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A PRACTICAL TRAINING
IN ENGLISH

H. A. KELLOW M.A.

HEAD OF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT ALLAN GLEN'S SCHOOL GLASGOW

D. C. HEATH & CO. PUBLISHERS ^>
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
1912

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TURNBUI.I. AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH

PREFACE

THIS book is intended for those who have received the usual
elementary grounding in English and are ready to begin more
advanced work.

The lessons follow actual class-room practice as far as possible,
and therefore may be regarded as a kind of casual teaching, but on
a formal basis. By this method it is hoped to train the pupil into
a certain routine proficiency without destroying his initiative.

The Questions and Exercises which follow the poems are designed
to elucidate the text, to promote independent judgment on the part
of the pupil, to prepare his mind for the subsequent matter, and, in
some cases, to refresh his memory in regard to former lessons. The
word Composition which forms the second heading is used in a very
wide sense. It will be seen to embrace not only the usual exercises,
definitions, etc., but also logical analysis and even a little elementary
criticism, given by way of digression. The heading Prosody is self-
explanatory. It should be stated that in the earlier lessons the
metre has occasionally been regularised, but cautions against
a too mechanical scansion are also provided. An attempt has
been made to visualise certain stanza forms : but these dia-
grams are in nowise to be regarded as a substitute for the usual
memorising of a sample stanza. In certain cases the broader
metrical variations have been shown ; and, although there are
modulations of the voice which no symbols can represent, the
teacher may use these diagrams as a basis for lessons on the finer
gradations of stressing. The Study of Words and Expressions, it is
hoped, will provide sufficient practice in derivation and will give a
training in the minute observation of a particular passage. The
Roots have all been taken from Skeat's Etymological Dictionary.

Many more exercises might have been devised. It is thought

6 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

that sufficient have been given to fix the required ideas and at the
same time retain the interest of the pupil. Be this as it may, other
exercises can easily be improvised from the additional poems.
These have been printed generally as test pieces ; but occasionally
they serve also to break new ground.

Lessons on the growth of the English Language and Literature
have been placed at intervals throughout the book, and, where
possible, these have been correlated with each other and with the
illustrative extracts preceding and following them. For this reason
the archaic spelling has been retained in many poems. These latter
range from Chaucer to Swinburne.

The Time Charts show not only the chronological sequence of
the various authors but also the different departments of literature
to which they gave their chief strength. Some of the charts, too,
give at a glance the characteristics of any given period — whether it
was a time of dialects, and so on.

For these charts and for other valuable assistance the writer is
deeply indebted to Mr John Talman, M.A., one of the lecturers in
History at the University of Glasgow. When properly used such
charts are a splendid teaching instrument, and they are bound to
add to the value of the book.

To Mr Theodore Watts-Dunton, the friend and literary executor
of Swinburne, grateful acknowledgment is made for permission to
print the extract from Tristram of Lyonesse, and to Messrs Ellis for
a like courtesy in respect of Rossetti's poem The Sea Limits.

H. A. K.

CONTENTS

PAGE

1. ORIGIN OF ENGLISH . . . . . 9

2. A Wish . . . . . . . .15

3. A Green Cornfield . . . . . .21

4. Earl March ....... 25

5. The Pride of Youth ...... 30

6. NATIVE AND FOREIGN WORDS . . . -35

7. Winter ........ 40

8. A Summer's Morning ...... 44

9. Lament for Culloden ...... 50

10. To the Cuckoo ....... 54

11. Character of a Happy Life . . . . .58

12. THE CELTS AND THE SCANDIANS .... 63

13. Jock o' Hazeldean ...... 68

14. Sweet and Sour . ...... 73

15. Instinct ........ 77

16. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN: (l) THE ROMAN OCCUPATION 8l

17. Lord Ullirfs Daughter . . . . . .85

1 8. A Spring Morning . . . . . .91

19. The Ploughman ....... 94

20. The Scholar ....... 99

21. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN: (2) INTRODUCTION OF

CHRISTIANITY. EARLY LITERATURE . . .103

22. Sir Galahad . . . . . . .108

23. Sir Arthur O'Kellyn . . . . . .116

24. The Norman Baron . . . . . .121

25. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN : (3) THE NORMAN CONQUEST 127

26. The Quiet of Evening . . . . . .132

27. Solitude .... ... 136

28. The Nightingale and the Glow-worm . . . 139

29. Lucy Gray ....... 143

8 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

30. HOW jENGLISC BECAME ENGLISH : THE DIALECTS . . 149

31. Theseus and the Minotaur . . . . .155

32. Sir Patrick Spens . . . . . .162

33. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN : (4) THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 170

34. Magic Music . . . . . . .177

35. The Debate of the Fallen Angels . . - . . 181

36. The Swallow . . . . . . .186

37. THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LANGUAGES UPON ENGLISH

LITERATURE ....... 193

38. The Skylark ....... 200

39. THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LANGUAGES UPON THE

ENGLISH VOCABULARY ..... 205

40. The Destruction of Sennacherib .... 209

41. To a Skylark . . . . . . .215

42. Elegy written in a Country Church-yard . .223

43. THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION : ROMANTICISM 232

44. Descriptive Passages (from Coleridge) .... 238

45. From The Deserted Village ... . 240

46. Home Thoughts, from Abroad . . . . .241

47. From The Forsaken Merman . . . 242

48. Nature Painting (from Keats) . . . 243

49. The Sea-Limits ....... 245

50. On the Sea ... ... 246

51. The Swimmer ..... . 247

52. Shameful Death ....... 249

53. THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH TO OTHER LANDS . . 251

54. The Storm ....... 257

55. From Snow-Bound ...... 258

56. A Happy Life ..... . 259

57. Time and Love ..... . 260

58. Nature .... . . 261

59. The Chambered Nautilus ..... 262
LIST OF AUTHORS ; OF ROOTS ; OF PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 263
GENERAL INDEX ...... 269

A PRACTICAL TRAINING
IN ENGLISH

ORIGIN OF ENGLISH

ABOUT the middle of the fifth century certain Germanic tribes
left their homes on the low-lying shores of the North Sea,
crossed over into Britain, drove the natives of that island to the
mountainous districts, and set up kingdoms of their own in the
conquered territory. No doubt there were many fierce battles,
much ruthless slaughter, and perhaps even actual extermination,
before the natives — who were called Celts — yielded up their land
and the invasion thus became a settlement.. Except the names of
the victorious bands, practically nothing has been recorded of these
early wars. All the tribes were of the same descent, and, with
slight differences, spoke a common tongue ; but all did not land
at precisely the same time nor at the same place. Their names and
their order of arrival are :

THE JUTES, who probably came from Jutland about 449.

THE SAXONS, who came from the country between the Elbe and
the Eider about 477,

THE ANGLES, who came from Schleswig-Holstein about 530.

While dwelling on the continent each tribe had occupied its own
separate tract of land, and this arrangement was adhered to in
Britain. The Jutes, the first comers, settled down in Kent,
Hampshire, and the Isle of Wight. The Saxons colonised
Sussex, Wessex, and Essex. The Angles, the last comers and
most formidable in numbers, occupied a great stretch of the
eastern seaboard from Norfolk to the Forth. This territory was

io A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

called after its owners, Engleland, ^Englaland, or England. In
course of time the name England came to betoken all the land
ruled by all three tribes. Likewise the language spoken by all three
tribes came to be known as ^Englisc, that is, the speech of the
Angles. From ^Englisc the modern word " English " is derived.

But the language spoken so many centuries ago differed widely
from that now current. For example, to present-day users of English
the sense of the following collection of words is not easily apparent :

Thissa tida sibbe Qnd smyltnesse nfl monige on Northhymbra theode ge sethele
ge unsethele hi sylfe Qnd heora beam gyrnath to mynstre Qnd to Codes theowdome
swithor to syllanne, thonne hi synd to begangenne woruldlicne camphad.

Yet these are all dLnglisc words, their meaning in modern English
being thus expressed :

At this time of peace and quiet many people of the Northumbrians, both
nobility and commonality, prepare to give themselves and their children to the
monastery and to God's service rather than to follow after worldly warfare.

In the course of time, so great has been the change that it is hard
to believe that these two passages are written in the same language.
But such is indeed the case; and the fact that the language now
has an altered appearance can be largely explained from history.
Although the first passage has been purposely selected to show
dissimilarity, yet even in their ^Englisc form some words in it may
be readily recognised; e.g. thissa = this, monige = many, ond = and,
to Godes = to God's, thonne = than. Moreover, in some sentences
it is possible to recognise almost every ^Englisc word as a modern
word; and thus the change may not be so great after all. For
example, take the following passage from an old gospel :

Se deofol cwseth to Criste : " Gif thu sie Codes sunu, cweth to thissum
stanum thset hie beon a-wgnde to hlafum."

The next table, which is not nearly exhaustive, consists of words
which have remained almost unaltered since their first recorded use ;
and therefore it demonstrates that so far as the ordinary vocabulary
of the language is concerned vEnglisc and English are identical.

ORIGIN OF ENGLISH

Table showing Identity

EARLIER

EARLIEST

PARTS OF SPEECH.

PRESENT FORM.

FORM,

ABOUT

FORM,

BEFORE

1400.

900.

Classes of Words.

Noons (a) Minerals

stone

Stan

(b) Food

bread

breed

bread

horse

hors

(d) Parts of the body

heart

herte

heort

(e) Kindred

father

fader

faeder

(/) Emotions

sorrow

sorwe

sorg

(g) Servant and house

steward

stiward

stiweard

(h) Times and seasons

winter

(z) Natural occurrences

rain

reyn

regn

(/) General ideas

heap
steam
death

Adjectives (a) Common qualities \

grim
earnest

grim
ernest

grimm
eornest

(b) Colour (primary)

black

blak

blaec

deaf
young

deef
yong

deaf
yeong

fallen

feallen

think

thyncan

Verbs Most common actions -

seek

seke

secan

stand

stand an

bid

bidden

biddan

Adverbs (a) Direction

north

north (norj>)

(b) Time

ever

aefre

fast

faeste

(d) Place

hither

hider

Conjunctions

for

and

but

buton

Prepositions

betwixt

betwixe

betweox

act

Pronouns

that

thaet

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

But it must not be thought that all the words now in use formed
part of the original ^Englisc language. Thousands of new words
have been added since the Jutes and Saxons and Angles made their
settlements in Britain ; some ^Englisc words have been altered
almost beyond recognition, and many have dropped out of use
altogether. The next table shows how greatly some words have
changed their form.

Table showing Difference

PARTS OF
SPEECH.

PRESENT FORM.

EARLIER FORM,
ABOUT 1400.

EARLIEST FORM,
BEFORE QOO.

Nouns

lord
burial
groundsel
shelter
daisy
lapwing
wright
youth
(no longer found)
lych
(no longer found)
turbine
aerodrome

lord (hlaford)
buriel
groundswell
sheldtrume
dayesye
lappewinke
wrighte
yuweth
(died out earlier)
lich
(died out earlier)
(not then invented)
(not then invented)

hlaf-weard
byrgels
gundeswilge
scyldtruma
daegeseage
hleapwince
wyrhta
geogoth
here (an army)
lie (a corpse)
hloth (robber band)
(not then invented)
(not then invented)

Adjectives

each
either
righteous

elch
either
rightwis

aeghwylc
ahwaether
rihtwis

Verbs

harry

harwen

hergian

Adverbs

ajar
hence

achar
hens

on cierre
heonan

Conjunctions

though
since
as

thogh
sithence
also

theah
sitthans
ealswa

Prepositions

athwart

on thwert

on thweorh

Pronouns

myself
they

mi-self
thai

min-seolf
hi

ORIGIN OF ENGLISH 13

How to recognise .SJnglisc words in Modern English

All words of ^Englisc origin now in English are called Native
words, and those which have come into the language from any other
source are called Foreign words. In an English dictionary the
foreign words now largely outnumber the native words, but many of
the foreign words are rarely used, and many are never used by the
common people at all. The question then arises, How are the
.^Englisc words to be recognised ? It has been found that for the
purpose of recognition all the native words can be grouped into
two great divisions. These are (i) A group recognised by grammatical
form, (ii) A group recognised according to meaning.

The first group includes all the words belonging to the following
parts of speech : — Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions ; likewise
all the auxiliary, defective, and strong Verbs, all the Adverbs of
time and place, Adjectives of number and those of irregular com-
parison, and Nouns forming the plural by vowel change.

The exceptions in this group are very few : —

Prepositions and Conjunctions . during, save, except, because.

Adjectives of Number . . second, million, dozen.

Adverbs of Time and Place . presently, immediately.

Strong Verbs .... strive.

Definite rules cannot be given for determining the second group.
It has been estimated that more than three-quarters of the words in
ordinary daily use are of ^Englisc origin. Therefore the names of
the most common and familiar things must be Native; and it has
been found that many of these names can be arranged into classes,
each containing words of kindred idea. For example, in the class
called Natural Occurrences the words sun, rain, frost, darkness,
heat, storm, hill, stream, sea, tide, etc., may be grouped. Words that
can be arranged under the distinctive group-names mentioned in the
first table are, as a rule, of native origin. But too much reliance
must not be placed on this fact, for a few foreign words may be

14 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

included in each category. Thus, Times and Seasons : days of the
week, native ; months of the year, foreign.

Other important exceptions are : —

Minerals . . . copper, marble, granite, gypsum, and the usua
scientific names.

Food . . .to boil, salmon, currant, beef, mutton, veal.

Common Animals, etc. rabbit, spaniel, grouse, drake, cygnet, and the names
of foreign animals.

Kindred . . . uncle, aunt, nephew, niece.

Servant and House . ceiling, lintel, storey, tile, nurse, butler.

Times and Seasons . hour, minute, second, Autumn, January, etc.

Natural Occurrences, air, planet, comet, eclipse, ray, plain, valley, river
mountain.

Colours . . . blue, violet, crimson, carmine, mauve.

EXERCISES : I. From the tables pick out words (a) that have kept their
original form throughout ; (b) that have changed during the middle
period, but have since reverted to the older spelling ; (c) that have
had a gradual development from the oldest to the present form. If
possible, give examples from all parts of speech.

2. Write out a list of words connected with "motoring" or " aeroplaning "

which you think are not of ^Englisc origin. Give a reason for this.

3. Arrange the following " ./Englisc" words into three appropriate classes :

leg, arm, skin, year, joy, evening, week, hope, hate, Spring, bone,
gloaming. Give a name to each class.

4. In the following poem pick out all the native words known as such from

(a) their grammatical form, (i>) their meaning.

5. Re-write in Modern English the sentence, " Se deofol cwaeth," etc. (p. 10).

a- wende = turned ; hlafum = loaves.

6. Make a table similar to that on p. 1 1, using the following : toll (a tax), toll,

toll ; word, word, word ; qualm, qualm, cwealm ; sick, seke, seoc ;
rest, rest, restan ; do, do, don ; by, by, bi ; we, we, we ; who, who,
who ; it, it, hit ; quoth, quoth, cwseth.

A WISH

A T INE be a cot beside the hill ;
•"•*• A bee-hive's hum shall soothe my ear ;
A willowy brook that turns a mill,
With many a fall shall linger near.

The swallow, oft, beneath my thatch
Shall twitter from her clay-built nest ;

Oft shall the pilgrim lift the latch,
And share my meal, a welcome guest.

Around my ivied porch shall spring

Each fragrant flower that drinks the dew ;

And Lucy, at her wheel, shall sing
In russet-gown and apron blue.

The village-church among the trees,

Where first our marriage vows were given :

With merry peals shall swell the breeze
And point with taper spire to Heaven.

SAMUEL ROGERS (1763-1855).

1. Questions and Exercises

Where does the poet say that he would like to dwell ? Why ?
Consider the title — Does the poet wish for more things than
one? Name some. Why is the poem called A Wish?
Give other suitable titles. How many human beings are

16 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

mentioned in the poem ? Describe each. What other living
creatures are mentioned ? What trees and flowers? Give
a suitable name under which the words hill, brook, waterfall,
dew, breeze may be grouped. Consider the words cot, mill,
thatch, latch, porch, church — under what name may they be
grouped. Does the poem describe a real scene or an
imaginary one? Give reasons. Write out a list of words
which suggest pictures, e.g. cot, hill, bees, etc. Arrange
under the following heads suitable words in the poem : —
Scenery, Plant Life, Lower Animals, Human Beings, Buildings.

2. Composition : various Definitions

The two chief ways by which man communicates his thoughts to
his fellows are (a) Speech, (b] Writing. A person learns to speak
before he learns to write. By the aid of gesture or emphasis of the
voice the speaker strives to express his ideas clearly, and if he does
not succeed at the first attempt, it is not difficult for him to put his
ideas into other words. The writer has no such advantage ; he must
make his meaning perfectly clear at the outset. He must know pre-
cisely what he is going to say, and how he shall say it.

The process of arranging thoughts in an orderly fashion— so that
the meaning may be perfectly clear to the listener or the reader — is
called Composition. Composition may be Oral or Written.

A necessary step in Composition is the placing together of Words
so that they shall express one complete thought.

A complete thought expressed in words is called a Sentence.

Another essential is the arranging of the order in which Sentences
themselves should be placed. Just as the Words eye, tongue, nose,
ear, finger, arm, may all be classified under the group-name Parts
of the Body — so Sentences dealing with the same idea may be
arranged under a suitable group-name. Sentences so grouped form
a Paragraph.

A WISH 17

Paragraphs in their turn may be arranged in a certain order. The
arrangement of the paragraphs is called a Plan.

Every piece of formal composition should have a definite plan.
For example, if the subject " A Rural Scene " were given, the ideas
contained in the first poem might be utilised after the following
fashion : —

A RURAL SCENE

1st Group of Sentences . . . Introduction.

2nd , , .... Scenery.

3rd
4th
5th
6th

7th

Plant Life.
Lower Animals.
Human Beings.
Buildings.
Conclusion.

There are thus seven groups of sentences or Paragraphs. Many
different plans, and all equally correct, may be drawn up for the
same subject. Most writers employ an introductory and a con-
cluding paragraph. The Introduction should tell the reader what
the writer is going to write about ; it prepares the reader's mind for
what is going to follow. The Conclusion tells the reader what the
writer's verdict is; it sums up the statements made throughout the
composition.

EXERCISE : Write a composition on "A Rural Scene," using seven paragraphs.

3. Prose and Poetry : Definitions

That kind of Composition which follows an orderly arrangement
of Words, Sentences, and Paragraphs is called Prose. Poetry is
another kind of Composition : in it the arrangement of the parts
is much more complicated. Poetic composition must also have
words and sentences, but the words have to be selected and
arranged in such an order as to form Verse and at the same time
preserve sense.

Now Verse depends upon sounds. Every word is a combination
of distinct sounds. The word " hill " can be broken up into three
B

1 8 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

separate sounds, but for practical purposes these three sounds may
be taken as combining to form one sound. In the same way the
word "willowy" may be taken as having only three sounds, will-
ow-y. Any combination of sounds which, taken together, build up
one separate sound, is called a Syllable. Thus " hill," being only
one sound, is said to be a word of one syllable ; " Pilgrim " is said
to be a word of two syllables ; and " willowy " has three syllables.
A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; of two, a Dis-
syllable ; of three, a Trisyllable ; of more than three, a Polysyllable.
When words have more than one syllable, one of these syllables
generally receives special emphasis in speech. This emphasis is
called Stress.

In the word willowy the first syllable is more strongly stressed
than the other two. The correct syllable on which to place the
stress is shown by a little mark, thus ', called a stress or accent
mark. Words of the same number of syllables are not always
stressed correspondingly. Thus in the following dissyllabic words,

a. chem-ist, sim-ply, pa-tient ; b. ce-ment, sup-port, re-tain,

the stress or accent falls on the first syllable in the former,
and on the second syllable in the latter group : so also with

swallow and beneath.

Sometimes the words in a sentence vary in importance. In that
case the important word is stressed in order to give it prominence.
By simply changing the stress from one word to another, the whole
meaning of a sentence may be altered.

It is upon Stress or Accent that the arrangement of words in a
line of poetry largely depends. The poet usually tries to arrange
the words so that the accented syllables recur at regular intervals.
Then in each line he endeavours to put a fixed number of stresses.
In this way a certain musical effect is produced.

EXERCISES : I. Place accent marks on the following words :• — perhaps, stupid,
timid, instruments, combination, baron, chamber, hunter, terror-haunted,
another, chapel, chapelle.

2. Accent all the dissyllables in " A Wish," (see page 15).

A WISH 19

3. Stress in as many ways as you can : — One murder makes a villain ; millions

a hero !

4. Marks are placed on some of the lines of "A Wish." Place marks on the

others where you think the accents should fall. Count the stressed
syllables in each line. In the first line which word would you consider
wrongly stressed ?

Poetry has thus an arrangement of accents within each line ; but
in addition there is often — but not always — an arrangement of the
lines themselves. In the preceding poem the last word in the first
line is " hill " and the last word in the third line " mill " ; the final
words in the second and fourth lines are "ear" and "near"
respectively. Hill — mill have almost the same sound, the slight
difference being caused by the consonants at the beginning, namely,
h and m. Words or syllables which, but for the initial consonant,
would be alike in sound are said to rhyme.

EXERCISE: Arrange in pairs all the "rhymes" in the poem and note their
order in each group of four lines.

4. Study of Words and Expressions : Definitions

Words which are commonly used in poetry and but rarely found
in prose are sometimes called Poetic Words. Thus, in the poem,
the words " cot," " oft," and " pilgrim " are poetic words, because
in ordinary speech the words "cottage," "often," and "traveller"
would be preferred.

This little poem contains also some Compound Words. These
are words which have been formed by uniting two separate words.
Real compound words should be written without a hyphen : thus,
blackbird, waterfall • but sometimes a hyphen is used. The two
words forming a compound may belong to different parts of speech.
Thus in the words, beehive, marriage-vows, village-church, a noun is
joined to a noun, but in the word " clay-built " a noun is joined to a
verb.

Frequently it is possible to split up a word in such a way that when
certain parts are removed one separate word remains. The parts
removed do not form separate words and cannot exist by themselves.

20 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Such words are not Compound words, but are called Derivatives,
e.g. manly = man + ly.

Thus also : —

willowy — remove the ending " y " — willow remains,
welcome — remove the beginning " wel " — come remains,
ivied — remove the ending " ed " — ivi(y) remains.

Words may be thus altered in meaning by the addition of a
beginning or an ending. These additions, called little parts or
Particles, when used as beginnings are termed Prefixes, and when
used as endings, Suffixes.

That part of the word which receives the additions is called the
Root. If it requires to be slightly altered to receive the particle
it is called a Stem. Examples : Come is a Root ; ivi, a Stem.

The suffixes " y " and " ed " have the effect of making nouns
into adjectives. They are therefore called adjective-forming or
adjectival suffixes.

Of course some nouns may be used as adjectives without the
addition of a suffix : e.g. " And point with taper spire to Heaven. "

EXERCISES : Say which of the following are derivatives and which compound
words : bespeak, goodness, highland, racehorse, manliness, falsehood,
action, Suffolk (South folk), unhappy, blackguard, oppress, grindstone,
railway, blackbird, batsman, remarkable, underhand.

Make nouns from the following adjectives ending in y : bushy, cosy, feathery,
greasy, guilty, hilly, healthy, rocky, stormy, smoky, seamy, trusty,
woolly, worthy.

By supplying nouns show that the following words with ending ed may be
used as adjectives: Example, an interested spectator; wretched, ivied,
wasted, lettered, landed, gifted, plighted, ragged, interested.

Ill

A GREEN CORNFIELD

THE earth was green, the sky was blue :
I saw and heard one sunny morn.
A skylark hung between the two,
A singing speck above the corn ;

A stage below, in gay accord,

White butterflies danced on the wing,

And still the singing skylark soared
And silent sank and soared to sing.

The cornfield stretched a tender green

To right and left beside my walks ;
I knew he had a nest unseen

Somewhere among the million stalks :

And as I paused to hear his song,

While swift the sunny moments slid,
Perhaps his mate sat listening long,

And listened longer than I did.

CHRISTINA ROSSETTI (1830-1894).

1. Questions and Exercises

Give alternative titles for the poem. Explain the phrases
"between the two," "a stage below," " in gay accord." Was
there a path through the field? Give reasons for the
answer. What was the season of the year? Give, from
the poem, four reasons for the answer. Write out a list of

22 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

words of pictorial quality. Give examples of lines con-
taining words commencing with the same letter. Write out
a list of words of native origin occurring in the last four
lines.

2. Composition : the Summary

This poem, like the preceding selection, deals with nature. Both
are descriptions of country scenery, and therefore may be called
descriptive poems. They are really pictures in words, and should
therefore have many words of pictorial quality. But the first poem
describes a more general aspect of the country-side than the second
one does. The various details of the landscape — the hill, the
brook, the trees and flowers, the birds and bees, the cottage and
the mill, the village and the church — all suggest pictures to the
mind's eye. The second poem, however, deals only with a par-
ticular occurrence — the lark singing above the corn — and therefore
has fewer separate words of pictorial quality. These words are used
time and again, with the result that the same statement is re-
peated in a slightly different form. The fact that the skylark was
singing is mentioned four times (singing speck, singing skylark,
soared to sing, hear his song) ; that he was heard, three times ; that
there was a cornfield, at least twice ; that it was sunny, twice ; and
that the earth was green, twice. The frequent repetition impresses
the scene more firmly on the mind, and the recurrence of the same
musical sound delights the ear.

Repetition is characteristic of poetry. In prose, however, it is
not always desirable to say the same thing over and over again.
Frequently a statement of the chief points in a passage is wanted in
the simplest and shortest form. This short statement is called a
Summary or an Abstract. The process of summarising is a
valuable training in distinguishing the important from the unim-
portant.

To make a Summary of any passage it is necessary, first, to note
down the chief points ; and second, to knit together these, without

A GREEN CORNFIELD 23

elaboration. The essential facts in " A Green Cornfield " are : —
poetess— sunny morn — skylark — corn — butterflies — nest — mate —
listening. These may be combined thus : —

One sunny morning, while butterflies danced on the wing, the
poetess saw and heard a lark singing above the young corn. She
knew that he must have his nest close by the path, and she thought
that his mate would listen to his song even longer than the poetess
herself would.

3. Rhyme and Accent

In verse, words with the same initial letter often are made to
follow each other closely. This is called Alliteration, e.g. And
silent sank and soared to sing.

EXERCISES : Give examples of alliteration. Accent the poem where unmarked.
Group together the rhymes. How many rhymes in each four lines?
How many stressed syllables in each line ? How many weakly accented
syllables? "White butterflies danced on the wing" ; put marks where
the stress falls in ordinary reading ; compare with 1. I.

In this poem there are four groups of lines, each containing two
rhymes, and the rhymes in each separate group are arranged
alternately. All the groups of lines are built on the same plan.

A group of lines adjusted to each other on a definite plan is
called a Stanza.

A Stanza is an arrangement of lines; and a line is an arrangement
of accents. This may be shown thus : —

There are four stressed and four weakly accented syllables in each
line and each stressed syllable is preceded by a weak accent, When

24 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

a line is divided off so that each division has the same arrangement
of accents then these divisions are called feet. In every division or
Foot there is always one stress and no more.

EXERCISE : Divide all the other stanzas so as to show (a) the rhyme arrange-
ment, (£) the accent arrangement.

Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words morn.

Compound Word somewhere = adjective + adverb.

Prefixes unseen, un = not.

Suffixes singzwf, ing, denoting pres. part, of verb.

dancW, ed or d, denoting past tense or past part, of verb.

longer, er, sign of the comparative of an adjective.

silent, ent. Adjectival suffix.

EXERCISES : Give words from the poem illustrating suffixes and prefixes
previously learnt.

Write out a list of words of native origin. Give reasons for your choice.

Show that past participles with suffix ed or d may be used also as adjectives
(v. p. 20).

What end-letter occurs in each of the following words ? bold, cold, dead,
naked, bread, head, brood. In which of these words do you think the
end-letter is really a suffix ?

IV
EARL MARCH

T7 ARL MARCH look'd on his dying child,

— ' And, smit with grief to view her —
The youth, he cried, whom I exiled
Shall be restored to woo her.

She's at the window many an hour

His coming to discover :
And he look'd up to Ellen's bower

And she look'd on her lover.

But ah ! so pale, he knew her not,

Though her smile on him was dwelling —

And am I then forgot — forgot?
It broke the heart of Ellen.

In vain he weeps, in vain he sighs,

Her cheek is cold as ashes ;
Nor love's own kiss shall wake those eyes

To lift their silken lashes.

THOMAS CAMPBELL (1777-1844).

1. Questions and Exercises

How many characters are mentioned in this poem ? Name them.
What was the cause of Ellen's illness? Who wept and
sighed in vain ? What broke the heart of Ellen ? Give
two instances of direct speech in the poem. Who were the

a6 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

speakers ? Suggest a title for the poem. How many stanzas
in the poem ? Give examples of repetition.

2. Composition : the Narrative

It has been shown that poetry may be descriptive : the previous
poems have been detailed descriptions, nothing necessary for the
clear portrayal of the scene being omitted. This poem, however, is
not a description but a narration. A poem which narrates a story is
called a narrative poem.

Narrative composition ought to be easy, for nearly every one can
tell a story. But a story may be narrated in many ways and there
are good story tellers and bad story tellers. The good story teller
relates events in the order of their occurrence and shows clearly how
each is connected with the other-, he avoids minor details and gives
prominence to the main points which have a bearing on the con-
clusion; he knows where to end the story. The speaker can give
animation to a narrative by the play of voice and gesture, but the
writer must rely only on his skilful selection and arrangement of the
facts.

Notice how Campbell relates the story of Ellen. First, he
introduces the various characters, the Earl, the youth, the maiden,
and shows that each has a part to play in the story. The next
stanza gives prominence to Ellen's longing for her lover and to their
meeting at last. Then follows the important fact that the youth
did not recognise Ellen. Lastly, the consequences of this non-
recognition are dwelt upon.

It would have been quite easy to introduce minor details into the
story, but the poet has skilfully withheld them. The central fact is
the death of Ellen, and additional explanations would only obscure
it. Therefore the catastrophe itself is fully described and, although
the circumstances leading up to it are not told exactly, just enough is
hinted at to make the story thoroughly understood. It is easy to
bridge over any gap that exists. By withholding certain particulars

EARL MARCH 27

which do not affect the main issue the poet really stimulates the
imagination of the reader, who is thus enabled to fill in the details
according as his own fancy dictates.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES : The following questions are mostly unanswered
by the poet. After having considered them, build up a detailed
(imaginary) description of the youth — give his birth, rank, age,
appearance, etc.

What was the youth's name? Was his place of exile far off? Did he really
love Ellen ? Did he know of her illness ? How would he receive the
news? When Earl March saw that Ellen was pining what did he do?
Did he realise Ellen's grave condition ? Did the youth realise it ?
Did Ellen really die suddenly ? Was the youth to blame ? Was Earl
March to blame? Why did Earl March dislike the youth?

1. Write out in prose form any instances of direct speech, — using quotation

marks.

2. Between the first and the second stanza there is a gap in the story — write

a paragraph explaining what Earl March did.

3. Expand the story of the poem, using some of the additional ideas gained

from the above questions.

3. Rhyme and Accent

When a line is divided off into feet it is said to be scanned : the
dividing of a line into feet is therefore called Scansion.

How many stressed syllables in each line? How many feet in
each line ? How many weak syllables in each line ?

The regular recurrence of stress or accent at certain intervals is
called Metre (Gr. metron, a measure). It has been said that in
every foot there is one strong stress and no more : therefore, if there

28 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

are four strong stresses in a line there are four feet in that line ; if
three stresses, three feet, and so on. Lines receive names according
to the number of stresses or feet which they contain. Thus when a
line has four strong stresses it is called Tetrameter (Gr. tctra, four ;
metron, a measure). When a line has three of these stresses it is
called Trimeter. For example, in the first stanza, the line—

| And, smit | with grief | to view | her ( ) j

is Trimeter, because there are four and three strong stresses
respectively.

When a line has a weak syllable beyond the last foot it is said to
be Excessive.

EXERCISES : Give examples of Tetrameter and of Trimeter Excessive lines
from the last two stanzas. Scan each line. By means of letters or
figures show the order of the rhymes in each stanza. What is the
order of the rhymes? Arrange all the rhymes of the second and
fourth lines of every stanza in pairs, thus : — ashes, lashes. Over how
many syllables does the rhyme extend ?

Where would you place the stress marks in the fourth line in order to secure
emphasis ?

When Rhymes extend over two syllables, they are called Double,
or Feminine, or Weak.

4. Study of Words and Phrases

Poetic Word bower.

Compound Words Are there any ?

Prefixes ex — exiled — out.

re — restored — back,
dis — discover — apart, away.

for — forgot — intensive prefix = making the stem
have a stronger meaning.

EARL MARCH 29

Suffixes en — silken — adjectival.

er — lover — noun forming, denoting " one who."

es — ashes — plural ending.

's — Ellen's — possessive case ending.

s — weeps — showing 3rd sing, present tense of verb.

EXERCISES : In this poem there are not many poetic words, but there is a
poetic order of words. Point out any words so arranged, and re-write
them in ordinary prose order.

Make out a list of other words showing prefixes and suffixes.
Give words of native origin in the poem. Give reasons.

Use the word out in the explanation of the following words : extinguish (to
quench out), explore (to search out], exalt, excavation, except, excision,
exclaim, excursion, exhale, exit, expand, expel, export, extort, extract.

Similarly show the force of the prefix re in recede (to go back), remand (to
send an accused person back to await trial), recall, recant, recline, recoil,
recumbent, recur, reform, refund, report, reserve, response, retaliation.

Similarly show the force of the prefix dis in disclose (to close apart, i.e. to
unclose), disease (away from ease, i.e. want of ease), disconsolate, dis-
criminate, disgorge (gorge = throat), disgrace, dislocate, dismiss, dispel,
disperse, dispute, disruption, dissent, distend, distort.

Similarly show the force of the suffix er (ar, or) in singer (one who sings),
beggar, tailor, lawyer, liar, miller, player, baker, sailor, tinker (one -who
tinks, i.e. makes a linking sound in the mending of metal pots).

Explain following words : golden (adjective from gold, made of gold),
wooden, earthen, silvern, brazen, silken, flaxen, waxen.

Write down the singular of the following plural forms, and note the plural
endings in each case : churches, hands, stones, taxes, armies, ladies,
days, keys, potatoes, heroes, mementos, pianos, folios, safes, proofs.

V
THE PRIDE OF YOUTH

TT)ROUD Maisie is in the wood,
•*- Walking so early ;
Sweet Robin sits on the bush,
Singing so rarely.

" Tell me, thou bonny bird,

When shall I marry me ? "
— " When six braw gentlemen

Kirk ward shall carry ye."

" Who makes the bridal bed,

Birdie say truly ? "
— " The gray-headed sexton

That delves the grave duly.

The glowworm o'er grave and stone

Shall light thee steady ;
The o'wl from the steeple sing,

' Welcome, proud lady.' "

SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832).

THE PRIDE OF YOUTH 31

1. Questions and Exercises

Who is an example of youthful pride in the poem? Is this
person beautiful? Quote in support of your view. What
proverb does the poem illustrate ? How many speakers are
there ? Name them. Which speaks the first four lines ?
Who speaks these? What name would be given to these
four lines regarded as a division of a composition ? Gather
together all the words that suggest pictures. What human
beings does Robin mention? What other living things?
When is the glowworm seen ? When the owl ? Does the
poet tell a story or give a description ?

2. Oomposition : Condensation and Expansion : Plan of the Poem

Sometimes a poet has a very brief story to tell, so brief that the
main statement of the whole poem might be expressed in a single
sentence. For example, the story of Maisie might be condensed
thus : — " Proud Maisie, little knowing that she was soon to die, was
wondering when her marriage would take place."

When a passage is summarised to such an extent that only its
general sense remains, then it is said to be condensed, and the
process is called condensation.

Just as it is possible to build up an essay from a plan, so it is
possible to build up a poem from a single statement. In this poem
Sir Walter Scott builds upon the simple idea expressed above, and
expands it. He imagines a conversation between Maisie and a
robin. He makes it take place in a wood early in the morning,
when the robin was singing in a bush. The robin describes the
funeral preparations ; how the sexton is digging the grave ; how the
corpse will be borne by six braw gentlemen ; how the body will be
left to the company of the owl and the glowworm.

This process of starting with a simple idea and gradually adding
detail after detail is called Expansion. It is the opposite of
Condensation.

32 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

A conversation between two persons in which questions and
answers frequently occur is called a Dialogue. In this poem there
is a dialogue between Maisie and the robin, the first stanza serving
as the introduction. The poem is therefore divided into two parts,
thus : —

A. The Introduction. ist stanza.

B. The Dialogue. Maisie's question. )

rr,, . . , > 2nd stanza.

I he robins answer, j

Maisie's question. , -^stanza.

The robin's answer

The robin's answer
continued.

} 4th

The effect of the dialogue-form of the story is to give reality to
the scene. The reader's interest is aroused, and his attention fixed.
Bit by bit, as the dialogue proceeds, he comes to understand that
Maisie, in the pride and beauty of youth, has gone forth full of
joyous hopes to meet an unseen destiny, which is about to over-
whelm her. This sudden and startling change of fortune gives the
story what is called Dramatic Effect. The dramatic effect is
heightened and increased by the manner of the robin's replies.
He answers the lady's questions almost in the affirmative, but
immediately adds some particulars which change the whole mean-
ing: "Shall I be led to church soon?" — "Yes, when six braw
gentlemen carry you thither." " Is a bridal bed being prepared
for me?" — "Yes, by the sexton in the churchyard." Maisie is
perhaps appalled now, but the bird anticipates a further question
she had intended to ask — whether there should be song and lights
at the evening festival. "Lights? Yes, those of the glowworms
among the tombs ; and for songs, the hooting of owls from the
steeple." This manner of imparting bitter tidings in the guise of
good news is called irony.

THE PRIDE OF YOUTH 33

EXERCISE : Make a little prose dialogue between, say, a robin, a wren, and
an owl, about Maisie. Instead of death, make them forecast her
approaching marriage and promise her all happiness.

3. Rhyme and Accent

When a line of poetry has only two stressed syllables its measure
is said to be Dimeter. "The Pride of Youth3' is written in an
irregular metre, where there are many weakly-accented syllables,
but for all that it is an example of Dimeter, because there are only
two strong stresses in each line. Thus —

Tell me, thou bonnie bird,

When shall I marry me ?
— When six braw gentlemen

Kirkward shall carry ye.

When a line contains only one stressed syllable its measure is
Monometer. This kind of metre seldom occurs.

In the previous poems the stress has almost always fallen on
syllables that would naturally be accented in ordinary speech,

e.g. dying, exiled, discover, singing, skylark, pilgrim, fragrant. But
occasionally, in order to preserve the regular beat of the verse, a
word has had to be stressed contrary to custom. Thus the ordinary

accentuation of somewhere is somewhere ; but in the line

' ' '. '

"Somewhere among the million stalks,"

the second syllable is stressed. For the same reason unimportant
words, which in ordinary speech are seldom emphasised, are often
accented in verse. Thus —

"Proud Maisie is in the wood";
"Sweet Robin sits on the bush."

In reading such lines it is well not to give these unimportant words
too much voice-emphasis,
c

34 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

EXERCISES : Write out the name of the metre when a verse has I, 2, 3, 4
stressed syllables respectively.

Name the lines in the poem which have most weak accents.
Write out in pairs the double rhymes in the poem.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words o'er, thee, ye, thou.

Compound Words gentlemen : adject. + noun, grey-headed, adject. + adject.

glow-worm : verb + noun.
Prefixes Name any.

Suffixes ie — Maisie — ie, Diminutive.

ly — early — ly, adverbial suffix.

ward — kirkward — ward, ,,

A Diminutive is a particle denoting smallness.

EXERCISES : Give another example of a Diminutive.

Write out a list of Compound words already given, and show from what
parts of speech these words are formed.

Give examples of the following suffixes, -al, -y, -ly, -ing.

NATIVE AND FOREIGN WORDS

IT has been shown already that in spite of their changes in
Structure and Spelling many words can boast a direct English
descent from the earliest times through a middle period to the
present day. Some idea of the character and prevalence of these
words has been gained : all the link-words — articles, prepositions,
conjunctions — are English ; the names of the most common and
familiar things are English; the words which occur in speech
over and over again, and without which it would be almost im-
possible to frame a single sentence, are all English. Indeed, it
can be proved that quite three-fourths of the words used by
the educated Briton in his every-day speech are of native origin.
It is easy to write sentences containing no foreign words ; it
is difficult to write even one sentence containing no native
words.

It would appear from this latter fact that the native words must
largely outnumber those of foreign origin. But the very opposite
is the case. The actual vocabulary^ i.e. the whole stock of words in
the language, has only a third of its contents native ; the remainder
is foreign. The reason for the discrepancy is that in a Dictionary
each word occurs only once, whereas in speech the same word may
recur time and again.

Since there is such a large proportion of foreign words incor-
porated in the English language, it is desirable to inquire when and
how such words entered English speech and by what means they may
be recognised.

36 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

How Foreign Words may be recognised

The best way of recognising a foreign word is from its Root. A
Root may be defined as a word in its simplest form. It may be
discovered by stripping off all prefixes and suffixes ; this operation
leaves the Stem. The Stem is the Root prepared to receive the pre-
fixes and the suffixes. For example, in the word extenuate, ex is
the prefix, ate is the suffix, tenu is the stem, and TEN is the
Root.

From one root very many words can be built up. The following
words are all formed from the root VERT (the idea of turning) :
adverse, advert, advertise, avert, controversy, converse, convert,
divers, diverse, divert, divorce, inverse, invert, obverse, pervert,
prose, reverse, revert, subvert, transverse, traverse, verse, versify,
version, vertebra, vertex, vertigo, vortex.

The root vert is foreign, and being of Latin origin is therefore
called a Latin Boot.

Similarly from the Greek Root GRAPH (idea of writing} many
words can be derived : autograph, digraph, lithograph, paragraph,
phonograph, photograph, biography (and many others in -graphy),
graphic, graft, anagram, diagram, epigram, glamour, grammar,
grammatical, programme, telegram.

There are at least three hundred thousand words in a good
dictionary, and it has been calculated that all these words have
been built up from less than five hundred Roots. It is obvious,
therefore, that a knowledge of Roots is the key to this great store-
house of words, not only in regard to their structure but also in
regard to their meaning.

The process of word-building may be pictorially represented as
a tree with many branches, but still capable of further growth.

A LATIN ROOT TRANSPLANTED TO ENGLISH SOIL BECOMES A THRIVING TREE

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

The relationship existing between Root, Stem, Prefixes, and
Suffixes may also be shown graphically as under : —

and Prefix.

ist Prefix.

Root & stem.

ist Suffix.

and Suffix.

