

The Candle Lamp, as used in our

Student's or Beginner's Set.

Is. lOd. each.

RUBY LANTERNS

With Oil Lamp.*
5s. each.

* If desired, this lantern can be supplied
so as to fit over a gas buiner. Price the
same.

BRITANNIA SOLUTION.

A concentrated and convenient Solution for developing Britannia Dry Plates.

On the same day of using, pour out one ounce of this Solution into nine-
teen ounces of water ; this forms Solution No. 3 of our developing formula.
It is mixed in equal proportions with Solution No. 2. This latter is so easily
made up by every Photogi-apher that we do not offer it in a separate bottle.
It consists of 3 drachms of strongest liquid ammonia to one ])int of water.
The quantity of Solution that should be mixed together of Xo. 2 and No. 3
must depend on the size and number of plates to be developed, but always in
equal parts of one to equal parts of the other.

N.B. — If the plate is found to be over-exposed, at once remove it from the
dish, and pour over it once or twice some solution of No. 3, allowing that which
runs off the plate to mix with the solution in the dish. Upon returniug the
plate to the dish it will be found in most cases to develop as if correctly exposed.

In cases of under-exposure the development may be hastened by adding
more of Solution No. 2.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Adtertisemenfs.

259

MARION'S

NEW PORTABLE

DEVELOPING TENT

AND

TABLE.
Price £4 : 5s.

Out Tent is so devised that it may
be fitted up indoors or out-of-doors.
Stands 6 feet high, and is 3 feet
square. Folds up in a compact form
for travelling. The Table is fitted
M -with developing sink and partition for
chemicals.

THE TRANSPARENT AND ROCKING

DEVELOPING TRAY.

Two advantages, sure to he appreciated by all dry-
plate workers, are found in this Tray. Pivoted on
a stand, the rocking motion flows the developing
solution in a smooth even wave over the negative.
Being made of papier-iuache, with a glass bottom,
when tilted ii]i the light from ruby lamp shines right
through the glass bottom, and thus the development
may be watched without touching the plate.

Prices — For J plate, 9s. ; h plate, lis. 4d. ;
\ plate, 12s. 3d. ; 10 x 8, 13s. .3d. ; 12 x 10, 15s. 3d

12, 17s.

MARION'S READY SENSITISED PAPER,

Thick, in White or various Tints, will be found a great boon to all

Photographers. It saves an immensity of trouble, is always ready for

use, and with ordinary care it will keep without losing quality over

six months.

Price lis. 6d., and the best Supertine 14s., per Quire.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

260

Advertisements.

NEW
VIGNETTING FRAME.

These Frames have each three thick
slabs of wood with bevelled oval open-
ing each a different size. These Slabs
are placed in front of the Printing Frames,
and are held in their place by two screws,
but their positions ma)' be shifted ; the
oval holes, being some distance from the
negative, permit the rays of light to slant,
thus effecting a soft pleasing vignette.

None Cheaper ! None Better !

Prices—^ plate, 2s. 6d. ; i plate, 4s. ; -} plat

JOHN EDWARD'S WASHING APPARATUS.

This Apparatus offers all the desiderata for
a complete and thorough wash to the Plates.
The water falls in a gentle shower ; when
nearly full the overflow syphon begins to
work, so there will be a constant inflow and
outflow. When the water is turned off the
syphon sucks out the last drop, thus there is
no fear of Hypo dejiosit remaining.

Size of Plate.

s.

d.

Size of Plate.

s.

d.

50 grooves, j

. 17

6

36 grooves, 7 x 5 or 7.^ x 5

20

0

50 „ 5x4.

. 20

0

36 „ 9x7.

21

0

50 „ i

. 20

0

24 ,, 10 X 8.

20

0

50 ,, 4ori.

. 22

0

24 „ 12 xlO.

25

0

COWAN'S DRY-PLATE CHANGING BOX.

Price 40s. each.

The box is large enough to change plates
up to 12 X 10.

Mr. Cowan has designed this box on the
principle that it is much easier to change
plates by the touch only than to do so
whilst looking through an obscure medium.
The apparatus is not only a box in wliieli
plates may fie safely changed in the open
air, but it also forms a portable travelling
case, in which camera, dark slide, and plates
maybe packed — a notable convenience when
work must be done away from the studio.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

261

WA RNERKE'S

STANDARD SENSITOMETER.

Price 15s.

Approved hy a Committee comprising several of the leading Members of the
Photographic Society of Great Britain.

This Instrument lias been invented by Mr. Warnerke to serve as a
standard measure of sensitiveness to all the Photographers of the ^vorld.
Thus when Gelatine Dry Plates are said to be 16 by the Standard Sensito-
meter, all shall know at once what degree of sensitiveness and what exposure
is necessary for the Plates. All the Standard Sensitometers register alike,
and never vary. Thus, if four Dry Plates made by four different makers
register (when developed alike) in four different Sensitometers the figures 16,
it can be depended on, as a matter of fact, that the}- will all require the same
exposure. In practice, tlie actual exposure-signified by a given number will
soon become a recognised and familiar fact. In order to find without trouble
the exposure necessary for any given number of the Sensitometer, Mr. War-
nerke has worked out a table giving the relative exposure of each number.
Instructions for using ivill be sent vnth each Sensitometer.

