ILLOMINATIH
Vere Foster
Wafer Cblnr Drawing _! L LU M I N ATI NG
PLATE xviu
A Practical Treatise
On the Art of
ILL UMINA TING
SHitfj lExamples, (EjjromograpfjeU in
ano in ittltne, of tfje Stales pre&ailtng at different $eriotrg,
from tlje .Sixtjj Centurg to tfje present Eime
Marcus Ward, Illuminator to the Queen
Omnia diligentia subjicittntur
iLontion
MARCUS WARD fr CO., CHANDOS STREET, CO VENT GARDEN, W.C.
And ROYAL ULSTER WORKS, BELFAST
PRINTED BY
MARCUS WARD & CO.
ROYAL ULSTER WORKS
BELFAST
Stack
Annex
33\0
1031
ILLU MI NATING.
tljt JClU&ll 2lQS the fruitful mothers of con-
structive and decorative art we owe, if not the inven-
tion, at least the culture and development of the art of
Illuminating. The perfection to which it was carried in
those times, which it was so long the fashion to mis-name
" the Dark Ages," excites the astonishment not less than the
admiration of every beholder who is imbued with even a
moderate share of artistic feeling, when he contemplates for the
first time a mediaeval MS. on which the illuminator has exer-
cised his inventive power, skill, and industry. The sentiment
awakened by the curious and beautiful production of the pencil,
which, with the hand that guided it, has for centuries been
mouldering in dust, is akin to that with which the wonderful structures of
the same period are surveyed the gorgeous palaces, the solemn temples
and monumental crosses -designed by contemporary artists, and executed
by contemporary hands. It may be viewed with less awe, but with almost
equal solemnity and admiration.
The revival of the art of Illumination, which has recently taken place,
is an important contribution to the refined civilization of our age. It is
the resuscitation of a long neglected source of beauty and enjoyment, and
adds a new and exquisite pleasure to the many which the present time
affords.
The nature of the work to which these pages are intended to serve
as an Introduction, does not require, nor does the space to which these
observations are limited admit of any account, however brief, of the history
1907935
6 ILL UMINA TING.
of the art. We refer those who are desirous of cultivating it more ex-
tensively to the excellent works of Owen Jones (to whose pure taste
Decorative Art in England owes a deep and lasting obligation), and of
M. Digby Wyatt, Henry Shaw, Noel Humphreys, and W. R. Tymms, who
have led the way in the revival of Illuminating ; and also to those useful
hand-books on the art published by Messrs. Winsor & Newton, Rowney
& Co., Reeves & Son, Barnard & Son, and others.
It is absolutely necessary before beginning to practise Illuminating
that some proficiency in drawing and the use of colors should have been
attained, without which the efforts of the beginner may end in disappoint-
ment or failure, drawing being the basis on which all excellence in this art
is reared. We would call the attention of all who desire to cultivate this
or kindred branches of the fine arts to the opportunities afforded by schools
of art now happily established in nearly every important town in the king-
dom for acquiring a sound knowledge of drawing and design. Those
who have not such facilities within their reach, may derive the preliminary
knowledge required by a careful practice of the examples in Vere Fosters
Complete Course of Drawing. Of these, the examples in Freehand Orna-
ment (Part vii), and Flower Drawing (Part viii.), with accompanying
instructions, will be found most suitable for the purpose.
In this utilitarian age, when there is such demand for skilled labor of
every kind, and so many fair fingers pining for lack of congenial employ-
ment, we would call attention to the art of Illuminating as a study specially
suited to develope the faculty of design, and as a means for the acquire-
ment of a proper knowledge of the principles of decorative art. It offers
ample field for the development of these powers, possessing, as it does,
sufficient interest in itself to engage strongly the attention of the student ;
cultivating the eye, and refining the taste in all that relates to beauty of
form, color, and arrangement ; imparting, at the same time, a facility of
execution in handling the materials, which is equally valuable. As
Illuminating includes within its practice designing of every variety of
subject, as well as the study of the treatment of colors, those who are
sufficiently skilled in the art can have little difficulty in turning their
talents to profitable account in any of the many branches of the fine arts,
for which these requisites are essential.
There is nothing in the whole range of the Illuminating art of the
Middle Ages admitting the high excellence of the best examples that
the pains-taking student may not equal, or even surpass, whether purely
artistic or merely decorative, by diligent application to its study ; even the
skilful manipulation of the old Celtic illuminated MSS. the result of long
continued and careful practice may be attained, with comparative ease,
ILLUMINATING. 7
by the student of to-day, who has not the difficulties to contend with which
beset the early illuminators.
Though, to the beginner in the practice of Illuminating, the path may
seem tedious ere proficiency is attained, none need be disheartened on that
account. There is no royal road to excellence of any kind. Each work
carefully executed will be a step in advance, and, if the drawings are pre-
served, they will serve to show the gradual progress towards perfection.
" The heights by great men reached, and kept,
Were not attained by sudden flight ;
But they, while their companions slept,
Were toiling upward in the night."
Even one well practised in drawing and painting will, at first, find unlooked-
for difficulties ; the materials and mode of working being very different
from ordinary painting in water colors, requiring patience and an exactness
and precision quite foreign to artists generally, which may, however, be
easily acquired with ordinary care and attention.
In designs for Illuminating, based on any particular style, the leading
features of it should be kept constantly in view, so as to avoid the appear-
ance of having been executed at different times and by different hands. An
authority in the art, M. Digby Wyatt, justly remarks that, " However
erratic the changes of style may appear to be in art, as they run one
another down along the course of time, it will invariably be found there
exists a harmony between all contemporary features, which cannot be suc-
cessfully disregarded."
We would recommend that the attention of the student should be
confined to one particular style of Illuminating at a time, until its principles
are fairly comprehended, as love of novelty will sometimes induce the
student to attempt various styles in turn, without a real understanding of
the particulars in which they differ from each other. By such a system, or
rather a want of system, there is no benefit ; indeed, a mere superficial
knowledge of styles is very harmful, as it leads into many anachronisms,
which outrage all principles of art. One advantage tending to excellence,
possessed by our predecessors in the art, was, that they were not bewildered
by having before their eyes, as models, a variety of distinct prevailing
styles. Of this advantage (if it can be called such) the intercommunication
of nations, and the advancement of modern science and research has for
ever bereft us ; as the multitude of beautiful illuminated MSS., of every
period and style, preserved in our public and private collections amply
show. The very wealth thus bequeathed to us, unless judiciously used,
acts as our bane, and prevents a steady working out and mastery of any
particular style, or the formation of an original one.
