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PRACTICAL

HINTS

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SCIENTIFIC

TRAVELLERS

EDITED BY

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H. A. BROUWER

Professor of Geology, Delft.

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H.A. Brouwer and N. Wing Easton. Practical hints to explorers

in the Netherlands-East-Indies.

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Percy A. Wagner and Tudor G. Trevor. Notes on travel in

' South- and East-Africa.
Warren D. Smith. Hints to explorers and prospectors covering

travel in the Philippines.

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E. J. BRILL Ltd

PUBLISHERS AND PRINTERS

1922.

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PREFACE

The principal object of this book is to compile the experiences
of scientific explorers in different countries, so tiiat these experiences
are easily accessible. It is not the intention to compete with the
existing Manuals, which have in view to furnish the traveller with
a compendium of scientific learning.

After an experience of several years in the East Indias, in
Africa and in America the conviction urged itself upon me that
many travellers, although well-equipped with regard to scientific
work, are only poorly informed as to the things of every day life
as well as to the customs and manners which prevail among white
and coloured man in distant regions. Yet, its knowledge is hardly
less necessary for the success of a journey. I am convinced, that
it is in the interest of Science to make an attempt of prevailing
the blunders, which often are unvoluntarily made, and to guard
scientific travellers from many pitfalls to be met along the way.

It goes without saying that personal qualities and personal tastes
play an important part in the treatment of some of the subjects.
The attentive reader will encounter no difficulties in selecting these
subjects and he may follow the advice or not.

Delft (Holland), September 1922. H. A. Brouwer.

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PRACTICAL HINTS TO EXPLORERS IN THE

NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES

Dr. H. A. BROUWER M.E.

Professor of geology at the Technical University of Delft

AND

N. WING EASTON M.E.

Formerly Chief Engineer in the Netherlands Indian Mining Department

ex-Managing-Director of the Dordt-Oil-Company.

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CONTENTS.

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2.
3.
4.
5.

7.
8.
9.

40.
44.
42.

Preparatory matter. 3

General Remarks . . * » 7

Outfit . . .' . , . i . 10

Communication . . , I4

Intercourse with Natives . . 47

Currency . . . . '.' , . . . . ^ 49

Servants . ..^ 1 . .1 . qq

Food . . , . ; . . . ; 21

Packing . 22

Bivouac-building ..*,. . 23

Surveying. ... 24

Costs ... ^,: ... 25

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PRACTICAL HINTS TO EXPLORERS IN THE

NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES

H. A. Brouwer and N. Wma Easton^

1. PREPARATORY MATTER.

Though every scientific explorer may be supposed to be acquainted
with the persons or institutions, where he can gather information
about the details of his special branch, it seems desirable to give
some general indications. There are various societies and institutions,
whose special object is the scientific exploration of the Dutch
Indies, or the furthering of this ideal in one way or another.
These are very willing to oblige the traveller with information.

A. Institutions in the ITetherlands:

1. Maatschappij ter bevordering van het Natuurkundig Onderzoek
der Nederlandsche Kolonien (Society for the Furtherance of physical
Research in the Neth. Colonies) at Amsterdam; — Hon. Secretary
(at present) Prof. Dr. H. F. Nierstrasz, Utrecht.

2. Yereeniging Koloniaal Instituut (Society Colonial Institute) at
Amsterdam; — Office (at present) 15 Plantage Middenlaan.

3. Indisch Genootschap (Indian Society) at the Hague; — 14
V. Galenstraat.

4. Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Yolkenkunde van
Nederlandsch Indie (Royal Institute for Philology and Ethnology
of the Neth. Indies) the Hague; — 14 v. Galenstraat.

5. Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap (Royal
]N'etherlands Geographical Society) at Amsterdam; — Office, 28
Saxen-Weimarlaan.

6. Geologisch-Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap voor Nederland en zijn
Kolonien (Geological and Mining Society for Netherland and its

1) With the collaboration of W. van Bemmelen, and H. Witkamp. A paper dealing
with the same subject is : W. Volz, Ausriistung und Reisepraxis, Erfahrungen auf
Forsohungsreisen in Niederlandisch-Ost-Indien, Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen.

XXVIII, 1911, p. 247—278.

4 BROUWER and WING EASTON

Colonies; — Inquiries should be addressed to the president, Mining-
Institute at Delft.

7. Het Batak Instituut (The Batak Institute) at Leiden. This
society makes a special study of the Batak countries.

8. Het Atjeh-Instituut ; het Bali-Instituut ; het Oostkust van
Sumatra-Instituut ; het Minangkabau Instituut; het Zuid-Sumatra-
Instituut; het Molukken-Instituut ; (The Atjeh Institute; the Bali
Institute; the East-coast of Sumatra Institute; the Minangkabau
Institute; the South-Sumatra-Institute; the Moluccas Institute).
All six of these, which are run according to the example of 7, were esta-
blished at the instance of the Colonial Institute, and cooperate with it.

9. Regarding various districts and especially for ethnological and
linguistic material, valuable information may be obtained from the
Board of the Nederlandsch Zendings-Genootschap (Dutch Missionary
Society) at Oegstgeest (near Leiden).

B. Institutions in the Neth. Indies:

1. KoninklijkeNatuurkundige Yereeniging (Royal Physical Society)
at Weltevreden, to which at present a Committee for Yulcanology
is attached.

2. Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen
(Batavian Society for Arts and Sciences) at Weltevreden.

3. Indisch Comite voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Indian
Committee for scientific research (cooperates with No. A 1).

C. Among the Government Institutions in the Indies the
following should be mentioned.

1. Encyclopaedisch bureau (Encyclopaedic Office) at Weltevreden
(especially geography and ethnology).

2. 's Lands Plantentuin (Government Botanical Gardens) at Buiten-
zorg (biology).

3. Meteorologisch Observatorium (Meteorologic Observatory) at
Weltevreden.

4. Hoofdbureau van het Mijnwezen (Head-office of the Mining-
Department) at Weltevreden (geology).

5. Laboratorium voor Zee-onderzoek (Laboratory for Oceanic-
exploration) at Weltevreden.

Among the larger libraries^ where scientific works on. the Neth.
Indies are to be found, the most important is, that of the joint
institutions A3 and A4 at the Hague, called Colonial Library (14
V. Galenstraat: open to the public 10 — 4). This excellent collection
is not only almost complete with respect to the Neth. Indies, but

TEE NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 5

also contains a great number of volumes on East- Asia and Australia.
The library of the Colonial Department at the Hague (entrance
Binnenhof ; open to the public during the ordinary hours of service)
is likewise well-provided and well-arranged.

The University -libraries may be consulted advantageously for
many requirements. The Technical University at Delft contains
especially geological literature, and the Agricultural University at
Wageningen biological and agronomical works.

Maps and charts of the Indies are to be found in the Geographic
Institute at Utrecht (Plompetorengracht : open to the public 9 — 5),
in the library of the Colonial Department, in the Royal Library
at the Hague in the library of the Indian Society, and in the division
of Hydrography of the Navy-Department. The maps are sold at
Smulders and Co's the Hague, and the charts at the above-mentioned
division of Hydrography.

As a general survey regarding special subjects for those who
have a satisfactory knowledge of the Dutch language, the newly
finished edition of the Encyclopaedia of the Neth. East Indies is
to be recommended, whereas for references to the literature or
bibliography the Repertory of Colonial Literature (after 1595) may
be used. Both works may be found in all the principal libraries.
With ■ special reference to geology in its widest sense an almost
complete list of papers provided with annual additions has appeared
(prepared by Dr. R. D. M. Yerbeek) in the Transactions of the
Geological and Mining Society (Nr. A 6), file 1912 and following.

In the Indies the best scientific library is that of the Physical-
Society (Nr. B 1), which is located in the same building as that

of the Central Library Society. The first also occupies a part of
the library-buildings of the Agricultural Department at Buitenzorg.
In the library of the Batavian Society (Nv. B 2) there is to be found
a copy of all printed matter published in the Dutch Indies.

The Government Institutions (C 1 — 5) are also provided with

■!

professional libraries. Maps and charts are to be had in the Indies
in the Topographic Office, branch Hospitaalweg (maps), and with
the harbourmasters at Tandjong-Priok, Soerabaja, Makassar, Padang,
Sabang, Pangkalan Brandan, and Samboe (charts).

Besides the museums belonging in the Netherlands to the common
Universities, the Technical University, and the Agricultural Univer-
sity, there is still to be mentioned those of Natura Artis Magistra at
Amsterdam and of the Colonial Museum at Haarlem (the latter will be
removed to the buildings of the Colonial Institute at Amsterdam). In the

6 BROUWER and WING EASTON

Indies the Batavian Society possesses an extensive ethnologic and ar-
cheologic collection, and also coins and medals and manuscripts. The
Government Institutions C 2 and C 4 possess professional museums.

Travellers are recommended to complete their preliminary studies
chiefly in Holland, the libraries and collections being as as rule
better provided and arranged there than in the Indies ; an exception
are the Government Botanical Gardens. For more up-to-date infor-
mations the Indies are of course best suited, for there officials as
well as private persons usually show the greatest obligingness

towards serious travellers.

Permit is necessary, even for a temporary stay in the Indies.
To acquire this the traveller should apply soon after the arrival
of the steamer to the local authorities and have portraits with him.
The local authorities also are able to furnish informations as to
whether or not travelling in the districts to be visited may be subject
to any special conditions.

Special recommendations to the authorities of the districts which
are the objects of study are very desirable. If possible the traveller
should try to get them not only from official people, but also from
personal friends. The traveller should also keep in mind, that
nobody is obliged to help him. Therefore much depends on the
behaviour of the traveller himself. As a rule the people in the
Indies are quite ready to help, provided the person in question is
in earnest and deserving. For instance he should never fail to
attend on the local authorities as soon as possible in case of a
shorter or longer stay in a place (it is unnecessary if only passing).
Not only is this a politeness towards the Government, but the
official is often able to serve the visitor in some way, on account
of his greater knowledge of country and people.

In various districts the Government has constructed little buil-
dings (pasangrahans), where passing travellers can spend the night
and where the native overseer can usually provide a simple meal.
The terms are different and posted on the walls. These pasangrahans

are not intended for a longer stay but in some cases it is possible
to get permission from the Resident under certain conditions.

For those who want to extend their activities to various islands,
or to different remote parts of one of the larger islands, it will
be necessary or desirable (except in Java) to travel occasionally by
sea. The coast-traffic in the archipelago is for the most part carried
on by the large fleet of the Royal Packet Company (K. P. M.),
which on application to its head-office at Amsterdam (Prins Hen-

THE NETIiERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 7

L '

drikkade, Scheepvaarthuis) is prepared, provided there is sufficient
supply, to send a time-table for the current half year.

Undoubtedly it is necessary for every traveller to have at least

sufficient knowledge of Malay — the lingua franca of the Archi-
pelago — , to be able to hold a simple conversation. It should be
observed here that both the English pronuncation of that language
as well as the spelling differs a good deal from the Dutch. The
natives' measures and weights which may vary more or less ac-
cording to locality also should be known (see the Encyclopaedia and
Annual Government-Directory of the Dutch East Indies).

Those who are not handicapped by time, as a rule travel much
more cheaply than those who are in a hurry. The latter therefore
should possess a wellfilled purse, in order to be able to hire the
faster means of conveyance (motor-cars, launches) for their private
use, which are available now and then (see sub Communication).

2. GENERAL REMARKS.

Though in compiling this information travellers with a scientific
object are kept uppermost in mind the greater part of it also will
be found of use to those who travel with another object in view
such as technical studies etc. Besides it should be observed, that
the information is primarily intended for the individual traveller
rather than for some expedition consisting of several members.

a. For travellers of field professions (biologists and geologists) it
is preferable to travel during a period of little or no rainfall, when
the rain especially falls in the afternoon and leaves the mornings
dry. Now there probably is no part of the world, where the con-
ditions of rainfall may differ so much within relatively short
distances, as in the Malay Archipelago. The traveller is therefore
urgently advised to acquaint himself accurately with this subject.
He may do so by studying the work of Dr. J. P. van der Stok:
Wind and weather, tides and currents in the East-Indian Archijyelago
(English edition) 1897, with many pictures and maps, or the article
on „ climate" (in Dutch) in the Encyclopaedia. — Yolume II of the
Handbuch der Klimatologie by Dr. J. Hann gives an exhaustive review
of the subject. The Observatory at Weltevreden issues periodical reports
on the rain-fall in the archipelago ; also a treatise on the general clima-
tology of the Indies and environs by Dr. C. Braak is in preparation. ^)

b. Before starting the objects (clothes etc.) that have to serve

1) Two parts of the first volume (with English summaries) have been published
Verhandelingen No. 8. Koninkl. Magn. en Meteorol. Observatorium, Batavia.

8 BROUWER and WING EASTON

for the journeys inland should be separated and those which are
wanted in daily life. The latter should be separately packed in
handy little boxes, preferably of metal, which can be effectually
locked with an extra padlock of special make. The hinges of the
cover should be placed on the inside^ because otherwise theft is
possible through striking out the pegs, since it is often necessary
to leave them behind somewhere in rather unsatisfactory care. In
order to be safe from damage caused by white ants, these boxes
should be placed on empty kerosine-tins, preferably on a spot that
is not always in the dark. These tins can be had nearly everywhere.

c. Travelling men should live frugally and regularly, but they
should not he economical with respect to their own food^ of course
in moderation. Geological and geographical expeditions especially
may often be very exhausting and without substantial food ones
endurance is soon exhausted.

d. With the exertion required of the body, it should be kept in
mind that the influence of a tropical climate in many respects is
quite different from that of the temperate zones, particularly for
those who have not become accustomed to the former by many
years experience. It may be that many travellers shrug their shoulders
and don 't care for the warning, and when they become convinced
of its truth it is often too late. If anywhere in the world the ex-
pression „slow and sure wins in the long run" holds good, it surely
is applicable in the Indies.

e. Wounded feet, a common complaint in the jungle, should
not be neglected, but carefully attended to. If the wounds are
somewhat bad or in an inconvenient place, complete rest for a few
days is recommended. If one goes on in spite of the wounds, the
consequence usually is, that a forced rest has to be kept after all,
and then of a much longer duration.

f. In their own interest travellers are urgently advised, to let
the female natives alone.

g. When travelling with geological or geographical purposes, a
frequent change of guide is advisable. A native usually only knows
the names of the mountains, rivers, etc. and location the paths an
trails in the general vicinity of his home. The answers of these
guides should never be fully trusted, and must be controlled as

much as possible. A native does not like telling frankly that he
does not know a thing. He always prefers inventing an answer
or substituting a name of his own.

h. When investigations in creeks are necessary, the traveller
should begin as far downstream as possible.

THE NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 9

i. The authors have always been accustomed to walk behind the

bearers (coolies), and to see to it, that they kept near them.
Natives when once left behind always avail themselves of the
opportunity to rest every now and then, and having arrived at the
goal for that day, the traveller as a rule has to wait a long time
before the most necessary things arrive.

k. We often read of travellers who lost part of the whole of
their collections or even their notes, in consequence of some mishap.

It also, quite often happens, that the notes have become almost
unreadable here and there, or that they have been written so
badly, that one can not make head or tail of them afterwards.
Besides travellers often disregard the possibility that the notes and
collections have to be worked out by some one other with his
notes or collections than themselves. The authors never made sad
experiences with their notes and collections during their many long
travels (and think their success due) to the application of the rules
outlined below. They take some time and give some trouble, but
since the success of the expedition depends on what has been col-
lected and noted down, sufficient trouble and time should be spared
for it. In by far the most cases losses are the consequence of
carelessness or love of ease, a habit which befalls many strangers
in the tropical climate.

1. All notes made during the day should be worked over and
copied plainly and in duplicate by means of carbon paper the very
same day. The two copies should be kept apart^ and packed in
different boxes. Never should a thing worth being noted down
be put off till the next day, since new impressions generally make
the details fade away rather soon.

2. Especially in the case of geologic work the samples should,
if possible, be collected in duplicate'., originals and duplicates should
be packed apart.

3. The samples should be consecutively numbered j the practice
sometimes followed of beginning with 1 every day, gives rise to
mistakes. The number written boldly ^ together with a short indication
of the place of origin, should be packed along with the sample of
soft Chinese paper, which is oljtainable in most Chinese shops. This
parcel, with a repetition of the number., is wrapped in a newspaper
or other similar packing material, on which the number is painted
with Indian ink and brush. Everything should be written in ink!
The duplicates should be distinguished in some simple manner or
other, e.g. by asterisk. Lists of the samples are likewise kept up
in duplicate with indication of the number of the bag and the

10 BROUWER and WING EASTON

number should be written down in the note-book at the exact place

of origin.

4. When measurings have been carried out they should be delineated
on a large scale the very same day, and the necessary mathematical
reductions should be worked out immediately.

In this way eventual errors, omissions or indistinct notations
make their appearance and may often be corrected at once or the
next day. If a certain number of drawings regarding the same
district is completed, they should be reduced to the desired scale
and compiled into a real map as soon as possible, at any rate
before the district is left.

5. In case of transport by water originals and duplicates of
samples and notes should go into two different vessels, the two
most reliable. If there are maps in simplo which must not be lost,
they should be packed in a tightly closed zinc tube, which can be
carried on a tape or string, and should be hung round one's own
neck on somewhat dangerous spots. The tuwan (gentleman) is al-
ways the object of the greatest care.

6. Neither should originals and duplicates be carried by the
same person during transports by land. The complaint is sometimes
heard that the porters throw off parts of their loads. When this is
not the consequence of too heavy loads, it can only be prevented
by the author's method of packing the samples in strong canvas

bags which, when filled, weigh 7o oi' Va ^^an's load, and which

are closed with a string and a lead seal. On the outside the bags
should bear a clearly visible number. A porter will only very excep-
tionally dare to throw away a whole bag, even less break a seal.

3. OUTFIT.

The question of the lorivate outfit is considered here only. The
scientific one is left to the explorer.

1. Clothes, The traveller may choose between suits (trousers and
coat buttoned up to the throat) of white or khaki drill. The former
are without doubt cooler to wear, but they soon get dingy. It is
recommended to have the coats made with spacious pleated pockets.
The second author always wore flannel undershirts in the Indies
and after a quarter of a century's jungle-work never had a bit of
rhumatism. If the traveller does not like wearing flannel, he should
be careful not to catch a cold.