COLES'S RETOUCHING DESK. Price 50s.

There are some new features in this
instrument which make it an improve-
ment on other kinds in use. The platform
on which the white paper or reflector is
placed can be adjusted at any angle.
There is a slit at the top of the instrument
to allow the negative to slide through
when it is desired to retouch parts of the
negative awkward to get at without this
]irovision. The bar across front on whicli
the negative rests can be shifted at difler-
ent angles to facilitate working. The sup-
ports of front, as will l)e seen by the wood-

cut, can be screwed firmly at any desired

elevation. The disk also forms a convenient easel, on wliicli finishing of en-
largements may be done. It can be used for negatives from :J-plate to 12 x 10.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

262

Advertisements.

MARION & CO.'S
THE NEW SERIES OF

BRITANNIA PLATES

EXTRA RAPID.

We have prepared the above in accordance with the
pressing wish of numberless customers who find the emulsion
of the Britannia Plates superior to all other, and who desire
that the same superior quality may be supplied on a plate
specially prepared for Extra Eapid Work.

These "Extra Eapid" Plates will be found invaluable
in the Studio, by enabling the Operator to secure much
more natural and pleasant expressions, whilst for instant-
aneous effects out of doors their utility is practically unsur-
passable.

'Please note that these Plates are as quick as any in the market.

Per Dnz.

Tiii- Doz

Sizes.

.<;. d

Sizes

s. i:l.

1\ in. square

. 1 6

7k X

4i

. 6 5

2

. 1 10

7h X

5

. 7 3

H X 3i .

. 2 3

8 X

5

. 8 8

4J X 3i .

. 2 4

8* X

6h

. 10 0

5x4.

. 3 9

9 X

7

. 12 0

Q\ X 4| .

5 3

10 X

8

. 15 0

6i X 43 .

. 5 3
15 X 12 .

12 X

10
. 33.S.

. 22 6

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

A dvertisements.

263

MARION & CO.'S

BRITANNIA DRY PLATES

From their Cheopness and Excellence are in Universal Use.

IMPORTANT NOTICE.

Altliougli the unprecedented sale of the Beitaxxia Plates may be said
to be a sufficient guarantee and acknowledgment of their superiority over all
other Plates before the public, the Proprietors are convinced that there are
still many Professional and Amateur Photographers who have not given due
consideration to the advantages obtainable b}^ the use of Britannia Plates,
and they beg to submit the annexed Prices and Testimonials for their careful
attention, the Plates being now of much superior quality to those of earlier'
manufacture. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLATES.

Vigour of Image. Evenness of Film. Great Sensitiveness.

Fineness of Texture. Freedom from Fog and Frilling. Clearness of Shadows

and Edges. Cleanness and Simplicity of Devcloinnent.

Durability, Uniformity^ and Cheajmess.

Per Gross.

Per Gross

Sizes.

s.

d.

Sizes.

s. d.

1^ in. square

. 12

0

8* X 4i .

. 54 0

2

. 15

0

7h X 5

. 60 0

3.i „

. IS

0

81 X 6i .

. 72 0

4i X 34 .

. 18

0

Per Doz.

5x4.

. 27

0

9 'x 7

. 7 6

6i X 3| .

. 38

0

84 X 8h .

. 8 6

6.i X 44 .

. 40

0

10 X 8 .

. 10 6

6i X 4| .

. 42

0

12 X 10

. 15 0

74 X 4^ .

. 51
EXTRA

0
LA

13 X 8
15 X 12

RGE SIZES.

. 15 0
. 26 6

Per Doz.

Per Doz.

Sizes.

s

d.

Sizes.

s. d.

17 X 11 .

. 32

0

20 X 16

. 43 0

17 X 14 .

. 38

0

23 X 15

. 47 0

IS X 14 .

. 40

0

24 X 18

. 65 0

IS X 1(5 .

. 41

0

TESTIMON lALS.

Being a few out of many hnndrcds received froni all parts of the Country.

From Messrs. VALENTINE & SONS, Perth Road, Dundee. — " January 14, 1SS4. We
are very niucli pleased witli the quick Plates you sent the other day. They are the finest
quality of really <iuick Plates \vc ever used."

From Mr. J. HAWKE, of Plymouth.— " January IS, 18S4. I am very pleased with
the Extra Rapid Plates, and shall lie glad if you will forward three gross of half-plates per
return."

From Mr. F. W. BROADHEAD, of Leicester.— "January 16, 1884. I received a
sample of your new make of Plates, and they are the best I have yet used. They are in
appearanee more like the best wet jilates, and quite free from green fog."

From Mr. J. Smale, of Dartmouth.— "January 10, 1884. I have this day thor-
oughly tested your new Rajiid JJritannia Plates, ami cannot but say that they are the most
rapid and unifonii Plates I have ever used."

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

264

A dvertisements.

COWAN'S
Gelatino-Chloride Plates.

MARION & CO., Sole Proprietors.

Tlie attention of Photogiaphers and Amateurs is respectfully solicited to
these plates. In our opinion their use is likely to be very extensive, and a
source of considerable profit to the profession.