3rd Suffix.

con

vert

ible

con

vert

ibil

ity

rad ic

abil

ity

dis

put

1OUS

ness

dis

pro

por t

ion

able

ness

The Introduction and Growth of Foreign Words

More than half of the words in English are of Latin origin, and it
is interesting to study how they were transplanted into English soil,
and how they flourished there and in some instances even changed
their character and meaning under the stimulus of their new
habitat. It was in the earlier periods of the English language that
foreign roots were brought in ; but it took a long time before they
gained a firm hold, for a forest of words is not produced quickly.
The three main periods in the development of English have already
been indicated, and it is convenient to regard the first two of these,
from the point of view of foreign words, as the times of introduction
and growth respectively. The main features during the three stages
of progress are shown below, and afterwards the reasons for thus
clearly marking off these stages will become apparent.

ist Period, 450-1100.

Old English

(/Cnglisc).

2nd Period, 1100-1500.

Middle English.

3rd Period, from 1500.

Modern English.

(i) English words . . .
Native.

(ii) Introduction of
Foreign words.

(iii) English words
supreme.

(i) More Foreign words
introduced,
(ii) Growth of Foreign
words,
(iii) Native struggle against
Foreign,
(iv) Changes in both Foreign
and Native words.

(i) More Foreign words
introduced.

(ii) Some Foreign and
a few Native die.

(iii) Language fixed.

NATIVE AND FOREIGN WORDS 39

As each language has its own prefixes and suffixes, it follows that
the particles found in English vary in origin. As a rule the different
parts of a single word — Root, Prefix, Suffix — are derived from the
same language ; but there are exceptions. Thus an ^Englisc prefix
or suffix may be attached to a Latin root, and vice versa : peaceful,
Lat. + ^Eng. ; bondage, ^Eng. + Lat. ; overturn, ^Eng. + Lat.

Words of which the parts come from different languages are called
Hybrids.

EXERCISES : i. Give examples of hybrids.

2. Show all the prefixes and suffixes which may be added to the root " vert."

3. Construct a tree showing the following, and other, words from

Latin — Ponere (Posit), to place : Exposed, apposite, component, composite,
composition, compound, deponent, deposit, disposition, exposition, im-
position, interposition, juxtaposition, opponent, opposite, postpone,
supposition, transposition.

4. In the above list of words separate the prefixes and suffixes from the

stem or root.

VII

WINTER

WHEN icicles hang by the wall,
And Dick the shepherd blows his nail,
And Tom bears logs into the hall,

And milk comes frozen home in pail ;
When blood is nipt, and ways be foul,
Then nightly sings the staring owl,
To-whit ! Tu-whoo ! a merry note !
While greasy Joan doth keel the pot.

tit i

When all about the wind doth blow,

And coughing drowns the parson's saw ;
And birds sit brooding in the snow,

And Marian's nose looks red and raw ;
When roasted crabs hiss in the bowl —
Then nightly sings the staring owl,
To-whit ! Tu-whoo ! a merry note !
While greasy Joan doth keel the pot.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616),
from Love's Labour's Lost.

keel = stir, saw = saying, crabs = crab-apples.

1. Questions and Exercises

Name the five characters mentioned in the poem. Why is the
owl called the " staring owl " ? What is the cry of the owl ?
Mention birds known by their cry. Why does Tom bear
40

WINTER 41

logs into the hall? What is the hall? Why is the owl
merry when the other birds sit brooding in the snow ? Has
the owl a good coat of feathers ? What is the meaning of
"brooding," "ways be foul," "blows his nail," "coughing
drowns the parson's saw," " blood is nipt." Write out from
the poem a list of words or phrases suggesting "cold."
Why is the title of the poem appropriate? Is the poem
humorous or sad? Is it rich in words of pictorial quality?
Give examples. Does the poem tell a story or is it merely
descriptive ? Was Joan a thin person ? Was she slovenly ?
Is the poem a picture of town life or of country life ?

2. Composition : Quotations

The study of poetry is an aid to prose composition in many ways.
The wisest thoughts of the ages are found enshrined in verse.
Sometimes when a writer wishes to state a thought he uses the same
form of words by which it has previously been expressed. When
he does so he is said to quote, and the words used form a quotation.
Quotations are used to illustrate a point, to focus attention, and,
generally, to make the meaning more clear. Shakespeare's descrip-
tion of winter is a poem from which quotations might be taken to
illustrate certain aspects of that season. Of course it is not a full
account of winter ; the poet treats it in a half-humorous manner —
" Marian's nose is red and raw " ; but he does not speak from the
point of view of poor Marian.

Nevertheless, if "Winter" were set as a theme the poem would
suggest some ideas of the effect of winter on different people. The
following plan is based on a more comprehensive treatment of the
subject, but paragraphs two and three might be illustrated by
quotations from the poem.

I. Introduction, — At what time of year winter occurs — how long it lasts.
II. General characteristics, — The weather in winter — rain, frost, icicles, snow,
winds, storms.

42 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

III. Effect on people and occupations. — Depends on kind of weather —

(a) If severe, then "blood is nipt," "red noses," "ways be foul,"
coughing in church, sometimes many deaths.

(6) Outdoor workers cannot follow employment — roads blocked —
trains and cars stopped — commerce affected.

IV. Winter sports — (a) outdoor. Skating, sliding, curling, toboganning, snow-

balling.

(b) indoor. Reading, billiards, cards.
V. Conclusion. — Winter inevitable — has its advantages and disadvantages.

EXERCISES : I. Write a paragraph on the owl.

2. Write a composition on winter, following above plan and using quotations
from the poem. Keep all paragraphs distinct.

3. Rhyme, Accent, etc. — One characteristic of poetry is repeti-
tion. This may take many forms. The same idea may be repeated
in different words, as is exemplified in Christina Rossetti's poem,
"A Green Cornfield." Frequently, however, there is a repetition
of the same words, phrases, and even lines.

When there is a regular recurrence of the same line or lines, and
especially at the close of each stanza, such repeated lines constitute
a Refrain or Burden.

EXERCISES : How many strong stresses in each line ? How many feet in
the line? What is the name of the metre? What is the rhyme
arrangement in each stanza ? How many separate rhymes are there in
the whole poem ? How many lines are there in the refrain ? Scan
the last two lines. Should the word "Joan "be sounded as a mono-
syllable or a disyllabic ? Give a reason for the answer. Give examples
of alliteration.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words be(foul), doth.

Compound Words shepherd = sheep + herd — noun + noun,
into = in + to — preposition + preposition.
Obsolete Words keel = stir.

Words which have fallen out of use are called Obsolete.
Archaic Words saw = wise saying.

Words which were once commonly used but are now only rarely used are
termed Archaic.

WINTER 43

Prefixes How many prefixes are there ?

Suffixes -en, frozen, past participial ending of the strong verb.

t*0

t, nip/, past participial ending of the weak verb. (JE. )
th, doM, verbal, showing the 3rd sing. pres. tense.

(&}
ly, night/y, adverbial. (M.)

Note. — The origin of prefixes, suffixes, etc., is shown by s£. = ^Englisc and
L. = La tin.

Diction. — This is the general name to describe the various kinds
of words used in any particular passage, e.g. "archaic diction,"
" poetic diction," etc.

EXERCISES : i. Give examples of other words having prefixes or suffixes
already known.

2. Select six words and divide each so as to show prefix or suffix (or both)

and stem or root.

3. What words are of foreign origin ?

4. Give examples of the use of the archaic word saw, and write sentences

showing the modern word in two senses.

VIII
A SUMMER'S MORNING

HARK ! hark ! the watchful Chanticleer
Tells us the day's bright harbinger
Peeps o'er the eastern hills to awe
And warn Night's sovereign to withdraw.

Now doors and windows are unbarred,
Each-where are cheerful voices heard,
And round about "Good- morrows" fly,
As if Day taught Humanity.

Now through the morning doors behold
Phoebus arrayed in burning gold,
Lashing his fiery steeds, displays
His warm and all-enlightening rays.

The traveller now leaves his inn
A new day's journey to begin,
As he would post it with the day,
And, early rising, makes good way.

The fore-horse jingles on the road,
The waggoner lugs on his load,
The field with busy people sings,
With various cries the city rings.

The world is now a busy swarm,
All doing good or doing harm ;
But let's take heed our acts be true,
For Heaven's eye sees all we do.

CHARLES COTTON (1630-1687).

A SUMMER'S MORNING 45

1. Questions and Exercises

What meaning must be given to the following expressions in the
poem : — chanticleer, harbinger, Night's sovereign, Phcebus,
fiery steeds? Which two persons are early astir in the
morning? Name words of pictorial quality. Does the
poem describe action ? Which stanza or stanzas portray
most action ? Has this poem an Introduction and a Con-
clusion which would be suitable for a prose composition?
If so, what lines constitute the Introduction and the Con-
clusion respectively ? Which stanza has most poetic words
or the most poetic order of words ? Give reasons for the
choice. Which stanza is nearest prose, either in the order
of the words or in the style of words ? Which lines are no
longer appropriate ? What would bring the illustration up
to date ? Has this poem any locale — town or country ?
Would it be right to call this a descriptive poem ? If you
think this is a descriptive poem, in what respects does it
differ from " Winter " ? Is the poem written in the present
tense or in the past tense ?

2. Composition : Prose and Poetry : Paraphrasing

Composition has been defined as the process of arranging
thoughts in an orderly fashion so that the meaning may be perfectly
clear. Since thought may be expressed either in prose or in verse,
it follows that composition is of two kinds : prose-composition and
verse-composition. Prose is that kind in which words are arranged
as in the natural order of speech : Verse is that kind in which words
are arranged according to metre.

Prose and Verse thus differ inform.

The Form — the outward appearance and arrangement — of prose
is seen in the Sentence and the Paragraph. Verse has sentences and
occasionally also paragraphs; but its form is shown chiefly by the
Line and usually also by Rhyme and the Stanza.

46 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Verse, that differs from prose not only in form but also in
diction and m feeling, is called Poetry.

The poems studied hitherto have exemplified many characteristics
— of form, diction and feeling — peculiar to poetry. The poet is
compelled to arrange his words in accordance with the metre he
employs. He must select some words for the purposes of rhyme.
The writer of prose is not so trammelled, and therefore one great
difference between prose and poetry, is to be found in the order and
arrangement of the words. The language of poetry is also marked
by the deliberate omission of certain prosaic phrases, by the use of
special poetic words and by a preference for archaic words. Many
artifices, designed either to give pleasure to the ear or to produce a
distinct mental effect — as, for example, the use of repetition — are
frequently employed in poetry, and rarely, if ever, employed in
prose. Then as regards the manner or feeling of poetry, as a rule,
prose does not make the same appeal to the imagination and the
emotions.

Since poetic composition is written under all these limitations, it
is not easy to turn prose into poetry, and for the same reason the
latter is sometimes more difficult to understand. But the mere
meaning of a passage may often be made more clear by changing
the order and arrangement of the words or by employing other
words to express the same ideas. That is to say, the sense of a
passage may be more apparent when the words are arranged in
prose form. When a piece of composition, either prose or verse,
is re-written in different words, but so as to preserve the original
meaning, it is said to be paraphrased.

Paraphrasing (Gk. para, beside : phrasis, a speaking) is a process
which tests intelligence, vocabulary, power of expression, and know-
ledge of the rules of composition. The passage to be paraphrased
must be understood. The first step, therefore, is to get the general
sense of the passage. This general sense may be briefly recorded
by the process of summarising or condensation. The next step is

A SUMMER'S MORNING 47

that of expansion. The general sense of the passage is expanded
by the use of different words and in such a way that none of
the ideas contained in the original passage are omitted. So
long as the general sense is kept, the words of the paraphrase
may be either simpler or grander than those of the original. As
a rule, however, it is well to use the simplest possible language
for the paraphrase. As many excellent and simple words are
bound to occur in the original, it is not necessary to alter every
word in paraphrasing it.

Example : Stanza I

(a) General Sense. The crowing cock announces the coming of

the day and the going of the night.

(b) Use of Different Words. Chanticleer = cock ; day's bright

harbinger = sun ; Night's sovereign = moon.

the sun, the bright messenger of day, is peeping over
the eastern hills in order to frighten away the ruler of
the night, the moon.

EXERCISES : I . Paraphrase stanza 3 according to the above scheme.

2. Condense the poem into one prose paragraph entitled "A Summer's

Morning."

3. Re-write the second last stanza in the past tense.

4. Name poems which appeal to the imagination ; which appeal to the

emotions.

5. Does "A Summer's Morning" appeal to the imagination? to the

emotions? Give a reason for your answers.

3. Prosody

Prosody is the general term for the whole science of versification.
Rhyme, Stanza, Accent, Metre, Scansion, Foot are all names
included in the general term.

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

EXERCISES : Stress-mark all the lines. What is the metre ? Scan the last
stanza. How many stanzas ? How many rhymes in each stanza ?
Arrange the rhymes in pairs. Note the order of the rhymes in each
stanza. Give any examples of the same rhyme-arrangement in previous
poems. How must " heard " be pronounced?

Two succeeding lines which rhyme together constitute a Couplet.

How many couplets in each stanza ? Give examples of couplets from the last
two stanzas. Scan the second last stanza re-written in past tense. Does
it make good verse ? Why ?

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words
Compound Words

Archaic Words •
Prefixes

Suffixes

Chanticleer, harbinger, Phoebus,
withdraw, prep. + verb. Good-morrow, adj. -f noun,
all-enlightening, adj. +verb. fore-horse, adj. +noun.
each-where, lugs (luggage).

with — withdraw
be — behold

— begin

— arrayed

— displays

— enlighten

— watchful

— with, back. (.E.)

— be, intensive particle. (/£. )

ar
dis
en
ful
en

— ad, to. (L.)

— dis, apart (L.)

— en(in), in. (L.)

— ful, full. (/E.)

— enlightening — en, to make. (^E.)

— busy — y, adjectival. (.#£.)

— humanity — ity, ending of abstract noun. (L.)

ROOTS

LATIN :
Ag6re; to drive, do

Cantare, sing :
Varius, various ;
Civis, citizen :
Homo, a man :

/ENGLISC :
Drawan, to draw :

ACTS, agent, agile, agitate, coagulate, cogent,
cogitate, counteract, enact, exact, exigent,
transact.

CHANTICLEER, chant, incantation, accent.

VARIOUS, vary, variegate, variety.

CITY, citadel, citizen, civil.

HUMANITY, homage, homicide, humane.

WITHDRAW, drag, dray, draft, draught, dredge,
drawer, drudge.

A SUMMER'S MORNING 49

EXERCISES : I. Give examples of plural-suffixes : of possessive-suffixes : of
verb-suffixes (pres. part., past tense, p. part.).

2. Build words from Roots, Cantare and Agere.

3. In the words derived from Agere show Root or stem of each : then write

down in a column the other parts of each word and say whether prefixes
or suffixes.

4. Define the term "intensive particle." Give the intensive forms of:

stir, give, jewelled, grime, bear.

5. Make compound words by joining a preposition to a verb, an adjective

to a noun, an adjective to a verb, a preposition to a preposition, a
noun to a noun.

6. What are the parts of speech which enter into the composition of the

following words : watchful, each- where, cheerful, gentlemen, glow-
worm, grey-headed, skylark, butterflies, cornfield, somewhere, beehive,
welcome ?

7. The word "lug" originally meant " to pull by the hair." Is the word

really archaic ? Give an instance of its modern use.

8. Find words or phrases occurring in the poem which might be substituted

for the following poetic words : portals, pilgrim, hostelry, the pranc-
ing steed makes music, the swain arrays his chariot's weight, never
obscured is the vision of Heaven.

LAMENT FOR CULLODEN

THE lovely lass o' Inverness,
Nae joy nor pleasure can she see ;
For e'en and morn she cries, Alas !

And aye the saut tear blins her ee ;
Drumossie moor — Drumossie day —

A waefu' day it was to me !
For there I lost my father dear,

My father dear, and brethren three.

Their winding-sheet the bluidy clay,

Their graves are growin' green to see :
And by them lies the dearest lad

That ever blest a woman's ee !
Now wae to thee, thou cruel lord,

A bluidy man I trow thou be;
For mony a heart thou hast made sair

That ne'er did wrang to thine or thee.

ROBERT BURNS (1759-1796),

The Lovely Lass of Inverness.

Nae = no. e'en = even = evening, saut = salt, blins = blinds, ee = eye.
waefu' = woeful, bluidy = bloody, sair = sore, wrang = wrong.

1. Questions and Exercises

What is a Lament ? Who laments here ? Why ? How many
persons that she loved fell in the battle? Say who they
were. Where is Culloden ? When was the battle fought ?
Why was it fought ? Do you notice anything peculiar about

LAMENT FOR CULLODEN 51

the diction of the poem ? Explain any peculiarity you may
notice. Is this a descriptive poem ? Whether would this
poem or the last (" A Summer's Morning") be the easier to
write ? Give reasons for your answer. Supply a verb in the
first line of the second stanza. Is this kind of omission
characteristic of poetry ?

2. Composition : Questions and Exercises

Write in your own words the reason why the lovely lass was sad. Which

two lines give the main reason ?

Do you think paraphrasing would make this poem simpler ?
Is changing the Scots words into current English paraphrasing?
Is changing the poetic words into ordinary speech paraphrasing ?
Write out a list of words or expressions in this poem that might be

paraphrased. What paraphrase would you give for each ?

Construction of the Poem

There are three distinct parts in this poem:

I. Introduction — who weeps? 11. 1-4.
II. Reason for Weeping. 11. 5-12.
III. Whom she blames. 11. 13-16.

It will be observed that these three divisions correspond roughly
to three aspects of the heroine's grief rising one above another with
increasing intensity. At first her grieving is described generally,
and, no cause being assigned for it, little sympathy is felt. The
words "Drumossie Moor" instantly suggest a battle, probably a
death : they also link the first division of the poem to the next,
where the extent of the tragedy is gradually unfolded. The sudden
realisation that her lover is lying dead beside her kinsmen changes
her sorrow into fury against the cruel lord. The transition from
the second to the third division of the poem appears abrupt, but it
is natural : she feels that she also is made to suffer unjustly.

The method of treatment, like that of " Proud Maisie " and
" Earl March," is dramatic. The poet does not tell the facts in an
ordinary way. He unfolds them bit by bit, so that expectation is

52 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

aroused as to what is to come next ; and by this means also more
and more sympathy is gained for the heroine.

EXERCISE : The lovely lass is here called a heroine. What is the usual
meaning of "heroine"? Consider the poem carefully, then construct
a sentence, describing exactly what is meant by "the heroine" in a
dramatic poem. Write a composition (of three paragraphs based on
the above plan) telling the incident of "the lovely lass o' Inverness."
Expand the account where you think proper.

3. Prosody

What is the name of the metre? Are all the lines of the same length? How
many stanzas? How many lines in the whole poem? In these lines how many
distinct rhymes ? Note the order of the rhymes in each stanza. Write down
any pairs that do not rhyme exactly. What is the total number of rhymes em-
ployed ? Is the same rhyme found in both stanzas ? Name the rhymes common
to both. Give examples of alliteration.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words e'en, aye, father dear, brethren three, trow, hast — (note

"father dear" — poetic order.}
Compound Words winding-sheet, verb + noun.

Prefixes

Suffixes

ROOTS

Licgan, to lie :
Laedan, to lead :

Leosan, to lose :

Inver — Inverness — Inver, at the mouth of (p. 65).
(Celtic.)

Drum — Drumossie — Drum, a ridge of land (p. 65).
(Celtic.)

est — dearest — est, denoting superlative degree.
(4fe)

st — hast — st, and per. pres. tense of verb

= verb-suffix. (JE.)

en — brethren — en, sign of the plural = a plural-
suffix. (&.)

LIES, lay, layer, lair, low, alight, outlay.
LAD (one led), lead, lode.

[The derivation of " lass " — although it is the feminine

of ' ' lad " — is not known with certainty. ]
LOST, lose, lorn, forlorn, loss.

LAMENT FOR CULLODEN

Eage, the eye : EE (eye), eyne, daisy (day's eye), window

(wind eye, an eye or hole for the admission
of air and light).

Deore, precious : DEAR, DEAREST, darling, dearth.

Wringan, to wring: WRANG, wrong, wrench, wrinkle.

[The words writhe, wrest, wrestle, wrist, wroth, wry
are probably connected with the same root.]

LATIN :

Placere, to please :
Crudelis, cruel :

PLEASURE, complacent, placid, plead.
CRUEL, cruelty, crude.

EXERCISES. I. Give instances of other poetic words.

2. Give examples of suffixes and prefixes already noted.

3. Show the suffix and its force in shoon, kine, eyne, oxen, children.

4. Build words from grave, tear, blinds (blins).

5. Change the Scots words into modern English. Show what letters have

been added, omitted, or changed.

6. Give the derivation of "lord." Show the various forms it assumed

(v. p. 12).

X
TO THE CUCKOO

OB LITHE new-comer ! I have heard,
I hear thee and rejoice :
O Cuckoo ! shall I call thee Bird
Or but a wandering Voice ?

While I am lying on the grass

t > t

Thy twofold shout I hear ;

From hill to hfll it seems to pass,

/ / /

At once far off and near.

Though babbling only to the vale

Of sunshine and of flowers,
Thou bringest unto me a tale

Of visionary hours.

Thrice welcome, darling of the Spring !

Even yet thou art to me
No bird, but an invisible thing,

A voice, a mystery ;

The same whom in my schoolboy days

I listened to ; that Cry
Which made me look a thousand ways

In bush, and tree, and sky.

To seek thee did I often rove

Through woods and on the green ;

And thou wert still a hope, a love ;
Still long'd for, never seen !

TO THE CUCKOO 55

And I can listen to thee yet ;

Can lie upon the plain
And listen, till I do beget

That golden time again.

O blessed Bird ! the earth we pace

Again appears to be
An unsubstantial, faery place,

That is fit home for Thee.

W. WORDSWORTH (1770-1850).

1. Questions and Exercises

Can the poem be properly described as a narrative ? As a
description ? In what respect, either in subject-matter or in
treatment, does this poem differ from those already studied ?
In this poem does the poet conceal his personality ? If not,
why ? Does he think that the cuckoo understands him ? In
what way does the bird really speak to the poet ? Why does
he regard it as a friend ? Why is it a one-sided friendship ?
Give from the poem three reasons why the poet welcomes
the cuckoo ? Bring together lines under the heading of
" Memories." Quote the stanza in which the poet con-
fesses that he does not understand the cuckoo. Point out
any special characteristics of poetry occurring in the poem.
Give examples of the repetition of the same words, and of
the same idea in different words. What different epithets
does the poet apply to the cuckoo ? In what different ways
does he describe its cry ? Does the cuckoo sing ? Is the
language of the poem simple ? Give a reason for your
answer. Write out a list of the words of more than two
syllables. Select the stanza which you think is nearest
prose. Between which two stanzas is there no break in the
sense ?

2. Composition : Exercises

I. Make one or two sentences about the poem ; say what is its subject, what
is the method of treatment, how much of it is narrative, how much

56 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

descriptive, whether it is dramatic, and so on. Write as if you were
explaining it to a class-mate.

2. Condense the poem, omitting all repetitions.

3. Paraphrase Stanza I and Stanza 8.

4. Using the following plan, write an essay on the " Cuckoo." Quote

appropriately from the poem.

(i) The Cuckoo — why called — a visitor to Britain,
(ii) When it comes — why it comes — nesting — its food,
(iii) Stories of its young — its neglect of its offspring,
(iv) When it goes away — where it goes.

(v) Conclusion : Why Cuckoo is regarded as bird of good omen —
" the harbinger of Spring."

An Ode is a poem written in honour of, and addressed to some
person, principle, place, or thing.

3. Prosody

Read the poem through, accenting the stressed syllables. Has each line the
same number of feet ? Name the arrangement of the lines in regard to stresses
and to rhymes. Do the lines with the same number of stresses rhyme together
or alternately ? Write out a list of all the poems already studied which have the
same kind of stanza.

Without looking at the poem, re-write the following in the proper metre : —
Thrice welcome ! darling of the Spring, even yet thou art to me no bird, but
an invisible thing, a voice, a mystery : the same whom in my schoolboy days I
listened to : that cry which made me look a thousand ways in bush, and tree,
and sky.

Occasionally in scanning a line it is necessary to omit a letter
which stands for a syllable. The word " invisible " is made up of
four syllables, in vis i ble ; but in the line

No bird | but an | invis | ible thing

it should be sounded as a trisyllable for the sake of the metre.
This is called slurring. In the first stanza the word " wandering "
must be slurred to " wand'ring," just as is usually done in speech.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words thy, bringest, rove, wert, pace, faery, vale.

Compound Words sunshine, noun + verb; upon, prep. + preposition.

Onomatopoelic Words cuckoo, babbling.

TO THE CUCKOO

Words which are imitations of sounds heard in nature are called Onomato-
poetic words.

— re, again. (L.)

— in, not. (L.)

— be, intensive. (^E.)

— ad, to. (L.)

— ary, Adjectival suffix.

— ible

Prefixes re — rejoice

in — invisible
be — beget
ap — appears

Suffixes ary — visionary — ary, Adjectival suffix. (L.)

ible — invisible — ible ,, ,, (L.)

ial — unsubstantial — ial ,, ,, (L.)

ling — darling — ling. Diminutive. (L.)

y — mystery — y. Abstract suffix. (L.)

ROOTS:
LATIN :

Videre, to see : VISIONARY, invisible, evident, providence, advise.
Planus, flat : PLAIN, plane, plan, explain, esplanade.
Vox, voice : VOICE, advocate, vocal, convoke.

EXERCISES : Give other words formed from above roots,
from roots previously learnt.

Give words formed

Write out a list of other compound words based on these models : noun +
verb, verb + noun, adj. +noun, noun + adj. Give words having prefixes
or suffixes previously learnt.

XI
CHARACTER OF A HAPPY LIFE

HOW happy is he born and taught
That serveth not another's will ;
Whose armour is his honest thought
And simple truth his utmost skill !

Whose passions not his masters are,
Whose soul is still prepared for death,

Untied unto the world by care
Of public fame, or private breath ;

Who envies none that chance doth raise,

Or vice ; who never understood
How deepest wounds are given by praise,

Nor rules of state, but rules of good ;

Who hath his life from rumours freed ;

Whose conscience is his strong retreat ;
Whose state can neither flatterers feed,

Nor ruin make oppressors great ;

Who God doth late and early pray
More of His grace than gifts to lend ;

And entertains the harmless day
With a well-chosen book or friend ;

— This man is freed from servile bands

Of hope to rise, or fear to fall,
Lord of himself, though not of lands ;

And having nothing, yet hath all.

SIR HENRY WOTTON (1568-1639).

CHARACTER OF A HAPPY LIFE 59

1. Questions and Exercises

Substitute another title. What is this poem a description of?
Is it the same kind of descriptive poem as, e.g., " Winter " ?
What is the difference? Gather together (i) what the good
man will do, and (2) what he will not do. Is the good man
also the happy man? Is the happy man necessarily a
wealthy man ? Has he a good conscience ? Is he religious ?
independent? honest? honourable? slanderous? envious?
a false praiser? interested in politics? Give a quotation
from the poem to back up your answers. How is the happy
man defended against the attacks of others? What is his
own means of attack? What is his defence? Paraphrase
"public fame," "private breath," "strong retreat," "servile
bands." What line must be repeated at the beginning of
most stanzas ? At which stanza is it unnecessary to repeat
this line? Is the same idea ever repeated in the poem?
Illustrate your answer by quotations? Who is the "this
man " referred to in the last stanza ? Is he born to a happy
life ? trained to a happy life ?

2. Composition : Plan of poem : construction of sentences : reflection :

Note the disproportion in the divisions of the poem —
I. Introduction — "How happy is he born and taught." 1. i.
II. Characteristics. 11. 2-20.

III. General Conclusion. 11. 21-24.

But the introductory line is very important, because it forms the
main clause of every sentence contained in the second division of
the poem, viz., characteristics, 11. 2-20. Thus :

(a) How happy is he born and taught Main.

That serveth not another's will. Subordinate.

(£) How happy is he born and taught Principal.

Whose armour is his honest thought. Subordinate.

Whose utmost skill is simple truth. Subordinate.

(<f) How happy is he born and taught Principal.

Whose conscience is his strong retreat. Subordinate.

60 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

There are about twenty statements in the poem which may be put
in the above manner. Each of these statements is really a reflection
about the happiness of being born with a certain characteristic, or
of having acquired that characteristic by education and training.
It is not likely that the poet is describing a real man. Probably he
is portraying his ideal — what he thinks the happy man should be.
He turns over in his mind various thoughts about the happy life
and how to live it. This turning over of thought in the mind is
called Reflection (re, back or again ; flection, a bending). A poem
which has many of these reflections may be called a reflective poem.

Here the reflective statements are all put in simple fashion, a
main clause being followed by an adjective clause. However, it is
quite possible to make the same statement in another way by
changing the structure of the sentence. Thus :

(a) How happy is he born and taught who never understood the rules of State,

Adjective clause.

(b) When a man has never understood the rules of State he has been happily

born and taught. Adverb clause.

of State. Simple sentence.

Altering the structure of a sentence is a common device in
paraphrasing.

EXERCISES : I. Make other reflective statements from the poem, commencing
" How happy is he born and taught."

2. Put these reflections into sentences having —

(a) a Main and an Adjective clause.

(b) a Main and an Adverb clause.

(d) only one clause.

3. Express the main thought of the poem in a paragraph.

4. Paraphrase Stanza 3 and Stanza 6.

5. After having studied the words and expressions, answer Ques. 3 (p. 62).

CHARACTER OF A HAPPY LIFE 61

3. Prosody

Scan the poem. What is the number of feet in each line ? Has every line
the same number of feet ? Point out any slurred syllables. What is the rhyme
arrangement ?

A Stanza containing four lines is called a Quatrain.

It has been shown that poetry may easily be turned into prose.
It is not so easy to turn prose into poetry, but sometimes in order
to test one's knowledge of prosody simple exercises in versification
are given. The following prose passage contains (i) the rhymes
underlined, (2) the correct number of words. The stress order is
"weak-strong," "weak-strong" throughout, 4 stresses to the line.

Who hath freed his life from rumours, whose conscience is his strong
retreat ; whose state can neither feed flatterers, nor ruin make oppressors
great.

It is required to write this as a stanza with alternate rhymes.
First, note down the rhymes : freed, retreat, feed, great. Second,
accent the words as they stand with the rhymes placed at every
fourth stress. Third, transpose any word which seems wrongly
stressed.

The first line may be :

Who hath from rumours his life freed,
or:

Who hath his life from rumours freed.

The second arrangement is the better, because "his," an unim-
portant word, is stressed in the first ; whereas in the second all the
important words have stresses. It is rare that the order of the
words in a line of poetry can be changed without destroying either
the metre or the sense.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words Give any.

Compound Words Another, adj. + adj. (pronoun); nothing, adj. + noun;
understood (prep, or adv. ) + verb.

62 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Prefixes pre — prepared — pre, prse, before. (L.)

con — conscience — con, together. (L.)
op — oppressors — ob, against. (L.)
enter — entertains — inter, amongst. (L. )
re — religious — re, again, back. (L.)

Suffixes most — utmost — most, superlative, (&•)

ht — though/ — abstract suffix. (M.)
th — trath „ ,, (M.)

ion — passz'0»s ,, „ (L.)

our — rumour ,, ,, (L.)

ce — conscience ,, ,, (L.)

grace.

less — harm/ess — adjectival. (fiL. )
ic — pubhV ,, (L.)

ile — servi'fe — ,, (L.)

ious — religious — ,, (L.)

ate — private — ,, (L.)

or — oppressor — denoting "agent."

EXERCISES : I. Make out a complete list of the abstract nouns in the poem :
show the various suffixes and their origins.

2. Select the stanza which has the least foreign words and the one which

has the most.

3. Write your estimate of the poem in regard to "language" and

" feeling." If the poem does not appeal to you, give your reasons.

ROOTS
LATIN :

Anna, arms: ARMOUR, arms, armament.

Pati, pass, to suffer : PASSIONS, patience, compassionate.

Stare, stat, to stand ; STATE, circumstance, distance, destitute, in-
stantly.
UNSUBSTANTIAL ("To the Cuckoo").

Scire, to know : CONSCIENCE, conscious, science, scientific.

Trab.e"re, tract, to draw: RETREAT, tract, training, treatment, trail.

Oratus, pleasing : GRACE, congratulate, ungrateful, agreeable,

ingratiate.

Semis, slave: SERVETH, SERVILE, servant.

XII

THE CELTS AND THE SCANDIANS

IT has been shown that the English speech was introduced into
the island of Britain from the mainland of Europe by three
Germanic tribes, and it is clear that, owing to the presence of foreign
words, the original language has since been profoundly modified. The
foreign tongue which has exerted the greatest influence upon English
is undoubtedly Latin, and on what occasions and by what means
its influence was exerted will be shown later. But in the first, or
Old English, period, in addition to Latin, other two languages were
sources of foreign words. These were Celtic and Scandinavian.

It is not quite clear who were the original inhabitants of Britain,
but it is certain that the Celts, like the English themselves, were
invaders and the conquerors of a race already settled there. The
date of the Celtic invasion must have been long before the com-
mencement of the Christian era. When the famous Roman general
Julius Caesar made his first visit to Britain in 55 B.C., he was attracted
thither by the stories of traders and merchants, and it is recorded
that certain Jewish navigators, the Phoenicians, had traded with the
Celts centuries before that date.

If a race has once been firmly established in a country there are
always traces of its presence in the speech of its successors. There-
fore the Celts would adopt some words from their predecessors in
Britain, and the English in their turn adopt some words from the
Celts. A modern instance of the same tendency may be quoted.
The Maories of New Zealand, themselves originally invaders, have
been conquered and largely dispossessed by the British. When the
white population has entirely absorbed the Maori element, the

64 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

language of the latter will probably die out as a spoken tongue. But
many of their words, having been already incorporated in English,
will survive. Thus, most of the New Zealand geographical names
are of Maori origin — Ruapehu, Waikato, Orcpuki, Kaikoura ; and a
few general terms likewise — kiwi, moa.

In the same manner when the English came to Britain they
found the chief natural features of the country — the mountains, rivers,
hills, valleys — already named by the Celts, and in most cases it was
easy and convenient to adopt these place-names, e.g. Aberdeen,
Carlisle, Ben Lomond. Likewise they adopted a few general terms,
e.g. bannock, crock, down (Wiltshire Downs).

Frequently it happened that the invaders did not know or did not
use the native names. They therefore either re-named the place
according to their own ideas of it, or translated the native word into
their own tongue. There are thus two layers of place-names, Celtic
and ^Englisc; and sometimes there is a combination of both
tongues to form one name.

e.g. Meikledrumgray = Meikle (^nglisc), Drum (Celtic), Gray
(^Englisc), the big gray ridge of land.

The Scandinavian invasions also left their impress on the language
of this country. The Scandinavians, Scandians, Danes, or Norse
were a fierce northern people closely allied in speech to the whole
of the English tribes, but most nearly related to the Anglians.
They came from the north of Denmark, from Jutland, and from
South Sweden, and about four hundred years after the coming of the
English they made great settlements along the East Coast of Britain,
in the Western Isles of Scotland, and in Ireland. The English
tribes, who had now become consolidated into three kingdoms,
fought vigorously against these fierce sea-rovers. But all their
efforts were in vain. The Scandians conquered in turn the Anglian
kingdom of Northumbria — which stretched from the Forth to the
Humber — and the Mercian kingdom — which lay between the
Humber and the Thames. The heroic efforts of its great ruler,
Alfred, saved the Saxon kingdom of Wessex — which then comprised

THE CELTS AND THE SCANDIANS

the land lying south of the Thames. But it was only for a time. The
invaders came in fresh force, and finally the whole of South Britain
had to submit to the foreign rule of the powerful, but wise and good,
Canute. History records that the Danish dynasty was short-lived
in England, but in Ireland, and especially in the Western Isles of
Scotland, Danish or Norse rulers held sway for many centuries.
In these districts most firmly held, Scandian place-names are in
most abundance, and as the Danes came into contact with both
Celts and ^Englisc, certain words have been formed by the union of
Danish and ^Englisc and of Danish and Celtic respectively. Thus : —

Danish and ^Englisc, Scarborough ; Danish and Celtic, Scarsdale.

The Origin of Place-names

CELTIC.

jENGLISC.

SCANDIAN.

MEANING AND EXAMPLES.

Avon, Usk,

Burn, Stream

Beck, Fleet

water, river : Avonmore, Exeter,

Ex, Tain,

Blackburn, Wans&c£, Purfleet.

Ben, Dun,

Hill, Law

Fell

mountain, summit, peak : Ben

Tor

Nevis, Yes Tor, Green/aw, Lud-

low, Snae/W/.

Craig, Car-

Stan, Stone,

Scar

rock, stone : Craigroillar, Stan-

rick, Crag

Cliffe

rigg, Shornc/z^Jr, Scarsdale.

Bally

Ton, Stead,

By, Toft,

house, town, village, place : Bally-

Ham

Heim,

mena, Stock/<w, Hampstead,

Thorpe,

West Ham, Whitfjj/, Lowes/V/1,

Thwaite

Burnham Thorpe, CrosstAwaite.

Dail, Dol,

Dale, Dene,

Dal

valley : ZWgelly, Glengarry,

Glen,

Combe

SirotAclyde, TyneJa/e, Jesmon-

Strath

dene, \\hacombe, Kenofo/.

Inch, Innis

ey» ig

oe, ey

island : 7«<rAkeith, £nm'skillen,

Jersey, Rothesoy, Faroe.

Inver, Aber

mouth

wick

river, mouth, creek : Inverness,

Portsmouth, 'Berwick.

Can, Kin

naze

ness

headland : Cawtire, The Naze,

Caithness.

Kil, Llan

cirice = church

Kirk

sacred place : A7/marnock, Llan-

daff, A7r/£cudbright.

Rin, Drum,

R'gg

Cefn

ridge of land, height : Rhinns

Ard

of Galloway, Meikle^rwwgray,

Ardoch, Longrtggend, CAeviot.

Lyn, Pool

Mere

Tarn

lake, marsh: Dub//w, "Liverpool,

Winder/wtfrc, Zarwsyke.

N.B. — The derivation of many place-names is doubtful.

66 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

EXERCISES : Write out lists of geographical names of Celtic, of ^Englisc, and
of Scandian origin respectively.

Select words which show signs of both Celtic and ^Englisc origin : of both
Scandian and ^Englisc : Celtic and Scandian.

Construct a table (as above) showing origin of following words : Rydal,
Airdrie, Dalkeith, Rhinsdale, Penrhyn, Scarborough, Kilbride, Killer-
mont, Clifford, Hochheim, Hopetoun, Stanhope, Carter Fell, Dovre-
feld, Drumcliffe, Drumossie, Ballyjamesduff, Holbeck, Dunchurch,
Dunbarton.

Scandian and JEnglisc : their relationship

It is well known that the Scandians, or Danes, came from
almost the same part of the continent as the English, and it is
believed that they were either the descendants of, or closely related
to, those of the three Germanic tribes who had preferred to stay
behind at the time of the migration to Britain. The Scandian and
the ^nglisc tongues had therefore once been identical, and in spite
of differences which had developed in the course of centuries, it
was not very difficult for the two peoples to understand each other.
In some cases the English adopted a Danish word, and still retained
their own word to express the same meaning. This was an advan-
tage, because the same idea could be expressed in two ways, e.g.
the Scandian word kirk and the ^Englisc form church both came
to be used. Other examples are : —

jEnglisc Form. Scandian Form.

drop drip

troth ) trust )

truth / tryst /

girdle girth

gleam glimmer

slay slaughter

It is obvious that girdle and girth must be derived from the same
root, and that the other pairs have a similar relation. Now when
there are two forms of a word both derived from the same root and
differing only slightly in meaning, these forms are called Doublets.
One result of the intermixture of Danish and /Englisc was the
formation of doublets.

THE CELTS AND THE SCANDIANS

In some cases the Scandian form drove out the JEnglisc form
altogether, and so there are many common words which might be
thought to be of ^nglisc origin but are really of Scandian. Such
words certainly number several hundreds, but since Scandian and
^Englisc were so closely related, it is desirable at this stage to classify
them all as native.

Common Words of Scandian Origin

NOUNS.

VERBS.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

PRONOUNS.

PREPOSITIONS.

bark (tree)
brink

are

bait

both
bound

they
them

till
fro

bulk

bask

harsh

their

carouse

cast

ill

earl

call

irksome

egg
fellow

dash
die

loose
same

harbour
husband
leg
pudding
raft
sister

gasp
glint
guess
raise
rove
rush

scant
skittish
sly
tight
ugly
welcome

skirt
sky
slush

rip

skin
smile

window

take

wing

wag
whirl

Provincial Words of Scandian Origin

Some Scandian words are used only in the lowlands of Scotland
and the northern parts of England. Thus : —

clatch, a brood of birds. lowe, a flame.

flit, to change houses. mun, maun, must.

gar, to cause. neif, fist.

greet, to weep. sket, quickly.

XIII
JOCK O' HAZELDEAN

" T T THY weep ye by the tide, ladie ?

V V Why weep ye by the tide ?
I'll wed ye to my youngest son,

And ye sail be his bride :
And ye sail be his bride, ladie,

Sae comely to be seen " —
But aye she loot the tears down fa'

For Jock o' Hazeldean.

" Now let this wilfu' grief be done,
And dry that cheek so pale ;

Young Frank is chief of Errington
And lord of Langley-dale ;

His step is first in peaceful ha',
His sword in battle keen " —

But aye she loot the tears down fa'

/ / /

For Jock o' Hazeldean.

" A chain of gold ye sail not lack,

Nor braid to bind your hair,
Nor mettled hound, nor managed hawk,

Nor palfrey fresh and fair ;
And you, the foremost o' them a',

Shall ride our forest queen " —
But aye she loot the tears down fa'

For Jock o' Hazeldean.

JOCK O' HAZELDEAN 69

The kirk was deck'd at morning-tide,

The tapers glimmer'd fair ;
The priest and bridegroom wait the bride,

And dame and knight are there ;
They sought her baith by bower and ha' ;

The ladie was not seen !
She's o'er the Border, and awa'

Wi' Jock o' Hazeldean.

SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832).

1. Questions and Exercises

Quote lines from the poem bringing out the idea of " sadness."
Show the single line which turns this "sadness" into
"rejoicing." In what respect, then, does the poem differ
from " Earl March " ? In what respects is it similar ? Show
where there is a gap in the story. Does this gap lend itself
to imaginative treatment ? Why ? Mark off those parts of
the poem which are said by the poet himself and those
parts which the poet makes another say. Is this other
speaker a man or a woman? Which is the most important
character in the poem ? Why ? Which two characters are
mentioned by name? Langley-dale is in the county of
Durham ; where did Jock o' Hazeldean dwell ? Can you
imagine any reason why Frank's father wanted his son to
marry the young lady ? Quote lines to show that the lady
was beautiful. Would that be a reason? Do you think
young Frank would have made a good husband? Give
reasons. Who arranged the wedding? Did he think him-
self cruel ? In which stanza does he show sympathy ? im-
patience ? self-satisfaction ? At what time of the day was
the marriage to take place? When did the lady run off
with Jock o' Hazeldean? At what period in history was
such an event likely to take place ? Do you know any other
poem by the same author with almost the same plot ? What
"moral" may be drawn from this story? In the last stanza

70 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

mark off the lines in which the past tense is employed, and
those in which the present tense is used. What effect is
gained thereby?