2. Shoes. The ordinary canvas shoes, though very convenient,
are not recommendable for long journeys on foot; walking in streams,

THE NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES, 11

(

1
1

which is so often inevitable in geologic work, wears them out very-
soon. Most satisfactory seem to be easily fitting (but not wide)
leather shoes. Hungarian leather is to be preferred, which should
be kept supple through regular greasing with cod-liver oil or
linseed-oil and which by no means should be dried near a fire.
Shoes, the leather of which is hard and stiff, should never be used.
If stiff they should be moistened in water beforehand and put on
damp. Boots with high legs are heavy and less practical. Low shoes
with puttees are preferable though these are somewhat warm. The
authors always used puttees with straps and front flaps, to which
various advantages are attached, and by means of which the intrusion
of insects (especially blood-suckers) is almost prevented, especially
when the legs of the trousers are put inside the socks.

3. Headwear, A light bamboo-hat, such as the military men
wear, is very convenient. However in a dense forest in a newly-
cut path and particularly when measuring by means of telescope-
instruments a hat may cause great trouble. Therefore a cap should
always be ready at hand.

4. Eaincoats are very warm and can be used at most only in
the mountains. The Mattamae raincoats advertised at present,
which wheigh only one pound, seem very satisfactory in open
country.

5. Sleeping -requisites. Though camps-beds are sold in the shops,
they are as a rule, not strong enough to stand the rather rough
treatment and many transports, on the long run. The best thing
is a so-called telescope- camp-bed, which should be carefully examined
beforehand and reinforced in its weak spots. A thin mattress should
be made to fit and packed along with the required pillows, blan-
kets, sheets (and the mosquito-curtain), the whole outfit rolled up
in a bag of strong oiled canvas, which can be closed with a rope
and padlock (like the linen-bags used on board the steamers). As
a protection against mosquitos and other flying insects a mosquito-
curtain (klambu) should be made round the campbed. Height about

2'/2 ^' • ^^16 top (tenda) material is made of strong cotton or thin

linen ; the sides of mosquito-netting (such as is also sold in Europe)

not too closely woven. The two halves of

one of the long sides pass over each other

at least 0.60 meter to serve as a passage. On

the 4 corners of the tenda are fastened small

but strong loops to draw up the mosquito- -p.^ -j^

net by means of a piece of tape or string.

6. Field-table with detachable top, or a folding-table, and folding-

42 BROUWER and WING EASTON

chair to match to go with it are included in the outfit. The chair
niay or may not have a back to it. Both should be made of light,
but strong and above all dry wood, so that the table-top does not
warp in the tropics. If preferred the table can be made in the
Indies, but the common wood: teak or djati is rather heavy. There
are good models at the Mining-department at Batavia. An easy-
chair may be of great comfort. The second author lately had the
pleasure of being introduced to an elegant inexpensive very light,
but strong and comfortable chair of American make, which can be
quickly taken to pieces and put in a small case ; it was bought at
the well-known stores of Simon Artz at Port Said. It was used
continuously for months under unfavourable circumstances and is
very much to be recommended.

7. For lighting the American kerosine travelling-lamp in a case
should be taken, which except the chimney contains no fragile
parts and may very easily be packed and carried, the oil remaining
in the reservoir. Carefully packed extra chimneys should not be
forgotten. All other material for lighting except kerosine-oil is
unsatisfactory, since only this may be obtained easily at all places
along the way.

8. Many travellers take a filtering -ajyj^aratus for drinking-water,
the so called Berkefeld-filters are common. There is no objection,
but the authors deem it more practical to drink no water at all
only tea, either hot or cold. The cold tea is carried in a bottle
with swing-wire stopple.

9. Eating -utensils. Plates, dishes, mugs, etc. of enamelled iron or
aluminium are recommended and iron frying-pans and cooking-pans
should be included. The smallest number of fragile things and no
more than absolutely necessary should be brought; new supplies
are often obtainable in native shops.

10. Travellers medicine-chest with the most needful medicines
and surgical appliances for the ambulant traveller and a more
complete collection for those who intend to stay in a limited district
for a longer duration should be obtained from a druggist. They
should be packed in the Indies; some chemists have them ready
for use. Attending a class for first aid and for wound-dressing is
very commendable. Though medical aid is an excellent means of
gaining the confidence of the population, the inexpert traveller
should not be tempted to the treatment of more complicated cases.
If need be he had better give a very innocent remedy, than refuse
help. Castor-oil and quinine sometimes work wonders ! An often
recommended article is serum against snake-bite; our opinion is

THE NETIIERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. iH

that this may as well be left at home. First the traveller, "when
sufficiently careful, stands very little chance of being mortally
bitten (the authors have never been bitten in the snake-countries
of Borneo and Sumatra during their stay of many years) and
secondly the remedy is seldom directly at hand when needed.
Thorough pinching and sucking of the wound immediately after
the bite, with tying-off is the best remedy. It is advisible to take
liquid ammonia as an excellent remedy against the bites of smaller
insects and to keep it in a small bottle in a box-wood case in the
measuring-tin (see sub Surveying).

11. Fajoer-cJiest and cylindrical mapcases preferably made of zinc
and capable of being locked should be ordered for the trip.

12. Simple carpenter'' s tools for every-day use are necessary. The
American cases, sold in the shops, in sets of a dozen or more tools
are very handy. For bigger coarser work the native usually prefers
his own tools, with which he works better.

13. Camera. He who is not a skilled photographer, is advised
not to take an expensive apparatus and even a good photographer
will find by experience that it is not a simple matter to get good
negatives in the Indies. Plates and films should be kept in double-
bottomed boxes, provided with unslacked lime in small bags.
A box or roll once opened should be finished as soon as possible.
There is divergence of opinion about the question whether developing
the plates should be done directly or at the end of the journey or expe-
dition. The authors themselves think the first method the safer; partly
because a failure can sometimes be re-taken, and partly because
developed plates can be protected against the influence of moulds
by varnishing them. Besides plates of different provenience do not
always behave in the same manner with regard to durability after
exposure. If direct developing is preferred, this of course entails
extra carriage and for drying the plates alcohol absol. should alwaya
be used. The camera should be carefully kept, free from insects,
but aluminium cases are not recommendable ; they soon get rusty.
The lenses should be regularly cleaned after use with a piece of
shammy moistened with alcohol. Special attention should be paid
to the fact that many cameras, so-called specially made for the-
tropics, do not at all meet tropical demands.

14. For the traveller who is not too ambulant a small gramo-
phone is to be recommended ; the timidity of the natives is often
conquered in that way. The instrument may also give some serve
as recreation for the coolies and workmen. Records with Malay
songs are preferred by them and may be had in Holland.

14 BROUWER and WING EASTON

4. COMMUNICATION

i >

As has already been observed sub 1, the traffic between tbe
different islands is as a rule only carried on by means of the boats
of the Royal Packet Company, which keep up a fairly regular
service even to remote corners of the Archipelago; to persons who
can prove that they travel for scientific purposes only, the board
of the Company at Weltevreden allow, a reduction of 15 ^/^ on
passage and luggage in excess. On application to the civil autho-
rities the traveller may be permitted in some cases the use of the
vessels which are at the disposal of the government officials. Besides
there are vessels under European or Chinese management on ser-
vice here and there (Sumatra, Borneo).

Java occupies quite an important place in regard to land com-
munication. A fairly extensive network of railroads and tramways
covers a great portion of the islands, and the more important towns
are all connected with the stations by means of highways passable
for all vehicles, and also as a rule to motor-cars. Where ever these
conveniences of travel are wanting, the country can generally be
easily traversed along good foot- or horse-paths. Almost the whole
island has been cultivated. Only small parts, especially near the
South-coast are poorly accessible. Only there and on the slope of
volcanoes the traveller may have recourse to the slow work of
cutting his way through the jungle. Even in remoter districts there
will generally be an opportunity of availing oneself temporarily of
a native hut, so that bivouac-building is seldom necessary. In short,
in respect to traffic, Java approaches Europe much more than the
rest of the Dutch Indies. Many parts of Europe and America offer
more difficulties to the traveller than Java. Because of the fact
that the rivers are hardly navigable, river-traffic is insignificant.

Sumatra. Here the development of traffic is advancing speedily.
The present traveller and those of the nearest future will have a
much lighter task than the pioneers of previous years. Compared
with Java and the islands to be mentioned hereafter, Sumatra is
in a kind of transition-stage. Some parts have already been cultivated
so intensively and have been provided with such a network of
beautiful roads, that they are nearly equal to Java in respect
to conveniences (Deli, parts of Sumatra's West-coast and of Palem-
I)ang). On the other hand there are still vast regions devoid of any
modern form of communication.

With respect to the Eastern half of the island there are numerous

\ '

H I

THE ISETHERLANDS-EAST'INDIES. 15

r f

rivers navigable far inland, so that the traveller may advantageously
make use of water-traffic.

Railroads and tramways are still rare; although some are in the
course of construction. In later years a regular motor-car service
has been established by the Government between the principal
places; chiefly in behalf, of postal conveyance; the extension of
this service having followed the improvement of the highways.
They are motor- vans, on which there are seats for 5 or 6
first class passengers, room for a fairly large number of natives
and a limited quantity of luggage. They do not cover more than
about 150 KM. a day, and the seats are not very comfortable, but
they are convenient and cheap. Such conveyances are to be found
in Benkoelen, Palembang, Sumatra's "West-coast, Tapanoeli and Deli.
The traveller can obtain at Weltevreden at the Department of Go-
vernment Works (Gouvernements Bedrijven) and of course on the
spot further information about time-table etc.

• In addition private motor-cars are to be had in many places,
and sometimes even motor-vans which are, however, rather expensive.
The luggage therefore will usually have to be conveyed in native
carts (pedati's). It should be borne in mind, that these do not carry
very much and do not cover more than 20 K.M. in 24 hours.
Since the same cart does not go far from its station, the goods
have to be transferred several times if the distance is considerable.
In that case the traveller will do better to apply to a contractor
and draw up a written contract.

In Sumatra the distances along the highroads are indicated in
various ways. The old ^Sumatra paal" (distance 1 nautical mile =
1851 M.) has nearly everywhere been replaced by the „Java paal
(1507 M.), while the roads for motor-traffic have been provided
with kilometer-stones.

From Palembang there is a regular service with so-called stern-
wheelers along the Moesi River and its principal tributaries (by
the K. P. M. and by Chinamen). In these boats there is sitting-
and sleeping-accommodation for European passengers. However they
cannot always reach their terminus in the dry monsoon. Some of
these vessels also as well as some steam-launches can be hired for
private use.

When going between towns without train, tram, or motor-car
conveyance, the traveller has to take recourse either to small native
carts, offering little comfort and less room and which consequently
are very tiring on long distances; or to riding on horseback. Not
everywhere however are there horses to be had. The harnesses

16 BROUWER and WING EASTON

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should be thoroughly examined beforehand, and mended if necessary.
At the same time it is good advice to have always a piece of
strong string at hand since the native driver only mends the
things when they are badly broken and mark how they do it! ;

Borneo is the country of water-traffic. All the larger rivers (as
far as the head-stream is concerned) are navigable for steam-launches
and other vessels of light draught far inland, and great use is made
of them from Pontianak, Bandjermasin, Samarinda and other places.
On most of the tributary streams however the traveller has soon,
to struggle with rapids and falls, which render other traffic than
smaller rowing-boats impossible. To* conquer these obstacles special
guides from the nearest surroundings should always be taken, as
they only are acquainted with the various peculiarities of the rapids.
Travellers are earnestly advised never to interfere by any personal
commands during the passage of such spots. As contrasted with
this, transportation by land is exceedingly burdensome. Real high-
ways are wanting; what is sometimes called such, has no claim to
that name, except in the immediate surroundings of the chief towns.
Bridges are rare. Neither riding- or draught-animals, nor vehicles
are to be had. The traveller therefore has no other recourse but
the footpaths, which are most often hardly kept in repair. For
people who are in a hurry, Borneo is not a very suitable country.

For those who want to travel by water continuously for a long
time, it is recommended to purchase a suitable good seized rowing-
vessel (bidar) in one of the bigger places, and to have it furnished
according to their own taste for day and night use. A second boat
of a smaller size (cooking-prow) is likewise a desirable thing as
an abode for the cook and a storing-place for food. Other desired
vessels may be locally hired for the time needed. Inquires concerning
prices, wages of rowers, etc. should be made from the government-
officials or harbourmasters.

Celebes. In sharp contrast to Borneo the rivers of Celebes are
almost unnavigable. Transportation therefore will have to take
place exclusively by land. The relatively slight breadth of the arms
of the island usually enables the traveller to use one of the seaside-
places as a centre for various short trips and by doing so to keep
in contact with the outside-world. The high mountains that have
to be crossed are often difficult to ascend and render Celebes-expe-
dition very tedious. An extensive network of roads is being con-
structed, improved or prepared however, so that in a few years
presumably quite another picture of the island can be drawn. Even
the construction of railroads is now beginning. In some parts of

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THE NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 17

Celebes horses may be used for riding and for carrying goods.

JVew Guinea J is of all islands of the Dutch Indies, undeniably
among the least accessible. Moreover it is much farther away from
Java than the others, so that communication with the rest of the
world, opportunity for new supplies etc, is much more troublesome
than in the other parts of the archipelago. Of late 2 stations for
wireless telegraphy have been built on the North coast.

In this island the traveller meets with a difficulty, which is not
at all or but little to be taken into account in other parts of the
archipelago. This is namely the fact that the attitude of the natives
is not always friendly. Unless confined to the coastal fringe explo-
ration is only possible for large expeditions with very ample
resources, supported by the Government with military help.

Starting from the South-coast the inland can be reached compa-
ratively easily for a long distance along the numerous rivers. On
the North-coast one river only, the Mamberamo, forms the chief
way of entrance. This river however requires particularly strong
launches because of its uncommonly strong current.

Remaining islands. Only a few of the remaining islands are so
large that traversing them requires several days. As to roads most
of them are still in a rather primitive stage, though of late great
improvements have been made.

Travellers, who wish to visit several islands in the eastern part
of the archipelago but can only spend a limited time to the study
of each one, and consequently have to make repeated sea-voyages,
should take into account the monsoon-wind and the currents, which
are often very strong (see sub climate), because if they have
not a sufficiently strong steamer at their disposal they will have
much difficulty and danger during the windy season. Landing is es-
pecially dangerous on most of the coast during times of strong winds.

Hence before undertaking such voyages very reliable information
should be taken (as to the best season Navy-office, Packet Company).

The Southern islands are sparsely wooded and can therefore be
more easily crossed than the Northern ones, beside horse-traffic is
frequently available there (Soemba, Timor).

5. INTERCOURSE WITH NATIVES.

a. with the car'rie^'s ayid the workmen. It is only in a few parts
that the ordinary native can understand some Malay, but even in
such favourable cases the traveller had better give his orders through
a Malay-speaking mandor (overseer), because as a rule he has more

BROUWER and WING EAST ON

experience and ability in making the men understand the meaning
of the words and grasp what is wanted.

Treat the people well and above all strictly just, especially in
a pecuniary respect, and see to it i^ersonally^ that they really get
what is their due, that is keep an eye on the mandor. Never nse
corporal punishment, more is achieved with words with natives than
is generally supposed. Bold or rebellious elements should be simply
dismissed. In many respects natives are like children; treat them
as such, that is do not be needlessly severe, and humour them
occasionally if what they want to do is not exactly wrong even if
you would prefer things done otherwise. Do not be
don't be a dog in the manger.

If a traveller has carriers or workmen in his service, who not
have their homes in that region, these people should be made
to understand beforehand that without exception no damage or
robbery of property of the population will be allowed (especially
theft of fruit or other growth). These abuses will rarely occur with

^^ '

J * ■_

peevish, and

inhabitants of the

region, since

they know the current manners
and morals. It should not be forgotten that the population holds
the traveller responsible to a certain extent for the goodconduct of
his people. If misconduct happens to occur it ist best to pay the
damage as far as it is reasonable, and deduct this amount from
the pay of the culprit. If the latter is not satisfied, than refer the
case to the local authorities.

Giving advance-money to carriers and other workmen is a general
evil in the Dutch Indies, for which there seems to be no help.
This advancement has to serve for food for the family left behind,
for the purchase of some travelling-articles for paying debts, etc.
The people always try to get as much as they can, but as a rule
deduction is possible by bargaining ; the way of paying back should
be directly agreed upon. We were accustoned to give only exceptionally
a second advance during the same journey, and this only in small
amounts. The second author had sometimes recourse to the scheme
of letting the people join into clubs, the members of which stood
individually surety for the. advances or debts of one of the members.
The plan not always meets with success but it may be tried since
it gives the traveller a better guarantee against running away of
the natives. However, with a little prudence and skill large sums
of money need never be lost by this infringement.

b. with the populace. If you want something of the natives, pay what
they ask in cash; if you think it too much, try to bargain, but
never take anything without sufficient payment. Not only you make

I «

. ^J

^ k L

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^ i

THE NETIIERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 19

. +

them antagonistic against you by doing so, but also the authorities,
if it becomes known to them (which is highly probable) will be
most offended at it. Inquire beforehand what the population has
for sale and make your selections accordingly. Salt and tobacco
for cigarettes are two articles much in demand in return for which
is often more to be had than for money. Bring therefore a
quantity of them along with you.

In most cases it will be necessary to carry on conversations with
the population by means of an interpreter. We must advise ethno-
logists not to try to penetrate into the spiritual life of the natives
by asking a few questions. They are very particular and mysterious
in this respect. What you get as an answer is as a rule untrue or
gives rise to wrong notions. Even the attempts of the local authorities
and missionaries, who are in constant touch with the population
and who have a perfect knowledge of their language, often meet
with little success.

c. with the chiefs. There is of course a great difference between
the chiefs of Bataks, Dajaks, Papoeas and those in Java and Mid-
Sumatra, who generally represent their real native aristocracy and
have attained a fairly high degree of civilization. Hence these
latter ought to be treated with due respect for their accomplishments
and position.

A chief of the first category is often outwardly but little or not
at all distinguishable from the rest of the population. This however
should not deceive us: for frequeotly they have much influence,
especially the older ones, for influence increases with age. The rule
is: win their good will by polite treatment. If you expect to need
some chiefs particularly for your work, try to find out what you
can most please them with, and if it is in your power, satisfy
their wishes. Never bully them in the presence of others they will
never forgive you that.

6. CURRENCY.

Though officially the East-Indian coins pass everywhere, in some
parts but little can be done with them among the population. To
be sure the number and extent of these parts diminishes gradually,
but it is advisable to thoroughly inquire about the conditions in
the country to be traversed. One thing should be particularly looked
to, in parts where money is accepted, viz. to have a sufficient
quantity of small money, for food and also for the payment of wages.
The native hardly ever has got change and if he has he pretends
to be stupid.

ri 4

20 BROUWER and WING EASTON

Where money is not a tender, the traveller should have recourse
to harter. Articles for barter should not be procured before the
district in question is nearly reached and then only after accurate
information has been gathered from the authorities or the mission

as to articles which are acceptable, for tastes greatly differ in this
respect in different districts.