8 ILL UMINA TING.
The patient monk, in his quiet cell, knew not the distraction incident
to such a state of things. His wants were few his materials necessarily of
his own manufacture. His single purpose in life to exert his talent silently
for the love of God ; his only " style," that practised in his country or his
monastery. Longfellow, in the "Golden Legend," draws a touching picture
of a monkish illuminator, Friar Pacificus, in his Scriptorium, transcribing
and illuminating, which here may be of interest, as illustrating the rapt
devotional feeling with which such a man would regard his work. The
good father is not altogether without a slight tinge of frail human vanity,
as he reverently reviews his pious labors.
" What treasures ot art these pages hold,
All ablaze with crimson and gold.
* * * *
God forgive me I seem to feel
A certain satisfaction steal
Into my heart and into my brain,
As if my talent had not lain
Wrapped in a napkin all in vain ;
Yes, I might almost say to the Lord :
Here is a copy of Thy Word,
Written out with much toil and pain.
Take it, O Lord, and let it be
As something I have done for Thee."
PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS
>T is not intended in this short treatise to enter into an historical
account of the progress and development of the art of Illuminating,
but merely to place before the student examples of the styles
practised at various periods ; and, by a few plain, practical direc-
tions as to materials and modes of working, to enable him to surmount,
by the exercise of ordinary care and attention, the first steps in the
practice of this pleasing art. The examples (fac-similes of the originals
in colors, and outlines of the others,) sufficiently indicate the principal
varieties of style practised from the sixth to the sixteenth century. When
the full border is not given on account of its size, sufficient clue is afforded
by which the careful student may build up a complete design, in one
uniform style, from the portion given as a model. The pages in outline
may be copied the full size, or enlarged, allowing ample margin for
handling, and painted in imitation of the colored models given.
VELLUM, BOARDS, AND PAPER. Works intended to be of permanent
ILL UMINA TING. 9
value should be executed upon Vellum ; its extreme beauty of surface
cannot be imitated by any known process of manufacture, while its dura-
bility is well known. Bristol Board approaches nearest to it in appearance,
is equally pleasing to work upon, and for all practical purposes of the
amateur is quite as good. But, if even that is not attainable, excellent
work may be done on any smooth grained drawing paper ; indeed, to a
beginner, it is a needless waste of money to practise upon a more expensive
material.
BRUSHES. Red Sable Brushes are preferable to all others for
illuminating purposes, and are to be had in goose, duck, and crow quills,
the larger for laying on washes of color, or large grounds in body
color, the duck and crow for filling in the smaller portions of color, for
shading, and general work. One of the smallest size should be kept
specially for outlining and fine hair-line finishings. For this purpose all
the outer hairs should be neatly cut away with the scissors, leaving only
about one third of the hair remaining ; in this state it is most valuable for
delicate work; and it is in this way that Lithographers prepare their
pencils to execute the finest class of work. With practice it is much to be
preferred to a pen, giving greater freedom and evenness of line. It is
almost impossible, unless the superabundant hair is thus cut away, to do
anything like even, regular, outlining ; indeed it is one of the secrets of
the art by which the early illuminators attained such excellence in manipu-
lation, especially in fine line work.
DRAWING-PEN CIRCLE OR BOW-PEN. For doing long straight lines
or circles these instruments are indispensable ; they give out ink or color
evenly, making a smooth, true line of any thickness required for lining any
portion of the work, as in border margins, or any part requiring even lines,
unattainable by the hand alone. It is necessary to put the ink or color
into the pen with the brush after mixing it to the proper consistency for
use. Ink or body color may be used with equal facility. Before starting,
the pen should always be tried upon a piece of loose paper, to test the
thickness of the line, and also to see if the ink in the pen is not too thick
or too thin : if too thick, it will not work evenly, while, if too thin, it will
flow too rapidly, and run upon a color ground as if on blotting paper.
Practice alone will teach the learner the happy medium.
STRAIGHT-EDGE, PARALLEL-RULER, &c. A thin wooden straight-edge,
or, what is better, a parallel-ruler, and also a set square (a right-angled
triangular piece of thin wood), will be found very necessary for planning
out the work. The parallel-ruler will be found very useful in drawing
where many parallel lines are required, while it answers all the purposes of
the straight-edge as well.
io ILLUMINATING.
BURNISHER AND TRACER. " If you want a rubber," says an old
treatise on Illuminating, " you must take a dogge's toothe and set him in a
sticke." This was in general use as a burnisher for gold in ancient times,
but the agate is much superior. Agate Burnishers are to be had at the
artists' colormen's, either pencil or claw-shaped ; the former will be most
useful to a beginner. An ivory style, or point, is requisite for tracing, and
useful for indenting gold diapers.
PENS. For text or printing, either the quill or the steel pen may be
used ; both require special manipulation to fit them for the work. It will
be most convenient, however, for the amateur to use the quill, as being
more easily cut into the shape required ; though a steel pen, once
made, will last for years if taken care of. The point must be cut off
slightly at an angle, such as may be found most convenient. If a
steel pen is used, it will be necessary, after cutting off the point, to
rub the pen carefully on an oilstone to smooth the roughened edges,
and prevent it from scratching the paper. The text pen, when
properly made, should work smoothly, making every stroke of equal
thickness. It is well to have text pens of different widths, to suit for
lettering of various breadth of body stroke. The pen should be held
more upright than for ordinary writing. A broad, almost unyielding point,
will give a fine upward and a firm downward or backward stroke with
equal facility. For finer writing, the pen should be cut with a longer slope
in the nib. Fine-pointed pens, for finishing and putting in the hair lines into
the text, should also be provided. For this, the fine mapping or litho-
graphic pen, made by Gillott and others, is most suitable.