2. Composition : Description, Narration, Reflection

Compositions regarded solely from the point of view of Form and
Diction fall naturally into two great classes — prose and verse. But
all writing, whether prose or verse, may be regarded also from the
point of view of subject-matter and general treatment. For example,
the selections given in this book are all poetic, but it is obvious
that the poems are not all of the same kind as regards subject and
method of treatment. There is the poetry of Description, as in
Roger's A Wish, Christina Rossetti's A Green Cornfield, Shake-
speare's Winter, and Cotton's A Summer's Morning; there is the
poetry of Narration, as in Earl March and The Pride of Youth ;
there is the poetry of Reflection, as in The Character of a Happy Life
and To the Cuckoo. Description, Narration, Keflection are the
three great classes under which all composition may be grouped ;
but very seldom is a piece of prose or poetry purely descriptive or
purely narrative, or purely reflective. An illustration of the over-
lapping of these divisions and of the various aspects in which a
composition may be regarded is provided in Jock o' Hazeldean.

It is a narrative poem because it tells a story. But it has also
descriptive touches':

"The kirk was deck'd at morning tide,
The tapers glimmer'd fair."

Then its treatment is essentially dramatic, for it shows human
life in action and the stress of conflicting emotions. Its subject-
matter is romantic, for it is a tale of love and adventure.

Although there is an appearance of reality about the story, and
the central incident may have been commonplace enough, neverthe-
less the poet has drawn the details and the setting from his own

fancy. He gains an air of truth by giving the actual names of
persons and places ; but at the same time he withholds the names of
others. Enough is given to stimulate curiosity, but not enough to
satisfy it ; and in this way also there is an appeal to the imagination.

A composition is classified according to its prevailing character-
istic. Jock o1 Hazeldean is primarily a narration of a certain event,
and therefore, although it possesses several other qualities, it is
ranked as a Narrative poem.

A Ballad is a short narrative poem treating of a romantic
incident in a dramatic way. Jock o' Hazeldean is a ballad.

EXERCISES : I. Put the ideas contained in the first stanza into one sentence.

2. Condense the whole story into one paragraph.

3. Describe the scene when Jock o' Hazeldean carried off the young lady.

Hints: time — place — conversation — means of escape — resolve — flight
— anxiety — safety.

4. Expand the account of the scene at the church. Make the various

characters — dame, knight, priest, bridegroom, father — speak.

3. Prosody

Give examples of Alliteration. Write down instances of
Repetition of idea other than that of the Refrain. What special
poetic effect is gained by the Refrain ? Scan all the unmarked lines.
Mark the rhyme arrangement : express it in words. How many
separate rhymes in each stanza ? What is the effect of the refrain
on the rhyme ? How does this add to the difficulty of the poet's
task?

It has become customary to write certain kinds of poetic com-
position in a certain metrical way, and because of this there is often
a close connection between the form and the matter of verse. Thus
Ballads are usually, but not always, written in a stanza of four lines
of alternate tetrameter and trimeter, with feet having a weak followed
by a strong stress, and rhyming alternately.

72 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Thus :—

| A chain [ of gold | ye sail | not lack |

| Nor braid | to bind | your hair j

| Nor pal | frey fresh | and fair. |

This arrangement of lines is known as the Ballad Stanza.

Ballads were originally sung by strolling minstrels, and perhaps
the arrangement — tetrameter followed by trimeter — was the easiest
to memorise, and so became the usual stanza for the ballad.

EXERCISE : Name poems from this book, written in the ballad stanza, but
which are not ballads. In each case show why the poem is not a ballad.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words tide = sea, tide = time, bower, o'er.

Compound Words wilfu' = will + full, noun + adj. ; bridegroom, noun + noun ;

peaceful.

Archaic Word tide = time.
Prefixes Are there any ?

Suffixes ed — mettled — ed, adjectival. (./E.)

Words and Phrases peculiar to a certain district and differing from the
standard speech are called Provincialisms.

EXERCISES: I. Give the origin and meaning of the following place-
names : Hazeldean, Langley-dale, Errington.

2. Write out a list of all contracted words.

3. Give meaning of all words not now current in ordinary written English.

Which of these words would you classify as provincialisms ?

4. Classify the following words as "Native" or "Foreign"; give reasons: —

priest, bridegroom, kirk, lady, bride, cheek, grief, lord, step, tear, gold,
hound, queen, tapers, dame, knight.

5. Discover in the poem at least two Scandian words. In what part of the

country were Scandian words most numerous ?

XIV

SWEET AND SOUR

Q^ WEET is the Rose, but grows upon a brere ;
^^S ' r . * r r

V-' Sweet is the Juniper, but sharp his bough ;

Sweet is the Eglantine, but pricketh near ;
Sweet is the Firbloom, but his branch is rough ;
Sweet is the Cypress, but his rind is tough ;
Sweet is the Nut, but bitter is his pill ;
Sweet is the Broomflow'r, but yet sour enough ;
And sweet is Moly, but his root is ill.
So every sweet with sour is temper'd still,
That maketh it be coveted the more :
For easy things, that may be got at will,

/ f f f t

Most sort of men do set but little store.

EDMUND SPENSER (1553-1599),
from Amoretti.

Moly, a magic herb of the Greeks.

1. Questions and Exercises

Would you call this a narrative, a descriptive, or a reflective
poem? Why? Quote lines that are descriptive. What
does the poet wish to show in this poem ? Which two lines
give a general statement of his meaning ? By what means
does he endeavour to demonstrate this? How many
different illustrations does he make? From what great
natural kingdom are these illustrations taken? Could the

74 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

poet have taken his illustrations from the animal kingdom ?
Make sentences about the horse, the cow, the dog, the
sheep, the lion, the bear, showing in the first half of the
sentence an advantage and in the second half a disadvantage
— from the point of view of man, e.g. Gentle is the cat, but
his claws are sharp. Make a similar series of sentences
about the ruby, diamond, sapphire, pearl, amethyst, opal :
and about the lily, pansy, oak, ash, willow.

2. Composition: Illustration

In this poem Spenser has built upon the thought that everything
has some drawback or defect. It is instructive to note how he
expands this thought or reflection. He does it in two ways — the
first, by seeking to show by illustrations that this main statement is
true : the second, by adding another reflection suggested by the
main statement.

Thus, the main statement is : —

So every sweet with sour is tempered still
That maketh it be coveted the more.

This statement is illustrated by references to the Rose, Juniper,
Eglantine, Firbloom, Cypress, Nut, Broomflower, and Moly.
These illustrations occupy eight lines.

Finally, another reflection is added : —

" For easy things, that may be got at will,
Most sort of men do set but little store.

Here, then, is the plan of the poem.

(i) Illustrations, 11. 1-8.
(ii) MAIN STATEMENT, 11. 9-10.
(iii) Reflection on main statement, 11. 11-12.

An illustration is that which throws light upon some fact or
statement. It bears out the truth of the statement by means of
something more easily understood. Thus in the poem the first

SWEET AND SOUR 75

eight lines are descriptive and deal with actual realities, the
concrete ; whilst the other four lines are reflective and deal with
thought, something existing in the mind, the abstract.

Since illustrations are subordinate to the main statement, the
general character of the poem is Eeflective.

The use of illustration in a prose composition will be shown in
the next lesson.

EXERCISES : I. Paraphrase the last four lines.

2. Write out the first sentence in prose order. Note that it extends to
eight lines.

3. Prosody

Lines which have five stresses are called Pentameter.

How many stress marks in each line ?

Write down the names for lines which have i, 2, 3, 4, 5 stresses.

Divide the last five lines into feet, thus :

X r _X / X r X / X /

In these five lines what is the arrangement of the stresses ?
Consider the first seven lines. Is the same regular arrangement of
the stresses followed ? Try to divide the first seven lines into feet
in such a way that every foot contains one strong stress and one
weak : over every weak stress place a cross, thus :

/ X X / X/ X/X/

How many feet in each line follow the general rule of " weak-
strong " stress ? What is the exception ?

Obviously in the first foot the stress order is inverted : according
to rule it should be x J, but actually it is 1 x . When the stress
order is the opposite of the prevailing arrangement, then there is
"inverted stress."

Feet are named according to the stress order of their syllables.
When a weak stress is followed by a strong stress, the foot is called

76 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

an iambus, e.g. x ^. When a strong stress is followed by a weak
stress the foot is called a trochee, e.g. J. x . An iambus is an inverted
trochee, and a trochee is an inverted iambus.

The line is named (i) according to the number of feet, (2)
according to the prevailing kind of foot.

Thus in the poem, because each line has five feet, it is Penta-
meter, and because the prevailing foot is an iambus, it is iambic.
The full name for the line is therefore iambic pentameter.

A short way of writing iambic pentameter is 5 x 1 ; the 5 shows
the number of feet, and the symbol x J. shows the stress order.

EXERCISES : Write down in words the meaning of the following symbols :
4 xl, 3 x^, 2 xj, i xj..

How many separate rhymes in the poem ? Denote the rhyme arrangement
by letters.

Read over the preceding poems and say where you would place inverted
stresses.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words Make out a list of all poetic words.

Compound Words Make out a list of all compound words, and show from

what parts of speech they are formed.
Archaic Words Write down any archaic words. Distinguish Archaic

from Obsolete. Is the word " his " archaic here ?

Prefixes Make out a list of all prefixes, and show meaning of each.

Suffixes Make out a list of all suffixes, and show meaning of each.

Words which have the opposite, or nearly the opposite, meaning are
called Antonyms [e.g. Sweet— Sour].

EXERCISES : Excluding proper names, select ten words of ^Englisc origin,
and give a reason for each one (v. p. n).

What is meant by Diction ? How would you describe the Diction of
this poem ? What word would be substituted for the word "his."

Give the Antonyms of Good, beautiful, bravery, stupidity, coarse, fat, big,
die, false, transparent, willing, abstract.

ROOT

LATIN :

Temperare, to restrain: TEMPERED, attemper, distemper, tamper,

temperate.

XV
INSTINCT

r I ^HERE may no man embrace

As to distrain a thing which that nature
Hath naturally set in a creature.

Take any bird, and put it in a cage,
And do all thine intent, and thy courage,
To foster it tenderly with meat and drink
Of all dainties that thou can'st bethink,
And keep it all so cleanly as thou may,
Although his cage of gold be never so gay,
Yet hath this bird by twenty thousand fold
Levere in a forest, that is rude and cold,
Go eat worms and such wretchedness ;
For ever this bird will do his business
To escape out of his cage if he may ;
His liberty this bird desireth aye.

Let take a cat, and foster him well with milk
And tender flesh, and make his couch of silk,
And let him see a mouse go by the wall,
Anon he waiveth milk, and flesh, and all,
And every dainty that is in that house
Such appetite he hath to eat a mouse.

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340-1400),
from The Canterbury Tales.

embrace as to distrain = be successful in changing.

78 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

1. Questions and Exercises

How would you describe the Diction of this passage ? Make
out a list of words which are not used in the ordinary sense.
Of the three parts of the poem which would you select as
being most modern in diction and expression ? Why ?
Supply the word omitted between "Let" and "take" in
line 1 6. What does the bird desire most ? What does the
cat desire most ? Try to explain the difference, if any, be-
tween the two desires. Are worms really "wretchedness"
to birds ? From what point of view is Chaucer speaking ?
By what adjective would you describe animals that are tame
and are kept in or about a house ? Give other examples of
"Instinct" in birds and in animals. Has man "Instinct"?
Why may this be classified as a Reflective composition?
Quote lines that are " descriptive." Which lines would you
select as the main statement in the passage ?

2. Composition: Illustration

In this quaint extract from one of Chaucer's poems the use of
illustration is again shown. The poet first of all makes a general
statement embodying the truth that all creatures which have been
domesticated by man still retain the natural impulse which is called
Instinct. He then seeks to make this truth more apparent by
means of two illustrations — the first, that of the caged bird desiring
always its liberty ; the second, that of the cat, which prefers a mouse
to all other dainties. The poem thus divides itself into three distinct
parts : —

(i) THE MAIN STATEMENT. 11. 1-3.

(ii) The illustration of the caged bird. 11. 4-15.

(a) Description of the bird : its desire. 11. 3-12.

(b) The conclusion from this description. 11. 13-15.

(iii) The illustration of the Cat. 11. 16-21.

(a) Description of the cat ; its life. 11. 16-20.
(£) Conclusion from this description. 1. 21.

INSTINCT 79

The reasoning is thus carefully built up, and the result is that
the reader admits the truth of the main statement. Such a process
of reasoning is often called Exposition. Most reflective composi-
tions expound some principle or truth. Illustrations are used to
make the exposition clearer and the meaning more apparent.

As a rule prose is a better means of exposition than verse,
because the argument can be very clearly set forth in the former
without the encumbrance of metre and rhyme. For example, it is
easy to understand the reasoning of this poem when it is written in
condensed prose : —

(i) Man is not able to overcome the natural instinct of any

creature.
Thus (ii) No matter how well he treats a captive bird it always

desires its liberty.
And (iii) No matter how well-fed a cat may be it always prefers

its natural food to other dainties.

The plan of the following essay is largely suggested by the
poem.

Do ANIMALS THINK?

I. Introduction. — Animals of different kinds. Some thought to be wiser than

others.

II. Illustrations.— (a) Wise animals — dog, monkey, elephant, horse, etc.
(6) Stupid animals — sheep, donkey, pig.

III. So wise are certain animals that some people believe they actually think.

(a) Illustrations of this wisdom : beaver builds dam ; dog herds sheep ;
elephant piles logs, etc.

IV. What animals cannot do : invent something new.

(a) Illustrations : beavers never try new kind of dam ; dog, horse,

elephant, etc., directed by man.

V. Conclusion. — Animals have instinct, but not reason ; therefore animals do
not think.

EXERCISES : I. Write the above essay, keeping all paragraphs distinct and
using some of the illustrations provided.

2. Paraphrase the first three lines of the poem.

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

3. Write in prose order, but substituting words commonly used for any

unusual phrases, the account of the caged bird.

4. Select another illustration from the animal kingdom to show the truth

of the main statement.

3. Prosody

Write down in words a description of the rhyme arrangement. What special
name is given to this rhyme arrangement? (v. p. 48). How many stresses in each
line?

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic couch.

Compound although = all + though , adj . + conj .

Archaic aye, anon, bethink.

levere= rather.

es, ex, — escape — ex, out of. (L.)

dis — distrain — dis, apart. (L.)

ap (ad) — appetite

in — intent

age — courage

Obsolete
Prefixes

Suffixes

— ad, to. (L.)

— in, to. (L.)

— age, abstract suffix. (L.)

ness — wretchedness — ness,

ROOTS

LATIN :
Liber, free :
TendSre, to stretch

Cor, the heart :
Petere, to fly> attack .
Locus, a place :
Traho, / draw :

LIBERTY, deliver, liberal, liberate, livery.

INTENT, attend, contend, distend, extend,
intend, intense, ostensible, ostentation,
portend, pretend, subtend, superinten-
dent, tendon, tense, tension, tent.

COURAGE, accord, concord, cordial, discord,
record.

APPETITE, competent, competitor, impetus,
petition, petulant.

COUCH, allocate, collocate, dislocate, local,
locate, locomotion, locus.

DISTRAIN, abstract, attract, contract, detract,
distract, extract, portrait, portray, pro-
tract, retract, retreat, subtract, train.

XVI
THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN

(l) THE ROMAN OCCUPATION

Preparatory Questions and Exercises

MAKE a list of the authors of the poems already studied.
Consider their dates of birth and death, and write down
the name of the author (i) who died most recently, (ii) whose birth
occurred earliest. How many years have elapsed between the
earliest date of birth (ii) and the last date of death (i) ?

To which of the three great periods of the language (p. 38)
belong most of the poems already studied? Which of these
authors belongs to the Middle Period of the language? Towards
which end of the period did he live ? What are the characteristics
of that period in regard to Native and Foreign words ? Which of
these characteristics is exemplified in his poem ?

Consider the lists of Roots appended to the various lessons.
To which language do most of these roots belong? To which
poem is the largest number of such roots appended ? What is the
date of the author of the poem ? To which period does he belong ?
So far, what is the name of the earliest author from whom an
extract is printed ? In this extract are there any foreign words ?
Before whose lifetime must these words have come into the language ?
Therefore before what date?

Chaucer used Words of Latin Origin

Geoffrey Chaucer lived and wrote about the close of the fourteenth
century, and thus is representative both of Middle and of Modern
English. He stands at the end of one great period in the history

82 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

of the English language and almost at the beginning of another.
The example of his work which has just been studied is, with the
exception of a modernised spelling, exactly as he wrote it. In
diction, in rhyme, in metre it is almost modern, and the reader
therefore finds no difficulty in understanding it. The passage,
however, has been specially selected to show how closely the
English of the fourteenth century coincides with the current speech,
and it must be admitted that all Chaucer's writing is not quite so
modern. Towards the end of this book another poem will illustrate
the strong mediaeval side of his work. Nevertheless, whereas the
language of the Old English (yEnglisc) Period has a very strange
appearance to modern eyes, the English of Chaucer seems quite
familiar.

The Middle Period, to which Chaucer in part belonged, is
characterised by the introduction and growth of foreign words, by
the struggle between native and foreign, and by consequent changes
in both. The fact that Chaucer uses a large number of words
derived from Latin demonstrates that by the fifteenth century many
foreign words had become incorporated in the ordinary speech of
the time, and that in the struggle between native and foreign the
language itself was changing from YEnglisc to English. The Latin
words used by Chaucer as part of his ordinary vocabulary must
have been introduced into the language at a much earlier date ; and
since Latin has entered largely into the composition of present-day
English speech, it is necessary to know how and on what occasions
that language was brought into Britain. The story, a long one, and
touching at many points the general history of the country, begins
with the coming of the Romans, and therefore with the dawn of
British history.

The conquering Latin Tongue

Of all the great empires that the world has seen rise and fall, that
of the Romans is best known in history. Several hundred years
before the Christian era, a few members of a tribe called the Latins,
who dwelt in the Italian peninsula, built the city of Rome. Its

THE ROMAN OCCUPATION 83

citizens were consequently termed Romans. Gradually these ex-
tended their sway beyond the city walls until they were masters,
not only of Italy itself, but also of Spain, France (Gaul), Belgium,
Greece, Asia Minor, and the northern part of Africa. From Gaul
they carried their arms across the channel into Britain, and for
nearly four hundred years they imposed their rule on the native
Celts.

The Romans, besides being skilful in war, were a highly civilised
race, and wherever they conquered they introduced their own forms
of government and their own civilisation. Some of the conquered
peoples, notably the Spaniards and the Gauls, adopted the language
of their Roman masters, and many of the Celts of Britain also began
to use the Latin tongue. But, when the Roman Empire began to
decay and the Roman legions were withdrawn from the outlying
parts to defend Italy itself from attack, Britain, which had been the
last territory to be conquered, was the first to be abandoned, and
the process of making the British Celts a Latin-speaking race was
consequently checked.

The Roman occupation of Britain came to an end in the year
409 A.D., and the invasions of the Germanic tribes began about
450 A.D., so that whatever chance Latin had of becoming the
national speech was soon destroyed altogether. Moreover, the
invaders, Jutes and Angles and Saxons, being then barbarians,
soon swept away nearly all of the Roman civilisation. But certain
traces of the Roman power still remained. Their great practical
works could not be easily effaced. The Roman wall, vallum ; the
Roman road, strata ; the Roman war-camp, castra ; the Roman
harbour, portus, have all resisted the ravages of time, and to this
day are regarded as triumphs of engineering skill, true monu-
ments to Roman greatness, the delight of the historian and the
antiquary.

The English adopt a few Latin Words

A very old ^Englisc poem tells how the fierce Saxon warriors
were struck with amazement at beholding the magnificence of the

84 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Roman city of Bath, and how they regarded the great structures
as " the work of the giants." As the newcomers had no names of
their own for these works, they naturally adopted the Latin terms
for them, and incorporated these into their own language. In this
way the First Latin Addition was brought about.

"Vallum," "strata," "castra," "portus," etc., did not retain their
original Roman form, but were modified somewhat, as the following
table shows : —

Table of Latin and Fart-Latin Place-names

Latin Word. English Words.

Castra Lancaster, Doncaster, Chester, Winchester, Leicester,

Gloucester.

Strata Stratford, Stradbroke, Streatham, Street.

Portus Portsmouth, Newport, Port.

Vallum Wall, Wallsend.

Millia Mile (measurement of distance).

Colonia Lincoln, Colne, Colchester.

Vicus Wickham, Prestwich, Prestwlck.
(village)

EXERCISES : I. Give the derivation of the following words : — Casterton,
Worcester, Colchester, Stratton, Stretton, Portchester, Portsea, Wall-
bury, Wallhill, Walton, Mile-end.

2. The modern English word " wine " is very like the Latin word vinum,

and some think that the word was introduced into Britain at the time of
the military occupation. From your general knowledge give reasons
why this should be so.

3. Show the modifications of the Roman word castra. In what part of

England is each form usually found ? Consult a map.

4. What name is given to a word the parts of which come from different

languages ? Consult table on p. 65 and then select words from above
list which are derived from Latin and Celtic and from Latin and
./Englisc. Explain the formation of the latter forms, considering that
the English did not arrive until the Romans had vacated Britain.

XVII
LORD ULLIN'S DAUGHTER

A CHIEFTAIN, to the Highlands bound
Cries, " Boatman, do not tarry !
And I'll give thee a silver pound
To row us o'er the ferry ! "

" Now who be ye, would cross Lochgyle,
This dark and stormy water ? "
" O, I'm the chief of Ulva's isle,
And this, Lord Ullin's daughter.

And fast before her father's men
Three days we've fled together,
For should he find us in the glen,
My blood would stain the heather.

His horsemen hard behind us ride —
Should they our steps discover,
Then who will cheer my bonny bride,
When they have slain her lover ? "

Out spoke the hardy Highland wight,
" I'll go, my chief — I'm ready ;
It is not for your silver bright,
But for your winsome lady :

And, by my word, the bonny bird
In danger shall not tarry :

86 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

So though the waves are raging white,
I'll row you o'er the ferry."

By this the storm grew loud apace,
The water-wraith was shrieking ;
And in the scowl of Heaven each face
Grew dark as they were speaking.

But still as wilder blew the wind,
And as the night grew drearer,
Adown the glen rode armed men
Their trampling sounded nearer.

" O haste thee, haste ! " the lady cries,
" Though tempests round us gather ;
I'll meet the raging of the skies,
But not an angry father."

The boat has left a stormy land,

r / /

A stormy sea before her, —

When, oh ! too strong for human hand

The tempest gather'd o'er her.

And still they row'd amidst the roar
Of waters fast prevailing ;
Lord Ullin reach'd that fatal shore, —
His wrath was changed to wailing.

For, sore dismay'd, through storm and shade
His child he did discover :
One lovely hand she stretch'd for aid,
And one was round her lover.

LORD ULLIN'S DAUGHTER 87

" Come back ! come back ! " he cried in grief,

" Across the stormy water ;

And I'll forgive your Highland chief,

My daughter !— Oh, my daughter!"

'Twas vain : the loud waves lash'd the shore,
Return or aid preventing :
The waters wild went o'er his child —
And he was left lamenting.

THOMAS CAMPBELL (1777-1844).

1. Questions and Exercises

Which of the following adjectives would you select to describe
this poem ? tragic, descriptive, narrative, dramatic, reflective,
romantic. Give a reason for each adjective chosen, and
quote lines in support of your opinion. Give a single name
for this kind of poem. Give from the poem examples of
the following characteristics of poetry : omission, repetition,
changed order of words. Gather together all the references
to the storm. What verses describe the scene at sea ? What
verses describe the first scene on the shore ? What verses
describe the scene on the shore after the arrival of Lord
Ullin? Were all in the boat drowned? Does the poet
say so?

2. Composition and Exposition

One characteristic of the " ballad " is compression ; the narrative
is always short ; nothing is said but what is necessary for a proper
understanding of the matter. Every separate stanza in this poem
really supplies some fresh information ; but that does not mean that
each stanza forms a separate heading in the story. When the
stanzas of this ballad are properly grouped together it is seen that
the narrative has four main heads or divisions. By summarising
and condensing each stanza in turn, this is made quite clear.

88 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Stanza Summary. Grouping of Stanzas.

(1) Chieftain urges boatman to row across ferry.

(2) Boatman questions him : Chief's answer.

(3) Chiefs answer and explanation.

(4) Chiefs explanation (continued).

(5) Boatman's answer. (i) The first scene on

(6) Boatman's answer. the shore.

(7) The storm described.

(8) The noise of pursuit heard.

(9) Lady anxious.

(10) Boat leaves; storm great. (ii) Departure of boat.

(11) Boat in the storm :

Lord Ullin's arrival. (iii) The arrival of Lord

(12) What he saw. Ullin and second

(13) " Come back." scene on shore.

(14) Conclusion : (iv) Conclusion.
Note that a turn in the story takes place in the middle of the eleventh stanza.

The right hand column shows the general plan of the composition,
and the left hand column shows a detailed plan.

EXERCISES : i. Write a character sketch of the Boatman (imaginative).

2. Describe the three days' chase (imaginative).

3. Re-write the following stanzas, changing the tense throughout from

present to past, and vice versa : — Stanzas 7, 8, 10.

4. Re-write the last stanza in prose order.

5. Paraphrase Stanza 7.

6. Notice the heading "Composition and Exposition." What is meant

by Exposition ? (v. p. 79).

3. Prosody

What is the name of the stanza ? In each line how many stressed syllables ?
What is the rhyme arrangement ? Point out any double rhymes. In what part
of the stanza are these found? Show the usual arrangement of double and
single rhymes. In which stanzas do the first and third lines not rhyme ? How

LORD ULLIN'S DAUGHTER 89

is this absence of rhyme in lines one and three made up for ? Give instances of
a word in the middle of a line rhyming with a word at the end of the line. In
the double rhyming words on which syllable is the stress? Give examples from
the poem of Trimeter Excessive lines. Compare this with Earl March (p. 25) ;
point out any resemblances in the stanza forms. Who wrote both ? Give from
the poem examples of alliteration.

The Rhyming of a word in the middle of a line with one at the
end of it is often called Middle Rhyme.

Adown the glen rode armed men.

Rhymes which do not rhyme exactly are imperfect, but some of
these rhymes are allowable, e.g. tarry — ferry.

A pictorial representation of the metre of any stanza may be
given; thus: — x = weak, J. = strong, I 1 =foot. Rhymes "de-
noted by similar marking.

Rhymes.
I x •*• I * •*• I' • iambic tetrameter a

[X j.\ x^|x ^[x _ _ iambic trimeter excessive . b

Ix/lx/lv/lv/ll • i •

I •*•! I -H * -HI . iambic tetrameter ... a

-*-lx . . iambic trimeter excessive b

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words wight, adown.

Compound Words Highlands, boatman, horseman.
Provincialism Bird is the boatman's word for bride.

Prefixes a — apace — a, on, across. (M.)

— adown — a, of. (M. )

— amidst — a, in. (^E.)

prse — prevailing — prse, before. (L.)

— preventing — prse, before. (L.)
Suffixes ain — chieftain — ain, agent or doer (L.)

an — human — an, adjectival. (L.)
some — winsome — some, adjectival. (^E.

90 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

ROOTS

Faran, to go : FERRY, fare, wayfarer, thoroughfare, farewell,

welfare, ford, firth, warfare, chaffer.
Slean, to strike : SLAIN, slaughter, sledge-hammer, slog.

LATIN :

Caput, the head: CHIEF, achieve, captain, chieftain, cabbage,
cape, capital, capitation, capitulate, cattle,
chapter, decapitate, precipice.

Fari, to speak : FATAL, affable, confess, defame, fable, fairy>
ineffable, infamy, infant, nefarious.

EXERCISES: I. Derive: — human, armed, father, hand, bride, bird, child,
lovely, forgive, water, daughter.

Say whether "native " or "foreign," and give reasons.

2. Collect words having similar prefixes, and show how the prefix affects

the meaning of the root.

3. What is the derivation of : fieldfare, fjord, firth, frith?

4. What are provincialisms ? Give examples (v. p. 72).

5. From the preceding poems compile a list of (a) archaic, (b) obsolete

words. Give, if possible, the modern equivalent of each word.

XVIII
A SPRING MORNING

r I ^HERE was a roaring in the wind all night ;
The rain came heavily and fell in floods :
But now the sun is rising calm and bright,
The birds are singing in the distant woods,
Over his own sweet voice the stockdove broods,
The jay makes answer as the magpie chatters,
And all the air is filled with pleasant noise of waters.

All things that love the sun are out of doors,

The sky rejoices in the morning's birth,

The grass is bright with raindrops ; — on the moors

The hare is running races in her mirth ;

And with her feet she from the plashy earth

Raises a mist, that, glittering in the sun,

Runs with her all the way, wherever she doth run.

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770-1850),
from Resolution and Independence.

1. Questions and Exercises

What type of poetry does the poem illustrate ? Do you think
Wordsworth had an actual scene in his mind when he wrote
the poem? Give reasons. With what kind of life does
the poem deal ? Write down a list of words dealing with
"birds," "animals," "occurrences in nature," "landscape."
Judge from the poem what kind of life Wordsworth was
specially interested in ? Select some of the following
adjectives to describe the diction of the poem : simple,

92 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

foreign, easy, grand, native, poetic ; give reasons for your
selections. Does the description call up an actual picture
in your mind ? Which detail of the description gives you
most pleasure? Why? Which of the following emotions
do you feel on reading the poem? sorrow, joy, mirth,
pleasure.

2. Composition and Exposition

Wordsworth, the great poet of nature, passed the most of his
life amidst the wild scenery of mountain, dale, and stream in the
Lake District of England. Early in his career he was left a small
legacy by a friend, and this, with careful management, enabled him
to live the simple and retired life which he loved. Freed from the
anxiety of earning his daily bread, he passed his time in observing
and in contemplating nature. Many of his earlier poems simply
describe what he observed. As he grew older he began to reflect on
what he had observed, and thus to write down the thoughts and
feelings resulting from his observation. His poetry therefore is
Descriptive and Reflective. The foregoing extract is purely de-
scriptive; but more frequently Wordsworth combines description
with reflection, as in To the Cuckoo. In order to make his de-
scriptions clear and easily understood he strove to write always in
the simplest language possible.

Description, whether in prose or verse, is perhaps the easiest
kind of composition. It depends on observation, exact knoivledge,
and accuracy of expression. Almost everything that can be seen
can be described, and therefore there are many subjects suitable for
descriptive composition. Natural scenery, natural history, works
of art, historic buildings or ruins, industries, customs, and even
manufacturing processes, are all suitable themes.

In writing a description it is well to proceed according to a
definite plan. Wordsworth, before he gives a detailed description,
very often makes some introductory statement. The poem under
review exemplifies this :

A SPRING MORNING 93

I. Introduction ; The night before.
II. The Morning : Detailed description.

(a) sun : woods with birds —stockdove, jay, magpie.

(b) sun and sky — grass, raindrops.

EXERCISES : I. Write a description of a Spring Morning, expanding each of
the above divisions into a separate paragraph by adding anything
appropriate.

2. Draw out the plan for a description of " A Spring Morning in Town."

3. Write a description of — A House on Fire : A Street Corner : A Motor

Car : The Horse, or any other animal with which you are familiar.

3. Prosody

Scan the first stanza. Write down the number of feet in each of the first five
lines. What is the name of the foot ? Point out lines in which there is an
inverted stress at the first foot. Denote by letters (a, b, etc.) the rhyme
arrangement of each stanza.

When a line contains six metrical feet it is called a Hexameter.

/ X X I X t X t X f X t

X / X f X / X / X/ X f X

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words Are there any poetic words ?

Compound Words Are there any compound words? Show how each is

formed.
Suffixes Flashy = adjective formed from plash, a puddle.

Write out a list of all suffixes and prefixes, and show

the force of each.

EXERCISE : From the poem gather together all words that may be classified
under Natural Occurrences (v. pp. n, 14). Say whether native or
foreign.

XIX
THE PLOUGHMAN

LEAR the brown path, to meet his coulter's gleam !

Lo ! on he comes, behind his smoking team,
With toil's bright dewdrops on his sunburnt brow,
The lord of earth, the hero of the plough !
First in the field before the reddening sun,
Last in the shadows when the day is done,
Line after line, along the bursting sod,
Marks the broad acres where his feet have trod ;
Still, where he treads, the stubborn clods divide,
The smooth fresh furrow opens deep and wide ;
Matted and dense the tangled turf upheaves,
Mellow and dark the ridgy cornfield cleaves ;
Up the steep hillside, where the labouring train
Slants the long tract that scores the level plain ;
Through the moist valley, clogged with oozing clay,
The patient convoy breaks its destined way ;
At every turn the loosening chains resound,
The swinging ploughshare circles glistening round,
Till the wide field one billowy waste appears,
And wearied hands unbind the panting steers.

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES (1809-1894).

1. Questions and Exercises

What kind of composition is this poem ? Is it solely a descrip-
tion of The Ploughman ? Was the ploughman short ? tall ?
dark? fair? handsome ? What kind of clothing did he wear ?
Is the ploughman described fully ? What else is described

THE PLOUGHMAN 95

besides the ploughman? Collect from the poem phrases
descriptive of his plough and his team? What animals
composed the team? "The Ploughman," "The Plough-
man at Work" — which of these titles do you prefer? Give
your reasons. Make out a list of words of pictorial quality.
Collect any words or phrases of the same or nearly the same
meaning. Point out any line that is reflective in tone.

2. Composition and Exposition

This poem, by Oliver Wendell Holmes, contains only pure
description, and so well are the details blended together that the
effect of the whole is to give a picture in words — a picture in which
beauty and truth are at once apparent. How did the poet secure
this effect ?

In the last lesson it was said that one essential for writing a de-
scriptive composition was knowledge of the subject, and that this
knowledge must be gained from observation. Now, nearly every one
has observed a ploughman at work, but few have noted so many
facts about him as the poet has done. Observation, therefore, is not
merely looking at something, but looking at it with a definite
purpose and with alert eyes. The good- observer is also the good
thinker. Moreover, the knowledge that is gained from observation
is not all equally valuable. The observer notes many facts, but he
only uses those that suit the special purpose he has in view. For
example, if the poet had described accurately and fully all about
the ploughman, his appearance, clothing, etc., the reader's attention
would have been distracted from the field and the ploughing, the
proportion of the parts would have been lost, or else a different
picture altogether would have resulted. Prominence is given to
those facts about the ploughman that the poet desires to impress
on the mind of the reader — the sweat on his sunburnt brow, his
plodding steps, his wearied hands. The rest is rightly left to the
imagination. Good observation, therefore, implies the right choosing
of facts, i.e. the power of selection.

96 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

The third essential of " description " is accuracy of expression,
the use of the right words in the right places. Facts and ideas are
of little use unless one is able to communicate them in a clear
manner. Each separate word conveys a distinct impression to the
mind of the reader, and it is the duty of the writer to select his
words so that the correct impression is conveyed. For example,
the words sod, clod, turf, earth all convey different impressions of
the same general idea, yet when each is used in the right place
there is no confusion. This is very skilfully done in the poem.

The general idea of "field" is made clear from following words :

earth, field, sod, acres, clods, turf, ridgy cornfield, steep
hillside, level plain, moist valley, oozing clay, wide field.

Similarly, general idea of " cutting through soil" :

plough, bursting, divide, opens, upheaves, cleaves, scores,
breaks.

And general idea of "furrow " :

brown path, line after line, fresh furrow, long track,
destined way.

And general idea of "plough " and " team " :

Coulter's gleam, smoking team, labouring train, patient
convoy, loosening chains, swinging ploughshare, panting
steers.

Sometimes the poet by combining two words, each suggesting a
different idea, conveys another impression to the reader; thus
" bursting sod " conveys the idea of " the furrow being made."

Few words, if any, have exactly the same meaning ; but many
words convey a similar impression and meaning to the mind, e.g.
labour, toil, work ; sod, clod. Such words are called Synonyms.

THE PLOUGHMAN 97

Sometimes a similar impression is conveyed to the mind by a
phrase. Such phrases are called Synonymous, e.g. labouring train,
patient convoy ; coulter's gleam, ploughshare glistening ; sweat,
toil's bright dewdrops.

When a synonymous phrase is used in preference to a single
word the phrase is termed a Circumlocution or Periphrasis, lit. a
roundabout way of speaking.

The use of periphrasis is another characteristic of poetry.

EXERCISES : i. Gather together the different words and phrases which go to
build up the general idea of "ploughman."

2. Write down a list of synonymous words or phrases from the poem.

Where possible give the exact difference in meaning of each.

3. Paraphrase lines 5 and 6.

4. Write a descriptive paragraph on : — A Soldier, A Sailor, A Policeman,

A Fireman.

3. Prosody

Write down the metrical formula of the line. Write down the name of the
line in words. Give examples of slurred syllables. Give examples of Allitera-
tion. How many lines have an inverted stress? At which foot does this in-
verted stress invariably occur? What is a Couplet? Give examples. Select a
line whose stresses correspond to the following scheme : ~ = slurred syllable : —

U xlx 2.1 x^l Y.JL]XJL\

Two lines of iambic pentameter rhyming together form a Heroic
Couplet.

Diagrammatic representation thus —

|x J.\\\ a

Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words Give examples ; also of poetic order.

Compound Words Give examples and show how formed.

Prefixes Make out a list and show force of each.

Suffixes Make out a list and show force of each.
G

98 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Byrnan, to burn : SUNBURNT, brown, brand, brandy, brimstone,

burnish.

Cleofan, to split : CLEAVES, cleft, cliff, cleaver.
Brecan, to break : BREAKS, brake, breach, brook, brick, brittle.
Sciran, to cut : PLOUGHSHARE, shear, shire, shore, scores, short,

sheriff, scar, shred.

LATIN :

Densus, thick : DENSE, density, condense.

Labor, labour : LABOURING, belabour, elaborate, laboratory,

laborious.
Sonus, sound: RESOUND, assonant, consonant, parson, person,

resonant, sonata, sonorous, unison.

Derive the following words whose roots have already been
given : train, track, patient, plain.

XX
THE SCHOLAR

MY days among the Dead are past ;
Around me I behold,
Where'er these casual eyes are cast,

The mighty minds of old :
My never-failing friends are they,
With whom I converse day by day.

With them I take delight in weal

And seek relief in woe ;
And while I understand and feel

How much to them I owe,
My cheeks have often been bedew'd
With tears of thoughtful gratitude.

My thoughts are with the Dead ; with them

I live in long-past years,
Their virtues love, their faults condemn,

Partake their hopes and fears,
And from their lessons seek and find
Instruction with an humble mind.

My hopes are with the Dead ; anon

My place with them will be,
And I with them shall travel on

Through all Futurity ;
Yet leaving here a name, I trust,
That will not perish in the dust.

ROBERT SOUTHEY (1774-1843).

ioo A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

1. Questions

What does the poet mean by the words " the Dead " ? Who
passed his days among the Dead ? In what kind of room
did he pass his days ? Why were the Dead his never-failing
friends ? How did the Dead influence his thoughts and his
hopes ? Was the scholar rich or poor ? What was his pro-
fession ? Who was he ? When did he live ? Give a reason
why this poem might be described as " Descriptive," " Narra-
tive," or " Reflective." Which is the prevailing characteristic ?
What stanza describes the poet's emotions ? What were these
emotions? What is the difference in treatment between
" The Ploughman " and " The Scholar " ?

2. Composition

A narrative of the life of a person is called a Biography. When
a writer tells the story of his own life, the narration is called an
Autobiography (Gk. autos, self; bios, life; graphy, a writing).
Both Biography and Autobiography may be largely reflective com-
positions. For example, the poet Southey undoubtedly is describing
his own life as a scholar. It is well known that he passed his later
days in the manner which he himself describes, and therefore the
poem has an Autobiographic interest. But it is also Reflective, for
it deals with his mental life, with his thoughts, hopes, feelings, and
emotions. An analysis of the poem shows this clearly.

Subject Matter. Characteristic,

ist Stanza : daily habits of the poet. autobiographic.

2nd Stanza : delight, consolation, under- reflective : his feelings

standing, gratitude. and emotions.

3rd Stanza : thoughts : companionship, reflective : mental life.

instruction.

4th Stanza : hopes, inspiration, fame. reflective : desires.

Three-fourths of the poem is reflective and one-fourth auto-
biographic.

THE SCHOLAR 101

Very seldom is there any real biography or autobiography in
verse, but a poet scarcely ever can conceal his personality altogether
in his work. Thus it is that many facts concerning the life of a
poet can be gleaned from his poetry, and in this sense the latter
may be considered as autobiographic. For example, the story of
Wordsworth's life can be built up almost entirely from his own
written work. On the other hand, it is quite possible that Southey
had not himself in mind when he wrote The Scholar. One must
guard against reading too much into the meaning of poetry.

EXERCISES : I. Write down all words dealing with feelings or emotions, and
give the exact meaning of each.

2. Write out a list of all abstract terms, and explain each one.

3. Write a composition, using the following hints : —

ON READING.

I. Introduction. Student in a library, not lonely.
II. Why Books are Friends. Pleasure, solace, instruction.

Illustrations. Name books which provide the above.

III. Lessons gained from Books. Humility, ambition, instruction, etc.

Illustrations. Mention appropriate books.

IV. Conclusion. Books helpful in many ways.

3. Prosody

In the first stanza put in the stress marks, give the rhyme-arrangement, and
the metrical structure of each line.

Give a diagrammatic representation of the stanza.

Name any poem previously read which has the same kind of stanza. Give
examples of alliteration.

What do the two concluding lines of each stanza form ?

If the last two lines were taken away from each stanza, what kind of stanza
would the remaining lines form ?

Write the following in a stanza similar to that of the poem : — " It was a
summer evening, Old Kaspar's work was done, and he before his cottage door
was sitting in the sun ; and by him sported on the green his little grandchild

What is the difference between this stanza and that of the poem ?
Quote, if you can, another stanza similar to the foregoing.
From what poem does it come ? Who wrote it ?
Name any of his other works that you happen to know.

102 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Write down the opposites of: the dead, friend, delight, weal, gratitude,

virtues, hopes. What are such pairs of opposites called ?
Form nouns from : converse, understand, live, condemn, travel.
Write down a list of all the abstract terms in the poem ; underline those of

English origin.
Write down all the " poetic words," all the "compound words," and say

how the latter are formed.
Write out a list of all the prefixes and suffixes, and explain their force and

origin.
Give the past tense and past participle of all strong verbs.

" Casual eyes " : adjective used for adverb, — a common character-
istic of poetry.

ROOTS
LATIN :

Vertere, to turn: CONVERSE (v. p. 37).

Damnum, loss: CONDEMN, damage, indemnify, in-

demnity.

Strue're (struct), to buildup: INSTRUCTION, construct, construe, instru-
ment, destroy, obstruct, structure,
superstructure.

EXERCISES : I. Give derivation of " understand " and " gratitude."