Gelatino-Chloride Plates are printing plates for positives ; a good print
can be obtained in 1 to 5 seconds in diffused daylight, and with; gaslight in a
proportionately longer time.

Xo Transparencies have ever been produced finer in tone or richer in
detail than those by Cowan's Chloride Plates.

WHAT DO THE PLATES SERVE FOR.P

1 . Portraiture and landscapes ; most lovely effects visible by transmitted light.

2. Lantern-slides and stereoscopic transparencies ; with more detail, and

better tone than by any other process.

3. Transparencies for enlargements ; full of detail, soft, vigorous, and

equal in all re.sjiects to the finest carbon jiositives, with this advan-
tage, that they can be produced in any light.

4. For reproduction of negatives ; they are invaluable.

PER DOZEN.

s.

d.

s.

d.

H

X

31 . .

. 2

0

81

X 6l

. 10

0

H

X

31 . .

. 2

6

9

X 7

. 12

0

5

X

4 .

. 4

0

10

X 8

. 14

6

6*

X

4| . .

. 5

6

12

X 10

. 22

0

n

X

5 .

. 7

6

13

X 8

. 22

0

81

X

H ■ •

. 8

0

Any other Sizes to Order charged in same projiortion.

Samples of the Transparencies supplied —

C.D.Y., Is. ; Cabinet, 2s. ; and AVhole-Plate, 3s. each.

DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3, 10 oz. bottles, Is. 9d. ; 20 oz. bottles, 3s. each.
Iron Solution ,, ,, 9d. ; ,, ,, Is. 3d. each.

y.B. — In preparation a series of cheap Metal Gilt Rims specially adapted for Trans-
parencies. Tliey will be made in all sizes, and be low in price.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

A dvertisemen ts. 265

MARION'S

BRITANNIA ALPHA PAPER.

A very rajiid Printing Paper, hy which Prints can be obtained equal to
Silver Prints in the dark days of November, by an exposure of 1^ to 4 seconds,
also good Prints obtained by exposure to gaslight for 25 seconds.

The quantities beloiv are equivalent to a quire of ordinary Photograph
1020 pieces of full Carte-de-visite size, in boxes ready for use

360

, , , Cabine

150

8i X 6i

108

10 X 8

72

12i X \Ql

48

15i X \2h

'20

244 X 19

3

Rolls of 1(

ic Paper.
20s.
20s.
20s.
20s.
20s.
20s.
20s.
20s.

Rolls of 10 ft. S in. long by 24i in. wide
Can be had in Boxes one-third of the above quantities.
From The Times, Xovemher 24, ISS4.

"The difiBcultj- of procuring warmth of tone with rai>idity of exposure seems now to
have been overcome in a new material which Messrs. Marion, the photographic dealers of
Soho Square, have produced and are about to supply commercially. Messrs. Marion
propose to work the process in secret, believing that a safer method of proceeding than
patenting it ; and consequently the invention is of less use to the scientific photographer
than it would be if the manner of production as well as the results were revealed ; but
probably the effect on the photographic industry will be much the same. The paper is
obviously coated with a gelatine emulsiun of some sort, and in all probability rival experi-
ments will before long find out its precise nature. As regards the results producible by its
means, their value does not seem to admit of much doubt. No industrial process can
properly be termed successful tiU it has stood the test of regular commercial work ; but it
is at all events safe to say that no improvement of such promise has been introduced into
photography since the advent of gelatine plates. In Messrs. Marion's studio, on Saturday
last, the writer saw produced three prints which nobody could tell were not ordinary silver
prints, prfxluced with exposures of two, three, and four seconds, and he afterwards at home,
at four o'clock in the afternoon, with an exposure of 15 seconds, produced on a first trial
almost equally good results.

" Xow, if material of similar quality can be supplied commercially and at a reasonable
price, it is easy to see what a valuable "power the portrait photographer has given to him.
The whole process of producing a couple of dozen prints need not take an hour. Allowing
time for washing, mounting, and finishing, an energetic man can, if required, supply his
customers with their likenesses the next day after the portraits are taken. In these dark,
short, winter days, it may be weeks before a photographer gets bght enough to print a batch
of pictures ; but by Messrs. Marion's invention the whole thing can be done by gaslight.

" The process of working the paper is quite simple. As may be supposed, the image
has to be 'developed '—that is, no \isible image is produced by the exposure to light.
Consequently the exposure has to be estimated, as it has in taking a portrait or a view.
The development is effected in very much the same way as if an ordinary gelatine plate
were under treatment, the developer being a weak solution of ferrous oxalate. After de-
velopment the image is of a rich purple ; but as this would change in the final, or ' fixing '
bath, it is necessary to 'tone' the picture, as is done with an ordinarj- silver print, in a
.solution containing gold. After tliis the picture is ' fixed ' in the usual manner. Consider-
able variety of tone can be produced, the tints ranging from a warm red brown to a purple
or even black.