7. SERVANTS.

Obtaining a good travelling-servant, who at fhe same time is a
cook (a djongos as he is called in the Indies) is one of the most
important and most difficult matters. A really good travelling-servant,
that is one who has travelled before and does not object to life in
the jungle is as a rule anything but submissive. Besides many
travellers have the bad habit of leaving everything to their man,
of letting him keep the keys of the boxes, etc. Don 't set the cat
to watch the cream! The consequence of this is that the majority

of such servants do not know the true difference between mine
and thine. Especially in the case of a beginner however it will be

almost impracticable to prevent theft alltogethcr, yet much may
be done in this direction by not handing over the keys and taking
the trouble of getting things out of a box oneself and particularly
by inspecting the things not locked up regularly. If this conduct
is put into practice immediately at the beginning of a trip and
the servant notices that you keep an eye on everything, it may
be that he gives warning, but also that if he is satisfied for
the rest, he gives up his attempts. Although actual theft should
not be tolerated, yet the traveller should not be too strict in
regard to petty offendings.

Bringing servants from Batavia or one of the other large sea-
side towns of Java to a remote island, however tempting it may
seem, is always risky, for if the servant does not know that part
of the archipelago by his own experience he cannot be kept against
his will later on, and his voyage back to Java must be paid. The
surest way is to try and get a servant through a friendly family,
but it should not be supposed that this is done quickly. If this
plan succeeds, the terms should be agreed on in the presence of

witnesses.

In selecting help always beware of servants of mail-steamers and
hotels, who often apply, although a useful boy may sometimes be
obtained through a reliable hotel-mandor. If a really good boy is
found, keep him contented and satisfied.

THE NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 21

8. FOOD.

a. of the cm'riers and the workmen. The chief food of most natives
is rice; in the eastern part of the archipelago it is quite or partly-
replaced by Indian corn (djagoong) and sago. If possible let them
procure their own food: this saves much trouble. But is is not
always possible, so that then the traveller has to furnish it. Do
not think that the native does not mind what kind of rice he eats,
on the contrary, he is very particular, and though if he had to
pay it himself he might put up with a cheaper and inferior quality
what he gets from his employer should be first rate, as good as
used in our own home. If therefore it is necessary to purchase and
bring along a large quantity of rice for the natives food, it should
not be done except with expert and reliable advice.

With his rice the native eats other food, e.g. fish, red pepper,
salt, cocoa-nuts, vegetables. It is essential to their health to vary

this food and not to be too economical with it, of course with

V I

:: 1

suitable moderation and judgment. If the country is suitable for it,
the easiest way is to give them a certain amount of money daily,
for which they have to procure their own additional food. In this
case however there is the objection that the money received for
food is often spent otherwise or gambled away. If the traveller
buys himself, he should take care not to be cheated.

If the rice has to be brought along and kept for a long time,
donH pack it in air-tight closed tins, as it soon grows musty in
them. On the other hand it must not get wet: especiaily in the
case of watertransport, this should also be taken care of. Regular
and thorough shaking of the rice is absolutely necessary and — if
possible — thorough drying. Djagoong is much easier to keep and
to carry. Fish too should be kept quite dry.

For the daily portions of food local experts should be consulted
beforehand. Occasionally an extra treat should be given, preferably
after uncommon work, so that it comes somewhat in the form of
a reward. For this may be used a piece of venison, a goat, a couple
of fowls, fresh fish, and the like and some tobacco.

b. of Europeans. Frugality in food is advisable to any traveller.
He who can get accustomed to the tiffin (rice-table) will soon ex-
perience that this is a great help to those who have to work inland
Rice may be procured nearly everywhere and most of the additional
food can be brought along in bottles, dried or as „sambar', if one
cannot get it on the spot, as for example the dried meat of deer-
or boar (dendeng). A native woman should be consulted.

22 BROUWER and WING EAST ON

^ IT

Whoever lias time and ability will often be able to get fresh
meat by going out shooting, while near the rivers fresh fish is
often to be had. For those who are able in this way to suit them-
selves to the country, there is indeed no troublesome food-question
and moreover the expenses are very low.

Whoever does not like this or cannot do it, has to take recourse
to tins, which are always heavy and expensive to carry and the
supply of which is difficult or impossible. Fruit is often rare and
depends on the season. For those who want to eat fruit regularly,
the tins of Californian fruit are indispensable.

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9. PACKING.

On journeys inland no heavy or bulky objects should be carried
along. If they are inevitable for some reason or other, they should
by any means be made in such a way that they can be taken to
pieces. Every individual object must not weigh more than one man
can carry; the transport of objects by 2 or more people on sticks
(peekolans) is only fit for good roads, and even then the traveller
is by no means sure of finding people willing to carry loads in
that way. In many parts the native carries the load in a rotan
basket or in other cases by a sling round his forehead or across
his shoulders and breast. Those loads for one man must not exceed
16 KG. in mountainous regions and 20 KG. on level ground. Chi-
nese people can carry more, and those are paid as agreed and ac-
cording to weight.

If forced travelling is necessary, diminishing of loads, i.e. increase
of carriers or leaving behind goods is required.

At every departure the way of packing should be personally
superintended aud good care should be taken that the loads are
divided fairly and not changed on the way, especially if this is
detrimental to the objects. Though wilful damage will seldom
occur, few natives have a notion of what is meant by careful
treatment. A simple Chinese balance (datjin, big model) or a
Salter's spring balance are necessary to make the apportioning
of the loads as accurate as possible and to convince complainers
of fairness.

Kerosine-oil is carried in the tins used in the Indies; the tra-
veller should pay attention that it is not wasted in lighting fires.
The undamageable should be put loose in the basket after noting
the quantity and kind, and the carrier should be made responsible

THE NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIES. 23

for the contents. Clothes and other articles not proof against the
dampness, should be packed in small boxes covered with thin leather
and provided with a lock. These boxes are sold in various
Chinese shops at the principal places, they are light, strong and
water-tight, they should not however remain too long on the bare
ground.

10. BI YOU AC-BUILDING.

a. for one night. If the night cannot be spent in a pasangrahan
or native hut, or if there are objections against this kind of habitation

the Indian climate as a rule permits the use of a simple shelter
made of a framework of forestwood, which the coolies (at least in
woody districts) construct in very little time. This however is only
advisable in regions where there are no beasts of prey in the vicinity.
Roof and walls are made of leaves or alang (a long and strong kind
of grass). Of course the roof is usuallly not quite water-tight, and
not proof against heavy showers or strong winds. If travelling in
the rainy season is necessary, the traveller will be compelled to
bring a water-tight roof-covering or to use a good tent, which
however, in order not to be too heavy, should be small. Oiled or
rotproof canvas seems to be best. Some travellers seem to have had
unpleasant experiences with silk tents. The second author always
preferred making use of the native dwellings if there was a possi-
bility, first for convenience sake, and secondly to have a better
opportunity of gathering necessary information, hiring guides, buying
food, and keeping in contact with the population generally.

b. for a longer duration. As a rule it will be possible to have
a simple temporary building erected from forest-wood. It is recom-
mendable to draw a groundplan of it, to indicate the height of
walls and ridge and then to contract for the whole for a certain
sum within a definite time. We should make sure that the contractor
really understands what is meant and the traveller not omit to
inspect the progress of the building now and then. The roof-covering
will have to depend on what the land furnishes. The most essential
thing is that the hut is made water-tight. If there are not too many
objections to transportation, it may be possible to bring good roof-
covering from the seaside-town (kadjang-mats, which are in general
use for the roofs of the bidars) ; otherwise atap or alang, or some-
times both together with broad leaves, may be made use of. All
covering is protected against being blown off by bamboo or solidly
fastened laths. The walls are best made of beaten bark. Around

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BROUWER and WING EASTON

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the hut a deep 3itch should be dug exactly l^elow the farthest edges
of the roof, having a drainage to the lower grounds.

Never neglect giving a feast (slamatan) to the workmen immediately

^ T * , t

after the building is ready. This is necessary in order to remain
on friendly terms with the evil spirits !

Of course the bivouac should be bmlt near running water and

I I ■ ' ,1

■ ' ■

the spot should be chosen personally. The camp for the workmen
should be made down-stream. If possible ttie traveller's house should
be built on a tributary streamlet, and that of the workmen on the head-

Fig. 2.

river. See to it that the latter is situated
on the leeside of the former. Round the
whole bivouac a broad space should be
cleared, first for the sake of health, secondly
to get rid of the insects to some extent,
and thirdly to furnish an opportunity of
drying clothes, materials and food.

n. SURVEYING.

cross-section.

It is not only a great convenience, but
sometimes necessary to have a small re-
cepticle during the expedition for surveying-
book, sketchbook, note-book, etc. and further
for pencils, scales, India-rubber and the
like trifles. For this purpose a little zinc
box (tin soon gets rusty) should be ordered,
as illustrated, with nicely fitting cover c
(fig. 2). The space h is so deep and wide

}

/ that a couple of the necessary surveying

books, sketchbooks, and a couple of notebooks easily go in; the
space a serves for the other things mentioned. Through the eyes J9,
which are soldered to the sides and the bottom, runs a piece of
tape or string to carry it by.

As the existing maps will be found but rarely suited for detail-
research, it will often be necessary for those who travel with
geological or geographical purposes, and find no time for accurate

surveys to draw a rather reliable map in the first place of the road
followed with its nearest surroundings and sometimes of such other
portions of the land as may be thought necessary. Therefore snch
travellers should practise, preferably before starting, the method of
surveying by pacing, aided only by a common geological compass,
and should also be familiar with the estimating of heights. ^

f'^ -

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^ ' . >■

THE NETHERLA NDS-EA S T-INDIES. 25

If the course of a river has to be sketched, it should be done
when travelling up-stream, because in the opposite direction the
speed is as a rule too great for accuracy. Such surveys are very
inaccurate, even after long practice, and should if possible in any
way be used between some points, the situation of which is

already known.

12. COSTS.

These are very difficult to estimate ; first because the means of
communication are frequently modified, secondly because the per-
sonal element plays an important part in the work and thirdly be-
cause the purpose for which one is travelling makes a great difference.

The time-table of the K. P. M. (Royal Packet Company) contain
the fares of transportation. The wages of the helpers differ very
much according to the part to be traversed and also according to
the season. To get a notion of it, 2/6 per man and per day should
be reckoned, food included. For inhabitants of the district this
amount suffices, but it will increase if the men have to be brought
from elsewhere, as is the case for expeditions in New Guinea
(For more informations see the reports on them, a.o. in the Journal
of the Royal Dutch Geographical Society).

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NOTES ON TRAVEL IN SOUTH AND

EAST AFRICA

PERCY A. WAGNER

D. Eng. D. Sc. F. G. S. F. R. S. (ScL)

Geological Survey, Pretoria

AND

TUDOR G. TREVOR

A. R. S. M.
Inspector of Mines, Pretoria.

\ ^

CONTENTS.

1. Introduction

2. Transport

Page

29
31

a. Wagons and Heavy Carts drawn by oxen, donkeys or mules 31

b. Light Vehicles drawn by horses, mules or oxen .... 37

c. Riding and Pack Animals, including Camels 37

■ \

d. Native Bearers

e. Motor Transport

Water Transport

g. Air Travel

3. Selection and Preparation of Camp Sites

4. Camp Equipment

Tents and Tarpaulin . . . ,

Sleeping Outfit

Illumination

Cooking Utensils and Table-ware

5. Water and Food

The Tsamma (Melon)

Game

Bread-baking

Portable Meat-safes

6. Personal Equipment

7. Medicines and care of the Person

Thorn Scratches and Veld Sores

Ticks

,, Jigger Fleas"

Snake Bite

Malaria and Blackwater Fever

Alcohol

Tobacco

8. Arms, Ammunition, Field Glasses. Compass, Signals, Veld Fires,
Dogs

9. Maps

10. Intercourse with Natives

49
50
51
51

53
53
54
55

55
56

57
57
57
58
59
60
60

63
63

NOTES ON TRAVEL IN SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA

Percy A. Wagner and Tudor G. Trevor

1. USTTRODUCTION.

The amazing progress of geographical discovery and the rapid
extension of railways have completely altered the nature and scope
of exploratory work in the portion of Africa under review.

At one time the object of every explorer was to penetrate the

continent to as great a depth as possible or to cross it, making an
accurate map of his route and incidentally gathering whatever
information he could in regard to the native races, the economic
products and the geology, botany and zoology of the regions
traversed. In this way the veil that had so long enshrouded the
Dark Continent was gradually lifted, and by the end of the nineties
of the last century there remained very little of the surface ot
Southern and Eastern Africa that was completely unexplored. This
era — the heroic age of African exploration — was followed by
the era of the scientific traveller whose work, also mostly of the
nature of hurried traverses with some definite objective, was greatly
facilitated by the existence of railways and roads constructed in
the meantime, and generally following closely the original routes
of the early explorers. Today a net work of railways and transport
routes, still imperfect but rapidly extending, covers the sub-continent,
and along them the settlement of Europeans has taken place at
intervals and is proceeding steadily, so that the white communities
are now firmly established in districts to which, until a few years
ago, no explorer had succeeded in penetrating.

It is in the nature of things that the scientific exploration of
the more remote districts thus opened up should have lagged far
behind their settlement. Of many of the huge tracts of country
lying between the newer and even some of the older railways we

1 ) Witli the collaljoration of A. W. Rogers, A. L. Hall, Mr. and Mrs. H. E. Wood.

■ i

WAGNER and TREVOR

•I

are, indeed, as ignorant, as regards recorded scientific information,
as we were at the end of the era of the great explorers thirty
years ago.

Exploration in the future will be directed to the intimate study

of such areas and, except in very special circumstances, it will

seldom be necessary for the explorer to journey more than 300 to
400 miles from his base on the railway.

Transport none the less continues to be the most important factor
and will, therefore, be dealt with first in the following notes, in
which the writers have endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid
ground already fully covered in standard handbooks of travel.

I -

2. TRANSPORT.

Apart from railways, with which we are not here concerned,
there are seven methods of transportation now in vogue in the
part of Africa under review. They are enumerated in the table of
contents and will be separately treated. Each has its own appropriate
sphere and to reach his destination from the railhead, even when
travelling only a comparatively short distance, the explorer will
often have to have recourse to several of them.

a. WAGONS AND HEAVY CARTS DRAWN BY OXEN,

DONKEYS OR MULES.

The Ox-Wagon. The well-known heavy colonial wagon, drawn
by from six to twelve yoke of oxen, which has probably been the
most important single factor in the opening up of Southern Africa,
is still the favourite means of transit in those parts of the sub-
continent free from the dreaded tsetse-fly, though the spread of
East Coast Fever and other cattle diseases and the enforcement of
quarantine regulations have in recent years greatly reduced its
field of utility. Thus, in the Union and Southern Rhodesia the
main transport roads are liable to be closed at any moment by an
outbreak of fever somewhere or other in the country. Even so, the
ox-wagon finds very extensive employment in the territories named
and in Bechuanaland, South-West Africa, Angola, Portuguese East

Africa and the plateau regions of East Africa, as there can be no
question that, particularly when supplemented by a motor car or
saddle horses — or preferably both — it is infinitely the most
convenient and reliable means of transport ; the great advantage ot
oxen over other draught animals being that they feed themselves,

Plate IT.

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Fis;. 1. Full-tented ox-wa2:oii in the Southern Kalahari,

Fis;. 2. Travclliiii;- waijon with mules. Lvclenbur<; District. Transvaal.

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SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 31

are strong and tractable and can if necessary go three or four days
witliout water.

Wagons are of three types, namely : tented, half-tented and buck
(i. e. bare).

A tented or full-tented wagon is 18 feet long and for some 16 feet
of that distance is surmounted by a convex wooden frame and
canvas roof. The internal cross-measurement of the tent is from
5 feet 6 inches to 7 feet and it is from 5 feet to 6 feet above the
boards. A wagon of this description makes a magnificent caravan
and can be fitted with boxes, folding beds, chests of drawers and
any convenience that may be desired. As a travelling vehicle in
which to reside and carry one's personal belongings nothing better
could be desired, but it is unsuited for carrying other loads as it
is very awkward to pack and unpack.

A half-tented wagon has a hood about 6 feet 6 inches long
over the hind wheels, closed fore and aft by movable sails. The
tent usually carries the traveller's bed — a spring mattress or
so-called ^katel" placed crosswise — and his personal equipment.
The tent is perfectly weatherproof and, as nothing in it need be
moved, one can if desired sleep in it while the wagon is trekking.
For a single traveller the half-tented wagon is an admirable vehicle,
as the load goes on the untented portion and is easily accessible,
while his own bed and belongings remain undisturbed in the tent.
In hot malarious countries the latter should be lined with green
baize and its ends provided with movable mosquito curtains. For
long journeys through thorn scrub and bush, where an ordinary
wagon tent is liable to be torn to pieces, it may be advisable to
replace canvas by thin sheets of galvanised iron, painted white so
as to prevent excessive absorption of heat. A „tent" of this nature,
lined with green baize, is, if anything, cooler than canvas and
outlasts the wagon.

A „5wcA;" wagon is a plain untented colonial wagon unsuited to
any purpose except the conveyance of goods.

All three types of wagon are made in various sizes, the heaviest
being used for oxen, the medium for donkeys and the lightest for
mules. A strong 18-feet wagon will carry anything up to 12.000 lbs.
but in ordinary circumstances the maximum load is about 6.000 lbs.
For carrying heavy loads through sandy country wagons are some-
times fitted with broad-flanged iron or steel wheels, but this will
probably never be necessary with explorers' wagons.

The cost of wagons has increased enormously of recent years
Thus, whereas before tlie great war, a "buck" wagon could be

* ^

WAGNER and TREVOR

4
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bought for £> 70. and a half-tented wagon for £> 85. the present *
prices at Pretoria are as follows:

18 ft. "buck'* wagon £100. — £115.

half-tented wagon £130. —£ 150.

full-tented wagon £150. — £175.

Good second-hand wagons can be purchased for much less in all
the large towns and villages. If a second-hand wagon is bought it
should in the first place be thoroughly washed and fumigated, as
the tents are frequently infested with bugs and other vermin. It
is also generally necessary to have the tyres shortened before starting

on a long journey.