2. Give twenty words of /Englisc origin, and arrange these under general
headings (cf. p. n).

XXI
THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN

(2) INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY: EARLY LITERATURE

AMONGST the many advantages which the Roman occupation
brought to the Celts must be reckoned the introduction of
Christianity. About 180 A.D. the new religion reached Britain and
began to spread throughout the soldiery and the native population.
Its advance was fairly rapid : and, before the Romans left the island,
the Celtic inhabitants were in possession of an organised church
with clergy of different ranks ; several monasteries had been built,
and a Latin translation of the Bible was in use. In fact the Celts
had become thoroughly Christian, and this meant the adoption of
many Latin words connected with the new faith and its services.
But when the pagan English arrived from the continent, not only
did they retain their own heathen worship, but they proceeded to
stamp out the British Christianity, It was not until their own con-
version by St Augustine in 597 that they felt the need of new
religious terms. Thereafter " Church " words were introduced in
considerable numbers.

The ecclesiastical connection thus formed with Rome led to a
closer relation with the continent in several other ways. The
Christian missionaries brought with them foreign customs and
modes of life, and accordingly many names referring to Food,
Dress, Furniture, to the Household and its precincts, crept
gradually into the y£nglisc tongue. Some of these terms came
originally from a Greek source, but for long prior to their intro-
duction into Britain they had been thoroughly Latinised. There-

103

104

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

fore, whether originally Latin or Greek, such words are said to
form the Second Latin Addition.

The following table shows the different types of words intro-
duced, and also the changes they have undergone : —

Latin and Greek Words

CLASS OF WORD.

PRESENT FORM.

EARLIEST
ENGLISH FORM

LATIN FORM.

GREEK FORM.

Church Words

apostle
bishop
creed

apostol
biscop
creda

apostolus
episcopus
credo

apostolos
episkopos

mass

niaesse

missa

pope

papa

pappas

Trees and Plants

beet

bete

beta

lily

Jilie

lilium

leirion

palm

palma

pear

pere

pirum

pepper
plant

pipor
plante

piper
planta

pepen

plum

plume

prunum

prounon

Fish, Animals, etc.

lobster

loppestre

locusta

mussel

muscle

musculus

turtle

turtur

trout

truht

tructa

troktes

Household Words

butter

butere

butyrunv

bouturon

cheese

ciese

caseus

dish

disc

discus

discos

cup

cuppe

cupa

fork

forca

furca

kitchen

cycene

coquina

pan

panne

panna

Clothing

cap

caeppe

cappa

fan

fann

vannus

linen

linum

sock

socc

soccus

Furniture

chest

cist

cista

mat

meatte

matta

pole

pal

palus

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 105

Early Literature

To the humanising influence and patronage of the early Church
England is indebted not only for the encouragement of her litera-
ture, but also for its preservation when written. In that rude age
the monasteries were the only places of learning, and the only safe
asylum for the poet and scholar. Consequently the first writers
were monks, and most of the Early ^Englisc literature is religious in
spirit. Printing had not yet been invented, but the monks recorded
their works in beautiful lettering done by hand. To complete a
manuscript (lit. hand-written) necessarily took a long time, but
when finished it was carefully treasured in the monastery. Beautiful
specimens of these books may still be seen in the great museums
and libraries, and so valuable are they that they can scarcely be
bought with gold.

It is true that the English in their pagan days wrote poetry,
chiefly stories of travel and adventure, and descriptions of fierce
fights by land and sea, but it is fragmentary, and its preservation is
probably due to the monks, who committed to writing the oral
traditions of successive generations. One wonderful poem, The
Beowulf, which may have been originally composed on the continent
before the invasion, doubtless was thus preserved. A Christian
poet of Northumbria, sometime in the seventh or eighth century,
collected several versions of the story and made them into one
grand work. The poem throws an interesting light on the history,
the manners, customs, and superstitions of the English race. It is
a tale of heroic deeds done by a mighty warrior, Beowulf, against
the monsters of the moor and of the sea. It records how, after a
life of manful endeavour, the hero, in slaying a fierce dragon, was
mortally wounded, and thus sacrificed himself to protect his people.

The first native ^Englisc poet was one Caedmon, a Northumbrian,
who about 670 lived at Whitby, close by the monastery of Hilda
the abbess. It is recorded that he was a poor stableman who
received the gift of song in a vision. The learned monks, getting
to know of it, thereupon told him Bible stories which he put into

io6

verse. It was at one time believed that he paraphrased the whole
of the history of the Old and New Testaments, but it is now thought
that this was the work of several persons. In any case the name
of Caedmon is associated with certain early religious poetry, and
the poem itself is often called Caedmon's Paraphrase.

Cynewulf, another famous Northumbrian poet, wrote works
(both religious and secular) of great excellence. His Vision of the
Cross and his Seafarer are noteworthy.

In the person of Baeda, who is more commonly known as " the
venerable Bede," Northumbria can also claim the first great ^

WRITERS OF THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

^Centurtj \ S^eotury \ JO^Centurt,

600 630 70O 7SO BOO 85O 9OO 9SO JOOO

prose writer. Bede was a churchman of vast learning, whose fame
spread throughout Europe, so that scholars gladly came from far
and near to learn of him. His works are scientific, historical,
theological: and, unfortunately, he wrote most of them in Latin.
Only one important book was written in his native ^Englisc, The
Translation of the Gospel of St John ; but no copy of it is known to
exist. His Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written in
Latin, and of which many famous manuscripts have been preserved,
is of the highest value to the student of English Literature.

When the Scandians conquered Northumbria, the literature of
the north perished. In the south, however, JElfred the Great

INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 107

(d. 901) not only encouraged learning in others, but himself made
many translations from Latin into good ^Englisc prose. Under his
guidance Winchester became a great literary centre. His works
were all instructive, and such as would be good for his people to
know; they deal with philosophy, history, and religion. King
Alfred also took a great interest in the Old English Chronicle, a
set of historical narratives which may have been begun as early as
755, and which continued to record important events down to the
death of Stephen in 1154. In these annals two fine battle poems
have been preserved, The Song of Brunanburh (fought in 937) and
The Battle of Maldon (fought in 991), both against the Danes.
After the death of Alfred, a learned Benedictine abbot, named
JElfric, translated large portions of the Bible and wrote The Lives
of the Saints, a famous book. Although the writing of /Englisc
continued down to the end of the first or early period — that is, down
to the commencement of the twelfth century — there are no names
so notable as those already given.

XXII

SIR GALAHAD

Y good blade carves the casques of men,

My tough lance thrusteth sure,
My strength is as the strength of ten,

Because my heart is pure.
5 The shattering trumpet shrilleth high,

The hard brands shiver on the steel,
The splintered spear-shafts crack and fly,

The horse and rider reel :
They reel, they roll in clanging lists,
10 And when the tide of combat stands,

Perfume and flowers fall in showers,
That lightly rain from ladies' hands.

How sweet are looks that ladies bend

On whom their favours fall !
1 5 For them I battle till the end,

To save from shame and thrall :
But all my heart is drawn above,

My knees are bow'd in crypt and shrine :
I never felt the kiss of love,
20 Nor maiden's hand in mine.

More bounteous aspects on me beam,

Me mightier transports move and thrill ;
So keep I fair thro'faitA and prayer

A virgin heart in work and will.

ioS

SIR GALAHAD 109

25 When down the stormy crescent goes,

A light before me swims,
Between dark stems the forest glows,

I hear a noise of hymns :
Then by some secret shrine I ride ;
30 I hear a voice, but none are there j

The stalls are void, the doors are wide,

The tapers burning fair.
Fair gleams the snowy attar-cloth,
The silver vessels sparkle clean,
35 The shrill bell rings, the censer swings,

And solemn chaunts resound between.

Sometimes on lonely mountain-meres

I find a magic bark ;
I leap on board ; no helmsman steers ;
40 I float till all is dark.

A gentle sound, an awful light !

Three angels bear the holy Grail :
With folded feet, in stoles of white,

On sleeping wings they sail.
45 Ah, blessed vision \ blood of God !

My spirit beats her mortal bars,
As down dark tides the glory slides,

And star-like mingles with the stars.

When on my goodly charger borne
50 Thro' dreaming towns I go,

The cock crows ere the Christmas morn,

The streets are dumb with snow.
The tempest crackles on the leads,

And, ringing, spins from brand and mail ;
55 But o'er the dark a glory spreads,

And gilds the driving hail.

no A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

I leave the plain, I climb the height ;
No branchy thicket shelter yields :
But blessed forms in whistling storms
60 Fly o'er waste fens and windy fields.

A maiden knight — to me is given

Such hope, I know not fear ;
I yearn to breathe the airs of heaven

That often meet me here.
65 I muse on joy that will not cease,

Pure spaces clothed in living beams,
Pure lilies of eternal peace,

Whose odours haunt my dreams ;
And, stricken by an angel's hand,
70 This mortal armour that I wear,

This weight and size, this heart and eyes,

Are touched, are turned to finest air.

The clouds are broken in the sky,

And thro' the mountain-walls
75 A rolling organ-harmony

Swells up, and shakes and falls,
Then move the trees, the copses nod,

Wings flutter, voices hover clear :
" Ojusf andfattMul knight of God !
80 Ride on ! the prize is near."

So pass I hostel, hall and grange,

By bridge and ford, by park and pale,
K\\-armed I ride, whate'er betide,
Until I find the holy Grail.

ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON (1809-1892).

1. Questions and Exercises

Who is the speaker ? What is his rank in life ? At what period
in history did he live ? Give reasons from the poem. Is the

SIR GALAHAD in

first stanza descriptive ? What does it describe ? Go over
the poem stanza by stanza, and say whether each is narrative,
descriptive, or reflective on the whole. Select stanzas which
illustrate more than one of the above general types of com-
position. What is the speaker's greatest desire ? Quote the
line which gives the information. Give the various lines
which deal with the knight's life under the following heads :
the lists, love, religion, forest-journey, mountain-meres,
dreaming towns, storms, various shelters and abodes. Give
instances of what the knight imagined he saw. What was
the cause of these visions? Is it possible to classify this
poem as autobiographic ? Why ? Is the poet writing about
himself? Select words of pictorial quality, and arrange them
under two heads — (i) those giving an exact description, (2)
those giving a vague description. Does the matter of the
poem interest you ? Do you like the way in which the poet
has treated his subject? Which, matter or its treatment,
would you select as giving you more pleasure ? Why ?

2. Composition and Exposition

In this poem Tennyson displays the art of a great poet. An
examination of this one piece would yield illustrations of nearly all
the various characteristics of poetry which have already been gleaned
from many sources. Thus, in regard to JFbrm, the poem has metre
and rhyme ; the metre is varied by occasional inverted stresses, the
rhymes occur both in the middle and at the end of a line, and are of
two kinds, single and double.

In regard to Diction, there are poetic words as well as words
used in a different order from that of prose. Poetic effect is also
gained by the use of certain parts of speech in an unusual connec-
tion. Vividness results from the selection of onomatopoetic words,
and monotony is avoided by repeating the same idea in different
words, by synonyms and the synonymous phrase.

The qualities and characteristics enumerated above are easily
apparent, and may be noted by almost any one ; but, besides these

ii2 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

externals, poetry possesses beauties which it is not easy to point out,
but which the reader gradually learns to appreciate for himself. He
comes to distinguish the feeing of the poet from his mere craftsman-
ship ; he comes to associate the matter and the manner, and to see
if these be in sympathy ; he comes to understand the poet's aim, and
to see if it is successfully realised. This kind of appreciation depends
quite as much on the reader as on the poet.

The poet's aim here is to describe the character of Sir Galahad.
But notice the treatment of this poem and that of The Character of
a Happy Life, where there is a somewhat similar aim. The latter is
a direct description by the poet, it is almost an enumeration of good
habits, the nobility of its sentiments is worthy of all praise ; but it
is deficient in imagination, it wants that vagueness and suggestion
which stimulates thought, it makes little appeal to the emotions.
Tennyson's description of Sir Galahad is indirect; he makes the
knight describe himself, and the latter, by telling of his actions, really
throws light on his own character. The poem is rich in these very
qualities which are lacking in The Character of a Happy Life. In
Wotton's description the matter seems more important than the
manner ; in Tennyson's the manner seems quite as important as the
matter.

EXERCISES : I. Write a character sketch of Sir Galahad.

2. What is meant by the terms "Romantic," "Dramatic"? In what

way, if any, does the poem justify these epithets ?

3. Point out passages which show great imagination on the part of the

poet, and those which call for great imagination on the part of
the reader.

4. Paraphrase — (a) easy, (6) difficult, (c) very difficult.

(a) 11. 1-4, 11. 13-16, 11. 49-52, 11. 81-84.
(6) 11. S-I2, 11. 53-60, 11. 73-86, 11. 25-36.
(c) 11. 41-48, 11. 65-72.

5. Write down a list of words or phrases which you find difficult to para-

phrase. Endeavour to find synonyms for these.

6. Change from first to third person and from present to past tense 11. 49-60.

7. Select suitable quotations from the poem.

SIR GALAHAD 113

3. Prosody

Give examples of Head Rhyme (Alliteration).
Give examples of Middle Rhyme, both single and double.
Give examples of Feminine Rhymes.

By means of letters show the rhyme-arrangement of the first and last stanzas.
In the second last line of each stanza put the accent marks, and underline
middle rhymes.

In the first stanza the line,

" Perfume and flowers fall in showers,"

may give some trouble. When there is doubt about the scansion
of any particular line, the corresponding lines in the other stanzas
should be scanned, and if these follow a regular order the doubtful
line should be similarly stressed, even although the metre seem a
little forced. In this case the dictionary gives the pronunciation

perfume ox perfume.
The line therefore reads thus :

Perfume | and flow | ers fall | in show | ers.

As has already been pointed out (p. 56), it is sometimes
necessary to omit a syllable in scanning. Notice the line :

The shattering trumpet shrilleth high.

The sound of the "e" in shattering is either omitted or carried
quickly on to the next syllable, with the result that the word reads
shatfring. This missing out of a letter is called Elision. The
carrying over of the sound to the next syllable is called Slurring.

EXERCISES : Scan the first stanza.

Study carefully the following diagrammatic representation, and say to
which stanza it refers. „ - slurred syllable.

ii4 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

|X O.IXQ.IX o.lxo.1 a or i

|XJLlX.dX.£.| b . 2

|XO.|X Z|X Q.|X O.| a . I

|X 0-IX O.JX JLl £ . 2

|xo.|x o.|x o.lxo.1 f . 3

IXO.IXQ. |x Q.JX 0.1 d . 4

|X 0.1 X Q.|X J-IX J-l c . 3

Ix olx O.IXQ.J d . 4

|x o.lx o.lx Q.JX 0.1 t m 5

IXO.^X O.IX 0.1 X O.J y _ 6

|xo.lx o-lx o.|x_£| ^ 7

\~s

|x O.JX o.| x o.|x 0.1 / . 6

Middle rhymes are underlined.

Draw out a similar stanza-plan for the last stanza.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words brands, thrall, stormy crescent, void, chaunts, meres,

stoles, branchy, pale.

Compound Words mountain-meres, Christmas, mountain-walls, organ-
harmony, all-armed, spear-shafts, sometimes, helms-
man, faithful, awful.

Archaic Word pale. (Give another use of this word.)

Onomatopoetic Words thrusteth, shattering, shrilleth, shiver, splintered,
crack, reel, clanging, slides, crows, crackles,
ringing, spins, whistling, rolling, flutter, hover.
Prefixes per — perfume — per, through. (L.)

Suffixes et — trumpet — et, diminutive. (L.)

ous — bounteous — ius, etc., adjectival. (L. )
le — sparkle — le, frequentative. (^E.)
al — mortal — al, adjectival. (L. )
er — flutter — er, frequentative. (^E.)

hover
A Frequentative is a particle denoting frequency or continuance of action.

SIR GALAHAD

ROOTS

LATIN :
Batere, to beat :

Portare, to carry

CrescSre, to grow

Beran, to carry :
Spinnan, to spin :
Steoran, to steer :

GREEK :
Kolaphos, a blow

COMBAT, abate, battalion, batter, battery,
battle, debate.

TRANSPORTS, comport, export, import, deport,
port, porter, portfolio, portmanteau, report,
purport, support.

CRESCENT, accretion, accrue, concrete, de-
crease, excrescence, increment, recruit,
crew, increase.

BORNE, bear, burden, burthen.

SPINS, spinster, spider, spindle, spindly.

STEER, strike, streak, stroke.

COPSE, coppice, cope, coupon, recoup.

EXERCISES: I. Derive: brands, voice, tapers, altar, chaunts, resound,
sound, vision, streets, plain, armour.

2. Give examples of synonyms or synonymous phrases.

3. Point out any words which have an unusual grammatical relation, e.g.

adjective for adverb, etc.

4. Which phrase in the poem is very like one \ajock o' Hazeldean ?

5. Look up the derivation of the italicised words. From what language

do they all come ?

6. What are the frequentatives from : crack, spark, wade, beat, flit, gleam,

spout ?

7. Define a diminutive. Give diminutives of : lass, cigar, trump, part,

hill, man, brook.

XXIII
SIR ARTHUR O'KELLYN

WHERE is the grave of Sir Arthur O'Kellyn ?
Where may the grave of that good man be ?
By the side of a spring, on the breast of Helvellyn,
Under the twigs of a young birch tree.
The oak that in summer was sweet to hear,
And rustled its leaves in the fall of the year,
And whistled and roared in the winter alone,

/ / r r

Is gone, — and the birch in its stead is grown. —

The knight's bones are dust,

And his good sword rust : —

His soul is with the saints, I trust.

SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE (1772-1834).

1. Questions and Exercises

Why does the poet repeat the initial question ? Does he answer
the question himself? Is the poem a dialogue? Why ? Is
the exact location of the Knight's Tomb known ? Select a
part of the poem that is purely descriptive. Write down
words which seem to imitate certain sounds heard in nature.
What is the name given to this kind of word ? Why does
the poet mention the oak and the birch ? What age can an
oak attain? What kind of tree grows up in place of the
oak? Is it long since the Knight was buried? Make a
rough estimate of the time from data given in the poem. Is
his tomb really described ? Why ? What title would you
give this poem ?

116

SIR ARTHUR O'KELLYN 117

2. Composition and Exposition : The Play of Fancy

In this poem there are several clearly marked divisions.

I. The Introduction : a question asked. 11. 1-2.

II. The Answer. 11. 3-4.

III. Lapse of Time indicated by reference to the oak and

the birch. 11. 5-8.

IV. Lapse of Time indicated by its result. 11. 9-10.
V. A hope expressed by the poet. 1. n.

If the first part were condensed, the question would be, " Where
is the grave of the good Sir Arthur O'Kellyn?" since the word " good "
contains the only new idea in the second line. The introduction
serves two purposes : first, to arouse interest in the subject ; and
second, to make a statement in a forcible way. Questions are not
always asked for the sake of getting a reply. To some questions
the reply is so obvious that no answer is expected.

Examples :

Question : Who can paint like Nature ?

Answer : No one can.

Question : Can the Ethiope change his skin or the leopard

his spots ?
Answer: The Ethiope cannot change his skin nor the

leopard his spots.

Such questions are really indirect assertions.

To other questions no reply can be given because the answer
is not known. Coleridge does not expect an answer to his questions
about the grave of Sir Arthur O'Kellyn. In such cases the question
is intended to arouse interest and curiosity, and thus to prepare the
way for the giving of information.

Questions used for effect or for emphasis are called Rhetorical
Questions.

n8 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Rhetorical Interrogation is the name given to that construction
in which a question is asked, not for the purpose of receiving infor-
mation, but of giving it.

Interrogation, because it not only gives some information but
prepares the mind to receive more, appeals directly to the imagina-
tion. Interrogation may be used in prose and poetry both. But
the poet stirs the imagination best by indirect means. Coleridge
knew well how to do this :

The oak that in summer was sweet to hear,
And rustled its leaves in the fall of the year,
And whistled and roared in the winter alone,
Is gone, — and the birch in its stead is grown.

Regarded by themselves, these lines are beautifully descriptive,
but when they are read with regard to their context, a greater
significance is at once attached to them. The mention of the oak —
a tree which had braved the seasons' difference, maybe for centuries,
but which had at last succumbed — recalls to mind the great lapse of
time and the changes that have taken place in the scene since the
knight was buried close by the spring on the mountain side. More
indirectly, too, comes the lesson that Death is the fate of all things
that have life. But the play of fancy suggested by these lines does
not end here. To the imaginative reader, perhaps, may come the
thought that this knight was once a living, breathing human being,
not insensible to the beauty of nature, not always warring against
his foes, but sometimes resting beneath the shade of the oak and
taking delight in the sweet summer music of its leaves. The value
of poetry lies quite as much in what it suggests as in what it expresses
clearly.

EXERCISES : I. Write a composition on " The Knight of Chivalry," using the
following plan. Quote from Sir Galahad or other poem.

I. Introduction. What " Chivalry " means. When it was practised.
The Knight, the upholder of Chivalry.

II. The Knight. How a person became one. How he was armed and
mounted. Some famous Knights — Cceur-de-Lion,
Black Prince, etc.

SIR ARTHUR O'KELLYN 119

III. His Adventures, (a) On behalf of Christianity.

(b) On behalf of distressed ladies.

IV. Conclusion. Was the knight's ideal good ? Why Chivalry disappeared.

How we may still practise it.

2. Draw from fancy a sketch of Sir Arthur O'Kellyn as a man of peace.

3. Prosody

In each line how many stresses ? What is the name of the metre ? Give two
lines of Dimeter. In the first line, how many weak syllables ? Point out the
lines which have most weak syllables and those which have fewest.

Each foot must have one strong stress, and it has been shown
that .the iambus and the trochee have also one weak syllable. Thus

X J. 1 X

iambus = | weak strong | and trochee = | strong weak | .

But some feet have two weak syllables in addition to the one
strong stress, making three in all. A common arrangement of
these three syllables is to have two weak preceding one strong, thus :

| weak, weak, strong | .

This arrangement of stresses is called an Anapaest. An anapaest
is just an iambus with an extra weak syllable at the beginning.
Iambus * 1 ; Anapaest * * A Lines are frequently composed of
a mixture of iambic and anapaestic feet.

X 1

The oak
iambus

X X J.

that in sum
anapaest

X X J.

mer was sweet
anapaest

X J.

to hear
iambus

X X J.

By the side
anapaest

xx JL
of a spring
anapaest

XX J.

on the breast
anapaest

of Helvel
anapaest

lyn
excessive

X /

— Where
strong stress

X X »

may the grave
anapaest

XX /

of that good
anapaest

X r

man be
iambus

At the beginning of a line one strongly stressed syllable may stand
for a complete foot.

i2o A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Three lines rhyming together form a Triplet.

The knight's bones are dust,
And his good sword rust ; —
His soul is with the saints, I trust.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words breast.

Onomatopoetic Words rustled, whistled, roared.

Prefixes O'. O'Kellyn, O' = son of.

Prefixes and suffixes may denote the relationship of father to son, e.g.
Brown-ing, son of Brown, suffix. (&.)
Fitz-roy, son of Roy (king), prefix. (Celtic.)

Mac-donald, son of Donald, prefix. (Celtic.)
John-son, son of John, suffix. (JE.)

Derivatives formed with such prefixes or suffixes are called Patronymics.
ROOTS

Grafan, to dig : GRAVE, engrave, graft, engraft, grove, groove.

EXERCISES : I. Write out a list of words of ^Englisc origin and arrange these
in classes under general headings.

2. Make sentences containing the word " breast " used in as many different
ways as you can.

3. Give the different meanings of the word "fall " in the following : — riding

for a fall, meet me at the fall, he came over last fall, a fall of rock,
don't fall, rain-fall.

XXIV
THE NORMAN BARON

IN his chamber, weak and dying,
Was the Norman baron lying ;
Loud without, the tempest thundered,
And the castle-turret shook.

In this fight was Death the gainer,
Spite of vassal and retainer,
And the lands his sires had plundered,
Written in the Doomsday Book.

By his bed a monk was seated,
Who in a humble voice repeated
Many a prayer and pater-noster
From the missal on his knee.

And, amid the tempest pealing,
Sounds of bells came faintly stealing,
Bells, that, from the neighbouring kloster,
Rang for the Nativity.

In the hall, the serf and vassat

Held, that night, their Christmas wassail ;

Many a carol, old and saintly,

Sang the minstrels and the waits.

And so loud these Saxon gleemen
Sang to slaves the songs of freemen,
That the storm was heard but faintly,
Knocking at the <raj//(?-gates.

122 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Till at length the lays they chaunted
Reached the chamber terror-haunted,
Where the monk, with accents holy
Whispered at the barons ear.

Tears upon his eyelids glistened,
As he paused awhile and listened,
And the dying baron slowly
Turned his weary head to hear.

" Wassail for the kingly stranger
Born and cradled in a manger \
King, like David, priest, like Aaron,
Christ is born to set us free."

And the lightning showed the sainted
Figures on the casement painted,
And exclaimed the shuddering baron,
" Miserere, Domine I "

In that hour of deep contrition,
He beheld, \vith clearer vision,
Through all outward show on^ fashion,
Justice, the Avenger, rise.

All the pomp of earth had vanished,
Falsehood and deceit were banished,
Reason spake more loud than passion,
And the truth wore no disguise.

Every vassal of his banner,

Every serf born to his manor,

All those wronged and wretched creatures,

By his hand were freed again

THE NORMAN BARON 123

And, as on the sacred missal
He recorded their dismissal,
Death relaxed his iron features,
And the monk replied, " Amen " !

Many centuries have been numbered
Since in death the baron slumbered
By the convent's sculptured portal,
Mingling with the common dust :

But the good deed, through the ages

Living in historic pages,

Brighter grows and gleams immortal,

Unconsumed by moth or rust.

H. W. LONGFELLOW (1807-1882).

1. Questions and Exercises

With what period in history does the poem deal ? What would
you fix as the earliest date for the event? Quote reason
from the poem. On what day of the month did the baron
die? Explain the apparent contradiction implied in the
following quotations : —

" Loud without the tempest thundered
And the castle-turret shook."

" The storm was heard but faintly
Knocking at the castle-gates."

Write down a list of words from the poem under the headings
storm, religion, vassalage. Cards, songs, lays are synonymous ;
give synonyms for chamber, tempest, turret, and any other ten
words occurring in the poem. Write down words which are
used more than once in the poem. Why does the poet use
them so often? Give a synonym for each of these words.
What different parts of the castle are mentioned ? Where is
the chief scene laid ? What would the liberated serfs do for
a livelihood ?

i24 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

2. Composition: Inversion

The usual order of the words in a sentence is Subject, Predicate,
Object. If the predicate is placed before the subject, then the order
is inverted, and the construction, whether in prose or verse, is called
Inversion. This construction occurs so frequently in poetry that it
may be said to be a special characteristic of verse. The poet has to
resort to this device in order to fit in the words to the stress system
of his lines, but sometimes inversion is used to secure greater force
or emphasis to a statement.

Examples :

In this fight was Death the gainer.
Was the Norman baron lying.

EXERCISES : I. Give other examples of Inversion, and say which lines you
think are thus made more emphatic.

2. Group the following words under headings : — Doomsday Book, baron,

castle, vassal, retainer, serfs, manor, banner, lands, slaves, pomp,
freed, recorded, dismissal. Incorporate these headings into a plan
for an essay on the Feudal System. Write the essay.

3. Paraphrase stanzas 7, 10, 15, 16.

4. Write out any stanza in prose form, and then alter any word or phrase

which is not in the usual prose order.

5. Give examples of the repetition of the same idea in different words.

6. Write a description of the scene in the hall when the serfs were listen-

ing to the gleemen.

7. By Inversion secure additional emphasis to the following :

The Deserted Village appeared in 1770.
The broad bright sun rested almost upon the western wave.
The bride hath paced into the hall, she is red as a rose ;
Nodding their heads before her the merry minstrelsy goes.

3. Prosody

In each stanza how many rhymes? In every two succeeding stanzas how
many separate rhymes? By which of these adjectives would you describe the
stress order — anapaestic, iambic, trochaic ? In each stanza how many double
rhymes? In each stanza how many single rhymes? Write down in words a
description of how the stanzas are connected in regard to rhyme. Is there
any similar connection in regard to metre ? What is the name of the metre ?
Give examples of trochaic couplets. Select stanzas in which adjectives are placed
after nouns : put the adjectives before the nouns. What is the effect on the
scansion ?

THE NORMAN BARON 125

When a line has its full complement of strong stresses, but is
short in regard to its weak accents, it is said to be defective, or
Catalectic.

/X/X/X / X

Ex. : And the | castle- 1 turret | sh'ook |

Give other five examples of Catalectic lines.

TheJ-interlinking of the stanzas is thus shown :
1 2

UxUxUxUx|N a
UxUx^xUxl

\ a |-*.x|xx|g. X|XXK

17-Xl^.xl^.Xl^.XK

Notice that the catalectic line has always single rhyme.

EXERCISES : Show how the following stanza is inconsistent with the above
scheme : —

Where the monk with accents holy
Whispered at the baron's ear,
And the dying baron slowly
Turned his weary head to hear.

Describe in words the metre and the rhyme arrangement of the above.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words spite of, sires, spake, kloster= cloister, accents holy.

Compound Words Doomsday, eyelids, terror-haunted, Christmas, pater-
noster, outward (weard = direction), wassail (waes hael).

Foreign Words Miserere, Domine (Pity us, O Lord), pater noster (Our
Father). (Lat.)

Prefixes a — awhile — a = on (while = time).

Suffixes ure — figures — ura, abstract suffix. (L.)

ment — casement — ment, ,, ,, (L.)
ice — Justice — ice, ,, ,, (L.)

hood — Falsehood — hood ,, ,, (^.)

Hybrid Falsehood, false (Latin) + hood (^Englisc).

126 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

ROOTS
LATIN :

Humus, tfie ground: HUMBLE, exhume, humiliate, humility.

Mittdre (miss), to send: DISMISSAL, admit, commit, compromise,

demise, emit, intermit, message,
missile, mission, missive, omit, permit,
promise, submit, surmise, transmit.

Failure, to deceive : FALSEHOOD, default, fail, fallacy, fallible,

fault.

Mori, to die : IMMORTAL, morbid, mortgage, mortify,

mortuary, murrain.

GREEK :

Monos, alone : MONK, monastery, monarch, monologue, mono-

lith, monopoly.

EXERCISES : Give the words in the poem having the following prefixes — re,
ex, be, dis, un, im — and show the force of each prefix.

The following suffixes occur : Select the words from the poem and show
the force of each suffix : — Et, er, th, en, al, or, ly, ure, ment, ion,
ice, hood, ic.

Arrange above suffixes into groups : noun-forming, adjective-forming,
adverb-forming, and miscellaneous.

Derive any twelve words in the poem whose roots have been previously
learnt.

Notice the words that are italicised. Compare with Sir Galahad, From
what language are all the italicised words derived?

XXV
THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN

(3) THE NORMAN CONQUEST

'TpHE Latin words added to the English vocabulary as a result of
_L the military occupation and of the introduction of Christianity
were brought by Romans themselves — in the former instance by the
Roman legionaries and traders ; in the latter by the Roman mis-
sionaries. But, strange as it may seem, a third, and probably the
largest addition of Latin words that has ever been made to
English, took place through the agency not of a Roman but of a
Germanic race.

To understand how this was possible it is necessary to consider
the state of Europe in the fifth century. At this time there was a
general state of unrest amongst the peoples of Europe. The wild
tribes to the north and east of the Roman Empire vacated their own
lands and sought homes within the frontier. So constant was the
pressure exerted by these barbarians that at last the Roman legions
were unable to withstand the invaders, and bit by bit the once mighty
Empire fell to pieces. In 410 Britain was definitely abandoned,
and shortly afterwards the larger portion of the island was occupied
by the English. What happened to Britain also happened to other
portions of the empire. The Roman troops were either withdrawn
or driven out, and the lands which they had garrisoned fell a prey
to the invading tribes from the surrounding districts or were de-
vastated by barbarian hordes, strangers from a distance, as they
marched on their way towards Rome itself.

Gaul latterly fell into the power of the Franks, a Germanic tribe

from the Rhineland. The country thereafter was known as the

127

iz8 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

land of the Franks, that is, France. The language of Gaul was of
course Latin, and this language was adopted by the newcomers. But
I^atin itself had suffered considerable change, and in the various
countries where it had been spoken it began to assume different forms.
These were all descended from the original Latin, the speech of the
Romans, and therefore they are now called Romance languages.
Thus the Latin spoken in Italy broke down into Italian, the Latin
of Spain became Spanish, and the Latin of France became French.
In this way both the country and the language came to be named
after the Franks.

In the course of time the Franks were strong enough not only to
beat back other invaders, but to set up a powerful empire under
their great leader Charlemagne (d. 814). But after his death the
empire was divided and weakened, and when, in the ninth century,
new invaders appeared on the coasts of France, they encountered
but feeble resistance from the French. These foes were the
Scandians, Norsemen, or Danes, who at the same time ravaged the
English coasts. Such terrible fighters were these vikings that,
partly as a bribe, partly as a conquest, they obtained from the Franks
possession of the lands lying around the lower course of the Seine.
The district allotted to the Northmen came to be called Normandy,
and soon under its new name was reckoned the most powerful
dukedom of all France. The Northmen, like the English, were a
Germanic race speaking a Germanic tongue ; but when they settled
in France they adopted the speech of the Franks. Subsequently
the kind of French spoken by the Normans was called Norman
French, to distinguish it from the French of Paris — Parisian or
Central French. In the eleventh century the Normans invaded
England, and thus a Germanic people, racially akin to the English,
were the means of introducing a great foreign element from a
Romance language into the speech of their island kinsmen.

At an early period the Latin of France, henceforth called French,
had begun to influence ^Englisc. Intercourse between England
and its nearest continental neighbour had always been well main-

THE NORMAN CONQUEST 129

tained. It is certain that in the early Christian days the religious
life of England benefited greatly from the presence of French clerics.
It is thought that the first stone churches in the country were built
by them, and it is known that about the year 950 the great churchman
Dunstan, returning from his exile at Ghent, introduced the French
system and customs into the English monasteries. In the reign
of Edward the Confessor, himself half a Frenchman, not only
the clerical but also the political influence of the French was
strongly felt.

All this favoured the introduction of French words, but com-
paratively few additions to the ^nglisc vocabulary were due to
these causes. It was not until the armed invasion of England by
the Normans that the Third Latin Element found a sure place in
the language. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy led his barons
against Harold, the Saxon king. The latter's defeat and death at
the battle of Senlac gave the Norman the crown, and he quickly
made himself secure by dividing the conquered territory amongst
his followers. These all spoke Norman French, and for quite one
hundred and fifty years after the Conquest this was the only
language of the great nobles and ecclesiastics, and even of those
of lower rank, the knights and priests. Men of learning followed
in the train of the conquerors, and thus even scholars, who
previously had written almost solely in Latin, began to use Norman
French also.

Indeed, so thorough was the Conquest, that it seemed as if
French would supplant ^Englisc in the same way as the latter had
supplanted the Latinised Celtic. But there was this difference.
The ^Englisc conquest of the Celts was the subjugation and almost
the extermination of an alien race, while the Norman conquest was
really a settlement by a comparatively small number of a kindred
people. The ^Englisc invaders brought an entirely new popula-
tion ; the Normans brought only a new ruling class. Nevertheless,
for several generations the fate of ^Englisc as a national speech
hung in the balance ; but then ever so slowly the scale turned in
i

130 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

its favour, and instead of being despoiled and weakened by the
Conquest, ^Englisc was strengthened and enriched.

During their stay in France the Normans had gained much.
They had readily absorbed the manners and customs of the Franks,
had become the champions of the Christian Church, and, as far as
was possible in that rude age, had patronised learning and the arts.
They therefore brought a certain refinement with them into
England, and this is shown by the number of new words relating
to ceremony — of the Church, Feudalism, Law and War — which
they introduced. Their superior mode of life is also shown in
their household terms, chiefly relating to cookery and the service
of the table. A new system of government, new methods of war-
fare, more advanced ideas of architecture, new sports and pastimes,
all led to the introduction of appropriate terms.

This increase to the vocabulary consisted of words derived
from Latin, and is therefore often called the Third Latin Addition.
It comprised many thousands of words, but it is possible to arrange
most of them into easily-remembered groups, each group repre-
senting some special characteristic of the Normans. Words con-
nected with (i) The Church, (2) Chivalry, (3) Architecture,
(4) Feudalism, (5) Law, (6) War, (7) Hunting, and (8) Learning
(Abstract terms) form the most numerous groups.

In regard to the last group, it must be borne in mind that the
cause of scholarship was greatly strengthened by the coming of
the Normans. English scholars became acquainted with French
Romances, and, more important still, they were brought into contact
with Arabic learning and the wisdom of the East

In order to show how largely words introduced by the Normans
enter into the current speech, such words have been italicised in
the poems Sir Galahad and The Norman Baron. Most — but not
all — of these have been arranged under their appropriate headings
in the table now given. Words occurring in the poems are placed
above the dotted line.

THE NORMAN CONQUEST

Classification of Words of the Third Latin Addition

CHURCH.

CHIVALRY.

ARCHI-
TECTURE.

FEUDAL-
ISM.

LAW.

WAR.

HUNTING.

ABSTRACT
TERMS.

carol

avenger

casement

manor

banish

battle

forest

contrition

chaunt

baron

chamber

retainer

justice

casque

venison

fashion

censer
convent
hymns
manger
nativity

combat
favours
lays
lists
minstrel

cloister
crypt
portal
painted
sculptured

serf
slave
vassal

recorded

lance

quarry
falcon
brace

deceit
reason
vision
terror

court
chancellor
damages
parliament

armour
captain
parley
siege

fealty
homage

delight

prayer

pomp

turret

state

truce

excellence

perfume

sire

abbey

realm

humility

passion

trumpet

chapel

treaty

fame

paternoster

herald

palace

allege

science

sainted

dame

assert

sacred
solemn

squire

suppose
certify

shrine

doubt

vessels

deny

friar

relic

inconvenient

pilgrim

debate

The following words italicised in the poems are either of the
First or the Second Latin period : —

Altar, castle, missal, priest, streets, Christmas, organ, lilies, angel, walls.

The following are Latin also but of a later date : —
Crescent, unconsumed, relaxed.

The other words are all of native English origin.
As before, many of the Latin words came originally from Greek.
Derivatives from the Romance languages are often termed
Romanic.

EXERCISES : I. Write out a list of all the italicised words not mentioned in
the above lists. Classify them according to the parts of speech — nouns,
verbs, etc. (There are over 40 of these words.)

2. Find the percentage of Latin (including French) words in the first 100

words and in the last 100 words of "The Norman Baron."

3. Give reasons why the Normans should have introduced terms dealing

with "Architecture," "Law," and "Hunting."

4. Write down other words under the headings "Feudalism," "Chivalry,"

and "War " which you have met with in your history «r other reading,
and which you think may be of French origin.

N.B. — Every class should have access to a good Etymological Dictionary

to check impressions formed on general grounds.
Each pupil should get into the habit of jotting down, for particular study,

certain words met with in his reading.

XXVI
THE QUIET OF EVENING

sun upon the lake is low,
J_ The wild birds hush their song,
The hills have evening's deepest glow,

Yet Leonard tarries long.
Now all whom varied toil and care

From home and love divide,
In the calm sunset may repair
Each to the loved one's side.

The noble dame, on turret high,

Who waits her gallant knight,
Looks to the western beam to spy

The flash of armour bright.
The village maid, with hand on brow

The level ray to shade,
Upon the footpath watches now

For Coiin's darkening plaid.

Now to their mates the wild swans row,

By day they swam apart,
And to the thicket wanders slow

The hind beside the hart.
The woodlark at his partner's side

Twitters his closing song —
All meet whom day and care divide,

But Leonard tarries long !

SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832).
132

THE QUIET OF EVENING 133

1. Questions and Exercises

Consider the title of the poem and say what is the most
important statement in the first verse. The first three lines
tell the time of the day — when was it ? Could we be sure
of that from the first line ? from the second ? Which line
tells us clearly? What is the simple statement contained
in the last four lines of the first Stanza? Which of these
lines tells something known already from the first three
lines? What adjective in it gives additional information?
Was it windy ? The whole of the next verse is an illustration
taken from human life — an illustration of what ? What two
types of people are chosen ? What are the noble dame and
the village maid both doing ? What was Colin's occupation?
In what period of history did the noble dame look for the
flash of armour ? What important statement is repeated in
the last verse? In it there is also an illustration taken
from the animal kingdom — what types are selected ? Which
of the following titles would you select, and why? — The
Evening Hour — The Hour of Rest — Expectancy — The
Tryst — The Wife's Complaint— Unpunctuality — Disappoint-
ment— The Waiting Lover. Do you think Leonard will
come at last? What is the meaning of the word "tarries"?
Which characters are mentioned by name ? One single line
in the last verse says the same thing as four lines in the first
verse — point out these lines? Select lines which are not
descriptive. Write out a list of words which suggest the
scene, the time, and the weather. Name words which have
a pictorial quality. Make out a list of the various partners
and arrange them into two columns, masculine and feminine,
thus : — dame and knight, hind and hart, etc.

2. Composition : Plan of the Poem

A close examination of this poem reveals the fact that underlying
it is a clear plan.

i34 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

I. Introduction, (a) Time— evening.

(b) The complaint — " Leonard tarries long."

II. Examples of this Custom.

(a) Illustrations from mankind.

(1) rich .... dame and knight.

(2) poor .... maid and Colin.

(b) Illustrations from animal kingdom.

(1) birds .... mate and swan,

partner and woodlark.

(2) beasts . . . hind and hart.

III. The Custom again stated: "All meet whom day and care divide,

and
The Complaint repeated. But Leonard tarries long."

When a poem is analysed in this fashion it is said to be logically
analysed. It is a valuable exercise to find out the plan — that is, to
make a logical analysis — of any composition, but it must not be too
readily assumed that every poet made out a plan on paper before he
wrote. The general idea and how he was going to treat it doubtless
were present in his mind, and to this extent every writer has a plan
ready. In the course of writing, most plans have to be modified as
fresh ideas occur to the writer. This modification should affect
only the detailed and not the general plan.

3. Prosody

Scan the poem. What is the difference between the Ballad stanza and the
stanza of the poem? Point out any inverted stresses. Point out any slurred
syllables.

135

Which stanza is this a representation of?

|X-l| XJ.IX.Ll X jL\

Ixxl x -L|X ./.I

|X ^.1 X^.| X jL|X J.|

|x xl x j.| x ±.\

Note the inverted stress and the slurred syllable. Draw out a representation
of any other stanza.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words tarries, beam.

Compound Words footpath, woodlark, upon, sunset.

Onomatopoetic Words hush, twitters, flash.

Prefixes Dis, re, a, be ; give the words in which each occurs

and give the force of each prefix.

Suffixes et — turret — et, diminutive. (Romanic).

ern — western — ern, adjectival. (^E.)
age — village — age, collective. (Romanic).

EXERCISES : Give a word with two suffixes. Make out a list of all other

suffixes occurring in the poem.

Derive the following : Varied, armour. Give examples of other diminutives
ending in et.