"The objections to the process are that it requires rather more skill than the old system.
It has to be carried out in greater darkness and with greater precaution. Nor are the
results quite so bright and good as the Ijest silver printing. It would, however, require an
expert to tell the difference, and certainly no purchaser would be likely to complain if he
were supplied with a batch of prints on the new jiaper. As regards permanence, only time
can answer that question ; but tliere seems no reason why it should be less permanent than
the old; which unfortunately has in this particular not much to boast of Having regard
to all considerations, it may be expected that the alVmmenizetl paper will still hold its own
for the finest work, and for work in summer when the light is bright and abundant ; but the
new paper will in all probability come largely into use for winter work, and it ought to be
used by all portrait photographers for sending out ' proofs ' at once of their portraits."

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

266

Advertisements.

THE BRITANNIA ALPHA OPAL PLATES.

ON MACHINE-SMOOTEffiD OPAL.

Tliis Plate is used for contact printing, and gives most beautiful tones and
rich effects, far surpassing any metliod of printing on opal yet known.

Size^—ik X 3J, 5s. per doz. ; 5 x 4, 7s. ; 6^ x 4f , lis. ; 7Ji- x 5, 15s. ; 8^ x 6i,
18s. 6d.; 9x7, 22s.; 10x8, 30s.; 12x10, 40s.; 15x12, 63s.

MABION^S

BRITANNIA ARGENTIC BROMIDE PAPER.

A new Bi'omide Paper for Enlargements, etc., giving a superior tone
to all other papers, and "with a perfectly even coated surface fit for
full printed Prints as well as Vignettes.

A Box of 24 Sheets 12| x 10^
16 ,, 15i X 12*
20 „ 24| X 19

A Roll of 10 ft. 8 in. x 2U wide

9s.
9s.

9s.

BRITANNIA ARGENTIC BROMIDE OPALS.

So perfect are the tones, and so clean and even the emulsion, that very

little artistic work is required to make a finished picture.

Flates—6^ x 4|, 10s. per doz.; 8J x 6i, 17s. 6d.; 10x8, 25s. ; 12 x 10, 35s.;
12 X 15, 53s. {Li Bo-res of Half-a-dozen.)

FORMDLA FOR MARION'S BRITANNIA ARGENTIC OPALS AND PAPER.

No. 1.
Iron ....
Water ....
(Filtered.)

No: 2.

Oxalate of Potash .
Ammonia Bromide .
Water ....
(Filtered.)
1 oz. of No. 1 to he added to 4 ozs. of
No. 2 for developer.

1 lb.
48 ounces.

1 lb.
20 grains.
64 ounces.

FIXING SOLUTION.
Hypo ... 4 ounces.

Water

4 oimces.

After well washing from Hypo, im-
merse a minute or two in the following
solution : —

Strong Sulphuric Acid
Water .

\ ounce.
SO ounces.

Rinse in several changes of water,
then dry.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

267

Cowan's Patent Cutting Boards, 16s. each.

—^ — Xo. 1. For centring and cut-

Xo. 1. ^ -^—r-— , ting glass. Any piece put on the

"^^-^T ^^^ lioard can be immediately cut

- -f 'xactly into half. For Dry- Plate

y" work it IS a great economiser of

/-'' time.

No. 2.

No. 2. For cutting glass photo-
gi'aphic sizes from ^-plate up to
10x8. A rule, a movable stoj),
and a firm straight edge for the
diamond to work on, form the
simple means of this time and
labour-saving instrument.

MARION & CO.'S

MOUNTING SOLUTION FOR PHOTOGRAPHS.

Is. per Bottle.
This Solution has been in use during the last five
years in a large Photographic Establishment, and will
be found to possess the following qualities : —
It has no disa^eeable Smell ;
It does not cockle the thinnest Mounts ;
It does not discoloiir the Photograph ;
It does not perish ; and it is easily used.
DIRECTIONS FOR USE. — Place the bottle in
warm water, or on a stove, till the Solution is melted.
Apply it with a stiff brush (which must be perfectly
dry) to the back of the Photogi-aph. Let the Photograph
thus coated remain for a few seconds and then place it
on the Mount and press it well down.

l^HE AMATEUR'S SCRAP-BOOK, OR REGISTER OF WORK DONE.

If a print from every negative that an Amateur may have taken be
mounted into a book, it will be surprising how interesting the collection will
grow. Such a collection would show the advance in quality of work, and
would also be a memento of time and places. Without some such method
the Amateur has no security against forgetting or losing his negatives.

No. Size. s. d.

R.M. 10. 12 X 9J French Jloroceo, half-bound, Cardboard Leaves 6 6

,, 12. 15 X 11 Do. do. do.

,, IS. 12 X Oi Morocco, Gilt Back do. do.

,, 20. 15 X 11 Do. do. do.

„ 64. 12 X 9J Anglo-Russia, full-bound do.

„ 66. 15 X 11 Do. do. do.

,, 72. 12 X 9i Morocco, Gilt Edges do. do.

,, 74. 15 X 11 Do. do. do.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

10

0

12

0

16

0

15

0

23

0

22

0

30

0

268

A dvertisements.

MARION & CO.'S

LENSES.

Xo.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.
10.5.
106.
107.

109.

no.

No.

QUICK-ACTING RECTILINEAR,

Metal Mounts Nickled.

We guarantee each Lens perfect.

Size of Plates. Diain. of Lens. Back Focus.

1. 44 X 34 and 5x4

2. 6i X 4f and 7i x 5

3. Six eiandS^xS

4. 10^ X 8 .