Specially designed commodious travelling wagons provided with
springs can sometimes be hired, but as a rule one has to have
them specially built, in which case they cost at least fifty per
cent more than the ordinary wagons. Wagons of this nature are
supplied to the geologists attached to the Geological Survey of the
Union of South Africa (PL II, fig. 2). They are generally broader
than ordinary wagons, which is a great disadvantage in travelling
through bush country.

There are also small spring wagonettes, suitable for ox, mule or
horse transport, but they are not of much use for long journeys as
their capacity is low and they are very liable to capsize. Such a
wagonette is shown in the background of Fig. 5.

Essential trek-gear and equipment for an ox-wagon.
This comprises :

A complete trek-chain with a number of spare yoke lenghts
and at least two dozen link and "D" shackles.

Yokes and spare yokes of South African manufacture.
"Yokeskeys" (the South African substitute for yokebows)
and a large supply of spare yokeskeys.

"Riems" and "strops" (raw hide thongs). At least twice the
number required should be carried.
Spare wagon pole.

Complete whip, spare whip-stick and lash.
Supply of anti-friction grease.
Strong screw-jack.

Spare "King-bolt'\

Large waterproof wagon sail or tarpaulin.

1) May, 1922.

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 33

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Crow-bar, cross-saw, side axe, augers (1 in., '/2 i°- ^^^ V
in.), spare bolts and nuts, 10 yards of stout iron wire, sail
maker's needle, thread and palm.

The complete cost of the articles enumerated, including tarpaulin,
should not exceed £> 40. at the outside. Where the wagon is hired
most of the trek gear is generally included.

The wagon is generally provided with a stout, hinged wooden
box known as the "voorkis", which serves as a driver's seat and
is a convenient place for keeping tools, riems, lash etc. It should
be provided with a good padlock and kept locked, the key being
entrusted to the driver or the conductor of the expedition if there is one.

Each wagon should also have its own water tank or barrel and
three-legged kafir cooking pot. The size of the water tank or barrel
carried will depend upon the nature of the country to be traversed.
For work in very dry areas a 200 gallon steel tank is sometimes
fixed on the fore part of the wagon. The alternative to a large tank
is a separate two-wheeled water cart drawn by four or six oxen.
This, however, adds greatly to the cost of equipment and the
wages bill.

Wagon Personnel: Two boys ^) are required to look after the
oxen; one of these, the driver, carries the whip; the other gene-
rally known as the "voorlooper", leads the front span of oxen
means of a strip of raw hide attached to their horns. The voorlooper
is also responsible for herding and watering the animals when they
are outspanned.

The driver is paid from £ 2.0.0. to £ 3.0.0. per month, plus
food, and the voorlooper from 15/ — to 20/ — per month.

The usual daily rations for driver and voorlooper and other native
servants are as follows:

2 lbs. mealie meal
\/2 lb. meat
2 ozs. sugar

/^ oz. salt

lb. tea or coffee per week

1
\

Where meat is plentiful and meal scarce the meal ration may
be partially replaced by meat, for which all South African natives
have an inordinate cravinsr.

It is the duty of the wagon boys to look after the camp and to
do the cooldngj also to make themselves generally useful in so far

Native males uTespective of their age are throughout Africa spoken of

as "boys'\

N. '

34 WAGNER and TREVOR

♦

as this does not interfere with their care of the animals. They are

always willing to do so, but as a rule are very rough and ready

in their methods. A good personal boy with a knowledge of cooking

and valeting is therefore invaluable, and in any case such an adjunct

to one's comfort as to be a necessity for essential work. Such boys

are not easily had ready made, but with a little patience are
easily trained.

Where several wagons and a large number of oxen are
employed a competent white conductor becomes an absolute essential,
and care should be taken that this conductor is selected either from
the inhabitants of the district to be traversed or is at least a man
accustomed to the conditions there prevailing. The ordinary Dutch
wagon conductor is an uneducated man, rough in appearance and
extraordinarily ignorant of everything not essential to his work,
but on the other hand, extremely "veld wise" and wonderfully
good at overcoming difficulties; having a natural gift for getting
on without what are usually considered essentials and at making
expedients. He is also an excellent pot hunter and will procure
game where no other European can find it.

Oxen. The number of oxen required will depend upon the weight
of the wagon and the nature of the country to be traversed. As a
rule sixteen suffice, but for sandy country such as the Kalahari
where in addition to the heavy going the animals have to do
without water for long periods, twenty or even twenty-four oxen
are required.

For long treks it is always advisable to take a few spare oxen.
To negotiate exceptionally heavy stretches, such as the belts of
steep sand dunes met with in the Namib and the Kalahari, or
swampy ground, it is sometimes necessary to inspan as many as
forty oxen. When travelling with two wagons this is easily arranged
by detaching the trek-chain from the pole of one of the wagons
and fixing it on to the end of the trek-chain of the other. When
one wagon has successfully negotiated the obstacle the double span
is sent back for the other.

The best way of getting a wagon, or for that matter any form
of wheeled vehicle, through a deep miry swamp is to „ corduroy" the
line of intended passage with logs, branches or reed faggots which
are picked up and used over and over again as the wagon advances.

Good trek-oxen over most of the Union and Southern Rhodesia
are now worth from £ 9.0.0. to £> 12.0.0. In South West Africa
and Bechuanaland the price ranges from £7.0.0. to £10.0.0. The
selection of the oxen is a matter of considerable difficulty and it

S,'

)

f ■

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 35

w' T

is as well to leave the purchase of the entire span to some reputable
firm, or better still to the Boer conductor of the expedition.

The great advantage of trekking with oxen is that, in ordinary
circumstances, they can be disposed of at the end of a trip for
practically what was given for them. The same applies to the
wagon and trek-gear.

Bate of Travel hy Ox-wagon. A good span of oxen will draw

a fully laden wagon over almost any kind of track at an average
speed of 2^1^ miles an hour.

The duration of the single trek is from 3 to 4 hours and two
treks are generally made per diem when trekking by day only;
the average rate of progression being about 15 miles. When
travelling day and night, as is often necessary in dry waterless
country, where most of the trekking should be done at night, much
more rapid progress is made. Thus, one of the writers in July, 1910,
traversed the dreaded 80-mile thirst between Gasamas and Nuragas
in the sand-veld of the North Eastern Kalahari (Grootfontein
District, South West Africa) with two wagons in three days and
two nights, without any of the oxen being the worse for the trip.
The actual trekking time was 32 hours, which works out at exactly
2^2 niiles per hour. The day treks averaged 3 hours and the night
treks 4 hours.

When starting on a long trip through waterless country it is
important to remember that oxen drink at midday. The trek should
accordingly be begun in the afternoon after giving the animals a
couple of hours to ruminate. By starting early in the morning, as
is often done, 18 hours are added to the period that the oxen
have to do without water. When, after traversing a thirst, water
is eventually approached care should be taken to outspan the oxen
long before it is reached, as the poor half-maddened animals have
been known to dash a wagon to pieces on scenting water after
being without it for three or four days.

Dofiheys. Donkeys are if anything even hardier than oxen but
are slower and not so satisfactory in sandy country. A good span
of twenty will easily pull a load of 5000 lbs. at an average speed
of from IY2 to 2 miles an hour. Apart from the fact that they
are harnessed to the trek chain instead of being yoked to it the
trek gear and general equipment of donkey transport is identical
with that for ox transport.

Donkeys are immune to horse sickness and also largely immune

^ ^

WAGNER and TREVOR

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to the bite of the tsetse fly, the Abjssynian breed being particu-
larly resistant in this respect. They were very extensively employed
in the campaign in East Africa and though most of them eventually
died they long outlived all other transport animals. They are
extremely hardy and can if well treated subsist on almost any
vegetation and go without water for two or three days, but they
take longer to feed than oxen and the slow pace at which they
travel is heartbreaking to Europeans new to this form of transport.

Lions have a predilection for donkey flesh and attack and carry
off donkeys in preference to almost any other animal. When trekking
through lion country special precautions have, therefore, to be taken.
The donkeys should never be allowed to stray far from the camp
and it is advisable at night to tether them to a stout rope stretched
between two trees and keep an acetylene or oil lamp burning near
them. A burning acetylene lamp suspended from a branch some
distance above the ground has proved to be a very effective means
of keeping off lions, having apparently an eerie effect on the king
of beasts.

The price of donkeys ranges from £ 5.0.0. to £> 7.10.0. a head
and harness for 20 donkeys costs new about £ 20.0.0.

Mules. Mule transport travels at from 4 to 6 miles an hour and
is practicable for ordinary mules anywhere South of the latitude
of Pretoria. North of this it is customary to immunise mules against
horse sickness by innoculation, the immunity given being practically
perfect.

Compared with oxen and donkeys mules are at a great disad-
vantage in that they require feeding over and above the natural
grazing obtainable in most parts of the country. This renders them
quite unsuitable for any work away from districts where forage is
readily procurable. They also require more regular watering than
oxen and donkeys and are not satisfactory in sandy country.

The price of immunised mules in the Northern part of the Union
and Southern Rhodesia is about £> 30.0.0. per head.

Ox-Carts. Second in dependability only to the ox-wagon is the
heavy ox-cart, drawn by from 4 to 6 yoke of oxen It corres-
ponds with the back part of a half-tented wagon and has the
great advantage over the wagon that it can turn in, its own length
and is not so heavy on the animals, particularly in deep sand-

Ox-carts are thus well adapted for travelling in rough trackless
country, where sand dunes have to be negotiated. They can be

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2, Camel used for Water Transport. Namib Desert,

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 37

strongly recommended for the exploration of those parts of the
Namib where water is obtainable at reasonable intervals.

b. LIGHT YEHICLE DRAWN BY ANIMALS.

For short journeys light two or four wheeled vehicles drawn by
liorses, mules or even oxen were formerly largely employed, but
the increasing popularity of motor cars is yearly limiting their use.

The Slider or Buckboard, Except in sandy country the spider
or buckboard is best suited for light horse or mule transport. It
is a four wheeled American vehicle, weighing altogether about
300 lbs, capable of seating two passengers and of carrying a great
quantity of luggage. By blocking the springs upwards of 1.000 lbs.
can be carried. It can get over any kind of ground and is almost
impossible to capsize, except by locking the wheels or turning too
sharply. A good type of buckboard is shown in the right hand
corner of PL III, fig. 1.

The price of a buckboard is about £> 75.

The Cajpe Cart. This is the common two-wheeled vehicle of
South Africa and is a sort of heavy dog cart. It is very clumsy,
heavy on the draught animals, inconvenient for luggage and apt
to capsize, being inferior in every respect to the spider, except in
cases where long stretches of heavy sand and steep dunes have to
be traversed. Here a light form of Cape cart with broad flanged
wheels has proved very satisfactory. Carts of this type , drawn
by from 6 to 10 mules, are very largely used on the diamond
fields in the coastal desert of South West Africa, where waterless
stretches of up to 40 miles with great belts of sand dunes have
to be crossed.

The present price of Cape carts ranges from £70. to £115.

C. RIDING AND PACK ANIMALS.

Horses and Mules. South of the latitude of Pretoria, 25° 45',
horses can be used with sufficient security for all general purposes,
except in the coastal strip running through Zululand, Swaziland
and Portuguese territory, though it is not customary to use them
for heavy transport. North of this latitude and in the coastal belt
the risks of death from horse sickness are so great that they cannot

WAGNER and TREVOR

be relied upon, though a „ salted" ^) horse can he taken almost
anywhere with reasonable security.

Immunised mules have in many districts proved very useful for
saddle purposes, being extensively employed in Southern Rodesia.
Good riding mules are, however, proverbially difficult to obtain and
at best are not nearly so tractable as horses.

The price af horses in the Union and Rhodesia varies from about
£ 20.0.0. for ordinary saddle horses to £> 65.0.0. for a salted horse
and that of mules from £> 20.0.0. to £> 45.0.0.

Riding donkeys are used to some extent in East Africa and are
quite satisfactory though, of course, slower than horses.

In purchasing saddles for South African work the pattern sold

as "Colonial" with the largest possible "D"s and web girths should
be selected. The Colonial pattern saddle bags, folded over the crupper
of the saddle, are much the best as they take no time to fix and
are very capacious. Saddles, reins and all forms of horness should
be frequently dressed with "Dubbin" or saddle soap as they are
otherwise liable rapidly to deteriorate.

Wallets are a nuisance and are not necessary unless it is required
to take the greatest amount possible on a saddle.

African horses are accustomed to a heavy curb bit and single
rein. Crupper straps, etc. and all fancy equipment should be avoided.
Though a crupper or martingale is nesessary in mountainous country
it can always be improvised out of a spare girth.

It is possible to get horses shod by the inhabitants anywhere
in the Union, but Outside the mountainous districts it is better to
buy a horse that is not accustomed to being shod and to do with-
out shoes as long as possible.

■■■;

Pack Horses and Mules, In mountainous regions free from horse
sickness and the tsetse fly, e.g. Basutoland, pack horses and mules
remain the favourite means of transport. Horses are preferable to
mules as they are less difficult to handle and have greater powers
of endurance, this applying particularly to the Basuto pony, which
is undoubtedly among the hardiest and most sure footed of all
breeds of horse.

For carrying packs, which should not exceed 200 lbs, in weight,

the cross-tree type of saddle is the best.

A salted horse is one that has been attacked by horse sickness and

recovered.

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 39

Pack Donkeys. As pack animals donkeys are excellent, carrying
loads of from 70 lbs. ; their hardy and thrifty nature rendering
them very suitable for this purpose in areas where the use of horses
and mules is impracticable.

Biding and Pack Oxen. Riding and pack oxen were at one time
largely used in the Kalahari and South West Africa and were as
efficient for these purposes as they are for drawing heavy vehicles.
They are, however, rarely seen nowadays as their training is a
rather long and tedious process.

Camels. For traversing the desert wastes of the Namib and water-
less bush or scrub country without roads or tracks, such as is met
with in the Kalahari and in North Eastern Rhodesia, the camel
has proved invaluable and will doubtless continue to be employed:
this applying particularly to the more inaccessible portions of the
Namib, the exploration of which will have to be carried out with camels.

It cannot be too strongly emphasised, however, that the camel
is a difficult and unpleasant animal to work with, and where there
is a possibility of oxen being used they are infinitely to be preferred.

For South African conditions camels from the Canary Islands
have been found to be the most suitable.

A good camel will easily carry from 300 pounds to 350 pounds
at an average speed of about 2^/2 nailes per hour, and will keep
this up for from 10 to 12 hours per diem.

Loads have to be carefully balanced and it is well therefore, on
starting on an expedition to have all provisions and equipment put
up in boxes or bales of from 150 lbs. to 160 lbs.

The packing of a camel requires considerable skill and, where
these are available, should at the outset at any rate be left to
practised attendants. The animals are made to kneel and the bal-
anced load is caught in a double sling of rope with two loops on
either side.

For carrying water there are special camel tanks, but in South

"West Africa it is customary to fix two 15 gallon steel drums on

to a simple saddle carrier as is shown in PL III, fig. 2.

Camels can go for ten days or even longer without water, but
if possible should have water once a week.

As regards food it has been found on long treks in the Namib
that 2 lbs. of oats per diem are quite sufficient to keep the animals
in condition, as they graze on brak bushes (salsola and aerva sp.),
which are almost e very wii ere met with. Where, however, no vege-

V ^

WAGNER and TREVOR

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tation of any description is present they should be given from 8 lbs.
to 10 lbs. of compressed forage or lucerne per diem in addition
to the oats.

In those parts of the Kalahari where the Tsamma melon grows,
camels need neither to be fed nor watered.

Particularly in the Namib camels have a tendency to develop
nasty skin sores and it is advisable to carry a strong antiseptic
dressing for these.

d, NATIVE BEARERS.

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In those parts of the sub-continent, over which the tsetse fly is
distributed, and in forest and swamp country the recognised and
probably surest means of transport is by native bearer ; this method
being very largely employed in East and South East Africa and Angola.

Loads average 60 lbs. for one man and about 90 lbs. for two
men (double load), so that all equipment has to be put in boxes
and bales not exceeding these amounts.

The average rate of travel is about 14 miles per diem, but at the
start a bearer should not be required to do more than about 10 miles.

Light steel boxes with locks or fibre cases are best for carrying
supplies, as they are impervious to the attack of white ants.

"With regard to the packing and sorting out of the loads according
to weight, natives should always be allowed to pack their own
loads as they please, being adepts in this.

The caravan generally consists of a headman, who is in charge
of the porters and caravan generally ; one or two tent boys ; a gun
boy ; a cook boy and cook's mate, who also do the washing ; a
post boy for carrying letters and dispatches ; and the requisite number
of professional porters.

Porters can be hired almost anywhere within the regions where
this mode of transport is in vogue. It often pays to get them through
the Native Commissioner of the particular district as this ensures
that they will not desert.

The number of porters required will depend upon the weight of
equipment and food to be carried, the distance that is to be tra-
velled and the nature of the country to be traversed.

A porter's ration is 2 lbs. of mealie meal per diem, and in areas
where no food can be purchased enough meal has to be carried to
enable the expedition to reach its objective. To take a simple illustra-
tion, assuming the distance to be covered to be 200 miles, then at
least 15 days rations would have to be carried, or in other words
30 lbs. per man; so that if the food and equipment of the party

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 41

weighs 900 lbs. a minimum of 30 bearers would be required to

carry it, with 3 or 4 additional bearers to carry food for the head

boy, gun boy etc. By making each bearer carry a 12 lb. bag at
meal, sufficient to last him for six days, in addition to his 60 lb.

load, the number could be reduced by 4, but it is not advisable
to overload bearers at the beginning of a long march.

Where meat can be purchased or game is abundant, the meal
ration can of course be partly replaced by meat. It should be re-
membered in this connection that Mohammedans will not eat meat
unless one of their religion has cut the throat of the animal before
it is dead.

Wages. In Rhodesia native bearers are paid from 15/- to 25/-
per month with their food. In East Africa, where the rupee is
standard currency, the usual monthly wages for head boys, porters
etc. are as follows:

Head Boys 25 to 40 Rs.

Porters 10 Rs.

Gun Bearers 25 to 30 Rs.

Tent Boys
Cook Boys

20 Rs.

25 to 30 Rs.

A couple of Askaris are sometimes taken to guard the camp.
They are paid 20 Rs. per month.

As regards equipment each porter receives before starting a new
blanket and jersey ; a cotton bag for his meal ration and a cord to
tie up his load.

Every six porters are allowed a light tent, and every three
porters a three legged cooking pot.

The head boy is allowed a small tent with fly, a blanket and
canteen.

The cook and gun bearers are provided with hunting knives,
boots and a cheap khaki suit; also with a tent and blankets.