XXVII
SOLITUDE

HAPPY the man, whose wish and care
A few paternal acres bound,
Content to breathe his native air

In his own ground.

Whose herds with milk, whose fields with bread,

Whose flocks supply him with attire ;
Whose trees in summer yield him shade,
In winter fire.

Blest, who can unconcern'dly find

Hours, days, and years, slide soft away
In health of body, peace of mind,

Quiet by day.

Sound sleep by night ; study and ease

Together mixt, sweet recreation,
And innocence, which most does please
With meditation.

Thus let me live, unseen, unknown ;

Thus unlamented let me die ;
Steal from the world, and not a stone
Tell where I lie.
ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744).

Questions and Exercises

Suggest alternative titles for the poem. What was the occupation
of the man ? Where did he dwell ? Was he a landlord or
136

SOLITUDE 137

a tenant? Did he really exist? Who thinks such a one
would be "happy" and "blest"? With what two aspects
of man's life does the poet deal ? Select a stanza which is
reflective. Select stanzas which are descriptive. Is the
poem reflective or descriptive on the whole ? Has this poem
a clear plan? Give the lines that form the conclusion.
What lines may be regarded as dealing with man's mental
nature? Which with his physical well-being? Make out
a list of abstract words. What words have a pictorial
quality? In which section of the poem are these words
found? In which section are the abstract words found?
Is the position of these two kinds of words any aid to the
logical analysis of the poem ? How ?

2. Composition

EXERCISES : The following words, taken from the poem and from Shake-
speare's Henry VI. (see page 259), suggest ideas for an essay on "The
Happy Hermit." (i) Arrange these words under appropriate headings,
(ii) Draw out a detailed plan for the essay. (iii) Write the essay,
keeping all paragraphs distinct and keeping as close to the plan as
possible, (iv) When the essay has been written, draw out another plan
showing the actual order of your work : — Health of body, beautiful
scenery, shepherd, fleece, minutes, hours, days, months, years, white
hairs, grave, hawthorn bush, tend flock, take rest, contemplate, sport
himself, food and drink, lambs, gentle stream, flowers, summer's heat,
winter's cold, shade, warm shelter, peace of mind, no ambition, nature
his companion, waving trees, waterfall, birds of the air, beasts of
the field, meditation, innocence, quiet life, unlamented, unknelled,
unknown, recreation, paternal acres.

Draw out a general plan for an essay on Friendship or Sociability.

3. Prosody

EXERCISES : Scan the first and the third stanzas. Give two examples of
inverted stress. Give examples of iambic tetrameter lines with regular
stresses throughout. What is meant by iambic tetrameter ? Give ex-
amples of slurred syllables. Give examples of iambic dimeter. In
which of the following phrases do the stresses fall most naturally: —
Tell where I lie, quiet by day, in winter fire, with meditation. Describe
in words the rhyme arrangement of the poem. Describe in symbols the
stanza arrangement.

138 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words Explain the peculiar use of the following phrases : — Slide soft
away, steal from the world, paternal acres, study and ease
together mixt.
Prefixes Give the five words whose prefixes have the force of " not."

Give three other words which have prefixes, and give the force

of each prefix.
Suffixes tude, th, y, ion, ence are abstract suffixes. Give all the

words which have these endings,
al, ive are adjectival suffixes. Give examples.

ROOTS
LATIN :

Tenere, to hold : CONTENT, abstain, appertain, appurtenance, at-
tempt, contain, continent, detain, entertain,
retain, retinue, tenant, tenement, tentacle.

Pater, father : PATERNAL, patrimony, expatriate, patron, pattern.

Pacere, to agree : PEACE, appease, pacify.

Creare, to create : RECREATION, creature, create.

Nocere, to hurt : INNOCENCE, innocuous, noxious, nuisance, ob-
noxious.

EXERCISE : Construct a tree showing the words formed from the root
"Ten,"— idea of holding (v. p. 37).

XXVIII
THE NIGHTINGALE AND THE GLOW-WORM

A NIGHTINGALE that all day long
£\. Had cheered the village with his song,
Nor yet at eve his note suspended,
Nor yet when eventide was ended,
Began to feel, as well he might,
The keen demands of appetite ;
When looking eagerly around,
He spied far off, upon the ground,
A something shining in the dark,
And knew the Glow-worm by his spark ;
So, stooping down from hawthorn top,
He thought to put him in his crop.
The worm, aware of his intent,
Harangued him thus, right eloquent :
" Did you admire my lamp," quoth he,
"As much as I your minstrelsy,
You would abhor to do me wrong,
As much as I to spoil your song.
For 'twas the self-same Power Divine
Taught you to sing, and me to shine ;
That you with music, I with light,
Might beautify and cheer the night."
The songster heard this short oration,
And warbling out his approbation,
Released him, as my story tells,
And found a supper somewhere else.

WM. COWPER (1731-1800).
139

140 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

1. Questions, etc.

Suggest a title for the poem. Do you think the story true?
Give reasons. How did the glow-worm avoid being eaten
by the nightingale? Did the glow-worm speak the truth?
Was the glow-worm a flatterer ? Is it likely that the night-
ingale would sing all day, all evening, and then during the
night ? When was he likely to sing ? Why is his song so
easily heard at night ? Where was the nightingale perched ?
Were any human habitations near ? Quote a line as proof.
In what other poem is the glow-worm mentioned ? Quote
a phrase from the poem which in effect says that it is a
narrative poem.

2. Composition

A story in which the lower animals and lifeless things are made
to speak and act like human beings is called a Fable. The story
itself therefore cannot be true, but it is always designed to teach
some truth in an interesting way. The lesson or truth which it
conveys is called The Moral.

EXERCISES : Write out in full the following fables, supplying the moral where
necessary ; make the characters talk ; and describe the scene : —

ONCE BITTEN, TWICE SHY

Hungry fox — crowing cock — fox praises him — cock crows again — fox
seizes him — makes off — hue and cry — pursuers left behind — cock says,
Wonderful speed ! — bark at pursuers— show disdain — fox flattered —
opens mouth to bark — cock escapes — fox entreats in vain.

Moral : Beware of flatterers.

THE TOWN MOUSE AND THE COUNTRY MOUSE

Town mouse sets out to visit friend in country — arrives and is made welcome
— criticises everything — begins to boast of his fine residence, his fine
fare, his glorious existence — invites friend to visit him — friend agrees —
they set out — town residence magnificent — sumptuous banquet — many
dainties — sudden arrival of cat — narrow escape of country cousin — he is
asked to prolong stay, but insists on going — too dangerous for him,
prefers country.

Moral :

THE NIGHTINGALE AND THE GLOW-WORM 141

HERCULES AND THE WAGGONER

Road muddy — wagon stuck fast — carter makes no effort — prays to Hercules,
the god of strength — Hercules appears — scolds carter — says he must try
to help himself first before asking help.

Moral:

THE WOLF AND THE CRANE

Wolf eating prey greedily — bone stuck in his throat — he howled for help—-
promised handsome reward — no animal ventured — at last crane thought
he could extract it with his long bill — performed operation successfully
— demanded reward — wolf said, "Lucky I didn't bite your head off"
— crane got no reward — flew away in a hurry.

Moral : Ingratitude, etc.

3. Prosody

Write out six examples of the Couplet from the poem.

Accent the line : — He thought to put him in his crop.

How many words in this line ? Write down any line containing more words
or the same number of words.

Accent the line containing least words. On what does the length of a line
depend ? On the number of words ? On the number of feet ?

What is the name of the metre ? What is the name of the foot ?

Put in strong and weak accent marks over the proper syllables in the
following : —

You would abhor to do me wrong,
As much as I to spoil your song.

Write down a list of all double rhymes in the poem.
By what other names may these rhymes be known ?

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words eve, eventide, minstrelsy, warbling.

Compound Words something, eventide, hawthorn, selfsame, somewhere,
nightingale.

Prefixes sub — suspended — sub, under. (L.)

de — demands — de, from. (L.)
a — aware — a (corruption of GEwaer) does

not alter the sense.

ad — admire — ad, to. (L.)

ap (ad) — approbation — ad, to. (L.)
ab — abhor — ab, away, from. (L.)

re — released — re, again. (L.)

Suffixes ite — appetite — ite, abstract suffix.

142

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

ROOTS:

LATIN :

Pendere (pens), to weigh,
to hang:

Minis, wonderful:
Loqui, to speak :

Horrere, to bristle .
Os (or), mouth :

Probus, good :

SUSPENDED, append, compendious, com-
pensate, counterpoise, depend, dis-
pense, expend, impend, pansy, pen-
dant, pendulum, pensive, preponderate,
propensity, spend.

ADMIRE, marvel, miracle, mirage, mirror.

ELOQUENT, circumlocution, colloquy, elo-
cution, loquacious, obloquy, soliloquy,
ventriloquist.

ABHOR, horrible, horrid, horrify, horror.

ORATION, adore, inexorable, oracle, oral,
orator, orifice, orison, osculate, per-
oration.

APPROBATION, approve, disprove, improve,
probable, probation, probe, probity,
prove, proof, reprobate, reprove.

EXERCISES : — Derive : Fable, appetite, intent.

Make out a list of abstract words and show their suffixes separately.

XXIX
LUCY GRAY

OFT I had heard of Lucy Gray :
And when I cross'd the wild,
I chanced to see at break of day
The solitary child.

No mate, no comrade Lucy knew ;

She dwelt on a wide moor —
The sweetest thing that ever grew

Beside a human door !

You yet may spy the fawn at play,

The hare upon the green ;
But the sweet face of Lucy Gray

Will never more be seen.

" To-night will be a stormy night —

You to the town must go ;
And take a lantern, child, to light

Your mother through the snow."

" That, father ! will I gladly do ;

'Tis scarcely afternoon —
The minster-clock has just struck two,

And yonder is the moon ! "

144 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

At this the father raised his hook,
And snapp'd a faggot-band ;

He plied his work ; — and Lucy took
The lantern in her hand.

Not blither is the mountain roe :
With many a wanton stroke

Her feet disperse the powdery snow,
That rises up like smoke.

The storm came on before its time :
She wander'd up and down ;

And many a hill did Lucy climb,
But never reach'd the town.

The wretched parents all that night
Went shouting far and wide ;

But there was neither sound nor sight
To serve them for a guide.

At daybreak on a hill they stood

That overlook'd the moor ;
And thence they saw the bridge of wood

A furlong from their door.

They wept — and, turning homeward, cried,
" In heaven we all shall meet ! "

— When in the snow the mother spied
The print of Lucy's feet.

Half breathless from the steep hill's edge
They track'd the footmarks small

And through the broken hawthorn-hedge,
And by the long stone-wall ;

LUCY GRAY 145

And then an open field they cross'd :
The marks were still the same ;

They track'd them on, nor ever lost ;
r r. r

And to the bridge they came.

They follow'd from the snowy bank

Those footmarks, one by one,
Into the middle of the plank ;

And further there were none !

— Yet some maintain that to this day

She is a living child ;
That you may see sweet Lucy Gray

Upon the lonesome wild.

O'er rough and smooth she trips along,

And never looks behind j
And sings a solitary song

That whistles in the wind.

W. WORDSWORTH (1770-1850).

1. Questions and Exercises

Has this poem a clearly defined Introduction and Conclusion ?
If so, mark off the lines which constitute each. Which
stanzas add nothing to the narrative ? Could the story be
more compressed ? What is the effect on the mind of the
reader of the first three and the last stanzas ? What emotion
is stirred by the poem? Which stanza in your opinion
has the saddest effect? Does the Introduction strike a
note of sadness ? Is the poem dramatic ? Point out any
part which is particularly dramatic. What was the fate of
Lucy Gray ? Did she deserve this fate ? Is there any
mystery about her death? Why do some maintain she is
a living child? Did her parents deserve to lose Lucy,
K

146 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

their only child ? Did her father think there was any
danger? When did the storm come on? Which of the
parents would feel the loss of Lucy more ? Give a reason.
Between which two stanzas is there a gap in the story ?
What has the reader to understand happened at this point ?
Can any moral be drawn from the story ? State it.

2. Composition and Exposition : Tragedy

It has been shown that Composition may be regarded from three
points of view : —

(i) Form : Prose and Verse.

(ii) Subject Matter : Description, Narration, Reflection ; Descrip-
tion dealing with things ; Narration with events ; Re-
flection with thoughts.

(iii) Emotional Effect: This results from a particular kind of
treatment of the subject-matter by the writer, and is also
dependent on the temperament of the reader.

All good composition, and particularly poetic composition,
whether Descriptive, Narrative, or Reflective, should give pleasure.
A pure description, like The Ploughman, a sad narrative, like Lord
Ulliris Daughter, and a reflective poem, like The Character of a
Happy Life, are all compositions which please. Of course pleasure
does not always mean joy. The emotional effect varies with the
subject-matter. A human being is by nature more in sympathy
with animate than with inanimate beings, and, again, with living
persons than with living animals. "One touch of Nature makes
the whole world kin," says Shakespeare; but there are degrees
within that kinship. The individual is affected more by the joys
and sorrows of his own immediate circle than by those of strangers,
of his own tribe or nation than by those of foreigners or other
nationalities, of his nearer neighbours, whether persons or states,
than by those more remote. Narrative composition which deals
with events, and particularly that kind which deals with the lives

LUCY GRAY 147

of persons, is therefore more apt to stir the emotions than either
descriptive or reflective writing. When a narration arouses con-
flicting emotions it is dramatic, and when these conflicting emotions
culminate in sadness overmastering the others, it is tragic. Earl
March, Proud Maist'e, The Lament for Culloden, Lord Ullirfs
Dmtghter, Lucy Gray, are all tragedies. When joy is turned to
sadness it is a tragedy. It is a tragedy when men are entombed in
a mine, when a submarine fails to rise to the surface, when a tene-
ment takes fire, when life is destroyed in any unexpected fashion.
But tragedy does not always mean Death. It is a tragedy when a
man suddenly loses his wealth or his character, or is stricken by
disease, when a widow is unable to provide for her little ones, when
a heart is broken ; in short, whenever the individual is unable to
bear up against the stress of circumstances. Life is full of tragedy.

But, happily, it is not all so. The opposite of tragedy is
comedy. In comedy, the emotional effect is mirth and laughter;
joy is paramount.

When a composition appeals at once to the opposite emotions
of mirth and sadness, and is therefore a mixture of tragedy and
comedy, it is called a tragi-comedy.

The names, Tragedy and Comedy, are often used specially for
stage plays.

EXERCISES : I.

Verse Plan. Group Plan.

I. Author has seen 2. Description of 3. She is no longer\
Lucy Gray. Lucy. there. J '

4. Her father's 5. 6. } „

command. I A How she became

7. 8. lost"

9. Parents search- 10. II. A clue. ] C. Her parents'

ing. search and
12. — 13. 14. - its

15. What some 16. \

say. } D" ~

Fill in blanks in the verse plan and also in the group plan.

148 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

2. Write a paragraph describing the mother's arrival without Lucy. What
would the father say ? What the mother ? Make them talk with each
other about Lucy.

3. Prosody

Write out all the lines which are accent-marked. Divide each of these lines
into feet. Is there any foot with three syllables? any with one? Can one
syllable count as a foot ? If so, what kind of stress must it have ? What is the
prevailing foot ? Give examples of inverted stress (a) at the beginning of a line,
(b) in the middle of a line. Give examples of an anapaestic foot. Give ex-
amples of slurred syllables. What is the name of the stanza? Show by a
diagram its metrical and its rhyme structure.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic Words oft, wild, green (adj. used as a noun).

Compound Words Make out a list of the thirteen compound words, and show

how each word is formed.
Onomatopoetic Word Whistles.
Prefixes Make out a list of all prefixes, and give the meaning of

each.
Suffixes ary, est, y, ly, er, er, ed, en, ward are all suffixes already

given. Select words from the poem exemplifying

these suffixes, and show the effect of each suffix.

Notice the two suffixes -er having different meanings.

ROOTS

LATIN :
Solus, alone : SOLITARY, desolate, soliloquy, solitude,

solo.
Mons, mont, hill: MOUNTAIN, amount, remount, para-

mount, surmount.

Spaxgere (spars), to scatter : DISPERSE, intersperse, sparse.
Premere, to press: PRINT, compress, depress, express, im-

press, suppress.

Bindan, to bind: BAND, bond, bondage, woodbine,

bundle.

Derive : — Maintain, break, human, tracked.

XXX

HOW ^ENGLISC BECAME ENGLISH : THE DIALECTS

EARLIER in this book it was shown that there were three
great stages in the development of English : the first period,
from 450 to 1 100, may be termed Old English or ^Englisc; the
second, from noo to 1500, is the period of Middle English ; the
third, from 1500 to the present time, constitutes Modern English.
It is often said that Old English was destroyed by the Norman
invasion ; but this is not true. Certainly the beginnings of Middle
English almost coincide with the date of the Conquest, but it must
be remembered that French influence was strong in England prior
to that event, and that it was quite one hundred and fifty years
after it before the two peoples, Normans and English, were blended
into one nationality. During one hundred years the two languages
existed side by side. At first the newcomers retained their own
language, and, as they were the ruling class, their speech was used
in the government of the country and for official purposes generally.
But the vast mass of the people still spoke English, and the
Normans, just as their ancestors had adopted the language of
France some centuries before, now adopted the language of
England. In 1258 Henry III. issued a proclamation to his barons
in English, and this year therefore marks an important turning-point
in the struggle. In 1362 the pleadings in the Law Courts were
ordered to be conducted in English, because so few could under-
stand French. In 1385 English was again taught in the schools.
It would appear therefore that although the words of the third
Latin addition were introduced shortly after 1066, they were not
incorporated into English until the later period from 1258 to 1400.

149

ISO A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Before the Conquest there had been three kinds of ^Englisc —
Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon — but latterly all the literature
had been written in the last-named. After the Conquest and during
the struggle for supremacy between French and ^Englisc the latter
was a spoken but not a written tongue ; and the result was that
each part of the country began to speak it in a particular way, just
as each part of the Roman Empire began to speak Latin in a
particular way. But in the case of England the differences were
not great enough to set up new languages in the different parts of
the country. Instead of this Dialects arose. Dialects are varieties
of the same speech peculiar to certain districts. About 1200 there
were three clearly defined dialects roughly corresponding to the
old divisions of ^Englisc, but now known as the Northern, the
Midland, and the Southern respectively.

The Northern Dialect was spoken in the Lowlands of Scotland
and in Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire.

The Midland Dialect was spoken in the district lying between
the Thames and Yorkshire.

The Southern Dialect in the counties south of the Thames and
in some of the counties west of it.

In course of time literature was written in all three dialects,
but owing to certain advantages which Midland possessed, the
chief writers began to use it, and its importance quite overshadowed
that of the other two. The most famous poets of the fourteenth
century, Chaucer, Gower, Langland, and the greatest prose writer
and preacher, Wyclif, all used this dialect. It was spoken through-
out the largest area. It was the speech of London and of Oxford
and Cambridge, the two great universities. It was an intermediate
dialect, and therefore easily understood by Northerner and Southerner
alike, and, as it had adopted the largest number of French words,
the ruling class found it not unfamiliar. The first official English,
the proclamation of Henry III., was written in Midland, and it was
in this dialect also that Oaxton printed his books in 1477. All

HOW ^NGLISC BECAME ENGLISH 151

these circumstances helped to make Midland the Standard
speech.

The language was no longer .ffinglisc but English. Thousands
of new words had been added ; hundreds of old words had died
out ; great changes in spelling and pronunciation had taken place ;
the grammatical construction of the language had been modified.
From the date of the triumph of the Midland Dialect the modern
period of English begins.

Its first great literary representative, the poet Chaucer, was not
sure that his English would become the standard and universal
speech. In his own lifetime there seemed to be a babel of tongues
in England, for besides the diversity arising from the three chief
dialects, there was a further confusion caused by the wide variations
within each separate dialect. It is to this chaotic speech that he
refers when towards the end of his poem, Troylus and Creseide,
he writes :

And for ther is so great diversite
In Englissh and in writing of our tonge
So prey to God that non miswrite thee,
Ne thee mismetre for defaute of tonge !
And, red wherso thou be or elle's songe,
That thou be understonde, God biseche !

This passage differs from Modern English only in spelling and
pronunciation, but how well grounded Chaucer's doubts were,
may be seen by comparing a passage from his Canterbury Tales
with one from Piers the Plowman, written in the same dialect by
William Langland. Both were highly educated men; but, while
Chaucer employed the speech which then prevailed at court,
Langland scoffed at it and deliberately wrote in the language of
the rural districts. As a result, his work is somewhat difficult to
read, and his fame, perhaps unjustly, has suffered.

152 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Bat even Langland himself frequently used French words,
and an interesting proof of the complete assimilation of the French
vocabulary into English is afforded by the prevalence of Hybrids in
Chaucer's writings. A Hybrid 1 has already been denned as a word,
the component parts of which are derived from different languages.
In the quotation from Troylus and Creseide, the ^Englisc prefix
mis — wrongly — is attached to the ^Englisc root write, and therefore
" miswrite " is " to write wrongly." But the same prefix is com-
bined with another root metre, "Metre" comes from the Greek
metron> through the Latin metrum and the French metre. This
French word combined with an ^Englisc prefix gives mismetre, " to
metre or scan wrongly." Similarly foreign prefixes and suffixes
may be combined with ^nglisc roots. That a French and an
^Englisc element should be present in the same word is sure evidence
of the fusion of the two tongues.

The Fate of the Northern Dialect

Although dialectic differences may still be detected in the speech
of the peasantry, it would be hard at the present time to find any
adult native who does not understand standard English, some of
the Celtic-speaking population perhaps being excepted. The
Dialects have practically disappeared. But it must not be supposed
that the Midland Dialect had an easy victory. The Northern
Dialect, which was likewise the speech of a metropolis and a court,
and for long had a separate literary existence in Scotland, was a
strong rival. After the death of Chaucer several Scots poets,
Henryson, Douglas, Dunbar, Lindsay, wrote literature of great
excellence in a dialect not much different from Chaucer's own.
For a time it looked as if the Northern Dialect would become
a standard and national language for Scotland; but after the
union of the Crowns and the consequent removal of the court
from Edinburgh, that Dialect became less and less used as a means
of literary expression. It is true that so late as the second .half
of the eighteenth century the gentry and educated classes still

1 P. 39-

HOW ^iNGLISC BECAME ENGLISH

153

154 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

spoke Scotch, and that the poet Burns wrote his finest work in it.
But the tendency was always towards the writing of standard
English, and even Burns himself employed the latter with much
ease and grace. Since his day, no really first-class literature has
been produced in any English dialect.

EXERCISES : I. Write the quotation from Chaucer in modern English.

2. Put down all words which differ in spelling, give the modern spelling,

and note the words which are modernised by the omission, the addition
and the change of letters.

3. What is the metre of the passage ?

4. What "e"s must be pronounced in order that the metre may be

preserved ?

5. How many rhymes ?

6. If you know any dialectic poem, write down 6 or 8 lines : then re- write

these in standard English. Give the name of the author and say
where the dialect is still spoken.

7. What is the difference between a Dialect and an Accent ? Correct or

justify : He speaks an Irish dialect. He speaks an American dialect.
He speaks with an Irish accent.

8. In the time chart of authors Gawain Douglas (1474-1523) has been

omitted. Copy out that part of the chart which deals with the
Northern Dialect and insert his name as an addition. (See also
P- 1 75-)

9. From the chart calculate the dates of birth and of death of the various

authors.

IO. Write out a list of contemporaries. Was it likely that Barbour would
imitate Chaucer ? Was it possible for Henryson to imitate Chaucer ?

n. Were Chaucer's works printed in his lifetime ? Why?

XXXI

HOW THESEUS SLEW THE MINOTAUR

PYNOS, that was the rnyghty kynge of Crete,
That wan an hundred citees stronge and grete

To scole hath sent his sone Androgeus

To Athenes, of the which hyt happeth thus,

That he was slayne, learning philosophic,

Ryght in that citee, nat but for envye.
[In revenge, Mynos besieges and takes Athenes — he exacts tribute.]

Thys Mynos hath a monstre, a wikked beste,

That was so cruelle that, withoute areste,

Whan that a man was broght in his presence,

He wolde hym ete ; ther helpeth no defence.

And every thridde yere, withouten doute,

They casten lotte, and as hyt came aboute

On ryche, on pore, he most his sone take

And of his child he moste present make

To Mynos, to save him or to spille,

Or lat his beste devoure him at his wille.
[The tribute is paid for many years.]

This wikked custome is so longe y-ronne,

Til that of Athenes kynge Ege'us

Moste senden his owne sone Theseus

Sith that the lotte is fallen hym upon

To be devoured, for grace is ther non.

And forth is lad thys woful yonge knyght

Unto the court of Kynge Mynos full ryght,

And in a prison fetred faste is he,

hyt = it.

155

156 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Til thilke tyme he shulde y-freten be. ~'~" -

[Adriane and Phedra, the daughters of Mynos, take pity on him.]
Than Adriane spake to hir suster free,
And seyde, " Phedra, leve suster dere,
This woful lordes sone may ye not here,
How pitously compleyneth he his kynne,
And eke his pore estate that he is ynne,
And gilteles ? now certe's hit is routhe !
And if ye wol assente, by my trouthe,
He shal be holpen, how so that we do."
[Phedra assents.]

" And we shal make him balles eke also
Of wexe and towe, that, whan he gapeth faste,
Into the beste's throte he shal hem caste
To sleke his hunger, and encombre his teeth.
And ryght anon whan that Theseus seeth
The beste achoked, he shal on him lepe
To sleen hym or they comen more to-hepe.
This weapon shal the gayler, or that tyde,
Ful prively within the prisoun hyde :
And for the house is crynkled to and fro,
And hath so queynte weyes for to go,
For it is shapen as the maze is wroght,
Therto have I a remedy in my thoght,
That by a clewe of twyne, as he hath gon,
The same way he may return anon,
Folwynge alway the threde, as he hath come.

[Theseus being brought to Adriane by the gaoler, she tells him of
her plan. He promises to marry her.]

And shortly of this matere for to make,
This Theseus of hir hath leve y-take,
And every point was performed in dede,
As ye have in this covenant herde me rede ;
His weapon, his clew, his thing that I have sayde
y-freten = eaten.

HOW THESEUS SLEW THE MINOTAUR 157

Was by the gayler in the house y-layde,
Ther as this Mynatour hath his dwellyng,
Ryght faste by the done at his entrynge ;
And Theseus is ladde unto his deth ;
And forthe unto this Mynataure he geth,
And by the techynge of thys Adriane,
He overcame thys beste and was his bane,
And oute he cometh by the clewe agayne
Ful prively, when he thys beste hath slayne ;
And by the gayler gotten hath a barge,
And cf his wives tresure gan it charge,
And tok his wif, and eke hir suster free,
And eke the gayler, and wyth hem alle three
Is stole away out of the londe by night.

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340-1400),

from The Legende of Good Women.

1. Questions and Exercises

Read poem aloud. Sound all dotted letters.

With what period of History does this poem deal ? Is the story
true ? Is it possible that it has a basis of truth ? What is
a myth ? Is the story mythological ? Mention the various
persons in the poem. Where did King Minos keep the
" wikked beste " ? What kind of animal was it ? How was
it slain ? Mention all the persons who were in the plot.
Write out any word of which you do not know the meaning.
Modernise the spelling of any such word. What end letter,
now omitted, is of frequent occurrence? Make out a list
of words ending in that letter. What letter is frequently used
for " i " ? Substitute " i " for this letter wherever possible.

2. Composition

EXERCISES : I. Modernise the poem.

2. Write an expansion of each of the following inset explanations : —

(a) In revenge, Mynos besieges and takes Athens — he exacts tribute.

(b) Adriane and Phedra, the daughters of Mynos, take pity on

him.

158 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

her plan. He promises to marry her.
Give details : time, place, characters, conversation, etc.
3. Write a paragraph continuing the story after the escape of Theseus
and his party.

3. Prosody

Before the Norman Conquest Alliteration or Head-rhyme was
employed in ^Englisc verse ; the initial letters had always a certain
place in the line, and there was always a strong stress on the
alliterative words. Thus, modernised from Beowulf,

" .Swoln were the surges, of storms was the coldest,
Jfan o/aned the night, and the wind from the north,
Rattling-grim, ^lew on us ; rough were the billows."

After the Norman Conquest a French system of metres and of
end rhymes was introduced. For long, however, the alliterative
verse held its ground, and it was not until Chaucer had shown the
beauty and grace of the new fashion that the old manner of writing
fell into disuse.

In the story of Theseus and the Minotaur when certain dotted
letters are sounded the versification is very uniform. In each line
there are ten syllables, five weak and five strong, the weak and
strong alternating. The line is therefore one of Iambic Pentameter.
The rhymes go in couplets. The poem is therefore written in the
Heroic Couplet.1

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Peculiarities of Chaucer's English

The most outstanding difference between the language of the
poem and that of current English is in the Spelling. In Chaucer's
day there was much diversity. The works of literature were still
hand-written, and the text was left to the mercy of scribes, who
were so careless of their spelling that they often had three or four

1 ?. P. 97-

HOW THESEUS SLEW THE MINOTAUR 159

ways of writing the same word. Nevertheless the difference is not
thus to be accounted for, but rather by the circumstance that certain
changes in the sound, and therefore also in the component letters of
a word, gradually took place, and that these changes were fixed by
the introduction of printing into England by William Caxton,
three-quarters of a century after the death of Chaucer. These
changes took three forms : (i) change in the order of the letters of
a word ; (ii) the omission of letters from a word ; and (iii) the
addition of letters to a word.

I. Change in Order. This is called Metathesis.

Ex. : Thridde into third ; monstre into monster ; encombre
into encumber ; Ariadne into Adriane.

II. Omission :

(a) of initial letter. This is called Aphaeresis.

Ex. : hyt becomes it ; y-ronne becomes run.
(b} of medial letter. This is called Syncope.

Ex. : gilteless, guiltless ; crudelis, cruel.
(c) of end letter. This is called Apocope.

Ex. : withouten, casten, comen, and many words
with final "e."

III. Addition :

(a) of initial letter. This is called Prosthesis.

Ex. : hem into them ; gan into began.

(b) of medial letter. This is called Epenthesis.

Ex.: wolde into would; folwynge into following;

doute into doubt ; wroght into wrought.
(c} of end letter. This is called Epithesis.

Ex. : sceal (shal) into shall ; wif into wife ; ther

into there.

Of these changes those of omission are perhaps the most
important. Several words exemplify more than one change. It is
not necessary to remember the Greek names for these changes.

160 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Moreover, there are certain grammatical differences. These
are best seen in Verbs and in Nouns.

Verbs

(1) The plural of the present indicative is -en, e.g. casten, comen.
This plural is characteristic of the Midland dialect ; the Northern

ending was -es ; the Southern, -eth.

(2) The third person singular of the present indicative frequently
ends in -eth.

This form is still used, more especially in poetry.
Ex. : " He prayeth best who loveth best."

(3) The Past Participle sometimes has y- prefixed.
Ex. : y-ronne, y-freten, y-take, y-layde.

This form is still occasionally used in poetry, e.g. y-clept =
called. In the time of Chaucer the other forms of the past parti-
ciple were also used, e.g. crynkled, fallen, shapen, holpen.

(4) The Present Infinitive frequently ends in n or en, e.g.
senden, sleen.

Nouns

(1) Plural in es where s is now used, e.g. wayes.

(2) Possessive in es where 's is now used, e.g. lorde's, wives.

In modern English the apostrophe is a sign that a letter has been
omitted : 'Tis, be't, lord's, didn't.

Prefixes Comparatively few words in this poem have prefixes.

Select from it as many different prefixes as you can to illustrate those of

Suffixes Select suffixes of Romanic (Latin, French, etc.) origin.
Show the force of each.

HOW THESEUS SLEW THE MINOTAUR 161

Hyrids Pit(e)ously. Latin (French) -f^Englisc.
Prive ly. Latin (French) -t- ^Englisc.

What is the force of the ^Englisc suffix ?

ROOTS

/ENGLISC :
Bana, a slayer : BANE, ratsbane, baneful.

LATIN :

Esse, to exist : ABSENT, essence, present.

Fendere, to strike: DEFENCE, fence, defend, offend, fend.

Duo, two: DOUBT, double, dual, dubious, duel, duet,

duplicity.

Sentire, to feel : ASSENT, consent, dissent, presentiment, resent,
sense.

Venire, to come : COVENANT, advent, adventure, avenue, con-
travene, convent, event, intervene, invent,
revenue, souvenir.

GREEK :

Philos, loving: PHILOSOPHY, philanthropy, philology.
Sophia, wisdom : PHILOSOPHY, sophist, sophistry.

XXXII

SIR PATRICK SPENS

king sits in Dunfermline towne
_L Drinking the blude-red wine;
" O whare will I get a skeely skipper,
To sail this new ship of mine?"

O up and spake an eldern knight,
Sat at the king's right knee, —

" Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor
That ever sailed the sea."

Our king has written a braid letter,
And seal'd it with his hand,

And sent it to Sir Patrick Spens,
Was walking on the strand.

"To Noroway, to Noroway,
To Noroway o'er the faem ;

The king's daughter of Noroway,
'Tis thou maun bring her hame."

The first word that Sir Patrick read,
Sae loud, loud laughed he ;

The neist word that Sir Patrick read,
The tear blinded his ee.

" O wha is this has done this deed,
And tauld the king o' me,

To send us out, at this time of the year,
To sail upon the sea ?

16*

SIR PATRICK SPENS 163

7 Be't wind, be't weet, be't hail, be't sleet,

Our ship must sail the faem ;
The king's daughter of Noroway,
'Tis we must fetch her hame." —

8 They hoysed their sails on Monenday morn,

Wi' a' the speed they may ;
They hae landed in Noroway,
Upon a Wodensday.

9 They hadna been a week, a week,

In Noroway, but twae,
When that the lords of Noroway
Began aloud to say —

10 "Ye Scottishmen spend a' our king's goud,

And a' our queenis fee." —
" Ye lie, ye lie, ye liars loud !
Fu' loud I hear ye lie :

1 1 For I brought as much white monie

As gane my men and me,
And I brought a half-fou of gude red goud
Out o'er the sea wi' me.

12 Make ready, make ready, my merrymen a'

Our gude ship sails the morn," —
" Now, ever alake, my master dear,
I fear a deadly storm !

13 I saw the new moon, late yestreen,

Wi' the auld moon in her arm ;
And, if we gang to sea, master,
I fear we'll come to harm."

164 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

14 They hadna sailed a league, a league,

A league but barely three,

When the lift grew dark, and the wind blew loud,
And gurly grew the sea.

15 The ankers brak and the top-masts lap,

It was sic a deadly storm ;
And the waves cam o'er the broken ship,
Till a' her sides were torn.

1 6 " O where will I get a gude sailor,

To take my helm in hand,
Till I get up to the tall top-mast,
To see if I can spy land ? " —

17 " O here am I, a sailor gude,

To take the helm in hand,
Till you go up to the tall top-mast ;
But I fear ye'll ne'er spy land."

1 8 He hadna gane a step, a step,

A step but barely ane,
When a bout flew out of our goodly ship,
And the salt sea it cam in.

19 " Gae, fetch a web o' the silken claith,

Another o' the twine,
And wap them into our ship's side,
And let na the sea come in." —

20 They fetch'd a web o' the silken claith,

Another o' the twine,

And they wrapped them round that gude ship's side,
But still the sea cam in.

SIR PATRICK SPENS 165

21 O laith, laith were our gude Scots lords

To weet their cork-heel'd shoon !
But lang or a' the play was play'd,
They wat their hats aboon.

22 And mony was the feather bed

That flatter'd on the faem ;
And mony was the gude Lord's son
That never mair cam hame.

23 The ladyes wrang their ringers white,

The maidens tore their hair,
A' for the sake of their true loves ;
For them they'll see nae mair.

24 O lang, lang may the ladyes sit,

Wi' their fans into their hand,
Before they see Sir Patrick Spens
Come sailing to the strand !

25 And lang, lang may the maidens sit,

With their goud kaims in their hair,
A' waiting for their ain dear loves !
For them they'll see nae mair.

26 Half owre, half owre to Aberdour

'Tis fifty fathoms deep,
And there lies gude Sir Patrick Spens,
Wi' the Scots lords at his feet.

ANONYMOUS.

1. Questions and Exercises

Which of the following kinds of composition does the poem
exemplify : narrative, descriptive, reflective ? Give instances
of dramatic treatment, either in dialogue or in the turn of
events. Why is the story a tragedy ? Considering the story

166 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

and the stanza form, by what special name would you describe
the poem ? What words or phrases point to a historical
basis for the story ? Is the language of the poem Standard
English? Is it as ancient as that of Chaucer? To which
of the three dialects — Northern, Midland, and Southern —
do you think the language belongs? Give reasons. Con-
sidering the grammar of the poem, what date would you
assign for its authorship ? Who was the author of the poem?
Make a list of all words not Standard English, and note what
change of letter is necessary to modernise such words. Write
out all the repetitions of words or ideas in the poem. Give
examples of poetic " omission."

2. Composition

EXERCISES : I. Condense the story into one paragraph.

2. Write out all the instances of direct speech occurring in the poem, and

show the name of the speaker by an introductory sentence.

3. Make a stanza-summary of the poem. Then group the stanzas under

general heads, showing the different turns of the story.

4. Write an imaginary account of the voyage to Norway, and contrast it

with the voyage home.

5. Make a character sketch of Sir Patrick Spens.

6. Compare "this new ship of mine" (stanza i) with the present holder

of the Atlantic record.

3. Prosody

In each stanza which lines rhyme ? Give examples of head-rhyme and middle
rhyme. What is the usual arrangement of the stresses in a ballad stanza ? Scan
the ninth stanza. Is it the ordinary ballad metre ? What is the name of the
foot in this stanza? How many syllables should be in the long lines? In the
short lines? Is the poem quite regular as to stresses? Select six lines which
contain more than eight syllables. Scan these lines.

Scan stanzas 7, 10, 12, 20 after the following fashion, showing the symbols
for strong and weak accents, the words of the stanza, the incidence of the rhyme,
and the name of each foot.

SIR PATRICK SPENS

167

X J.

The ank
iambus

X JL

-ers brak
iambus

XXX

and the top
anapaest

X X

masts lap
iambus

X X L

It was sic

anapaest

x ±.
a. dead
iambus

X X

-ly storm
iambus

XXX

And the waves

anapaest

X Z

cam o'er
iambus

X X

the brok-

iambus

x 4

en ship
iambus

X L
Till a'

X JL

her sides

X X
were torn

iambus iambus iambus
Amongst the first five stanzas, which are these diagrams of?

|X X|X X|X X|X X| | X X|X JL\ X X|X JL\

|X X|XXX|X j_\\ |x X| L |X X||

| X X| X X| X X| X X| | X X| X X| X X| X X|

|xx|xx|xx|| |xx|xx|xx||

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Authorship. — The author of this ballad is unknown. The story
itself had probably a historical basis, but in its present form it must
be regarded simply as the vaguest of traditions. In 1290 the Maid
of Norway was brought from Norway to Scotland, and died imme-
diately on arrival. This event had such disastrous consequences
that the story may have been told in ballad form among the people.
Another Scottish mission overseas occurred in 1649, when James
III. married a Danish princess, but in this case nothing is known
of the loss of a ship. Indeed, Sir Patrick Spens may be founded on
some other incident altogether. The date of its authorship cannot
be fixed. The language of the poem is certainly much more modern
than that of Chaucer; there are really no grammatical peculiarities,
e.g. infinitives in -n or past participles with y- prefixed. Thus the

1 68 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

earliest date for the poem, as it now is, must be towards the end of
the sixteenth century. But it may have been composed much
earlier, and in the course of oral tradition have undergone a gradual
modernising until at last it was finally written down in its present
form. Nevertheless it has preserved many old words and sounds
which, at one time common enough, remained in the Northern
Dialect long after Midland had become Standard English. Thus : —

Sound and Spelling Peculiarities :

O in Modern English is A in Northern Dialect : braid, faem, hame, sac, brak,

wha, etc.
L in Modern English is V, W, or dropped in Northern Dialect : goud=gold,

fou' = full, bout = bolt, a'=all.
E in Modern English is EE in Northern English : weet = wet, lie (lee) = lie.

The Presence of Danish Words :
maun, gang, lift, ee, sic (v. p. 67).

The Preservation of Old Forms :

eldern (n old adjectival ending).

Monenday, day of the Moon \The days of the week were named after the

Wodensday, day of Woden / old Norse gods.

Tiwesday (Tiw, god of war).

Thuresday (Thor, thunder god).

Frigeday (Frige, wife of Woden).

Saeterday (Saturn's day).

Sunnanday, Day of the Sun.

gurly, now obsolete (onomatopoetic).

skeely, skilful.

shoon, n old plural ending ; e.g. oxen, etc.

queenis, is (es), old possessiTe.

yestreen, yester(day) even(ing).

Prefixes If there are any prefixes of Romanic origin, give examples and

show force of each.

Give two examples of Celtic prefixes in Place names (v. p. 65).
Suffixes Is the poem rich in suffixes ? Give examples of adjectival and

adverbial suffixes.
Stanza 16 is almost all monosyllabic. Find similar stanzas.

SIR PATRICK SPENS 169

ROOTS

LATIN :

Signum, a sign : SEALED, sign, assign, consign, ensign, insignia,
signal, signet (sigillum).

EXERCISES : Is it possible for a monosyllabic word to have a prefix or a suffix ?

What word in last five stanzas spelt with an "o" is in Modern English
spelt with an "a"?

Find the percentage of classical words in the last six stanzas.

XXXIII
INFLUENCE OF LATIN

(4) THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

THE Third Latin period extended from the middle of the
eleventh to the beginning of the fifteenth century, for the
complete assimilation of the Norman French element took many
generations. Already the borrowing from Latin had been great and
continuous. Since the date of the military occupation, fifteen
hundred years before, Roman soldier, Roman priest, Norman
knight, and French scholar, each as occasion served, had enriched
the English vocabulary with Romanic words. It would seem as if
the supply must become exhausted. But yet another great Latin
addition took place, this time through the instrumentality of the
student of classical literature. It is called the Fourth Latin
Addition, and differs from the others in one remarkable particular.
Previous additions had been made directly to the speech of the
people ; thence they had passed into literature. The Fourth Latin
Addition entered English by way of the literature, and thence passed
into the speech. The circumstances which brought about the
introduction of new terms will make this quite clear.

In the beginning of the sixteenth century there was an extra-
ordinary revival of learning alike in this country and throughout
Western Europe. In the dark ages following the disruption of the
Roman Empire scholarship existed merely on sufferance. The
sword was mightier than the pen. The learning of the ancients
was either lost or misunderstood. For " ten silent centuries " men
warred against each other, kingdoms and principalities were set up
170

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 171

and overturned, and in the lust for spiritual and temporal power the
man of learning was either neglected altogether or regarded with
superstitious awe.