5. 12 X 10 .

6. 15 X 12 .

If

'■TTS

2

2f

2H

lOi

12

131

s. d.

42 0

61 0

71 0

95 0

142 0

200 0

WIDE ANGLE RECTILINEAR LENSES.

No.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.

We guarantee each Lens perfect.

Size of Plates. Diam. of Lens. Back Focus.

4ix 3.i
6ix 43
Six 64
10 X 8
12 xlO
15 xl2

m

1?
2|
5

8
12

15§

s. (1.

45 0

60 0

80 0

100 0

140 0

200 0

PORTRAIT LENSES.

Serviceable Portrait Lexs for C.D.V., Ij^ diam., 4 focus £1

Do. do. for Cabixet.s, 3^ „ 6^ ,, 2

ExcEL.'iiOR CD. V. and Cabinet Lexs, 2-/-^ ,, 3

For Promexade and Cabixet, ^yill cover a whole plate, Nickel

0

10

0

0

or 10

Mounts ; quality guaranteed
Extra Rapid C.D.V. Portrait Lexs, Nickeled Mounts .
Extra Rapid Cabixet do. do.

Extra Rapid Promexade and Cabixet Portrait Lexs .
Portrait Lexs for 10 x S Plates, diam. 4, focus 17, Nickel

Mounts .......

Paxel Lexs for Plates 13 x 8 or 12 x 10, diam. 5, Nickel

Mounts ; this is a long focus lens and requires a long

studio ; we guarantee the quality
Graxd Paxel Lens for Plates 24x18; diam. of lens, 6;

long focus, Mounts Nickeled ; we guarantee the quality. 50 0 0
Focrssixo Glasses . . . . 5s

20 0 0

28 0 0

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

269

MARION'S ENLARGING APPARATUS

Can be strongly recommended as
most efficient. It also serves as
an effective Magic Lantern. We
supply a special spirit for the lamp
which gives a brighter and whiter
light than any mineral oil. The
Apparatus may be used in any
room, provided all actinic light
be excluded ; a hood, as shown in
the woodcut, covers the lamp, to
prevent any light escaping. Every
part is movable, therefore the ad-
justment is easy. We append
directions for use, and we may add
that the operations are much
simpler than they seem as de-
scribed in the directions.

MARION'S MAbIC LANTERN AND
ENLARGING APPARATUS COMBINED.

Price £2 : 16s.

Fitted with Portrait Lens, £4 : 4s.

Upright Easel Stajid for ditto, 21s.

The above Apparatus is made on the same
principle as our £6 : 13s. Enlarging Appara-
tus, which has given such general satisfac-
tion. The same spirit and the same lamp are
used, thus the illuminating power is eqtial.
It is fitted to take up to a quarter- plate nega-
tive. Combining, as it does, the lantern and
the enlarging, this Apparatus will be found
both to the Amateur and Professional one
of the most useful and one of the cheapest
instruments ever offered.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE.

The apparatus must be used in a darkened room from which all actinic light is excltided.
It will, however, of itself give sufficient light to work by. Place it on a table or bench ; a
flat board should rest on an upright easel — this latter to have wheels so that it might be
moved backwards or forwards. Remove the hood or metal box which covers the lamp, and
light the lamp in the ordinary manner. Now take out the slide from the wood upright,
and into this slide fix the negative, and then replace into its former position.

To the front of the Enlarging Apparatus must be fixed a lens (generally a J or J plate
portrait). Now adjust the bellows until an image of the size desired is thrown on the "screen
or board which rests on the easel (a sheet of white paper is attached to the board during
this operation), and the exact focus is obtained by moving the easel stand backwards or
forwards. To get the fullest power of illumination, the glass condensers as well as the lamp
are made movable. There is one particular point which will be found to give the greatest
light — this can only be discovered by adjustment. Now the correct size of image, the
sharpest focus, and the greatest illumination being obtained, replace the hood in its position ;
this will shut out all light except that which comes from the lens. The white sheet of
paper is removed from the board, and sensitive paper placed there instead. Care must be
taken not to disturb the position of the easel, otlierwise the focus will be lost. The ex-
posure takes place, and will dejjend on the nature and sensitiveness of the paper used.

A few words with respect to the lamp. Great care must be taken that the wick is always
kept clean ; after using, no camphine should be allowed to remain in the lamp, and the wick
should be thoroughly trimmed. It is a safeguard to wash it in methylated spirit.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

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A dvertisements.

271

Prices from £1 : Is. to £3 : 10s.

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272 A dvcrtisements.

MAEION & CO.'S

BEST FRENCH MOUNTS.

{Made at Marion's Factory, Courbevoie, near Paris.)

No.

800. Best Ivory Carte de Visite Mount of a slight, cream tint, Is. for 50,

aud Is. 6d. for 100.

801. Best Ivory Carte de Visite Moimts, iu wliite. Is. for 50, and Is. 6d. for

100.

802. Best Enamelled Carte de Visite Mounts, iu wliite, cream, and salmon

tints. Is. 3d. for 50, and Is. 9d. for 100.

803. Best Enamelled Carte de Visite Mounts, cream tint, with gold design

on back and line on front, round corners, and gilt edges, 2s. 6d. for
50, and 3s. 9d. for 100.