The Askaris may be given a khaki suit and blanket; they bring
their own rifles.

The cost of equipping the natives of a caravan, consisting of a
headman, cook, cook's mate, two tent boys, two gun bearers and
thirty bearers is about 380 Rs., equivalent at the present rate of
exchange to about £41.0.0.

The Machilla. In the Portuguese colonies and Nyassaland travellers
are frequently carried in large shaded hammocks known as machillas.
A team of from 8 to 14 natives are employed and they will cover

WAGNER and TREVOR

up to 30 miles per diem. An able-bodied man naturally resents
being carried about in this manner, but the machilla is very useful
in case of sickness or accidents, or when there are ladies travelling.

> ^

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'i -

I 'r

e. MOTOR TRANSPORT

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Of recent years the motor car has completely revolutionised veld
travelling and is now used throughout the length and breadth of
the sub-continent. Indeed, except in certain mountainous and swampy
areas, in the sand desert of the Namib, the dune belts of the
Kalahari and the forests of Angola and East Africa, motor transport
may now be said to be practicable anywhere in Southern and Eastern
Africa. Its remarkable spread has been partly due to the great
improvements effected in motor cars of recent years, but in the
main to the astonishing achievements of motor transport in the
campaigns of South West and East Africa, when cars successfully
negotiated roads and tracks over which previously it would have
been considered madness to attempt to take them.

The main result of this increased use of motors and the establishment
of service stations all over the country has been an enormous reduction
in the time taken for making journeys of any length. Thus a trip
which formerly took weeks is now made comfortably in a couple
of days, the net result being a great saving in every way.

The dependability of modern cars notwithstanding, the danger of
breakdowns, is too great to rely on a single car for main transport,
and it is probable that in future the transport of all well equipped
expeditions will consist — where it is possible to use motor cars —
of a tented wagon, drawn by oxen or donkeys, and a motor car
for personal conveyance and for local journeys; or a motor lorry
and motor car; the wagon or lorry, as the case may be, serving
as a basis of operations and petrol depot. The great advantage of
the former arrangement is that if the car gets stuck the draught
animals are always available to pull it out.

"With regard to the class of car none has yet been found more
suitable than the Ford. The engine is absolutely reliable, the clearance
exceeds that of almost any other car, and repairs to body or wheels
can generally be done on the spot by one device or another. The
lightness of the car moreover renders it possible to work it out of
difficulties in a way that is impossible with heavier cars.

A recent memorable exploring trip by a Ford car is that of
Major Leipoldt, who motored all the way from Tsumeb, in South
West Africa, to Humpata in Angola, a distance of over 1 .000 miles,

h 1

• i

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA 43

mostly over trackless country, in an ordinary five-seater Ford,
carrying eleven cases of petrol at the start.

The present price in South Africa of a Ford car complete with
spare wheel, is about £> 235. The running costs, including depreciation,
work out for veld work at about 1/- per mile.

Even preferable to the ordinary Ford car for expeditions is a
Ford 1-ton lorry with box body, fitted with a hood and a worm
drive in place of a differential. These lorries will carry a load
of 2.500 lbs. at a speed of 15 miles per hour over reasonably
good roads, and average about 15 miles to the gallon; running costs
being about 1/6 d. per mile. The back wheels should be fitted with
oversize pneumatic cord tyres and the front wheels with ordinary
pneumatics.

Such a lorry, in addition to 1.000 lbs. of baggage and equipment,
would easily carry 20 cases of petrol, which at only 12 miles to
the gallon gives it a radius of operation of 960 miles, or say
1.000 miles.

The inside can be converted into a comfortable sleeping compartment
or living room, and by pulling a tarpaulin over the lorry, in the
manner to be presently described, a verandah-like awning can be
fixed up all round it.

The present cost of a lorry of this description, fitted with hood.

oversize tvres etc.. is £> 250

While the Ford car and lorry can be strongly recommended
from personal experience, it is only fair to state that most strong
American cars are suitable for veld work, Reos and Hupmobiles
in particular have achieved a great reputation in South Africa.
The former are largely employed in South West Africa and were
exclusively used by the Anglo-Portuguese boundary commission,
appointed some time ago to fix the Northern boundary of South
West Africa. Two six-cylinder Reo cars and a four-cylinder Reo
speed wagon formed the transport. The total distance travelled was
716 miles — very largely over trackless country — and this was
accomplished without a single mishap ; mechanical troubles accounting
for an aggregate delay of four hours during the whole journey.

European cars of ordinary make are, as a rule, useless for veld
travel, as the engine is not sufficiently powerful in proportion to
their great weight, with the result that they are incapable of forcing
their way over bad roads, sand etc. They, moreover, almost invariably
have a very low clearance.

As regards the speed of travel by motor car this will of course
depend upon the nature of the roads to be traversed, or upon the

' >

WAGNER and TREVOR

» *-

nature of the country where there are no roads. In trackless country '.
about 20 miles per diem is all that can be reckoned upon and
often it is much less. , - ■ v

With regard to spares for the motor car these depend largely on
the mechanical skill of the driver, but speaking generally as many
spares as he is capable of using should be carried on the wagon
or lorry, it being unnecessary to lumber up the car with them.

One or preferably two complete spare wheels, spare tubes, a so-
called "S-minute" vulcaniser, a spare axle, spare spring blades, a
few electric bulbs, a coil of strong iron wire, the usual spanners
etc. are essentials, however, that no motorist can afford to be without.

The two main obstacles the motor car has to contend with are
deep mud and sand. The former can to some extent be overcome
by means of chains fixed to the back wheels or by putting on
extra wheels behind. A very useful device for overcoming deep
sand is to carry two long strips of stout wire-netting which can
be rolled up. If the car gets stuck in the sand these are pinned
down in front of the hind wheels with ordinary iron tent pegs,
enabling the wheels to get a grip and push the car forward. In
long sandy stretches the process has of course to be repeated indefinitely.

Here it is recommended slightly to deflate the back tyres.

Another useful device for getting stalled cars out of difficult places
is the so-called "Poll-u-out" outfit, which consitst of a pulley, 40
feet of steel cable, a small winding drum with gears inside engaging
a small gear at the end of a ratchet crank, two seven-foot lengths
of chain with hooks on each end and three stakes specially designed
for secure anchorage which are driven into the ground. The whole
outfit only weighs 26 pounds and can be carried in the tool box.
In travelling cross-country one picks up an astonishing number of
large thorns, and as these are bound sooner or later to lead to
punctures the tyres should be carefully gone over at every long
halt and thorns picked out.

Motor Bicycles. Motor bicycles have also been greatly improved
of recent years and will get almost anywhere. Their great disadvantage,
even when fitted with side cars, is their limited carrying capacity,
which gives them a much smaller radius of operation than a Ford car.
For carrying messages and despatches they are, however, unrivalled.

Cycles. An ordinary strong push bicycle is a very valuable ad-
junct to a wagon or motor lorry, particularly in the Portuguese
Colonies (Angola and Portuguese East Africa) where the natives

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 45

are made to maintain excellent tracks, ideally suited to cycling,
from village to village.

WATER TRANSPORT.

Opportunities for long journeys by water are only afforded by
the great South Central African rivers, viz: the Zambesi and its
tributaries, the Okavango and the Kwito, though considerable stretches
of the lower Orange are also navigable.

On the Zambesi and the other South Central African rivers
named, the native dug-out is in general use and affords an easy
and comfortable means of travel, provided that the services of an'
expert native paddler are available, as the propulsion of these
awkward craft calls for considerable skill. The passenger sits in the
bow and the paddler in the stern facing him, the baggage being
piled up in the middle of the dug-out. The rate of progression
depends on the speed of the current and upon whether one is
travelling upstream or downstream. Downstream 25 to 30 miles
per diem is generally averaged; travelling upstream it may be as
little as 6 to 8 miles per diem. The paddler is paid about 1/- per
diem but is generally better pleased at the end of a trip to get
a blanket.

Excellent rafts -capable of carrying very heavy loads such as
wagons or motor cars can be made by linking together three or
four dugouts in the orthodox manner.

On the upper Zambesi large, heavily built, flatbottomed boats
of European design are in common use by travellers. They are
from 15 ft. to 20 ft. long and from 4 ft. to 6 ft. wide. The
boats are paddled by a dozen or more natives who stand fore and
aft, while the passenger sits in a deck chair under a shade of
native matting erected amidships. One boat can carry two men and
all their camp equipment. The distance covered in a day varies
very much according to the state of the river. Against the stream
when the river is full about 2 miles per hour or 16 miles per diem
can be done. Downstream three or four times this rate may be
relied upon.

It is customary to camp on shore at night, suitable landing and

camping places being generally known to the natives. A light

mosquito-proof cottage tent and the usual sleeping equipment should

be carried.

It is necessary to take a certain amount of food, but fowls

eggs and sweet potatoes can always be obtained from the native

46 WAGNER and TREVOR

villages along the river, either for cash or in exchange for goods.
Edible fish can be caught in the river so that fishing tackle can
be included in the outfit.

\ ^

g. AIR TRAVEL.

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The possibilities of the aeroplane for exploring and surveying
remote and inacessible regions are only beginning vaguely to be
realised. For making preliminary reconnaisances to obtain some idea
of the main features of an unknown tract of country, and of the
situation of the rivers, native villages, etc., within it, the aeroplane
offers obvious advantages over other methods. It is, however, in
actual mapping and surveying that it promises to find its widest
and most useful field of application.

Aerial photographic surveying has of recent years made enormous
progress and it may safely be predicted that, in so far as those
parts of Africa are concerned of which there are as yet no accurate
maps, this will prove by far the cheapest and most satisfactory
method of making detailed surveys of areas covered by primary
and secondary triangulation. A preliminary geodetic survey is
of course necessary so as to have points to tie up with ; the distance
between "control" points as they are termed depending upon the
accuracy required.

Surveys from the air will prove especially economical in the vast
flat bush and scrub covered tracts that make up most of the central
and northern Kalahari, Ovamboland and North-Western and North-
Eastern Rhodesia, where ordinury surveying by theodolite and plane
table is very costly and laborious owing to the impossibility of
getting long sights. Again for mapping an area such as the Ngami
Basin with its labyrinth of water ways, and great swamps, a survey
from the air is not only likely to prove by far the cheapest and pro-
bably the most accurate, but to involve the least risk to those
engaged in the work who in ordinary circumstances would be almost
certain to contract malaria or black-water fever.

Apart from ordinary mapping there is no reason whatsoever
why preliminary botanical geological and even zoological surveys
should not be made from the air. Altogether it looks as though
the aeroplane were destined to be the most important factor in the
-era of African exploration now dawning.

Suitable landing places and petrol depots will of course have to
be established but that this does not offer insuperable difficulties is
attested by the excellent work of the No. 3 Survey Party Royal

1 J

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA, 47

Air Force, in connection with Sir Pierre Yan Rijneveld's great
Cairo-to-Cape flight in 1920. In desert and semi-desert country almost
natural aerodromes are sometimes found ^) requiring very little
preparation beyond putting in large white circles which may be
seen from the air and flags and small white patches to mark the
boundaries. In bush country the trees and scrub have to be cut
down and burnt and stumps removed, ant hills destroyed and the
whole surface levelled and made as firm as possible, since soft

ground is very bad for landing and taking off". All large trees near
the boundaries are also cut down. Having done all this it is neces-
sary to instal permanently a small gang of natives for keeping down
vegetation which would otherwise soon obscure the landing circle.
As to the cost of aerial surveys there is as yet very little to go
upon. It is however very much less that that of ordinary surveys.
Under the conditions obtaining in Egypt, which are very similar
to those in the areas under consideration, it is estimated that the,

cost per square mile of map on a scale of 1 : 2500 would vary -)
from £5 to £ 15, whereas the cost of surveying the same ground
by theodolite and plane table varies from £ 10 to £> 1000 per
square mile.

3. SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF CAMP SITES.

In selecting a site for a camp regard must be had to several
important matters. In the first place the camp should always be
pitched on high ground having just enough slope to carry off water;
never near the bank of a river or standing water and never too
close to native villages or dense bush. Where there are shady trees
about it is a great advantage to camp under one, but sight must
not be lost of the fact that in the summer months trees often har-
l)our venomous snakes.

The camp must of course be favourably situated with regard to
water, fuel supply, and grazing when travelling with animals.

It is always well during the winter months to safeguard the
•camp from grass fires by burning a fire ring about 25 yards wide,

round it, taking care that this is done under proper supervision so

as not to set the surrounding veld on fire. When the rains begin
it is very necessary to have a properly graded drainage trench dug
all round the camp, and tents must moreover be ditched so as to
prevent water from running under them.

1) Geographical Journal, September, 1920.

2) Geographical Journal, June, 1920.

' ';- ,

WAGNER and TREVOR

When travelling with two wagons a very comfortable camp can
be made by placing the wagons parallel to each other, about eight
feet apart, and stretching a large tarpaulin over them; the tarpaulin
being secured by large tent pegs and if necessary supported at the
middle by means of a long pole. This provides a commodious living
room and keeps the ground round the wagons dry. In rainy weather
the cooking can be done under one corner of the tarpaulin.
With a single wagon, motor lorry or motor car an almost equally
good awning can be made by stretching a tarpaulin over the
wagon or lorry and attaching the ends on one side to three
or four poles supported by guy ropes, or to trees if there are any
about; the other end of the tarpaulin being tied on to the wheels
of the vehicle.

For permanent camps some travellers favour lofty grass huts
provided with mosquito-proof doors and windows. These are very
cool and easily and cheaply erected in districts where natives skilled
in this work are available. Native huts are, on the other hand, to
be avoided as they are generally infested with vermin, and deserted
huts often harbour snakes.

In malarious districts care should, be taken not to leave old tins
about near the camp as these are favourite breeding places for mos-

quitos.

4. CAMP EQUIPMENT.

TENTS.

The most convenient pattern of tent is the "Cottage Tent", with
fly and mosquito curtains not only for the ends, but on the walls
so that they can be lowered when these are raised. Such curtains
are not only necessary to keep out mosquitos but are an absolute
godsend in places where house-flies are abundant.

A very comfortable explorer's tent made by V. S. Simpson &
Company of Pretoria, to accommodate two persons, measures
9 ft. X 8 ft. with 3 ft. walls; the total height being 7 ft. 6 in. It is
provided with ordinary upright and jointed cross-poles and a large
fly projecting beyond the tent on all sides, so that it can be used
as a verandah. The ends and walls of the tent are lines with
specially heavy fireproof mosquito curtains and it is provided with
a thick canvas floor cloth. Such a tent comfortably takes two
stretchers and a small table. The cost depends upon the quality

■

of the canvas used. With the best rot-proof canvas it is £ 24.,

^ *

/
I

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 49

which includes a waterproof sack in which the tent travels when
folded up.

A smaller 6 ft. X 8 ft. cottage tent costs £ 21.

Ordinary hemp guy ropes require constant attention as they
stretch and contract with changes of the weather, and there are
probably few travellers who have not had the unpleasant experience
of getting up at night in pouring rain to slacken ropes or drive in
pegs that have been pulled up owing to the contraction of the ropes.

All this trouble may be obviated by replacing the hemp ropes
by woven ropes of flexible wire. This plan was adopted by Sir
William Morris when carrying out the geodetic survey of Transvaal
and Orange River Colony and was found to answer admirably.

To allow for the expansion and contraction of the canvas of the
tent the poles should be supported on pieces of wood or flat stones

which can be removed when the canvas contracts and replaced as
the tent dries.

Iron tent pegs are greatly to be preferred to wooden pegs and
a good supply of them should be laid in as they are also very
useful for pinning down tarpaulins. The pegs should be carried in
a special wooden box provided for the purpose.

Tents should never be packed up wet for travelling as this leads
to the rapid decay of the canvas.

TARPAULIN.

An absolutely essential article of equipment, no matter what form
of transport be employed, is a good large waterproof tarpaulin, which
can be used in a great variety of ways. The best tarpaulins are
sold in Pretoria at 5/- per square yard. They can be specially
waterproofed by means of a patent wax preparation.

CHAIRS AND TABLES.

Chairs and tables can be left to the taste of the traveller. Many
excellent patterns of camp tables are on the market and it is
difficult especially to recommend any particular type. If, however,
one is travelling with plenty of wagon accommodation and intends
to be long in camp a strong military pattern barrack table, iron
bound and with iron legs is a great convenience over and above
the ordinary light camp tables.

As regards chairs the ordinary folding canvas deck chair is hard
to beat for comfort and convenience. In addition some small canvas
stools should be provided.

WAGNER and TREVOR

.11

PORTABLE BATH AND WASHSTAND.

A combined folding canvas bath and wash stand, obtainable at a
price of about 35/-, is a great comfort and convenience as it can
also be used for washing clothes and for panning gravel or crushed
rock on prospecting expeditions. A large sponge should be carried
as it enables one to have a refreshing bath even when water is scarce.

SLEEPING OUTFIT.

A folding camp stretcher should be carried when possible. In
lieu of a stretcher a thick layer of cut grass makes an excellent
mattress.

Blankets, sleeping rugs, pillows etc. should always be contained
in a waterproof valise of military pattern, as this keeps the bedding
together and keeps it clean and dry.

The best pattern valise know to the writers is the tent valise^
made by V. S. Simpson & Company of Pretoria, as this opens up
when necessary into a small mosquito-proof patrol tent, which is
absolutely watertight in the heaviest rain, and at other times
shelters one from the wind, sand, sun and flies. Many of the
officers of the Union forces used these throughout the campaigns in
German South-West and East Africa, and found them absolutely
satisfactory under the most trying conditions. The two photographs
(PI. lY, figs. 5 — 6) sufiiciently explain the nature and manipulation of
the valise. The cost complete with mattress, pillow, mosquito netting
and waterproof canvas bag and straps is £ 7.

Even if supplied with a good valise the traveller is strongly
recommended to take a stout waterproof ground-sheet as these can

be put to many uses in rainy weather.

It is most essential that all bedding should be aired in the

hottest sun every day. Not only does this render it fresh and sweet

but in many parts of the country — especially in the damper

regions — bedding becomes fly-blown in the most unaccountable

way when this simple precaution is not taken.

One or two large waterproof gunny sacks are invaluable in wet
weather for carrying clothes and equipment.

Mosquito Nets. In addition to his mosquito-proof tent or tent
valise no traveller in the malarious districts of Africa can afford
to be without a small bell-shaped mosquito net. These pack into
a very small compass and can be suspended from the branch of a
tree or from a stake driven into the ground. Properly tucked under
one's blankets or valise they afford complete protection not only

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SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 51

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from mosquitos but from snakes and other things that creep and
crawl. Good stout mosquito netting should be used with not less
than 20 meshes to the linear inch.