TEXT OR PRINTING LETTERS. This is a kind of penmanship which
the amateur will, at first, find very difficult to write with regularity, as it
requires much special practice to attain anything like proficiency in its
execution. But, as much of the beauty and excellence of the illuminating
depends upon the regularity and precision of the text, it is well worth all
the application necessary to master it. The styles of text usually intro-
duced within the illuminated borders are known under the names of " Black
Letter," " Church Text," " Old English," and " German Text." Although
these are all, undoubtedly, from the same source, there are certain
peculiarities and differences, which, on comparison, will be readily observ-
able. " Engrossing," much used in legal documents, has been derived
from Black Letter, and has graduated into a kind of running hand, of
which our flowing modern hand is only a modification. Any one who has
had an opportunity of examining MSS. of different periods, will have
noted the gradual transition from the cumbrous writing of the ancients to
the light modern style of penmanship of ordinary correspondence. Plate
IL L UMINA TING. 1 1
III. contains alphabets in the above styles; while several of the outline
and colored plates contain portions of text of various periods, from old
MSS., which are given as models for the pupils' guidance. In text letters,
unless carefully executed, there is apt to be some confusion between the
forms of 51 and g, n and u, which must be particularly noted. The greatest
care must be taken to keep the writing evenly spaced, upright, and per-
fectly neat and legible, and in any modification of the ancient writing
letters if Illuminating is to be anything more than a mere antiquarian
study it is better to err in the side of clearness and legibility, rather than
in perpetuating the obsolete shapes found in many early works.
COLORS. Not to confuse the beginner with a multiplicity of pigments,
we will first mention only such as are essential, and with which all the
examples in the following studies may be copied.
Gamboge, or Aureolin. Crimson Lake. Vandyke Brown.
Cadnv'um Yellow. French Blue. Lamp Black.
Vermilion. Emerald Green. Chinese White.
As experience is gained by practice, the range of colors may be in-
creased as requirements may dictate. We subjoin a list of those in most
general use, with remarks upon the particular qualities of each, and the
most useful combinations formed by mixture with other colors. But it
must be clearly understood that they are not all necessary to the amateur.
Each painter has his own favorite set of colors, selected from the color-
makers' list, beyond which his wants seldom range, unless it be some
peculiar or vivid pigment for a special purpose.
YELLOWS. Lemon Yellow. A vivid, high-toned yellow, semi-opaque is extremely
telling upon gold. Mixed with cadmium yellow it furnishes a range of brilliant, warm
yellows. It mixes well with gamboge, orange vermilion, cobalt, emerald green, and oxide of
chromium, and, with any of these, produces clean and useful tints.
Gamboge. A bright, transparent yellow of light tone ; works freely, and is very useful
for glazing purposes. In combination with lemon yellow it affords a range of clean tints.
When mixed with a little Mars yellow it produces a clear, warm, transparent tone of color.
Cadmium Yellow. A rich, glowing yellow powerful in tint, and semi-transparent.
This is a most effective color for Illuminating. When judiciously toned with white it
furnishes a series of useful shades. Mixed with lemon yellow it produces a range of clean,
vivid tints. It does not, however, make good greens : they are dingy. Mixed with carmine,
or glazed with it, it gives a series of strong, luminous shades.
Mars Yellow. A semi-transparent, warm yellow, of slightly russet tone, but clean and
bright in tint ; useful where a quiet yellow is required. Mixes well with gamboge : does not
make good greens.
REDS. Rose Madder. A light, transparent pink color of extremely pure tone. It is
delicate in tint, but very effective, on account of its purity. Mixed with cobalt it affords
clean, warm, and cold purples. The addition of a little carmine materially heightens the
tone of this color ; though, at the same time, it somewhat impairs its purity.
12 ILL UMINA TING.
Crimson Lake. A rich crimson color clean and transparent ; washes and mixes well :
more generally useful than carmine, though wanting the intense depth and brilliancy of the
latter color.
Carmine. A deep-toned, luminous crimson much stronger than crimson lake ; is
clean and transparent. The brilliancy of this powerful color can be increased by using it
over a ground of gamboge.
Orange Vermilion. A high-toned, opaque red, of pure, brilliant hue standing in rela-
tion to ordinary vermilion as carmine to crimson lake. It is extremely effective, and
answers admirably where vivid, opaque red is required. It works, washes, and mixes well.
Its admixture with cadmium results in a fine range of warm, luminous tints. When mixed
with lemon yellow it furnishes a series of extremely clean and pure tints ; when toned with
white the shades are clear and effective. This is a most useful color.
Vermilion. A dense, deep-toned red, powerful in color, and opaque. It is not so
pure in tone as orange vermilion, and is of most service when used alone ; it can, however,
be thinned with white and with yellows.
BLUES. Cobalt Blue. A light-toned blue, clean and pure in tint, and semi-transparent.
This is the lightest blue used in Illuminating, and, by the addition of white, can be " paled "
to any extent, the tints keeping clear and good. Mixed with lemon yellow, it makes a clean,
useful green. Its admixture with gamboge is not so satisfactory, and the green produced
by its combination with Mars yellow is dirty and useless. With rose madder it produces
middling, warm and cold purples (i.e., marones and lilacs or violets) ; with crimson lake,
strong and effective ones ; with carmine, ditto. A series of quiet, neutral tints can be pro-
duced by its admixture with orange vermilion. The tints in question are clean and good,
and might occasionally be useful.
French Blue. A deep, rich blue, nearly transparent; is the best substitute for genuine
ultramarine. The greens it makes with lemon yellow, gamboge, cadmium, and Mars yellow
are not very effective or useful. The violets and marones it forms with rose madder are
granulous and unsatisfactory; with carmine they are somewhat better; but those formed with
crimson lake are very good.
ORANGES. Mars Orange. A brilliant orange of very pure tone, transparent, and
lighter in color than burnt sienna, and not so coarse or staring : an effective and useful
color.
Burnt Sienna. A deep, rich orange transparent and effective : works well and
mixes freely.
PURPLES. Indian Purple. A rich, deep-toned violet, or cold purple color ; most
effective when used alone. Can be lightened with French blue or cobalt, and the tints will
be found useful.
Burnt Carmine. A rich, deep-toned marone, or warm purple color ; transparent and
brilliant ; luminous and effective when used alone. Mixed with orange vermilion, it pro-
duces a strong, rich color, and a quiet, fleshy one when mixed with cadmium yellow.
Emerald Green. An extremely vivid and high-toned green, opaque. No combination
of blue and yellow will match this color, which is indispensable in Illuminating. It can be
"paled" with white, and the tints thus produced are pure and clean. The tints afforded by
its admixture with lemon yellow are also clear and effective.
Green Oxide of Chromium. A very rich, deep green, opaque, but effective. The tone
of this green renders it extremely useful in Illuminating. Mixed with emerald green, it
furnishes a series of rich, semi-transparent tints ; mixed with lemon yellow, it gives quiet,
useful shades of green ; and, when this combination is brightened with emerald green, the
shades are luminous and effective.
IL L UMINA TING. 1 3
BROWN. Vandyke Brown. A deep, rich, transparent brown luminous and clear in
tint ; works, washes, and mixes well. The best of all browns for Illuminating.
BLACK. Lamp Black. The most dense and deep in tone of all the blacks ; free from
any shade of brown or grey.
WHITE. Chinese White. A preparation of oxide of zinc, permanent, and the best
adapted for Illuminating. It is not only useful per se, but is indispensable for toning or
reducing other colors.
The colors are prepared and sold in two forms for Water-Color
Painting and Illuminating, viz. Dry Cake Colors and Moist Colors. Of
the two, the latter is generally preferred ; but to the amateur it is of very
little consequence, as either will do admirably if they are of good quality.
Colors for Illuminating are prepared specially by the artists' colormen ; but
this is merely a question of convenience. The chief difference .in the
mode of working colors, in Illuminating and ordinary Water-Color Paint-
ing, is this ; in the latter, all colors are used as washes or tints ; whereas,
in Illuminating, the colors are more or less mixed with Chinese White, and
termed body colors, from their possessing opacity or body, in contradistinc-
tion to transparent washes, used more exclusively in picture painting.
INDIAN INK AND LAMP BLACK are the only paints generally used for
black text ; the difference being that Indian Ink is finer, and therefore
better adapted for writing of a fine or delicate character. It works freely,
and retains a slight gloss, while Lamp Black gives a full, solid tint, and
dries with a dull or mat surface ; a little gum-water added will help the
appearance in this respect Some illuminators recommend a mixture of
Indian Ink and Lamp Black, with a little gum-water, as the best for a text
of a full black body, working better than either alone. The mixture
should be well rubbed together in a small saucer with the finger before
using. If a portion of the text is to be in red, it should be in pure ver-
milion. If in gold, it must be shell gold, highly burnished with the agate,
as hereafter described.
Chinese White which is best in the liquid state, in bottles requires
special mention, as in the management of it lies the chief difficulty in
working. When the bottle is opened the white will be found at the
bottom, exceedingly thick and viscid, and the fluid with which it has been
mixed floating over it. The contents must be thoroughly mixed in the
bottle, with the end of the tracing point, or similar instrument, before
using. In this state a little must be taken out at a time with a clean
pencil, as occasion requires, and the bottle securely corked. Mix it upon
the slab with water to the proper consistency for working ; when it dries,
add a drop of water with the point of the pencil, and rub it together again.
In this state it will be found to be even better a day or two afterwards
than at first. When a mixed color is required, first rub down the colors, if
i 4 ILL UMINA TING.
in cakes ; or, if moist, lift sufficient with a clean brush, and, placing it
upon the pallette, add white to reduce it to the tone required, mixing it
thoroughly with the brush. Enough should be made up at a time to
complete the work in hand ; otherwise, if more is needed, it will be found
exceedingly difficult to match the exact shade, and a disagreeable, patchy
appearance will be the result. Great care is required to keep all the colors
pure dirty tints being fatal to that purity of tone for which Illumination
is so famed.
In painting, it is important to lay the color perfectly flat and dead,
that is, entirely destitute of gloss, not getting it in ridges, or piling it in
lumps, as the amateur is apt to do. If too thickly laid on the paint is
liable to chip off. The color should not be so thick or viscid, as to lie
unevenly ; nor too thin, in which case it will have an uneven, mottled ap-
pearance. A tint, when laid on and dry, should have a bloomy mat surface,
without the slightest trace of brush marks. This will be best attained
o
by painting as evenly as possible with the brush, mostly in one direction,
and not too full of color, and refraining from going back over the parts just
painted, if it can be avoided. Patches always show, more or less, and can
hardly ever be made to look smooth.
A little experimental practice with the colors will do more to show
the various combinations of which they are capable than any lengthy
exposition that might be given. Various portions of color may be tried,
particularly for the more delicate tints, for greys, neutrals, and quiet com-
pounds, where great purity is required, and the most pleasing and suitable
noted for future use. We will only briefly note some of the more impor-
tant points to be attended to in the use of colors.
There are two methods or styles of coloring, which are used either
alone, or in conjunction. In the Celtic, and other early styles, where the
colors are used flat no relief by shading being given being purely a
surface decoration, the colors are well contrasted, merely graduated from
deep to pale, and outlined with a clear, black outline. In the XIII. and
XIV. century styles, the masses of color or gold are usually enriched by
diapers, while the stems, leaves, &c., are elaborated by being worked over
with hair-line finishings on the darker ground. The other method of
treating ornamental forms embraces a wide range of style of Illuminating,
approaching more nearly to Nature in treatment, the ornament being more
or less shaded naturally, or conventionalized to some extent. This method
of shading will be best illustrated by giving directions for the painting of
a pink leaf or scroll, by way of example. Mix a pink composed of lake
and Chinese white, equal to the strength of color in the light parts of the
copy, yet not equal to the highest lights, which are to be added afterwards,
IL L UMINA TING. 1 5
and paint the whole leaf ; then mix a deeper tint of the same color, and
apply it to those parts that are in shade, softening, where required, with
but little colour in the brush. For the deepest touches, repeat the process
with tints of a proportionate strength. Then put in the highest lights
(adding more white to the color first mixed), and, if carefully drawn, it
will, when neatly outlined, have a clean, finished appearance. In this
way, pink is shaded with a deeper pink, blue with a deeper blue, green
with a deeper green, &c. Each may be modified, of course, by reflected
light, and other transmutations of color, only capable of being understood
after much experience in painting from Nature, and attention to works
executed by good masters. For the shading, the color may be used with
less white: indeed some illuminators almost dispense with it, except where
a breadth of flat color is wanted. To create variety of tone, and also
to imitate more closely the tints of Nature in light and shade, it is usual to
employ several colors of the same scale, as emerald green, shaded with
oxide of chromium ; vermilion, with lake or carmine, &c.
GOLD, SILVER, &c. To the inexperienced, the laying on of gold or
silver may seem a difficult affair ; but it is really comparatively easy,
especially when gold and silver shells, sold by artists' colormen, are used.
These contain the pure metal, ground very fine with gum, and need no
preparation. When a drop of water is added, the gold can be removed
from the shell, and used with the brush in the ordinary way as a color.
One brush should be kept for painting gold or other metallic preparations.
As silver is liable to turn black, we would advise the use of aluminium
instead, which is not affected by the atmosphere. It can be had in shells
in the same manner. In applying gold, or other metal, it should be
painted very level and even, especially if it is to be burnished, which
makes irregularities more prominent. Gold that is to be burnished should
be applied before any of the coloring is begun, as the burnisher is apt to
mark and injure the effect of the adjoining parts. When the gold is quite
dry, put a piece of glazed writing paper over it, and, with the burnisher,
rub the paper briskly, pressing the particles of gold into a compact film :
this gives it a smooth, even surface. In this way it is principally used,
and is called mat gold. For burnished gold, the paper is removed, and
the agate rubbed briskly upon the gold surface, not dwelling too long upon
any one part, until a fine, evenly-bright, metallic surface is produced.
Rubbing the gold lightly with the finger, after touching the skin or hair,
facilitates the action of the burnisher. Gold leaf, with preparations for
its attachment to vellum, are sometimes used, but their application is
difficult, and the amateur will find the shell to answer all purposes ad-
mirably.
1 6 ILL UMINA TIN G.
To the designer or decorator, who has to prepare designs or sketches,
in which there is a considerable expanse of gold surface required, it
becomes necessary to use a substitute for the precious metal. For this
purpose, fine gold bronze powder is generally employed, mixed up with
gum-water, and used as paint. On drying, it possesses all the appearance
of real gold, at only a fraction of the expense. If too much gum is used in
mixing, much of the metallic lustre will be lost ; while, if too little, the
bronze powder will rub off. It cannot be used for fine work or on vellum,
or where permanence is required.
The old illuminators employed a substance for raising up the gold
into heights, or knobs, on portions of the ornamentation, gilding and
burnishing being done last. A similar preparation is now sold by artists'
colormen ; but it will be of little use to the beginner : and it is not within
our province to go into elaborate methods of work in this elementary
treatise.
PREPARING FOR WORK, &c. The vellum or paper having been
strained, the surface will, when dry, be perfectly flat and smooth. If the
paper or vellum is to be much worked upon, it will be found advantageous
to fasten it to a board by drawing-pins or by glueing the edges, having
previously damped the back ; when this is dry, the surface will be per-
fectly level, and not apt to bag in working. Paper so mounted should be
larger than the sized required, to allow for cutting off the soiled margin
when completed. To prevent the margins being soiled, a sheet of paper
should now be fastened as a mask over the page, with a flap the size of
the work cut in it, by folding back portions of which any part of the
surface may be worked upon without exposing the rest.
It is almost impossible to erase pencil lines from vellum. The black
lead, uniting with the animal matter of the skin, can never be properly got
out -India rubber or bread only rubbing it into a greasy smudge. It is,
therefore, better to prepare a complete outline of the design upon paper
first, which can afterwards be transferred to the strained sheet. For this
purpose tracing paper is required, possessing this advantage, that cor-
rections upon the sketch can be made in tracing, and, in placing it upon
the vellum, if the sheet has been previously squared off for the work, its
proper position can be readily seen and determined. The tracing paper
should be about an inch larger each way, to allow of its being fastened
to the mask over the exposed surface of the page. A piece of transfer
paper of a convenient size is then placed under the tracing. It is prepared
thus : a sheet, or half a sheet, of tissue paper is placed upon a smooth
table (taking care to have a much larger piece of paper under to prevent
soiling the table) : one side is then rubbed over with powdered black lead
IL L UMINA TING. 1 7
or red chalk until evenly coated, dusting off the superfluous powder, and
afterwards rubbing it with a soft cloth until very little will come off in
handling ; only sufficient remaining on the paper to leave a faint mark on
a clean sheet when traced through with the point. When the tracing is
fixed in its proper position by a touch of gum or paste at the upper
corners, slip the transfer paper, with the chalked side downwards, between
the vellum and the tracing, and tack down the bottom corners of the
tracing in the same way, to prevent shifting. Seated at a firm table or
desk of a convenient height, with the strained paper or drawing board
slightly on an incline, the amateur may consider all ready for work. All
the lines of the tracing are first t be gone over with the tracing point,
or a very hard pencil cut sharp will answer the purpose. A corner may
be raised occasionally to see that the tracing is not being done too firmly, or
so faintly as to be almost invisible. A piece of stout card should be kept
under the hand while tracing, to avoid marking the clean page with the
prepared transfer paper underneath, by undue pressure of the fingers.
For larger work, not requiring such nicety of detail, the sketch may
be transferred direct especially if the paper is thin without the use of
tracing paper, by merely chalking the back of the drawing (as directed in
making transfer paper), and going over the lines with the tracing point ;
but the other method is best, and the transfer paper may be used over and
over again.
When the subject is carefully traced on the prepared page, and the
tracing and transfer paper removed, it will be best to begin with the text.
The experienced illuminator will generally, after arranging his designs and
spacing out his text, with the initial letters in their proper places, transfer
all to his vellum, and do the writing before he begins coloring, covering up
all the page except the portion he is working upon. When the lettering is
complete, it will be in its turn covered, to prevent its being soiled while
the border is being painted.
Work out the painting as directed under " Colors," beginning with
the gold where it is in masses, burnishing it level when dry, as before
explained : smaller portions can more readily be done afterwards. Paint
each color the full strength at once, keeping in mind that it becomes
lighter when dry, and finishing each color up to the last stage before
beginning another. Avoid haste or hurry, and pay close attention to the
forms of the drawing as you proceed. Some artists prefer to outline all
the drawing with a pen or hard pencil before coloring ; but if the tracing
is done properly it is quite superfluous, unless it is merely to perfect with
the pencil some particular form. Be sure that the border lines are per-
fectly square before coloring.
1 8 ILL UMINA TING.
OUTLINING AND FINISHING. When the work is at this stage, the
colors will have a dull and hopeless appearance ; but, as the outline is
added, it changes to one more pleasing. The addition of the fine white
edging and hair-line finishings (as in XlVth century style), still further
heightens the effect, giving the appearance of great elaborateness and
brilliancy to the coloring, and beauty and decision to the forms. In the
conventional style of treatment in coloring, a careful outline is an impera-
tive necessity, and in this part of the work practice in the use of the brush
is essential. Sometimes objects are outlined in a deeper shade of the
local color as a pink flower or spray with lake, pale blue with darker blue,
&c. ; but this is not very usual. In the real or natural treatment of the
objects forming the subject of the illumination, an outline is seldom used,
everything being colored and shaded as in Nature. Lamp black with a
little gum-water will be found the best medium for outlining, being capable
of making a very fine or a firm line, at the same time retaining its intense
glossy black appearance. A little practice will enable the learner to know
the best consistency to make the ink. As it evaporates, a few drops of
water may be added, and rubbed up with the brush or finger. For hair-
line finishing, either light lines upon a dark ground or vice versa, the same
kind of brush will be used as for outlining. White hair-line finishing,
unless drawn on a very minute scale, is apt to overpower and spoil the
effect of the design. It requires delicate handling, and considerable
exercise of skill, to put in with clearness, and, at the same time, with a free,
firm touch, with white upon a dark ground, these fine lines, fret-work,
flowerets, veins, dots, &c. ; but this ceases to be thought so wonderful when
a little practice in the use of the materials has been attained. On some
color grounds it will be found necessary to go over the lines twice with the
brush to ensure clearness the white, being absorbed into the color beneath,
does not show with the same precision as, for instance, upon a blue
ground, on which it maintains its distinctness by force of contrast.
For diapers of a geometrical character, the drawing-pen and small bow-
pen will be of great use. Sometimes there is put over the entire back-
ground a multitude of minute points of gold, which, being indented with
the point of the agate or tracing-point, produces a beautiful glittering effect.
In the use of vellum, should the margin by any mischance become
soiled, and the stain has not penetrated too deeply, it may be erased with
cuttle fish, a substance which is to be had at most drug stores. Before
using this, break off with a knife the outer shell, and pare away any part
that will be likely to scratch the vellum. As rubbing with this substance
has the effect of grinding the surface off the vellum, great care must be
exercised in its use.
MODERN USES OF ILLUMINATING.
having thus given full instructions in the
technical manipulations, as well as the material
used in the art of Illuminating, we may briefly
mention some of the purposes to which it has
been applied, in addition to the reproduction and
embellishment of books, and offer a few sugges-
tions as to its application to modern uses. Patents
of Nobility, Grants of Arms, &c., from the high
State offices, have always been amongst the most
elaborate and gorgeous examples of the Arts of
the Illuminator and Herald. Royal charters to municipali-
ties, the foundation and endowment charters of colleges,
national treaties, and all documents of State importance
which are intended for preservation for future ages it is
usual to embellish, more or less, by beautiful caligraphy, and the magnifi-
cence of gold and colors, upon vellum. Petitions to the Sovereign, the
high Courts of Parliament, or to distinguished personages, must be neatly
engrossed not printed ; and, although printing may be more easily read
than writing, yet it is still the Court etiquette that printed documents
cannot be received. This affords an opportunity for the supplicant to
write and embellish his address or petition, so as to make it worthy of
being kept, read, and attended to. What is worth doing at all, in such a
case is worth doing well.
Many ancient wills, leases, contracts, &c., are extant, exhibiting
beautiful and elaborate examples of the art of Illuminating. The pains
taken, in early times, to embellish and render permanent documents of
importance to the contracting parties, has, in many instances, been the
means of their preservation from the ordinary fate of old, musty parchments.
20 ILL UMINA TING.
For addresses of congratulation, of condolence, or of thanks, copies
of resolutions of public boards or meetings, and testimonials to persons of
worth or ability, the art of Illuminating affords a happy and graceful
means of conveying the sentiments of those who desire, in some tangible
and enduring form, to make record of their feelings, without burthening
the recipient with valuable gifts, such as a service of plate or a purse
of sovereigns gifts which, though in most instances both valuable and
appropriate, may be to others of trifling account, such as noblemen and
gentlemen who may have wealth and plate in abundance ; whereas a per-
sonal compliment, a work of art, in the form of an exquisitely illuminated
Address, is "a thing of beauty and a joy for ever." Where is he who
would not treasure with his life such a record of his father's greatness, his
mother's worth, or such evidence of the estimation in which his progenitors
were held, signed and sealed with the hands of those long since passed
away, their record only remaining, faithful, as they wished it, for the time
to come ? Testimonies such as these are not readily parted with ; even
by degenerate descendants they are held as objects of just pride and
admiration. Such a relic, possessing relatively " no value to any one but
the owner," will be highly prized, carefully preserved, and frequently
shown, until it becomes a valued heirloom to descend from generation to
generation.
One of the principal applications of Illuminating of late times has
been for texts or inscriptions for framing, or painted in distemper or oil
color upon walls, &c. In church decoration much beautiful work is to be
seen of this kind, a revival of the mediaeval style. In this the amateur will
find ample field for the exercise of his abilities in Illuminating or lighten-
ing up with color and gold those portions of the architectural work that
require it, or would be improved by its use. In this way panels, friezes,
&c., may be enriched with suitable quotations from the Sacred Books,
fitted to lead the wandering mind to the contemplation of high and holy
thoughts. What more beautiful offering could be made to a church by
the illuminator than the Lord's Prayer or the Commandments to be placed
beside the altar, sufficiently beautiful to be attractive, and executed of a
size and legibility to be easily read at a distance ?
Work of this kind, however, requires special materials, whether on
wood or stone ; and great judgment must be exercised not to overdo any
portion, so as to look spotty or gaudy. The paint should, on no account,
cover all, as it destroys the texture and appearance of the material, making
it of no more worth than if it were plaster. Either distemper or oil color
may be used. Gilding must be done with gold leaf for the management
of which a few hints from a painter and decorator would be of service.
IL L UMINA TING. 2 1
Thin sheet zinc forms an admirable material on which to execute
inscriptions, &c., as it can be cut to any required shape before painting,
and may be formed into scrolls, shields, or other suitable forms, which
can be pinned flat to the wall when completed, and, if painted in oil colors,
will stand the weather well.
For home decoration there is much scope for the enthusiastic student
of Illuminating; emblazoning arms or inscriptions in panels, friezes, &c.
Each room may have its appropriate inscription over the door or other
suitable place. Sentiments from the poets and philosophers will meet our
glance, inspiring ideas of an elevating tendency, or suggesting solid food
for thought. Other applications of the art need hardly be suggested ; the
ingenious student will find his powers of design and execution fail ere he
lacks subject for Illuminating.
SYMBOLISM AND MODERN HERALDRY.
An eminent writer on the subject, Charles Boutell, M. A., in his work,
entitled, " Heraldry : Historical and Popular," which we cordially recom-
mend to the attention of the student, says : " In the general Art- Revival of
our own times Heraldry again appears in the act of vindicating its title to
honorable recognition as an Art-Science that may be advantageously and
agreeably studied, and very happily adapted, in its practical application,
to the existing condition of things by ourselves. To illuminators, heraldry
opens a wide and richly-diversified field of attractive study. The beautiful
and deservedly popular art of Illumination finds in heraldry a most versatile
and efficient confederate. True Illumination, indeed, is in its nature
heraldic; and true heraldry provides for illuminators the most appropriate,
graphic, and effective, both of their subjects, and of the details and acces-
sories of their practice."
It is mentioned by M. Digby Wyatt, as an evidence of the excessive
popularity of the art of Illumination among the leading families of Eng-
land, in the XlVth century, that " many of the most remarkable English
manuscripts of that period are emblazoned with ancient coats of arms
of some of the best blood of the country ; and the student of heraldry
always looks to them as to treasuries well stored with objects of value
and interest." Other evidence is not wanting to prove that the SCIENCE
OF HERALDRY has always been in closest alliance with gorgeous writing
and decoration.
From the earliest ages of the world, arbitrary signs have been
adopted to represent ideas or abstract qualities, either from some real or
fancied resemblance to their prototypes. We may briefly notice the earliest
c
22 ILL UMINA TING.
symbol of which we have any record, namely the serpent, fit emblem
for all time, of guile and subtilty ; as also is the dove, of gentleness and
innocence. The mythology of every early nation abounds with similar
illustrations, in which signs and symbols have been used by individuals,
and, in a national sense, by communities, to embody and express ideas; and
as language and art advanced, so has the mind of the thoughtful sought
the most fitting emblems by which to typify the ideas or sentiments which
burned within them ; and by signs, which appeal to the minds of all, to
teach many noble lessons and enduring truths.
"In the relics of the wonderful races that once peopled the valley of
the Nile, this heraldry of. the East is everywhere present. Another expres-
sion of the same semi-mystic symbolism was found, deep buried beneath
the mounds of Assyria. Somewhat modified, it was well known in ancient
Israel. In Europe, with the first dawn even of historical tradition, the
existence of a heraldry may be distinguished. Nearly six hundred years
before the Christian era, yEschylus described the heraldic blazonry of the
chieftains who united their forces for the siege of Thebes, with all the
minute exactness of our first Edward's chronicler of Caerlaverock. The
well-known eagle of the Romans may be said to have presided over the
heraldry of Rome, as the dragon has ever presided over that of the
Chinese. The legendary annals of mediaeval Europe abound in traces of
a barbaric heraldry, in the war banners of the chiefs, and in their personal
insignia. In the far West, the Red Indian, from time immemorial, has
impressed upon his person the totem of his people the cognizance that his
fathers bore, and by which they were distinguished before him."
The assumption of devices on coat armour, and the cognizance or
crest on the helmet, was in reality a necessity, caused by the mode of war-
fare practised in the middle ages ; the defensive armour of the period com-
pletely concealing the person of the bearer, so that the baron or knight,
when armed cap a pie, could not be known to those about him. Hence
their adoption as distinctive bearings.
A complete system of Christian symbolism, or series of sacred
emblems, has been deduced by the early fathers from the dogmas of the
Church, and from the attributes or personal qualities of the saints and
martyrs. The emblems of the Evangelists are familiar examples, namely :
St. Matthew is always represented by an angel or winged man, with a
book ; St. Mark, by a winged lion ; St. Luke, by a winged bull ; St. John,
by an eagle ; the Persons of the Trinity being represented by symbols
peculiar to the idea or phase of character in which each is to be under-
stood. In the Illumination of sacred subjects, many of these emblems
IL L UMINA TING. 23
may be fittingly introduced into the work, giving point and meaning to
what may otherwise be merely uninteresting ornamentation. The subject
is, however, of so comprehensive a character that the limits of our space
will not allow of more than a passing reference to it. To employ these
sacred emblems with their proper import, it should be the business of the
illuminator to become acquainted with those books which best elucidate
the subject. Of these an admirable little work, containing much valuable
information, to which we would call the attention of the student, is
"Audsley's Christian Symbolism." Didron's " Iconography of Christian
Art" (Bohn), and Mrs. Jamieson's "Sacred and Legendary Art," may
also be consulted with advantage for better information on this subject.
We have been thus particular in noticing the origin and uses of
symbolism in art in past times, as it has been, in this respect, too much the
fashion, in this matter-of-fact age, to ignore the thoughts and labours of
our predecessors. We do not enter into any exposition of the Science of
Heraldry, as every gentleman who uses a crest should know enough of it
to understand the meaning of his family arms and motto ; but, inasmuch
as it has, from mediaeval times, been so closely allied with the art of
Illumination, it would be an oversight on our part did we not call the
attention of the illuminator to the importance of a knowledge of, as well
as the advantages to be derived from, the study of the SCIENCE OF
EMBLEMS.
There are many Hand-Books or Manuals of Heraldry published by
the artists' color makers, of which, perhaps, the most complete is Mr.
Boutell's, already referred to.
The colors or tinctures used in heraldic painting are the same as in
illuminating, for which the old Norman-French names are still retained,
namely or (gold), argent (silver), gules (red), azure (blue), vert (green),
purpure (purple), &c. ; also various kinds of fur, each of which has its
proper distinguishing features, differing from all the others.
As examples of the practical application of the art to the production
of the more elaborately illuminated works, we may instance the Address
presented by the Citizens of Dublin to Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, in
grateful acknowledgment of his munificence in restoring St. Patrick's
Cathedral, Dublin. It is the noblest and most appropriate form such
acknowledgment could take, as the Dean and Chapter thought, when they
followed the example set by the citizens. The former volume, within its
rich binding, in addition to the Address and Reply, contained, in the
illuminated borders, a pictorial history of the principal events connected
with the Cathedral ; while, in the latter volume, scenes from the life of St.
Patrick form the motive of the Illumination.
24 ILL UMINA TING.
Annexed engravings were selected from the Works exhibited in the
Paris Exhibition, and engraved and printed in the Art Journal, August,
1867, from which the following is an extract: "It was a matter of
primary importance to infuse the true ancient spirit into the new Illumina-
tions ; and, at the same time, it was judiciously determined to render every
modern improvement in colors and materiel available, while the subjects
Reduced copy of the first page of the Address to Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, from the citizens of Dublin,
Illuminated by Marcus Ward. Interior view of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, with border of the
Shields of the Knights of St. Patrick, whose stalls are in the choir.
of the various works and their illustrations, the figures, the ornaments, and
the scenes and landscapes introduced, would necessarily benefit in no slight
degree from the superior knowledge of drawing which is characteristic of
the present day. In the treatment of heraldic subjects, which constitute
such peculiarly appropriate and felicitous elements of historical Illumination,
IL L UMINA TING. 2 5
it was decided, with the same sound taste and good judgment, to adhere
as closely as possible to the practice of the best heraldic artists of the
noblest era of the mediaeval heraldry, with such slight modifications in
drawing, and such an association of more recent details with the earlier
figures and compositions, as circumstances might render either desirable
or necessary. These excellent plans have been carried into effect by the
nce vcu
ny arc your sacrec -xmTffm
nw Oist efforts wouio w
to insures irrcserv*
Reduced copy of Illuminated page from the Reply to the Address from the Dean and Chapter of St.
Patrick's to Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, Illuminated by Marcus Ward.
projectors with a success so complete, that it would not be possible for us
to express our admiration of the exhibited evidences of their ability in too
decided terms ; nor is there anything still to be accomplished by them that
we consider it our duty to suggest to Messrs. MARCUS WARD & Co.,
when we offer our cordial congratulation upon the distinguished success
they have achieved."
26 ILL UMINA TING.
IN CONCLUSION. We trust that the following examples, and the
instructions contained in this short treatise, may assist the learner to sur-
mount with ease the first and most laborious steps in the progress towards
perfection ; and, whilst so doing, to enjoy and communicate to others the
high and pure delight which is always afforded by the cultivation of pure,
elevated, and intellectual art. We venture to hope that our efforts to
popularize this charming art will be acceptable and useful, and in that
expectation submit them to the service of the cultivators and admirers of
the art of Illuminating. When a degree of excellence has been attained,
and the student can go direct to Nature for his models, it becomes a
source of exceeding pleasure to be able to refer with some pride to each
successful effort, as a tangible result of the pleasant labors, which, unlike
music and other fleeting delights enjoyed only at the time or in re-
collection remains with us, doubly dear.
We must, however, caution our readers against supposing that excel-
lence in the art of Illumination is to be reached by mechanical helps, or
even by attention to the best written rules, without careful study and per-
severing practice. Above all, there should be that innate perception of
the beautiful and the graceful, both in nature and art, without which study
and perseverance will fail in their effect. In the art of Design, more
especially, excellence cannot be attained otherwise than by long continued
application, directed by good taste.
REFERENCE TO PLATES.
PLATE
I. Colored Plate. Alphabet of Illuminated Initials, style of XVI. Century.
II. Alphabet, from Romant de la Rose, beginning of XVI. Century.
III. Alphabets, Black Letter, Old English, German Text, and Engrossing.
IV. Initial Letters and Border Ornaments, XIV. Century.
V.' Bands and Border Ornaments, XIV. Century.
VI. Colored Plate. Nos. I and 2, Italian, XIV. Century, South Kensington, Museum ; No. 3,
enlarged from Gospels of Lindisfarne, VII. Century, British Museum ; No. 4, Terminal
Ornament, from the Golden Gospels ; No. 5, Initial, from Book of Kells.
VII. Colored Plate. Initial Letters, from an Illuminated Missal, Nuremburg, XV. Century.
VIII.
IX.
Completion in Outline of all the Letters of the same Alphabet.
X.
XI. Large Initial M, XII. Century, British Museum.
XII. Colored Plate. Borders, Nos. I, 2, 3, from MSS. of XV. Century.
XIII. Colored Plate. Borders, No. i, XVI. Century; Nos. 2, 3, 4, XV. Century, British Museum.
XIV. Gothic Alphabets, from Westminster Abbey.
XV. Trefoil Border and Text, style of XVI. Century.
XVI. Border with Text, semi-natural style of XVI. Century.
XVII. Alphabets of XV. Century, and Text from a Prayer Book by Albert Durer, A.D. 1515.
XVIII. Colored Plate. Celtic Initials, Nos. I, 2, 3, from the Book of Kells; No. 4, enlarged from
Gospels of Lindisfarne, VII. Century, British Museum.
XIX. Colored Plate. Two small pages from a Book of Hours, XIV. Century.
XX. Two small pages in outline from same Book.
XXI. Alphabet, from Golden Bible, printed at Augsburg, about the end of XV. Century.
XXII. Border and Text, with Picture of the Adoration of Three Indian Kings, XVI. Century.
XXIII. Armorial Bearings, style of XV. Century.
XXIV. Colored Plate. Borders and Initial, Nos. I, 2, 3, style of XV. Century.
Vere Fosters Advanced Wafer Color Drawing _ I LLU M i N ATI N G
PLATE
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Vere Fosters Advanced Wafer Color Drawn? _ I LLU M I N ATI N G
PLATE VI
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Vere Fosters Advanced Water Color Drawing -ILLUMINATING
PLATE XII
Marcus Ward iCo I^)n<lon*Betfi
Vere Fosters Advanced Water Color Draw my -ILLUMINATING
PLATE XI
Vere Fosters Advanced Water Color Drawn*? . i LLU M i N ATI N G
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PLATE XX
Vere Fosters Advanced Wafer Color Drawing - \ LLU M I N ATI N G
PLATE XXI!
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Pen Fosters Advanced Water Color Drawing -ILLUMINATING
PLATE XXIII
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