804. Best Enamelled Carte de Visite Mounts, cream tint, with carmine

rands and round corners, 2s. for 50, and 3s. for 100.

805. Real Gold Bevelled Carte de Visite Mounts, medium thickness, in

cream, rose, blue, black, olive, and chocolate tints, 3s. 6d. for 50,
and 6s. for 100.

806. Do. do. as above, but extra thick, in same tints as above, 4s.

for 50, and 7s. 6d. for 100.

900. Best Ivory Cabinet Mounts of a slight cream tint, 2s. 9d. for 50, and

5s. for 100.

901. Best Ivory Cabinet Mounts, in white, 2s. 9d. for 50, and 5s. for 100.

902. Best Enamelled Cabinet Mounts, in white, cream, and salmon tints,

3s. 6d. for 50, and 6s. for 100.

903. Best Enamelled Cabinet Mounts, cream tint, with gold design on back,

4s. for 50, and 7s. for 100.

904. Best Enamelled Cabinet Mounts, with carmine rands and round

corners, 4s. 6d. for 50, aud Ss. for 100.

905. Real Gold Bevelled Cabinet Mounts, medium thickness, in cream, rose,

blue, black, olive, and chocolate tints, 5s. for 50, and 9s. 6d. for
100.

906. Real Gold Bevelled Cabinet Mounts, extra thick, iu same tints as

above, 6s. for 50, aud lis. 6d. for 100.

1000. Landscape Mounts, cream tint, 8x6, lOd. ; 9|x 7i,ls. 2d. ; 12| x 9^,

2s.; 13i X lOi, 3s.; 16 x 13, 4s. 4d. ; 19 x 14, 5s. per doz.

1001. Landscape Mounts, cream tint, and with line, 8x6, Is. 6d. ; 9g x 7i,

2s.; 12| X 9i, 3s.; 13| x lOi, 4s.; 16 x 13, 5s. 6d.; 19 x 14, 6s. 3d.
per doz.

1002. Landscape Mounts, with tint on cream ground, with line, 8x6, 2s. 6d. ;

91 x 7h, 3s. ; 1'2'i x 9^, 3s. 9d. ; 13i x lOJ, 4s. 6d. ; 16 x 13, 6s. ;
19 x 14, 7s.

1003. Finest Quality Mounts, with real gold bevels for views. Photos on

the above are mounted close up to the bevel in cream and olive
tints. For 5i x 3^, Is.; 6^ x 4, Is. 4d. ; 7.^ x 5, 2s. 4d.; 8§ x 6i,
3s. ; 10 X 8, 4's. 8d. ; 11^ x 9i, 7s. 6d. per doz.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

273

MARION'S MINIATURE CAMERA.

For Plates l^ ix. squakk.

PRICE . . 25s.

A Box of 12 Slides for do. . 12s.

Extra Slides ..... Is. each.

Britannia Plates, 1| in. square . Is. Doz.

Do. Extra Rapid Series Is. 6d. Doz.

The above illustration represents the Miniature Camera in
half size ; it can therefore readily be seen that such an instrument,
with 12 dark slides, may easily be carried in the pocket. It is
made of metal, is well finished and light tight ; a good lens is
used, and there is a finder on the top of the instrument to centre
the object. A separate focussing-glass in a square shade is
supplied, but is scarcely necessary, as the change of position of
lens for distant or near views is so very trifling that the correct
position can be marked on the Camera, and thus the focus is
established for ever. The weight of one slide is two-thirds of
an ounce.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

T

274

Advertisements.

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276

A dvertisements.

MARION'S

COMPACT

CANDLE
LAMP

FOE

DEVELOPING DRY PLATES.

Price 7s. 6d. each.

The above illustration shows exactly the size and shajje It is
easily put together, and packs, as will be seen, in a very small com-
pass ; thus It is the best Lamp for travelling about with.

SOLE AGENTS:
MARION & CO., 22 & 2Z Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

277

ISrO^SAT READY.

THE STREETS OF LONDON,

Enstantantous 13i)otcigrapf)3 bg OE. Cobb. Size, 9 x 7|.

1.

lA.
iB.

2.
3.

4.
5.

/A.

8.

10.

10a.

11.

llA.
llB.

lie.

12.

13.

14.

1.5.

16.

17.

Royal Exchange.
Do. do.

Do. do.

St. Paul's, Steps, West Front.

Queen Victoria Street.
Do. do.

St. Margaret's Church and
Clock Tower, Houses of
Parliament.

Westminster Bridge, Clock
Tower, and St. Thomas's
Hospital.

Parliament Square, from Vic-
toria Street.

Do. do. do.

Victoria Street and West-
minster Hospital.

Trafalgar Square.

Trafalgar Square and St.
Martin's Church.

Fleet Street looking East.

Do. do. do.

Strand, looking East.

Do. do. do.

Do. do. do.

Do. do. do.

Fleet Street, looking East.

Strand, looking East.

Strand, Palace of Justice.

Waterloo Bridge and Somer-
set House.

On Waterloo Bridge.

The Thames at London
Bridge (Sunset).

18.
19.
19a.

■20.
21.

2lA.

A Thames Steamboat.
Waterloo Pier, on the Thames.