' f

Utnhrellas. Where survey work has to be carried out in the tropics
during the hot period of the year a large surveyor's or garden
umbrella, lined wit green baize, is a great comfort.

Illumination. By far the most satisfactory illuminant for camp
purposes is acetylene. The ordinary mining pattern lamps are the
best as they are practically indestructible and fool-proof. A supply
of spare burners, gaskets and prickers should, however, be taken
as natives are apt to lose these when cleaning the lamps. The
ordinary small size mining hand lamp consumes about ^/^ lb. of
carbide in 8 hours. Special tins with air tight lids should be carried
to hold the carbide in use as it rapidly takes up moisture from
the air and is very oifensive.

Paraffin is awkward to carry, and lamps are far more likely to
break. If paraffin is used, however, the „Hitchcock" mechanical-
draught lamp can strongly be recommended for reading, table
illumination etc. ; and the ordinary ^Hurricane" lantern for camp use.

An electric torch should if possible be included in the outfit,
also several spare batteries; a torch being very useful in emergencies.

Fires for Cooking and Baking. Except in the Karroo and on the
High Veld there is as a rule no difficulty in getting sufficient
wood to kindle a fire. Even in the JS'amib one can generally find
dry bushes or shrubs (aerva sp. sarcocaulon hurmanni) which burn
readily. Where, however, no wood is available recourse has to be
had to cow dung or camel dung, both excellent fuels though
sometimes difficult to kindle. This difficulty may be overcome by
sprinkling a little petrol over the dung before applying a match
to it when it quickly blazes up.

In South Africa the custom is always to support the cooking
utensil either on stones or an iron trivet, or „drie voet" as it is
termed. These can be made by any blacksmith and are a great
convenience.

Cooking Utensils and Tableware. Many excellent compact canteens
are now sold, made either of aluminium or other material. These

are an immense

convenience as, each article having its own definite
the servants can observe when anything is missing and look

52 WAGNER and TREVOR

\ '

for it at once. Apart from this they are an actual economy, as the
articles bought separately, cost more than the entire complete
canteen. They are of all sizes suitable to parties of any number.

Over and above the canteens some extras are, however, necessary.
Thus, to drink tea or coffee out of a metal cup is very unsatis-
factory and it is worth while taking a number of the handless
glazed earthenware basins, called hommetjes^ out of which the trek
Boers usually drink. These are very cheap and carry without much
breakage. If there are facilities for carrying them porcelain cups
and glass tumblers should of course be taken.

An additional frying-pan and some saucepans are an advantage,
but the main cooking utensil and by far the most convenient one
is the three-legged pot which is obtainable in every shop in Africa.
There are two patterns- the round-bottomed one for ordinary cooking
and the flat-bottomed, flat-topped one, known as the „Boer-pot"
for roasting and baking.

Vacuum Flasks. Vacuum flasks are an absolute godsend to the
modern traveller as they keep food and drink either hot or cold
as may be desired and the comfort they give amply compensates
for the space they occupy. They should if possible be carried in an
upright position as the glass lining is apt to break at the neck if
they are carried on the side.

■*,

I h

5. WATER AND FOOD.

Water. It should be taken as an absolute axiom that all water
in Africa, with the exception of that of springs on mountains and
the slopes of the Great Escarpment, is polluted. Enteric is endemic
from one end of the country to the other, though the inhabitants
to a large extent are immune to the disease.

In the circumstances strangers cannot be too careful about seeing
that all water they consume is thouroughly boiled or sterilised
before it is placed in the receptacles for storage. For boiling water
a special utensil in the form af a large copper pot is sometimes
carried und used for that purpose only. Sterilisation, by means of
iodine is preferred by some to boiling. For this purpose Evans*
sterilising tablets should be carried. Full directions as to use are
supplied with them. Each member of the party should be provided
with a large felt-covered aluminium water flask.

Canvas water bags and water coolers are invaluable to the tra-
veller, providing cool water in the hottest weather. On the other
hand, however, they are probably the most dangerous articles of

SOUTH AND EAST AFBICA. 53

equipment unless properly looked after, as they collect filth and
germs and cases of enteric fever have frequently been traced to
them. They should, therefore, be frequently washed out with boiling
water or actually boiled. For camp use the sack type with an open
top is generally used, but when travelling the closed type, where
the only entry is the neck of a bottle sewn into the canvas or some
similar divide, is necessary.

THE TSAMMA MELON.

In parts of Southern and Central Kalahari the traveller has to
rely for drink on the Tsamma, a peculiar melon, while in so far
as oxen, donkeys and camels are concerned the Tsamma affords
both food and drink, and animals can subsist for months upon it.

There are two species of tsamma, namely, the ordinary {Citrullus
vulgaris) and the bitter {Citrullus colo cy yithus) . The latter, while
practically identical in appearance with the former, is intensely
bitter to the taste and cannot be used. The two varietes can only
be discriminated by tasting. The usual method of extracting water
from tsamma is to cut them in small pieces and boil them in a
suitable vessel, skimming off solids and scum. Another way is to
roast them in sand in a hole dug in the ground and then squeeze
out the juice. Tsamma water is not very pleasant to the taste, but
quenches the thirst better than ordinary water. Ir can be used for
all ordinary cooking purposes but makes abominable tea. When
boiled the tsamma is also food for man.

FOOD.

Game. Nowhere, speaking generally, can game be regarded as a
reliable and constant form of food; sometimes weeks and months
will be spent when nothing is seen. In the occupied territories the
game laws also interfere and there are closed seasons, so that
game must now be regarded as entirely an auxiliary to the food
supplies.

In the occupied territories foodstuffs can be bought from local
stores but these ure usually so inferior that is is always advisable
to order one's supplies from the nearest large town.

Though fowls, eggs, milk and mealie meal can often be obtained
from farms and native locations this can never be relied upon at
the present time, and it is absolutely necessary for any expedition,
even into the occupied districts of the country, to carry all the
ordinary necessities with them, unless they are prepared to put up

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54 ' W;4Gi\^E7? and TREVOR

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with lenten fare of the most inferior quality. In the native terri-

tones it is generally possible to obtain far riiore in the way of the

' ' .... ^ ,

foodstuffs from kraals and villasres than in the more civilised areas.

With regard to the selection of supplies^ every man should suit

his own tasteSj but it must be remembered that in camp life most
men get an inordinate craving for 'jams, preserved fruit and
sugar. The ration allowance of these should be very much in-
creased over the proportion in ordinary life. A large supply of
dried fruit and prunes should also be taken as vegetables are, as
a rule, only rarely obtainable. A very valuable substitute for ordi-

nary tinned butter which is never very satisfactory is furnished by
pea-nut butter which is now manufactured on a largo scale in South
Africa and can be purchased in all large towns. It Is put up in
tins and jars and lasts indefinitely. In addition to being agreeable
to the palate it is a very valuable food, rich in fats and vitamines.
Peanut butter can also be used for frying and cooking in place of
ordinary fat.

Certain articles such as sugar, salt, matches, soap etc., are con-
veniently used as articles of petty barter, and service can usually
be obtained for these from natives who refuse cash.

As regards the arrangement of food supplies a "messbox" should
be provided in which all the articles of food in use can be kept,
so that it is only necessary to draw on main supplies once a week or so.

A plentiful supply of small canvas bags and one or two large
biscuit tins should also be taken in which to carry foodstuffs on
minor expeditions.

Small covers made of mosquito netting with heavy heads sewn
along the edges are invaluable for keeping flies out of milk and
food. They should be regularly washed.

Bread Baking. For bread baking the three-legged "Boer" pot,
previously referred to, can most strongly be recommended. The
baking process is very simple and may be briefly described as follows.

The dough, thoroughly kneeded with yeast, is put into the pot,
the inside of which has been smeared with dripping, and allowed
to rise. When it has risen a wood fire is lit, hard heavy wood
yielding good embers being the most suitable. When the fire has
burned low a large shovelful of the embers is taken out and the
remainder smoothed down. The pot is stood on the smoothed-down
embers and those in the shovel are spread out on its flat lid. After
a short interval the familiar smell of slightly burnt bread heralds
the completion of the operation, when the pot is lifted off the
embers and allowed to cool, the embers on the lid being swept off. ■

*^i

4 .*

+ ' J

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 55

As a substitute for wood cow-dung or camel-dung can be used

but they are of course not quite as satisfactory. »

Portable Meat Safes. Very serviceable meat safes can be made by
means of mosquito netting stretched over a light wooden framework.
They are invaluable during the rainy season of the year when
meat unprotected from flies goes bad in an astonishingly short space
of time, A small bell-shaped mosquito-net can, of course, also be
used for this purpose.

6. PERSONAL EQUIPMENT.

The thorns and grass seeds of Africa render tweeds and soft
clothing quite impossible. By far the most serviceable and cheapest
material is the ordinary khaki drill (not serge) of the British Army.
Whether leggings or puttees are worn depends on the taste of the
wearer; leggings are the most serviceable but are hot and puttees
are preferred by many.

Boots should be of the best possible quality but light. Heavy
nailed, top or field boots are invariably discarded after experience
has taught their disadvantages. Phillips' patent rubber soles and
soles cut from old motor car tyres can be thoroughly recommended
as they give a much better foothold on rocky ground than leather
soles and do not like these become slippery as a result of walking
through long grass. Boots should be brushed every evening and
frequently rubbed over with „ Dubbin" or saddle soap. This not
only preserves them but greatly adds to ones comfort by keeping
the leather soft and pliable. Travellers who have to spend long
periods in malarious districts will find light mosquito boots, to slip
on of an evening, a great comfort. A last and a small shoemakers
outfit should be included in the equipment of all large expeditions.

Slouch or double-terai hats are by far the most convenient wear
but to many people a pith helmet gives such extra comfort as to
compensate for its inconvenience.

Veils and goggles are unnecessary except in desert regions where
they are a great comfort against glare, flies and sand. Goggles
made of chlorophyl glass can be recommended.

Underclothing is a necessity even in the hottest parts as it not
only prevents chill but is a protection against the rays of the sun.
A spine pad of thick red flannel, about 5 inches wide, sewn down
the inside of the back of the shirt is a very great comfort in the
tropical regions and is strongly recommended.

In areas where ticks are very bad it is advisable to wear long
underpants completely closed in front.

WAGNER and TREVOR

Tlie dust and grime of the veld soon blunt an ordinary razor
beyond redemption by stropping. Safety razors and a strong supply
of blades are, therefore, recommended.

A pair of hair-clippers, or safety hair-cutter, should also be
carried as it is advisable to keep the hair fairly closely cropped.

To those who burn or chafe much, a supply of talc powder and
lypsyl will be found to justify their inclusion in the outfit; while
a bottle of eau de cologne^ in which a few drops of oil of „winter-
green" have been mixed, makes an extraordinary soothing lotion
for chapping produced by desert winds. Another small bottle of
eau de cologne with a larger proportion of oil of citronella is also
very useful, as an application prevents flies, mosquitos and other
insects settling on one for at least half an hour afterwards ; often
enabling the traveller to eat a meal in peace, which would other-
wise be impossible.

One or more tooth brushes and a plentiful supply of tooth powder
are of course essential.

As regards soap carbolic or coal tar are to be preferred by reason
of their antiseptic properties.

t I-

7. MEDICINES AND CARE OF THE PERSON.

A knowledge of first aid and bandaging are absolutely essential
to anyone about to undertake an expedition in the wilds of Africa.
Those who do not possess such knowledge are strongly recom-
mended to take a short course in these subjects before starting out.

The subject of medicines is fully dealt with in standard books
of travel and will therefore only briefly be touched upon. The
traveller is advised above all things to carry an extravagant supply
of Epsom salts, as these are not only useful for men and animals,
but are often sought for in barter by natives.

In addition to Epsom salts the medicine chest should contain the

following :

Hypodermic syringe ; surgical scissors and knife ; Hemostatic
forceps and tooth forceps; straight and curved surgical needles
and silk ; sheet wadding ; cyanide gauze ; boracic lint ; bandages ;
oiled silk: fountain syringe ; quinine; aspirin; calomel; morphine
sulphate tabloids; opium pills; chlorodyne; Dover's powders;
vegetable laxative pills; cascara pills; castor oil; corrosive
sublimate tabloids ; tincture of iodine ; potassium permanganate ;
boric acid; zinc ointment; sulphur ointment, oil of cloves and
anti-venom toxin.

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 57

A safety razor blade disinfected by boiling makes an excellent
substitute for a surgical knife.

Thorn Scratches and Veld Sores, Apart from the more serious
complaints that a traveller anywhere in Africa suffers from are
thorn scr'Btches and tick bites, which are apt to develop into very
distressing veld-sores. The cause of these sores is said to be an
attenuated virus of septicaemia and they can only be prevented by
the immediate attention to every scratch or tick bite. The best from
of treatment is the immediatie application of tincture of iodine and
a bandage. Where a thorn has to be extracted the needle or im-
plement used should first be sterilised by passing it through the
flame of a match. Where a sore has once formed or the slightest
fester begun either on man or animal it is useless putting on any
iodine, ointment or dressing until the sore has first been thoroughly
cleaned of all pus and dead skin. In the case of sores in the hand
or foot this is best accomplished by sitting down and thoroughly
soaking the limb in a basin of hot water in which a little mild
antiseptic has been dissolved. When the wound is once thoroughly
cleansed iodoform or any of the ordinary dresings, or a hot water
compress will be found quite effective.

With regard to antiseptics for dressing wounds either on men or
animals most people are iDclined to use these much too strong, so
that the antiseptic destroys the healing tissues. This is especially
the case with corrosive sublimate tabloids which should never be
used stronger than directed on the bottle. It may be noted that
the ordinary anti-friction grease of commerce is an excellent dressing
for a wound in lieu of a better.

Ticks. Practically the whole of Africa is infested with ticks and
the traveller often finds himself covered with the nymphs. These
are slightly larger than the English harvest bug and equally irri-
tating, often producing a high temperature. They are so small and
occur in such numbers that it is often quite impossible to pick them
off, but a rub of grease or paraffin soon gets rid of them. The
larger ticks are very apt to cause festering sores when pulled off
after once having buried their heads in the flesh. They are best
got rid of by dropping hot candle grease on them or smothering
them in grease or some greasy salve, when they drop off by themselves.

Jigger Fleas. In East Africa "jigger fleas" (Dermatophilus (sar-
copsylla) penetrans), which bury themselves under the toe nails,

WAGNER and BREVOR

are a peculiar curse. The natives are extraordinary skilful in ex-
tracting them and every traveller in this region should allow his

native servant to go over his feet regularly every day in search
of them. ;

-A.

+ 1

- ■ * ^ I

Snake Bite. For snake bite potassium permanganate, a supply of-
anti-toxin serum and a hypodermic syringe whould be carried.
Potassium permanganate if quickly applied — within five minutes
is an absolutely certain antidote and a small supply should be car-
ried by every member of the party. The most convenient way of
carrying it is in a Lauder Brunton outfit, consisting of a small
cylindrical case with a lancet at one end and a container for per-
manganate of potash crystals at the other. Three or four deep in-
cisions are made over the site of the bite in the direction of the
muscles and crystals of permanganate vigourously rubbed in, or better
still a solution of the permanganate is injected with a hypodermic
syringe. A ligature is then applied between the wound and the
heart and as much blood as possible squeezed or sucked out of the
incisions. If the patient shows signs of collapse he should be given
a strong dose of whisky or brandy or an injection of strychnine.
In the case of complete collapse strychnine should be injected and
artificial respiration resorted to. Where the patient shows no distressing
symptoms the ligature may be removed after half an hour. In any
case it should not be allowed to remain on too long without being
loosened.

The anti-toxin serum has the great advantage over permanganate
of potash that it can be applied up to the time that the advanced
symptoms of poisoning set in and even after this, though it is of
course advantageous to apply it as soon as possible. It is injected
hypodermically in doses of 10 c. c, being put up in small bottles
of 25 c. c. Several of these ought to be included in the medical
outfit. Two doses should be injected preferably in different parts
of the body. In the event of collapse the expedients previously
referred to should be adopted.

It is advisable even when the patient has apparently recovered
as the result of permanganate treatment to give him at least one
injection of the serum. The latter is best kept at the base camp
in a cool spot as it is apt to deteriorate.

Where neither permanganate nor serum are available a ligature
should be applied, the site of the bite scarified, sucked or cut and
the services of a native doctor sought. Numerous instances of

complete cures by native doctors are on record and many old

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SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 59

travellers and prospectors pin their faith on them in so far as
snake bite is concerned.

Malaria aud Blackwater Fever. Malaria and Blackwater fever
have been the main deterrents to the exploration of the interior of
Africa, and, notwithstanding the great advances made in tropical
hygiene, yearly claim many victims.

On the subject of malaria it is best to be guided by the advice
given in standard medical works; the great point in this treatment
being to administer quinine at the correct time, viz: just before
the parasites break out of the red corpuscles of the blood. This is
best determined by means of a temperature chart.

The prophylactic use of quinine — either bi-sulphate or bi-
hydrochloride — cannot be too strongly recommended though it is
a great mistake to take it too much. In the East African campaign
excellent results were obtained by making the soldiers take a
5-grain (uncoated) tabloid on each of two consecutive days at
intervals of three days, the process being repeated regularly.

Quinine is best taken with a little water just before meals.
"With regard to the more virulent disease known as Blackwater-
fever there is a theory that this is largely brought about in
malarious patients by malnutrition owing to lack of vitamines in
their food. One of the writers has been much impressed with this
theory, for in a long experience of prospecting camps and pioneering
in malarious districts he has always noticed that those men who
live on tinned stuffs and alcohol, are far more prone to contract
this disease than those who take pains to obtain vegetables, milk,
eggs, butter and foods known to be rich in the vitamines.
He would strongly impress on every man going into the wilderness
that his chances of health depend more largely on the selection of
a reasonable diet, than on anything else.

As regards the treatment of Blackwater-fever the authors are
happily in possession of some hitherto unpublished notes by the
late Dr. P. A. Nightingale, an acknowledged authority on the
subject with many years of practical experience in Rhodesia and
the Far East. These may be summarised as follows:

1. The patient should be put to bed at once, warmly covered
up with blankets and not allowed to get up on any account
even for a single minute until the urine has been absolutely
clear and normal for at least a week.

2. Heat should be applied over the kidney areas. This can be

. '*

WAGNER and BREVQR

done by means of heated salt in a small bag, or hot sand or
hot mealie meal porridge.

3. The patient should be made to drink unlimited quantities of
fluids, especially boiled water, weak tea or light kaffir beef.'
As long as there is free urination there is little or no danger.'