At last the day of awakening came. It took place in Italy, a
country which, when England, Spain, and France had built up
strong nationalities, was still divided against itself and the scene of
warring factions. But it had been the home of an ancient learning,
and it still possessed princes who honoured and encouraged the
artist and the scholar. In the fourteenth century three great writers,
Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, broke the silence of centuries and
showed how beautifully the classical ideals could be expressed in
the language of their own country, and at the same time how a
national literature independent of that of the ancients might arise.
In England, a generation later, the poet Chaucer did the same great
work for his nation. He was honoured and rewarded in his life-
time ; and this is evidence that kings and nobles were now able to
appreciate and willing to encourage genius.

The desire for learning had been again aroused, and in 1453,
when Constantinople, the capital of the old Eastern empire, was
captured by the Turks, the Greek scholars who fled from it were
welcomed in Italy and elsewhere. They carried many ancient
manuscripts with them, and thus revived the study of the long-
forgotten Greek poets, orators, and historians. The zeal for the
ancient learning, commencing in Italy, soon spread into England
and other countries, with the result that many Latin and Greek
words were added to the different languages of Western Europe.

Into English alone it is estimated that, not counting derivatives,
at least three thousand new Latin words were introduced. These
were all book-words taken directly from Latin itself and not through
the medium of French. Many Greek words were likewise brought in,
both directly and indirectly. Sometimes it happened that a word
taken directly from Latin or Greek had previously been introduced
indirectly. Thus Doublets a were again formed.

1P. 66.

173

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

The following table shows the type of words introduced at the
Fourth Latin Period : —

Nouns.

Adjectives.

Verbs.

ENGLISH
WORD.

LATIN WORD.

ENGLISH
WORD.

LATIN WORD.

ENGLISH
WORD.

LATIN WORD.

equilibrium

aequilibrium

impotent

impotent —

create

creatus

candidate

candidatus

egregious

egregms

cogitate

cogitatus

predecessor
predicament

praedecessor
praedicamentum

pauper
immaculate

pauper
immaculatus

perambulate
relapse

perambulatus
relapsare

vertebra

imminent

imminent —

recant

recantare

compendium

magnanimous

magnammus

vindicate

vindicatus

vivisection
vicissitude

viva sectio
vicissitude

peripatetic
audible

penpateticus
audibilis

transmit
vibrate

transmittere
vibratus

proscenium

effulgent

effulgent —

proscribe

proscribere

Note how little the words are changed in passing from the one
language to the other.

Examples of Doublets

Latin Word.

Direct.

Indirect
(through French).

fidelitas
hospitalis

fidelity
hospital

fealty
hotel

penitentia
regalis
fragilis

penitence
regal
fragile

penance
royal
frail

Greek Word.

Direct.

Indirect.

adamas

adamant

diamond

balsamon

balsam

balm

presbyteros
phantasia

presbyter
phantasy

priest
fancy

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 173

Short-lived Words

So much attention did the scholars of the age pay to the study
of the classics, and so eager were they to use a vocabulary enriched
with a great store of classical knowledge, that they introduced into
English many words which have since become obsolete. The
majority of these Latin terms were " long-tailed words in -osity and
-ation " ; but no matter what their length or their ending, if they
stood for a new idea, the words were incorporated and retained in
the language. On the other hand, if they expressed ideas for which
there were already words in English, the new importations were
soon discarded.

Examples of such words : —

pulchritude, beauty ; septentrionality, northernliness ;
mulierosity, womanishness ; itinerate, to journey.

Extent and Nature of Latin Words

The biggest influx occurred in the hundred years from 1480 to
1580 — the period which is known as the Renaissance or the
Revival of Learning — but ever since then classical words have been
creeping into the language. At the present time more than half of
the English vocabulary is composed of words from Latin roots.
Nearly all abstract terms and words dealing with religion, law,
science and literature are classical ; as also most words of three or
more than three syllables, a very large number of those of two
syllables, and a fairly large proportion of those of one syllable.

Literature of the Renaissance

Although the Revival of Learning had thus a potent influence on
the English vocabulary, it must be remembered that this influence
was exerted through literature. Words are only valuable for the
expression of ideas, and it was the presentation of the wonderful
thoughts of the ancient Greeks to men's minds that caused writers
to strive after the best ways of expressing them. In England the
Revival of Learning showed itself first of all merely in the study

i74 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

and translation of classical authors; but by-and-by the time of
imitation came to an end, and a time of independent and original
expression in the national speech began.

In the first phase of the Revival of Learning must be mentioned
the Translation of the sEneid by Gawin Douglas, Bishop of
Dunkeld ; the Translation of the Bible by Tyndale, the reformer ;
the publication of Utopia, in Latin (it was soon translated into
English), by Sir Thomas More, the scholarly martyr ; the Poems of
Wyatt and Surrey, who introduced new forms of verse from Italy ;
and many translations from the classics by competent scholars.

This period of preparation was followed by an extraordinary,
and truly national, development of literature in many forms. Of
prose writers, two names command attention : Richard Hooker and
Francis Bacon. Hooker wrote a great work on church government,
Ecclesiastical Polity, in a style so rich and varied in vocabulary,
so grand and complex in its structure, that it has been likened to
majestic organ-music. Bacon's work — Essays and philosophical
books — is, on the contrary, short, pithy, and condensed in style,
and therefore it appeals to a wider circle of readers. He is a clear
reasoner, and his wise sayings are often quoted. Thus, from his
essay Of Studies : " Reading maketh a full man ; conference a
ready man ; and writing an exact man ; and, therefore, if a man
write little he had need have a great memory ; if he confer little, he
had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need
have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not." Un-
fortunately, most of Bacon's philosophical work is written in
Latin.

In the realm of poetry, a special form of narrative composition,
designed for presentation on the stage in order to show human life
in action, had been gradually evolved. It was known as the
Drama, and soon, in the hands of Christopher Marlowe, Shake-
speare, and Ben Jonson, rose to a perfection which it has never
since equalled. The Drama had been one of the greatest forms of

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

I7S

176 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Greek literature, but in England it did not arise from imitation of
the classics. It took its origin in religion. A portion of Scripture
history, or the life of some saint of the Church, was selected for
representation, at first in the churches by the clergy themselves,
and afterwards in the streets by the laity. In course of time secular
stories were given this dramatic treatment, and these were per-
formed in theatres. The Drama then took its two chief forms,
Tragedy and Comedy.1 Classical scholars studied the old Greek
dramas, and some new features were thus incorporated. Gradually
the writers of plays grew more and more artistic in their work, until
at last William Shakespeare " made the drama represent the whole
of human life." Shakespeare must be read to be understood.
Suffice it to say, here, that he is universally regarded as perhaps the
greatest literary genius the world has ever known.

Apart from the Drama, Edmund Spenser was the finest artist of
his time. His greatest work is The Faerie Queene, a short extract
from which is given immediately after this chapter. Spenser's
poetry is full of strange imagery, of splendid pageants, and the
highest ideals of chivalry, and these are so beautifully described,
and expressed in such musical language, that he has been called
the poet's poet.

John Milton, the greatest of English Epic writers, as a literary
artist is on a level with Shakespeare and Spenser, and although
born as late as 1608, he also wrote at a time when the Revival of
Learning had not yet spent itself. In his sightless old age and
comparative poverty he composed, in lofty language suited to the
theme, a narration of the events which preceded and succeeded the
Fall of Man. This kind of composition is the highest form of
narrative poetry, and is called Epic. Milton wrote two great epics,
Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. In all his work he displays,
not only a vast store of learning, but also the art, imagination, and
reason of the poet. He died in 1674.

1 V. P. 147-

XXXIV
MAGIC MUSIC

EFTSOONES they heard a most melodious sound
Of all that mote delight a daintie eare,
Such as attonce might not on living ground,
Save in this Paradise, be heard elsewhere :
Right hard it was for wight which did it heare,
To read what manner musicke that mote bee.
For all that pleasing is to living care
Was there consorted in one harmonee ;
Birdes, voices, instruments, windes, waters all agree.

The joyous birdes, shrouded in chearefull shade,
Their notes unto the voice attempred sweet ;
Th' Angelicall soft trembling voyces made
To th' instruments divine respondence meet ;
The silver sounding instruments did meet
With the base murmure of the waters fall ;
The waters fall with difference discreet,
Now soft, now loud, unto the wind did call ;
The gentle warbling wind low answered to all.

EDMUND SPENSER (1553-1599),

from The Faerie Queene.
mote = is able to, might.

1. Questions and Exercises

Which stanza is more descriptive? Point out any lines
which are narrative. In the first stanza which two lines

M '"

178 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

are reflective? Which stanza gives the more detailed
description of the music? Modernise the spelling of any
words that require it. Write out the words of which you
do not understand the meaning. Write down all nouns
forming the plural in -es. Write down all words with "e"
final and underline those no longer spelt so. Write out a
list of nouns from the second stanza which also occur in
the first stanza. Of which line in the first stanza is the
second stanza an expansion? Which words convey the
idea of " harmony ? "

2. Composition: Expansion

The second stanza is very skilfully constructed. It is a descrip-
tion of the harmony resulting from the blending of the various
musical sounds of birds, voices, instruments, winds and waters.
These various names are interlinked according to the following
scheme : —

What are in " Harmony " Idea of " Harmony "

Birds and Voice attempred

Voices and instruments made respondence

instruments and waters fall did meet

waters fall and wind did call

wind and all answered

[Birds, voices, instruments, waters fall.]

The second stanza is thus seen to be an expansion of the last
line of the first stanza,

Birdes, voices, instruments, windes, waters all agree.

EXERCISES : Expand the following sentences into paragraphs, stating all
facts, either given or implied, and adding any reasonable enlargement.

I. A young colt spoke to his companions about the tyranny of man which
he advised them to shake off. An old horse advised the opposite.
The result was ihat

" The tumult ceased, the colt submitted,
And, like his ancestors, was bitted."

(Gay's Fables.)

MAGIC MUSIC 179

2. A sea pirate destroyed a warning bell so that vessels might come to

grief. Afterwards his vessel was wrecked at the same place.

(Southey's Inchcape Bell.}

3. A piper once agreed for a certain sum to clear a town of rats by piping

strange music. He did so but received no reward. In revenge he
caused all the children of the town to follow him, and they were
never again heard of.

(Browning's Pied Piper of Hamelin.)

3. Prosody

Scan the lines. How many stresses in each line? How many stresses in
the last line ? What is the metre of the last line ? Are any of the nouns
ending in -es sounded on the last syllable? If so, give examples. Indicate
by letters the rhyme arrangement. Is the rhyme arrangement the same for
both stanzas ?

Put in words a description of the rhyme arrangement.

A stanza of tins form, because it was employed by the poet Spenser, is
called a Spenserian Stanza.

Of what kind of rhyme are the following examples : difference discreet, silver
sounding, manner musicke ?

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Chaucer died in 1400 ; Spenser wrote the Faerie Queene in
1590; the poem shows the progress which the language made in
these two hundred years. The spelling is almost modern, but the
plural in -es and the final "e" are still found. The scansion of
the poem, however, shows that the "e" is not sounded in birdes,
windes, eare, heare, musicke, murmure ; and the dropping of the
sound was preparatory to dropping the letter. That the spelling
was not yet quite fixed is shown in the variation, voice — voyces.
Prosthesis is apparent in "attonce" = at once. The grammatical
peculiarities noticed in Chaucer have quite disappeared. With
the exception of one or two obsolete words, the language is Modern
Standard English.

Obsolete Words mote, old part of the verb " must" ; respondence, now

correspondence.
Archaic Woi'ds Eftsoones, still found in poetry " eftsoons " ; " manner

musicke " for " manner of music."

i8o A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Words with a Special consorted = blended together ; base murmure = low-
Meaning pitched murmur; living ground = ground on which

human beings live.

Onomatopoetic Words murmure, warbling.
Doublets respondence — response.

wight — whit.

Prefixes an — answered — and, against. (JE.)

Give words having following prefixes : de, con, in,
a, at, re, dis. Give force of each.

Suffixes ic (icke) — musicke — ic, adjectival. (Gk.)

ine — divine — ine, ,, (L.)

ROOTS

LATIN :

Deus, a god: DIVINE, adieu, deify, deity, deist.

Spondere (spons), to promise : RESPONDENCE, correspond, despond,

espouse, sponsor, spouse.
Ferre, to bear : DIFFERENCE, circumference, confer,

defer, fertile, offer, prefer, suffer,

transfer.
Genus, race, kind : GENTLE, general, congenial, degene-

rate, engender, generate, generous,

genial, genius, gentry, progeny.

Swarian, to swear : ANSWERED, swear.

EXERCISES : Derive following words ; instruments, attempred, sounding,

pleasing, voices.

Select five verbs and five nouns which are of ^inglisc origin, and give
reasons for each one selected.

XXXV

THE DEBATE OF THE FALLEN ANGELS

SATAN and his rebellious crew have been cast out of Heaven.
A consultation is held. Some advise another battle to recover
Heaven ; others advise peace. A third proposal is made by
Beelzebub that they should search out the world newly created
by God. This plan is adopted. The chief counsellors are thus
described : —

IGH on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshon the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,

Satan begins Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand

the debate. Showrs on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat, by merit rais'd
To that bad eminence. . . .

He ceas'd ; and next him Moloch, scepter'd king,
Stood up, the strongest and the fiercest spirit
That fought in Heav'n ; now fiercer by despair ;
His trust was with th' Eternal to be deem'd

Moloch ad- Equal in strength, and rather than be less

vises open Car'd not to be at all : ...

He ended frowning, and his looks denounc'd
Desperate revenge, and battle dangerous
To less than Gods. On th' other side uprose
Belial, in act more graceful and humane ;
A fairer person lost not Heav'n ; he seem'd
For dignity compos'd and high exploit;
But all was false and hollow ; though his tongue
Dropt manna, and could make the worse appear

181

182

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

of strife.

Mammon ad-
vises that an
opposition
kingdom be
set up

The better reason, to perplex and dash
Maturest counsels ; for his thoughts were low ;
Belial advises To vice industrious, but to nobler deeds
a cessation Timorous and slothful ; yet he pleas'd the ear ;
^n(j with persuasive accent thus begun — . . .

Thus Belial with words cloth'd in reason's garb
Counsell'd ignoble ease, and peaceful sloth,
Not peace : and after him thus Mammon spake . .

He scarce had finisht, when such murmur fill'd
fh' Assembly, as when hollow rocks retain
The SQund f blust>ring winds which all night long
TT , . ' .

"a" rous " tne sea> now wltn hoarse cadence lull
Sea-faring men o'er-watcht, whose bark by chance
Or pinnace anchors in a craggy bay
After the tempest : such applause was heard
As Mammon ended, and his sentence pleas'd
Advising peace : for such another field
They dreaded worse than Hell : so much the fear
Of thunder and the sword of Michael
Wrought still within them ; and no less desire
To found this nether empire, which might rise
By policy, and long process of time,
In emulation opposite to Heav'n.
Which when Beelzebub perceiv'd ; than whom
Satan except, none higher sat, with grave
Aspect he rose, and in his rising seem'd
A pillar of state ; deep on his front engraven
Deliberation sat and public care ;
And princely counsel in his face yet shon,
Majestic though in ruin : sage he stood
Beelzebub With Atlantean shoulders fit to bear
advises the ^he weight of mightiest monarchies ; his look

scare or j)rew audience and attention still as night

the new- . ,

created world. Or summers noon-tide air. . . .

THE DEBATE OF THE FALLEN ANGELS 183

This is The bold design

adopted. Pleas'd highly those infernal States, and joy
Sparkl'd in all their eyes ; with full assent
They vote.

JOHN MILTON (1608-1674),

from Paradise Lost.

1. Questions and Exercises

Is this a complete account of the debate of the fallen Angels ?
What is missed out? How many characters are described?
Is Satan described? Is Mammon? Which character was
the best orator? Whose plan received most applause?
What does Milton compare the applause to? Give three
reasons why Mammon's advice was popular. How was the
applause stilled ? Whose look compelled attention ? What
is this attention compared to? Write down six striking
phrases or lines. Modernise the spelling of any words that
require it. Write out a list of words which you think are not
used in the modern sense. Is the diction more or less
archaic than that of Spenser? Write down the shortest
independent sentence : and the longest sentence. In the
first six lines notice the position of the subject and predicate.
Is this an example of Inversion ? Give examples of Inver-
sion. Point out sentences in which words are omitted.
Point out any sentence in which the words seem in their
wrong order even for poetry. Point out any word whose
accentuation has changed since Milton's day. Point out any
word whose meaning has changed since Milton's day. Point
out any peculiarity in Milton's grammar.

2. Composition

EXERCISE : Expand or complete the following condensed expressions : —
now fiercer by despair ; rather than he less car'd not to be at all ; in
act more graceful and humane ; to vice industrious but to nobler d eds
timorous and slothful ; and with persuasive accent thus be^an ; sea-
faring men o'erwatcht ; his sentence pleas'd advising peace ; and no less
desire to found this nether empire.

1 84 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Re-write the following in ordinary prose order: —
Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat ; deep on his front engraven

deliberation sat and public care ; he seem'd for dignity compos'd and

high exploit ; for such another field they dreaded worse than Hell.
Paraphrase: — 11. 1-6, 10-12, 19-25, 29-35 (to "tempest"), 11. 40 (from "and

no less desire ")-43, 11. 44-54.
Write paragraphs describing : — The contents of a goldsmith's shop window ;

a pleasant-spoken man ; a sour-featured person ; one who looks very

wise. Use words from the poem.
Write an essay on Peace versus War. Imagine the arguments used by Belial

and Moloch respectively.

3. Prosody

Blank Verse is verse which is unrhymed. It is usually iambic pentameter.

In what kind of verse is this poem written ? What stress is there on the last
syllable of each line ? Scan any six lines and divide these off into feet. Are
there any slurred syllables ? Where ?

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Milton's great epic, Paradise Lost, from which these lines are
extracted, was published in 1667. It shows few traces of antique
forms; nevertheless Milton delighted in preserving some of the
older expressions, which he imitated from previous poets. His
knowledge of the classics led him to copy the ancients in the con-
struction of his sentences, and often he used words in their original
classical meaning instead of their ordinary English meaning. A
few foreign words were also pronounced differently in his time,
e.g. aspect, converse, access, comrade. Otherwise the language of
Milton is identical with that of to-day. But notice how often he
uses the apostrophe for letters omitted.

Words with a Special Meaning

Denounced = declared, told of (its original meaning).

Dash = spoil, confound.

Sentence = opinion, thought (its original meaning).

Opposite to = opposed to.

Front = brow (original meaning).

Atlante"an = adjective, from Atlas, whose task it was to keep asunder earth

and heaven.

Infernal = belonging to lower regions (original meaning).
States = counsellors.

THE DEBATE OF THE FALLEN ANGELS 185

Doublets Cadence — chance ; state — estate ; humane — human.

Prefixes What is force of the prefix in the following words : — assent,

aspect, accent, applause, assembly, advising ; desperate,

denounc'd, deliberation ; persuasive, perceived ; exalted ;

retain ; process ?
Suffixes What parts of speech are formed by the following

suffixes : — ed, ate, ane, ous, ive, ce, se, ion ; give

examples from the poem.

Hybrids peaceful — peace (Romanic) — ful (English),

graceful — grace ( ,, )—,,(,,)•
princely — prince ( ,, ) — ly ( ,, ).

ROOTS

Audire, to hear: AUDIENCE, audible, audit, obedient,

obeisance, obey.

Plaudgre, to applaud : APPLAUSE, applaud, explode, plaudit,

plausible.

(g)Nosc6re, to get to know: IGNOBLE, cognisance, cognition, connois-
seur, incognito, notice, notify, notion,
notorious, recognise, reconnoitre.

Nuntius, a messenger: DENOUNCED, announce, annunciation,

enunciate, nuncio, pronounce, re-
nounce.

Sper- (spes), hope: DESPERATE, despair, desperado, prosper.

Spgcere (spect), to look : ASPECT, circumspect, conspicuous,

despise, especial, espy, expect, in-
spect, perspective, prospect, respect,
specimen, spectator, spectre, suspect,
suspicion.

EXERCISE: Derive following : — State, compos'd, false, accent, peace, retain,
sound, cadence, sentence.

XXXVI
THE SWALLOW

* I AHE Swallow, privileged above the rest
_L Of all the birds as man's familiar guest,
Pursues the sun in summer, brisk and bold,
But wisely shuns the persecuting cold ;
Is well to chancels and to chimneys known,
Though 'tis not thought she feeds on smoke alone.
From hence she has been held of heavenly line,
Endued with particles of soul divine.
This merry chorister had long possessed
Her summer seat, and feathered well her nest ;
Till frowning skies began to change their cheer,
And time turned up the wrong side of the year ;
The shedding trees began the ground to strow
With yellow leaves, and bitter blasts to blow.
Sad auguries of winter thence she drew,
Which by instinct or prophecy she knew :
When prudence warned her to remove betimes,
And seek a better heaven and warmer climes.

Her sons were summoned on a steeple's height
And, called in common council, vote a flight ;
The day was named, the next that should be fair ;
All to the general rendez-vous repair,
They try their fluttering wings and trust themselves in air ;
But whether upward to the moon they go,
Or dream the winter out in caves below,
Or hawk at flies elsewhere, concerns us not to know.
tW

THE SWALLOW 187

Southwards, you may be sure, they bent their flight,
And harboured in a hollow rock at night ;
Next morn they rose and set up every sail ;
The wind was fair, but blew a mackrel gale :
The sickly young sat shivering on the shore,
Abhorred salt water never seen before,
And prayed their tender mothers to delay
The passage, and expect a fairer day.

[Martin gave his advice, which was " present safety bought at any
price."]

'Tis true, some stagers of the wiser sort
Made all these idle wonderments their sport :
They said, their only danger was delay,
And he who heard what every fool could say
Would never fix his thoughts, but trim his time away.
The passage yet was good ; the wind, 'tis true,
Was somewhat high, but that was nothing new,
Nor more than usual equinoxes blew.

The advice was true ; but fear had seized the most,
And all good counsel is on cowards lost.
The question crudely put to shun delay,
'Twas carried by the major part to stay.

[By chance the weather improved, and so the swallows start to build
again their nests.]

Who but the Swallow now triumphs alone ?
The canopy of heaven is all her own ;
Her youthful offspring to their haunts repair,
And glide along in glades, and skim in air,
And dip for insects in the purling springs,
And stoop on rivers to refresh their wings.

[At last, very late, the swallows set out, but the day is too short for
their journey.]

What should they do, beset with dangers round,
No neighbouring dorp, no lodging to be found,

1 88 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

But bleaky plains, and bare unhospitable ground ?

The latter brood, who just began to fly,

Sick-feathered and unpractised in the sky,

For succour to their helpless mother call :

She spread her wings ; some few beneath them crawl ;

She spread them wider yet, but could not cover all.

To augment their woes, the winds began to move

Debate in air for empty fields above,

Till Boreas got the skies and poured amain

His rattling hailstones mixed with snow and rain.

The joyless morning late arose, and found
A dreadful desolation reign around,
Some buried in the snow, some frozen to the ground,
The rest were struggling still with death, and lay
The Crows' and Ravens' rights, an undefended prey,
Excepting Martin's race ; for they and he
Had gained the shelter of a hollow tree :
But soon discovered by a sturdy clown,
He headed all the rabble of a town,
And finished them with bats, or polled them down.
Martin himself was caught alive, and tried
For treasonous crimes, because the laws provide
No Martin there in winter shall abide.
High on an oak which never leaf shall bear,
He breathed his last, exposed to open air ;
And there his corps, unblessed, is hanging still,
To show the change of winds with his prophetic bill.

JOHN DRYDEN (1631-1700),
from The Hind and the Panther.

1. Questions and Exercises

Give quotations to show that the swallows acted and talked like
human beings. In what kind of story do the lower animals
act and talk ? What is the moral of this story ? Show that
the poem is descriptive and reflective as well as narrative.

THE SWALLOW 189

Select any line which in itself makes good sense. Select any
couplet which in itself makes good sense. Select any line or
couplet in which the prose order is inverted. Select any
phrases in which things are called, without any poetic disguise,
by their ordinary names, e.g. "called in common council."
Select any humorous line. The swallow represents a certain
religion — select phrases which may have two meanings, e.g.
"feathered well her nest." Name some of the different kinds
of swallows. In the poem Dryden intends Martin to repre-
sent a particular man — does the poet give a flattering descrip-
tion of him ? How would the man like to read the poem ?
Is the Fable interesting ? What makes it so ?

2. Composition : Definitions

The term, Diction, includes not only all the different kinds of
words, but also how these are selected and arranged. Since every
word has a separate meaning — sometimes several meanings — the
writer must select and arrange the words so that his meaning is
obvious. If the selection and arrangement of words make the
meaning clear there is clearness of Diction. When words or
phrases may have more than one meaning they are said to be
ambiguous. For example, the phrase " feathered well her nest " may
mean that the nest was lined with feathers or it may mean that the
swallow (a certain church) looked well after her own interests.
Dryden intends the phrase to have both meanings ; but often there
is Ambiguity when the writer does not intend it.

Examples :

My brethren, we are here for no earthly purpose.

This warehouse is perfectly unapproachable.
Clearness of Diction is the avoidance of Ambiguity.

Sometimes it is possible for a writer to state his meaning clearly
in more than one way. If he selects his words so that his meaning
is expressed in the shortest and most direct manner, he is said to
write with Brevity or Terseness.

igo A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Example :

" All good counsel is on cowards lost."

1. Here the terseness is gained by the use of simple words.

2. Brevity is also a result of skilful condensation.

Examples :

" Abhorred salt water never seen before,"
instead of

" Abhorred salt water which they had never seen before."
Also,

" But soon discovered by a country clown,"
instead of

" But soon when they had been discovered," etc.

" Common Council,"
instead of

"Council in which the members have a common right to speak," etc.

3. But too much brevity frequently causes the meaning of a
sentence to be obscure or ambiguous.

Example :

" His brother likes you better than John,"
may be

(a) His brother likes you better than he likes John,
or

(b) His brother likes you better than John likes you.

4. Sometimes Terseness is gained by the omission of unnecessary
words.

Examples :

(From) hence she has been held of heavenly line.
The swallow above the rest of (all) the birds
All to the (general) rendez-vous repair.

THE SWALLOW 191

5. Terseness is really a kind of summarising ; thus : —

" The day was named — the next that should be fair "
becomes

The next fair day was named.
And

" Winds began to move debate (in air) for empty fields

(above) "
becomes

Winds began to wrangle for the empty fields.
So also,

" High on an oak which never leaf shall bear
He breathed his last, exposed to open air,"
becomes

He was hanged on a blasted oak.

The last reference may be to the oaken post of the gallows.
The above couplet is an example of a Circumlocution or
Periphrasis.

6. When a writer leaves the main track of his story he is said to
digress from the point. In the poem there are two short digressions.

(i) Though 'tis not thought she feeds on smoke alone.

(ii) But whether upward to the moon they go,
Or dream the winter out in caves below,
Or hawk at flies elsewhere, concerns us not to know.

EXERCISES: Expand following terse phrases: — and A harboured in a hollow
rock at night. The question A crudely put to shun delay. Who just
began to fly. A Endued with particles of soul divine. Vote a flight.

Make four sentences out of the first four lines.

Write out a list of words from the poem with the general ideas of Flight,
Birds, Death, Weather, Scenery.

At which points does Dryden turn aside from the story ?

Show the various stages in the story.

3. Prosody

Three lines rhyming together form a triplet. Give examples.
Which line has most alliteration ?

192 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Write down in words the name of the metre, and show why it receives that
name.

What is a heroic couplet ? Give examples from this and preceding poems.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Give examples of compound words, onomatopoetic words, archaic words, and
obsolete words.

If there are any words used in a special sense, write opposite each the meaning
which it has in the passage.

Are there any Hybrids ?

Prefixes Pro, before. Provide. (Lat.)

Sub, under. Succour. (Lat.)
Suffixes iar, ar, adjectival ; familiar. (Lat).

able, adj. ; unhospitable (Lat.) ; "un" is Eng.

cle, diminutive ; particle. (Lat.)

Notes. — It was thought that a dead swallow, suspended in the air, turned its

bill in the direction from which the wind would blow.
Mackerel are best caught in a fresh gale of wind.
Boreas, the north wind.
Poll, to cut down.

ROOTS
LATIN :

Sequi (secut), to follow : PURSUES, persecuting, prosecute, con-
secutive, consequent, ensue, execute,
obsequies.

Augere, to increase : AUGMENT, auction, august, author.

StinguSre, to prick : INSTINCT, distinct, extinguish, dis-

tinguish.

Secare, to cut: INSECTS, bisect, dissect, intersect, seg-

ment, secant, sickle, scythe, sedge.

Finis, an end: FINISHED, affinity, confine, define, final,

finance, finite, refine, superfine.

EXERCISES : From the poem derive any twelve words not included in the

above lists.

From what language does the word " dorp " come?
Give examples of its use in compounds (v. thorpe, p. 65).
Give examples of Hybrids occurring in the poem.
Give other uses of the word, poll.

XXXVII

THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LANGUAGES UPON
ENGLISH LITERATURE

IT has been shown how the Revival of Learning influenced both
the language and the literature of England ihrough the intro-
duction of new words, new ideas, and new literary forms : the new
words came mainly from Latin, the ideas from Greek, and the
forms of expression from Italian. Of these tongues Italian was the
only one spoken by a people at the time. It was, and still is, a
living language. Latin and Greek, like Old English, were no
longer spoken tongues. They were even then dead languages. In
ordinary circumstances the influence of a living language is greater
than that of a dead language ; but Latin long after it had ceased to
be a living speech remained potent as the international language of
scholarship, of diplomacy, and of the Church. In the Middle Ages
it was the very gateway to knowledge, and an enormous Latin
literature grew up in the various countries of Western Europe.
Even as late as the seventeenth century Lord Bacon wrote his chief
philosophical work, "Novum Organum," in Latin so that it might
be read by scholars in all time. For long, too, English prose
followed Latin models, and it was not until the early eighteenth
century that a change took place.

But the influence of living languages must not be under-estimated.
It has been shown that French was the medium whereby most
classical words were introduced into English, and that the system of
versification presently in use was adopted from the same language.
And while the Normans held sway in England as a separate class,
long poems of love and adventure were composed in French for

194 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

the amusement of the nobles and their ladies. It was not until
Chaucer's day that the influence of another living language was felt.
Chaucer visited Italy, and his work subsequent to that visit shows
that he turned from French to Italian models.

At the court of the Tudor sovereigns, when the Revival of
Learning was at its height in England, Italian was the favourite
modern language. So many gentlemen returned to England, after
a sojourn in Italy, with strange fashions of dress and behaviour,
that their conduct was regarded as unpatriotic, and they themselves
were held up to opprobrium as " Italianated Englishmen." In
spite of this, Italian remained for more than one hundred years the
modern language most studied alike by the courtier and the scholar.
Many of its verse-forms, particularly the Sonnet and Blank verse,
were introduced by Wyatt and Surrey, two poets who lived in the
reign of Henry VII. By means of the dramatic literature of the
time the people of London were made familiar with Italian manners
and customs, and even with many Italian phrases. Some of the
most popular of Shakespeare's works are based on Italian stories,
the characters have Italian names, and the general setting of the
plays is so truly Italian that some think that the great dramatist
must himself have visited Italy. The influence of Italian literature
may also be traced in the writings of Milton, and it has continued
down to the present day.

But in 1660, when Charles II. was brought back from his exile
in France, he, perhaps naturally enough, showed a preference for
everything French, and the lead given by the court was followed by
the wits of the town. At this time several great writers adorned
French literature, and their works were largely studied beyond the
confines of their own country. France itself was approaching the
zenith of its power, and the influence which its language exerted
was likewise European in character, for about this time it ousted
Latin as the language of diplomacy. In England French took the
place which Italian had previously held, and although ridiculed by
its opponents, it kept its popularity, and for long was the only foreign

THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LANGUAGES 195

language which a gentleman was likely to learn. As a result there
were added to the English vocabulary many words which, owing to
their comparatively recent importation, retain their French pronun-
ciation or accentuation.

The favourite amusement of the court was the theatre, and play-
wrights in their endeavour to please their fashionable patrons began
to make plays after the French model. The Restoration Drama,
as such plays are collectively termed, has been condemned as alto-
gether vicious and unprincipled in tone. But in one respect the
influence of French literature was all for good. English prose had
followed Latin models, and the result was that, in the case of
ordinary writers, sentences were usually long, involved, and cumbrous.
The French, on the other hand, had developed a clear style in which
the sentences were short and simple. Correctness was the ambition
of every writer, and there was set up in France an Academy whose
province it was to conserve the language and to issue rules and
decisions in regard to its right use. Although there was no Academy
in England, the prose writers of the period, and especially Addison,
raised English prose to the same high level as that of France.

From the Restoration of Charles II. in 1660 down to the French
Revolution in 1789 the writers of both countries, France and
England, seemed to have the same point of view, alike in subject,
aims, and methods. Thus poetry was admired more for its correct-
ness and polish than for its feeling. The subjects considered
suitable for poetic treatment were often such as would have been
better expounded in prose. The political and religious polemics of
the day, the arguments of the critic and philosopher, and the
descriptions of gay society life were all written in verse. There was
much personal abuse in controversy, for men had not yet learned
the meaning of toleration.

Especially in England was this the case, for the echoes of the
great Civil War reverberated in the strife of parties for many genera-
tions. Men showed a personal hatred of their opponents which is
almost beyond belief. This was a general fault of the age, and the

i96 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

greatest author of the time, John Dryden, cannot be altogether
exonerated from it. He had many enemies on political, religious,
and personal grounds, and these he attacked with a venom equal to
their own, but with a wit and a grace of language peculiar to himself.
His chief works are called Satires, because they censure and ridicule
principles and persons. Absalom and Achitophel and The Hind and
Panther are the most famous. Besides Satires, Dryden wrote splendid
odes and many dramas of the Restoration type.

Alexander Pope succeeded Dryden as the greatest satirist of his
time. His Satires are personal rather than religious or political.
In his Dunciad he pilloried all the writers whom he disliked and
who had attacked him. He was a good arguer in verse, and ex-
pounded his critical and philosophical views in two poems, The
Essay on Criticism and The Essay on Man.

Contemporary with Pope were many famous prose writers,
Addison, Swift, Steele, and Defoe. Joseph Addison (1672-1719)
wrote Essays in The Tatler and The Spectator, periodicals con-
ducted by his friend, Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729). Jonathan
Swift (1667-1745) and Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) were both satirists.
Of these Swift was the greater. Defoe in 1719 wrote the immortal
story Robinson Crusoe, while Swift in 1726 published Gulliver's
Travels, a satirical tale of great power and interest. He also wrote
The Tale of a Tub, and The Battle of the Books ; in the latter he
argues for the ancient as against the modern learning.

After the middle of the eighteenth century, Satire lost some of
its venom. The greatest men, Goldsmith, Gray, and Johnson rose
superior to the malice of their foes. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774)
turned to country life for his themes and wrote descriptive poetry,
The Deserted Village and The Traveller, with charming ease and
correctness. In prose, his novel The Vicar of Wakefield has almost
the charm of poetry. He also did much to purify the drama, and
some delightful comedies of his are still acted. Thomas Gray
(1716-1771), a very scholarly man, wrote little, but what he did
write is considered of the first quality. His Elegy in a Country

THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LANGUAGES 197

198

Churchyard is printed in this book. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784),
the greatest literary figure of his time and a master of sonorous
prose, wrote The Lives of the Poets in 1781. Previously he had
written Satires in verse, London and The Vanity of Human Wishes ;
and in 1755 he had compiled the first English Dictionary, a
laborious work of great excellence.

This period also marks the rise of the Novel. The chief names
are those of Samuel Richardson (1689-1761), Henry Fielding (1707-
1754), Tobias Smollett (1721-1771), and Laurence Sterne (1713-
1768).

The critical and philosophic spirit of the age is also shown in
the work of three great historians, Hume (1711-1776), Robertson
(1721-1793), and Gibbon (1737-1794), and of a great political
economist, Adam Smith (1723-1790), author of The Wealth of
Nations. Gibbon's great work is The Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire.

About the close of the eighteenth century William Cowper and
Robert Burns, turning to nature and the simple life of the country
for their themes, wrote poetry which served to redeem the period
from being altogether an age of prose. Cowper's humorous ballad
John Gilpin, his long descriptive poem The Task, his Loss of the
Royal George, and his Solitude of Alexander Selkirk, illustrate his
quiet yet forceful style. Burns's Songs have made him famous
throughout the English-speaking world ; but his longer poems, some
satirical, some humorous, and some descriptive, likewise proclaim
him to be a great original genius. The Cottar's Saturday Night
describes the poet's ideal of a peasant home. Burns wrote in
Northern English or Scotch. He was the last great poet to do so.

During the century which intervened between Dryden and
Burns many changes had occurred. In Dryden's day poetry was
degraded into clever verse, a medium for abuse, and seldom
employed, save by Dryden himself, to convey the exalted sentiments
worthy of a poet. A gradual departure from this attitude took place,

THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS LANGUAGES 199

until at last in Burns poetry is again seen to be the outpouring of
the noblest thoughts in an appeal to the heart rather than to the
mind of man.

In France a somewhat similar temper had begun to prevail, but
owing to the peculiar circumstances of that country its effect was
at first mainly political. A famous philosopher, Jean Jacques
Rousseau, revolted against the conventions of society and main-
tained that the rights of man were being infringed, and that a return
to a simple, natural life was necessary. For a time he tore himself
apart from his fellow-men and lived as a hermit in the mountains
amidst scenery which he has described in impassioned prose.
Nevertheless he had still a great faith in humanity, and his teach-
ing made men long for that happy time when war and misery should
cease. It was the same sentiment which prompted Burns to sing,

For a' that, and a' that,
It's coming yet, for a' that,
That Man to Man, the warld o'er,
Shall brothers be for a' that !

But alas for the good intentions of men ! The doctrines of
Rousseau, instead of furthering universal peace, helped to bring
about the great Revolution of 1789.

EXERCISES ON THE TIME CHART :

Draw out a chart and insert following names : Hume, Robertson,
Gibbon, Smith, Smollet, Sterne, Gray ; also poets : Matthew Prior
(1664-1721), John Gay (1685-1732), Edward Young (1684-1765),
Allan Ramsay (1686-1758), James Thomson (1700-1748), William
Collins (1720-1759), William Shenstone (1714-1763) ; Koderitics, etc.:
Richard Bentley (1662-1742), Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753), Bishop
Butler (1692-1752).

Give the names of some of Burns's songs.

XXXVIII
THE SKYLARK

BIRD of the wilderness,
Blithesome and cumberless,

Sweet be thy matin o'er moorland and lea !

Emblem of happiness,

Blest is thy dwelling-place —
Oh, to abide in the desert with thee !

Wild is thy lay and loud,

Far in the downy cloud ;
Love gives it energy, love gave it birth.

Where, on thy dewy wing,

Where art thou journeying ?
Thy lay is in heaven, thy love is on earth.

O'er fell and fountain sheen,

O'er moor and mountain green,
O'er the red streamer that heralds the day,

Over the cloudlet dim,

Over the rainbow's rim,
Musical cherub, soar, singing away !

Then, when the gloaming comes,

Low in the heather blooms
Sweet will thy welcome and bed of love be !

Emblem of happiness,

Blest is thy dwelling-place —
Oh, to abide in the desert with thee !

JAMES 11000(1770-1835).

THE SKYLARK 201

1. Questions and Exercises

To what is the poem addressed? Where in the poem is this
bird mentioned ? Name another poem addressed to a bird.
What special name is given to a poem so addressed ? The
following birds are mentioned in this book : skylark, wood-
lark, magpie, cuckoo, owl, stockdove, robin, swallow, jay,
swan ; give the poems in which these names occur and say
which are odes, which are descriptive, and which narrative.
Which stanza describes the song of the lark ? Why, accord-
ing to Hogg, does the lark sing ? What words or phrases
does he use to describe its song ? Give three synonymous
phrases for "lark." Which stanza describes its soaring or
journeying ? Give words or phrases which refer to " time."
In the first and last stanzas what times of the day are
indicated ? What is the single wish expressed by the poet ?
How often does he express it ? Why does he express
this wish? Give an example of Interrogation. Put this
question, if possible, into the form of a direct statement.
Point out the line containing antonyms. Give an example
of brevity ; and of circumlocution. Give the two lines com-
mencing and ending with adjectives. In the last stanza
point out a word not strictly required. Write out words
suggesting "colour."

Read again " To the Cuckoo" by Wordsworth : Does Hogg tell
so much about himself as Wordsworth does ? Which poem
has the more reflection ? Which poet thinks more deeply of
nature ? Which poem would be the more suitable for setting
to music? Which poem do you prefer for language and
rhythm ? Why ?

2. Composition

EXERCISES : i. Draw out a summary plan of the poem.

2. Write the last stanza in prose order.

3. Paraphrase Stanzas I and 2.

4. Expand : " dewy wing," "downy cloud."

202 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

5. Condense : " the red streamer that heralds the day."

6. Write a composition comparing and contrasting the skylark, the cuckoo,

and the nightingale. Say which you prefer, and why. Give quota-
tions from poetry.

3. Prosody

Quote the repeated lines. What is the effect of their repetition? Give
examples of double rhymes, and of rhyme extending over three syllables. How
many lines in each stanza? Show by means of letters the rhyme arrangement of
each stanza. Point out faulty rhymes. Eight different letters are used with
alliterative effect ; write down these letters and name the one most frequently
used.

In this poem the effect of Alliteration is gained not only from
the initial letters but also from the distinct sounding of the letters
in the body of the word. Thus :

Sweet be thy watin o'er woor/and and /ea —
Embfem of happiness,
B/est is thy dwe//ing p/ace.

Give other examples of the above.

Read the poem through, stressing the syllables according to the system shown
in the first three lines. How many unstressed syllables follow each stressed
syllable ? Where is there an exception ? What then, as a rule, is the number of
syllables in each foot ? How many feet in the first line ? in the third line ? How
many unstressed syllables are needed to complete the last foot of the third line ?
What special name does such a line receive?

The stanza form may be thus shown : —

U X xU XX|
\JL X

\j. x xU x xU x x|x
\j. x x,U x x|

\2. X X|^. X X|

U x xU x xk x xU

THE SKYLARK 203

A Dactyl is a foot composed of a stressed followed by two
unstressed syllables. The above metre is therefore dactylic.

The dactyl may be regarded as a trochee followed by an extra
unstressed syllable. The arrangement of the syllables is exactly the
opposite of that in the anapaest. Thus :

trochee J- X dactyl Z. X x

iambus x L anapaest x x 2.

Occasionally an extra weak syllable may occur in any foot.
Ex.:

x / x x /xx * .xx '

I Thy lay is in | heaven thy | love is on | earth | .

Scan the whole poem. Give reasons why in the third stanza o'er and over should
be used respectively. If you know any other poem written in dactylic metre write
down a stanza. Show (by means of accent marks) the stressed syllables in the
following : —

(a) One more unfortunate,

Weary of breath,
Rashly importunate,
Gone to her death ! T. HOOD.

(t>) Come as the winds come, when

Forests are rended,
Come as the waves come, when

Navies are stranded ;
Faster come, faster come,

Faster and faster,
Chief, vassal, page and groom,

Tenant and master. SIR W. SCOTT.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Poetic cumberless, matin, lay, fountain sheen.

Compound moorland, dwelling-place, lea.

Archaic sheen = shining, gloaming = the darkness of evening.

Pre/ixes Are there any ?

Suffixes Give the words exemplifying suffixes.

Diminutive Name the diminutive, and give other words with a similar
ending.

204 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

ROOTS

GREEK :
Ergon, work : ENERGY, organ, orgies, liturgy, metallurgy.

GENERAL QUESTIONS: What is the ordinary meaning of "desert" and
" wilderness"?

Give the meaning in the poem of the following : "wilderness," " desert,"
" cumberless," "matin," and "lea."

What was the original form of 's, e.g. in rainbow's ?

Give the plural of cherub.

What parts of speech are the following : sheen, green, blooms?

XXXIX

THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS MODERN LANGUAGES
UPON THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

1. The Influence of the Romance Languages

IT is calculated that of all the words in the dictionary, fifty-six
per cent, are of Latin and five per cent, of Greek origin, whilst
only twenty-eight per cent, are pure ^nglisc. The remaining eleven
per cent, come from miscellaneous sources. Of the fifty-six per
cent, of Latin words, a large proportion came through the modern
languages which are descended from the Roman tongue — through
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and, above all, through French. These
languages, although in the main descendants of Latin, are not com-
posed entirely of Latin words. Each language, like English — but
not perhaps to the same extent — was influenced from without, and
thus gained words from various sources, and likewise developed
forms peculiarly French, or Spanish, or Italian, as the case might be.
English in its turn took some of these French, Spanish, or Italian
terms, and with or without change in the spelling and pronunciation
adopted them as its own. Thus, into English,

From French

Poetry, composition, triumph, volume, influence, encourage,
vermilion, olive oil, rice, turpentine, cotton, vase, soiree, croquet,
bouquet, fatigue, rendezvous, memoir, hauteur, gendarme, grotesque,
campaign, caprice, barricade.

(Note the accentuation and pronunciation of these words.)

From Italian

Accordion, attitude, canto, contralto, dilettante, granite, gurgle,
influenza, lava, macaroni, manifesto, miniature, opera, pianoforte,

206 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

pilgrim, semolina, soda, solo, soprano, stanza, umbrella, velvet,
volcano.

A large number of military terms, likewise terms used in the
arts and in cookery, came from Italian through the French into
English.

From Spanish

Alligator, ambuscade, armada, capsize, cask, cork, desperado,
dispatch, don, firm (a partnership), lasso, matador, merino, mos-
quito, negro, renegade, salver, sherry, stevedore, tornado, vanilla.

Some words came from Spanish through French.

From Portuguese

Auto-da-fe, ayah, binnacle, caste, lingo, Madeira, molasses, tank.

2. The Influence of the non-Romance Languages

The chief non-Romance languages that have influenced English
are Dutch and German, but even in their case a certain proportion
of the words came originally from Latin or Greek. Thus :

1. Dutch from Latin : anker, cruise, easel, taffrail.
Dutch from Latin from Greek : bush, mangle.
Dutch from Italian from Latin from Greek : sketch.

2. German from Latin : drilling.

German from Hungarian from Servian from Late Greek from
Latin : hussar.

Pure Dutch

Aloof, avast, bluff, boom, brandy, burgher, delf, freebooter, frolic,
gas, golf, groove, hull, jerkin, knapsack, knickerbockers, landscape,
litmus, mob, mutchkin, plug, reef, rover, skipper, sledge, smack,
stoker, yacht, deck, tub, trigger, hoist.

[Notice the number of sea terms, and that landscape is a Hybrid.]

INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS MODERN LANGUAGES 207

Pure German

Bantling, bismuth, cobalt, Dutch, fuchsia, hock, landau, meer-
schaum, plunder, poodle, quartz, shale, swindler, waltz, zinc.

The number of words taken directly from German is small, but
several additional words, chiefly dealing with the chemical industry,
have been introduced recently.

3. The Influence of Other Languages

Nearly all languages, whether those of civilised nationalities or
of savage tribes, have contributed something to the stock of English
words. The voyages of discovery, the journeys of explorers, the
travels of merchants and tourists, the struggles on the battlefield,
the rivalries in the peaceful arts, and the general intercourse with
the various nations, have enriched the vocabulary of English, and
tended to make it a language almost international in character.

Other European Languages (Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Servian,
Turkish, Hungarian)

Drosky, ukase, steppe, polka, vampire, horde, ottoman, turquoise,
dolman, coach, shako.

Asiatic Languages (Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, etc.)

Bazaar, carboy, dervish, divan, Lascar, mogul, pasha, sepoy,
sirdar, pyjamas, jujube, brahmin, rajah, ginger, candy, rupee, banyan,
cherub, Jehovah, Satan, jockey, mammon, emir, harem, sherbet,
simoon, sofa, syrup, tariff, admiral, assassin, sultan, shampoo, polo,
bamboo, coolie, gutta-percha, sago, camphor, tea, japan, kangaroo.

African Languages (Egyptian, West African)

Ammonia, oasis, gypsy, morocco, canary, guinea, zebra, gorilla,
lion.

American Languages (Indian, Mexican, Peruvian)

Hickory, moccasin, opossum, skunk, squaw, tomahawk, wigwam,
jalap, mahogany, potato, tobacco, canoe, caoutchouc, guano, quinine,
tapioca.

208

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

4. The Time of Introduction and Ancestry of some of those Words
The times at which these words came into English vary very
much. Some words came in very early, and generally indirectly.
Some are quite recent. Interesting new words are : hangar, shed
for aeroplanes ; aviator, an airman ; sabotage, acts of violence by
persons on strike.

In the case of words which have come through other languages
before reaching English, many forms from the same root exist.
Such words, therefore, have an international character, and it is
very interesting to trace their ancestry. For example, the Sanskrit
word congavera filtered through many languages before it appeared
in English as ginger.

Eng.
I. G-inger

Mid. E.
gingenere

OldFr.
gengibre

Late Lett.

gingiber

Latin.
zingiber

Greek. Sanskrit.
zingiberis congavera

Eng.
2. Syrup

Mid. E.
sirup

OldFr.
syrop

Spanish.
xarope

Arabic.
sharab

Eng.

3. Hussar

Old.Fr.
Husar

German.
Husar

Hungarian.
Huszar

Servian.
Xusar

Late Gk. Late Lat. Latin.
kour- cour- cursus,
sarios sarius a course

Eng.

4. Tulip

Mid. Fr.
tulippe

Early Fr.
tulipan

Italian.
tulipa

Turkish.
tulbend,
a turban

Persian,

dulband,
turban

ulip was so ca

led owing to i

ts likeness to

a turban.

Eng.
5. Turban

Old farms.
turbant
turband

Mid. Fr.

turbant

Italian.
turbante

Turkish.
tulbend

Persian.
dulband

Eng.
6. Medal

French.
medaille

Italian.
medaglia

Late Lat.
medalla

Latin.

metallum

Greek.
metallon

Eng.
7 . Marmalade

French.
marmelade

Portuguese.

marmelada
\ marmelo

Latin.
melimelum

Greek.
melimelon

Eng.
8. Candy

French.
candi

Italian.
candi

Arabic.
qand

Sanskrit.
khanda

a broken piece

Eng.
9. Crimson

French.
cramoisin

Low Lai.
cramesinus

Arabic.
qirmizi

Sanskrit.
krmis

a worm

Note. — The cochineal was used in dyeing.

Other examples may be found in a good dictionary.

XL
THE DESTRUCTION OF SENNACHERIB

THE Assyiian came down like a wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold;
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.

Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green,

/ ft*

That host with their banners at sunset were seen ;
Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown,
That host on the morrow lay wither'd and strewn.

For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast,
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed :
And the eyes of the sleepers wax'd deadly and chill,
And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever grew still !

And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide,
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride :
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf,
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf.

And there lay the rider distorted and pale,

With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail ;

And the tents were all silent, the banners alone,

The lances unlifted, the trumpet unblown.

o *°*

210 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail,
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ;
And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword,
Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord !

LORD BYRON (1788-1824).

1. Questions and Exercises

Who was Sennacherib ? Against whom did he lead his army ?
What is the subject-matter of the poem? What is the
general emotional effect? On whose side does the poet
wish your sympathy ? How and where does he show this ?
In the poem does "narration" outweigh "description," or
vice versa. Which description — that of the dead steed or
that of the dead rider — do you prefer? Why? Which
stanzas compose the Introduction to the narrative? Which
tell of the visit of Death? Which lines form the Con-
clusion? Which words or phrases convey the idea of
" Death " ? Which words or phrases convey the idea of
" suddenness of Death " ? Why was the rider's mail rusted ?
Give examples of terseness from the fifth stanza. Expand
this stanza into as many simple sentences as you can.
Gather together all the phrases beginning with "like."
Find the phrase beginning with "as" for which "like" may
be substituted.

In the fourth stanza select any words which you think are
particularly well chosen. What words could be substituted
for them ? Why do you select these words ?

2. Composition

Plain, direct words properly chosen and put together result in
clearness and terseness. But many terms are equally simple. How,
then, must the writer be guided in his choice ? He should choose
his words according to the effect which he wishes to produce on the
mind of the reader. As a rule the special term should be preferred
to the general, the concrete to the abstract. Thus "lances,"

THE DESTRUCTION OF SENNACHERIB 211

"spears," being special names, convey a more distinct mental
impression than the corresponding general name, "weapons."
Similarly "purple," " gold," " blue," are more distinct than the word
"colour." Dryden's "High on an oak which never leaf shall bear"
is to be preferred to " High on a tree which never shall bear foliage."

The preference of the particular to the general is not confined to
single words, but may be seen likewise in a lengthy description.
Instead of making the general statement, " They were all struck
dead in their sleep," Byron tells how the Angel of Death passed over
the Assyrian tents, and then, to show the suddenness and complete-
ness of the blow, he gives detailed descriptions of the steed, the
rider, and the lifeless camp respectively. In this way a striking
mental picture is produced.

The same effect may be gained in another way. For example,
instead of saying "A mighty Assyrian army marched against the
defenceless Jews," Byron compares the Assyrian to a wolf attacking
the sheepfold. The reader is left to discover for himself in wha
respects "the Assyrian came down like a wolf." There must be
some likeness, but it would be mere stupidity to suppose that it is
external, that the Assyrian warrior had four legs and a tail. The
likeness is internal. The Assyrian and the wolf are different in the
ordinary sense, but there is a similarity in their " might " and " nature"
when one attacks a weaker nation and the other a weaker animal.

When a comparison is made between two things, generally differ-
ing, but having a likeness in some particular point, the comparison
is called a Simile. The following are Similes : —

The sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea.
Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green.

Her feet disperse the powdery snow,
That rises up like smoke.

Similes are generally terse forms of expression. Thus, "The
Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold " may be expanded

212 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

into, "The Assyrian came down as a wolf comes down on the
sheep-fold."

A Simile often takes the place of a long explanation.

An even terser comparison than the Simile is called a Metaphor.
In a metaphor the comparison is implied but not expressed. Thus,
when it is said that " Tommy Atkins is a lion in the fight," every-
one knows that he is not an actual lion, but a British soldier who is
like the lion in courage.

Similes become Metaphors by condensation ; metaphors become
similes by expansion.

Examples :

Simile into Metaphor, " He was like a lion in the fight " becomes
" He was a lion in the fight." " The Assyrian came
down like a wolf on the fold " becomes " The Assyrian
wolf came down on the fold."

Metaphor into Simile, " The Angel of Death spread his wings
on the blast " becomes " Death, like an Angel, spread
his wings on the blast."

In the foregoing examples the words "lion" and "wolf" are
not used in their ordinary sense ; they simply denote a particular
quality of the lion or the wolf— which quality may also belong to
others.

A Departure from the ordinary mode of expression to secure
a special effect is called a FIGURE OF SPEECH.

Similes and Metaphors are Figures of Speech.

EXERCISES : Give the general name corresponding to the following particular
names, e.g. turf — ground ; banners, dew, brow, rust, mail, tents,
trumpet, cohort, sunset.

Write out all similes in the poem ; then (i) expand them to their fullest
extent, and (ii) condense them into Metaphors.

Make Similes from the following : — His words flowed from him like .

He ran like . He swam like . He wriggled like .

He worked like . He died like .

THE DESTRUCTION OF SENNACHERIB 213

3. Prosody

Write down the name of the foot in which the stresses are weak, weak,
strong. Are there any dissyllabic feet in the poem? If so, whether are dis-
syllabic or trisyllabic feet of the more frequent occurrence ? Prove your state-
ment by giving the number of each kind in the first stanza. What is the name of
the dissyllabic foot ?

In which stanza is this the order of the feet ?

| X .£. |XXjLjXXjL|xXjLi

i x x x |XXJL|XXX|XXX|

| x z

Write in the name of every foot in the above scheme.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

ROOTS

Scinan, to shine : SHEEN, shine, shimmer.
Meltan, to melt : MELT, molten, mild.

LATIN :
Torquere (tort), to twist : DISTORTED, contort, distort, retort, torch,

torment, torsion, tortoise, tortuous,

torture.

EXERCISES: How would you describe the words "wax'd"? as "poetic,"

or "obsolete "?
Give instances of " compound words " and of " onomatopoetic words."

All the prefixes and suffixes occurring in the poem have already been given
— make out a complete table, showing force, etc. , of each.

Pick out the word with the most syllables. Do you notice anything
remarkable about the proportion of monosyllabic words ? Give words
of Norman-French origin.

Find percentage of ^Englisc words in the first hundred words.
And swordlike was the sound of the iron wind,
And as a breaking battle was the sea. . . .
And as a full field charging was the sea,
And as the cry of slain men was the wind. . . .
And all her soul was as the breaking sea,
And all her heart anhungered as the wind. . . .

2i4 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

And all their past came wailing in the wind,
And all their future thundered in the sea. . . .
And as men's anguish clamouring cried the wind,
And as God's anger answering rang the sea. . . .
And like a world's cry shuddering was the wind,
And like a God's voice threatening was the sea. . . .
And like man's heart relenting sighed the wind,
And as God's wrath subsiding sank the sea.

SWINBURNE.

Point out the similes in the above passage.

(i) Expand these similes to their fullest extent, where possible,
(ii) Condense them into metaphors, where it is possible to do so
without changing the language.

XLI
TO A SKYLARK

(Poet T T AIL to thee, blithe Spirit !

JL~1 Bird thou never wert,

skylark) • ^iat ^rora neaven> or near it

Pourest thy full heart
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.

Higher still and higher

(Description : From the earth thou springest,

Soaring and Like a doud of fire>

The blue deep thou wingest,
And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest.

Times when In the golden lightning

lark is heard Qf the sunken sun,

and seen : Q,^ whkh douds &re brightening,

(a) evening.

Thou dost float and run,

Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun.

The pale purple even
Melts around thy flight ;

Like a star of heaven
(6) broad In the broad daylight

daylight, T hou art unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight :

Keen as are the arrows

Of that silver sphere,
Whose intense lamp narrows

In the white dawn clear
Until we hardly see, we feel that it is there.

2i6 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Lark's music All the earth and air

heard With thy voice is loud,

As, when night is bare,

From one lonely cloud
The moon rains out her beams, and heaven is overflow'd.

What thou art we know not ;
What is like What is most like thee ?

the lark ? From rainbow clouds there flow not

Drops so bright to see
As from thy presence showers a rain of melody ; —

Comparisons : Like a poet hidden
(«) like a In the light of thought,

Singing hymns unbidden,

Till the world is wrought
To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not :

(*) like a Like a high-born maiden

high-born jn a palace tower,

Soothing her love-laden

Soul in secret hour
With music sweet as love, which overflows her bower :

Scattering unbeholden

Its serial hue
Among the flowers and grass, which screen it from the view :

(d) like a Like a rose embower'd
rose- In its own green leaves,

By warm winds deflower'd,

Till the scent it gives
Makes faint with too much sweet these heavy-wing6d thieves.

TO A SKYLARK 217

What lark's Sound of vernal showers

music sur- Qn the twinkling grass,

Rain-awaken'd flowers,

All that ever was
Joyous, and clear, and fresh, thy music doth surpass.

The same. Teach us, sprite or bird,

What sweet thoughts are thine :
I have never heard

Praise of love or wine
That panted forth a flood of rapture so divine.

The same. Chorus hymeneal

Or triumphal chaunt
Match'd with thine, would be all

But an empty vaunt —
A thing wherein we feel there is some hidden want.

What causes What objects are the fountains

lark to sing ? Of thy happy strain ?

What fields, or waves, or mountains ?

What shapes of sky or plain ?
What love of thine own kind ? what ignorance of pain ?

Lark knows With thy clear keen joyance

no sadness. Languor cannot be :

Shadow of annoyance

Never came near thee :
Thou lovest ; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety.

Lark under- Waking or asleep

stands about Thou of deatn must deem

Things more true and deep
Than we mortals dream,
Or how could thy notes flow in such a crystal stream ?

2i8 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

The outlook We look before and after,

of the mortal. And pine fof what jg not .

Our sincerest laughter

With some pain is fraught ;
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.

Impossible to Yet if we could scorn

have same joy HatCj an(j ide> an(j fear

as lark has. Tf , . ,

If we were things born

Not to shed a tear,
I know not how thy joy we ever should come near.

Lark's skill Better than all measures
better than Qf delightful sound,

education to a T, . ., „ .

et Better than all treasures

That in books are found,
Thy skill to poet were, thou scorner of the ground !

Shelley's de- Teach me half the gladness
sire and what That thy brain must knQW)

Such harmonious madness

From my lips would flow,
The world should listen then, as I am listening now !

PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY (1792-1822).

1. Questions and Exercises

Name another poem addressed to a bird. Is the poem descrip-
tive or reflective? Mention any detailed descriptions. In
which stanzas does the poet try to describe the skylark and
its song? Mention the various things which the skylark
resembles. How many fully stated comparisons are made ?
Mention some. What figure of speech is each ? Where in
the poem is the first mention of the lark's song ? Give all
the names for the lark's music : shrill delight, melody, etc.
Regard the punctuation ; then write out the longest passage

TO A SKYLARK 219

between two full stops ; select also the second longest.
Does the longest passage form a logical division or heading ?
Write out all the questions occurring in the poem. Which
does the poet answer? Which really make statements?
Which is intended as a reason ? Select the stanza composed
solely of questions. Is the poem difficult to understand?
Are the words of the poem difficult ? Write out any words
of which you do not know the meaning. What is meant
by " silver sphere " in Stanza 5 ? Give any reason why it may
be the sun that is meant. Can a skylark be hidden in a
light ? If so, when ? " Like a poet hidden in a light of
thought" — does this sentence contain a difficult word?
What makes it difficult to understand ? Is it possible for
anything to be in such a strong light that we cannot see it ?
What does the poet feel about the skylark ? Which stanzas
sum up his impressions ? Read again The Skylark, by James
Hogg, then write down for comparison his way and Shelley's
way of stating or describing the same thing, e.g. that the lark
is happy : its song, etc.

2. Composition : Uses of Words

Although no two words have exactly the same meaning, yet
one word may have two or more meanings.

Words which, though spelt alike, differ considerably in meaning,
are called Homonyms.

Thus Host = (i) one who entertains guests,
(ii) an army,
(iii) consecrated bread.

And Cricket (i) an insect, (ii) a game ; Smack (i) a taste, (ii) a
sounding blow, (iii) a fishing boat. There are several hundred
Homonyms in English ; nearly all are derived from entirely different
roots.

Sometimes a word may be used in different senses, one meaning
having developed from another. The word "treasure" originally

220 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

meant " a hoard of valuables" (gold, silver, etc.). Yet Shelley talks
of the "treasures that in books are found," meaning "valuable
knowledge." " Stream " in its simplest meaning is " a current of
water"; yet in the poem it is used for the "song of the lark"
Similarly "arrows" (projectiles) used in "the arrows of light";
" melts " (to liquefy), " the purple even melts " ; " rain " (water from
clouds), " a rain of melody " and " moon rains her beams " ; " silver "
(a metal), "the silver spheres." The first meaning is called the
primary ; the second is the derived or secondary meaning. Words
now used with a secondary meaning were originally employed as
metaphors, e.g. "ardour" at first meant "heat," and then by
metaphor came to mean " enthusiasm " or " zeal." In some cases
the metaphor is still clearly seen.

" Shadow of annoyance
Never came near thee."

Annoyance is likened to something which throws a shadow and
so dulls the person who is in the shadow. But the lark is so far
from annoyance that even the shadow never comes near. The
poet's meaning is thus strongly and tersely expressed.

When words are not used in their primary meaning, they are
often said to be employed figuratively or metaphorically. Through-
out the poem Shelley uses words, simple enough in themselves,
but difficult to understand because of their secondary meaning.

EXERCISES : Expand the following Metaphor into a Simile : — warm winds —
heavy- winged thieves.

Write out a list of the Similes : condense, where you can, into Metaphors.
Is the following a Simile ? — What is most like thee ?

Give the question by means of which the poet expresses the following direct
statement : Perhaps the lark sings because of its love for its own kind.

Convert all the questions in the same stanza into direct Statements.
How does Shelley express the following thoughts ?

(a) The music of the lark surpasses that composed by mortals.
(6) The lark's skill is greater than all the art of the poet.
(f) The lark cannot have any sorrow.
(d) The lark knows more about death than mortals do.

TO A SKYLARK 221

( e ) There is always some sorrow in life.

(f) If I had half the joy of the lark, I would be a great poet.
Write the following in prose order : Stanzas 9, 10, II, 12.
What is inversion ? Give an example from the poem.
Give illustrations to show that —

" Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought."

"Our sincerest laughter with some pain is fraught."

" We pine for what is not."
Study the outline-summary of the poem.

3. Prosody

Scan the last line of each stanza. How many stresses ? What is the name of
the metre ? Give the rhyme arrangement of each stanza. Select stanzas with
double rhymes. Notice what lines have double rhymes. Is their recurrence
regular or haphazard ? Select the stanzas in which all the rhymes are single.

The stanza has usually this form, with single strong stress in first foot —

| J. |XZ | XX |X
| J. |XX| XX|
| J. | XX | XZ|X

|xz| xx|x xlxxlx zlxz!

Point out any stanzas or lines that are exceptions.
4. Study of Words and Expressions

EXERCISES : Make out a list of all words having prefixes or suffixes, and classify
the latter according to whether (a) adjectival, (b] abstract, (c) adverbial,
or (d) verbal.

Give the different words having a prefix meaning " not."
Give the words of English origin classified under heads : emotions, natural

phenomena, common animals, etc.

Derive following : Intense, presence, chaunt, strain, sound, plain.
Doublet Spirit — sprite.

Hemonyms Even, see, sound, strain, tear, shed, wind.

Give at least two meanings for each of the above words.
ROOTS—

Deman, to judge : DEEM, doom, deemster, doomsday.
Hebban, to raise : HEAVEN, heave, upheave, heavy.

222 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

LATIN :

Spirare, to breathe : SPIRIT, aspire, conspire, expire, inspire, per-
spiration, transpire.

Fundere(fus-), /0/0«>v PROFUSE, infuse, suffuse, refuse, confuse,

fuse, diffuse, confound, confute, futile,
refund.

Art -em, skill: ART, artifice, artillery, artisan, inert.

Rapere, to seize : RAPTURE, rapacious, rapid, rapine, ravage.

Jacere, to throw : OBJECTS, abject, adjacent, adjective, con-
jecture, deject, ejaculate, inject, inter-
jection, jet, subject.
GREEK :

Pathos, suffering: SYMPATHY, apathy, antipathy, pathos.

XLII
ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD

THE curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds,

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds :

Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower
The moping owl does to the moon complain

Of such as, wandering near her secret bower,
Molest her ancient solitary reign.

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade
Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap,

Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
The rude Forefathers of the hamlet sleep.

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn,

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed,

The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed.

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn,
Or busy housewife ply her evening care ;

No children run to lisp their sire's return,
Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share.

224 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

7 Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield,

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke ;
How jocund did they drive their team afield !
How bow'd the woods beneath their sturdy stroke !

8 Let not Ambition mock their useful toil,

Their homely joys and destiny obscure;
Nor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile,
The short and simple annals of the Poor.

9 The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Awaits alike th' inevitable hour : —
The paths of glory lead but to the grave.

10 Nor you, ye Proud, impute to these the fault

If Memory o'er their tomb no trophies raise,

Where thro' the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault

The pealing anthem swells the note of praise.

1 1 Can storied urn or animated bust

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ?
Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of Death ?

1 2 Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid

Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ;
Hands, that the rod of empire might have sway'd,
Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre :

1 3 But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page

Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll ;
Chill Penury repress'd their noble rage,
And froze the genial current of the soul.

ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD 225

14 Full many a gem of purest ray serene,

The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear :
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.

15 Some village Hampden, that with dauntless breast

The little tyrant of his fields withstood ;
Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest,
Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood.

1 6 Th' applause of listening senates to command,

The threats of pain and ruin to despise,
To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land,
And read their history in a nation's eyes,

17 Their lot forbad : nor circumscribed alone

Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined ;
Forbad to wade through slaughter to a throne,
And shut the gates of mercy on mankind ;

1 8 The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide,

To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame,
Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride
With incense kindled at the Muse's flame.

19 Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife

Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray ;
Along the cool sequester'd vale of life

They kept the noiseless tenour of their way.

20 Yet e'en these bones from insult to protect

Some frail memorial still erected nigh,
With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd,
Implores the passing tribute of a sigh.

226 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

2 1 Their name, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd Muse,

The place of fame and elegy supply :

And many a holy text around she strews

That teach the rustic moralist to die.

22 For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey,

This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd,
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ?

23 On some fond breast the parting soul relies,

Some pious drops the closing eye requires ;
E'en from the tomb the voice of Nature cries,
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires.

24 For thee, who, mindful of th' unhonour'd dead,

Dost in these lines their artless tale relate ;
If chance, by lonely Contemplation led,

Some kindred spirit shall enquire thy fate, —

25 Haply some hoary-headed swain may say : —

" Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn
Brushing with hasty steps the dews away,
To meet the sun upon the upland lawn.

26 " There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech,

That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high,
His listless length at noon-tide would he stretch,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by.

27 " Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn,

Muttering his wayward fancies he would rove ;
Now drooping, woeful-wan, like one forlorn,
Or crazed with care, or cross'd in hopeless love.

ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD 227

28 " One morn I miss'd him on the custom'd hill,

Along the heath, and near his favourite tree ;
Another came ; nor yet beside the rill,
Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he.

29 "The next with dirges due in sad array

Slow through the churchway path we saw him borne.
Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay
Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn."

THE EPITAPH

30 Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth

A youth, to Fortune and to Fame unknown ;
Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth,
And Melancholy mark'd him for her own.

31 Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere;

Heaven did a recompense as largely send :
He gave to Misery all he had, a tear :

He gain'd from Heaven ('twas all he wish'd) a friend.

32 No farther seek his merits to disclose,

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode
(There they alike in trembling hope repose),
The bosom of his Father and his God.

THOMAS GRAY (1716-1771).

1. Questions and Exercises

What is the subject of this poem ? Consider the subject-matter :
which kind of composition should predominate — Narration,
Description, Reflection ? Select parts of the poem which
illustrate these three kinds of composition. How many
stanzas form the Introduction ? For Stanzas 4, 5, 6, and 7
give a general heading. How many stanzas would you
select as the next logical division ? What does this division

228 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

deal with ? Which stanzas form a division of the poem thus
summarised — What the poor might have been; advantages
and disadvantages of their lot ? Could Stanza 20 follow im-
mediately after Stanza 1 1 ? If so, do the intervening stanzas
form a Digression ? Is a Digression necessary here ? Why ?
Consider the division, Stanzas 20-23, does one require to be
taught to die ? What does the poet mean by " teach the
rustic moralist to die?" Stanzas 24-32 form the last logical
division — show how this falls into two parts. Whose Epitaph
is it ? By which of these adjectives would you describe the
diction of the poem generally — Terse, clear, vague, simple,
poetic? Give examples of Inversion. Give examples of
Terseness, and expand each — e.g. storied urn = urn on
which an inscription tells its story. Give examples of
Periphrasis or Circumlocution, e.g. narrow cell = grave.

Give two meanings for each of the following ; say which
meaning you prefer, and why you prefer it : — All the air
a solemn stillness holds ; lowly bed ; And all that beauty,
all that wealth e'er gave awaits alike th' inevitable hour;
Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, their sober
wishes never learn'd to stray ; Some pious drops the closing
eye requires ; church-way path.

Which of the above Ambiguities are grammatical, which
due to faulty arrangement, which due to poetic diction ? Give
examples of superfluous words, e.g. " Now fades the glimmer-
ing landscape on the sight" Write out a list of words which
are not used in their ordinary meaning. Why does the swain
say " For thou canst read " ? Select phrases that have become
proverbial, e.g. "desert air," or are suitable for quotation.
At what season of the year did the poet ruminate in the
churchyard ? Give reasons. What trees does the poet
mention ? Do you think he describes a real churchyard ?
Why ? It is known that Gray took several years to complete
this poem, that he omitted and inserted stanzas in different
editions, and that he altered the ending. Are the stanzas

ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD 229

closely linked? Which stanzas could be omitted without
the appearance of a gap? Where would you insert the
following stanza cancelled by Gray? —

There scattered oft, the earliest of the year,

By hands unseen, are showers of violets found ;

The redbreast loves to build and warble there,
And little footsteps lightly print the ground.

Where could the poem begin quite well ? Where end ?
Which do you think the most perfect stanza ? Why ? What
would you understand by "a vi'ttage-Hampden " : "some
mute inglorious Milton " ? What view did Gray evidently
take of the character and political career of Cromwell ?

2. Composition

EXERCISES: Summarise, "celestial fire"; "Muse's flame"; The breezy
call of incense-breathing morn ; Where heaves the turf in many a
mouldering heap ; Stanza 13 ; Stanza 9 ; Stanzas 22 and 23.

Expand, growing virtues, fleeting breath, desert air, conscious truth,
ingenuous shame, custom'd hill, wonted fires. Which following line
gives explanation and expansion of "dread abode"?

Re-write in ordinary prose order. Now fades the glimmering landscape on
the sight, and all the air a solemn stillness holds ; Stanza 9 ; Stanza 14 ;
Stanzas 16, 17, 18 ; Stanza 24. Which of these stanzas would you choose
as having the most natural order of words ?

Paraphrase. His listless length at noon-tide would he stretch ; Along the
cool scquester'd vale of life they kept the noiseless tenour of their way ; Some
pious drops the closing eye requires ; Fair science frown'd not on his humble
birth and melancholy mark'd him for her own; Stanzas 8, 9; 13; 16, I7» 18 ;
22.

Themes. I. " The paths of glory lead but to the grave."

2. " Full many a flower is born to blush unseen."

3. "Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight."

4. " Large was his bounty and his soul sincere."

Which of these themes is most easily illustrated from history ? Which from
daily life ? Which from nature ? Draw out a plan for each essay. Select one
and write out the essay in final form.

General. Make a definition of an Elegy.

230 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

3. Prosody

What is meant by the following terms : a foot, a line, stress, iambus, trochee,
anapaest, stanza, couplet, triplet, quatrain, alliteration, rhyme, feminine rhyme,
middle rhyme.

Scan any stanza. Give a symbolic representation of it.

Give a description in writing of the metrical and rhyme structure of the
stanza.

The type of Quatrain employed in this famous elegy is often
termed an Elegiac Stanza.

4. Study of Words and Expressions

Give examples — if such occur in the poem — of compound words, poetic
words, archaic words, obsolete words.

What kind of words are the following? tolls, lisp, babbles, muttering,
twittering.

Define a Synonym. Find synonyms for lea, stillness, reign, children, jocund,
destiny, penury, senates, memorial, precincts, dirges due, science, merits,
frailties.

Define an Antonym. Find antonyms for slowly, solemn, lull, sleep, jocund,
ambition, grandeur, pomp, death, knowledge, virtues, truth, pride, noiseless,
hopeless, melancholy.

Give a Doublet for each of the following : — bower, cell, chance, fancy,
history, morn, poor.

What is a Hybrid ? Words ending in -less, -full, and -ed are often hybrids —
illustrate this statement from the poem and give the origin of each word, where
you can.

What is a Frequentative ? Illustrate from the poem.
Give from the poem an example of a Diminutive ending in -let.
Prefix circum, circumscribed, around. (Rom.)

From the poem give examples of ^Englisc prefixes and of

Romanic prefixes.

Suffixes Give examples of ^Englisc (adjectival, abstract, and adverbial)

suffixes ; of Romanic (adjectival, abstract, and adverbial)
suffixes.
ROOTS

LATIN :

Ire, to go : AMBITION, ambient, arrant, circuit, exit,

initial, issue, itinerant, perish, sedition,
transient, transit.

ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD 231

Manere, to remain : MANSION, manse, manor, menagerie,

menial, permanent, remain, remanent,
remnant.

Currgre (curs), to run : CURRENT, concourse, concur, corridor,

corsair, courier, course, cursory, dis-
course, discursive, excursion, incur,
intercourse, occur, recur, succour.

ScribSre, to write : CIRCUMSCRIBED, ascribe, conscript, de-

scribe, inscribe, postscript (post = after),
prescribe, proscribe, scribble, scripture,
subscribe, superscribe.

Bitan, to bite :

BEETLE (little biting one) bit, biter, bitter,

bait.

Biddan, to pray, ask: FORBID, bid, bead, beadle, beadsman.
UNCOUTH, can, con, cunning.
TALE, tell, talk, tally, toll, untold.

Cunnan, to know :
Tellan, to count:

EXERCISES : Give derivation of the following: — graved, share, distant, solitary,
heaves, fault, voice, conscious, science, artless, spirit.

XLIII

THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:
THE ROMANTIC POETS

WHEN the great French Revolution broke out in 1789- many
Englishmen sympathised with the efforts of the reformers
who were endeavouring to secure justice and equality in France.
The love of freedom was a characteristic of the age and was
everywhere expressed in literature. In Britain, no less than in
France, high hopes were entertained that the ideal of the universal
brotherhood of man might soon be realised.

" Europe at that time was thrilled with joy,
France standing on the top of golden hours
And human nature seeming born again."

But the march of events soon falsified these hopes : and when,
in 1790, the great orator and statesman, Edmund Burke, who had
all his life been an advocate of liberty, published his Reflections on
t/ie French Revolution, many felt that the principles of the re-
volutionaries were wrong after all, and that instead of being the
champions of liberty these zealots were really its enemies. The
Reign of Terror and the other excesses of the republican faction
confirmed this view and aroused both the Government and
people of Britain to active antagonism against France. Neverthe-
less some few enthusiasts still dared to hope that their faith in
freedom and humanity would yet be justified and that France
would "blast the despot's pride and liberate the world."

Amongst those whose hearts were inspired by the noble senti-
ments of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity were three young poets
232

THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 233

who afterwards became famous. William Wordsworth, Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey were friends in youth, and
although in after years each wrote poetry of a different kind, they
are, from the fact that they resided for a time in the Lake district
of England, often grouped together as " the Lake Poets." These
young writers upheld the revolutionary doctrines even when their
own country declared war against France, but at last they turned
in disgust from anarchy and became strong supporters of their
country's cause. Freedom they found at home.

Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey began to promulgate new
views regarding the nature of poetry. Their ideas are somewhat
difficult to state : but, briefly, these poets may be regarded as in revolt
against the conventions then established. Just as in politics men
were found enthusiastic for the overthrow of the established order,
so in poetry these young poets were found endeavouring to cast
off the shackles of the past. Wordsworth led the revolt. A
custom of employing very many poetic words had grown up ; for
a grandiose diction was thought necessary to poetry. In Gray's
Elegy such phrases as "the Muse's flame," "the living lyre," "the
boast of heraldry " give evidence of this pompous style. Wordsworth,
in the preface of his Lyrical Ballads, 1798, boldly maintained that
a poetic diction was unnecessary, and insisted that the simplest
commonplace words should be used. Of course this declaration
brought on him much ridicule, and in his after life he himself
modified his early views.

In endeavouring to escape from the conventional mode the
poets turned to nature for inspiration. They considered that the
contemplation of nature had an ennobling influence on man and
that nature was actually able to teach man. They always saw some-
thing beyond the mere appearance of things, and the lessons which
they read in Nature's infinite book of secrecy came as precious
revelations to them. The effort to understand nature made these
writers highly imaginative, so that seldom do they describe scenery
and the objects of nature without emotion. And they try, gene-

*34 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

rally by indirect means, to communicate their emotions to the
reader.

Such poets are called romantic. This term must not be confused
with the word Romance, meaning a poem dealing with love and
adventure. Thus Shelley's To a Skylark and Coleridge's Sir Arthur
O'Kellyn are not romances, yet they are poems of romanticism.

In France and in Germany the same theories regarding poetry
were adopted, and poets arose who expressed in different ways
their revolt against the conventional and the commonplace. The
whole of Western Europe came under the new influence. Indeed,
so widespread were the new doctrines and so suddenly did the
Romantic poets leap into notice, that some have thought Roman-
ticism resulted from the French Revolution. But most scholars
now believe that the Romantic movement was of much earlier
date and that the Revolution, while it may have quickened and
stimulated, certainly did not originate Romanticism.

The poets of English Romanticism can be divided into two
groups : the first, composed of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, and
Scott, saw the actual commencement of the French Revolution and
were familiar with its different phases : the second, comprising
Byron, Shelley, and Keats, followed a decade or two later, and were
influenced by the revolutionary doctrines in varying degrees.

Wordsworth has been called the high priest of Nature, for with
him nature was almost a religion. His longest poem, The Excursion,
is highly reflective and philosophic. In The Prelude he describes
the growth of his own mind, and therefore it may be regarded as
a kind of autobiography. His shorter descriptions and ballads
are beautifully yet simply written. They appeal to every lover of
nature.

Wordsworth's two friends, Coleridge and Southey, present a
marked contrast. The former was a dreamy, romantic-minded man,
gifted with great imagination and eloquence but incapable of much
sustained work ; the latter was more practical and industrious, and

THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 235

although possessed of great talent and literary ability, was some-
what deficient in imagination. Coleridge's most famous poem is
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Christabel and Kubla Khan are
unfinished. Southey's shorter pieces, The Inchcape Bell, After
Blenheim, etc., and his prose Life of Nelson are better known than
his longer poems, Thalaba the Destroyer and Roderick, the Last of
the Goths.

Sir Walter Scott remained really unaffected by the Re-
volution. He found his inspiration chiefly in the romantic past
of his own country, and he loved to revivify the moving scenes of
bye-gone days and to present them clothed with the glamour of
romance to his readers. In his stories in verse, Marmion, The
Lady of the Lake, and The Lay of the Last Minstrel, he first showed
his mastery of narrative and description, a power which he after-
wards employed with happy effect in the celebrated Waverley
Novels. In his short poems especially, he displays true imaginative
feeling.

John Keats, like Scott, was a lover of the past. Spenser was
his favourite reading, and he delighted in imitating the archaic
phrases and turns of expression of the older poets. Although the
groundwork of his longer poems Lamia, Endymion, and Hyperion
was taken from Greek mythology, yet the treatment throughout is
romantic. Keats uses many poetic words but in an original manner,
and this freshness of diction surprises and delights. His descriptions
of the minutiae of a landscape are unsurpassed, the scenes being
reproduced from nature with absolute fidelity and exquisite detail.
Keats died of phthisis at the early age of twenty-five. Had he
lived longer he might have ranked with Milton. As it is, the odes
On a Grecian Urn and To a Nightingale reach the highest level of art.

The untimely death of Keats was mourned by his friend Shelley
in a fierce elegy Adonais, a poem in which grief and vengeance are
blended. Much influenced by the revolutionary doctrines Shelley
tried to carry into practice the theories of life which Wordsworth
and Coleridge had abandoned as impracticable. In many ways he

236

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

rebelled against the usages of society, and latterly he left his country
and went, a voluntary exile, to Italy, where he spent his later years
and where he wrote his best poetry. Shelley was a daring speculator,

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL

Century

sreo 177Q rrao irao jaoo /ato JSSQ taao ta+o /sso /aeo

POETS

and his philosophy sometimes took fantastic shape, but his ideals
were noble and his heart pure. He must be regarded as one of the
greatest of the romantics. Shelley perished at the height of his
powers — even perhaps before his genius had fully matured. His
odes To the West Wind and To a Skylark are charged with personal
emotion. In his longer poems and dramas, The Revolt of Islam,

THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 237

Prometheus Unbound, and The Cenci, he states his philosophy of
life.

Byron, a somewhat coarser spirit than Shelley, like him defied the
conventions of society. A satirist and descriptive poet, with an
extraordinary command of language, he supplanted Scott as the most
popular poet of the day. A great traveller, the many countries and
scenes he viewed are described in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, a
poem written in the Spenserian stanza. His tales of oriental crime,
the Giaour, the Corsair, and Lara, his drama Manfred, and his
satiric epic Don Juan show the wide range of his powers.

All these poets were independent, strong-minded men, not afraid
to state and defend their opinions, and as these latter were often
new and startling they did not meet with general acceptance.
Great controversies arose, and many famous men of letters began to
contribute to journals specially intended to criticise the work of con-
temporary authors. The two earliest of these magazines, The
Edinburgh Review, founded in 1802, and The Quarterly, founded
in 1808, numbered amongst their contributors, Thomas Campbell,
the poet, Lord Jeffrey, a distinguished lawyer, and Thomas de
Quincey, William Hazlitt, and Charles Lamb, essayists and critics.
The discussions in the reviews caused much acrimony at the time,
but they aroused a keener interest in literature and a more intelligent
appreciation of it.

EXERCISES ON THE TIME CHART :

Calculate the age of Rogers, the banker-poet. What poem by him is
included in this book ?

Name some of Wordsworth's shorter poems.

Name some of the songs of Scott, of Byron, of Campbell.

Were the poets of the Romantic Revival long-lived ? What was their
average age ? Which lived the shortest ?

Notice that Burke bridges the gap between the chart of the eighteenth
century and that of the Romantic Revival. Draw a chart showing
authors who flourished between 1750 and 1830. V, also p. 254.

XLIV
DESCRIPTIVE PASSAGES FROM COLERIDGE

THE POET'S COTTAGE AT CLEVEDEN, SOMERSETSHIRE

LOW was our pretty cot ! our tallest rose
Peeped at the chamber-window. We could hear
At silent noon, and eve, and early morn,
The sea's faint murmur. In the open air
Our myrtles blossom'd ; and across the porch
Thick jasmins twined : the little landscape round
Was green and woody, and refreshed the eye.
It was a spot, which you might aptly call
The Valley of Seclusion !

From A Quiet Place.

THK SONG OF THE NIGHTINGALES

'Tis the merry Nightingale
That crowds, and hurries, and precipitates
With fast thick warble his delicious notes,
As he were fearful that an April night
Would be too short for him to utter forth
His love-chant, and disburthen his full soul
Of all its music !

And far and near,

In wood and thicket, over the wide grove,
They answer and provoke each other's song,
With skirmish and capricious passagings,
And murmurs musical and swift jug-jug,

DESCRIPTIVE PASSAGES FROM COLERIDGE 239

And one low-piping sound more sweet than all —
Stirring the air with such a harmony,
That should you close your eyes, you might almost
Forget it was not day !

From The Nightingale.

ANSWER TO A CHILD'S QUESTION

Do you ask what the birds say ? The sparrow, the dove

The linnet and thrush say, " I love and I love ! "

In the winter they're silent — the wind is so strong ;

What it says, I don't know, but it sings a loud song.

But green leaves, and blossoms, and sunny warm weather,

And singing, and loving — all come back together.

But the lark is so brimful of gladness and love,

The green fields below him, the blue sky above,

That he sings, and he sings ; and for ever sings he —

" I love my Love, and my Love loves me ! "

THE RISING OF THE MOON

We listened and looked sideways up !

Fear at my heart, as at a cup,

My life-blood seemed to sip !

The stars were dim, and thick the night,

The steersman's face by his lamp gleamed white ;

From the sails the dew did drip —

Till clomb above the eastern bar

The horned Moon, with one bright star

Within the nether tip.

From The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

ILL fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,
Where wealth accumulates, and men decay :
Princes and lords may flourish, or may fade ;
A breath can make them, as a breath has made ;
But a bold peasantry, their country's pride,
When once destroy'd, can never be supplied.

A time there was, ere England's griefs began,
When every rood of ground maintained its man ;
For him light labour spread her wholesome store,
Just gave what life required but gave no more ;
His best companions, innocence and health,
And his best riches, ignorance of wealth.

But times are alter'd ; trade's unfeeling train
Usurp the land, and dispossess the swain :
Along the lawn, where scatter'd hamlets rose,
Unwieldy wealth and cumbrous pomp repose ;
And every want to luxury allied,
And every pang that folly pays to pride.
Those gentle hours that plenty bade to bloom,
Those calm desires that asked but little room,
Those healthful sports that graced the peaceful scene,
Lived in each look, and brighten'd all the green ;
These, far departing, seek a kinder shore,
And rural mirth and manners are no more.

OLIVER GOLDSMITH (1729-1774).
240

XLVI
HOME THOUGHTS, FROM ABROAD

OH, to be in England
Now that April's there,
And whoever wakes in England
Sees, some morning, unaware,
That the lowest boughs and the brushwood sheaf
Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf,
While the chaffinch sings on the orchard bough
In England — now !

And after April, when May follows,

And the whitethroat builds, and all the swallows !

Hark, where my blossomed pear-tree in the hedge

Leans to the field and scatters on the clover

Blossoms and dewdrops — at the bent spray's edge —

That's the wise thrush ; he sings each song twice over,

Lest you should think he never could recapture

The first fine careless rapture !

And though the fields look rough with hoary dew,

All will be gay when noontide wakes anew

The buttercups, the little children's dower

—Far brighter than this gaudy melon-flower !

ROBERT BROWNING (1812-1889).

XLVII
FROM THE FORSAKEN MERMAN

HILDREN dear, was it yesterday

We heard the sweet bells over the bay ?
In the caverns where we lay,
Through the surf and through the swell,
The far-off sound of a silver bell ?
Sand-strewn caverns, cool and deep,
Where the winds are all asleep ;
Where the spent lights quiver and gleam ;
Where the salt weed sways in the stream ;
Where the sea-beasts, ranged all round,
Feed in the ooze of their pasture-ground ;
Where the sea-snakes coil and twine,
Dry their mail and bask in the brine ;
Where great whales come sailing by,
Sail and sail, with unshut eye,
Round the world for ever and aye ?
When did music come this way ?
Children dear, was it yesterday ?

MATTHEW ARNOLD (1822-1

942

XL VI 1 1
NATURE PAINTING

I STOOD tip-toe upon a little hill,
The air was cooling, and so very still,
That the sweet buds which with a modest pride
Pull droopingly, in the slanting curve aside,
Their scantly-leaved, and finely-tapering stems,
Had not yet lost those starry diadems
Caught from the early sobbing of the morn.
The clouds were pure and white as flocks new-shorn,
And fresh from the clear brook ; sweetly they slept
On the blue fields of heaven, and then there crept
A little noiseless noise among the leaves,
Born of the very sigh that silence heaves :
For not the faintest motion could be seen
Of all the shades that slanted o'er the green.
There was wide wand'ring for the greediest eye,
To peer about upon variety ;
Far round the horizon's crystal air to skim,
And trace the dwindled edgings of its brim ;
To picture out the quaint, and curious bending
Of a fresh woodland alley, never ending ;
Or by the bowery clefts, and leafy shelves,
Guess where the jaunty streams refresh themselves.

Linger awhile upon some bending planks
That lean against a streamlet's rushy banks,
And watch intently Nature's gentle doings :
They will be found softer than ring-dove's cooings.

243

244 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

How silent comes the water round that bend !

Not the minutest whisper does it send

To the o'erhanging sallows ; blades of grass

Slowly across the chequer'd shadows pass.

Why, you might read two sonnets, ere they reach

To where the hurrying freshnesses aye preach

A natural sermon o'er their pebbly beds ;

Where swarms of minnows show their little heads,

Staying their wavy bodies 'gainst the streams,

To taste the luxury of sunny beams

Temper'd with coolness. How they ever wrestle

With their own sweet delight, and ever nestle

Their silver bellies on the pebbly sand !

If you but scantily hold out the hand,

That very instant not one will remain ;

But turn your eye, and they are there again.

Sometimes goldfinches one by one will drop
From low-hung branches ; little space they stop ;
But sip, and twitter, and their feathers sleek ;
Then off at once, as in a wanton freak :
Or perhaps, to show their black, and golden wings,
Pausing upon their yellow flutterings.

JOHN KEATS (1795-1821),
from / stood Tip-toe upon a Little Hill.

What do you consider the most remarkable line in this extract ?

XLIX
THE SEA-LIMITS

/CONSIDER the sea's listless chime :
V_y Time's self it is, made audible, —
The murmur of the earth's own shell.
Secret continuance sublime
Is the sea's end : our sight may pass
No furlong further. Since time was,
This sound hath told the lapse of time.

No quiet, which is death's, — it hath
The mournfulness of ancient life,
Enduring always at dull strife.
As the world's heart of rest and wrath,
Its painful pulse is in the sands.
Last utterly, the whole sky stands,
Grey and not known, along its path.

Listen alone beside the sea,
Listen alone among the woods ;
Those voices of twin solitudes
Shall have one sound alike to thee :
Hark where the murmurs of thronged men
Surge and sink back and surge again, —
Still the one voice of wave and tree.

Gather a shell from the strown beach
And listen at its lips : they sigh

3*5

246 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

The same desire and mystery,
The echo of the whole sea's speech.
And all mankind is thus at heart
Not anything but what thou art :
And Earth, Sea, Man, are all in each.

DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI (1828-1882).

ON THE SEA

IT keeps eternal whisperings around
Desolate shores, and with its mighty swell

Gluts twice ten thousand caverns, till the spell
Of Hecate leaves them their old shadowy sound.
Often 'tis in such gentle temper found,

That scarcely will the very smallest shell

Be moved for days from whence it sometime fell,
When last the winds of heaven were unbound.
Oh ye ! who have your eye-balls vex'd and tired,

Feast them upon the wideness of the sea ;
Oh ye ! whose ears are dinn'd with uproar rude,

Or fed too much with cloying melody, —
Sit ye near some old cavern's mouth, and brood
Until ye start, as if the sea-nymphs quir'd !

JOHN KEATS (1795-1821).

THE SWIMMER

AND toward the foam he bent and forward smote,
Laughing, and launched his body like a boat
Full to the sea-breach, and against the tide
Struck strongly forth with amorous arms made wide
To take the bright breast of a wave to his
And on his lips the sharp sweet minute's kiss
Given of the wave's lip for a breath's space curled
And pure as at the daydawn of the world.
And round him all the bright rough shuddering sea
Kindled, as though the world were even as he,
Heart-stung with exultation of desire :
And all the life that moved him seemed to aspire,
As all the sea's life toward the sun : and still
Delight within him waxed with quickening will
More smooth and strong and perfect as a flame
That springs and spreads, till each glad limb became
A note of rapture in the tune of life,
Like music mild and keen as sleep and strife :
Till the sweet change that bids the sense grow sure
Of deeper depth and purity more pure
Wrapped him and lapped him round with clearer cold,
And all the rippling green grew royal gold
Between him and the far sun's rising rim.
And like the sun his heart rejoiced in him,
And brightened with a broadening flame of mirth :
And hardly seemed its life a part of earth,
But the life kindled of a fiery birth

•47

248 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

And passion of a new-begotten son

Between the live sea and the living sun.

And mightier grew the joy to meet full-faced

Each wave, and mount with upward plunge, and taste

The rapture of its rolling strength, and cross

Its flickering crown of snows that flash and toss

Like plumes in battle's blithest charge, and thence

To match the next with yet more strenuous sense ;

Till on his eyes the light beat hard and bade

His face turn west and shoreward through the glad

Swift revel of the waters golden-clad,

And back with light reluctant heart he bore

Across the broad-backed rollers in to shore.

ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE (1837-1909),
from Tristram of Lyonesse.

With this poem compare other poems of description, The Ploughman, The
Scholar, Sir Galahad, etc. Notice the wealth of synonyms, metaphors, and
similes ; the use made of adjectives and the simplicity of the individual words.
In regard to the versification, observe the almost sEnglisc manner in the
alliterations ; the single rhymes ; and the presence of the triplet. Finally note
the mental attitude of the poet towards nature, the joy of the swimmer has
something holy in t.

LII
SHAMEFUL DEATH

'TpHERE were four of us about that bed ;
JL The mass-priest knelt at the side,
I and his mother stood at the head,

Over his feet lay the bride ;
We were quite sure that he was dead,

Though his eyes were open wide !

He did not die in the night,

He did not die in the day,
But in the morning twilight

His spirit pass'd away,
When neither sun nor moon was bright,
And the trees were merely grey.

He was not slain with the sword,
Knight's axe, or the knightly spear,

Yet spoke he never a word
After he came in here ;

I cut away the cord
From the neck of my brother dear.

He did not strike one blow,
For the recreants came behind,

In a place where the hornbeams grow,
A path right hard to find,

For the hornbeam boughs swing so,
That the twilight makes it blind.

250 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

They lighted a great torch then,

When his arms were pinion'd fast,
Sir John the knight of the Fen,

Sir Guy of the Dolorous Blast,
With knights threescore and ten,

Hung brave Lord Hugh at last.

I am threescore and ten,

And my hair is all turned grey,
But I met Sir John of the Fen

Long ago on a summer day,
And am glad to think of the moment when

I took his life away.

I am threescore and ten,

And my strength is mostly pass'd,
But long ago I and my men,

When the sky was overcast,
And the smoke roll'd over the reeds of the fen,

Slew Guy of the Dolorous Blast.

And now, knights all of you,

I pray you pray for Sir Hugh,
A good knight and a true,

And for Alice, his wife, pray too.

WILLIAM MORRIS (1834-1896).

LIII

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE SPREAD OF
ENGLISH TO OTHER LANDS

* I AHE poets of the Revolution had spoken courageously against
JL the wrongs of the world and had endeavoured to show how
life might be made nobler and happier. But they spoke at a time
when the people of Britain, struggling to preserve their national exist-
ence, were disinclined for immediate social change. Later, when the
echoes of the Napoleonic wars had died away, public opinion veered
round in favour of social reforms and it was no longer considered
dangerous to advocate them. The old order changed and gave
place to the new. A broader humanitarianism was everywhere
shown ; the Poor Laws were modified, prison administration made
less harsh, hospitals and asylums improved, conditions of labour
bettered. Education was made free and universal. Rapid advances
in science and the arts, the creation of new industries and a great
expansion of commerce following upon unprecedented colonising
activity, were likewise features of the age.

The spirit of enquiry and the general striving after betterment
is reflected in the writings of two great poets, Alfred Tennyson
and Robert Browning. Patriotic, sympathetic, sensible, observant,
keenly interested in social, political, and religious problems, they
communicated noble thoughts in a way that impressed the popular
mind, and thus their poetry exerted a great moral and spiritual
force. Browning is perhaps the more philosophic. In his longer
poems he is somewhat obscure because his thought is complex, and
in stating his argument he often checked the flow of his verse. But

in his shorter poems, for example in The Lost Leader^ How they

251

2S2 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, Home Thoughts from
Abroad, and The Pied Piper of Hamelin, this defect does not
appear : everything is plain, direct, forcible. Of his great works,
The Ring and the Book, Paracelsus, and Strafford may be cited, as
examples. Tennyson is more easily understood : his thoughts are
always expressed in clear melodious verse. The Lotus Eaters and
The Lady of Shalott, amongst his shorter poems, are especially re-
markable for their rich imagery and exquisite music. His greatest
works are In Memoriam, an elegy pervaded with a noble Christian
spirit, and The Idylls of the King, an epic dealing with the life of the
Celtic hero — King Arthur — and the struggles of his knights against
sin.

Contemporary with Browning and Tennyson were many poets
of great excellence. Matthew Arnold, Dante Gabriel Rossetti.,
William Morris, and Algernon Charles Swinburne are the chief
names. Arnold, a noted scholar and critic, naturally showed a
reserved emotion in his poetry. The Scholar Gipsy, Sohrab and
Rustum, and The Forsaken Merman exemplify his polished style.
Rossetti, a Romantic poet of the school of Coleridge and a painter
who worshipped his art almost as a religion, exerted a great personal
influence both on the art and the poetry of the mid-nineteenth
century. The House of Life, The Blessed Damozcl, The White Ship,
and Sister Helen show his Romantic outlook. Rossetti's friend,
William Morris, wrote Jason, The Earthly Paradise, and Sigurd the
Volsung ; the last an epic poem of great power. Swinburne lived
into the twentieth century, and is the latest of the great poets. He
is distinguished for the variety of his metres, for his extraordinary
command of language, and for his remarkable imaginative insight.
Atalanta, Bothwell, Erectheus, and Tristram of Lyonesse are the
best known of his works.

The spread of education in the nineteenth century had multi-
plied enormously the number of readers and caused a corresponding
development in the output of literature. Novelists, philosophers,
historians, essayists, and critics were enabled to bring their works

THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH TO OTHER LANDS 253

practically within the reach of all. Many writers who thus gained a
temporary popularity are now no longer read ; but some names will
endure. Amongst the novelists of outstanding merit may be men-
tioned, Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Jane
Austen, George Eliot, George Meredith, and Robert Louis
Stevenson; amongst the writers of philosophy, Herbert Spencer,
John Ruskin, Thomas Carlyle, and Thomas Huxley; amongst the
historians, Lord Macaulay, James Anthony Froude, and John
Richard Green ; amongst essayists and critics, Mark Pattison,
Walter Pater, and Francis Palgrave.

Many names of living authors might be added to this list, but the
process of selection would be a hard task. Moreover, much of the
enormous literary production of the present day is bound to be
ephemeral, and therefore it is well not to pass hasty judgments.

The most remarkable feature of the age is the extraordinary
growth of journalism, both that of the daily press and that associated
with the magazine proper. And it is pleasant to think that, with
the exception of a pandering to sensationalism on the part of " the
Yellow Press," the influence exerted by these periodicals is all for
good. The multiplication of libraries has brought the best literature
within the reach of all. Libraries are now possessed by every town,
many villages, and nearly every school. What a contrast to the
days of the pious bishops of Northumbria, and of ^Elfred, the
scholar-king and law-giver.

Quite recently there has been a revival of the Drama. The
stage has again, as in the days of Shakespeare, been made to reflect
and to interpret the spirit of the age and to enunciate the problems
of a complex civilisation.

The Celtic peoples of Scotland, Ireland and Wales have re-
asserted their racial individuality and are encouraging amongst
themselves not only the preservation of their old folk-lore and
songs, but also the production of literature in their native tongue.
The best of their writers, however, use English.

254 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

WRITERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTUTtT

ir&o isoo jajo itiso /asp JSfo /aso JSGO //sro isao /soo 1900

THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH TO OTHER LANDS 255

During the nineteenth century countless thousands of emigrants
left Britain for the Colonies, and thus carried the treasures of
English literature into other lands. In course of time original
literature began to be produced in these new countries, and although
most of the writers have been British born, yet their works bear the
impress and colour of a new environment. As yet relatively small
in population, the Colonies have not produced a really great poet;
but in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa, dis-
tinct literatures are being built up and great names will yet arise.
The most famous writers of these daughter-nations are perhaps
those that are still living ; but of those that are gone may be men-
tioned the Canadian poet, George Frederick Cameron, and the
Australians, Adam Lindsay Gordon and Henry Clarence Kendall,
poets both, who have sung of the forest and the bush. Alfred
Domett, the New Zealand poet, has made the Maori legends familiar
to English readers.

The literature of the United States of America is older than that
of the British Colonies. In the eighteenth century several writers
attained eminence, but the honour of first giving to American
letters a world-wide fame belongs to Benjamin Franklin. A period
of great excellence followed ; and in the nineteenth century every
branch of intellectual activity and every department of literature
found distinguished exponents in American authors. Washington
Irving, Edgar Allan Poe, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Henry David
Thoreau, and James Russell Lowell are masters of miscellaneous
prose.

William Hickling Prescott and John Lothrop Motley are pre-
eminent as historians, Nathaniel Hawthorne as a novelist, and
Ralph Waldo Emerson as a philosopher. Amongst the poets,
William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, Henry Wads-
worth Longfellow, and Walter Whitman are the best known.

Longfellow, like Tennyson, wrote melodious verse charged with
a grave wisdom ; but he was not so intellectual, and his work lacks
the deepest significance. In Hiawatha, a kind of epic, he weaves

256 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

the traditions of the Indians into a beautiful romance of love and
adventure. His Evangeline, his ballads Sir Humphrey Gilbert and
The Wreck of the Hesperus, and his numerous short pieces, entitle
him to an honoured place in English literature.

To-day the English language is spoken or understood by almost
one-fourth of the total inhabitants of the world, and not only in the
island home from which it has spread, but in the British dominions
beyond the seas and in the great American Republic, hundreds of
able writers are using it to communicate their thoughts to millions
of readers. In all these countries the progress of education has
caused a more general appreciation of literature, and so high is now
the ordinary level of craftsmanship that it becomes increasingly diffi-
cult to say which authors shall be entitled to a place amongst the
mighty minds of old.

It is fifteen hundred years since the Beowulf was composed by
some forgotten writer ; but his heroic song still exists, his tongue
is not yet silent, his words live in English speech. That speech
has had a continuous development through the ages. At each
succeeding period in its history, certain writers gained distinction
by their use of it ; and while it has been possible to mention here
only some of those who attained the highest rank, yet there are
many others whose works, tested by time, now form part of the
glorious heritage of all who speak the English tongue. Perhaps
further developments may yet take place ; but whatever form the
language may assume, whatever great names may arise hereafter,
and wherever is the scene of their triumphs, the glory will always
go home to the ocean-girt isle— to the land of Wordsworth, Milton,
and Shakespeare.

EXERCISES ON THE CHART, ETC. :

Name any living authors and classify them under headings as in the Chart.

Whether is Britain more famous for poets or prose writers ? Give your

reasons.

Distinguish between Edmund Spenser and Herbert Spencer.
What is your favourite newspaper? your favourite magazine ? Show why

you like it.
Make a time chart showing the authors of the succeeding poems.

LIV
THE STORM

RED fiery streaks
Begin to flush around. The reeling clouds
Stagger with dizzy poise, as doubting yet
Which master to obey ; while rising slow,
Blank, in the leaden-colour'd east, the moon
Wears a wan circle round her blunted horns

The cormorant on high

Wheels from the deep, and screams along the land.
Loud shrieks the soaring hern ; and with wild wing
The circling sea-fowl cleave the flaky clouds.

Meanwhile, the mountain billows, to the clouds

In dreadful tumult swell'd, surge above surge

Burst into chaos with tremendous roar,

And anchored navies from their station drive,

Wild as the winds across the howling waste

Of mighty waters.

The whirling tempest raves along the plain ;

And on the cottage thatch'd, or lordly roof,

Keen-fastening, shakes them to the solid base.

Sleep frighted flies ; and round the rocking dome,

For entrance eager, howls the savage blast.

Then too, they say, through all the burdened air,

Long groans are heard, shrill sounds, and distant sighs

That, utter'd by the demon of the night,

Warn the devoted wretch of woe and death.

JAMES THOMSON (1700-1748),
from The Seasons.

LV
FROM SNOW-BOUND

SHUT in from all the world without,
We sat the clean-winged hearth about,
Content to let the north-wind roar
In baffled rage at pane and door,
While the red logs before us beat
The frost-line back with tropic heat ;
And ever, when a louder blast •
Shook beam and rafter as it passed,
The merrier up its roaring draught
The great throat of the chimney laughed ;
The house-dog on his paws outspread
Laid to the fire his drowsy head,
The cat's dark silhouette on the wall
A couchant tiger's seemed to fall ;
And, for the winter fireside meet,
Between the andirons' straddling feet,
The mug of cider simmered slow,
The apples sputtered in a row,
And, close at hand, the basket stood
With nuts from brown October's wood.
What matter how the night behaved ?
What matter how the north-wind raved ?
Blow high, blow low, not all its snow
Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow.

JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER (1807-1892).

LVI
A HAPPY LIFE

OGOD ! methinks it were a happy life,
To be no better than a homely swain ;
To sit upon a hill, as I do now,
To carve out dials quaintly, point by point,
Thereby to see the minutes how they run,
How many make the hour full complete ;
How many hours bring about the day ;
How many days will finish up the year ;
How many years a mortal man may live.
When this is known, then to divide the times :
So many hours must I tend my flock ;
So many hours must I take my rest ;
So many hours must I contemplate ;
So many hours must I sport myself;
So minutes, hours, days, months, and years,
Pass'd over to the end they were created,
Would bring white hairs unto a quiet grave.
Ah ! what a life were this ; how sweet ! how lovely !
Gives not the hawthorn-bush a sweeter shade
To shepherds looking on their silly sheep,
Than doth a rich embroider'd canopy
To kings that fear their subjects' treachery ?
O yes ! it doth ; a thousand-fold it doth.
And to conclude, the shepherd's homely curds,
His cold thin drink out of his leather bottle,
His wonted sleep under a fresh tree's shade,

259

260 A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

All which secure and sweetly he enjoys,

Is far beyond the prince's delicates,

His viands sparkling in a golden cup,

His body couched in a curious bed,

When care, mistrust, and treason waits on him.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616),
from Henry VI.

EXERCISE : With this poem compare Solitude , p. 136.

LVII
TIME AND LOVE

WHEN I have seen by Time's fell hand defaced
The rich-proud cost of outworn buried age ;
When sometimes lofty towers I see down-razed,
And brass eternal slave to moral rage ;

When I have seen the hungry ocean gain
Advantage on the kingdom of the shore,
And the firm soil win of the watery main,
Increasing store with loss, and loss with store ;

When 1 have seen such interchange of state,
Or state itself confounded to decay,
Ruin hath taught me thus to ruminate —
That Time will come and take my Love away :

— This thought is as a death, which cannot choose
But weep to have that which it fears to lose.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616),
Sonnet LXIV.

LVIII

NATURE

O NATURE ! I do not aspire
To be the highest in thy quire.—
To be a meteor in the sky,
Or comet that may range on high ;
Only a zephyr that may blow
Among the reeds by the river low ;
Give me thy most privy place
Where to run my airy race.

In some withdrawn, unpublic mead
Let me sigh upon a reed,
Or in the woods, with leafy din,
Whisper the still evening in :
Some still work give me to do, —
Only — be it near to you !

For I'd rather be thy child
And pupil, in the forest wild,
Than be the king of men elsewhere,
And most sovereign slave of care :
To have one moment of thy dawn,
Than share the city's year forlorn.

HENRY DAVID THOREAU (1817-1862).

LIX

THE CHAMBERED NAUTILUS

THIS is the ship of pearl, which, poets feign,
Sails the unshadowed main, —
The venturous bark that flings
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings
In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings,

And coral reefs lie bare,
Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair.

Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl ;

Wrecked is the ship of pearl !

And every chambered cell,
Where its dim dreaming life was wont to dwell,
As the frail tenant shaped his growing shell,

Before thee lies revealed, —
Its irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed !

Year after year beheld the silent toil

That spread his lustrous coil ;

Still, as the spiral grew,
He left the past year's dwelling for the new,
Stole with soft step its shining archway through,

Built up its idle door,

Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more.
OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES (1809-1894).

LIST OF AUTHORS

WITH DATES OF BIRTH AND DEATH

NUMBER

ARNOLD, Matthew (1822-1888).

From The P'orsakan Merman ..... xlrii

BROWNING, Robert (1812-1889).

Home Thoughts, from Abroad ..... xlri

BURNS, Robert (1759-1796).

Lament for Culloden ...... ix

BYRON, George Gordon Noel, Lord (1788-1824).

The Destruction of Sennacherib ..... xl

CAMPBELL, Thomas (1777-1844).

Earl March ........ iv

Lord Ullin's Daughter ...... xrii

CHAUCER, Geoffrey (1340-1400).

Instinct ........ XT

How Theseus Slew The Minotaur ..... xxxi

COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834).

Sir Arthur O'Kellyn ...... xxiii

Descriptive Passages ...... xlir

COTTON, Charles (1630-1687).

A Summer's Morning ...... viii

COWPER, William (1731-1800).

The Nightingale and the Glow-worm .... xxviii

DRYDEN, John (1631-1700).

The Swallow ....... xxxri

GOLDSMITH, Oliver (1729-1774).

From The Deserted Village ...... xlv

GRAY, Thomas (1716-1771).

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard .... xlii

264

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

HOGG, James (1770-1835).
The Skylark

HOLMES, Oliver Wendell (1809-1894).
The Ploughman
The Chambered Nautilus

KEATS, John (1795-1821).
Nature Painting
On the Sea ....

LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth (1807-1882).
The Norman Baron .

MILTON, John (1608-1674).

The Debate of the Fallen Angels .

MORRIS, William (1834-1896).
Shameful Death

POPE, Alexander (1688-1744).
Solitude

ROGERS, Samuel (1763-1855).

A Wish ....

ROSSETTI, Christina (1830-1894).
A Green Cornfield .

ROSSETTI, Dante Gabriel (1828-1882).
The Sea-Limits

SCOTT, Sir Walter (1771-1832).
Jock b' Hazeldean
The Pride of Youth .
The Quiet of Evening

SHAKESPEARE, William (1564-1616).
Winter . . .

Passage from Henry VI.
Time and Love

SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe (1792-1822).
To a Skylark

SOUTHEY, Robert (1774-1843).
The Scholar .

xix
lix

xlviii

xlix

Xlll

v
xxvi

VII

Ivi
Ivii

xli

LIST OF AUTHORS 265

SPENSER, Edmund (1553-1599).

Sweet and Sour ....... xiv

Magic Music ....... xxxiv

SWINBURNE, Algernon Charles (1837-1909).

The Swimmer . . . . • . . . li

TENNYSON, Alfred (1809-1892).

Sir Galahad ....... xxii

THOMSON, James (1700-1748).

The Storm ........ Hv

THOREAU, Henry David (1817-1862).

Nature ........ Iviii

WHITTIER, John Greenleaf (1807-1892).

Snow-Bound ....... Iv

WORDSWORTH, William (1770-1850).

To the Cuckoo ....... x

A Spring Morning ....... xviii

Lucy Gray ........ xxix

WOTTON (or WOOTTON), Sir Henry (1568-1639).

The Character of a Happy Life ..... xi

UNKNOWN.

Sir Patrick Spens ....... xxxii

LIST OF ROOTS

THE NUMBERS REFER TO THE PAGES WHERE THE DERIVATIVES

MAY BE FOUND
Latin:

agere, to drive, do, 48
arma, arms, 62
art, -em, art, 222
audire, to hear, 185
augere, to increase, 192
batere, to beat, 115
cantare, to sing, 48
caput, the head, 90
castra, camp, 84
civis, a citizen, 48
cor, the heart, 80
creare, to create, 138
crescere, to grow, 115
crudelis, cruel, 53
currere, to run, 231
damnum, loss, 102
densus, thick, 98
deus, a god, 180
duo, two, 161
esse, to exist, 161
failure, to deceive, 126
fari, to speak, 90
fendeie, to strike, 161
ferre, to bear, 180
finis, an end, 192
fundere, to pour, 222
genus, a race, 180
(g)noscere, to know, 185
gratus, pleasing, 62
homo, a man, 48
horrere, to bristle, 142
humus, the ground, 126
ire, to go, 230
jacere, to throw, 222
labor, labour, 98
liber, free, 80
locus, a place, 80
266

loqui, to speak, 142

manere, to remain, 231

millia, measurement of distance, 84

mirus, wonderful, 142

mittere, to send, 126

mori, to die, 126

nocere, to hurt, 138

nuntius, a messenger, 185

os, mouth, 142

pacere, to agree, 138

pater, father, 138

pati, to suffer, 62

pendere, to weigh, hang, 142

petSre, to fly, attack, 80

placere, to please, 53

planus, flat, 57

plaudere, to applaud, 185

pon£re, to place, 39

portare, to carry, 1 1 5

portus, harbour, 84

premere, to press, 148

probus, good, 142

rapere, to seize, 222

scire, to know, 62

scribere, to write, 23 1

secare, to cut, 192

sentire, to feel, 161

sequi, to follow, 192

servus, slave, 62

signum, a sign, 169

solus, alone, 148

sonus, sound, 98

spargere, to scatter, 148

specere, to look, 185

sper, hope, 185

spirare, to breathe, 222

spondere, to promise, 180

LIST OF ROOTS

267

stare, to stand, 62
stinguere, to prick, 192
strata, street, 84
struere, to build, 102
temperare, to restrain, 76
tendere, to stretch, 80
tenere, to hold, 138
torquere, to twist, 213

trahere, to draw, 62, 80
vallum, a wall, 84
varius, various, 48
venire, to come, 161
vertere, to turn, 36
vicus, village, 84
videre, to see, 57
vox, voice, 57

^Bnglisc :

bana, a slayer, 161
beran, to carry, 115
biddan, to pray, 231
bindan, to bind, 148
bitan, to bite, 231
brecan, to break, 98
byman, to burn, 98
cteofan, to split, 98
cunnan, to know, 231
deman, to judge, 221
deore, precious, 53
drawan, to draw, 48
cage, the eye, 53
faran, to go, 90

grafan, to dig, 120
hebban, to raise, 221
laedan, to lead, 52
leosan, to lose, 52
licgan, to lie, 52
meltan, to melt, 213
scinan, to shine, 213
sciran, to cut, 98
si can, to strike, 90
spinnan, to spin, 115
steoran, to steer, 115
swarian, to swear, 180
tellan, to count, 231
wringan, to wring, 53

LIST OF PREFIXES

a, corruption of ge, 141
a, on, across, 89, 125
ab, away, from, 141
ad, ap, ar, to, 48, 57, 80,

141

be, intens. part., 48, 57
con, together, 62
de, from, 141
dis, apart, away, 28
drum, ridge of land, 52

en, to make, 48

enter, inter., amongst,

es, ex, out of, 28, 29, 80
fitz, son of, 1 20
for, intens., 28
in, to, not, 57, 80
inver, mouth of, 52
mac, son of, 120
o', son of, 1 20

ob, op, against, 62

per, through, 114

prae, before, 89

pre, before, 62

pro, before, 192

re, back, again, 28, 57,

62, 141

sub, under, 141, 192
un, not, 24
with, with, back, 48

LIST OF SUFFIXES

able, adj., 192

er, comp., 24

age, abs., 80

es, plur. , 29

age, collect., 135

est, super/., 52

ain, agent, doer, 89

et, diminu., 114, 135

al, adj., 114, 138

ful, full, 48

an, adj., 89

hood, abs. , 125

ary, adj., 57

ht, ads., 62

ate, adj., 62

ial, adj., 57

ce, abs., 62

iar, ar, adj. , 192

cle, diminu., 192

ible, adj., 57

ed, adj., 20, 72

ic, adj., 62, 180

ed, fast, 24

ice, ads., 125

en, verbal, 48

ie, diminu., 34

en, part., 43

ile, adj. , 62

en, adj., 24

ine, adj., 180

en, plur., 52

ing, part., 24 ; son of, 2IO

ence, abs., 138

ion, abs., 62. 138

ent, adj., 24

ious, adj., 62

er, noun forming (one

ite, ads., 141

who), 29

ius, adj., 1 14

er,freqiien., 15

ive, adj. , 138

\z,frequen., 114
less, adj., 62
ling, diminu., 57
ly, adverb, 34, 43
ment, abs., 125
most, super., 62
ness, abs., 80
or, agent, 62
our, abs. , 62
's, fosses, case, 29
s, yd sing, pres,, 29
some, adj., 89
son, son of, 120
st, 2nd per s. pres., $2
t, /. part, weak, 43
th, $rd sing, pres., 43
th, abs., 62, 138
tude, abs., 138
ty, abs., 48
ward, adverb, 34
y, abs., 57, 138

268

ADDISON, JOSEPH, 196

Adonais, 235

yElfred the Great, 106

/Elfric, 107

./Englisc, ic

After Blenheim, 235

A Happy Life, 259

Alliteration, 23, 158

Ambiguity, 189

Analysis, logical, 134

Anapaest, 119

Angles, 9

Antonyms, 76

Aphseresis, 159

Apocope, 159

Arnold, Matthew, 242, 252

Atalanta, 252

Austen, Jane, 253

Autobiography, 100

BACON, FRANCIS, 174
Baeda, 106
Ballad, 71
Ballad, Stanza, 72
Beowulf, 105, 256
Biography, 100
Blank Verse, 184
Boccaccio, 171
Bothwell, 252
Brevity, 189
Browning, Robert, 251
Bryant, William Cullen,

255

Burke, Edmund, 197, 232
Burns, Robert, 154
Byron, Lord, 237

CAEDMON, 105, 106
Cameron, George Fred-
erick, 255
Campbell, Thomas, 237

Canterbury Tales, 151

Carlyle, Thomas, 253

Catalectic, 125

Caxton, 150

Celts, 9, 63

Charlemagne, 128

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 82, 150

Chaucer's Grammar, 1 60

Childe Harold's Pilgrim-
age 237

Christabel, 235

Christianity, Introduction
of, 127

Circumlocution, 97

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor,

233

Comedy, 147
Composition, 16, 70
Condensation, 31, 45
Cotton, Charles, 175
Couplet, 48
Couplet, Heroic, 97
Cynewulf, 106

DANES, 64

Dante, 171

Defoe, Daniel, 196

De Quincey, Thomas, 237

Derivatives, 20

,, Romanic, 131

Description, 70

Dialect, Mercian, 150
Midland, 150
Northern, 150, 152
Northumbrian, 150
Southern, 150
West Saxon, 150

Dialects, 150

Dialogue, 32

Dickens, Charles, 253

Diction, 43, 189

Digression, 191
Dimeter, 33
Diminutive, 34
Dissyllable, 18
Domett, Alfred, 255
Don Juan, 237
Doublets, 66, 172
Douglas, Gawain, 152, 175
Drama, 195
Dramatic, 32, 147
Dunbar, 152
Dryden, John, 196

ECCLESIASTICAL

POLICY, 174
Elegiac Stanza, 230
Elegy in a Country

Churchyard, 196, 223
Eliot, George, 253
Elision, 113
Emerson, Ralph Waldo,

255

Endymion, 235

English Dictionary, 198

English, Origin, 9

,, Periods of, 149
,, Spread of, 251

Epenthesis, 159

Epic, 176

Epkhesis, 159

Erectheus, 252

Essay on Criticism, 196

Essay on Man, 196

Essays, Bacon's, 174

Evangeline, 256

Excessive, 28

Expansion, 31, 47

Exposition, 79

FABLE, 140

Figure of Speech, 212

169

270

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Foot, 24

Form, 45

Franklin, Benjamin, 255

Franks, 127

French, Central, 128
,, Norman, 128
,, Revolution, 232

Froude, James Anthony,
253

GIAOUR, 237

Gordon, Adam Lindsay,

254

Gower, 150
Gray, Thomas, 196
Green, John Richard, 253
Gulliver's Travels, 196

HAWTHORNE, NATH-
ANIEL, 255
Hazlitt, William, 237
Henryson, 152
Hiawatha, 255
Holmes, Oliver Wendell,

255
Home Thoughts from

Abroad, 252
Homonyms, 219
Hooker, Richard, 175
Htw they brought the Good

News, 252

Huxley, Thomas, 253
Hybrids, 39, 125, 152
Hyperitn, 235

IAMBIC PENTAMETER^,

158

Iambus, 76
Illustration, 74
In Memoriam, 252
Inversion, 124
Irony, 32
Irving, Washington, 255

fASON, 252
Jeffrey, Lord, 237
John Gilpin, 198
Johnson, Samuel, 198
Jonson, Ben, 174
Jutes, 9

KEATS, JOHN, 235
Kendall, Henry Clarence,

253
Kubla Khan, 235

LAMB, CHARLES, 237

Lamia, 235

Langland, William, 150

Lara, 237

Latin Additions, 84, 104,

129, 170

Latin Influence, 127, 170
Latin Place Names, 84
Lindsay, 152
Longfellow, H. W., 255
Lowell, J. R., 255

MACAULAY, LORD, 253

Manfred, 237

Marlowe, Christopher,

175

Marmton, 235
Meredith, George, 253
Metaphor, 212
Metathesis, 159
Metre, 27
Milton, John, 176
Monometer, 33
Monosyllable, etc., 18
Moral, 140

More, Sir Thomas, 175
Morris, Wm., 252
Motley, John Lothrop,

255

NARRATION, 70
Nature, 261
Normans, 129

OBSERVATION, NEED OF,

Ode, 56

Old English Chronicle,

107

Oliver Goldsmith, 196
On a Grecian Urn, 235

PALGRAVE, FRANCIS, 253
Paracelsus, 252
Paradise Lost, 176

Paradise Regained, 176

Paragraphs, 1 6, 17

Paraphrase, 46

Particles, 20

Pater, Walter, 253

Patronymics, 120

Pattison, Mark, 253

Pentameter, 75

Periphrasis, 97

Petrarch, 171

Piers the Plowman, 151

Place Names, 65, 84

Plan, General, Detailed, 88

Plan of Essay, 1 7

Poe, Edgar Allan, 255

Poems, descriptive, 22
,, narrative, 26
,, reflective, 60
,, Romantic, 234

Poems of Wyatt and
Surrey, 174

Poetry, 17, 46

Poets, romantic, 232

Pope, Alexander, 196

Prefixes, 20

Prescott, Wm. Hickling,

255

Prometheus Unbound, 237
Prose, 17, 45
Prosody, 47
Prosthesis, 159
Provincialisms, 72

,, of Scandian

origin, 67

QUATRAIN, 61

REFLECTION, 70
Reflections on French

Revolution, 232
Refrain, 42

Revival of Learning, 193
Rhetorical Questions, 117,

118

Rhyme, 19, 28, 89, 158
Richardson, Samuel, 198
Robinson Crusoe, 196
Roderick, the Last of the

Goths, 235
Romance Languages, 128

GENERAL INDEX

271

Roman Occupation, Si,

127

Root, Latin, Greek, 20, 36
Rossetti, D. G., 252
Rousseau, J. J., 199
Ruskin, John, 253

SAXONS, 9

Scandian and /Englisc, 66

Scandians, 64

Scansion, 27

Scott, Sir Walter, 235

Selection, 95

Sentence, 16

Shakespeare, William,

175

Shelley, P. B., 234
Sigurd the Volsung, 252
Simile, 211
Sir Humphrey Gilbert,

256

Sister Helen, 252
Slurring, 56, 113
Snow-Bound, 258
Sohrab and Rustum, 252
Southey, Robert, 233
Spenser, Edmund, 176
Spencer, Herbert, 253
Spenserian Stanza, 179
Stanza, 23

Steele, Sir Richard, 196
Stem, 20, 36
Stevenson, R. L., 253
Sir afford, 252
Stress, 1 8, 75
Suffixes, 20
Summary, 22, 46
Surrey, 175
Swift, Jonathan, 196
Swinburne, Algernon, 252
Syllables, 1 8
Syncope, 159
Synonyms, 96

TENNYSON, ALFRED, 251
Tetrameter, 28
Thackeray, WilliamMake-

peace, 253
Thalaba the Destroyer,

235

The Augustan Age, 197

The Battle of the Books,
196

The Blessed Damozel, 252

The Cenci, 237

The Chambered Nautilus,
262

The Cottar's Saturday
Night, 198

7"he Deserted Village, 196

The Destruction of Sen-
nacherib, 209

The Dunciad, 196

The Earthly Paradise,
?$?.

The Edinburgh Review,

237

The Excursion, 234
The Faerie Queene, 176
The Hind and Panther,

196

The House of 'Life, 252
The Idylls of the King, 252
The Inchcape Bell, 235
The Lady of the Lake, 235
The Lady ofShalolt, 252
The Lay of the Last

Minstrel, 235
The Legende of Good

Women, 157
The Life of Nelson, 235
The Lives of the Potts, 198
The Lives of the Saints,

107
The Loss of the Royal

George, 198
The Lost Leader, 251
The Lotus Eaters, 252
The Lyrical Ballads, 233
The Norman Baron, 121
The Novel, 198
The Pied Piper of Hame-

Hn, 252

The Prelude, 234
The Quarterly, 237
The Revolt of Islam, 236
The Ring and the Book,

252
The Rime of the Ancient

Mariner, 235

The Scholar Gipsy, 252
The Solitude of Alexander

Selkirk, 198

The Songs of Burns, 198
The Spectator, 196
The Storm, 257
The Task, 198
The Tatler, 196
The Traveller, 196
The Vicar of Wakefeld,

196
The Waverley Novels,

235

The White Ship, 252
The Wreck of the Hes-
perus, 256

Thomson, James, 257
Thoreau, Henry David,

255

Time and Love, 260
To a Nightingale, 235
To a Skylark, 215, 234
Tragedy, 147, 176
Translation of the sEneid,

174
Translation of the Bible,

174
Translation of St John's

Gospel, 1 06
Trimeter, 28
Triplet, 120
Tristram of Lyonesse,

252

Trochee, 76

Troylus and Creseide, 151
Tyndale, 174-5

UTOPIA, 174

VERSE, 17
Vocabulary, 35, 46

WHITMAN, WALTER, 255
Whittier, John Greenleaf,

255

Words, 1 6
Words, Archaic, 42
Words, "Church," 103
Words, Common, of

Scandian Origin, 67

272

A PRACTICAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH

Words, Compound, 19
Words, Figurative use of,

220
Words, Foreign, 13, 35,

38, "5

Words, Latin : their Ex-
tent and Nature, 173

Words, Native, 13, 35
Words, Obsolete, 42
Words of Fourth Latin

Period, 172
Words of Third Latin

Addition, 131
Words, Onomatopoetic, 57

Words, Poetic, 19
Words, Short-lived, 173
Wordsworth, William,

233

Wotton, Sir Henry, 175
Wyatt, 174, 175
Wyclif, John, 150

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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY

Acme Library Card Pocket

Under Pat. " Ref. Index File."
Made by LIBEARY BURE/U

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