Do. do. do.

Lower Marsh, Lambeth.
Blackfriars Bridge and Royal

Hotel.

Do. do. do.

Blackfriars Bridge and Rail-
way Bridge.
National Gallery and St.

Martin's Church.
Trafalgar Square and St.

Martin's Church.
St. Martin's Church.
Villiers Street.
London Bridge.
Evening on the Thames at

Woolw^ich.
Thames from Charing Cross

Railway Bridge.
Pall Mall.
Looking from Charing Cross

Station.
Regent Street, looking West.
Piccadilly, looking East.
Westminster Bridge and

Houses of Parliament.
Charing Cross, looking East.
Regent Street : The Quadrant.
Regent Circus.
Oxford Street, looking West.
Bishops Road, Bayswater.
Victoria Station.

PRICES. ' '^•

Unmounted ...... each 1 6

Mounted on Panel Boards, Gilt Edged ,, 2 0

In Gilt Rims, Vignette . . . „ 5 0

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

278 A dvertisements.

SCENIC BACKGROUNDS, representing Interiors, Woodland
Scenes, Sea-scapes, Kiver and Mountain Scenes, etc. etc. Size — 7 ft.
6 in. high by a ft. 6 in. wide. Price 50s. A large Selection always
on hand.

CLOTH BACKGROUNDS. 8 feet wide, any length, and

kept in stock ; various tints. 3s. 6d. per foot.
MOUNTS, of the best French boards, made specially for the Photo-

grajihs at Marion & Co.'s Factory, Courbevoie, near Paris. The

variety is immense ; all sizes and sorts kejtt in stock.

Lessons in Photography are given in Marion & Co.'s Studio,
spiecially erected for the purpose, at 22 and 23 Solio Square, London.

Enlargements from 12 x lO up to 36 in., finished in Monochrome,
Water-Colours, or Oils, on Paper, Opal, Canvas, etc. Estimates given
for work complete and in Frames.

Ferro-Prussiate Paper. By tliis process Drawings, Patterns,
Plans, etc. , may be produced very quickly by simply using the prepared
Paper, light, and water.

PUBLICATION PHOTOGRAPHS. Portraits of Cele-

BRITIES, in CD. v., Cabinet, Promenade, and Panel sizes. The Largest
Stock in England.

Marion's Series of Eminent Political Men. Size of

Permanent print, 24 x 18. GLADsroNE, Beaconsfield, Bright,
NoRTiicoTE, etc. etc.

Marion's Series of Views — The Streets of London.

Size, 10 X 8. 2s. each.
Agents for Bourne & Shepherd's Views of India ; Stillfried's
Views of Japan ; Laurent's Spanish Cities, Churches,
and Palaces, etc. etc.

Photographs Mounted and Bound up in Volumes.
Amateur's Negatives Printed from.
Photo Prints Mounted and Framed.

Marion <Sc Co.'s
SERIES OF PORTRAIT ALBUMS. Copyright.

The Alexandra. With 13 illustrated pages. Bird life.
The Renaissance. Pages richly ornamented in that style.
The Fern Album. English and foreign ferns decorate the images.

The K.C. or Album of Quotations. An Album of clever

designs and taking words.
The Olive Album. Each board in the new green tint, with
floral designs.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

Advertisements.

279

MARION & CO.'S Registered WASHING APPARATUS.

The great feature of this
Apparatus consists in the
rotary movement of the
prints, caused by the system
of inflow and outflow of the
water.

Tlie prints are in con-
stant motion with the
water ; they circulate con-
tinuously in the trough
from top to bottom, and
never curl together. An
hour and a half is sufficient
to thoroughly wash them.
This has been certified to
by the public Analyst of
Brighton, who tested a
batch of prints washed in
this time, and found not
the slightest trace of hypo.

We have gi'eat confid-
ence in recommending this
Apparatus.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE.— Procure a piece r.f india-rubber tubing, and attacli one end to
the water-tap, the other to the tube of apparatus, and turn on the water fiom the tap ;
when the trough is nearly full, the overflow pipe will commence to run off the water, and
the prints should then be put in. The inflow of water is generally arranged so that the
outflow carries ofl" about the same quantity. It must be understood that the overflnw pipe
is not a syphon ; therefore, when it is desired to run off all the water, the tap at the bottom
of the ai)paratus must be turned on and, of course, the inflow stopped. The two tubes,
which are pierced, and throuj;h whicli the water falls in a shower into the trough, are
pivoted so that tliey may be turned to the right position for the watei- to fall at a proper
angle, to cause a swift rotary mf)vement. It will be obser\'ed that this movement is not in
full force till the overflow commences. Very little water is required after once the trough is
filleil. and it need only be run oH' for the purpose of cleaning out about once every ten days.

Nos 1. 2. 3. 4.

( Length, 15 inches. 21 inches. 30 inches. 3S inches.

Sizes -^ Width, IS ,, IS ,, 10^ .. 21

( Depth, U)i ,, lOi ,, 20* ,, 21^ ..

Prices .... 40s' SOs. 60s. 70s.