4. No quinine or salts to be given but the patient should be
made to take a tablespoonful of Mixture No. 1 in water every
two hours, for the first twelve hours and then every four
hours until the urine is clear ; smaller doses being administered
if it produces loosening of the bowels. Small doses of calomel,

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say 74 grain, should be given two or three times on the first
day, or, in place of calomel, vegetable laxative pills may be used.

5. When the water returns to normal give one tablespoonful
thrice daily of Mixture No. 2, and begin to feed the patient
gradually on a soft diet of milk pudding or biscuits and toast
etc. soaked in weak tea. Soups and Bovril are also good, and
if the patient is depressed some whisky should be administered
twice a day. Avoid overfeeding and giving meat or anything
indigestible.

6. Unless hot water is available for a bath or sponging do not
wash at all either during an attack or for a week after. Cold
baths should not be taken for at least two months afterwards.
Over-exertion, chills and draughts should be carefully avoided
as they are liable to bring on a relapse which is always more
difficult to treat than the original attack.

7. As soon as the patient is convalescent he should be carried
out of the district and taken to a non-malarious area.

Quinine should not be taken for some weeks after Blackwater,
but if fever continues take not more than 2^/2 grains daily for
some days. If it produces no discolouration of the urine take
5 grains daily but no more. If the urine gets dark in colour again
stop quinine at once, treat as for original attack of Blackwater
and take no more quinine for two months.

Mixtures Nos. 1 and 2, referred to, are as follows:

No. 1.

Sodium bicarbonate 15 grains.

Solution perchloride of mercury . 1-dram (60 minims).
Chloroform water to 1 tablespoonful.

r 1

No. 2.

(Make 12 ounces).

Methyl arsenate of sodium ... 1 grain.

Water to 1 tablespoonful.

(Make 8 ounces).

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SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 61

A supply of eacli should be included in the medicine chests of
travellers in districts where blackwater fever is prevalent.

With regard to the subject of alcohol there is much difference
of opinion, but it appears to be firmly established that in unhealthy
districts heavy drinkers and teetotalers are generally the first to
fall victims to the climate. The writers do not attempt to account
for this, but merely place it on record in order to emphasise that
the sensible temperate man, has far less to fear from climatic
influences than extremists or faddists.

In the absence of vegetables many white men in the back woods
of South Africa take to drinking native beer or even mahaeuw
(fermented grain). It was formerly hard to account for this taste,
but recent investigations at the Lister Institute show that these
native beers and fermentation products from sprouted grain are
very rich in vitamines, in fact more so than the lime juice of
commerce, which evidently accounts for the development of this
taste in Europeans deprived of ordinary vitamine bearing food.

To those who are fond of tobacco that weed is an absolute
necessity when in the wilderness ; any harm it may do being amply
compensated for by the feeling of comfort which it produces. For
native employes also an ample supply of tobacco should be carried.

8. ARMS, AMMUNITION, FIELD GLASSES, COMPASS,

SIGNALS, GRASS FIRES, DOGS.

While it is very unlikely that the traveller will ever find it
necessary to use arms against natives anywhere in the country under
description, it is advisable in the more remote districts to carry a
rifle, preferably one of simple pattern, designed for regulation 303
ammunition (sporting bullets), as this can be obtained from one end
ef the country to the other.

For sporting purposes and as a protection against wild animals
and snakes a double-barrelled 12-bore shot gun (left barrel slightly
choked) and plenty of cartridges loaded with S. S. G. buckshot,
No. 3 and No. 6 are essential. Cartridges should be packed in air-
tight tins or wrapped in waterproof packages. Waterproof covers
or cases should be provided for the guns, and in wet weather these
should be carefully cleaned and oiled every evening.

Fancy guns and rifles, though they may be most excellent weapons
of extreme accuracy, are not advised as they are not "fool" proof,
cannot easily be repaired and the ammunition is probably unobtainable
locally.

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WAGNER and BREVOR

(

Unless actually attacked the traveller, if not a first-rate shot, is
strongly urged to leave dangerous animals, such as lions, leopards,
buffalos and rhinos severely alone. There have been numerous
fatalities through inexperienced persons being too venturesome in
this respect. For defensive purposes against large carnivora a shot
gun loaded with S. S. G. cartridges is a far more useful weapon in
the hands of most people than a rifle. Pistols shooting special car-
tridges loaded with No. 4 shot are carried by some travellers as a
protection against snakes.

With regard to knives, large hunting knives are only useful for
show and high quality knives of any description are not nearly as
useful as the cheap soft steel variety, being far more liable to chip
in the hard usages of the veld.

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Field Glasses^ Compass etc. Good field glasses are a sine qua non
especially in bush country.

Every member of the party should also be made to carry a pocket
compass to avoid the danger of being lost. Travellers should, however,
accustom themselves to take their bearings by the sun and stars.
There should also be a pre-arranged signal, such as two shots fired
in rapid succession, in the event of anyone being bushed. Another
effective signalling devise is a column of smoke.

An excellent plan for fixing a line of march in bush country is
to break down a small branch every ten or twenty paces in such
a manner as to leave it suspended. This is simpler and more effective
than blazing trees.

Grass Fires. In some areas grass fires are a constant source of
danger to the traveller during the dry season of the year. The
only thing to do if threatened by one is to set fire to the grass
in one's immediate neighbourhood, burning off a large patch or
better still a broad fire-ring, and then to ^Qt into the middle of
this. A bundle of dry grass makes an excellent torch and if there
is any wind, an area or ring big enough to give complete immunity
even to a large expedition can be burned off in a very short space of time.

Bogs. Dogs are a valuable adjunct to any expedition but have
to be carefully looked after, particularly during the summer months
when they are very liable to pick up ticks and develop Billiary
fever. A native should, therefore, be set aside to examine them
for ticks at least once a day.

If a dog develops Billiary fever — indicated by complete loss

SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 63

of appetite, lassitude and a temperature of from 103° to 105°
the only remedy is to inoculate at once with Tripan-hlue^ a supply
of which should be carried. The disease leaves the heart very weak
and careful nursing is required during convalescence. If an abscess
forms as a result of the inoculation this has to be lanced.

9. MAPS.

Though a considerable part of the territories dealt with is covered
by primary and secondary triangulation, they are on the whole
very poorly off in the matter of accurate large-scale maps and
particularly in the matter of topographical maps. It is generally
the case, however, that the material avaiable is not fully utilised.
The traveller is therefore recommended to get into touch with the
Surveyor Greneral of the particular province in which his work lies
in order to find out exactly what has been done in regard to the
area te be examined.

It this way it is often possible to obtain tracings or blue-prints
of unpublished maps which are of the greatest assistance.

Maps are best carried in water tight galvanised iron map cases
provided with a good padlock.

For information in regard to magnetic declination, etc., Professor
J. C. Beattie's "Report on the Magnetic Survey of South Africa",
published by the Royal Society, should be consulted.

10. INTERCOURSE WITH NATIVES.

The success or otherwise of an expedition will be found in no
small measure to depend upon the traveller's ability to get on
with his own natives and those with whom he may happen to come
into contact. It is not merely a question of tact but of studying
the workings of the native mind and allowing as far as possible
lor its idiosyncrasies. Only in this way can he hope to win their
confidence and whole-hearted service.

It should be remembered above all things that the native of

South and East Africa:

a, has a keen — almost an exaggerated — sense of justice; a

promise once made, however trivial it may appear, should,

therefore, always scrupulously be observed;

h. is an excellent judge of character and invariably respectful to

those who command respect among their white subordinates,

but inclined to take liberties with those who do not;

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TTAGiVE'i? and BREVOR

c. is, as a rule, a slave to superstition including a belief in
witchcraft ;

d. is extraordinarily susceptible to suggestion. In endeavouring to

obtain information anything of the nature of leading questions
should, therefore, be avoided, as a native vrill always give the
answer which he thinks is expected whether it is true or not.

It is also well to bear in mind that the native, speaking generally,
is by no means a savage, but is from his birth to his death subjected
to very precise laws and customs which he has to observe if he
wishes to be esteemed as a member of his tribe or clan. He should
accordingly be treated as a man on a lower plane of civilisation
but not as a wholly inferior being.

The writers in a long experience of natives throughout Southern
and Eastern Africa have found them on the whole to be very
honest and in their own way straightforward. Their veracity often
leaves much to be desired, but then their standards in this respect
are quite different from those of the European. Among most tribes,
as a matter of fact, it is considered impolite to tell the truth if it
should happen to be at all unpleasant to the person concerned. It
is also quite useless to try and get a native to give evidence of
an incriminating nature against one of his own clan.

The complex system of native relationship, due to polygamy and
the link of blood created by a common ancestry is a fruitful source
of confusion to Europeans and particularly to the newcomer. It is
a difficult subject and those desirous of studying it are recommended
to read the chapters thereon in „The Ila-Speaking Peoples of
Northern Rhodesia" by E. M. Smith and A. M. Dale (Macmillan &
Company Ltd., London, 1920) and in „The Story of an African
Tribe" by the Rev. H. A. Junod.

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Articles of Barter. For purposes of barter with natives it is very
important to take the right class of articles and not to take too
large a supply, as native tastes change as frequently and quite as
arbitrarily as Paris fashions. One year a certain bead, blanket or
handkerchief will be the rage and the women will give anything
to obtain it. The next year the fashion will have altered and they
will hardly accept it as a gift. The following articles are, however,
always in demand from one end of the country to the other, and
when it is impossible to obtain service or goods for cash they can
usually be obtained for one or the other of them:

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SOUTH AND EAST AFRICA. 65

Matches

Sugar

Salt

Soap

Epsom Salts

Simple medicines, especially eye lotion

Tobacco, preferably in plug form.

Common sweets.

Cheap scents (strong)

Needles

Thread

Iron and copper wire.

European shirts, boots and clothing generally are also becoming
more and more popular and will often be accepted in preference
io anything else.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. 1. Full-tented ox- wagon in the Southern Kalahari.

■7)

2. Travelling wagon in the 'Lydenburg District, Transvaal.

3. Cape Cart, Wagonette with oxen and „Buckboard" or Spider,

Belingwe District, Southern Rhodesia.

4. Camel used for water transport, Namib Desert.

5. Tent valise rolled up for travelling.

6. Tent valise erected; the front is closed with mosquito

netting.

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HINTS TO EXPLORERS AND PROSPECTORS
COVERING TRAVEL IN THE PHILIPPINES

Warren D. SMITH, Ph. D.

Head, Department of Geology, University of Oregon and Acting Chief, Division of Mines,

Bureau of Science, Manila.

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CONTENTS.

Pag

4. Introduction 69

2. The Country of the Philippines 70

3. The Climate of the Philippines 70

4. The People of the Philippines 71

5. Clothin": . 72

6. Food 73

7. Water 74

8. Fire

9. Shelter 75

10. Transportation 76

11. Protection 78

12. Hygiene 78

13. Miscellaneous items 81

Game 81

Reptiles, etc 81

Photography 82

HINTS TO EXPLORERS AND PROSPECTORS

COVERING TRAVEL IN THE PHILIPPINES

Warren D. Smith

1. INTRODUCTIOK

This article has been prepared for the ^Practical Hints to Scientific
Travellers'^ edited by Prof. Dr. H. A. Brouwer of Delft, Holland,
which is intended to furnish foreigners, and particularly white men,
with reliable information concerning the best and easiest ways ot
carrying on general exploration in foreign countries. This chapter
discusses conditions affecting travel in the Philippines.

The writer has spent ten years in geological and mining work
in this archipelago and the suggestions made herein are the results
of his own experience supplemented by many valuable suggestions
received from his many acquaintances among prospectors and mining
men throughout the islands. To Messrs Merrill Banks, Haughwout,
Mc Gregor, Lee and Schenck, his colleagues on the Staff of the
Bureau of Science ^), Manila, who have given him valuable sugges-
tions for this article he also wishes to make acknowledgment.

The need for information of this character is easily recognized
when it is recalled that one visitor to our shores, who posed as an
engineer, insisted on wearing rubber boots in his field work (he
had a serious time with infected feet). Another man, a high official
of a past administration insisted on black wool Prince Alberts for
outdoor functions of state at high noon! Some, either through pig-
headedness or ignorance, have undergone untold suffering from
diseases and others have been killed, all of which might have been

1) The reader is referred to the 18 volumes of the Phil. Journ. of Science
for scientific papers relating his particular field.

SMITH.

avoided had they only known. Again, others, who have been fore-
warned, have discounted the advice given them and have come to
a realization of their error after much loss of time and money.
Even at this late day few people realize the economic importance
of hygiene in this part of the tropical world.

In just a few words we shall summarize the most salient facts
about the country, climate and the people of the Philippines as a
setting for the suggestions to follow.

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2. THE COUNTRY OF THE PHILIPPIjSTES.

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The Philippine Archipelago lies some 800 K.M. off the east coast
of Asia, Manila the capital being 1.100 K.M. south east of Hongkong.
It comprises over 3.000 islands of which the largest, Luzon, has
an area of 122.346 Sq. Km.

The islands are made up largely of Tertiary formations with
some others of doubtful age. Yolcanics and coral limestone are
widely distributed, though there are considerable areas underlain
by sedimentaries such as sandstone, shales and conglomerates. Granitic
rocks and schists are also well developed in certain parts.

The highest mountain is Apo in Mindanao, 2929 m. The islands
in general are mountainous and well forested, the dominant trees
belonging largely to the Dipterocarp family though many hundreds
of sq. Km. are merely grass-covered. There are over 2500 species
of trees known in the archipelago.

Situated as it is on the very edge of the great Asiatic continental
horst and only 84.8 Km. west of the greatest known deep of all
the oceans, the Philippine terrain is not stable and earthquakes,
only rarely destructive, are fairly common.

3. THE CLIMATE OF THE PHILIPPINES.

For fuller treatment of this subject the reader is referred to the
work ') of Rev. Jose Coronas S. J.

Philippine climate is tropical and insular. The climate is threefold
in type.

The first type in the western part of the Archipelago, with two
pronounced seasons; dry in winter and spring and wet in summer
and fall.

4) The Climate and Weather
A.D. 1918. Manila (1920).

1918. Phil. Census

THE PHILIPPINES

' 2nd. type — In the eastern portion — no pronounced dry season
'with a pronounced rainy season in winter.

3rd. type — In the central part — no pronounced maximum
rain period and with a short dry season of from one to three months.

The first type is due to the southwest cyclonic winds. The second
is caused by the northeast trade winds and cyclonic winds. The
northeast trade wind is generally known as the northeast monsoon.

The third type prevails in the central portion of the archipelago
including the Yisayan Islands or where there is no pronounced
Cordillera.

The range of temperature in the lowlands is from 19° to 32° C.
The mean annual temperature is 25° C. In the highlands, like
those of the north central portion of Luzon, the temperature is
much like that of the temperate zone.

The mean annual precipitation in the archipelago is 159 mm.
and the greatest known rainfall for a 24-hour period was 879.8 mm.
^t Baguio, North Central Luzon on July 14, 1911.

One unpleasant feature of Philippine weather is the prevalence,
particularly, in the summer months of typhoons which, however,
are not as violent as the Gulf hurricanes of America. This class
of storms usually sweeps across Luzon and rarely across Mindanao
from SE to NW. Snow and ice more than a temporary film even
on the highest mountains are practically unknown. A thickness of
1 cm of ice is reported by Elmer D. Merrill, Director of the Bureau
of Science, from western part of the Mountain Province, Luzon.

4. THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES.

The population of the Philippines according to Beyer ^) was in
1916 about nine and a half million persons distributed as follows:

Christians 8.413.347

Mohammedans

315.980

Pagans 618.637

Miscellaneous

150.000

The Census of 1918 gives it as 10.350.730.

Christians 9.463.731

Non-Christians

886.999

There are some 43 ethnic groups recognized , of which the
Yisayans are the most numerous, the Tagalogs second and the

1) Beyer, H, Otley. The Population of the Philippines, Philippine Educa-
tion Co. (191G) Manila.

SMITH.

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Ilocanos third. The Tagalogs are the most important politically^
The Filipinos are predominantly of the Malay blend type with no
slight admixture of Aryan (Spanish) and Mongol (Chinese). The
three major ethnic groups are the Malay, the Indonesian, or Proto-.
Malay, and the Negrito.

These people are undoubtedly in the forefront of all the Malays •
and should be placed next to the Mongolians in the east in
intelligence and progress. In some .aspects of their political and
religious life they are the most advanced people in the Far East.
Physically they are somewhat inferior to the people of South China
whom they resemble to a certain degree.

With these few introductory remarks we shall proceed with the
practical part of this paper. Having just ended a few paragraphs
relating to the people it is fitting that we first give some advice
about travelling among the natives of the Archipelago.

The first and cardinal point to remember is that you are dealing
with a people quite unlike any people in Europe or America and
who must be treated otherwise than you are accustomed to deal
with your own kind. If you hurry them you will only lose time
and wear yourself out. Kindness will accomplish a great deal more
than threats and curses. If you are not looking for trouble you

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are not liable to find it, but if you go around with a „chip on
your shoulder" you are very likely to get repaid for your trouble.
It is not necessary in travelling among the people to load one's
self down with steel and lead. A good bolo is more useful than
a revolver and then only as one would use a forester's axe in
getting through undergrowth on mountainsides or along rivers.

5. CLOTHING.

For field work the costume described below is eminently service-
able : flannel shirt (olive drab) ; long trousers, loose (in the seat
and knees) ; canvas leggings or woolen puttees ; army type of „hike'^
shoes with or without hobnails, or the rope-soled high canvas alpa-
ragata know as „Panays", made and sold locally, medium wool
socks; and stiff felt hat with wide brim. The helmet or „topee"'
is not necessary and is often very impracticable. There is no danger
from sun stroke in the Philippines. Many persons prefer the pith
helmet as it keeps the head cooler than any other type of field
hat. The writer nevertheless has not found it very desirable.
There is not the same need for this type of hat as is the case of
such countries as India. The main objection to a helmet is its size
and shape, making an awkward head gear when going through.

THE PHILIPPINES

73-

undergrowth, and it is the best wind catcher in the world, and
looks unsightly when soiled.

The single-piece „B. V. D." or „union" underwear is the most
practical underwear. It is needless to say that all clothing should
be washed as often as practicable. Laundry work costs about
9 centavos (4Y2 c. U. S. Cy.) a piece in this country. At night an
abdominal woolen band should be worn to ward off intestinal catarrh
from chilling.

6. FOOD.

The principal articles of diet should be fresh, well cooked vege^
tables, fruits, rice, nuts and bread. Meat is not necessary at all
though often desirable to give a palatable change. The Philippines
have the reputation of having the most delicious fruit, the mangOy
in the world and the Pili nut, though not so well known, is not
excelled even by Brazil nuts. Of bananas there are more than
75 varieties and they can be eaten either raw or cooked. Filipinos
know how to cook rice to perfection and this cereal should form
the main article in the traveller's commissary. One word of special
caution here — by no means should one economize in his food.
Good, well cooked food in quantity is absolutely vital to good field
work in this region.

There are many little tricks in the preparation of food which it
is of value to know when living in out of the way places where
cooking utensils are not easy to carry or buy, one of these is the
cooking of rice in a bamboo joint. The Filipino stove, reduced to
the simplest terms, consists of three stones placed near enough to
each other to support a pot and the natives are adept at building
fires under difficult conditions, of which more in a later paragraph.
A coconut shell makes an excellent bowl and a good spoon.

Canned or tinned goods are generally everywhere easy to get in
the larger Provincial towns, but these should be used as reserve
only. Of canned goods available in the Philippines the writer
would recommend the following:

Soups

Crackers

Preserves, jams and jellies.

Bacon and tinned meats.

One should never take any of the crackers or cakes sent out
from America in paper cartons. Everything of this kind should be
in sealed tins. The traveller is cautioned not to delude himself

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SMITH.

4 I

witch such makeshifts as Bouillon cubes, as these merely stimulate
the appetite without affording much nourishment. It is .not a good
plan to stock up with many of the patent dried vegetables since
fresh vegetables are generally available in quantity. Is is also a
nuisance to have to soak dessicated food in water hours before
using. They are not much good when one is moving camp rapidly.
One should always carry a reasonable supply of unsweetened chocolate
in cake form as there is nothing in the way of food to equal this
delicacy which becomes a staple when it is impossible to cook a

meal, or when one feels fagged and needs quick, stimulating

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nourishment. It is particularly useful here in high mountain travel.
A certain amount of sweet potatoes, sweet potato leaves, tomatoes,
eggplant, bamboo sprouts, and other greens can be generally obtained
and should be used. Lettuce should never be eaten uncooked as
this is a commen source of amoebae which cause dysentery.

In travelling through forests one has an almost constant supply
of young rattan shoots which when roasted taste better than
asparagus. Native guides may be relied upon to dig up food of a
similar character which, while not always palatable, is generally
worth trying.

Fish are abundant in Philippine waters, and should be used
whenever it is possible to get them. Oysters, clams, prawns and
«quids are abundant, palatable and safe except when gotten from
waters in the vicinity of large city sewage plants.

Two articles which the writer wishes especially to recommend
are : tinned tomatoes which can be eaten without further cooking
and are the most refreshing thing for lunch on the trail and "Bear
Brand" Milk which of all the tinned brands of milk seems the
most satisfying as it is natural milk. As this brand is practically
unknown to newly arrived Americans, the writer makes special
mention of it here.

7. WATER.

Throughout the Philippines one can generally drink from springs
or from mountain streams with impunity except in western Mindanao
and in Sulu where this must never be done, owing to the general
pollution of all streams in Moroland. It is religious custom among
the Moros to defecate in running water and they will not do
otherwise. However even in those parts where this custom does
not prevail it is a wise thing to boil all drinking water or use tea.
Further it is well to boil all water in the lowlands because of
oarabao, etc., and to carry a small personal pint canteen.

THE PHILIPPINES

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There are several ways of quenching one's thirst in the Philip-
pines and one need never go thirsty even in the driest seasons.
In the first place if a coconut grove is nearby there is no finer
drink than the milk of a fresh green cononut.

Next to this, water sufficient for an emergency can be secured
from the rattan (bejuco) which trails and climbs everywhere in the
jungle. The climbing bamboo also sometimes contains water between
its joints and lastly the pitcher plants (Nepenthes) have in the
unopened leaves a somewhat tasteless sap, which will suffice in
extreme cases. Of course many dry beds of streams afford water
if one dig down a few feet.

Bottled, aerated waters are generally available in the provincial

towns.

8. FIRE.

The natives of the Philippines have several ways of making fire
without matches. The flint and steel is used by some of them (notably
the Negritos) but perhaps the most interesting method is that which
consists of splitting a section of very dry bamboo into halves. On
the convex surface of one of these a v-shaped notch is made with
a bolo, cutting thru the wood; this notched section of bamboo is
then placed flat on some stable surface convex side up, with a
little dry tinder scraped out of the inside of the bamboo into a
little pile just beneath the notch. With a sawing motion the
edge of the other section is rasped back and forth in this notch.
If the motion be rapid enough and the tinder very dry, fire will
Boon be forthcoming. The writer has made fire by this method, but
only with great exertion, while the native accomplished it with ease.

The Mangyans of Mindoro use a small bamboo tube with a
plunger in it, by which they produce the necessary heat on the
principle of the heating up of a bicycle pump. The writer has
never seen the natives use the method of rapidly revolving one
piece of wood in a hole in another, as is done in some countries.

Owing to the very generally wet condition of all firewood at
certain seasons of the year it is a wise precaution for the traveller
to provide himself with some kind of patent fire-lighter and a liberal
supply of solid alcohol which comes in small tins, but if bulky
supplies cannot be carried, be at least sure to have matches in a
waterproof container.

9. SHELTER.

The native home, made of bamboo, nipa palm and cogon or lalang
grass (Imberata) is, for permanent camp, the cheapest and most

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SMITH.

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comfortable kind of house for the tropics. Ordinarily when one is
merely passing thru a native town, he can always secure shelter
with a Filipino family who, in their unequalled hospitality, will
generally turn over the whole house to him, or at least offer him
a generous corner, which during his stay is sacred to his uses and
where his belongings will be safe, unmolested and ready at hand
when he needs them.

For rapid travelling in sparsely settled districts or where there
is any doubt as to the attitude of the inhabitants, an oiled silk
tent, with mosquito net, curtains and windows, is the best. A tent
of this material, made large enough to shelter four people, can be
carried by one man. In one's personal kit should always be a water-
proof cloth, to protect clothing, etc.

Along the principal government trails the Government maintains
rest houses about thirty Km. apart at which one is furnished with
bed blankets, and meals at an average charge of 1.50 (75 U.S. Cy.) each.

The mosquito net is an absolutely indispensable adjunct of every
traveller in the Philippine Islands. One should never, under any
circumstances or in any place, save at sea, lie down to sleep at
night without having his net spread over him. This is the one and
only way to avoid malaria and if followed means absolute freedom
from this disease. If one finds that he cannot pitch his big net he
should cover his head and shoulders, with a small head net and
then wrap himself up in a thin to medium woolen blanket. This
article, of the type used by the U.S. Army, is quite as useful as
the mosquito net and should always be carried. Nights are rare,
outside of big cities, when a blanket is not very comfortable and
during the rainy or the cool dry season it is absolutely necessary.
The bedding, consisting of net, blanket and perhaps a pillow, should
be carefully wrapped in a rubber cloth or poncho, to protect it
from moisture.

10. TRANSPORTATION.

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Every means of transportation from carabao or water buffalo to
air planes are available in the Philippines.

There are about 1400 Km. of railroads in the Archipelago distri-
buted as follows:

Luzon 1.035.377 Km.

Cebu, about 95 „

Panay 116 „

Mindoro, about 15 „ i narrow gauge

Negros „ 100 „ j plantation lines.

THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines have today one of the most complete and upto-
date systems of macadam highways in the world and, with the
exception of Java, are head, perhaps, of anything in the Far East.
There are over 7.000 licensed motor cars, trucks and motor cycles
in daily use in the islands. The roads of Baguio, the former summer
capital, are not surpassed by any in the writer's knowledge. Of
course when one gets into the heart of Mindanao or into parts of
the Cordillera of Luzon he soon gets away even from horse trails
and must depend upon horses, carabao and dugouts, and often
times his own ability to swim. In such regions as these one gets
around very much as he does in the rest of the Malay region,
made familiar long ago by such travellers as Wallace, but these
methods need not be redescribed here. A bit of advice which may
be useful in this connection is this: start early and stop early.
Make camp before five o'clock in the afternoon because night falls
suddenly in these low latitudes. Very often, especially in dry weather
and in the time of the moon it will be found advantageous to travel
at night. Over much of the country one is obliged to travel by
foot or horseback and these he usually employs native packers to
carry his equipment which should be put up in compact bundles
weighing from 15 to 25 kilos depending upon the people among
whom he is travelling. These cargadores^ as they are called, are
very sturdy and can travel long hours if well fed. The usual hire
is from 1 to 17.2 pesos each per day with food, which consists
generally of rice and fish. One chupa (about ^3 litre) of rice per
day per man ; 1 can of salmon for 5 men for 1 meal or 1 can of
sardines for 3 men is the usual ration. Two rules should be adhered
to in using cargadores: never try to force your men to go beyond
their district, exchange them for a new lot. Also never get too far
ahead of your baggage. The carabao (water-buffalo) is the best pack
animal for the rainy season.

Occasionally, as in parts of the Mountain Province of Luzon
women are used for packing, but it is better to avoid such use,
if possible.

From this naturally follows a word or two as to the best time
for field work. It was the experience of the Spaniards, which the
writer fully corroborates, that the best working time is from 7 A.M.
to 1 1 : 30 A.M. and from 3 to 6 : 00 P.M. Some prefer to begin
even earlier and work through till 1 : 00 and then lay off for the
day. Under no circumstances, save in an emergency, should one
work out of doors between 12 and 3 : 00 P.M. It can be done, of
course, but in time the ill effects will come upon one in the form

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of a general breakdown. Many of the writer's compatriots liave not
yet, after many years, learned this and they are paying the penalty
for it. When one becomes tired in the field as elsewhere he cannot
do good work. Five or six hours is long enough for a white man.
to work outside, in the tropics.

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11. PROTECTION.

Firearms except for hunting purposes, are generally unnecessary
in the Philippines at the present time. A colleague of the writer
was killed by natives some years ago, while he had two loaded
revolvers strapped on him. If they set out to kill one they can
very easily find ways to do it. Often the possession of a revolver
merely incites them to murder.

A white man should never travel alone in the Philippines. If he
has no white companion or assistant he should have a native with
him. Most of these native companions, „muchachos" or assistants
are very helpful and faithful and will save one much trouble,
especially in the matter of interpreting, finding guides, assisting in
case of accidents, etc.

h B

12. HYGIENE.

So much has been written about this subject that the writer
almost hesitates to add anything to it, but it is all so important
that even at the risk of repetition he will make a few comments.
First he wishes to insert a short memorandum from his colleague
Prof. Frank G. Haughwout, parasitologist of the Bureau of Science
of the Philippine Government, who has kindly summarized the
essential features concerning important Philippine diseases.

„The traveller on a scientific mission to the Philippines runs
relatively little risk of contracting the so-called tropical diseases
provided he exercises a few simple precautions. Those which he
must be on guard against are the various intestinal disorders and
malaria. Fortunately, it is rather easy to avoid these.

„ Before embarking for the tropics the traveller should be vaccinated
against smallpox, typhoid fever and the paratyphoid fevers. He may
take the vaccination against cholera on arriving in Manila. In the
latter case the procedure is similar to that in vaccination against
the typhoids. The reaction, if any occurs, is exceedingly mild and
the immunity conferred lasts for several months. No person should
embark on any expedition to the tropics before ascertaining his
ability to tolerate quinine in the doses administered in the treatment

THE PHILIPPINES

of malaria. Most persons tolerate quinine well, but occasionally one
is found who cannot take the drug even in small doses without
experiencing a serious reaction. It is important to know if such an
idiosyncrasy exists, for the inability to take quinine may lead to^
grave consequences should the traveller contract malaria in iho-
field. Advice should also be sought from an experienced physician
regarding the taking of prophylactic quinine in infected areas. The
essential role played by the mosquito net scarcely needs emphasis here.
„While it is comparatively easy to avoid contracting malaria,,
the avoidance of the dysenteries and other intestinal ailments is
not so easy for many more factors are involved. In some respects
dirty hands constitute the greatest menace to the traveller in the

tropics. All the intestinal diseases are contracted through the
ingestion of the germs causing them. All represent the taking in
of faecal matter, usually in minute quantities, excreted by other
persons suffering from the same infections. Avoidance of these
diseases consists in the avoidance of food and drink that may have
become so contaminated, and the hands of food handlers are a
prolific source of trouble. It should be remembered that even cooked
food may afterwards be contaminated by food handlers or flies and
become almost if not quite as grave a source of danger as uncooked food.

„Some one in the party should be delegated to see to the disposal
of the bowel discharges of the members of the party. A place
convenient to the camp should be so selected that it will not drain
into any stream or body of water, or within the immediate boun-
daries of the camp, and every member of the party should be
compelled to defecate into a pit at this point and immediately
cover the faeces with earth as a protection against flies. Before
the camp is abandoned, if circumstances admit, a hot fire should
be maintained in the pit for at least half an hour.

„It should be remembered that practically every native of a
tropical country harbors one or more intestinal parasites. Many of
these are not a source of immediate infection, but others are
dangerous as soon as they leave the intestinal tract. While much
of the natural water in unsettled districts probably is safe, it should
be recalled that in the Philippines typhoid fever is working into
the native population and may be water-borne as may some types
of bacillary dysentery. Therefore, as a general principle, all water
used for drinking or cleaning of eating utensils should be boiled.
Likewise, all green vegetables should be thoroughly cooked. Food
handlers should be compelled to keep their hands out of the food.
In the event of sickness, one member of the party should, if

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to look after the sick one, and he should

practicable, be delegated
not come in contact with the food of the remainder of the party.
Yenereal diseases are quite prevalent among the natives in the
towns and cities and even in some of the wildest regions^ The
means for avoiding them are perfectly, obvious*" r

► -

The writer has been singularly free from sickness during his ten
years in the Archipelago. He attributes this to his having followed .
a rational regime of living, consisting of the best food available,
plenty of exercise, sufficient sleep, including a siesta at noon and
a temperate use of alcohol and tobacco. He cannot add much to
what Prof. Haughwout has stated. He would like, however, to
■emphasize the need for exercise, which should always stop before
one becomes too tired, of good food, of alcohol only as any other
medicine and for its specific use as a stimulant, and of the rest

in the middle of the day.

With reference to alcohol the writer wishes to state that he

does not believe in prohibition as a principle, but he would urge

temperance in the matter of alcohol especially in the tropics. The
oft heard advice that one should take whisky in order to get along
out here is pure fallacy and there is neither theoretical nor practical
ground on which exponents of this idea can stand.

On the other hand the suppression of all appetites in this country
is often very harmful. Of acute nostalgia or exaggerated honie
sickness we should say a few words. This may cause some people

-countries, it is a very serious matter and the victim of it must be
brought out of it as soon as possible in order to avoid very regrettable
'Consequences. It seems to be caused by the lack of congenial company,
the inability to speak the language of the particular region in
which one finds himself and the reactions of the mind to the rather
•considerable physical readjustments which persons of the temperate
regions must go through. Most persons experience no unusual dis-
xjomforts while others are profoundly affected. Frequent change of
scene and diversion, cold bathing, etc. are the best medicines. .

The medicine kit whatever else it may contain should include
ihe following:

1. Tincture of iodine (iodine swabs).

2. Quinine in 5 gr. capsules (Q. bihydrochloride or sulphate).

3. Aspirin in 5 gr. tablets.

4. Soda mint tablets.

5. Calomel & salts.

6. Chlorodyne.

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smile, but here in the Philippines and doubtless in other tropical

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THE FHILIPFINES

7. Bismuth in tablets.

8. Medicated gauze and cotton.

9. Small surgical kit with scissors, scalpel, forceps, needles and silk.

10. Flask of brandy, or aromatic spirits of ammonia. The ammonia

is to volatile to keep its strength long.

11. 95 Alcohol (ethyl).

It hardly requires emphasis, the danger from infection in this
region, for this iodine is the best preventive.

13. MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

GAME.

The principal game in the Philippines consists of fish (sea and.
lake fish), wild carabao (water buffalo), tamarao, deer, wild hog,
.snipe, pigeons, wild chickens and white parrots. On the island of

Mindoro the wild water-buffalo of the kind known as Tamarao is
not only unique but exciting to hunt. He is somewhat similar to
the Seladang of the Malay Peninsula in his fierceness. This animal
is somewhat smaller than the carabao^ with horns which point
almost straight back. The tamarao is known nowhere else in the
World.

Contrary to expectation there are few fish in the mountain streams
as the torrential rainfall of this region make it impossible for them
to exist there. The deep sea fishing in the waters about the islands
is very fine sport and an abundance of sea food is at all times
available.

REPTILES, etc.

In many of the rivers of the Philippines there are crocodiles
which have to be guarded against in bathing or fording. They
have been known to attack men. While there are pythons, vipers,
cobras, etc. in the Philippines the writer can say from his own
experience in the jungle that they need be given little thought as
they are rarely seen. First aid to bites here as elsewhere, though
more immediate attention is required, a cobra's bite in some instances
may cause death in less than five minutes. In any event, the outcome
usually is fatal unless serum is given promptly. Leeches in some
portions of the Archipelago during the rainy season cause no little
inconvenience. The stings of certain salt-water jelly fish give rise
to painful, and occasionally serious symptoms.

:^7 ' s -»

SMITH,

^ '

PHOTOGRAPHY.

In the experience of the writer and his associates in the Bureau.

of Science the following rather definite conclusions and suggestions
may be made for this region:

1 . A 4x5 Graflex camera. ,

2. Use Seed's Non-halation plates. For contrast effects "Wratten
and Wainwright's panchromatic plates are recommended. Plates
will keep without becoming moldy about a week, except in
the dry season when they can be kept longer.

3. A portable developing outfit should be taken on long expeditons
into the interior. Water tight containers should be provided
for plates, films and chemicals.

4. Practically the same time of exposure is required for pictures
as in higher latitudes. If anything a somewhat longer exposure
necessary. This is contrary to the general belief, but it is
based upon both theoretical data and practical experience.
Freer and Gibbs have shown that tropical sunlight is not

materially different from any other sunlight.

5. Don't bring cameras using other than standard (for U.S.) size

plates or films unless you are supplied with sufficient of your
own because the local dealers carry only certain sizes and makes.

6. For the casual tourist a 3 A Special Eastman Kodak is good
enough for all ordinary purposes, and films must be carefully
protected against dampness.

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RETURN TO the circulation desk of any

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PRINTED BY E. J. BRILL LTD. LEIDEN (^HOLLAND)

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816300

Brouwer, H.A.

Practical hints to
scientific travellers

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