JV.B.— It should be noticed that we ofl'er the above also with enamelled Trough ; we our-
selves do not think this necessary, but as some writers in the Photogiaphic journals have
expressed a suspicion of the ettects of plain zinc, we have arranged for the inside of the
Trough to be enamelled for all those who wouM prefer it so.

With Trough Knamelle.l. extra is. 3d. ..3s .. 3s. Gd. .. 4s. 3d.

Self-Acting SYPHON TANK for WASHING NEGATIVES (Eegistered).

The advantage oflercd by this Tank is a continuous eliange of water with-
out personal supei vision. 'When the water arrives near tlie top, the Syplion
commences to ojierate and swiftly empties the tank. The water from the tap
running in all the time, soon begins to refill it, and thus the operation goes
on continuously and the plates get repeated fresh baths of water, a moderate
supply of which answers the purpose well.

For 24 plates— i- plate, "s. id. ; ^-plato, 9s. ; Whole-plate, 10s. Cd. ; 10x8, Il's. each.

No. 1 P. Combination, for J, i, and 1/1 plate hys 12s. Cd.

„ 2 P. ,, ,, 1/1, lOxS, and 12x10 hys ISs.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

280

Advertisements.

NEW GLASS FRAMES

"With Metal Spring Backs,

FOR PHOTOGRAPHS.

No. M2.— Bevelled-Edged Glass with Narrow Gilt Border.

Carte-de-Visite . . 9d. each Boudoir. . . 2/0 each

Cabinet. , . . 1/6 ,, Imperial . . . 3/0 „ '

Promenade . . . 2/0 „ | Panel . . . . 4/6 ,,

NEW GLASS FRAMES

With Metal Spring Backs,

FOR OBLONG PICTURES.

GROUPS OR VIEWS.

No

M2 Oblong.-

-Bevelled-

Edged Glass

with Narrow Gilt Border.

Cabinet .

. . 1/6

each

10 X

8.

. 3/4 each

7i

X 5 .

. 2/0

,,

Hi X

74

. 3/6 „

8i

X 6i.

. 2/3

"

Hi X

9|

. 5/0 „

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

A dvertisem ents. 281

Collections of Photographs, Prints, &c., put into
order, collated, mounted, remounted, titled, and
bound into Volumes, portfolioed or framed.

If Collectors will send their Photographs to Maeion &
Co. unmovinted, and numbered on the back in the order
they are wished to go, they can arrange, mount, roll, title,
and bind them into convenient Volumes.

It is necessary to do this work pro^Derly that Marion
& Co. should mount the Photographs before binding, in
order that they may roll them, which is most necessary to
ensure flatness and smoothness of surface. If Photographs
are mounted into a book after binding, they are apt to
cockle, and perfect flatness cannot be guaranteed.

Marion & Co. recommend Volumes of not more than
fifty leaves, and they always put linen joints to their books,
thereby ensuring strength and perfect flatness when opened.

Locks, Clasps, Monograms. Cyphers in pierced and
engraved Metal — Gilt, Silvered, or Nickel.

DBA WIN GS S UB MIT TE D.

Cut-out Mounts are recommended for framing Photographs.

Old Collections looked through and re -arranged.

ESTIMATES GIVEN.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

T 2

282

Advertisements.

CLOUD NEGATIVES

Of Wax-paper for Printing-in Skies.

Is. 6d. 2s. 3s.

For6lx4f 8lx6i 10 x

4s. 5s. eacli.

12 X 10 15 X 12.

Adcock's Patent Yignetting Frame.

A very useful and ingenious
Vignette, to be screwed on to
tlie front of Printino; Frame.

For Carte-de-Visite size,
3s. each.

For Cabinet size,
4s. 6d. each.

MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

A dvertisements. 283

Used in the Dra^wing Departments of the Leading
Shipbuilders, Railways, Engineers, Contractors,
Architects, and others.

MARION'S

FERRO-PRUSSIATE PROCESS.

Bi/ this process Drawings, Patterns, Plans, etc., may he reproduced
very quickly by simply using the prepared Paper, Light, and Water.

N.B.—-Oi all the varioiis methods for reproducing Draw-
ings, MARION'S FERRO-PRUSSIATE PROCESS is still
the simplest and most practicable. In order to work it no
complicated apparatus is necessary, nor does it require ex-
cessive care.

No dangerous acids or poisonous substances are used.

Another advantage is, that the process of printing can be
watched without the aid of a Photometer.

After printing, simply washing in cold water is all tliat
is necessary.

We would call attention to our new Paper, No. 515.
This is made specially for workshops, etc., being stronger,
thicker, and less costly than Paper No. 494. The prints
obtained from this Paper are not quite so fine as from No.
494, but they are far superior to any made from Paper not
specially manufactured for the Ferro-Prussiate Process.

No. 514 is a strong Paper. No. 494 gives best and
clearest results.
MARION & CO., 22 & 23 Soho Square, London, W.

MARION & CO.'S

CARBON & SILVER PRINTING WORKS

AT

SOUTHGATE, near LONDON.

Printingfrom Amateurs' Negatives in Silver or Carbon.

NEGATIVES RETOUCHED AND VARNISHED.

Enlargements made on Paper, Canvas, or on Opal ; and finished
in Black and White, Water Colours, and in Oils.

fESTIMATES GIVEN FOR ALL KINDS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK.