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Science

KANSAS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
LIBRARY

From the collection of the

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o Prelinger
v JJibrary
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San Francisco, California
2006

Practice. a#id Science

STANDARD BARBERING

A practiced and complete course of training in

basic barber services and

related barber science.

Prepared Especially For Use By

• BARBER SCHOOLS • BARBER APPRENTICES

• BARBER STUDENTS • PRACTICING BARBERS

IN PREPARATION FOR
BARBER STATE BOARD EXAMINATIONS

Milady Publishing Corp.

Printed in U.S.A.

1953 Printing

MILADY PUBLISHING CORP.

3837-3839 WHITE PLAINS AVENUE :: NEW YORK 67, N. Y.

FOREWORD

"The Practice and Science of Standard Barbering"
marks a major advance in barber training. With
the help of leading barber schools, instructors and
educators, all the essential fundamentals and
know-how of barbering have been combined into
one comprehensive textbook.

Step-by-step instructions are clearly described for
basic barber services. Many illustrations, charts,
examinations and a glossary have been included.
The regular study of this text assures complete
training and thorough preparation for State Board
Examinations.

Every barber who wants to combine professional
skill with modern, scientific knowledge, and desires
to maintain high standards of service will find
that this text answers a real need.

THE AUTHOR.

1 — History of Barbering 1

Origin of the Barber; Superstitions in Barbering; Beautifying the
Body; Significance of the Beard; Greek and Roman Influence;
Razors of the Past; English Influence; The Rise and Fall of Barber-
Surgeons.

Modern Trends; Historical Notes on Barbering; Haircuts and Beards
in Vogue at the Onset of the 20th Century; Haircuts and Beards
in Vogue During the 19th Century.
Review Questions and Answers on History of Barbering 10

PART I
2 — Personal Hygiene 15

Good Health; Personal Hygiene; Public Hygiene; Mental Hygiene;
Cleanliness; Air; Food; Posture; Types of Standing Posture;
Exercise; Sleep; Good Health Habits; Your Personal Hygiene is
Very Important.

Your Personality Chart; Personal Inventory; Rating Your Person-
ality; Personality Improvement; Record of Personality Improvement.
Review Questions and Answers on Personal Hygiene 24

3 — Bacteriology 25

Bacteriology Defined; Classification of Bacteria; Pathogenic and
Non-Pathogenic Organisms; Parasites; Structural Classification of
Bacteria; Three General Forms of Bacteria; Groupings of Bacteria;
Six Disease-Producing Bacteria; Movement of Bacteria; Bacterial
Growth and Reproduction; Spore-Forming Bacteria; Infection; Local
Infection; General Infection.

Common Contagious Diseases Met in the Barber Shop; The Routes
in which Bacteria Enter the Body; Immunity; Natural Immunity;
Acquired Immunity; Human Disease Carrier; Destruction of Bacteria.
Review Questions and Answers on Bacteriology 30

4 — Sterilization 33

Sterilization Defined; Methods of Sterilization; Physical Agents;
Chemical Agents; Forms of Heat; Boiling; Steaming; Dry Heat;
Light; Antiseptics and Disinfectants; Wet Sterilizer; Using Alcohol
as Sterilizing Agent; Sterilizing Instruments Having a Fine Cutting
Edge; Sterilizing Electrodes; Dry Sterilizer; How Fumigant is Pre-
pared; Formalin Defined; Formalin Used in Various Strengths; Pro-
portions for Making Percentage Solutions; Table of Equivalents.
How to Sterilize: Combs and Brushes; Metallic Implements;
Electrodes; Moist Heat Sterilization.

Preparations Used in Barber Shops; Antiseptic Preparations; Disin-
fectant Preparations; Definitions Pertaining to Sterilization; Safety
Precautions; Sterilization Rules.
Review Questions and Answers on Sterilization 44

5 — Sanitation 47

Sanitation Defined; Board of Health; State Board of Barbering;
Importance of Sanitation; Water and Soap; Sanitary Rules.
Review Questions and Answers on Sanitation ... ... 50

PART II

6— Will You Be A Success or Failure? 52

What to Do in Order to be Successful.

7- — Barber Implements 53

Straight Razors; Balance of Razor; Grind of Razor; Tempering the

Razor; Size of Razor; Finish of Razor; Care of Razors.

Haircutting Shears; The French Type; The German Type; Size and

Grinds of Shears; Thinning Shears.

Clippers; The Hand Clipper; Electric Clippers; Cutting Thickness.

Hones; Natural Hones; Synthetic Hones; Water Hone; Belgium Hone;

Swaty Hone; Carborundum Hone; General Information on Hones;

Care of Hones.

Strops; Canvas and Leather Strops; How Strops are Broken In and

How They Are Taken Care Of; Russian Strop; Russian Shell;

Horsehide Strop.

Accessory Implements; Combs; Brushes; Lather Receptacles; Shav-
ing Soap; Tweezer; Comedone Extractor.
Review Questions and Answers on Barber Implements 68

8 — Honing and Stropping 71

Honing Defined; Preparation for Honing; How to Hold Razor; How

to Stroke Razor; Testing Razor Edge; Care of Hones.

Stropping Defined; Technique; Care of Strops.

Review Questions and Answers on Honing and Stropping 77

9 — Face Shaving 79

Why Face Shaving is Important; Fundamentals of Face Shaving;
Four Standard Shaving Positions and Strokes; Free Hand Position
and Stroke; Back Hand Position and Stroke; Reverse Free Hand
Position and Stroke; Reverse Back Hand Position and Stroke.
Shaving: How to Prepare A Customer; How to Prepare the Face
for Shaving; Positions and Strokes in Shaving; The Second Time
Over; Once Over Shave; Close Shaving; Accidental Cuts in Shav-
ing; Wrapping Towel Around Hand; Final Steps in Face Shaving;
Neck Shave; Why A Customer May Find Fault with a Shave;
The Mustache; Styles of Mustaches.

Special Problems; Eyebrow Shaping; Tweezing; Trimming Eyebrows;
Styptic Powder; Blackheads; Whiteheads; Ingrown or Wild Hair.
Review Questions and Answers on Face Shaving 109

10 — Men's Haircutting 113

Haircutting Defined; Fundamentals in Haircutting; Haircutting Im-
plements; Important Steps for a Complete Haircut.
Haircutting: How to Prepare A Customer; Clipper Technique;
Shears and Comb Technique; Arching Technique; Finger and
Shears Technique; Front Outline; Preparation for a Neck Shave;
Shaving Outlined Areas; Final Checkup; Combing of the Hair;
Sanitary Reminders; Why A Customer May Find Fault with a
Haircut; Basic Steps of a Standard Haircut.

The Art of Basic Haircutting; The Short Cut; The Medium Cut;
Medium Trim; Long Trim; Short Pompadour; Medium Pompadour;
Long Pompadour; Sideburns.

Special Problems; Hair Thinning; Shear Point Tapering; Beards;
Singeing.

Popular Hair Styles; For Men; For Boys; Principles of Men's Hair
Styling; Face with Regular Features; The Short Round Face; The
Long Thin Face.

Review Questions and Answers on Men's Haircutting 158

11 — Shampooing 161

Shampooing Defined; Preparation of Supplies; How to Prepare A
Customer for Inclined Position; How to Prepare A Customer for
Reclined Position; Step-by-Step Procedure for a Plain Shampoo;
Massage Manipulations During Shampoo; Common Faults in Sham-
pooing; Superior Shampoo Service.

Special Shampoos; Hot Oil Shampoo; Egg Shampoo; Special
Shampoos.
Review Questions and Answers on Shampooing 168

12— Hair Tonics 170

Hair Tonics Defined; When to Use Hair Tonics; Benefits of Hair

Tonics; Scalp Steam.

Review Questions and Answers on Hair Tonics 172

13 — Scalp Treatments 173

Scalp Massage; Benefits of Scalp Massage; Step-by-Step Pro-
cedure for Scalp Massage; When to Recommend Scalp Treatments;
General Scalp Treatment.

Special Problems; Dry Scalp Treatment; Oily Scalp Treatment;
Dandruff Treatment; Treatment for Alopecia.
Review Questions and Answers on Scalp Treatments 182

14— Theory of Massage 183

Massage Defined; Effleurage; Petrissage; Friction; Percussion or
Tapotement; Vibration; Physiological Effects of Massage; Electrical
Appliances Used with Massage.
Review Questions and Answers on Theory of Massage 187

15 — Facial Treatments 189

Benefits of Facial Treatments; Equipment Needed; Plain Facial;
Preparation for Plain Facial; Step-by-Step Procedure for Plain
Facial; Rolling Cream Massage; Points to Remember in Facial
Massage; Why A Customer May Find Fault with a Facial Massage;
Facial Massage Movements Using Hands; Facial Massage Move-
ments Using Vibrator; Rules to Follow in Using Vibrator.

Review Questions and Answers on Facial Treatments 196

Special Problems; Dry Skin Facial; Facial for Oily Skin and Black-
heads; Facial for Whiteheads; Clay Pack; Hot Oil Mask; Bleach
Pack; Acne Facial; Acne Rosacea Facial; Faradic Facial.
Review Questions and Answers on Special Facial Problems 208

PART III

16 — Anatomy and Physiology 211

Importance of Anatomy and Physiology; Definitions of Anatomy,
Physiology and Histology; Cells; Tissues; Organs; Systems.
Review Questions and Answers on Anatomy and Physiology 217

17 — Skeletal System 219

Skeletal System Defined; Composition of Bones; Types of Bones;
Nutrition of Bones; Functions of Bones; Forms or Shapes of Bones;
Joints; Cartilage and Ligaments; Bones of the Head, Face and Neck.
Review Questions and Answers on Bones 225

18— Muscular System 227

Muscular System Defined; Function of Muscles; Origin and In-
sertion of Muscles; Nutrition of Muscles; Types of Muscles; Stim-
ulation of Muscles; Muscles of the Head, Face and Neck.
Review Questions and Answers on Muscles 236

19— The Nervous System 239

Nervous System Defined; Functions of the Nervous System; Neurons
(Nerve Cells); Sensory Nerves; Motor Nerves; Cerebro-Spinal Sys-
tem; Sympathetic or Autonomic System; Nerve Fatigue; Nutrition
of Nerves; Important Nerves of the Head, Face and Neck; Motor
Nerve Points of the Head.
Questions and Answers on Nerves _.. 250

20— Circulatory (Vascular) System 253

Circulatory System Defined; Blood Vascular System; The Function

of the Blood Vascular System; The Heart; The Blood Vessels;

Circulation of Blood; Composition of Blood; Functions of Blood.

The Lymph Vascular System; Lymphatic Structures; Composition

and Functions of Lymph.

Arteries and Veins; Important Arteries and Veins of Head, Face

and Neck.

Review Questions and Answers on Circulation 266

21 — Endocrine System 269

Endocrine System Defined; Types and Functions of Glands.
Review Questions and Answers on Endocrine Glands 271

22 — Excretory System 272

Excretory System Defined; Organs; Urinary System; Liver.

Review Questions and Answers on Excretion 273

23— Respiratory System 274

Respiratory System Defined; Organs; Lungs; Breathing.

Review Questions and Answers on Respiration „ 276

24— Digestive System 277

Digestive System Defined; Physical and Chemical Changes in

Digestion; Process of Digestion; Overcoming Constipation.

Review Questions and Answers on Digestion _ 280

25— The Skin 281

The Skin Defined; Structure of the Skin; Blood and Lymph Supply
to the Skin; Nerves of the Skin; Pliability of the Skin; Color of the
Skin; Sweat and Oil Glands; Functions of the Skin.
Review Questions and Answers on The Skin 286

26— The Hair 288

Hair Defined; Composition of Hair; Shapes of Hair; Structure of
Hair; Color of Hair; Regeneration of Hair; Life and Density of Hair.
Review Questions and Answers on Hair 294

27 — Electricity 297

Benefits of Electricity; How Electricity is Produced; How Electricity
is Transmitted; Electrodes; Forms of Electricity; Types of Electrical
Circuits; Safety Practices; Electrical Measurements; High-Frequency
Current; Methods of Using Tesla Current; The Vibrator; Wall Plate;
Galvanic Current; Other Electrical Currents.
Review Questions and Answers on Electricity — — 305

28— Light Therapy 307

Composition of Light; Speed of Light; How Light Rays Are Repro-
duced; Ultra-Violet Rays; Infra-Red Rays; Visible White Light;
Visible Blue Light; Visible Red Light.
Review Questions and Answers on Light Therapy 313

29— Chemistry 315

Chemistry Defined; Organic Chemistry; Inorganic Chemistry;
Matter; Changes in Matter; Acids, Bases and Salts; Chemistry of
Water; United States Pharmacopeia.

Chemistry Applied to Cosmetics; Classification of Cosmetics in the
Barber Shop; Powders; Solutions; Emulsions; Ointments; Soaps;
Shaving Soaps; Chart of Cosmetics for Skin, Scalp and Hair.
Review Questions and Answers on Chemistry 324

30 — Diseases of the Skin, Scalp and Hair 327

Importance of Disease Recognition; Skin Lesions; Primary Skin
Lesions; Secondary Skin Lesions; Definitions of Disease Terms;
Diseases of Sebaceous (Oil) Glands; Diseases of the Sudoriferous
(Sweat) Glands; Dandruff; Skin Inflammations; Types of Alopecia;
Parasitic Affections; Non-Contagious Hair Affections; Skin Pigment-
ations; Skin Growths; Nail Disorders.
The Control of Venereal Disease; Syphilis; Gonorrhea.
Review Questions and Answers on Diseases of Skin,

Scalp and Hair 359

PART IV

31 — Women's Haircutting 365

32— Finger Waving and Pin Curling 379

33— Men's Hair Bleaching 387

34— Men's Hair Tinting 400

35 — Barber Ethics 427

Barber Ethics Defined; Good Ethics; Poor Ethics.

36 — Barber Shop Management 428

Functions Performed by a Barber Shop; Organizing the Barber
Shop; Types of Ownership; Selecting the Right Location; Equipping
the Barber Shop; Advertising the Barber Shop; Salesmanship in the
Barber Shop; Records in the Barber Shop; Operating and Admini-
strative Expenses; First Aid; Things to Consider When Going into
Business; Business Law for the Barber Shop.

37 — State Board Educational Requirements

for Barber Licenses of All States 439

PART V

38 — Review Examinations 441

1000 Latest Type Examination Questions with Answers.

PART VI

39— Glossary 469

40— Bibliography 502

HISTORY OF BARBERING

The history of barbering is deeply rooted in the progress
of mankind. As civilization advanced, barbering developed
from an insignificant practice to a recognized vocation. To
study the history of barbering is to appreciate the accom-
plishments and the role of the barber in early times. This
rich cultural heritage should be the basis for prestige and
respect in serving the public.

Primitive man had to devise rather crude instruments
with which to cut the hair. Simple cutting implements were
usually prepared from sharpened flint or oyster shells. To
this very day, the savages of Polynesia still use similar
objects in cutting the hair.

Superstitions

The beginning of barbering was steeped in strange super-
stitions. There was a general belief among savages that people
could be bewitched by hair clippings. Hence, the privilege of
hair cutting was designated to the priest or medicine man of
the tribe. The Irish peasantry believed that if hair cuttings
were burned or buried no evil spirits would haunt the
individual.

Among the American Indians, the belief existed that the
hair had a vital connection with the body, and that "any-
one possessed of a lock of hair of another might work his
will on that individual."

It was the widespread ancient belief in the magic in-
fluence of long-haired persons which caused Roman judges
to order the hair of Christian martyrs cut before putting
them to death.

Origin of the Barber

As far back as four hundred years before Christ, shaving
was introduced by the Macedonians. Later it spread to
Egypt and all Eastern countries, including China. The word
barber is derived from a Latin word "barba" meaning

HISTORY OF BARBERING

beard. The word tonsorial in Latin means the cutting,
clipping and trimming of hair with shears or cutting with
a razor.

Beautifying the Body

The Egyptians were the first to cultivate beauty in an
extravagant fashion. Excavations from tombs have brought
to light such relics as combs, brushes, mirrors and cosmetics.
Eye paint was the most popular of all cosmetics. Slaves
enhanced the beauty of the Egyptian ladies by applying
perfumed oil to their skins and henna to their hair.

Significance of the Beard

Although the importance of the beard belongs more with
the past than to the present, nevertheless, it is interesting
to note the various fashions and customs associated with
it. A curious custom of the Middle Ages was that of im-
bedding three hairs from the king's beard in the wax of the
seal. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth in England, it was
fashionable to dye the beard and cut it into a variety of
shapes.

In early times, the beard was considered by almost all
nations as a sign of wisdom, strength and manhood, and
was carefully cherished as being almost sacred. Among the
Jews, the beard was regarded as a symbol of manliness;
to cut off another man's beard was an outrage. According
to the Greek philosopher, Pythagoras, the hair was the source
of the brain's inspiration and the cutting of the hair de-
creased intellectual capacity. In Rome, the first day of
shaving (22nd birthday) was looked upon as a sign of
manhood and was celebrated with great festivities.

The commands of certain rulers were at times responsible
for the removal of beards. For instance, Alexander the Great
ordered his soldiers to shave so that their enemies might not
seize their beards in battle. After the Gauls were conquered,
Julius Caesar compelled them to cut off their beards. Peter
the Great made shaving compulsory by imposing a tax on
beards.

HISTORY OF BARBERING 3

In the spread of the Christian faith, long hair gradually
became to be despised because it was considered sinful. Hence
the clergy were directed to shave their beards. Among the
Jews, shaving of the beard was forbidden, but they used
the scissors to remove all excess hair. The Moslems observed
great care in trimming the beard after prayer, and the
hairs that fell out were carefully picked up and preserved
for subsequent burial with the owner.

Barbers first became popular in Rome about the year 296
B.C. In Greece, barbers became popular as early as 500 B.C.

Greek and Roman Influence

In Greece and Rome, barbering was a highly developed
art. Persons of means were shaved by their valets. The
common people frequented the barber shops which were
the resorts of loungers and newsmongers.

The Greeks and Romans gave considerable attention
to beautifying the hair. Sparkling gems and hairpins of silver
and gold adorned the elegant hair styles of the Greek women.
The Roman women often dyed their hair, and some replaced
the hair with fashionable wigs.

In ancient Rome, the color of a woman's hair indicated
her rank. Women of the nobility tinted their hair red ; those
of the middle class colored their hair yellow; while women
of the poorer classes were compelled to dye their hair black.

The Greeks were noted for the cultivation of health by
natural methods. They realized the value of exercise and
massage for building a strong body. Hippocrates, the father
of modern medicine, advocated the use of sunlight, water
and diet, as important aids to recovery from illness. The
motto of the Greeks was "a sound mind in a sound body".

Some of the finest bathing establishments were erected in
Rome. Soap was first discovered and came into common
usage there. Later, with the decay of Rome and the rise of
Christianity, the use of soap and bathing was banned because
these practices were associated with the cruelty and wick-
edness of Roman rulers.

HISTORY OF BARBERING

RAZORS OF THE PAST

FANCY RAZOR
OF THE 1890'S

HISTORY OF BARBERING 5

English Influence

The ancient Britons were extremely proud of the length
and beauty of their hair. Their yellow hair was brightened
with washes composed of tallow, lime, and the ashes of
certain vegetables. The Danes and Anglo-Saxons also ad-
mired long, flowing locks. The young Danes were partic-
ularly attentive to dressing the hair, which they combed at
least once a day in order to captivate the affections of
English ladies.

The Rise and Fall of Barber-Surgeons

During the Middle Ages, the barbers not only practiced
shaving, haircutting and hairdressing, but also dressed
wounds and performed surgical operations. That is why
they were called barber-surgeons. Much of the barbers5
experience was acquired from the monks, whom they as-
sisted in the practice of surgery and medicine.

The barber-surgeons became quite numerous when Pope
Alexander III forbade the clergy to shed blood in surgical
operations. To protect themselves, the Barbers' Company of
London was organized in the thirteenth century. The object
of the trade guild was to regulate the profession for the
benefit of its members. Among the regulations passed was
that no barber was to keep more than four apprentices in
his establishment.

The Company of Barbers was ruled by a Master, and
consisted of two classes of barbers, viz: those who practiced
barbering and those who specialized in surgery. Under
Edward III, the barbers made a complaint against un-
skilled practitioners in surgery. As a result, the court chose
two Masters to inspect and rule the guild and give exami-
nations to test the skill of applicants.

The sign of the barber-surgeon consisted of a striped pole
from which was suspended a basin: the fillet around the pole
indicating the bandage twisted around the arms previous to
blood-letting and the basin the vessel for receiving blood. An-
other interpretation of the colors in the barber's pole was that

B HISTORY OF BARBERING

red represented the blood, blue the veins, and white the
bandage. This sign, without the basin, has been generally re-
tained by the modern barber.

Besides the Barbers' Guild, there was also a Surgeons'
Guild in England. There was reason to believe that com-
petition and antagonism existed between these two organ-
izations. In 1450, both groups were united by law for the
purpose of fostering the science of surgery. A law was en-
acted that no one doing surgery should practice barbering
and that no barber should practice any point in surgery
except the pulling of teeth. The long slumbering jealousy
between the two guilds soon reached a climax. The surgeons
harbored a dislike for a system under which the diplomas
were signed by Governors, two of whom were always barbers.
Finally, in 1745 a bill was passed separating the barbers
from the surgeons.

The barber-surgeons also flourished in France and Ger-
many. In 1371, a corporation was organized for the French
barber-surgeons under the rule of the King's barber. With
the advent of the French revolution, the corporation was
dissolved. Wigs became so elaborate in the nineteenth cen-
tury that a separate corporation of barbers was formed in
France. Not until 1779 was a corporation formed in Prussia.
This was disbanded in 1809 when new unions were started.

The Dutch and Swedish settlers in America brought with
them barber-surgeons from their native countries to look
after the well being of the colonists. They not only shaved
but performed everyday medical and surgical procedures.

Modern Trends

By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, barbering was
completely separated from religion and medicine, and began
to take on an independent position. Rapid strides have been
marie in barbering since the invention of electricity, the
development of better instruments for cutting and shaving
the hair, and the discoveries in hygiene, chemistry and med-
icine.

With the exception of Virginia and certain counties in

HISTORY OF BARBERING 7

Alabama, the remaining states have passed laws regulating
the practice of barbering. The state boards are primarily in-
terested in maintaining high standards of education and
training in order to assure competent and intelligent service.
The barber schools, barber unions, and Master Barbers As-
sociation, have cooperated in the enforcement of state laws
and in the protection of the barbers' rights and privileges.

Important discoveries which have improved the practice
of barbering in recent times are as follows:

1. The use of electricity and electrical appliances in the
barber shop.

2. The use of better barber implements.

3. The practice of sterilization and sanitation in the
barber shop.

4. The study of anatomy dealing with those parts of the
body (face, head and neck) which are served by the barber.

5. The study of preparations used in connection with fa-
cial, scalp and hair treatments.

Historical Notes on Barbering

The Journeymen Barbers5 Union was organized 1887, and
the first convention was held on November 5, 1887, at
Buffalo, New York.

The first barber school in the United States was started
by A. B. Moler in Chicago, in 1893.

The first state to pass a barber license law was Minnesota,
in 1897.

The Associated Master Barbers of America was organized
in 1924, at Chicago, Illinois.

HISTORY OF BARBERING

HAIRCUTS AND BEARDS IN VOGUE
AT THE ONSET OF THE 20th CENTURY

HISTORY OF BARBERING

HAIRCUTS AND BEARDS IN VOGUE
DURING THE 19th CENTURY

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

HISTORY OF BARBERING

1. What is the origin of the
word "barber"?

"Barba" is a Latin word meaning
beard.

They were signs of wisdom, strength
and manhood.

2. Why did men wear beards in
ancient times?

3. Name two ancient nations
which practiced barbering.

Ancient Egypt and China.

4. When did the Macedonians
introduce the practice of
shaving?

5. In what year did barbers be-
come known in Rome?

About 400 years B.C. (before the
birth of Christ).

About 296 B.C.

6. When did barbers
popular in Greece?

7. Who were the barber-sur-
geons?

"8. a) Whe^id~thVblwbTivsur^
geons start their practice?
b) When did the barber-sur-
geons end their practice?

^TWhat~were the duties of lhe~
barber-surgeons?

become About 500 B.C.

Barbers who assisted the clergy in the
practice of surgery and medicine.

"About 110 A.D7~(after~the birthTof
Christ).
In the year 1745.

Besides being a barber, they did blood-
letting, performed operations, pulled
teeth and dressed wounds.

10. Describe the barber's sign
used by the barber-surgeons.

The barber's sign consisted of a striped
pole, from which was suspended a
basin. The white band around the
pole indicated the ribbon for band-
aging the arm, the red band indicated
the bleeding and the basin was in-
tended to receive the blood.

11. What was the origin of the
modern barber pole?

The modern barber pole started in the
days when the barber-surgeons bled
their patients in treating disease.

12. What kind of organization
was the Barbers' Company
of London?

A trade guild or society for the pro-
tection of barber-surgeons.

13. When was the Barbers' Com-
pany organized in London?

14. When was the first school
for barber-surgeons opened
in France?

During the thirteenth century.

In the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury.

15. Who brought the barber-
surgeons to America?

The early Dutch and Swedish settlers.

ln what year did A

ler open the first barber

school in America?

17. In what year did the State
of Minnesota pass the first
barber license law?

In 1893.

In 1897.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

18. What are three important
advantages of having barber
license laws?

1. Elevates the standards and practice
of barbering.

2. Eliminates incompetent barbers who
lack the required training and exper-
ience.

3. Protects the public health and as-
sures better service.

19. In what year were the Mas-
ter Barbers of America or-
ganized?

20. When was the Journeymen
Barbers' International Union
organized in America?

21. Which important discoveries
improved the practice of bar-
bering in recent years?

In 1924.

In 1887.

1. The use of electricity and electrical
appliances in the barber shop.

2. The use of better barber implements.

3. The practice of sterilization and
sanitation in the barber shop.

4. The study of anatomy dealing with
those parts of the body (face, head
and neck) which are serviced by the
barber.

5. The study of preparations used in
connection with facial, scalp and hair
treatments.

PART I

HYGIENE, SANITATION AND
STERILIZATION

PERSONAL HYGIENE

Good health is a valuable asset to the barber. It permits
him to function efficiently and render satisfactory service
to his customers. Poor health is a serious handicap which in-
terferes with the best work of the barber. A sick person,
having a contagious disease, tends to spread it to others.
Any bacterial disease which affects the body should be
sufficient to disqualify the barber from doing his work. An
annual physical examination will help to discover the pre-
sence of any communicable disease.

Personal hygiene concerns the intelligent care given by
the individual to preserve health. This requires a know-
ledge of good eating and drinking habits, and a wholesome
mental attitude. A good balance between work, sleep and
play, is fundamental to hygienic living.

Public hygiene or sanitation refers to the measures used
by governmental agencies to preserve the health of the com-
munity. It is the responsibility of the barber to know san-
itation and sterilization rules so that he may cooperate with
the Board of Health and the State Board of Barbering in
the maintenance of a high standard of public health.

Mental Hygiene

The mind and body operate as a unit; and the neglect
of either must be to the detriment of both. Optimistic and
encouraging thoughts promote good health. Healthy mental
attitudes can be cultivated by self-control and practice. Make
up your mind as to what is right and then continue to do it
until a habit is established. In place of worry and fear,
the health-giving qualities of cheerfulness, courage and
hope, should be promoted. Outside interests and recreation
tend to relieve the strain of monotony and hard work.

Thoughts and emotions influence bodily activities. A
thought may cause the face to turn red and increase the
heart action. A thought may either stimulate or depress
the functions of the body. Strong emotions such as worry
and fear have an injurious reaction on the heart, arteries

16 PERSONAL HYGIENE

and glands. Mental depression impairs the functions of
these organs, thereby lowering the immunity of the body
to disease.

Cleanliness

Cleanliness is an important factor in maintaining personal
hygiene. It is essential to the preservation of health and
the prevention of disease. A clean person is careful not only
with his body but also with his clothing and surroundings.
The barber must be dressed in a clean, washable outer
coat or uniform. Shoes should be neat and comfortable.
Clean personal habits reflect themselves in the physical
condition of the barber shop.

For the body to be truly clean, only pure food, water
and air should be consumed, and the waste products should
be regularly eliminated. Otherwise, self-poisoning will ensue.
Since constipation is a hindrance to internal cleanliness, it
should be remedied by a change in eating and living habits.

The skin must be kept clean for hygienic as well as aes-
thetic reasons and to keep the pores open to allow the impur-
ities to be excreted. Bathing with soap and water assists in
the removal of surface dirt.

Body odor or foul breath is an indication of faulty per-
sonal hygiene and diet. The use of deodorants helps to
counteract a disagreeable body odor.

To keep the teeth and mouth in a healthy condition, ad-
equate mouth hygiene is required. Brush the teeth at
least twice daily. Rinse the mouth with water after each
meal. All decayed teeth should be either filled or removed.

Adequate personal hygiene demands appropriate attention
to the needs of the body. Six requirements are essential to
good health:

1. Breathe clean air.

2. Eat wholesome food.

3. Drink pure water in sufficient quantity.

4. Keep the body clean, both internally and externally.

5. Be moderate in work, play, exercise and sleep.

PERSONAL HYGIENE 17

6. Stand, sit and walk correctly and maintain good
posture.

Air

The quality of air a person breathes is important to
health. Whereas warm, dry air is depressing, cool air with
the proper amount of moisture is stimulating to the func-
tions of the body. Country air is purer than city air because
plants remove carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in the
presence of the sun. Excess moisture, especially in hot air,
causes great discomfort and renders the body susceptible
to colds upon exposure to a draft. On hot and humid days,
the body cannot readily dispose of the accumulated perspira-
tion.

The air within a barber shop should be neither dry nor
stagnant. Stagnant air has a stale, musty odor. Room tem-
perature should be about 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Dry air
in a heated room can be overcome by placing a water pan
on the radiator or by having plants in the barber shop.
Opening of the windows, one at the top and another at
the bottom, helps to secure good ventilation. The impure
air containing the carbon dioxide leaves through the top
of the window, whereas the fresh air enters through the
bottom. Drafts must be avoided. Fresh air is refreshing,
not so much because of less carbon dioxide and more oxygen,
but because it is usually cooler and less laden with moisture.

Food

Since no one food is in itself adequate for the nourish-
ment and growth of the body, it becomes necessary to
properly select and combine various foods so as to yield a
balanced diet. The individual's choice should be guided by
the purity, wholesomeness and freshness of foods. Contam-
inated water and food contain many harmful bacteria.
Proper sanitation of water and food is supervised by govern-
mental agencies.

Individuals differ in their nutritive needs and in their
ability to digest and assimilate foods. A strong, healthy
person, living an outdoor and active life, can easily digest

PERSONAL HYGIENE

TYPES OF STANDING POSTURE

Excellent Mechanical Use
of the Body

1. Head straight above
chest, hips and feet.

2. Chest up and forward.

3. Abdomen in or flat.

Poor Mechanical Use
of the Body

1. Head forward of chest.

2. Chest flat.

3. Abdomen relaxed and
forward.

PERSONAL HYGIENE 19

any kind of food. On the other hand, a person who works
with his mind more than with his hands requires simple
and easily digested foods.

For the continuance of sound health, certain hygienic
eating and drinking rules must be observed.

1. Eat only when hungry and in the proper frame of
mind. Worry and fatigue are not conducive to good di-
gestion.

2. Drink several glasses of water daily. Do not gulp
the food down with water. Iced water chills the stomach
and decreases the rate of digestion in the stomach. Warm
drinks promote the flow of the digestive juices.

3. All foods should be washed and cleaned before being
cooked and eaten. The removal of dirt also carries with
it harmful bacteria. Decomposed or spoiled food should
not be eaten.

4. The food should be eaten slowly and thoroughly
chewed with the saliva. Crisp and hard foods stimulate
the flow of the saliva and also exercise the teeth and gums.
The thorough chewing of foods prevents overeating.

5. Overeating, even of the best foods, is harmful to
health. An excessive intake of food stretches the stomach
and leads to intestinal decomposition. The absorption of
decomposed intestinal residues overburdens the organs of
elimination. Overeating makes the individual put on ex-
cess weight.

Posture

Correct posture is of particular importance to the barber,
who is required to stand on his feet for long periods of time.
Faulty posture places a strain on the muscles, which in
turn increases fatigue and lowers efficiency.

To stand or walk correctly, the shoulders should be
kept straight and backward while the abdomen is retained
inward. Drooping shoulders limit the action of the lungs,
which results in deficient aeration of the blood. Correct pos-
ture gives balance to the body and evenly distributes body
weight.

20 PERSONAL HYGIENE

Exercise

Exercise has a beneficial effect on the metabolic func-
tions of the body. During exercise, the rate of breathing
is increased, thereby supplying the blood with more oxygen
with which to oxidize the food. The circulation of the blood
and the nutrition of the cells are likewise improved.

Mild exercise is preferred to any violent exercise which
may be a strain on the heart. To get the best results from
exercise it should be conducted in the open air, should
bring a large number of muscles into play and should be
pleasurable. Do not start any exercise when tired nor con-
tinue it if fatigued. Strenuous exercise after a hearty meal
impairs digestion. The best kinds of exercise are sports,
walking, swimming, and dancing.

Sleep

Sleep is necessary in order to revitalize the body and to
neutralize and eliminate the products of mental and physical
fatigue. During waking hours, the end products of metab-
olism accumulate faster than can be eliminated. Sound
sleep permits the body to neutralize the waste products
and discharge them from the system. During sleep, the
body is recharged with energy. A clear mind and refreshed
body are signs of adequate sleep.

Good Health Habits

1. Eat three good meals a day. Include the necessary
variety of wholesome foods such as milk, eggs, fruit,
vegetables, meat or fish and cereals.

2. Have regular times for meals, sleep and elimination.

3. Get sufficient sleep every night to feel rested and alert
the next day.

4. Use leisure time for rest and recreation.

5. Avoid unnecessary infection by washing hands before
and after serving customers, and by treating cuts and
scratches promptly.

6. Steer clear of excesses in food, alcohol, sex or tobacco.

7. Adopt a cheerful attitude towards life and conquer the
temptation to worry when things go wrong.

8. Have periodic check-ups by your doctor and dentist.

PERSONAL HYGIENE

YOUR PERSONAL HYGIENE
IS VERY IMPORTANT

To keep your appearance at its best, give daily attention
to correct posture, cleanliness and neatness.

Daily Bath and Deodorant

Keep the body clean and fresh
by having a daily shower or
bath, and if necessary by using
an underarm deodorant.
Teeth and Breath
Clean and brush the teeth reg-
ularly. Use mouth wash to
sweeten the breath.

Face

Shave the face daily. If worn,
keep the mustache trimmed
neatly.

Hair

Keep the hair clean, properly
trimmed and dressed.

Hands and Nails

Keep the hands clean and
smooth, and have the nails man-
icured.

Clothes

Wear clean pants and uniform
that is properly fitted and
pressed. Keep barber imple-
ments out of pockets. Wear
shoes that are well-fitted and
shined.

A Weil-Groomed Barber

22 PERSONAL HYGIENE

YOUR PERSONALITY CHART

No barber can hope to have or maintain a successful
career in barbering unless he develops a pleasing personality.

Personality is your greatest asset in life. It can be cul-
tivated by giving careful attention to details in grooming and
the forming of good habits and desirable traits.

Try to make this personality chart a true picture of your-
self. Consult your teacher, friend or doctor, to find out what
can be done to improve your personality. Check yourself
every three months to find out what progress you are making.

PERSONAL INVENTORY

To determine to what extent you posses each of the traits
or qualities listed, place a check in the proper box.

Rnrlvr r^lAOYiKn^oc Excellent Good Fair Poor

body Cleanliness 100o/o 750/o 50o/0 25%

Hands and Nails:
Hands clean and free from nicotine

stains D D D D

Nails cleaned and properly trimmed .... D D D D
Face:

Face properly shaved D D D D

Mustache properly trimmed D D D D

Nostrils and ears clean and free from

protruding hairs D D D D

Hair:

Hair clean and properly trimmed D D D D

Hair properly groomed D D D D

Offensive Odor:

Body odor D D D D

Breath odor D D D D

Clothing Cleanliness
Uniform :

Uniform clean and pressed. (Pockets
free of implements.) D D D D

PERSONAL HYGIENE 23

Pants :
Pants clean and pressed D D D D

Shoes and Socks:

Shoes shined D D D D

Socks clean .-. D D D D

Clothing Habits:

Uniform and working apparel neat,
well fitted and properly worn D D D D

Personal Habits

Sanitary Habits:

Handkerchief clean and pressed D D D D

Manner of blowing and wiping nose. ~ D D D D

Posture Habits:

Erect standing posture D D D D

Proper walking posture without
shuffling the feet D D D D

Speech Habits:

Tone of voice D D D D

Ease in talking D D D D

RATING YOUR PERSONALITY

Add percentages for each trait or quality and get totals
for each column. Add combined totals to get grand total. Di-
vide grand total by 20 to get average percentage for all.

To evaluate your personality, compare the final rating with
the following standards:

Excellent Personality 85-100%

Good Personality 75 - 85%

Fair Personality 50- 75%

Poor Personality 40- 50%

PERSONALITY IMPROVEMENT

After finishing this personal inventory, take stock of your
good and bad traits. Make a list of those traits in need of
correction or improvement. Select the most glaring fault first.

PERSONAL HYGIENE

Each day make a conscious effort to do the right thing. Do
not give up until you have formed the desirable habit. When
one good habit has been formed, then follow the same pro-
cedure for the correction of another personal trait.

Every three months check -your personal inventory to note
what progress has been made towards your personality im-
provement.

RECORD OF PERSONALITY IMPROVEMENT

Now

After
3 Months

After
6 Months

After
9 Months

After
1 Year

RATING ^

PERSONAL HYGIENE

1. Why is the practice of per-
sonal hygiene important to
the barber?

In order to keep the body clean,
healthy and free from disease.

2. What is hygiene?

The science which treats of the pre-
vention of disease and the improve-
ment of health.

3. Name two important branch-
es of hygiene. How is each
applied?

Personal hygiene and public hygiene.
Personal hygiene is applied to the in-
dividual. Public hygiene or sanitation
is applied to the community.

4. Name six requirements of
good health.

1. Breathe clean air.

2. Eat wholesome food.

3. Drink pure water in sufficient quan-
tity.

4. Keep the body clean, both extern-
nally and internally.

5. Be moderate in work, play, rest and
sleep.

6. Stand, sit and walk correctly.

5. How should the barber be
dressed?

6. What are three signs of
correct standing posture?

Wear a clean, washable outer coat or
uniform.

Keep head up, chest up and forward,
abdomen flat.

7. How can body odors and
foul breath be eliminated?

Bathe daily and if necessary use a
deodorant under the armpits. Gargle
the jnouth with an antiseptic solution.

8. What hygienic care should
be given to the teeth?

Brush and clean them each day. Visit
the dentist to fill or remove bad teeth.

9. Why are regular physical ex-
aminations necessary?

To check the condition of the body
and treat any disease that is dis-
covered.

BACTERIOLOGY

Bacteriology is that science which deals with the study
of micro-organisms called bacteria. In order for the barber
to understand the importance of sterilization, it is necessary
that he first make a study of bacteria.

While it is true that the barber is not concerned with
the treatment of disease, he must understand how the spread
of disease can be prevented, and become familiar with the
precautions which must be taken to protect his own, as
well as his customer's health. Contagious diseases, skin in-
fections and blood poisoning are caused either by the con-
veyance of infectious material from one individual to an-
other, or by using contaminated implements ( such as combs,
brushes, razors, etc. ) on an individual without being ster-

ilized.

Bacteria are minute one-celled vegetable micro-organ-
.s. They are especially numerous in dust, dirt, refuse and
;ased tissues. Ordinarily, bacteria are not visible except
wjth the aid of a microscope. Fifteen hundred rod-shaped
bacteria will barely reach across a pinhead. It is only when
thousands of them have grown in one spot to form a "col-
ony" that they become visible as a mass. Harmful bacteria
are also known as germs, or microbes.

Bacteria are classified as to their harmful or beneficial
qualities. It must be borne in mind that not all bacteria are
harmful; in fact, a great majority are helpful and useful.

There are two types of bacteria.

1. Non-pathogenic organisms constitute the majority of
all bacteria and perform many useful functions such as de-
composing refuse and improving the fertility of the soil. To
this group belong the saprophytes which live on dead matter.

2. Pathogenic organisms (microbes or germs), although
in the minority, produce considerable damage by invading
plant or animal tissues. Pathogenic bacteria are harmful be-
cause they produce disease. To this group belong the para-

26 BACTERIOLOGY

sites which require living material for their growth.

It is due to the pathogenic bacteria that the practice of
sterilization and sanitation is necessary in a barber shop.

Structural Classification of Bacteria

There are many hundreds of different kinds of bacteria
which may be classified according to their shape or form.
Each bacterium has a specific structure and definite char-
acteristics. They are arranged into three main classes as
follows :

1. Cocci (singular, coccus) are round-shaped organisms
which appear singly or in groups as follows:

a) Staphylococci (singular, staphylococcus) are pus-
forming organisms which grow in bunches or clust-
ers, and are present in abscesses, pustules and boils.

b) Streptococci (singular, streptococcus) are pus-
forming organisms which grow in chains, and are
found in such diseases as erysipelas and blood
poisoning.

c) Gonococci (singular, gonococcus) grow in pairs
and are responsible for gonorrhea (clap).

d) Diplococci (singular, diplococcus) grow in pairs,
and cause pneumonia.

2. Bacilli (singular, bacillus) are rod-shaped organisms
which present either a short, thin or thick structure.
They are the most common and produce such diseases
as tetanus (lockjaw), influenza, typhoid, tuberculosis
and diphtheria. Many bacilli are spore producers.

3. Spirilla (singular, spirillum) are curved or corkscrew-
shaped organisms. They are further subdivided into
several groups, of chief importance being the spiro-
chaetal organisms. The spirochaeta or Treponema
pallida is the causative agent in syphilis.

Movement of Bacteria

The ability to move about is limited to the bacilli and
spirilla, for the cocci rarely show active motility. Wherever
any motility of bacteria is shown, we find hair-like projec-

BACTERIOLOGY

THREE GENERAL FORMS OF BACTERIA

Cocci Bacilli

Spirilla

GROUPINGS OF BACTERIA

Diplococci Tetracocci Streptococci Staphylococci

SIX DISEASE-PRODUCING BACTERIA

(PATHOGENIC BACTERIA)

Typhoid Bacillus Tubercle Bacillus
showing Flagella (Tuberculosis)

Streptococcus

Diphtheria
Bacillus

Cholera
(Microspira)

Tetanus Bacillus
with spores

28 BACTERIOLOGY

tions, known as flagella or cilia, extending from the sides, end
or sides and end, of certain bacteria. By moving these fine
hairs with a whip-like motion, these bacteria propel them-
selves about through a liquid.

Bacterial Growth and Reproduction

Bacteria consist of an outer cell wall and internal proto-
plasm. They manufacture their own food from the surround-
ing environment, give off waste products and are capable of
growth and reproduction.

Bacteria may exhibit two distinct phases in their life
cycle.

1. The active or vegetative stage in which the bacterial
cell grows and reproduces.

2. The inactive or spore stage in which the bacterial cell
remains dormant and does not grow or reproduce itself.

Germs live and multiply best in warm, dark, damp and
dirty places where sufficient food is present. Many parts of
the human body offer a suitable breeding place for bacteria.

When conditions are favorable, bacteria reproduce with
marvelous rapidity. As food is absorbed and converted into
protoplasm, the bacterial cells increase in size. When the
limit of growth is reached, it divides crosswise into halves,
thereby forming two daughter cells. From one bacterium,
as much as sixteen million germs may develop in half a day.

Spore-forming bacteria. When favorable conditions cease
to exist, bacteria either die or cease to multiply. To with-
stand periods of famine, dryness and unsuitable temperature,
certain bacteria such as the anthrax and tetanus bacilli can
form spherical spores having a tough outer covering. In this
stage, the spore can be blown about in the dust and is not
harmed by disinfectants, heat or cold.

When favorable conditions are restored, the spore changes
into the active or vegetative form and then starts to grow
and reproduce.

BACTERIOLOGY 29

Infections

Pathogenic bacteria become a menace to health when
they successfully invade the body. An infection occurs if
the body is unable to cope with the bacteria or their harm-
ful poisons. At first, the infection may be localized as in a
boil. A general infection results when the blood stream car-
ries the bacteria and their poisons to all parts of the body.

The presence of pus is a sign of infection. Found in pus
are bacteria, body cells and blood cells, both living and dead.

An infectious disease becomes contagious because it
tends to spread more or less readily from one person to an-
other by direct or indirect contact. The most common con-
tagious diseases met in the barber shop are ringworm, favus,
scabies, and head lice.

In addition to these contagious diseases, a barber is not
allowed to work in a shop if he has either diphtheria, influ-
enza, typhoid fever, tuberculosis, gonorrhea or syphilis. Se-
vere coughs and colds also prevent the barber from working
in the shop, as they are contagious and may be spread to
customers.

The chief sources of contagion are: unclean hands, un-
clean instruments, open sores and pus, and mouth and nose
discharges. Uncovered coughing and sneezing in public also
spreads germs. Through personal hygiene and public sani-
tation, infections can be prevented and controlled.

The body attempts to fight infections by using its de-
fensive forces. The first line of defense is the unbroken
skin. In a healthy person, bodily secretions such as perspi-
ration and digestive juices discourage bacterial growth.
Within the blood, there are white blood cells to destroy harm-
ful bacteria, and anti-toxins to counteract the poisons pro-
duced by the bacteria.

Bacteria enter the body through the following routes:

1. Through the mouth (with food, water and air).

2. Through the nose (with air).

3. Through the eyes (on dirt).

4. Through cracks or wounds in the skin.

30 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Immunity is the ability of the body to resist invasion and
destroy bacteria once they have gained entrance. Immunity
against disease is a sign of good health. It may be natural
or acquired. Natural immunity is partly inherited and partly
developed by hygienic living. Acquired immunity, being ar-
tificial, is secured after the body has by itself overcome
certain diseases, or when it has been assisted by animal
injections to fight bacterial attacks.

A person may be immune to a disease and yet carry
germs which can infect other people. Such a person is called
a human disease carrier. The diseases most frequently spread
in this manner are typhoid fever and diphtheria.

The destruction of bacteria may be accomplished by
physical agents such as heat (boiling, steaming or baking) ;
and chemical agents such as antiseptics, disinfectants or
germicides.

BACTERIOLOGY

1. What is bacteriology? The science or study of bacteria.

2. What are bacteria? Bacteria are minute one-celled veg-

etable organisms.

3. Where are bacteria generally In the air, water, dust, dirt, and in
found? diseased and decayed tissues.

4. Classify and describe bac- 1. Cocci (sing., coccus) are round-
teria according to their shape. shaped and appear in groups, pairs or

clusters.

2. Bacilli (sing., bacillus) are rod-
shaped and have a short, thin or thick
appearance.

3. Spirilla (sing., spirillum) are cork-
screw-shaped, having from one to eight
curves.

5. Name and distinguish be- Pathogenic bacteria are harmful and
tween two types of bacteria. produce disease. Non-pathogenic bac-
teria are beneficial and do not produce

disease.

6. By what other names are Germs and microbes.
pathogenic bacteria general-
ly known?

7. Name two common pus-form- Staphylococcus and streptococcus.
ing bacteria.

8. Which substances are usual- Bacteria, body cells, blood cells, both
ly found in pus? living and dead.

9. Which kind of bacteria caus- Staphylococcus.
es boils and pimples?

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

10. Which, kind of bacteria caus-
es blood poisoning?

Streptococcus.

11. Which kind of bacteria caus-
es gonorrhea (clap)?

12TName four requirements for
the growth of bacteria.

Gonococcus.

Warm, dark, damp and dirty places
where sufficient food is present.

13. How do bacteria multiply?

Each bacterium lengthens and divides
in the middle, thus forming two bac-
teria.

14. How fast do bacteria gener-
ally multiply?

From one bacterium, as many as six-
teen million germs may develop hi
half a day.

15. What causes an infection?

The invasion of harmful bacteria into
a weakened body.

16. Distinguish between a local
infection and a general in-
fection.

A local infection such as a boil is con-
fined to a small part of the body. A
general infection such as blood poison-
ing results when bacteria or their poi-
sons enter the blood stream.

17. Through which four routes
do bacteria enter the body?

1. The mouth (with air, water, or food).

2. The nose (with air).

3. The eyes (on dirt).

4. The skin (through cracks or wounds
in the skin).

18. Which blood cells destroy
bacteria hi the body?

White blood cells.

19. How can infection be pre-
vented in the barber shop?

20. What is immunity?"

By the practice .of personal hygiene,
sterilization and sanitation at all times.

The ability of the body to fight and
overcome certain diseases caused by
germs and their poisons.

21. What is a human disease car-
rier? Give two examples.

A human disease carrier is a person
who, although immune to the disease
himself, can infect other persons with
the germs of the disease. Two exam-
ples are diphtheria and typhoid fever.

22. What is a communicable or
contagious disease?

A disease which can be readily spread
from one person to another by direct
or indirect contact.

23. Name ten communicable di-
seases that prevent a barber
from working.

diphtheria
influenza
typhoid fever
tuberculosis
syphilis

gonorrhea
ringworm
favus
scabies
head lice

24. Why should severe colds or
coughs prevent a barber from
working?

Because the germs of coughs due to
colds are easily spread.

STERILIZATION

Sterilization is of practical importance to the barber be-
cause it deals with methods employed to check or destroy
all kinds of micro-organisms, particularly those which are
responsible for infections and communicable diseases.

The barber should know the local regulations of the
Health Department and Board of Barbering regarding ac-
ceptable methods of sterilization.

Sterilization is the process of making an object germ-
free by the destruction of all micro-organisms, whether bene-
ficial or harmful.

- Methods of Sterilization

There are four methods of sterilization with which the
barber should be familiar. These may be grouped under
two main headings:

1. Physical agents:

a) Moist heat (boiling or steaming.)

b) Dry heat (baking in an oven).

2. Chemical agents:

a) Antiseptics and disinfectants.

b) Vapors (fumigation) to keep articles sterile.

The choice of the sterilizing agent will depend to a very
large extent on its effectiveness and cost and the available
facilities in the barber shop.

Forms of Heat

Moist heat. An effective and relatively inexpensive method
of sterilizing implements in a barber shop is boiling or steam-
ing. The temperature and duration of heat are important
considerations. The time is counted not from the moment
the flame is lighted or the switch turned on, but from the
time the particular temperature or pressure has been reached.
To avoid cracking fragile objects and burning fingers, im-
plements must never be placed in or removed from heated
sterilizers with the hands; use forceps to insert and remove
objects from the receptacles.

34 STERILIZATION

Instruments and glassware for immediate use are readily
sterilized by boiling or steaming as follows :

1. Boiling. Boiling water at 212° Fahrenheit (100° cen-
tigrade) is germicidal in action, and will completely destroy
all bacteria except spores. Instruments, glassware, towels, or
headbands, should be placed in boiling water and allowed
to remain for at least twenty minutes.* Adding a small
quantity of sodium carbonate (washing soda) to the water
will keep the instruments bright.

2. Steaming. Exposure to direct steam is probably one
of the most effective methods of sterilization. Steam at ordi-
nary atmospheric pressure never exceeds a temperature of
212° Fahrenheit (100° Centigrade), but if it is confined
within a given area, the temperature will rise with increased
pressure. The average steam pressure sterilizer is an air-tight
chamber in which steam is generated from water by the ap-
plication of heat. All forms of micro-organisms, including
spore-forming bacteria are completely destroyed at 15 Ibs.
pressure (equivalent to a temperature of 250° Fahrenheit
(121° Centigrade) for 20 minutes.*

Dry heat. This method of sterilization is not practical in
the barber shop and is therefore rarely used. However, it is
employed by hospitals to sterilize sheets, towels, gauze, cotton
and similar materials.

Light. Bacteria cannot tolerate the effect of direct sun-
light for more than a few hours. Almost all bacteria may be
killed or weakened by ultra-violet irradiation.

Antiseptics and Disinfectants

Next to heat, chemical agents are most effective in des-
troying or checking bacteria. The chemical agents used for
sterilizing purposes are either antiseptics or disinfectants
(germicides). A distinction is usually made between an anti-
septic and disinfectant.

*The boiling or steaming time of water should conform to State Board
regulations issued by your state.

STERILIZATION 35

1 . An antiseptic* is a substance which may kill, or retard
the growth of bacteria without killing them. Antiseptics can
be used with safety on the skin.

2. A disinfectant destroys bacteria and is used for the
sterilization of instruments.

A chemical such as formalin can be classed under both
heads: a strong solution of it acting as a disinfectant; a
weak solution acting only as an antiseptic.

Wet Sterilizer

A wet sterilizer is any receptacle large enough to hold
the disinfectant solution and completely immerse the objects
to be sterilized. A cover is provided to prevent contamination
of the solution. Various sizes and shapes of wet sterilizers
can be purchased from the barber supply dealer.

Before immersing objects in a wet sterilizer containing a
disinfectant solution, they should be thoroughly cleansed with
soap and water. This procedure prevents contamination of
the solution. Besides, soap suds actually kill ordinary germs
except the typhoid bacilli and staphylococci.

The kind and strength of chemical solution to use de-
pends on the objects to be sterilized. The implements are
usually immersed for a period ranging from 10 to 20 minutes.

After the barber implements arq removed from the dis-
infectant solution, they should be rinsed in clean water,
wiped dry with a clean towel and stored in a dry sterilizer
until ready to be used.

Combs and brushes will be completely sterilized by im-
mersion into a 10% formalin solution for 20 minutes.

Metallic instruments will be completely sterilized and will
not corrode if they are immersed for 10 minutes in a 25%
formalin solution to which glycerine has been added.

*The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic law interprets the meaning of an
antiseptic as follows: If an antiseptic is intended for short contact on body
surfaces, it should possess the effectiveness of a disinfectant and be able to
kill germs. For prolonged contact as in the case of an antiseptic dusting
powdery the product may exert an inhibiting effect on bacteria.

STERILIZATION

Using Alcohol As A Sterilizing Agent
Instruments having a fine cutting edge, such as razors,
shears and clipper blades, may be sterilized either by immer-
sion into 70% alcohol or by rubbing the surface with a cot-
ton pad dampened in 70% alcohol which prevents the cut-
ting edges from becoming dull.

Electrodes may be safely sterilized by gently rubbing the
exposed surface with a cotton pad dampened in 70% alcohol.

Floors, Sinks, Toilet Bowls and Cuspidors

The disinfection of floors, sinks, toilet bowls and cuspidors
in the barber shop calls for the use of such commercial prod-
ucts as lysol, CN, pine needle oil or similar disinfectants. De-
odorants are also useful to combat offensive odors and for im-
parting a refreshing odor. Whatever disinfectant is being
used, make sure that it is properly diluted as suggested by
the manufacturer.

Dry Sterilizer

Dry sterilizer is an air-tight cabinet containing an active
f umigant ( formaldehyde gas ) . The sterilized implements are
kept sterile by placing them in
the cabinet until ready for use.

How fumigant is prepared.
Place one tablespoonful of bor-
ax and one tablespoonful of
formalin on a small tray or blot-
ter on the bottom of the cabi-
net. This will form formalde-
hyde vapors. Replace chemicals
periodically to insure effective-
ness of the fumigant.

Formalin

Dry Sterilizer

Formalin is a safe and effective sterilizing agent which
can be used either as an antiseptic, disinfectant or deodorant,
depending on its percentage strength. As purchased, formalin
is approximately 37% to 40% of formaldehyde gas in water.

STERILIZATION 37

When properly diluted with water, formalin serves many
useful purposes in the barber shop.

Formalin is used in various strengths, as follows:

25% solution — (equivalent to 10% formaldehyde) used
to. sterilize instruments, by allowing them to remain in the
solution for at least ten minutes. (Preparation: 2 parts for-
malin, 5 parts water, 1 part glycerine).

10% solution — (equivalent to 4% formaldehyde) used
to sterilize articles such as combs and brushes, by allowing
them to remain in the solution for at least twenty minutes.
(Preparation: 1 part formalin, 9 parts water).

5% solution — (equivalent to 2% formaldehyde) used to
cleanse the hands in extreme measures, i.e., when they have
been in contact with wounds or skin eruptions. It is also
used for the sterilization of shampoo boards and chairs.
(Preparation: 1 part formalin, 19 parts water).

2 J/2% solution — (equivalent to 1% formaldehyde) used
as a deodorant for sponging the armpits. ( Preparation : 1 part
formalin, 39 parts water).

PROPORTIONS FOR MAKING PERCENTAGE SOLUTIONS

100% Active Liquid Concentrate Strength

5 drops of liquid to 1 oz. water or

1 teaspoonful of liquid to 12 oz. water \%

10 drops of liquid to 1 oz. water or

2 teaspoonfuls of liquid to 12 oz. water 2%

4 teaspoonfuls of liquid to 12 oz. water 4%

5 teaspoonfuls of liquid to 12 oz. water 5%

10 teaspoonfuls of liquid to 12 oz. water 10%

TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS

60 Drops 1 teaspoonful

8 Teaspoonfuls 1 oz.

Ordinary Measured Glass 8 oz.

One Pint 16 oz.

One Quart 32 oz.

Half Gallon . • 64 oz.

38 STERILIZATION

HOW TO CLEAN AND STERILIZE
COMBS AND BRUSHES

1 . Arrange necessary supplies.

a) Prepare bowl of warm, soapy water to which is
added a little ammonia (proportion of 1 table-
spoonful to 2 quarts of water).

b) Prepare bowl of warm water for rinsing purposes.

c) Prepare sufficient quantity of 10% formalin solu-
tion or other approved disinfectant and place it
into wet sterilizer.

d) Prepare dry sterilizer. Mix 1 tablespoonful of bo-
rax with 1 tablespoonful of formalin in a small
tray, and place into dry sterilizer.

e) Have ready a supply of clean towels and individ-
ual envelopes.

2. Clean combs and brushes.

a ) Remove hair from combs and brushes.

b) Immerse combs and brushes (with bristles down)
into bowl of soapy water for several minutes.

c ) Glean each comb separately with a small brush,
d)- Clean the brushes two at a time by rubbing the

bristles against each other.

e) When thoroughly cleansed, rinse combs and brush-
es in bowl of clear, warm water.

f ) Drain off water and remove any adhering hairs.

3. Sterilize combs and brushes.

a) Immerse combs and brushes into formalin solution
for 20 minutes.

b) Remove combs and brushes, rinse in clean water,
and dry them thoroughly with a clean towel.

c) Rest comb and brushes (with bristles down) on a
clean towel in an airy, dust-free place, and allow
them to dry thoroughly.

4. Store combs and brushes-

a) When completely dry, place combs and brushes
into dry sterilizer, or wrap in sealed individual en-
velopes, until ready for use.

STERILIZATION 39

HOW TO CLEAN AND STERILIZE
METALLIC IMPLEMENTS

(Razors, Shears, Tweezers and Comedone Extractors)

1. Arrange necessary supplies.

a ) Prepare a bowl of warm soapy water.

b) Prepare disinfectant in wet sterilizer (25% forma-
lin) to which a small amount of glycerine has been
added, or use any other type of disinfectant ap-
proved by the State Board.

c) If necessary, replace chemicals in dry sterilizer.

d) Have ready a supply of clean towels and individ-
ual envelopes.

2. Clean metallic implements.

a) Clean implements with warm soapy water.

b) Dry them thoroughly in a clean towel.

3. Sterilize metallic implements.

a) Immerse implements in disinfectant solution for 10
minutes, or follow your State Board requirements.
Caution: In sterilizing razors or shears, it is advis-
able that only the blades be dipped into the solu-
tion, the handles should remain suspended in spe-
cially constructed sterilizers.

b) Remove implements, rinse them in clean water and
dry thoroughly.

4. Store metallic implements.

a ) Place sterilized implements in dry sterilizer or wrap
them in individual envelopes until ready for use.

Moist Heat Sterilization

Moist heat (either boiling water or steam under pressure)
can be used to sterilize barber implements, glassware, towels
and linens. Objects that are readily destroyed by heat can-
not be sterilized by this method.

The following procedure is recommended :

1. Cleanse the sterilizing kettle with soap and warm
water.

40 STERILIZATION

2. Cleanse the implements and articles with warm water
and soap.

3. Fill sterilizing kettle with sufficient water for articles to
be sterilized. Add some sodium carbonate to the water
in order to prevent the rusting of metallic implements.

4. Turn on the heat and bring the water to a boil.

5. Grasp articles with a forceps and immerse them into
boiling water for the required time.

6. Allow water to cool, remove articles with forceps and
dry them in clean towels.

7. Place sterilized articles into dry sterilizer until ready
for use.

To use steam sterilization in the barber shop requires
special apparatus. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for
the particular steamer being used.

HOW TO CLEAN AND STERILIZE
ELECTRODES

1. Clean electrodes.

a) Clean surface of electrodes with warm, soapy
water. Caution should be taken so that wires and
metal attached to the electrodes do not come in
contact with the water, as they may corrode or
cause a short circuit.

b) Dry thoroughly.

2. Sterilize electrodes.

a) Dip a piece of cotton pad into 70% grain alcohol,
or other approved disinfectant, and rub over the
surface of the electrodes.

b) Re-apply disinfectant.

c) Dry electrodes thoroughly.

3. Store electrodes.

a) Place electrodes in dry sterilizer or wrap in indi-
* yidual envelopes until ready for use.

STERILIZATION

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STERILIZATION

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STERILIZATION 43

Definitions Pertaining to Sterilization

1 . Sterilize — to render sterile ; to make aseptic.

2. Sterile — free from all living organisms.

3. Antiseptic — a chemical agent having the power to kill
or prevent the growth of bacteria.

4. Germicide or Bactericide (Disinfectant) — a chemical
agent having the power to destroy germs or microbic life.

5. Deodorant — a chemical agent having the power to de-
stroy offensive odors.

6. Asepsis — freedom from disease germs.

7. Sepsis — poisoning due to pathogenic organisms.

8. Styptic — an agent causing contraction of living tissue,
such as powdered alum, used to stop bleeding in cases of
small cuts.

9. Prophylaxis — an agent used in the prevention of
disease.

10. Fumigant — a vapor used to keep disinfected objects
sterile.

Safety Precautions

The use of sterilizing agents involves certain dangers, un-
less safety measures are taken to prevent mistakes and ac-
cidents.

1. Purchase chemicals in small quantities and store them
in a cool, dry place ; otherwise they deteriorate due to contact
with air, light and heat.

2. Weigh and measure chemicals carefully.

3. Keep all containers labeled and covered under lock
and key.

4. Do not smell chemicals or solutions, as many of them
have pungent odors.

5. When dissolving or diluting chemicals, avoid spilling
on clothing or furniture.

6. Wear rubber gloves to protect the skin from stains or
burns. Burns resulting from touching hot objects can be
prevented by using a forceps to insert or remove the objects
from the source of heat.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Sterilization Rules

1. Solutions or chemicals in sterilizers must be changed
regularly.

2. All articles must be clean and free from hair before
being sterilized.

3. Combs, brushes, razors, shears, clipper blades, and
tweezers must be sterilized after each customer has been
served.

4. Shampoo boards and bowls must be cleaned and ster-
ilized before using again.

5. All cups, bowls or similar objects must be sterilized
with yellow soap, lysol, chlorozol oj similar disinfectant, prior
to being used for another customer.

STERILIZATION

1. What is sterilization?

Sterilization is the process of com-
pletely destroying all kinds of bacteria,
whether infective or not.

2. Name four methods of ster-
ilization.

Moist heat, dry heat, disinfectants, and
vapors.

3. Which type of bacteria makes
necessary the practice of
sterilization and sanitation
in the barber shop?

Pathogenic bacteria.

Infectious diseases may be spread from
one person to another.

4. What are the dangers of
using unsterilized barber im-
plements and linens on cus-
tomers?

5. Distinguish between asepsis,
sterile and sepsis.

Asepsis — freedom from germs.
Sterile — free from all living organisms.
Sepsis — poisoning due to germs.

6. Which forms of heat will
kill bacteria?

Boiling, steaming and dry heat.

7. Which groups of chemicals
will check or destroy bac-
teria?

Antiseptics, disinfectants, and fumi-
gants.

8. What is an antiseptic?

A chemical agent which may kill or
prevent the growth of bacteria.

9. What is a disinfectant?

A chemical agent which destroys harm-
ful bacteria.

10. What is a fumigant?

A chemical vapor used to keep disin-
fected objects in a sterile condition
until ready for use.

11. Which kind of objects are
best sterilized by means of
moist heat (boiling water or
steam)? How long?

Objects which can withstand heat such
as metallic instruments and glassware.
Twenty minutes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

12. What are the disadvantages
of sterilizing barber imple-
ments with boiling water?

Implements may become tarnished and
dull.

13. Which chemical added to
boiling water keeps metallic
instruments bright?

A small quantity of sodium carbonate
(washing soda).

14. Where is the dry heat me-
thod of sterilization mostly
used? For which objects?

Dry heat is used mostly in hospitals
for the sterilization of linens, sheets,
gauze, cotton and similar articles.

15. Which objects are best ster-
ilized with a disinfectant so-
lution?

Objects which cannot be boiled or
steamed such as combs, brushes, raz-
ors, clipper blades, and shears.

16. When using a disinfectant,
how are objects sterilized?

Clean each object with soap and hot
water and place it into a suitable dis-
infectant solution for about twenty
minutes.

17. What should be done with
barber implements after ster-
ilization in a disinfectant so-
lution?

Rinse implements in clean water, dry
them in a clean towel and place them
in a cabinet sterilizer until ready to
be used.

18. How should combs be kept
after sterilization?

Wrap them in an individual paper en-
velope and place them into a dust-
proof cabinet or cabinet sterilizer un-
til ready for use.

19. What is a dry sterilizer?

A closed air-tight cabinet containing
an active fumigant (formaldehyde gas).

20. What is the proper way to
produce formaldehyde va-
pors in a cabinet sterilizer?

Place one tablespoon of borax and
one tablespoon of formalin solution on
a small tray or blotter in the cabinet
sterilizer.

21. What is the composition of
formalin?

Formalin is a 37% to 40% solution of
formaldehyde gas dissolved in water.

SANITATION

Sanitation is the application of hygienic measures to pro-
mote public health and prevent the spread of infectious dis-
eases. Various governmental agencies protect community
health by providing for a wholesome food and water supply
and the quick disposal of refuse. These steps are only a few
of the ways in which the public health is safeguarded.

In many states and localities, the Board of Health and the
State Board of Barbering have formulated sanitary regu-
lations governing the barber shop. The barber must be
familiar with these regulations so that he may obey them.

Sanitary conditions cannot be maintained in the barber
shop in the presence of any infectious disease. A person with
an infectious disease is a source of contagion to others. Hence,
barbers having colds or any communicable disease must not
be permitted to handle customers. Likewise, customers ob-
viously suffering from an infectious disease must not be served
in a barber shop. In this way, the best interests of other cus-
tomers will be served.

The public has learned the importance of sanitation and
is now demanding that every possible sanitary measure be
used in the barber shop for the promotion of public health.
Barbers who desire to attract public patronage should aim to
conduct their shops in a clean and orderly manner. A high
standard of sanitary efficiency should be practiced. Adopting
the sanitary rules on page 48 will result in cleaner and better
service to the public.

Water

Since water is used internally and externally for personal
hygiene and as an aid in the barber's work, it becomes
necessary to know more about the properties of water.
Water for drinking purposes should be odorless, colorless
and free from any foreign matter. Crystal clear water may
still be unsanitary because of the presence of pathogenic
bacteria which cannot be seen with the naked eye. The
transmission of disease by water depends upon the intro-

48 SANITATION

duction of germs or refuse into the water. Local health
boards exercise control over the purity of the water supply.

Even though water may be suitable for drinking pur-
poses, it may still be unsatisfactory for use with soap. When
used externally for shaving or bathing, the water should be
soft so that it will easily lather with the soap. Hard water
produces an insoluble curd which wastes soap and inter-
feres with its cleansing action. Water is said to be "hard"
when it contains the soluble compounds of calcium and
magnesium. Temporary hard water can be overcome by
boiling which converts the soluble salts into insoluble com-
pounds. The precipitate is removed mechanically. When
permanent hard water is not softened by boiling, it can be
rendered soft either by distillation or by chemical treat-
ment. Hard water can be softened by using borax or wash-
ing soda. Besides softening the water, these agents make
the water alkaline in reaction.

Sanitary Rules

1. Every barber shop must be well lighted and ven-
tilated in order to keep it in a clean and sanitary condition.

2. The walls, curtains and floor covering must be wash-
able and kept clean.

3. All barber shops must be supplied with running hot
and cold water.

4. The barber shop is not to be used for eating, sleeping
or living quarters, unless a special room is provided for
that purpose.

5. All hair, cotton or waste material, must be removed
from the floor without delay, and deposited in a closed
container.

6. The washroom should be kept in a sanitary condition
and be provided with individual towels and drinking cups.

7. Each barber must wear a uniform or coat while
working on customers.

8. The barber must cleanse his hands throughly before
and after serving a customer.

SANITATION 49

9. A freshly laundered towel must be used for each cus-
tomer. Towels ready for use must be stored in clean, closed
containers.

10. Neck-strips and headrest covering must be changed for
each customer.

1 1 . The use of the same neck duster and styptic pencil on
more than one customer is prohibited, for they may spread
infection.

12. Liquids, creams and powders must be kept in clean,
closed containers, and used individually for each customer.
Use clean spatula instead of fingers to remove cream from
container. Use sterile cotton pledgets to apply or remove
facial creams.

13. Objects dropped on the floor or kept in the pocket are
no longer sterile and are not to be used again until sterilized.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

SANITATION

1. What is sanitation?

Sanitation is the application of hy-
gienic measures to promote public
health and prevent the spread of in-
fectious diseases.

2. Which unsanitary practices
may spread disease in the
barber shop?

Contact with a person having an in-
fectious disease, unclean hands, use of
unsterilized instruments and the com-
mon use of towels, combs, brushes,
drinking cups, shaving mugs or styp-
tic pencils.

3. How should the hands be
treated after touching a cus-
tomer suspected of having a
skin or scalp infection?

Wash hands with tincture of green
soap and water, apply 60% alcohol or
rinse hands in an antiseptic solution.

4. What are five sanitary re-
quirements of a barber shop?

1. Keep the barber shop well venti-
lated and lighted.

2. Keep the walls, curtains and floor
coverings in a clean condition.

3. Have running hot and cold water
in a barber shop.

4. The barber must cleanse his hands
thoroughly before and after serving
a customer.

5. Keep all waste materials in closed
containers and have them removed
regularly.

5. Which sanitary rule should
be observed regarding the
use of headrests?

6. Why are neck-strips or tow-
els required?

Cover the headrest with a clean towel
or paper tissue and change it for each
customer.

To prevent the shaving cloth or hair
cloth from touching the customer's
neck.

7. What is the sanitary way
to keep lotions, ointments,
creams and powders?

Keep them in closed, dust-proof con-
tainers.

8. What is the sanitary way
to remove creams and oint-
ments from their containers?

With a spatula or wooden tongue blade.

9. Where should towels be kept
after laundering?

In closed, dust-proof cabinet or towel
cabinet.

10. Where should dirty towels
be kept?

In closed containers, separate from the
clean towels.

11. Which barber supplies must
be changed for each cus-
tomer?

Neck-strip, headrest covering, and
towels.

12. Why should styptic pencils
never be used hi common?

The use of the same styptic pencil on
more than one person may spread in-
fection in the barber shop.

PART II

BARBER PRACTICE

WILL YOU BE A
SUCCESS .. OR . FAILURE?

Get to work on
time and you
won't miss any
customers

Tardiness
never paid.

Be courteous;

have a pleasant Discourtesy i

disposition, and inexcusabl

everyone will

like you.

Be neat, clean,

attractive, and Slovenliness;

free from body poor posture is

odors and unbecoming.

halitosis.

Be gentle,
and they will
remember you.

Mind your own*
business and
they will
trust you.

Harsh, rough

treatments

chases them

away.

Gab! . . .

and they will

distrust you.

TO BE SUCCESSFUL— you must learn to do
the little things that will make people like you

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

A barber can be no better than the tools he selects and
uses. Limitations and defects in equipment are not only
hazardous but usually give rise to work of poor quality.
The purchase of standard materials helps to improve the
quality of the barber's work. To do his best work, the barber
should buy and use only superior implements obtained from
a reliable manufacturer. Uninformed and improper use will
quickly destroy the efficiency of any implement, however
perfectly made at the factory.

In order to give a satisfactory haircut or shave, the
barber has occasion to use three principal instruments, name-
ly, razors, shears and clippers. Besides these major imple-
ments, certain accessory implements are employed such as
hones, strops, combs, brushes and latherizers. Without these
accessory implements, the effective use of the razors, shears
and clippers, would be impaired.

Among the important facts to know about each imple-
ment are the following:

1. The main parts.

2. The material composition.

3. The various types and sizes.

4. The proper use and care.

Straight Razors

The straight razor is one of the most important imple-
ments used by the barber. Over the years the razor has un-
dergone improvement in quality and design. For superior
service, the barber should use only the highest quality razor.

The barber's tool kit should include several high grade
razors. Should one razor become unfit for use, an immediate
replacement will be available. Besides, razors receive less
wear and better care when they are changed regularly.

Selecting the right kind of razor is a matter of personal
choice. The best guides for buying high quality razors are:

1. Consult with reliable company or salesman who can

54 BARBER IMPLEMENTS

recommend the type of razor best suited to the barber's work.

2. Consult with more experienced barbers as to which
razors they have found best for shaving.

Judging the value of a razor in any other ways may be
misleading. Merely observing the color or design of a razor
does not reveal the true quality of the implement. Nor does
the ring of a razor have any significance as far as its hardness
or softness is concerned. Ornamental handles on razors some-
times hide inferior quality.

The important points to know about a straight razor
are: the main parts, the balance, the temper, the size, the
grind, the style, and the finish.

The straight razor is constructed of a hardened steel
blade attached to a handle by means of a pivot. The handle

HEAD. BA,CK

POINT

tUG

Main Parts of a Straight Razor

is made of either hard rubber, celluloid or bone. When the
blade is closely examined, the following parts can be seen,
namely: the head, back, shoulder, tang, shank, heel, edge
and point.

The balance of a razor refers to the relative weight and
length of the blade as compared with that of the handle.

A straight razor is properly balanced when the weight of
the blade is equal to that of the handle. Proper balance
means greater ease in shaving with the straight razor.

The grind of razor represents the shape of the blade after
it has been ground over a stone. The most common types of
grinds are: the full concave, the half concave and the wedge
grind.

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

Cross-Sectional View
of a Full Concave
Grind
BACK
SHOULDER

CONCAVE

Sizes of Razor Blades
Expressed in Fractions of an Inch

WEDGE

FULL CONCAVE

The full concave grind is generally preferred by most bar-
bers. It presents a hollow appearance when observed between
the back and edge of the razor, being slightly thicker between
the hollow part and the extreme edge.

The half concave grind has less hollowness than the full
concave. There will not be more thickness between the con-
cave and the extreme edge of the razor.

The wedge grind has no hollowness or concavity, both
sides of the blade forming a sharp angle at the extreme edge
of the razor. The old type razors were made with a wedge
grind. For most barbers, learning how to sharpen a wedge
grind is quite difficult. Once barbers get accustomed to using
the wedge grind, they usually find that it produces an ex-
cellent shave.

Tempering the razor involves a special heat treatment
given by the manufacturer. When razors are properly tem-
pered, they acquire the proper degree of hardness and tough-
ness necessary for good cutting quality. Razors can be pur-
chased with either a hard, soft or medium temper. From this
assortment, the barber can select the kind of temper which
produces the most satisfactory shaving results. Generally, the
medium temper of razor is preferred by barbers.

56 / BARBER IMPLEMENTS

The size of the razor deals with the length and width of
the blade. The width of the razor is measured in eighths or
sixteenths of an inch, most generally in eighths such as 4/8,
5/8, 6/8 and 7/8. The 5/8 inch size is the one most fre-
quently used. It is not advisable to purchase a smaller size
razor, as repeated honings will wear out the blade and render
the razor valueless.

The style of a razor indicates its shape and design. The
modern razor has such features as a straight, parallel back
and edge, a round heel, a square point, and a flat or slightly
round handle. To prevent scratching of the skin, the barber
usually rounds off the square point of the razor.

The finish of a razor is the condition of its surface which
may be either plain steel, crocus (polished steel) or metal
plated (nickel or silver). Of these types, the crocus finish is
the choice of the discriminating barber. Although the crocus
finish is more costly, it usually lasts longer and does not show
any signs of rusting. The metal plated razors are undesirable
because they wear off quickly and often hide a poor quality
steel.

Care of razors. Razors will maintain their cutting quality
if care is taken to prevent corrosion of the extremely fine
edge. After use, they should be stropped and a little castor oil
applied over the cutting edge, thus preventing the corrosive
action of moisture. Be careful not to drop the razor as the
blade may be damaged.

Haircutting Shears

The two most general kinds of shears used by barbers are
the German type, without a finger brace, and the French

NOVIM POINT FiNGEKGRIP

MOVING BLADE piyOT

SCREW

CUTTING EDGES ^^-^T^ J< SHANK FINGER, WUCE

STILL BLADE

THUMB GRIP

STILL POINT

The Main Parts of a Haircutting Shears

BARBER IMPLEMENTS 57

type, with a brace for the small finger. The French type is
used to a greater extent than the German type.

The main parts. Barber shears are composed of two
blades, one movable and the other still, fastened by a screw
which acts as a pivot. Other parts of the barber shears are
the cutting edges of the blades, two shanks, finger grip, finger
brace, and thumb grip.

Size. Shears differ both in their length and size. The most
popular length of shears is 7 and 7j/i inches. The barber
selects the one which is most convenient for easy handling.

Grinds. There are two types of shear grinds, the plain
and the corrugated. The plain grind is most frequently used.
It may be finished either smooth (knife edge), medium or
coarse. The medium finish is usually preferred.

Thinning Shears

Thinning or serrated shears are used occasionally by the
barber, particularly for ladies' haircutting. These shears
serve to reduce the thickness of the hair or can be employed
to taper the hair. There are two general types of thinning or
serrated shears available.

Thinning Shears with One Blade Notched

Thinning Shears with Both Blades Notched

1. Thinning shears having notched teeth on the cutting
edge of one blade, while the other blade has a straight cut'
ting edge.

2. Thinning -shears having overlapping notched teeth on
the cutting edges of both blades.

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

Thinning shears may also differ in respect to the number
of notched teeth on the cutting blade. The greater the num-
ber of notched teeth, the finer the hair strands can be cut.

Clippers

Two types of hair clippers are often used by barbers.
They are the hand clipper and the electric clipper.

The hand clipper. If the hand clipper is taken apart the
following parts will be noted : cutting blade, still blade, finger
guide, movable handle, still handle, thumb rest, thumb screw,
set screw, and heel.

STILL BLADE
-CUTTING BLADE

ON AND OFF
SWITCH

HEEt

CUTTING
BLADE

^STILL BLADE

Electric Clipper

Hand Clipper

The electric clippers operate either by means of a motor
or by magnetic action. They have either a detachable cutting
head or a non-detachable cutting head. The magnetic electric
clippers are the most popular among barbers. The visible
parts of an electric clipper are: cutting blade, still blade,
heel, switch, set screw and conducting cord.

Cutting thickness. The blades of both the hand and
electric clippers are indicated in cutting thickness by ciphers.

BARBER IMPLEMENTS 59

The range in the cutting thickness of the clipper blade is from
0000 (the shortest cut) to 000, 00, 0, 1 and 2 (the longest
cut).

Accessory Implements

The accessory implements include those aids which ren-
der the razor, shears and clippers, more effective in. the pro-
cess of shaving the beard and cutting and dressing the hair.
The accessory implements include the hone, strop, comb,
hair brush, hair duster, shaving brush, and latherizer.

Hones

Various types of. hones are available for the purpose of
sharpening a razor. A hone is primarily a rectangular block
composed of abrasive material. Being harder than steel, the
abrasive in the hone is capable of cutting an edge on the
razor.

The final choice of hone rests mainly with the barber. The
question often arises as to which type of hone will best serve
to sharpen a razor. As a general rule, any type of hone is
satisfactory, provided it is properly used and produces a
sharp cutting edge on the razor.

As a result of their experiences, barbers may prefer one
type of hone to another. The student barber usually practices
with a slow cutting hone ; while the experienced barber gen-
erally prefers a faster cutting hone.

Depending on their source, hones are classified as :

1 . Natural hones such as the water hone and the Belgian
hone, derived from natural rock deposits. These hones are
usually used wet with either water or lather.

Synthetic or Manufactured «Hone

60 BARBER IMPLEMENTS

2. Synthetic hones such as the Swaty hone and the car-
borundum hone are manufactured products. These hones
can be used dry, or a lather can be spread over them
before use.

Water hone. It is a natural hone usually imported from
Germany. Accompanying the water hone is a small piece of
slate of the same texture, called the rubber. As the rubber is
applied over the water hone moistened with water, a proper
cutting surface is developed. Care must be taken when using
the rubber on the water hone not to work a bevel into
the hone.

The water hone is primarily a slow cutting hone. When
used as directed by the manufacturer, a smooth and lasting
edge is formed on the razor. Its color may be either grey or
darkish yellow. Of the two colors, the greyish yellow water
hone is considered to be a slightly better grade, and also
exerts a slightly faster cutting action.

Belgium hone. It is a natural hone cut out of rock forma-
tion found in Belgium. It is a slow cutting hone, but a little
faster than the water hone. It is capable of putting on a very
sharp edge on the razor. Lather is generally applied to the
hone when honing.

One type of Belgium hone consists of a light yellowish
colored rock glued on to a dark red slate back. The principal
advantage is to yield a keen cutting edge on the razor. It
can be used either wet or dry.

Swaty hone. It is a synthetic hone usually imported from
Austria. Because it cuts faster than the water hone, it has the
advantage of yielding a keen cutting edge on the razor.

Carborundum hone. It is a synthetic hone produced in
this country. The barber has a choice of several types, rang-
ing from a slow cutting hone to a fast cutting hone. Many
barbers prefer the faster cutting type of hone because of its
quick sharpening action. In the hands of a beginner, the
carborundum hone should not be used because it may pro-
duce a very rough edge. , •

BARBER IMPLEMENTS 61

General Information on Hones

Hones are to a large extent a matter of choice and the
type of steel in a razor may make some difference as to
whether a good edge can be put on it with a particular type
of hone. There are a great many other hones on the market
besides the several mentioned which will give very satisfac-
tory results.

Care of hone. Whenever a hone fills with steel, it should
be removed. The best method is by using water and a pum-
ice stone. If a new hone is very rough, the same method can
be used to work it into shape.

When wet honing is done, the hone should always be
wiped dry after each usage. This aids in cleaning the hone
and also wipes away the tiny particles of steel that adhere to
its cutting surface.

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

Strops

A good strop is made of durable and flexible material, has
the proper thickness and texture, and shows a smooth finished
surface. Some barbers like a thin strop ; whereas others pre-
fer a thick heavy strop. Most barber strops are made in pairs,
one side being leather and the other side being canvas. The
best assurance for a good strop is the reliability of the
manufacturer.

For the barber's choice there are
available various types of strops such as
the canvas strop, and the Russian shell
and the Russian strop. Leather strops
are made out of cowhide, horsehide and
pigskin. The better grade strops are
broken in by the manufacturer before
they are purchased by the barber.

Canvas strop. It is composed of high
quality linen or silk woven into a fine or
coarse texture. A fine texture linen
strop is most desirable for putting a last-
ing edge on a razor.

To obtain the best results, a new
canvas strop should be thoroughly bro-
ken in. A daily hand finish will keep its
surface smooth and in readiness for
stropping.

For a hand finish, the canvas strop
is given the following treatment:

1. Attach swivel end of strop to a fixed point such as
a nail.

2. Hold the other end tightly over a smooth and level
surface.

3. Rub bar of dry soap over strop, working it well into
the grain of the canvas.

4. Rub a smooth glass bottle several times over the strop
each time forcing the soap into the grain and also re-
moving any excess soap.

Leather and
Canvas Strop

BARBER IMPLEMENTS 63

Russian strop. This strop was originally imported from
Russia. Most of these strops are now made in this country
from cowhide leather. The name Russian strop still persists,
and usually signifies that the Russian method of tanning was
employed.

The Russian strop is one of the best strops in use today.
If new it requires a daily hand finish until such time as it is
thoroughly broken in. Thereafter, it will require an occa-
sional servicing. There are several ways of breaking in a
Russian strop. One method frequently used is as follows :

1. Rub dry pumice stone over the strop in order to re-
move the outer nap and develop a smooth surface.

2. Rub stiff lather into the strop.

3. Rub dry pumice stone over the strop until smooth.

4. Clean off the strop. •

5. Rub fresh stiff lather into the strop.

6. Rub a smooth glass bottle several times over the strop
until a smooth surface is developed.

Another method of breaking in a Russian strop is to omit
the pumice stone. Instead, stiff lather is rubbed into the strop
with the aid of a smooth glass bottle or with the palm of the
hand.

Russian shell. This is a high quality horsehide strop taken
from the rump muscle of the horse. Although it is quite ex-
pensive, it makes one of the best possible strops for the bar-
ber. It always remains smooth and requires very little, if any,
breaking in.

Horsehide strop. This strop is of medium grade and has a
fine grain. It has a tendency to become very smooth and in
this condition does not readily impart the proper edge on the
razor. For this reason, it is not recommended for the barber's
use. However, it is suitable for private use.

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

Combs

Combs are made of either hard rubber, celluloid or bone.
The celluloid combs are undesirable for professional use as

Comb

they are combustible and not as durable as the other kinds
of combs. Combs made of hard rubber are mainly used by
barbers. The teeth of the comb may be fine (close together)
or coarse (far apart). To keep combs in good condition,
avoid contact with heat and moisture, and store them in a
cool, dry place.

Brushes

The brushes that some barbers still use are the hair brush,
the hair or neck duster, and the lather brush. The texture of
brushes varies with the kind of brush, a hair brush is usually
stiff, a hair duster is soft, and a lather brush is flexible.

The lather brush serves to apply the soap lather which
softens the beard. Most barbers favor the number three type
of lather brush. However, some barbers use the larger sizes.
The vulcanized type of lather brush is the most
durable, since its bristles will not fall apart in hot
water.

To protect the public against contaminated
brushes, many states have passed laws requiring
that brushes made from animal hair be free from
anthrax germs at the time of purchase. These
brushes must contain the imprint "Sterilized" to
show that the manufacturer has taken necessary
steps to destroy the anthrax germs.

Several states consider brushes to be unsanitary
and do not allow them to be used at all.

Shaving
Brush

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

Lather Receptacles

Shaving receptacles are containers used to produce lather
necessary for shaving. The most commonly used shaving re-
ceptacles are:

1. Electric latherizer. 3. Tube of shaving cream.

2. Atomizer latherer. 4. Lather mug.

Electric Latherizer
Bar Soap Type

Electric Latherizer
Cream Soap Type

Lather Mug with
Paper Lining

Electric Latherizer
Cream Soap Type

Atomizer Latherizer

Lather Mug

LATHER RECEPTACLES

66 BARBER IMPLEMENTS

Lather mugs are gradually disappearing from the barber
shop. Gaining in popularity and also replacing the lather
mug to a large extent are the newer lather making machines.
They offer many advantages to the barber in terms of greater
convenience and better service to his customers.

Lather mugs are receptacles made out of glass or earth-
enware. When the lather mug is to be used, shaving soap
and warm water are thoroughly mixed with the aid of the
lather brush. Since the lather mug is continually exposed and
collects dirt easily, it requires a thorough cleansing regularly.

To be sanitary, a separate paper lining should be used in
the lather mug for each customer. Lather mugs come in
handy in the absence or break down of lather electric
equipment.

Lather making machines, such as the electric latherizer
and the hand operated atomizer latherer, are far superior to
the lather mug. Not only are these machines cleaner and
more sanitary, but they are more convenient and easier to
operate. Customers are favorably impressed by the clean
sanitary lather coming from these modern machines. For
satisfactory performance, follow the manufacturer's instruc-
tions on proper use and care.

Shaving Soap

Shaving soap is available in the form of powdered soap,
shaving stick or cake soap, and shaving cream (lathering and
latherless).

Shaving soaps are preparations made by a chemical pro-
cess. When an alkali (potassium or sodium hydroxide) is
mixed and heated with oils and fats, a soap is the final prod-
uct. The addition of cocoanut oil to the soap improves its
lathering qualities. Also present in the shaving soap are
varying amounts of water and special ingredients.

Hard soap. The use of sodium hydroxide yields a hard
soap which is available in the form of either powdered shav-
ing soap, shaving stick or cake soap.

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

A soft soap is the result when sodium hydroxide is used.
Lather shaving cream usually contains a soft soap and large
quantities of water,

The brushless or latherless shaving cream differs from
any other shaving preparation. Its principal ingredients are
uncombined4 fatty acids (stearic and palmitic acids) together
with large amounts of water. Other chemicals present in
this type of shaving cream may be soda, potash and special
agents.

Tweezer

The tweezer is a metallic implement having two blunt
prongs at one end. The blunt prongs of the tweezer are used
to pluck unsightly hair and to shape the eyebrows.

Tweezer

Comedone Extractor

The comedone extractor is a metallic implement having
a screwed attachment at each end. The fine needle point at
one end is used in piercing whiteheads. The rounded end on
the other side is used to press out blackheads.

Comedone Extractor

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

BARBER IMPLEMENTS

1. Name the principal imple-
ments used in barbering.

2. Name the accessory imple-
ments used by the barber.

3. What should the barber look
for in the purchase of im-
plements?

Razors, shears and clippers.

Hones, strops, combs,
lather receptacles.

brushes, and

High quality, good workmanship, guar-
antee and reliability of the manufac-
turer.

Straight Razors

1. Name seven important points
to be learned about razors.

The various parts, styles, widths,
lengths, tempers, grinds, and finishes
of razors.

2. Name the important parts of
a razor.

The head, back, shoulder, pivot, blade,
point, edge, heel, shank, tang, and
handle.

3. Describe the standard style
of a razor.

The back and edge are straight and
parallel, the head and heel are round-
ed, while the point is square.

4. Why should the barber round
off the sharp point of a razor?

5. Which razor widths are com-
monly used by barbers?
Which width is the most
commonly used?

To prevent scratching of the skin dur-
ing shaving.

4/8, 5/8, 6/8 or 7/8 of an inch.
5/8 is the most commonly used.

6. Which part of the razor is
ground by the manufacturer?

7. Name two types of grinds
found on razors.

The blade.

The regular wedge and hollow or con-
cave grind.

8. What is meant by the finish
of a razor?

Its final polish.

9. Name three kinds of razor
finishes.

Plain steel, crocus or nickel plated.

10. What is a crocus finish?

A steel surface polished with crocus
or rouge powder.

11. Why is a nickel or steel-
plated finish not to be rec-
ommended?

Such razors are usually made of in-
ferior steel.

12. Why is balance important in
a razor?

For efficient handling, the weight of
the blade should be equal to that of
the handle.

13. What is meant by the tem-
per of a razor?

The proper degree of hardness and
toughness imparted to the steel of the
razor.

14. What is the proper way to
care for razors?

After being used, strop and dry the
razors and then apply a little castor
oil over the blades.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Shears

1. Name the important parts of
haircutting shears.

Moving point, moving blade, still point,
still blade, two cutting edges, pivot
screw, two shanks, finger grip, thumb
grip and finger brace.

2. Distinguish between the Ger-
man and French types of
haircutting shears. Which one
is mostly used?

The German type has no finger brace.
The French type has a brace for the
small finger. The French type is
mostly used.

3. How is the size of the shears
usually measured? Which
sizes are mostly used?

4. What are the two main types
of shear grinds, and which
type is mostly used?

Shears are usually measured by half
inches. 7 and 7 1/2 inch sizes are
mostly used.

The plain edge and the corrugated
edge. The plain grind is mostly used.

5. Give the finish of the var-
ious plain grinds. Which one
is preferred by the barber?

Smooth, medium or coarse. The med-
ium is preferred.

Clippers

1. Name two types of hair clip-
pers.

The hand clipper and the electric
clipper.

2. Name the parts of the hand
clipper.

Cutting blade, still blade, finger guide,
movable handle, still handle, thumb
rest, thumb screw, set screw, and heel.

3. Name the visible parts of an
electric clipper.

Cutting blade, still blade, heel, switch,
set screw and conducting cord.

4. List six sizes of cutting blades
used in hair clippers.

0000, 000, 00, 0, 1, 2.

5. Which size gives the shortest
cut?

0000.

Accessory Implements

1. What is a hone?

A solid block containing an abrasive
for sharpening razors.

2. Name two types .of hones
available to barbers.

The natural hone obtained from quar-
ried rock and the synthetic or manu-
factured hone.

3. Name a popular synthetic
hone used in the barber shop.

The Swaty hone.

4. Name two kinds of natural
hones.

5. Describe the water hone.

The water hone and Belgian hone.

It is a slow cutting hone having a
grey or darkish yellow appearance.

6. Describe the Belgian hone.

It is a slow cutting hone but a little
faster than the water hone, whose up-
per surface is yellow and whose bot-
tom portion is dark red.

7. Which natural hones are us-
ually used wet, either with
water or lather?

The water hone and Belgian hone.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

8. Which hones may be used
either dry or with lather?

Synthetic hones.

9. What is a slow cutting hone?
Give an example.

A slow cutting hone takes time to pro-
duce a sharp razor. A water hone.

10. What is a fast cutting hone?
Give two examples.

A fast cutting hone gives a sharp edge
quickly. Swaty and carborundum.

11. Which strops are used by A leather strop and a canvas strop.
barbers?

12. Of what are combs made? Bone, hard rubber and celluloid.

13. Which combs are best for
the barber?

Hard rubber and bone combs.

14. Name three types of brushes
that some barbers still use.

15. What should the barber look
for in the purchase of
brushes?

The hair brush, the hair duster and
the lather brush.

Purchase brushes of good quality bris-
tles capable of being easily sterilized
without destroying the bristles.

16. Name four shaving soap re-
ceptacles.

1. Atomizer latherer.

2. Electric latherizer.

3. Tube of shaving cream.

4. Lather mug.

17. Name three types of shaving
soap used in a barber shop.

Shaving cream (lathering or lather-
less), powdered soap and stick or cake
soap.

HONING AND STROPPING

An expert barber who knows the right way to hone and
strop razors is in a position to render satisfactory service to
his customers. To acquire the right technique in honing and
stropping requires constant practice and long experience un-
der the guidance of an instructor or licensed barber.

Honing

Honing is the process of sharpening a razor blade on a
hone. The main object in honing is to obtain a perfect cutting
edge on the razor. For the beginner a slow cutting hone is
preferable to the' fast cutting hone. Use an old, useless
razor for practicing the various movements.

Prepare hone for honing. Honing will be more satis-
factory if the razor and hone are kept at room temperature.
Depending on which hone is used, it may be moistened with
water or lather, or kept dry. When in use, the hone must be
kept perfectly flat. Sufficient space should be provided to
permit free arm movements in honing.

Technique of honing. This is accomplished by honing the
razor with smooth, even strokes of equal number and pres-
sure on both sides of the blade. The angle at which the blade
is stroked must be the same for both sides of the blade.

Proper Honing of a Razor

72 HONING AND STROPPING

How to hold the razor. Grasp the razor handle comfort-
ably in the right hand as follows:

1 . Rest index finger on top of the side part of the shank.

2. Rest ball of thumb at the joint.

3. Place second finger back of the razor near the edge of
the shank.

4. Fold remaining fingers around the handle to permit
easy turning over of the razor.

First stroke in honing. The razor blade must be stroked
diagonally across the hone, drawing the blade towards the
cutting edge and heel of the razor, as in Fig. 1.

Second stroke in honing. After the completion of the first
stroke, the razor is turned on its back with the fingers in the
same manner as you would roll a pencil, without turning the
wrist, and then the second stroke is made, as in Fig. 2.

From three to six strokes each way generally does a
good job.

Testing razor on moistened thumb nail. Depending on
the hardness of the hone and the number of strokes taken, the
razor edge may be either blunt, keen, coarse or rough. Dif-
ferent sensations are felt when the razor is passed lightly
across the thumb nail which has been moistened with water
or lather. (See Fig. 3.)

To test the razor edge, place it across the nail of the
thumb and slowly draw it from the heel to the point of the
razor.

1. A perfect or keen edge has fine teeth and tends to dig
into the nail with a smooth steady grip.

2. A blunt razor edge passes over the nail smoothly, with-
out any cutting power.

3. A coarse razor edge digs into the nail with a jerky
feeling.

4. A rough or overhoned edge has large teeth which stick
to the nail and produce a harsh, disagreeable feeling.

5. A nick in the razor. A feeling of a slight gap or un-
evenness in the draw will indicate a nick in the razor.

HONING AND STROPPING

Fig. 3 — Testing Razor on
Moistened Thumbnail

Fig. 4 — Magnified Razor Edge

Correcting an overhoned razor. To eliminate an over-
honed edge, draw the razor backward in a diagonal line
across the hone, using the same movement and pressure as in
regular honing. One or two strokes each way will usually re-
move the rough edge. Then, the razor is honed again, being
careful to prevent overhoning.

Seldom does it become necessary to put an entirely new
edge on the razor. If after repeated honings or abuse, the
razor edge remains blunt, it may require a new edge. For
this purpose, the razor should be forwarded to an expert
sharpener of cutlery.

Magnified razor edge. While honing, the abrasive ma-
terial makes small cuts in the sides of the razor blade. The
small cuts resemble the teeth of a saw, and they point in the
same direction as the stroke, as shown in Fig. 4.

Care of the Hone

The barber should know how to use and take care of the
particular type of hone he has selected. The manufacturer's
instructions offer a reliable guide for keeping the hone in a
serviceable condition.

New hones may require a preliminary treatment to put
it into good working shape. If a new hone is very rough, rub
•its surface with water and pumice stone. No preliminary

74 HONING AND STROPPING

treatment is required for the water hone as it is ready for
immediate use.

Before using, make sure that the surface of the hone is
smooth and clean. Use the hone either moist or dry, as di-
rected by the manufacturer.

After using any kind of hone, always wipe the surface
clean and cover it. Make sure that all adhering steel part-
icles resulting from the honing are completely removed.
Whenever a dry hone has been used, rub its surface with
water and pumice stone.

HONING AND STROPPING

Stropping

Stropping a razor is a
fine art developed by re-
peated practice. The aim
in stropping is to smooth
and shape the razor edge
into a keen cutting instru-
ment. After being honed,
the razor seldom needs any
stropping on the canvas.
Instead, the honed razor is
stropped directly over the
surface of the leather strop.
The time to use the canvas
strop is when the razor de-
velops a smooth edge from
continued use.

The Technique of
Stropping

Hold the end of the
strop firmly in the left
hand so it cannot sag.
Hold it close to the side,
and as high as it is com-
fortable. Take razor in
right hand, well up into
the hand, holding the
shank of razor with the
thumb and next two fin-
gers so that the razor can
be rolled in the same man-
ner as a lead pencil.

In stropping the razor,
use a long diagonal stroke
with even pressure from
the heel to the point.

76 HONING AND STROPPING

Note: The direction of the razor in stropping is the reverse
of that used in honing.

First stroke. Start about two-thirds down the strop, as in
Fig. 1. Draw the razor edge perfectly flat and straight over
the surface of the strop, proceeding towards the back of the
razor for a distance of twelve to eighteen inches.

Second stroke. When the first stroke is completed, turn
the razor on the back of the blade by rolling it in the fingers
without turning the hand, as in Fig. 2. Now draw the razor
twelve inches to eighteen inches away from you, thus com-
pleting the second stroke in honing.

Bear just heavy enough on the strop to feel the razor
draw. Rapid movement is necessary, and this will come to
you gradually as you practice.

Final testing of razor on moistened tip of thumb, prior
to shaving. Touch the razor edge lightly and note the re-
action, as in Fig. 3. A dull edge produces no drawing feeling.
A razor that has the proper cutting edge produces a keen
drawing feeling.

If the razor edge produces a rough, disagreeable feeling
upon testing, it indicates that the cutting edge is still wiry.
To correct this condition, additional finishing on the leather
strop is necessary.

Should the razor edge yield a smooth feeling upon test-
ing, finish it again on the canvas strop, followed by a few
more strokes on the leather strop.

Care of Strops

A leather strop becomes better or worse according to the
care it is given. Do not fold a strop, but keep it suspended
or attached to a swivel, or laid flat. When a leather strop ap-
pears rough, it needs a hand finish to make it smooth. A can-
vas strop needs a daily hand finish to keep it in good condi-
tion. How to break in strops is described on pages 62 and 63.

A strop is sanitary if it is kept clean. Accumulated grit
is removed from a canvas strop by rubbing it with lather.
To remove imbedded dirt, the leather strop is softened with
lather and then scraped with the back side of the shear blade
or similar implement.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

HONING AND STROPPING

1. What is the proper way to
learn how to hone and strop
razors in a barber shop?

By continued study, practice and ex-
perience.

2. What is accomplished by
proper honing?

3. Describe the manner of strok-
ing a razor on a hone.

4. Describe the first stroke used
in honing.

The razor acquires a perfect cutting
edge.

Hold the razor at the proper angle and
use smooth, even strokes and pressure
on both sides of the blade.

Stroke the razor blade to the left diag-
onally across the hone, from the heel
to point towards the edge.

5. How is the second stroke
performed in honing?

6. What happens to the razor
edge as it is honed?

7. Why should the honed razor
be tested on a moist thumb
nail?

Turn the razor over on its back and
stroke the blade to the right diagon-
ally across the hone, from the heel to
the point towards the edge.

The abrasive material on the hone
makes small cuts in the sides of the
razor's edge.

To determine if the razor edge is either
blunt, keen, coarse or rough.

8. What are the signs of a keen
vidge or a properly honed
i azor?

It tends to dig into the nail with a
smooth steady grip.

9. Vhat are the signs of a blunt
jazor edge?

*o. What are the signs of a
coarse razor edge?

11. What are the signs of a
rough or overhoned razor
edge?

It passes over the nail smoothly with-
out any cutting power.

It tends to dig into the nail with a
jerky feeling.

It has large teeth which stick to the
nail and give a harsh, cutting feeling.

12. What is the proper care of
a dry hone?

13. What is the proper care of
a wet hone?

14. What is the purpose of strop-
ping the razor after honing?

15. How does stropping differ
from honing?

Use hone as directed by manufacturer.
After being used, rub its surface with
water and pumice stone, then wipe
clean and keep covered.

Use hone as directed by manufacturer.
After being used, keep its surface
clean, smooth and covered.

To smooth the razor's edge.

16. Which strop is used on a
freshly honed razor?

The stroking of the razor blade in
stropping is just the reverse of honing.

The leather strop.

17. What is the proper way to
hold the strop?

Grasp the end of the strop with the
left hand and hold it firm and tight.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

18. How should the razor be held
for stropping?

Hold the razor in the right hand with
the fingers wrapped around the handle
and shank.

19. Where should the first stroke
be started?

Start about two-thirds down the strop.

20. Describe the movements used
in stropping.

1. Place the razor flat against the strop
with the back towards the barber about
two-thirds down the strop.

2. Draw the razor towards the barber.

3. Turn the razor over on its back
with the fingers.

4. Draw the razor away from the
barber.

5. Repeat these movements until razor
is properly stropped.

21. Which fingers are used in
rolling and turning the razor
in the hand?

The thumb and next two fingers of
right hand.

22. How much pressure should
be applied in stropping?

Use normal pressure at the point and
heel for -both sides of the razor.

23. How is the razor edge tested
after stropping?

Touch the razor edge lightly over the
cushion of the thumb.

24. What is the sign of a smooth,
sharp razor edge?

It produces a keen, drawing sensation.

25. What is the sign of a dull
razor edge?

It produces no drawing sensation.

26. How can the strop be kept
clean and smooth?

Apply lather or soap to the strop, then
wipe it clean to remove accumulated
grit.

27. What is the purpose of strop-
ping the razor before shav-
ing?

To smooth and shape the edge of the
razor into a keen cutting edge.

28. In what way should the
strops be kept?

Either suspended or attached to
swivel, or laid flat.

29. What is used to remove ac-
cumulated grit from leather
strops?

Rub lather into the strop, then remove
lather and grit with back side of a
shear blade or similar implement.

FACE SHAVING

Face shaving is necessary for hygienic, business or social
reasons. To feel clean and look their best, most men require
regular shaving. Since there is a universal need for face shav-
ing, every effort should be made to attract men to the bar-
ber shop for this service.

Shaving is one of the basic services rendered in the barber
shop. It deserves greater attention and skill than it has re-
ceived in the past. With the introduction of the safety razor
and now the electric razor, the income from shaving grad-
ually declined in the barber shop. Instead of making a vig-
orous effort to offset this trend, the barber devoted less of his
time to shaving. As a result, shaving soon became a lost art.

Barbers are now beginning to realize that they are losing
a considerable amount of business that should rightfully be
theirs. More and more barbers are now featuring shaving as
a means of holding on to their customers. Men who make a
regular habit of being shaved in the barber shop are likely
prospects for other services such as haircuts, facials and scalp
treatments. The barber's prestige and earning power will be
vastly increased if he is capable of giving the best shaves to
his customers.

Fundamentals of Face Shaving

The object of shaving is to remove the visible part of the
hair extending over the surface of the skin of the face and
neck in such a manner so as not to cause irritation to the
skin. For this purpose, a straight razor and lather are com-
monly used for shaving a man's beard.

Although there are certain general principles of shaving
which apply to all men, there are nevertheless particular ex-
ceptions. Account should be taken *of the texture of the hair

80 FACE SHAVING

(coarse, medium or fine), the grain of the beard and the sen-
sitivity of the skin to the razor edge, shaving cream, hot tow-
els and astringent lotion. Hot towels should not be used when
the skin is chapped or blistered from heat or cold. A person
having any infection of the beard must not be shaved by a
barber, as this may be the means of spreading the infection.

Four Standard Shaving Positions and Strokes

To obtain the best cutting stroke, the razor must glide
over the surface at an angle with the grain of the hair, and
be drawn in a sawing movement with the point of the razor
in the lead.

To shave the face and neck with the greatest of ease and
efficiency, the barber employs the following standard po-
sitions and strokes:

1. Free Hand Position and Stroke.

2. Back Hand Position and Stroke.

3. Reverse Free Hand Position and Stroke.

4. Reverse Back Hand Position and Stroke.

Under each of the standard shaving positions and strokes,
consideration should be given to :

1 . When to use the shaving stroke.

2. How to hold the razor.

a) Position of right hand with razor.

b) Position of left hand.

3. How to stroke the razor.

Review the proper method of honing and stropping the
razor before learning each shaving stroke.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 1
Free Hand Position and Stroke

In the first lesson, the barber student learns the correct
way to perform the free hand position and stroke. To master
this important shaving skill requires regular practice.

1. When to use the free hand stroke. The free hand
position and stroke comprises six of the fourteen shaving
areas. See Numbers 1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 12 on the accompanying
illustration.

1. Free hand.

2. Back hand.

3. Free hand.

4. Free hand.

5. Reverse free hand.

6. Back hand.

7. Back hand.

8. Free hand.

9. Back hand.

10. Reverse free hand.

11. Free hand.

12. Free hand.

13. Reverse free hand.

14. Reverse free hand.

14 11 1213

Diagram of Shaving Are,as

The Free Hand strokes are shown

in white.

2. How to hold razor. The position of the right hand is
as follows:

a) Take the razor in right hand.

b) Hold handle of razor between third and fourth
fingers, the small finger-tip resting on the tang of
the razor. Place tip of thumb on shank close to
blade and rest tips of fingers back of the shank.

c) Raise elbow of the right arm nearly level with the
shoulder. This is the position used in the arm
movement.

(Note: Some barbers prefer to use the wrist movement, in
which case the elbow is not raised as high.)

The position of the left hand is as follows:

a) Keep the fingers of the left hand dry in order to
prevent them from slipping on the wet face.

FACE SHAVING

b) Keep left hand back of razor in order to stretch
skin tightly under razor.

Free Hand Stroke
Area No. 1

3. How to stroke the razor. The free hand stroke is per-
formed in the following manner : ;- • ' .

a) Use a gliding stroke towards you.

b) Direct the stroke towards the point of the razor in
a back and forth sawing movement.

c) Keep the length of the strokes 'from one inch to
three inches, depending upon the location of the
part of the face being shaved.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 2
Back Hand Position and Stroke

After the barber student has developed skill in performing
the free hand position and stroke, he is now ready to proceed
with the back hand position and stroke.

1. When to use the back hand stroke. The back hand
stroke comprises four steps in the fourteen basic shaving
areas. See Numbers 2, 6, 7, 9 on the accompanying il-
lustration.

•

«
•

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Free hand.
Back hand.
Free hand.
Free hand.
Reverse free
Back hand.
Back hand.
Free hand.
• Back hand.
Reverse free
Free hand.
Free hand.
Reverse free
Reverse free

hand.

hand,
hand.

14 11 IZ 13

Diagram of Shaving Areas

The Back Hand strokes are

shown in white.

2. How to hold razor. The position of the right hand
is as follows :

a ) Hold the shank of the razor firmly with the handle
bent back. •

b) Rest the shank of the razor on the first two joints
of the first two fingers. Hold thumb on the shank.
Rest end of tang on inside of first joint of third
finger. Little finger remains idle.

c) Turn the back of the hand away from you and
bend the wrist slightly downward. Then raise the
elbow so that you can move the arm freely. This
is the position used for back hand stroke with arm
movement.

(Note: Some barbers prefer to use the wrist movement, in
which case the arm is not held as high as for the arm
movement.}

FACE SHAVING

The position of the left hand is as follows :

a) Keep the fingers of the left hand dry in order to
prevent them from slipping.

b) Hold hand as if stretching the skin tightly under

razor.

Back Hand Stroke
Shaving Area No. 2

Back Hand Stroke
Shaving Area No. 7

3. How to stroke the razor. The back hand stroke is
performed in the following manner :

a) Use a gliding stroke away from you.

b) Direct stroke towards the point of the razor in a
back and forth sawing movement.

c) Keep the length of the stroke from one inch to
three inches, depending upon the location of the
part of the face being shaved.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 3
Reverse Free Hand Position and Stroke

The reverse free hand stroke and the free hand stroke are
similar in some respects, the main difference being that the
movement is directed upwards in the reverse free hand stroke.

1 . When to use the reverse free hand stroke. The reverse
free hand stroke comprises four steps in the fourteen basic
shaving areas. See Numbers 5, 10, 13, 14 on the accomp-
anying illustration.

1. Free hand.

2. Back hand.

3. Free hand.

4. Free hand.

5. Reverse free hand.

6. Back hand.

7. Back hand.

8. Free hand.

9. Back hand.

0. Reverse free hand.

1. Free hand.

2. Free hand.

11 1213

Diagram of Shaving Areas

The Reverse Free Hand strokes

are shown in white.

• 13. Reverse free hand.

• 14. Reverse free hand.

Reverse Free Hand Stroke
Shaving Area No. 5

Note: Left hand is used
to stretch skin.

FACE SHAVING

2. How to hold the razor. The position of the right
hand is as follows:

a) Hold the razor firmly as in a free hand position,
turn hand slightly toward you so that the razor
edge is turned upward.

The position of the left hand is as follows:

a) Keep the hand dry and use it to pull the skin
tightly under the razor.

3. How to stroke the razor. The reverse free hand stroke
is performed in the following manner:

a) Use small upward semi-arc stroke towards you.

b) The movement is from the elbow to the hand with
a slight twist of the wrist.

Reverse Free Hand Stroke
Shaving Area No. 10

Note: Left hand stretching skin between
thumb and middle finger.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 4
Reverse Back Hand Position and Stroke

• The reverse back hand position and stroke, although not
frequently used, must be practiced diligently in order to
master this shaving technique.

1 . When to use the reverse back hand stroke. The reverse
back hand stroke is used for making left sideburn outline and
for shaving the left side behind the ear when the customer is
sitting in an upright position.

2. How to hold the razor. The position of the right hand
is as follows:

a) Hold the razor firmly as in the back hand position.

b) Turn the palm of the hand upward with the point
of the razor directed downward.

c) Drop the elbow close to the side.
The position of the left hand is as follows :

a) Raise the left arm and hand in order to draw the
skin tightly under the razor.

3. How to stroke the razor. The reverse back hand
stroke is performed in the following manner :

a) Use a gliding stroke and direct the stroke down-
ward towards the point of the razor in a sawing
movement.

Reverse Back Hand

Stroke

Shaving Left Side of
Neck below Ear

Note the position of the

razor.

The razor is stroked with
the point of the razor in
the lead.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 5
Fourteen Shaving Areas

Before proceeding with the next lesson, review the correct
way to handle the razor as for:

1. Free Hand Position and Stroke (Exercise No. 1).

2. Back Hand Position and Stroke (Exercise No. 2).

3. Reverse Free Hand Position and Stroke (Exercise

No. 3).

There are fourteen shaving areas in giving a shave the
first time over. The right side is shaved first, using the free
hand stroke. The shaving areas and strokes used are indi-
cated in numerical order, as follows:

H II 13 .-12

Diagram of Shaving Areas

1. Free hand.

2. Back hand.

3. Free hand.

4. Free hand.

5. Reverse free hand.

6. Back hand.

7. Back hand.

8. Free hand.

9. Back hand.

10. Reverse free hand.

11. Free hand.

12. Free hand.

13. Reverse free hand.

14. Reverse free hand.

To give a face shave with skill and ease, it is necessary to
learn the fourteen basic shaving areas in the order named
and practice them regularly.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 6

Ho\y To Prepare
A Customer For Shaving

As the customer enters the
shop, you are to arise and
stand at attention on the right
side of the chair, facing the
prospective customer with an
attitude of willingness to serve.

Smile as you greet the cus-
tomer by name. If the custom-
er is known casually refer to
him as Mister with his last
name. Only when well ac-
quainted should a customer be
called by his first name.

1. Seat customer comfort-
ably in barber chair.

2. Wash hands with soap
and warm water, and dry them
thoroughly.*

3. Grasp neck-pieces of chair
cloth and bring it over front
of customer, as in Fig. 1.

4. Change paper cover on
headrest and adjust the head-
rest to the proper height.

5. Lower, adjust and lock
barber chair to the proper
height and level.

6. Unfold a clean face
towel, and lay it diagonally
across the customer's chest.

7. Tuck in the left corner
of the towel along the right
side of the customer's neck, the
edge tucked inside the neck-
band with a sliding movement
of the forefinger of the left
hand, as in Fig. 2. The lower
left end of the towel is crossed
over to the other side of the
customer's neck and tucked
under the neck-band with a
sliding movement of the fore-
finger of the right hand, as in
Fig. 3.

*Some barbers prefer to wash
hands after Step 5.

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 7
How To Prepare The Face For Shaving ^

Lathering and steaming the face are very important steps
before shaving the face, for the following reasons:
Lathering the face serves the following purposes:

1. Cleans the face by dislodging dirt and foreign matter.

2. Fills spaces between hairs and keeps them in an erect
position.

3. Affords a smooth, flat surface for the razor to glide
over.

Steaming the face is helpful for the following reasons:

1 . Softens the cuticle or outer layer of the hair.

2. Provides lubrication by stimulating the action of the
oil glands.

3. Soothes and relaxes the customer.

Do not use steam towel if the face is sensitive, irritated,
chapped or blistered.

The face is prepared for shaving as follows :

1 . Prepare lather and spread it evenly over bearded parts

of face and neck. To prepare shaving lather, use any

of the following:

a) Electric latherizer.

b) Atomizer latherizer

2. Rub lather well in-
to bearded area, us-
ing rotary move-
ments with the cu-
shion tips of the
right hand. Rub la-
ther on right side of
face, then gently
turn the head with
the left hand, by
gently grasping the
back of the head

c ) Tube of shaving cream.

d) Shaving soap or powder.*

*Requires the use of a shaving
mug and brush. See Exercise 8.

Rubbing Lather
in a Rotary Movement

FACE SHAVING

near the crown, and rub lather on the other side of
face. Rubbing time from one to two minutes, de-
pending upon the stiffness and density of the beard.

3. Take a clean Turkish
towel, fold it once
lengthwise. Then fold
it again the short way
by bringing together
both ends of the towel.
Place folded towel un-

Saturating and Heating the Towel

der stream of hot wa-
ter, allowing it to be-
come thoroughly sat-
urated and heated.

5. Wring out towel
until fairly dry.

6. Bring the steam
towel behind the
barber's chair. Un-
fold it and hold
each end. Place
center of towel un-
der customer's chin
and lower part of
neck. Carefully
wrap towel around
face and forehead,
leaving the nose

exposed. Finally, fold the ends over each other on
the forehead.

7. While the steam towel is on the customer's face, strop
the razor and immerse it into disinfectant solution.*
Then wipe the razor dry on the corner of the face tow-
el, and place it in a dry sterilizer until ready for use.

8. In removing steam towel, wipe lather off in one
operation.

*Some barbers prefer to disinfect the razor before stropping or honing.

Applying Heated Towel Over Face

92 FACE SHAVING

9. Re-lather the beard a second time, then wipe the

hands free of soap.

10. Now pick up the razor, take a position on the right
side of the customer, and place sanitary tissue or paper
on customer's chest for wiping lather off razor.

Exercise No. 8
How to Use Shaving Mug and Brush

In the absence or breakdown of a mechanical latherizer,
extra supplies are needed for producing shaving lather. For
this purpose, the barber shop should have on hand shaving
mugs, disposable paper linings, shaving brushes and shaving
soap or powder in sufficient quantity to meet its needs.

Preparing Lather with Shaving Powder

1. Rinse the brush and mug thoroughly in warm water,
insert paper lining, and retain a little water at bot-
tom of mug.

2. Sprinkle shaving powder on brush and mix in mug to
form a creamy lather.

$ To apply lather to face, grasp handle of brush in palm
of right hand, with the fingertips at base of bristles.

Proper Way to Hold Shaving Brush

4. Starting at right side of neck just below jaw bone, rub
lather well, using rotary movements with brush.

5. Gently turn face and rub lather with brush into left
side of face.

FACE SHAVING 93

6. Place brush in mug and work lather into bearded
area, using cushion tips of right hand.

7. Continue with steps 3-10 as outlined in Exercise 7.

Preparing Lather with Cake Soap

Pick up the shaving cup with cake soap and brush with
the left hand, holding the thumb on the brush so that it will
not overbalance and fall. Rinse the brush and mug thor-
oughly with warm water, leaving some water in the mug.
Mix up a lather with the brush until it forms a creamy con-
sistency. Avoid making noise by rattling the handle of the
brush on the sides of the mug. Apply lather to the face as
explained in steps 3 to 7.

FACE SHAVING

MOV. 51

Exercise No. 9

Positions

and Strokes

in Shaving

The barber is now
ready to begin shaving.
Proper coordination of
both hands makes for bet-
ter and safer shaving.
While the right hand holds
and strokes the razor, the
fingers of the left hand as-
sist in stretching the skin
tightly around the part
being shaved. A tight skin
has the advantage that it
allows the beard to be cut
more easily. To prevent
slipping, the fingers of the
left hand must be kept
dry at all times.

Shaving Area No. 1
Free Hand Stroke. Bar-
ber stands on right side
of chair. Gently turn cus-
tomer's face to the left.
With second finger of left
hand, remove lather from
hairline. Hold razor as for
a free hand stroke. Use
long gliding diagonal
strokes with the point of
the razor in the lead. Be-
ginning at hairline on
right side, shave down-
ward towards the jaw-
bone. Shave right side of
face to the corner of the
mouth.

Shaving Area No. 2
Back Hand Stroke. Re-
maining in the same po-
sition, wipe razor clean on
lather paper. Hold the ra-
zor as for a back hand
stroke; use a diagonal
stroke with the point of
the razor in the lead.
Shave all of the beard on
the right side of the face
up to the point of the
chin.

FACE SHAVING

Shaving Area No. 3

Free Hand Stroke. Keep-
ing the same position, wipe
razor clean. Hold razor as
for a free hand stroke. Shave
underneath the nostril and
over the right side of upper
lip, using the fingers of the
left hand to stretch the un-
derlying skin. When shaving
underneath the nostril, slight-
ly lift the tip of the nose
without interfering with the
breathing. To stretch the up-
per lip, place fingers of left
hand against nose while hold-
ing the thumb below the low-
er corner of the lip.

Shaving Ar£a No. 4

Free Hand Stroke. With-
out wiping the razor, start at
point of chin and shave all
that portion below the jaw-
bone down to the change in
the grain of the beard. While
shaving, hold the skin tight-
ly between thumb and fingers
of left hand.

Shaving Area No. 5

Reverse Free Hand Stroke.

Step to back of chair. Hold
the razor as for a reverse
free hand stroke. Shave the
remainder of the beard up-
ward with the grain. This
movement completes shaving
the right side of the face.

FACE SHAVING

MOV. 6

Diagram of shaving areas for
left side of face.

MOV. 7

Shaving Area No. 6

Back Hand Stroke. Wipe
razor clean and strop it.
Stand on right side of cus-
tomer and ' turn customer's
face upward so that you can
shave the left upper lip. Hold
razor as for a back hand
stroke. While gently pushing
the tip of the nose to the
right with thumb and fingers
of left hand, shave the left
side of upper lip.

Note-. Some barbers prefer
to shave the upper lip after
Step No. 8.

Shaving Area No. 7

Back Hand Stroke. Stand
slightly back of customer.
Gently turn his face to the
right. Re-lather left side of
face. Clean lather from hair-
line. Stretching the skin
with the fingers' of the left
hand, shave downward to the
lower part of the ear and
slightly forward, on the face.
Caution : Be careful to stretch
the skin well with the left
hand as the razor may dig
in along the ear.

FACE SHAVING

Shaving Area No. 8

Free Hand Stroke. Wipe
off razor. Step to right
side of customer. Hold ra-
zor as for free hand stroke.
Shave downward on left
side of face towards jaw-
bone and point of chin.

Note: Some barbers pre-
fer to shave the upper lip
(See Step No. 6) at this
time.

Shaving Area No. 9

Back Hand Stroke.

Wipe off razor. Keeping
the same position, hold
razor as for back hand
stroke. With the fingers
of the left hand tightly
stretching the skin, shave
downward from point of
chin to where the grain
of the beard changes on
the neck. Complete shav-
ing upper part of neck.

Shaving Area No. 10

Reverse Free Hand
Stroke. Wipe off razor.
Stand slightly back of
customer. Hold razor as
for reverse free hand
stroke. Stretching the skin
tightly with the left hand,
shave the left side of the
neck in an upward direc-
tion.

FACE SHAVING

Shaving Area No. 11

Free Hand Stroke. Take
your position at the side
of the customer and turn
his head so the face is
pointing upward. Hold ra-
zor as for free hand stroke,
shave across upper part of
the chin. Continue shav-
ing across the chin until
it has been shaved to a
point below the jawbone.
The skin is stretched with
the left hand.

Shaving Area No. 12

Free Hand Stroke.

Stretch the skin with the
left hand and shave the
area just below the chin
until the change in the
grain of the beard is
reached.

Shaving Area No. 13

Reverse Free Hand
Stroke. Change position
to back of chair. Hold the
razor as for a reverse free
hand stroke. Stretch the
skin tightly and shave up-
ward on the lower part of
the neck.

FACE SHAVING

Shaving Area No. 14
Reverse Free Hand Stroke.

Remain back of chair. Shave
upwards on lower lip with a
few short reverse free hand
strokes.

Wipe off razor again, and in
so doing, fold the lather paper
in half.

During Steps 13 and 14 the
barber should avoid breathing
into the customer's face as this
is annoying and unhealthy to the
customer.

Second Time Over

The second time over is for
the purpose of removing any
rough spots or unshaved parts.

While the face is steaming,
strop the razor and place it on
work bench. Remove steam
towel, pick up water bottle, and
sprinkle a little water in the
cupped palm of the left hand.
Moisten the bearded part of
the face, place bottle on work
stand, and proceed with the
second time over. Use the free
hand and reverse free hand
strokes in shaving the second
.time over.

Stand a little in back of
customer. With a free hand
stroke (see illustration), start
to shave right side of face.
Stroking the grain of the
beard sideways, shave the up-
per lip and work downward to
the lower jawbone. Shave low-
er part of neck with a reverse
free hand stroke and follow
the grain of the beard.

Now, turn the customer's
face towards you.^With a free
hand stroke, start to shave
left side of face. Stroking the
grain of the beard sideways,
shave from ear towards eye.
When finished, wipe off razor
on lather paper and discard it
into container.

100 FACE SHAVING

Once Over Shave

If the customer requests a "once over" shave, the barber
should be able to comply with his wishes. The "once over"
shave has the advantage that it takes less time to give a com-
plete and even shave. For a "once over" shave, give a few
more strokes at different angles when each shaving movement
is completed. .

Close Shaving

Close shaving is the practice of shaving the beard against
the grain of the hair during the second time over. This shav-
ing practice is undesirable because it irritates the skin and
may cause an infection or ingrown hairs. For this reason,
the barber should avoid close shaving.

Accidental Cuts in Shaving

The barber should know what to do in case the face is
cut or scratched in shaving. For a minor cut, apply a little
styptic powder with a piece of sterilized cotton. When the
bleeding stops, carefully wipe off the powder with clean
cotton.

For a deeper cut, apply an antiseptic solution with a
piece of sterilized cotton. Then cover cut with a small
band-aid.

FACE SHAVING

101

Exercise No. 10
WRAPPING A TOWEL AROUND THE HAND

A properly trained barber knows how to wrap a towel
around the hand with ease and skill for the purpose of:

1. Cleansing and drying the face.

2. Applying powder to the face.

3. Removing all traces of powder, lather and any loose
hair from face, neck

and forehead.

The student should prac-
tice the following exercise un-
til he is able to wrap the towel
around the hand with ease
and skill.

Hold the towel the long
way and grasp both
ends as in Fig. 1.

Hold the right hand in
front of you, draw the
upper edge of the towel
across the palm of the
right hand.

Then grasp the towel
and draw it towards the
right arm as in Fig. 2.

4. Holding the towel in
this position twist it
around the outside of
wrist and hold ends of
towel from flapping on
the face, as in Fig. 3.

102

FACE SHAVING

Exercise No. 11
FINAL STEPS IN FACE SHAVING

The final steps in face shaving require attention to a
number of important details.

1 . Apply face cream with massage movements.

2. Prepare steam towel and apply it over face.

Suggest facial treatment at this time.

3. Remove steam towel from face.

4. Apply finishing lotion with several facial manipulations.

5. Pick up towel from customer's chest.

6. Take your position behind the barber chair.

7. Spread towel over customer's face and first dry the

lower part and then the upper part of the face.

Drying Customer's Face

Take your position on
the right side of the
chair.

9. Wrap towel around
hand as described in
Exercise 10.

10. Thoroughly dry the
face.

11. Select a dry spot of
towel and fold it
around the hand.

12. Sprinkle talcum pow-
der over dry towel.

13. Apply powder evenly to face.

14. Raise barber chair to an upright position.

15. Shave the neckline, if necessary, as described in
Exercise 12.

16. Comb the hair neatly.

17. With neck towel, wipe off loose hair, lather or powder
on face and clothing.

18. Trim mustache, if desired.

19. Remove neck-band and linens.

20. Release customer.

FACE SHAVING 103

Exercise No. 12
NECK SHAVE

The neck shave, as part of the regular shave, involves
shaving the neckline on both sides of the neck below the ears.

Raise the chair slowly in an upright position, tuck the
face towel around the back of the neck, and apply lather.
Shave neckline, first at the right side using a free hand
stroke and then at the left side using a reverse free hand
stroke, as described in Exercise No. 4.

Wipe shaved part of the neck with warm damp towel.
Remove face towel from around the neck, and dry thor-
oughly. (This is the time to suggest scalp treatment, or
hair tonic.)

Take your position behind the chair, and comb the hair
as desired by the customer.

Take towel from the back of neck, and fold it around the
right hand. Remove all traces of powder and any loose hair.

Shaving Right Side Shaving Left Side

of Neck of Neck

Points to Remember in Shaving

1 . The experienced barber will observe the hair slope and
shave with, never against it.

2. A heavy growth of beard requires care in the lathering
process and special technique in the use of the razor.

104 . FACE SHAVING

3. The lather should not be scattered carelessly all over
the face.

4. The fingers of the left hand should be kept dry in
order to grasp and stretch the skin and hold it firmly.

5. Hot towels should not be used on excessively sensitive
skin, nor should they be used when the skin is chapped or
blistered from cold or heat.

6. Take precaution in shaving: beneath lower lip, lower
part of neck, and around the Adam's apple, as these parts
of the face and neck are usually the most tender and sensi-
tive, and are easily irritated by very close shaving.

Eleven Reasons Why A Customer May Find Fault
With A Shave

1. Dull or rough razors.

2. Unclean hands, towels and shaving cloth.

3. Cold fingers.

4. Heavy touch of hand.

5. Poorly heated towels.

6. Lather which is either too cold or too hot.

7. Offensive body odor, foul breath or tobacco odor.

8. Sticking your fingers in customer's mouth.

9. Glaring lights over head.

10. Unshaved hair patches.

11. Scraping the skin and close shaving.

THE MUSTACHE

A shave is not completed unless the barber gives attention
to the care of the mustache.

The man who possesses a mustache likes to have it shaped,
trimmed, and possibly waxed, because it tends to improve
his appearance. If the color of the mustache does not match
that of the hair, dyeing or bleaching may be advisable. The
barber who is prepared to render such additional services is
the one whom the customer will prefer and appreciate.

FACE SHAVING

105

STYLES OF MUSTACHES

1. Shaping is done
with razor during
the shave as much
as possible.

2. At the end of the
shave, the trim-
ming is done with
the shears to the
desired length.

3-10. Various styles
of men's mustach-
es, selected accord-
ing to prevailing
trends and facial
characteristics of
the wearer.

Added services for
mustaches are:
Waxing :

Mustache ends.
Penciling:

Temporary color.
Dyeing :

Permanent color.
Bleaching :

Removing color.

106

FACE SHAVING

SPECIAL PROBLEMS
EYEBROW SHAPING

Eyebrows may be re-shaped either by plucking with
tweezers or shaving. The service generally rendered in a
barber shop is the shaving or plucking of hair that grows too
thick between the brows or of the hair that grows too high
above the eyebrows.

TWEEZING

The skin should be softened
with cream, and cotton pads
dipped in hot water and ap-
plied to the brows. Extract the
hair by pulling quickly in the
direction in which the hair
grows, at the same time stretch-
ing the skin to reduce pain.
Finish with an application of
astringent lotion.

Tweezing Eyebrows

TRIMMING EYEBROWS

If the eyebrows are too thick or bushy they may
trimmed to a uniform shape with the comb and scissors.

Trimming Eyebrows

STYPTIC POWDER

Whenever a slight cut or 'scratch drawing blood has oc-
curred, apply styptic powder sparingly to the cut on a small
pledget of cotton, and wipe off carefully.

FACE SHAVING 107

Never use a styptic pencil or any other astringent that
will come in contact with more than one face, as there is
great danger of infection.

BLACKHEADS OR COMEDONES

Blackheads, which make their appearance on the face
and more particularly around the nose, may be removed by
means of a comedone extractor, and by steaming.

Comedone Extractor

It is not well to attempt to remove all the blackheads ap-
pearing on the surface at one time ; they should be removed
by a series of treatments extending over a period of time.

Facial massage helps to dislodge and remove a number
of blackheads.

WHITEHEADS

To remove whiteheads, the skin must first be cleansed
with soap and water, followed by the application of steam
towels. Then, each whitehead is pierced with the sharp end
of a sterilized needle, tweezer or comedone extractor. Gently
press out each whitehead with a pledget of sterilized cotton.
Finally, apply antiseptic solution over the treated area.

INGROWN OR WILD HAIR

An ingrown hair is one that has grown underneath the
skin, causing a lump in which pus forms. Usually caused by
very close shaving or the rubbing of a shirt collar.

To remove a wild hair or dead hair, open the affected part
with a sterilized needle, pull out the hair with a sterilized
tweezer, then apply an antiseptic solution.

108 FACE SHAVING

NOTES

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

109

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON SHAVING

1. What three points should the
barber know about the cus-
tomer's skin and hair?

1. Condition of the skin.

2. Texture of the hair.

3. Slope and grain of beard.

2. What are nine requirements
of a good shave?

1. Hands, razor and towels should be-
properly sterilized.

2. Razor properly honed and stropped.

3. Beard well lathered.

4. Towels properly heated and applied.
5 Beard cut smoothly.

6. Lather completely removed.

1, Astringent or face lotion properly

applied.

8. Face dried thoroughly.

9. Powder evenly applied.

3. How should the customer be
prepared for shaving?

1. Barber washes hands.

2. Arrange shaving cloth.

3. Adjust headrest paper and adjust
headrest to proper level.

4. Recline chair to comfortable posi-
tion.

5. Tuck in towel.

4. How should the beard be
prepared for shaving?

Apply lather to face; apply steam
towel over lather; remove lather with
steam towel; re-lather beard.

5. What sanitary precautions
should be observed by the
barber?

1. Use clean hands.

2. Use sterilized razor.

3. Use sanitary receptacle' for shaving
soap.

4. Use sanitary tissue to wipe lather
from razor.

6. What is the most effective
way to rub lather into the
beard?

To rub lather into the beard use the
cushion parts of finger tips with a
circular movement.

7. What action does the lather
have on the beard?

The lather softens and lubricates the
skin and beard.

8. What is the purpose of steam-
ing the face?

The heat softens the outer layer of
the hair and stimulates the flow of oil
from the skin glands, the added lubri-
cation helps the razor to glide over
the face.

9. When should a hot towel not
be applied to the face?

If the face is very sensitive, irritated,
chapped or blistered.

10. Name the four standard
positions and strokes used in
shaving.

Free hand; back hand; reverse free
hand; reverse back hand.

11. How should the razor be used
to accomplish the free hand
stroke?

Hold the razor in a free hand position.
Use a gliding stroke towards the point
of the razor in a sawing movement.

110

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

12. How should the razor be used
to accomplish the back hand
stroke?

Hold the razor in a back hand position
and stroke it in a sawing movement
away from you towards the point of
the razor.

13. How should the razor be used
to accomplish the reverse free
hand stroke?

14. What should be the direction
of the shaving strokes in re-

spect to the grain of the hair?

15. When is the reverse back
hand position and stroke us-
ually used?

The razor is held similarly to the free
hand position and the stroke is per-
formed with a slight rotation of the
wrist, forming a small upward arc.

The shaving strokes are made with the
grain of the hair.

16. How many shaving areas are
there in shaving the first
time over?

As the customer sits in an upright po-
sition, the barber evens the sideburn
at left temple and outlines the haircut
on the left side of the neck behind
the ear.

14 shaving areas.

17. Which side of the face is
shaved first and which stroke
is used first?

The right side is shaved first. The
free hand stroke is the first stroke.

18. How is a once-over shave
given?

A few more strokes at different angles
to the beard may be taken at the com-
pletion of each movement, thereby as-
suring a complete and even shave.

19. What part of the neck is
shaved with the standard or
regular shave?

The sides of the neck below the ears.

20. What are the final steps after
shaving?

Comb the hair neatly, wipe off exces-
sive powder, and any loose hair.

21. When should a facial be
suggested to the customer?

As the last steam towel is being re-
moved.

22. When should a hair tonic or
scalp treatment be suggested
to the customer?

Just before combing the hair.

23. Give eleven reasons why a
customer may find fault with
a shave.

1. Dull or rough razors.

2. Unclean hands, towels and shaving
cloth.

3. Cold fingers.

4. Heavy touch of hand.

5. Poorly heated towels.

6. Lather which is either too cold or
too hot.

7. Offensive body odor, foul breath or
tobacco odor.

8. Sticking your ringers in customer's
mouth.

9. Glaring lights over head.

10. Unshaved hair patches.

11. Scraping the skin and close shaving.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

111

24. What is an ingrown hair?

An ingrown hair is one which has
grown underneath the skin and causes
an infection to develop.

25. What is the cause of an in-
grown hair?

Usually caused by very close shaving
and the wearing of shirt collars which
rub against the neck.

26. What is the proper treatment
for an ingrown hair?

To remove an ingrown hair, open the
affected part with a sterilized needle
or tweezer and then pull out the hair
with the tweezer. Finally, apply an
antiseptic such as peroxide or tincture
of iodine.

27. How is a close shave pro-
duced?

Shaving the beard against the grain of
the hair during the second time over.

28. Why is a close shave unde-
sirable?

A close shave irritates the skin and
may cause ingrown hairs or infection.

113

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

The art of haircutting involves a distinctive cut and ar-.
rangement of the hair to suit the individual requirements of
the customer. Each customer presents a new problem which
the shop owner cannot afford to neglect by careless or indif-
ferent workmanship. Mistakes should be prevented rather
than covered up. or changed. Expert workmanship in hair-
cutting can best be acquired by competent instruction and by
patient practice on living models.

Fundamentals in Haircutting

It is essential that the barber acquire an easy, graceful
position when cutting the hair. Avoid stooping, bending the'
knees, or twisting the body into awkward positions. In hair-
cutting, work to the right of you, as this will give you a better
view of your* work. Learning correct habits in haircutting
will relieve fatigue and make your work more efficient.

Implements

The principal implements used in haircutting are: clip-
pers, shears and combs.

Important Steps For A Complete Haircut

The important steps in giving a complete haircut are:

1. Preparation.

2. Clipper technique.

3. Shears and comb technique.

4. Arching technique.

5. Finger and shears technique.

6. Front outline.

7. Shaving outlined areas.

8. Final checkup.

9. Combing the hair.

114

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 1
How To Prepare A Customer For A Haircut

Before starting a haircut, the following preparation is
required :

1. Have on hand all necessary linens, sterilized imple-
ments and supplies.

2. Seat customer comfortably in barber chair, facing
mirror. -.•

3. Remove headrest from barber chair.

4. Wash and dry hands.

5. Grasp neck-pieces of chair cloth and bring it over the
front of customer, as in Fig. 1 .

Fig. 1— Placing Chair 'Cloth
Over in Frorrt of Customer

6. Use tissue neck-strip
or towel protector
under neck-pieces of
chair cloth.
a) If a tissue neck-
strip is used,
bring it com-
pletely around
the customer's
neck with the
ends overlap-
ing in the back,
as in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2— Adjusting Tissue Neck-Strip
Around Neck of Customer

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING 115

Over the tissue neck-strip, place the neck-pieces of
the chair cloth and fasten it securely in the back.
Extending portion of the tissue neck-strip is folded
neatly over the neck-pieces of the chair cloth, as
in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3— The extended portion of the Neck-Strip
is folded over Neck-pieces of £hair Cloth

b) If a towel is used, spread it straight across back of
customer, the upper edge being tucked in at the
neckline. Bring both ends of the towel around the
customer's neck, allowing one end to overlap the
other under the chin. Over the towel, place the
neck-pieces of the chair cloth and fasten it securely
in the back.
7. Sprinkle talcum powder on a tissue and apply it over

the back of the customer's neck.

116

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 2
Clipper Technique

For the beginner, it is best to learn how to use the hand
clipper before trying the electric clipper. Since the hand
clipper is slow cutting, it is easier to control in removing the
proper amount of hair from the head.

To learn the proper handling of the clipper the student
should practice the following exercises diligently.

1 . How to Hold Clipper and Comb.

The position of the right hand is
as follows:

a) Pick up the clipper with the
right hand.

b) Place thumb along still han-
dle attached to lower blade
and hold movable handle in
the first joint of the fingers,
placing the index finger in
front of the projecting guide
and the rest of the fingers in
back of it.

Fig. 1— Holding the
Hand Clipper

Fig. 2 — Using the Index Finger as a Guide

The position of the left hand is as follows:

a) Place the index finger of the left hand on the set

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING U7

screw and use it as a guide to steady the clipper.
See Fig. 2.
b) Hold comb between thumb and index finger, ready

to use the comb whenever necessary.
2. How to Use Clipper and Comb.

a) Use clipper blade which gives longer cut before
using clipper blade which gives shorter cut.

b) For a gradual even taper, tilt the blade as you clip
so that the clipper rides on the heel of the bottom
blade. See Fig. 3 for correct and incorrect tapering.

c ) In order to cut the hair with ease, use the full span
of the movable handle with the aid of the fingers.
Do not move the clipper up into the hair too fast
as it will have a tendency to jam the clipper blades
and pull the hair.

d) After tapering one strip of hair, comb hair down
smooth and start tapering the undipped hair to
the right.*

I
CORRECT M| INCORRECT]

METHOD MS METHOD

Fig. 3 — Correct and Incorrect Methods
of Tapering the Hair

Haircut styles that require clipper tapering all around
the head should begin at the left temple and continue around
the head,, finishing at the right temple. Haircut styles that
require clipper tapering at the back of the neck only should
begin at the left side of the neck, finishing at the right side
of the neck.*

*Some barbers prefer to work from right side to left side, in which case
the routine of clipping the hair is reversed.

118

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 3
Shears and Comb Technique

Shears and comb technique is used to cut the ends of the
hair and even up the clipper taper. It is usually employed
after the clipper work is completed.

To learn shears and comb technique the student should
practice the following exercises:

1. How to Hold Shears and Comb. See Fig. 1.
The position of the right hand is as follows,
a ) Pick up shears firmly and insert thumb into thumb
grip, place third finger into finger grip and leave
little finger on finger brace of shears.
The position of the left hand is as follows :

a ) Hold comb with tips of the first two fingers at the
end of teeth and place thumb at the back of
the comb.

b) To comb hair downward turn comb towards cus-
tomer's head, as in turning a key. See Fig. 2.

The position of both the right hand and left hand is
as follows:

a) Hold shears and comb slightly to the right front
of you.

b) Hold comb parallel with the still blade of the
shears, as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 2 — The turning of the comb
downward is accomplished by
turning the comb towards the
head by using the thumb and
first two fingers of the left
hand.

Fig. 1

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

119

2. How to Use Shears and Comb. See Fig. 1.

a) Keep one blade still while moving the other blade
with the thumb.

b) While manipulating the shears move both shears
and comb upward slowly at the same time.

c) Turn teeth of comb downward when combing the
hair downward.

d) Finish one vertical strip at a time before proceed-
ing with the next strip to the left. Working from
right to left gives a better view of the work.

Fig. 3 — Shears and comb work
over the ear, using the tine
teeth of the comb. Start at right
side of head, work around the
head and finish at left temple.

Fig. 4 — Shears and comb work
behind the ear. Note the
angle in which the shears and
comb are held so that they
will not interfere with the ear.
The fine teeth of the comb
are used.

Fig. 5 — Using shears and
comb to even up the clipper
taper at the nape of the neck.
The fine teeth of the comb
are used in this operation.

Fig. 6 — Shears and comb
work at the crown, using the
coarse teeth of the comb.

120

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 4
Arching Technique

Arching technique means marking the outer border of
the haircut in front and over the ears and side of the neck.
This outlining is accomplished with the points of the shears
and is usually performed while doing the shears and comb
work as described in Exercise No. 3.

To learn arching technique the student should practice
the following exercise diligently.

How to Hold Shears with Right Hand.

a) Pick up shears and insert thumb into thumb grip,
place third ringer into finger grip and leave the
little finger on brace of shears.

b) Place point of shear blade against scalp. The

Fig. 1 — Outlining the hair
in front of and over the ear.

^ » 1

Fig. 2 — Outlining the hair
on side of neck and back
of ear.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING 121

fingers holding the shears are on the bottom and

the thumb on top. See Fig. 1.
c) Use the most convenient finger-tip of left hand to

steady point of shears.
2. How to Use Shears.

The proper way to use shears is as follows:

a) Always make outline around ear as close to the
edge as possible.

b) Start in front of ear and make a continuous out-
line around the ear and down the side of neck, as
in Fig. 1.

c) Reverse the direction of arching back to the start-
ing point. See Fig. 2.

d) Continue arching around ear until a definite out-
line is formed.

e) Mark outline for length of sideburns.

122 MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 5
Finger and Shears Technique

In order to finish the haircut properly, any noticeable un-
evenness remaining after shears and comb work should be
removed by means of finger and shears technique. If the
top hair needs shortening it may be accomplished during the
finger and shears operation.

To perform finger technique on left side of head, stand
on left front side of customer.

1. Hold shears and comb as follows:

a) Hold shears by inserting third finger into finger
grip and place little finger on brace.

b) Grasp comb with left hand.

2. Start just above the left temple, palm shears in right
hand, transfer comb from left hand to fingers of right
hand and comb a strand of hair two or three inches
from you towards the back of the head.

3. Raise the comb sufficiently to permit first and second
fingers of the left hand to grasp the hair underneath
the comb. The fingers holding the hair should bend
to conform with the shape of the head.

4. Place comb between thumb and index finger of left
hand.

5. Cut the hair the proper
length to blend well with
the shorter hair on side of
head. See Fig. 1.

6. Hold on to the cut hair,
palm the shears, transfer
comb from left to right
hand and comb through the
hair contained in the fin-
gers of the left hand.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

123

7. Release the fingers, sliding the comb and picking up
underneath hair beyond the cut just made, and cut
the hair.

8. Comb the hair at that point again and repeat the same
cutting movements until the back of the head is
reached.

9. Start again at the front of the head going a little high-
er, continue to comb and cut until the back of the
head is reached again.

10. Continue to comb and cut, going a little higher each
time until the top of the head is reached. See Figs.
2 and 3.

To perform finger technique on right side of head stand
in back of the customer.

1. The finger technique for the right side of the head is
done in the same manner as on the left side, with the
exception that the barber stands in back of the custo-
mer and the hair is combed towards the barber. See
Figs. 4 and 5.

124

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 6
Front Outline

The front outline is shaped soon after completing the
finger and shears technique.

The length to which the front outline is cut depends prin-
cipally on the choice of haircut, whether short, medium or
long, and the way the hair is to be parted.

To learn to make the front outline the student should fol-
low these suggestions.

1. Comb all hair to right side bringing the hair straight
down over the right temple, as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

2. Hold shears, as in Fig. 1, and cut straight across to the
proper length. If necessary, use comb to hold hair in
place and cut hair, as in Fig. 2.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING 125

3. Comb all hair to left side, bringing the hair straight
down over left temple, as in Fig. 3.

4. Hold shears, as in Fig. 3 and cut hair straight across
to the proper length. If necessary, use comb to hold
hair in place and cut hair, as shown in Fig. 4.

When the work is properly done the front appearance of
the hair as it is combed forward should form to a "V".

126 MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Exercise No. 7
Preparation For A Neck Shave

The neck shave contributes to the appearance of the fin-
ished haircut. Shaving the outlined areas of the sideburns,
around the ears and the sides of the neck below the ears gives
the customer a clean cut appearance. If the haircut requires
a round or square outline at the nape of the neck, the free
hand stroke should be used at the back of the neck.

To prepare for a neck shave follow these steps:

1. Remove all cut hair around the head and neck with
clean towel or tissues.

2. Loosen the chair cloth and neck-band carefully, so that
no cut hair will go down the neck.

3. Empty the cut hair at the base of the chair in the fol-
lowing manner:

Pick up the chair cloth at the lower edge and bring it
up to the upper edge. Remove chair cloth carefully so
that no cut hair will fall on the customer. Drop upper
edge of chair cloth, giving a slight shake to dislodge
all cut hair.

4. Replace chair cloth as before. It should be left a few
inches away from the neck so that it does not come in
contact with the customer's skin.

5. Spread a face towel straight across the shoulders, then
tuck it in the neck-band.

Applying Lather For Neck Shave

1. Prepare lather same as for the beard.

2. Lather both sides of the head and the back of the
neck as follows:

Give a light coat of lather at the hairline around and
over the ears, to the temples and down the sides of
the neck. If round neck shave is to be given, apply
lather to the back of the neck up to the hairline.

3. Rub the lather in lightly with the ball part of the
finger-tips.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

127

Exercise No. 8
Shaving Outlined Areas

This exercise is a follow-up of Exercise No. 4, on Arch-
ing Technique. The purpose of this exercise is to shave over
outlined areas of the ears, neck and sideburns.

Before starting this exercise, prepare and apply lather
over outlined areas, as explained in Exercise No. 7. Strop
razor, then proceed as follows:

1. Shaving Right Side.

The proper way to
shave outlined area
is as follows :

a) Hold razor as in
free hand stroke.

b) Place thumb of
left hand on the
scalp above the
point of razor,

%and stretch scalp
under razor.

Shave sideburn to the proper length.
Shave around ear at hairline and down side of
neck, using a free hand stroke with the point of
razor. See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.

128

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

2. Shaving Left Side.

The proper way to shave outlined area is as follows :

a) Hold razor as in reverse back hand stroke.

b) Place thumb of left hand on scalp above point of
razor and stretch scalp under razor.

c) Shave sideburn to the proper length.

d) Shave around ear at hairline using a free hand
stroke.

e ) Shave neck below ear, using the reverse back hand
stroke with point of razor. See Fig. 4. Hold ear
away with fingers of left hand.

Shaving Left Side of Neck using
Reverse Back Hand Stroke

Medium Haircut
with Round Neck Shave

the

3. Depending on the customer's preference, shave
neck outline to form a round or square back.

After the neck shave has been completed, remove the ex-
cess soap with a warm damp towel. Dry the neck thoroughly.
Replace the towel across the customer's shoulder and tuck it
in neatly in the neck band.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING 129

Exercise No. 9
Final Checkup and Combing of the Hair

A checkup of the haircut and combing of the hair are the
steps to complete a haircut. Here is a suggested routine to
follow :

1 . Replace the face towel across the customer's shoulders
and tuck it neatly in neck-band.

2. Retouch parts of the haircut wherever necessary with
shears and comb.

3. Trim hair in ears, in nose, and on eyebrows. (Ask the
customer before trimming the eyebrows.)

4. Massage the scalp for a
few seconds. This is the
time to suggest a sham-
poo, hair tonic or any
other hair and scalp ser-
vice.

5. If the customer's answer
is negative, then ask him
if he wants his hair

combed dry or damp. Combing the Hair

6. Comb the hair into its

customary style or ask the customer's wishes.

// a hair brush is allowed in your state, be sure that it is prop-
erly cleaned and sterilized before using it on the customer.

Final Checkup

1. Go over the finished haircut to correct any uneven
parts.

2. Allow customer to see back view of haircut with the
aid of a mirror.

3. Make corrections as requested by the customer.

4. Remove all traces of loose hairs around the neck, fore-
head or nose with a clean towel wrapped around the
right hand, or with tissues.

5. Remove chair cloth.

6. Adjust barber chair to level position.

7. Release customer from barber chair.

8. Make out check and thank customer when giving it
to him.

130 MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

REMINDERS

Sanitary Measures

, After releasing the customer, take care of the following
sanitary measures:

1. Discard used towel and neck-strip,

2. Shake hair cloth at the base of chair, fold and place
it on arm of chair.

3. Clean and sterilize used barber implements.

4. Place barber implements into dry (cabinet) sterilizer.

5. Sweep hair from floor and place it into a closed
container.

6. Have needed supplies in readiness for next customer.

Ten Reasons Why A Customer May Find Fault
With A Haircut

1 . Improper hairstyle.

2. Poor workmanship.

3. Cutting off too much or too little hair.

4. Irregular hairlines.

5. Unsanitary practices such as unsterilized implements,
unclean towels or chair cloths.

6. Allowing cut hairs to fall down customer's neck.

7. Pulling the hair with dull shears or clippers.

8. Offensive body odor, bad breath or tobacco odor.

9. Blowing loose hair off the customer's neck.

10. Scratching the customer's scalp in combing the hair.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING 131

BASIC STEPS OF A STANDARD HAIRCUT

Preparation.

1. Arrange necessary implements and supplies.

2. Wash and dry hands.

3. Adjust chair cloth over customer. M.

4. Adjust neck-strip or towel around neck and fasten
neck-pieces of chair cloth around it.

5. Comb hair just enough to keep it in place.

6. Ask customer how hair is to be cut and styled.

Procedure.

A. Clipper Work.

1. Taper hair evenly with hajid clipper, working
from left side to right side of head. (Some barbers
prefer to work from the right side to the left side
of the head.)

B. Shears and Comb Work.

1. Even up hair taper at right side of head.

2. Trim sideburns, if necessary.

3. Outline right arch, if necessary.

4. Blend in edge of hair with rest, working from
right side to left side of the head.

5. Outline left arch, if necessary.

C. Finger and Shears Work.

1. Shorten or reduce any pronounced unevenness in
the hair, on left top side of head.

2. Shorten or reduce any pronounced unevenness in
the hair, on right top side of head.

3. Trim front outline, if necessary.

4. Comb hair and note where further trimming is
needed.

5. Drum out loose hair with finger-tips of both hands.

6. Comb hair casually.

7. Brush off loose hair from forehead, ears and neck
with towel or tissue.

8. Loosen chair cloth, remove neck-strip and finish
dusting off any loose hair.

132 MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

D. Neck Shave,

•1. Place towel around neck.

2. Apply lather over outlined areas of sideburns,
around ears and sides of neck.

3. Shave outlined areas. Shave right side of head
.first and then the left side.

4. Wipe off remaining lather with warm damp towel
and dry thoroughly.

5. Place towel around neck to protect clothing.

6. Retouch haircut wherever necessary, with shears
and comb.

7. Trim extra hairs from .ears, nose and eyebrows,
if necessary.

8. Give a few scalp manipulations and suggest a suit-
able hair tonic or scalp treatment.

9. If no hair tonic is to be used, ask customer if he
wishes the hair to remain dry or dampened with
water.

10. Comb hair neatly.

E. Final Steps.

1. Wipe off loose hair with towel or tissue.

2. Remove towel and chair cloth from customer.

3. Make out price check for customer.

4r. Thank customer as he is handed the price check.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING 133

THE ART OF BASIC HAIRCUTTING

To be successful the barber must perfect his skill in hair-
cutting. Each haircut should represent a work of art. Try
to give the type of haircut that will emphasize the proper
contour lines of the head.

From experience the barber has found out that most hair-
cuts fall into the following patterns :

1. The short cut.

2. The medium cut.

3. Trims (medium or long).

4. Pompadours (short, medium or long).

Each haircut requires the personal touch of the barber.
Always keep in mind the customer's needs and wishes and
what type of haircut is most becoming to his personality.

Before giving a haircut make sure to ask the customer
which type of haircut he desires. If the customer asks for
the barber's advice then recommend the type of haircut
which best improves his appearance.

THE SHORT CUT

The short cut or full crown haircut is popular in sum-
mer time for both young and old.

When giving this cut the barber should keep in mind the
following important points.

1 . Be guided by the customer's wishes as to any variations
in the short cut. The shape of the head should be
considered also.

2. Begin clipper work at the left temple, continue around
the head, finishing at the right temple* Go up as high
as the hat band, tilting the clipper teeth outward at
the point where the gradual taper begins.

3. Begin shear and comb work at right temple, continue
around the head, finishing at the left temple.

*Some barbers prefer to do clipper work from right temple to left temple,
in which case the routine is reversed.

134

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

CLOSE-UP OF

CLIPPER TAPER

AREA

Clipper Taper for Short Cut

4. Use shears and fine teeth of comb for removing traces
of the clipper line.

5. Always turn the teeth of the comb out when tapering
the hair.

6. Use shears and coarse teeth of comb when removing
longer part of hair.

7. Finger work is performed to the top of the head only
if necessary.

Short Cut with
Pompadour Effect

Short Cut with Hair

following the natural shape of

the head

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

135

THE MEDIUM CUT

The medium cut is similar to the short cut except for the
following differences:

1. The hair is left longer than in the short cut.

2. The clipper is used all around the head, but not
so high.

When giving a medium cut, the barber should keep in
mind the following points:

CLOSE-UP OF

CLIPPER TAPER

AREA

Clipper Taper for Medium Cut

1. Be guided by the customer's wishes as to any varia-
tions in the medium cut.

2. Clip the hair about pjj
as high as half way

up to the crown.

3. Always tilt the clip-
per teeth outward
at the point where
the gradual taper
begins.

4. Use shears and the
coarse teeth of comb
fo*r removing longer
hair above clipper

line. Showing One Side of Head

Properly Tapered with Clippers

136

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

5. Always turn the teeth
of the comb out when
tapering the hair.

6. Use shears and the fine
teeth of comb for re-
moving traces of clip-
per line.

Using Hand Clippers to Clean
Neck of Protruding Hairs

MEDIUM CUT
Left— Front View
Lower Left— Side View
Lower Right — Back View

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

137

TRIMS
Medium Trim

The medium trim, usually worn by business men, is dif-
ferent from the medium cut, not only in length of the hair,
but also in outline.

In the medium trim the No. 1 clipper may be used at the
temples in front of the ears. The No. 00 or No. 000 clipper
is recommended for the lower part of the ne^k.

The shears and comb work is started at the right sideburn
and the trimming is continued towards the left sideburn.

Caution should be taken not to trim the hair too short.

The finger work is used to reduce the bulk of the top hair
and to blend in with the rest of the hair.

Clipper Taper

. for
Medium Trim

CLOSE-UP OF

CUPPER TAPER

AREA

Medium Trim — Back View

•

HI
Medium Trim — Side View

138

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Long Trim

The long trim is similar to the medium trim with the ex-
ception that the hair is left a trifle longer.

In the long trim, clipper work is done at the back of the
neck with the taper evident near the lower tip of the ears.
With the point of the shears, outline the right sideburn to the
desired length and mark off the hairline in front of and
around the ears. Trim right sideburn with shears and comb,
continue around the head and finish at the left sideburn.

In doing finger work, be careful to cut off the proper
amount of hair. (For different lengths of sideburns, see
page 144.)

CLOSE-UP OF
CLIPPER TAPER
AREA

Clipper Taper for Long Trim

Evening the Clipper Taper
at the Nape of the Neck

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

139

Long Trim — Front View

Long Trim — Side View

Electric Clipper

Experience with the hand clipper makes it easier to use
the electric clipper. Because of its rapid cutting action, the
electric clipper must be handled skillfully, as follows:

Tapering the Hair
at the Nape of the Neck
with the Electric Clipper

Tapering the Hair
Held through the Teeth

of the Comb
with the Electric Clipper

1. Select the proper size of clipper blade.

2. Feed the clipper slowly into the hair held with the
teeth of the comb.

3. In making the taper, gradually tilt the clipper.

140

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

THE POMPADOUR

Short Pompadour

For the short pompadour, use the clipper high all around
the head, as in the short cut, leaving the top of the head
undipped.

Before using the shears, comb the hair straight back to
the crown. Stand to the front, left side of the customer when
cutting the hair on top of the head, and start cutting at the
forehead, shortening the hair gradually until you reach the
crown. Trim and taper the sides and back of the head to
blend with the top of "the head.

CLOSE-UP OF
CLIPPER TAPER

AREA

Clipper Taper for Short Pompadour

I
Cutting the Hair in a Brush Top Effect

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

141

Short Pompadour
(Brush Top)

Short Pompadour
(Brush Top) Back View

Short Pompadour
(Round Top)

142 MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

MEDIUM POMPADOUR

The medium pompadour follows the same pattern as the
medium trim with the exception that the hair on top of the
head is left somewhat longer.

The clipper technique used is similar to the medium cut.
(See page 135.)

In doing the finger work, part the hair in the center, then
follow the technique as explained in Lesson 5, page 122-123.

Care must be taken that too much hair is not removed.

Medium Pompadour

Mark off outline and shave sideburns, around ears and
back of neck. Retouch any uneven spots with shears and
comb. Finally, the hair is combed straight back!

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

143

LONG POMPADOUR

The long pompadour follows the same pattern as the long
trim (see pages 138-139) with the exception that the hair is
left a little longer on top of the head.

The finger technique is the same as the medium pompa-
dour, but the hair is left a little longer.

Long Pompadour

with Medium Sideburns,

Dressed with Wide Wave

Long Pompadour

with Long Sideburns

Dressed Close to the Head

144

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

SIDEBURNS

Sideburns should be made
according to the desire of
the customer, style of the
haircut, and the customer's
features.

Fig. 1 — None.

Fig. 2— Short.

Fig. 3— Pointed (Slant).

Fig. 4 — Medium.

Fig. 5 — Long.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

145

. SPECIAL PROBLEMS
HAIR THINNING

Hair thinning is required to reduce the bulk of the hair
wherever necessary. Any of the following implements and
methods can be used for this purpose.

1. Thinning (serrated) shears. The hair strand is
combed, and the spread hair held between the index and
middle fingers, as in Fig. 1. Then the hair is cut about one
inch from the scalp. If another cut is necessary it should be
made about one inch from the first cut. To shorten the hair
the regular shears is used.

Plan of cutting the hair. The barber stands in back of
the customer, combs away the front hair which does not re-
quire thinning, as in Fig. 2. The hair is then thinned on
both sides of the head, strand by strand as required, and the
loose cut hair is combed out. The top part is usually done
last.

Caution: Do not cut the hair too close to the scalp nor
thin out too much hair.

2. Thinning (serrated) shears and comb. Instead of the
index and middle fingers, the comb may be used in holding
the hair, as in Fig. 3. The thinning is done in the usual
manner.

146

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

3. Regular shears. Hold a small strand of hair between
the thumb and index finger, insert the strand in the shears,
as in Fig. 4. Slide the shears up and down the strand, closing
them slightly each time the shears is moved towards the
scalp. Slither enough to allow the hair to lie close to the
scalp wherever needed.

SHEAR POINT TAPERING

Shear point tapering is
a useful technique for thin-
ning out difficult heads of
hair occasioned by hollows,
wrinkles and creases in the
scalp and by whorls of hair
on the scalp. Dark and
ragged hair patches on the
scalp can be minimized by
this special technique.

The shear point taper
is performed with the cut-
ting points of the shears.

Only a few hairs are cut at a time and then combed out.

Continue cutting around the objectionable spot until it be-

beccmes less noticeable and blends in with the surrounding

outline of the haircut.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

147

BEARDS

There are still a few professional men who insist on wear-
ing beards, made popular during the sixteenth century by the
great painter Van Dyke. However, such styles as shown on
this page are seldom seen nowadays.

The Van Dyke

Beard with Shaven Chin Area

The cutting of the full beard is done with the shears over
the comb, usually starting near the ear and working toward
the chin. The length and shape depend upon the customer's
wishes.

For the goatee beard, it is customary to first shave the
sides of the face and then trim the beard to the desired shape
and length. The mustache is trimmed and dressed last in
accordance with the customer's wishes.

The Goatee Beard

148

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

SINGEING

Before commencing to singe, it is necessary to brush
and comb the hair thoroughly in order to remove the short
hairs which inevitably remain after haircutting.

Singeing by means of the wax taper is done in the follow-
ing manner. The hair is first combed into position, approxi-

Singeing with the Teeth of the
Comb Pointing Downward

Singeing with the Teeth of the
Comb Pointing Upward

mately as usually worn. Then commence the singeing by
placing the comb in the hair at a point just below the crown.
The comb is moved slowly down the hair in the direction
from the crown toward the nape of the neck. As the comb
moves through the hair, the lighted taper is passed along the
ends of the hair which protrude through the teeth of the
comb, thus singeing off the extreme points. After the back
and sides have been treated in this manner, the edges of the
short hair in the nape of the neck and sides are singed, using
the comb in an upward direction.

VALUE OF SINGEING — Present day authorities claim that singeing is not ben-
eficial to the hair, and classify it as a quack treatment; however, it does provide
temporary relief for split hair ends, and some customers desire a finishing touch
to their hair that cannot be acquired otherwise. Since there are some customers
who desire singeing, and there is an added financial return for the work, it is
advisable to learn the technique of singeing thoroughly.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

149

POPULAR HAIR STYLES FOR MEN

The skilled barber should be able to advise his customers as to
which type of haircut is best fitted to their age, personality, shape
of head and facial features. Study the following hair styles for sug-
gestions as to how to bring out the best qualities in each customer.

Medium Pompadour with Off-Center Part
The Hair Dressed Close to the Head

£• A

Medium Pompadour
with Side Part

Medium Pompadour
with Center Part

150

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Medium Pompadour, Pointed Sideburns Medium pompadour, Pointed Sideburns

Medium Pompadour
Hair Dressed Close to the Head

m F

Medium Pompadour

Medium Haircut with Side Part

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

151

Short Haircut with Brush Top Effect

Medium Haircut with Center Part

Medium Pompadour

Medium Haircut with Center Part
Hair Dressed Close to the Head

152

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

ompadour with Part and Poin

Three-Quarter Back View
of Medium Haircut

Medium Haircut
with Round Neck Shave

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

153

POPULAR HAIR STYLES FOR BOYS

Just as with men's haircuts, it is good business to give flattering
haircuts to boys. The barber who caters to boys is likely to win
over their fathers as regular customers. For suggestive guidance,
study the following individualized types of haircuts for boys.

As a general
rule, boys' and
children's hair
should be cut
shorter than
the men's hair,
depending on
the age and
desire of the
customer.

Medium Pompadour
Front View

Medium Pompadour
Side View

Medium Trim
Center Part

Medium Trim
Side Part

154

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Brush Top Haircut

Cut Close All Around

the Head

POPULAR

HAIR

STYLES

FOR

BOYS

Medium Haircut
with Side Part

Medium Haircut
•with Side Part

Medium Haircut
with Side Part

Medium Haircut
with Natural Curls

Short Haircut
Combed Forward

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

155

Popular Hair Style During 1950-1951

PASTE HERE — LATEST HAIR STYLES

156 MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

PRINCIPLES OF MEN'S HAIR STYLING

To render the best service to his customers, the barber
should know the principal styles of haircuts and be able to
select the one best suited for a particular customer. The bar-
ber who knows the fundamentals of artistic hair styling can
emphasize the best features of his customers and make them
look more attractive for their age, weight and height.

In determining the best way to cut and style the custo-
mer's hair, the barber should take into account his prefer-
ences, as well as his :

1. Facial contour and features.

2. Head contour.

3. Hairline.

Other factors which influence the choice of haircut are
the amount and length of hair on the head, partial baldness
and the presence of such characteristics as a high or low
forehead, high cheekbones, prominent chin, heavy jowls,
small or large ears, and a thin or thick neck.

Although there are numerous variations in facial char-
acteristics, the barber deals most frequently with three basic
facial types:

1. Face with regular features.

2. The short, round face.

3. The long, thin face.

Face with Regular Features

Most customers have regular fea-
tures, that is, their face is neither fat
nor thin, neither long nor short. With
the customer's consent, the hair may be
cut shorter or left longer. In either
event, the hair should be evenly grad-
uated all the way, while the neck is
feather edged. The sideburns are left
short.

MEN'S HAIRCUTTING

157

The Short, Round Face

For this facial type, the hair is cut
shorter all around and also graduated
all the way. The sideburns are kept
high.

Should the customer have a full
face with hollow temples, allow the hair
to grow fuller at the sides and keep the
sideburns at medium length.

The Long, Thin Face

Recessed temples are typical of this
facial type. In cutting the hair, keep it
both long and full at the sides. The rest
of the hair is cut medium length. In
the back, the hair is kept long, being
feather-cut and graduated from the
neck up. Long sideburns are recom-
mended.

158

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

HAIRCUTTING

1. What is meant by the art of
haircutting?

The process of cutting, tapering, trim-
ming, moulding, styling and dressing
men's hair.

2. What is meant by a hair trim? Cutting the hair lightly.

3. How can the art of haircut-
ting be acquired?

By obtaining good instruction and by
gaining experience and practice on
customers.

4. Name four basic styles of
haircuts.

1. The short cut or full crown.

2. The medium cut.

3. Trims (medium or long).

4. Pompadours (short, medium or
long).

5. Which sanitary precautions
should be observed by the
barber?

Wash hands and use only sterilized im-
plements, sterile towels and clean lin-
ens on customers.

6. How should the customer be
prepared for a haircut?

Seat customer comfortably in chair,
place neck-strip or towel around neck
and then adjust chair cloth over neck-
strip or towel.

7. Where is clipper work gen-
erally started and finished on
the customer's head?

Generally started on the left side of
the head and carried around to the
right side.

8. Why should the barber first
learn to use hand clippers
before attempting to use
electric clippers?

Hand clippers are slow cutting, and
there is less likelihood of making mis-
takes.

9. How should the clipper be
used in tapering the hair?

Gradually tilt the blades in using the
clipper so that it rides on the heel of
the bottom blade.

10. What is the proper position
of the shears and comb in
haircutting?

The comb is held parallel to the shears.

11. What is the purpose of fin-
ger work in haircutting?

It shortens the hair evenly and helps
to reduce any ridges that may appear
in the haircut.

12. What plan is followed in
shaving the neck outline?

Depending on the desired hair style,
shave around the top and back of the
ears and the sides and back of the
neck.

Name the shaving strokes
used: 1) over the right side
of the neck. 2) Left side of
the neck.

1. For the right side of the neck, use
a free hand stroke.

2. For the left side of the neck, use a
reverse back hand stroke.

4. When should hair singeing
be recommended?

To prevent further splitting of hair
ends.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

159

15. How is hair singeing accom-
plished?

Run the flame of a wax taper over the
hair ends, held straight through the
teeth of a comb.

16. Give ten reasons why a
customer may find fault with
a haircut.

1. Improper hairstyle.

2. Poor workmanship.

3. Cutting off too much or too little
hair.

4. Irregular hairlines.

5. Unsanitary practices such as unster-
ilized implements, unclean towels or
chair cloths.

6. Allowing cut hairs to fall on the
customer's neck.

7. Pulling the hair with dull shears or
clippers.

8. Offensive body odor, bad breath or
tobacco odor.

9. Blowing loose hair off the custo-
mer's neck.

10. Scratching the customer's scalp in
combing the hair.

161

SHAMPOOING

The chief purpose of shampooing the scalp and hair
is to maintain a clean and healthy condition of the scalp
and hair. The hair should be shampooed on the average
of once a week or as frequently as is required to keep the
hair and scalp clean.

Preparation

Adequate preparation is the first step in giving a good
shampoo. Before starting, the barber should have on hand all
necessary supplies and equipment, and should wash his hands
with soap and water. Following a definite procedure not
only saves time, but makes for greater efficiency.

The essential supplies needed for a shampoo are:

1 . Pure liquid soap having a low alkaline content.

2. Soft, warm water capable of producing an abundance
of lather with the shampoo. Hard water will not pro-
duce lather unless softened by boiling or chemical
treatment.

3. Shampoo bowl or tray, chair cloth, and towels.

Combination Hot

and Cold Water

Faucet with

Hand Spray

Attachment

How To Prepare Customer For Shampoo

1. Seat customer in a comfortable and relaxed position.

2. Arrange chair cloth as follows:

a) With each hand, grasp each end of the neck of the
chair cloth.

b) Place the chair cloth over the front of the customer.

c) Place towel around neck.

162

SHAMPOOING

d) Secure chair cloth at the back of the neck over
the towel.

3. Unfold one face towel lengthwise and tuck it around
the customer's left side of neck from center of back
to center of front, allowing remainder of towel to fall
over left shoulder.

4. Unfold another face towel lengthwise and repeat on
right side of neck.

Depending on available facilities, the barber can use
either the inclined position or the reclined position for the
customer while giving the shampoo.

How To Prepare Customer For Inclined Position

The inclined position of sham-
pooing is used in barber shops hav-
ing limited facilities. The shampoo
bowl is generally placed at a dis-
tance away from the barber chair.
While giving the shampoo, the cus-
tomer's head is bent forward over
the shampoo bowl.

The following procedure is
necessary for the inclined position
in shampooing.

1. Place clean towel over edge
of shampoo bowl.

2. Have customer sit on a stool close to shampoo bowl.

3. Massage scalp to loosen dandruff and to increase the
blood circulation. Vj

4. Follow steps 1-8 as for a
plain shampoo.

How To Prepare Customer
For Reclined Position

The reclined position of
shampooing is generally used if
there is a shampoo bowl next
to the barber's chair. While

SHAMPOOING 163

giving the shampoo the barber chair is reclined so that the
customer's head rests on a shampoo board. This method of
shampooing is most comfortable for the customer, while it
allows the barber to work rapidly.

The following procedure is necessary for the reclined
position in shampooing.

1. Remove the headrest and adjust the shampoo board
on shampoo bowl.

2. Massage scalp to loosen dandruff and to increase the
blood circulation.

3. Turn the barber chair around with its back facing the
shampoo bowl.

4. Tilt the barber chair at an angle so that customer's
head rests in groove of shampoo board and allows
water to drain into the shampoo bowl.

5. Place folded towel in groove of shampoo board to sup-
port customer's neck.

6. Follow steps 1-8 as for a plain shampoo.

Step-by-Step Procedure For Plain Shampoo

1. Adjust temperature of water and wet hair thoroughly
with warm water.

2. Apply shampoo to form a thick lather over scalp
and hair.

3. Massage scalp for several minutes as described below.

4. Rinse hair thoroughly with warm water and repeat
lathering if necessary.

5. Rinse hair thoroughly with cool water.

6. Wipe face and ears thoroughly.

7. Dry the hair completely.

Suggest hair tonic or hair dressing at this time.

8. Comb hair neatly.

Massage Manipulations During Shampoo

The proper way to massage the scalp during a shampoo
is as follows:

1. Stand behind the customer, after the lathering is done.

2. Place the finger-tips at the back of the head just be-
low the ears.

164

SHAMPOOING

3. Apply rotary movements from the ears to the temples
up to the forehead, then over the top of the head down
to the neck.

4. Repeat these movements for several minutes.

Scalp Massage Movements

Lathering the Head

Common Faults In Shampooing

A good barber makes every effort to please his customers.
A dissatisfied customer may find fault with a shampoo for
any of the following reasons :

1. Improper selection of shampoo.

2. Insufficient scalp massage.

3. Insufficient rinsing of hair.

4. Water too cold or too hot.

5. Allowing soapy water to run down the customer's fore-
head, eyes, or ears.

6. Wetting or soiling the customer's clothing.

7. Scraping the scalp with finger nails.

8. Improper drying of the hair.

Superior Shampoo Service

If the barber is to develop a superior type of shampoo
service, he must give individual attention to his customer's
needs. First of all, the barber should be able to select the
kind of shampoo best suited to the condition of the scalp and
hair. The effectiveness of the shampoo will depend in a large
measure on :

SHAMPOOING

165

1. The way the shampoo is applied.

2. The way the scalp is massaged.

3. The way the shampoo is rinsed from the hair.

A good shampoo service, not only removes dirt and dan-
druff from the scalp and hair, but also helps to keep the scalp
and hair in a healthy condition. The barber who gives the
utmost care and attention to his shampoo service will succeed
in pleasing his customers.

HOT OIL SHAMPOO

A hot oil shampoo is indicated where a dry condition of
the scalp is present. The dry scalp may be caused either by a
deficiency of natural oil or its removal by frequent hair
washings. Men whose occupation require exposure to more
than the usual amount of dust and dirt tend to wash their
hair frequently. Fresh olive oil or sweet almond oil is used
both for its soothing effect as well as for overcoming the
dry scalp.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Hot Oil Shampoo

1. Prepare the customer as for a plain shampoo.

2. Give regular scalp manipulations.

3. Apply cotton swab, dipped into oil, over scalp by part-
ing hair at about every inch.

4. Expose scalp to heat of red dermal lamp or infra-red
lamp for five to ten minutes as required.

5. Apply a good shampoo and massage it well into the
hair and scalp.

Applying Oil to the Scalp
with a Swab

Applying Heat
with Infra-Red Lamp

-166 SHAMPOOING

15. Rinse hair thoroughly with warm water, and repeat
lathering if necessary.

7. Dry the hair thoroughly with a clean towel.

8. Heat the oil in a double boiler to the desired tem-
perature.

9. Apply cotton swab, dipped into warm oil, over scalp
by parting hair at about every inch.

10. Comb hair neatly.

EGG SHAMPOO

An egg shampoo is a mild cleansing agent for an irri-
tated scalp. None of the natural oil is removed while using
an egg shampoo and it is therefore, best for a dry, brittle
condition of the hair, and tender scalp.

The egg shampoo is prepared with the following in-
gredients: One whole egg (or an equivalent amount of
prepared egg powder), one tablespoon of witch hazel and
one teaspoon of salt.

Step-by-Step Procedure For An Egg Shampoo

1. Prepare the egg mixture.

2. Prepare customer as for a plain shampoo.

3. Apply regular scalp manipulations.

4. Apply one-half of the egg mixture and work it well
into the scalp.

5. Rinse the hair with warm or tepid water.

6. Reapply egg mixture as often as necessary to insure
a clean scalp.

7. Rinse the hair thoroughly with tepid or warm water.

8. Comb hair neatly.

Only tepid water should be used for rinsing the hair. If
the rinse water is too hot, the white of the egg tends to harden
and stick to the hair.

SPECIAL SHAMPOOS

There are various shampoo mixtures available for the
barber's use on customers. At times, the barber is uncertain
as to which particular shampoo to use. To find out for him-
self, the barber should carefully read the label and literature

SHAMPOOING 167

accompanying the shampoo. Such information will reveal the
principal ingredients of the shampoo and the advantages
claimed for the product.

One way to test a particular brand of shampoo is to give
it a fair trial for a period of time. Make sure to follow the
manufacturer's instructions. Keeping a written record of the
shampoo used and the results obtained on customers will
eliminate guesswork. In this way, the actual merits of the
shampoo can be demonstrated to the barber's satisfaction. In
addition, the customer will benefit from the barber's ex-
perience.

168

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

PLAIN SHAMPOO

1. What is the purpose of a
plain shampoo?

To keep the hair and scalp in a clean
and healthy condition.

2. How often should the hair
be shampooed?

3. Outline the important steps
in giving a shampoo.

At least once a week or as often as
necessary.

1. Proper preparation of customer.

2. Selection of a good shampoo.

3. Proper application of shamrloo and
water.

4. Sufficient scalp massage to stimulate
the scalp.

5. Thorough rinsing to remove dirt
and lather.

6. Drying and combing the hair.

4. What kind of soap should be
used in a shampoo?

5. What kind of water should"
be used to shampoo the hair;
why?

Pure liquid soap having a low alkaline
content.

Soft, warm water. Hard water will
not produce any lather unless soft-
ened by boiling or chemical treatment.

6. Which supplies are needed
to give a shampoo?

Shampoo, shampoo bowl or tray, warm
and cold water, chair cloth, and towels.

7. How should the barber pre-
pare himself for a shampoo?

8. How should the customer be
prepared for a shampoo?

9. Why should the scalp be
massaged before giving a
shampoo?

Arrange necessary supplies and wash
hands with soap and warm water.
Seat customer in a comfortable posi-
tion and properly adjust the towels
and chair cloth.

To loosen the dandruff and stimulate
the circulation of the blood to the scalp.

10. Briefly outline the procedure
for giving a plain shampoo.

11. Briefly outline the massage
manipulations applied to the
scalp during a shampoo.

1. Adjust temperature of water and
wet hair with warm water.

2. Apply shampoo to form thick lather
over scalp and hair.

3. Massage scalp for several minutes.

4. Rinse hair with warm water and re-
peat lathering if necessary.

5. Rinse hair thoroughly with cool
water.

6. Wipe face and ears thoroughly.

7. Dry and comb hair.

1. After the lathering is done, stand
behind the customer.

2. Place the finger-tips at the back of
the head just below the ears.

3. Apply rotary movements from the
ears to the temples up to the forehead,
then over the top of the head down
to the neck.

4. Repeat these movements for several
minutes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

169

12. Give eight reasons why a
customer may find fault with
a shampoo.

1. Improper selection of shampoo.

2. Insufficient scalp massage.

3. Insufficient rinsing of hair.

4. Water too cold or too hot.

5. Allowing soapy water to run down
the customer's forehead, eyes, or ears.

6. Wetting or soiling the customer's
clothing.

7. Scraping the scalp with finger nails.

8. Improper drying of the hair.

13. For what purpose is a
oil shampoo indicated?

hot

To correct
scalp.

a dry condition

14. What kind of oil is best for
a hot oil shampoo?

Either fresh olive oil or almond oil.

15. When is it advisable to rec-
ommend an egg shampoo?

If the customer has a dry, brittle con-
dition of the hair, and a tender scalp.

170 HAIR TONICS

HAIR TONICS

The barber should be familiar with the different types
of hair tonics so that he will be able to advise the correct
tonic for a particular condition (dry or oily scalp).

A hair tonic is a solution containing alcohol, water, oil,
and an antiseptic or irritant (a chemical agent which has a
stimulating action). The liquids cleanse the scalp and help
to remove dandruff. Whereas the antiseptic prevents the
growth of bacteria on the scalp, the irritant, together with
the alcohol, stimulates the circulation. The small amount of
oil dresses the hair.

If the label or advertising literature of the hair tonic
does not reveal the amount of alcohol, antiseptic or irritant
it contains, it is advisable to get this information direct from
the manufacturer. To note if there is any improvement
in the condition of the scalp over a period of time, the
barber should keep a written record of the kind of tonic used
and the number of applications. This information will be
helpful in judging the relative merits of different hair tonics.

Hair tonics have an important place in the barber shop.
They can be used to advantage with many scalp and hair
treatments, or when the hair is to be dressed. The barber
who knows his work is in a position to discover scalp troubles
and recommend suitable hair tonics for their correction. Cus-
tomers appreciate the friendly interest shown by barbers and
generally follow their advice. The most appropriate time to
start such a conversation and explain the reason for the tonic
is just before the hair is to be combed. Once a customer starts
to use a hair tonic, he will probably continue its use if re-
minded at the proper time.

Scalp Steam

The effectiveness of a hair tonic is increased by means
of either :

1. Steaming towels.

2. Scalp steamer.

HAIR TONICS 171

To increase the effectiveness of a hair tonic application,
the steaming of the scalp is recommended. The steam relaxes
the pores, softens scalp and hair, increases circulation, making
the hair and scalp more receptive to hair tonics.

The scalp steamer is a helpful piece of equipment. It
assures a constant and controlled source of steam. When
ready to be used, fill the container with water, fit the hood
over the customer's head and turn on the electricity. Many
hoods have openings on the side for the hands to be inserted
in order to give a scalp massage together with the scalp steam.

Steaming towels are used in the absence of a scalp steam-
er. They are prepared, one at a time, by soaking the towel in
steaming water. The excess water is wrung out and the
steaming towel is wrapped around the customer's head. As
the towel cools, another one is applied in its place.

Step-by-Step Procedure in Giving A Scalp Steam

1. Apply regular scalp manipulations to increase the cir-
culation of the blood.

2. Steam the scalp with two hot towels or scalp steamer.

3. Apply the hair tonic carefully and massage it well into
the scalp.

4. Comb the hair neatly.

172

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

HAIR TONICS

1. What are hair tonics and
what are their benefits?

Hair tonics are lotions or cosmetics
applied to the hair or scalp for the
purpose of preventing or removing
dandruff and for dressing the hair.

2. Why should the barber know
the various kinds of hair
tonics?

In order to be able to recommend the
correct hair tonic for the required con-
dition of the hair or scalp.

3. Where can the barber obtain
reliable information about
hair tonics?

Read advertising literature, read labels
on bottles carefully and consult with
the manufacturer of each hair tonic.

4. Why should the barber keep
a record of the customer's
hair tonic treatments?

To note the progress of the treatment
and for future references in similar
conditions.

5. What is a scalp steam?

The steaming of the scalp by means of
steaming towels or a scalp steamer,
followed by the application of a hair
tonic.

6. Give the four steps for ap-
plying a scalp steam.

1. Apply regular scalp manipulations
to stimulate the circulation of the blood.

2. Steam the scalp with two hot towels
or scalp steamer.

3. Apply the hair tonic carefully and
massage it well into the scalp.

4. Comb the hair neatly.

SCALP TREATMENTS

173

SCALP TREATMENTS

Scalp Massage

Scalp massage as used in barbering is given either as a
separate treatment or in connection with other hair and scalp
treatments. To become competent in scalp massage, barbers
require sound training as well as continued practice.

The purpose of a scalp massage is to preserve the health
of the scalp and hair, and combat such disorders as dandruff
and excessive hair loss.

A thorough scalp massage is beneficial in the following
ways:

1. The blood and lymph flow is increased.

2. Nerves are rested and soothed.

3. Scalp muscles are stimulated.

4. Sweat and oil glands become more active.

5. Scalp is made more flexible.

6. Promotes hair growth and makes the hair lustrous.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Scalp Massage

Position: Place the finger-tips of each hand
at the hair-line on each side of the custo-
mer's head, hands pointing upward. (Fig. 1).

Movement: Slide the fingers firmly up-
ward, spreading the finger-tips. Continue
until the fingers meet at the center or top
of the scalp. Repeat three or four times.

Fig. 1

Position: Place the fingers of each hand on
the sides of the head. (Fig. 2.)

Movement: Use the thumbs to massage
from behind the ears towards the crown.
Repeat four or five times. Move the fingers
so that both thumbs meet at the hair-line
at the back of the neck. Rotate the thumbs
upwards towards the crown.

Fig". 2

174

SCALP TREATMENTS

Position: Step to the right side of the cust-
omer. Place the left hand back of the head.
Stretch the thumb and fingers of the right
hand against and over the forehead, just
above the eyebrows. (Fig. 3.)

Movement: Massage the right hand slowly
and firmly in an upward direction towards
the crown; while keeping the left hand
in a fixed position at the back of the head.
Repeat four or five times.

Fig. 3

Position: Step to the back of the customer.
Place the hands on each side of the head,
just in front of the hair-line. (Fig. 4.)

Movement: Rotate the finger-tips three
times. On the fourth rotation, apply a
quick, upward twist, firm enough to move
the scalp. Continue this movement on the
sides and top of the scalp.. Repeat three
or four times.

Fig. 4

Position: Place the fingers of each hand on
the side of the head.

Movement: Rotate the thumbs behind the
ears. Repeat three or four times. Move
the thumb to the back of the neck at the
hair-line. Apply rotary movements in an
upward direction towards the crown.

Fig. 5 — Diagram of Rotary
Movements of the Scalp

Rotary movements are used in scalp massage because
they loosen the scalp tissue as well as improve the health of
hair and scalp. When giving a scalp massage, care should
be taken to give the manipulations slowly without pulling the
hair in any way.

To derive the greatest benefit from scalp massages, they
should be given at least once a week for normal scalps. In
cases of hair loss or other hair or scalp troubles, give three or
four treatments each week. A series of scalp treatments
yields better results than if given occasionally or irregularly.

SCALP TREATMENTS 175

When To Recommend Scalp Treatments

The barber employs scalp treatments in his work for an-y
of the following reasons:

1. To keep the scalp clean and healthy.

2. To promote the growth of hair.

3. To prevent the excessive loss of hair.

When advising customers to take scalp treatments, al-
ways explain that regular, systematic treatments are neces-
sary to assure lasting improvement. In mild cases, at least
one scalp treatment a week is required. For severe cases,
the frequency of treatment is increased to twice or three
times a week. Scalp treatments can be given less frequently
if any improvement is noted.

No barber should undertake to treat any scalp disease.
If the customer has any abnormal scalp condition, it is safest
and best to refer him to his private doctor. To assist recov-
ery, the doctor may suggest that the patient receive supple-
mentary scalp treatment by the barber. Cooperating with
the doctor is in the best interests of the customer.

GENERAL SCALP TREATMENT

The purpose of a general scalp treatment is to keep the
scalp and hair in a clean arid healthy condition. Regular
scalp treatments are also beneficial in preventing baldness.

Step-by-Step Procedure After A Shampoo

1. Dry the hair and scalp thoroughly.

2. Part the hair and apply a scalp ointment directly to
the scalp.

3. Place both thumbs about ^4 of an mcn apart on
each side of the parted hair.

4. Rotate the thumbs in a circular manner, pressing
firmly against the scalp.

5. Make another hair part about an inch away from
the first one. Apply ointment and massage.

6. Repeat steps 2-5 and continue until the entire scalp
has been treated.

176

SCALP TREATMENTS

7. Expose scalp to red dermal light or infra-red lamp
for four to eight minutes, parting the hair to permit max-
imum exposure.

Applying Heat
with Infra-Red Lamp

Applying High-Frequency
Current

8. Stimulate the scalp with high-frequency current for
three to five minutes.

9. Apply hair tonic and work it well into the scalp.
10. Comb hair neatly.

Scalp Treatment with Vibrator

A vibrator is an effective
mechanical aid in giving a
stimulating scalp massage.

Before using the vibrator,
it is adjusted on the back of
the hand, leaving the thumb
and fingers free. Then, turn
on the current. The vibrations
are transmitted through the
cushions of the finger-tips. The
same movements are followed
as for a regular hand scalp
massage.

When using the vibrator on the scalp, be careful to regu-
late the intensity and duration of the vibrations as well as
the pressure used.

Massaging the Scalp
with Vibrator

SCALP TREATMENTS 177

SCALP STEAM

A scalp steam is used to stimulate the blood supply going
to and from the scalp.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Scalp Steam

1. Apply regular scalp manipulations.

2. Steam the scalp with two hot towels or with scalp
steamer.

3. Apply hair tonic carefully and massage it well into
the scalp.

4. Comb hair neatly.

DRY SCALP TREATMENT

Inactivity of the oil glands or the excessive removal of
natural oil from the hair and scalp may produce a dry
Rendition of the scalp. Among the contributory causes of a
«e£y scalp are leading an indoor life, frequent washing of
5§e hair with strong soaps or alcoholic shampoos and the con-
Siued use of drying tonics or lotions on the hair and scalp.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Dry Scalp Treatment

1. Massage and stimulate the scalp.

2. Apply prepared egg shampoo and work it into the
hair and scalp. If scalp is exceedingly dry, hot oil should be
applied and massaged into the scalp before the egg shampoo.

3. Rinse hair with tepid water and dry scalp thoroughly.

4. Apply tissue cream into the scalp with rotary fric-
tional movements.

5. Apply a red dermal light or infra-red lamp over the
scalp for a period of five minutes.

6. Apply high-frequency current over the scalp for five
to six minutes.

7. Comb hair neatly.

178 SCALP TREATMENTS

OILY SCALP TREATMENT

The main causes of an oily scalp are excessive intake
of fatty foods in the diet and the resultant over-activity
of the oil glands.

Step-by-Step Procedure For An Oily Scalp Treatment

1. Gently massage the scalp to relax the nerves and
muscles.

2. Wash the scalp with tar shampoo.

3. Dry excessive moisture from the hair, leaving the
hair in a damp condition.

4. Apply a mild astringent lotion to the scalp by part-
ing the hair, and steam it well with several steam towels.

5. Dry excessive moisture with a towel.

6. Barber and customer wear eye goggles.

7. Expose scalp to ultra-violet rays for six to eight
minutes.

8. Apply an astringent or alcoholic scalp lotion to the
scalp.

9. Expose the scalp to the red dermal lamp for five
minutes.

10. Dress the hair, without brushing, using comb only.

DANDRUFF TREATMENT

The principal signs of dandruff are the appearance of
white scales on the hair and scalp and the accompanying
itching of the scalp. Dandruff may be associated with either
a dry or oily condition of the scalp. The more common causes
of dandruff are poor circulation of blood to the scalp, im-
proper diet, neglect of cleanliness and infection. To prevent
the spread of dandruff in the barber shop, the barber must
sterilize all barber implements and avoid the use in common
of combs, brushes and scalp applicators.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Dandruff Treatment

1. Shampoo according to the condition of the scalp
(dry or oily dandruff).

2. Dry the hair thoroughly.

SCALP TREATMENTS

179

3. Apply a dandruff lotion or antiseptic lotion to the
scalp with a cotton pledget.

4. Apply four or five steam towels or use scalp steamer
over the lotion.

5. Dry the hair thoroughly.

Applying Ultra- Violet Rays

6. Barber and customer put on goggles.

7. Expose scalp to ultra-violet rays for six to ten min-
utes, parting the hair every half-inch across the head from
temple to temple.

8. Apply regular scalp manipulations for five minutes.

9. Apply dandruff ointment to the scalp and retain
it until the next treatment.

10. Expose scalp to red dermal light for five minutes.

1 1 . Apply high-frequency current for 6 to 8 minutes.

12. Comb hair neatly.

Simple Dandruff

Excessive Dandruff

180

SCALP TREATMENTS

TREATMENT FOR ALOPECIA

Alopecia refers to a condition of premature baldness or
excessive hair loss. The chief causes responsible for alopecia
are poor circulation, lack of proper stimulation, improper
nourishment and certain infectious skin diseases such as tinea,
erysipelas and syphilis. The treatment for alopecia is direct-
ed at stimulating the blood supply and reviving the hair
papillae involved in hair growth.

Step-by-Step Procedure For Treating Alopecia

1. Apply regular scalp manipulations.

2. Shampoo the scalp as required. For a dry scalp,
use an oil shampoo; for an oily scalp, use a tar shampoo.

3. Dry the scalp thoroughly.

4. Cover the eyes with goggles.

5. Expose the scalp to ultra-violet rays for about five
minutes.

6. Apply scalp ointment or lotion.

7. Apply high-frequency current with glass rake elec-
trode for about five minutes, without sparking.

8. Comb hair neatly.

Beginning baldness in men from 30 to 40
Scalp treatments are most beneficial at this stage

SCALP TREATMENTS

181

Partial baldness in men from 40 to 50
Scalp treatments are worth trying at this stage

Extensive baldness in men from 50 to 60
Too late for scalp treatments

Extensive baldness in men

from 61 and over
Too late for scalp treatments

182

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

SCALP TREATMENTS

1. What is the purpose of scalp
massage?

To maintain a healthy scalp and hair,
and to combat such disorders as dan-
druff and excessive hair loss.

2. In what ways does scalp
massage benefit the blood
and nerves?

The blood flow is increased, while the
nerves are rested and soothed.

3. What is the purpose of gen-
eral scalp treatment?

4. What is accomplished by
using a scalp steam?

5. When is a dry scalp treat-
ment recommended?

To keep the scalp and hair in a
healthy condition, and to prevent bald-
ness.

A scalp steam stimulates the blood
supply to the scalp.
If there is a deficiency of natural oil
in the scalp and hair.

6. What are some of the com-
mon causes of a dry scalp?

Leading an indoor life, frequent wash-
ing of the hair and the continued use
of alcoholic lotions, tonics and sham-
poos on the scalp and hair, and in-
activity of the oil glands in the scalp.

7. What are the main causes of
an oily scalp?

Excessive intake of fatty foods in the
diet, and the resultant over-activity of
the oil glands in the scalp.

8. What are the principal signs
of dandruff?

The appearance of white scales on the
scalp and hair and the accompanying
itching of the scalp.

9. What are the common caus-
es of dandruff?

Poor circulation of blood to the scalp,
improper diet, uncleanliness and in-
fection.

10. What are the chief causes of
alopecia?

11. What is the aim in treating
alopecia?

12. Give the four steps for ap-
plying a scalp steam.

Poor blood circulation, lack of proper
stimulation, improper nourishment and
certain infectious skin diseases such
as tinea, erysipelas and syphilis.
Stimulating the blood supply to the
hair papillae encourages the growth
and replacement of hairs.
"l7~Apply regular scalp manipulations.

2. Steam the scalp with either 2 hot
towels or a scalp steamer.

3. Apply hair tonic carefully and mas-
sage it well into the scalp.

4. Comb hair neatly.

183

THEORY OF MASSAGE

Most customers enjoy a facial or scalp massage for its
stimulating and relaxing effects. It produces a glow in the
cheeks and a sparkling feeling in the scalp, besides removing
that tired look. The barber who has acquired a skillful
touch in applying massage movements is the one whose
services will be in greatest demand.

Massage involves the application of external manipula-
tions to the face or any other part of the body. This is ac-
complished by means of the hands or with the aid of me-
chanical or electrical appliances. Each massage movement is
applied in a definite way to accomplish a particular purpose.

Parts of the body usually massaged by the barber are the
head, face and neck.

The basic manipulations used in massage are as follows:

1. Effleurage (stroking movement) : This is a light, con-
tinuous movement applied in a slow and rhythmic manner
over the skin. No pressure is employed. Over large surfaces,
the palm is used ; while over small surfaces, the finger-tips are
employed. Effleurage is frequently applied to the forehead,
face and scalp, for its soothing and relaxing effects.

Palmar Stroking
of Face

Digital Stroking
of Forehead

Digital Stroking
to Side of Head

184

THEORY OF MASSAGE

2. Petrissage (kneading movement) : In this movement,
the skin and flesh are grasped between the thumb and fin-
gers. As the tissues are lifted from their underlying struc-
tures, they are squeezed, rolled or pinched with a light, firm
pressure. This movement exerts an invigorating effect on
the part being treated.

Digital Kneading of Cheeks

3. Friction (deep rubbing movement) : This movement
requires pressure on the skin while it is being moved over the
underlying structures. The fingers or palm are employed in
this movement. Friction has a marked influence on the cir-
culation and glandular activity of the skin.

Palmar Circular
Friction of Face

Circular Friction
with Finger-Tips

Circular Friction
with Thumb

4. Percussion or tapotement (tapping, slapping and
hacking movement ) : This form of massage is the most stimu-
lating. It should be applied with care and discretion. Tap-
ping is more gentle than slapping movements. Percussion
movements tone the muscles and impart a healthy glow to
the part being massaged.

In tapping, the finger-tips are brought down against, the
skin in rapid succession ; whereas in slapping, the whole palm

THEORY OF MASSAGE

185

is used to strike the skin. Hacking movement employs the
outer ulnar borders of the hands which are struck against
the skin in alternate succession.

In facial massage, light digital tapping only is used.

Digital Tapping of Face

5. Vibration (shaking movement) : The hands or vibra-
tor are used to transmit a trembling movement to the skin
and its underlying structures. To prevent over-stimulation,
this movement should be used sparingly and should never
exceed a few seconds duration on any one spot.

Vibratory Movement
on Face

Vibrating Nerve Motor
Points of Face

Physiological Effects of Massage

Skillfully applied massage influences the structures and
functions of the body, either directly or indirectly. The im-
mediate effects of massage are first noticed on the skin. The
part being massaged responds by increasing its functional
activities, as noticed by a more active circulation, secretion,
nutrition and excretion. There is scarcely an organ of .the
body which is not favorably affected by scientific massage
treatments.

186 THEORY OF MASSAGE

Beneficial results may be obtained by proper facial and
scalp massage, as follows:

1. The skin and all its structures are nourished.

2. The muscle fiber is stimulated and strengthened.

3. Fat cells are reduced.

4. The circulation of the blood is increased.

5. The activity of the glands is stimulated.

6. The skin is rendered soft and pliable.

7. The nerves are soothed and rested.

8. Pain is sometimes relieved.

Rest and relaxation are brought about by giving soft,
light, slow rhythmical movements, or very slow, light vibra-
tions for a very short time.

The tissues are stimulated by movements of moderate
pressure, speed and time, or by light vibrations of moderate
speed and time.

Contours or fatty tissues are reduced by firm kneading or
fast slapping movements, producing a sensation of heat or
warmth over a fairly long period of time. Moderately fast
vibrations with firm pressure will also accomplish this re-
duction.

Electrical appliances most commonly used in giving facial
and scalp massage are as follows:

1. Vibrators.

2. High-frequency applicators.

3. Therapeutic lamps.

a) Infra-red lamp.

b) Ultra-violet lamp.

c) White or colored bulbs.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

187

THEORY OF MASSAGE

1. What is massage?

A system of manipulation applied with
the hands or with the aid of mechani-
cal or electrical devices.

2. Which parts of the body are
usually massaged by the
barber?

The head, face and neck.

3. Name five basic movements
used in massage.

1. Effleurage or stroking movements.

2. Petrissage or kneading movements.

3. Friction or deep rubbing movements.

4. Percussion movements (tapping, slap-
ping or hacking).

5. Vibration or shaking movements.

4. What are the effects of mas-
sage on the skin?

The skin is nourished, stimulated and
rendered soft and flexible.

5. What is the effect of massage
on the blood?

The blood circulation is improved.

6. What are the effects of mas-
sage on the nerves?

The nerves are rested and soothed.

7. What are the effects of mas-
sage on the muscles?

The muscles
strengthened.

are stimulated and

8. What is the effect of massage
on fatty deposits?

Fat cells are reduced.

9. Which massage movements
produce a relaxing effect on
the customer?

Soft, light, slow movements, either
with the hands or vibrator.

10. Which massage movements
produce a stimulating effect
on the customer?

11. Which massage movements
reduce fatty tissue?

Moderate pressure and speed, either
with the hands or vibrator.

Firm kneading movements.

189

FACIAL TREATMENTS

Facial treatments can be developed into profitable ser-
vices which will keep customers satisfied. Discriminating
men seek facials for their soothing and refreshing benefits.
Special facials are available for particular conditions of the
skin. A tactfully directed sales talk can materially help to
stimulate revenue from facial business.

To be competent with facials, the barber should know
how to analyze the condition of the customer's skin and rec-
ommend the most effective treatment. To accomplish this
scientifically requires a knowledge of the anatomy of the
head, face and neck in connection with facial massage.

Quiet, orderly surroundings are essential for giving fa-
cials. A quiet manner on the part of the barber is conducive
to the customer's relaxation. Customers appreciate a clean,
comfortable facial service.

Facial treatments are beneficial for the following reasons.

1. To cleanse, nourish and stimulate the skin.

2. To rest tired nerves and eyes.

3. To strengthen weak or sagging muscles.

4. To preserve the youthful texture and complexion of
the skin.

5. To prevent the formation of wrinkles, ageing lines or
double chin.

To give various facial treatments, the following supplies
and equipment should be available:

Hot and cold water, towels, vibrator, therapeutic lamp,
and various preparations such as facial creams, ointments,
lotions, oils, packs, masks and powders.

Plain Facial

The plain facial is a general treatment beneficial for its
cleansing and stimulating action on the skin. It also exer-
cises as well as relaxes the facial muscles, thereby preserving
a youthful appearance and preventing the formation of
wrinkles.

190 FACIAL TREATMENTS

The five causes of wrinkles are:

1. Loosening of the elastic skin fibers because of ab-
normal tension or relaxation of the facial muscles.

2. Shrinking of the skin tissue because of advancing years.

3. Excessive dryness or oiliness of the skin.

4. Facial expressions which continually crease and fold
the skin.

5. Improper hygienic care of the skin.

Preparation For Plain Facial

In preparing the customer for a plain facial, the barber
should pay attention to the following points:

1. Arrange all necessary supplies in their proper place.

2. Adjust chair, linens and towels.

3. Protect customer's hair by fastening a towel around
his head.

4. Recline the barber chair.

5. Wash hands with soap and warm water.

All creams and other products should be removed from
their containers with a spatula; never, under any circum-
stances, should the fingers be dipped into any of the prod-
ucts used.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Plain Facial

The following steps are employed in giving a plain facial :

1. Apply cleansing cream over the face, using stroking
and rotary movements.

2. Remove cleansing cream with a smooth warm towel.

3. Steam face mildly with three towels.

4. Apply tissue cream with finger tips into the skin.

5. Gently massage the face, using continuous and rhyth-
mic movements. (See facial movements on page 192.)

6. Wipe off excess cream with a hot towel.

7. Steam the face with hot towels.

8. Remove hot towel and follow with a cool towel.

9. Pat an astringent or face lotion over the face and dry.

10. Apply powder over the face and remove excess powder.

1 1 . Raise the barber chair.

12. Comb hair neatly.

FACIAL TREATMENTS 191

ROLLING CREAM MASSAGE

The purpose of a rolling cream massage is to cleanse
and massage the skin of the face.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Rolling Cream Massage

1. Prepare the customer and steam the face with warm
towels.

2. Apply the soft rolling cream.

3. Manipulate the face with rhythmic, rotary, stroking,
rubbing movements, performed with the tips of the fingers,
until most of the cream has been rolled off.

4. Apply a little cold cream, and cleanse the skin with
a few lighter manipulations.

5. Remove all the cream with a warm towel, and follow
with a mild witch-hazel steam.

6. Apply one or two cool towels and apply a toilet
lotion.

7. Dry thoroughly and powder.

Points To Remember In Facial Massage

1. Have customer thoroughly relaxed.

2. Provide quiet atmosphere.

3. Maintain a clean, orderly arrangement of supplies.

4. Follow systematic procedure.

5. Give facial massage properly.

Seven Reasons Why A Customer May Find Fault
With A Facial Massage

1. Not being careful or sanitary.

2. Harming or scratching the skin.

3. Excessive or rough massage.

4. Getting facial creams into eyes.

5. Using towels that are too hot.

6. Breathing into the customer's face.

7. Offensive body odor, foul breath or tobacco odor.

192

FACIAL TREATMENTS

FACIAL MASSAGE MOVEMENTS USING HANDS

Facial Massage Movements

Fig. 1

1. Apply cleansing cream light-
ly over the face with stroking,
spreading and circular move-
ments. (Fig. 1).

Fig. 2

2. Stroke fingers across fore-
head with up and down move-
ments. (Fig. 2).

Fig. 3

3. Manipulate fingers across
forehead with a circular move-
ment. (Fig. 3).

Fig. 4

4. Stroke fingers upward along
side of nose (Fig. 4).

FACIAL TREATMENTS

193

Fig. 5

5. Apply a circular movement
over side of nose and use a
light, stroking movement around
the eyes. (Fig. 5).

Fig. 7

8. Gently stroke both thumbs
across upper lip. (Fig. 7).

Fig. 9

12. Manipulate fingers from un-
der chin and neck to back of
ears, and up to temples. (Fig.
9, 10).

Repeat all massage movements
three to six times.

Fig. 6

6. Manipulate the temples with
a wide circular movement.
(Fig. 6).

7. Manipulate the front and
back of the ears with a circular
movement. (Fig. 6).

Fig. 8

9. Manipulate fingers from cor-
ners of mouth to cheeks and
temples with a circular move-
ment. (Fig. 8).

10. Manipulate fingers along
lower jaw bone from tip of chin
to ear with a circular move-
ment. (Fig. 8).

11. Stroke fingers above and
below along lower jaw bone
from tip of chin to ear (Fig. 8).

Fig. 10

194 FACIAL TREATMENTS

FACIAL MASSAGE MOVEMENTS USING VIBRATOR

1. Adjust the vibrator
on right hand and place
finger-tips on left nostril.
Vibrate left side of face as
follows :

2. Vibrate a few light
up and down movements on
the left side of nose.

3. Gently slide fingers
around eyes and then direct
them toward center of fore-
head, n^

4. Vibrate rotary move-
ment towards the left tem-
ple. Pause for a moment. Facicd

5. Continue the rotary

movements down along the jaw line toward the tip of chin.

6. Vibrate from the chin towards the cheek, using
wider, firmer movements.

1 '. Continue with a slow, light stroke at the temple,
around the left ear, over the jaw bone, towards the center
of the neck and then below the chin.

8. Vibrate rotary movements over the neck, behind
the ear, up to the temple and then towards the center of
the forehead.

9. Repeat steps 2-8 on the right side of the face.

10. Repeat steps 2-8 on the left side and then over on
the right side of face.

Rules to Follow in Using Vibrator

1. Regulate the number of vibrations to avoid over-
stimulation.

2. Do not use the vibrator too long in any one spot.

3. Vary the amount of pressure in accordance with
the results desired.

FACIAL TREATMENTS

195

4. Do not use vibrator over the upper lip as the vibra-
tions may cause discomfort.

5. For soothing and relaxation effects, give very slow,
light vibrations for a very short time.

6. For stimulating effects, give light vibrations of mod-
erate speed and time.

7. For reducing fatty tissues, give moderate, fast vibra-
tions with firm pressure.

ELECTRIC VIBRATORS

Illustrations of three different types of electric hand vibrators

popular with barbers which are used for

facial and scalp massage.

196

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

FACIAL TREATMENTS

1. What are five benefits of fa-
cial treatments?

1. To cleanse, nourish and stimulate
the skin.

2. To rest tired nerves and eyes.

3. To strengthen weak or sagging mus-
cles.

4. To preserve the youthful texture
and complexion of the skin.

5. To prevent the formation of wrin-
kles, ageing lines or double chin.

2. Name five causes of wrinkles.

1 Loosening of the elastic skin fibers
because of abnormal tension or relax-
ation of the facial muscles.

2. Shrinking of the skin tissue because
of advancing years.

3. Excessive dryness or oiliness of the
skin.

4. Facial expressions which continually
crease and fold the skin.

5. Improper hygienic care of the skin.

3. Which supplies and equip-
ment are required for facial
treatments?

4. Why should the barber know
the histology of the skin and
the anatomy of the head,
face and neck in giving fa-
cial massage?

Hot and cold water, towels, vibrator,
therapeutic lamp and various prepar-
ations such as facial creams, oint-
ments, lotions, oils, packs, masks and
powders.

In order to select the proper cream for
each type of skin and be able to apply
the proper massage manipulations as
required by the customer.

5. Why should the barber know
the composition and action
of various creams applied to
the skin?

In order to select and recommend the
proper preparation for the particular
condition of the skin being treated.

PLAIN FACIAL

1. In giving a plain facial, what
attention should the barber
show toward his customer?

2. Why should the barber nev-
er lean over the customer's
face?

Make customer comfortable and make
a facial as restful and refreshing as
possible.

To avoid inhaling each other's breath
or smelling each other's body odor.

3. How should the customer be
protected from offensive to-
bacco odor?

The barber should never use tobacco
while working on a customer. If to-
bacco was used, rinse mouth before
starting to work.

4. What preparation should be
made before giving a plain
facial?

Arrange all necessary supplies in their
proper place; wash hands; adjust lin-
ens and towels; protect the customer's
hair by fastening a towel around his
head; recline the customer.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

19V

5. Briefly outline the procedure
for giving a plain facial.

1. Apply cleansing cream over the face,
using stroking and rotary movements.

2. Remove cleansing cream with a
smooth, warm towel.

3. Steam face mildly with* three towels.

4. Apply tissue cream into the skin
with finger-tips.

5. Gently massage the face, using con-
tinuous and rhythmic movements.

6. Wipe off excess cream with a hot
towel.

7. Steam the face with hot towels.

8. Remove hot towels from face and
follow with a cool towel.

9. Pat an astringent or face lotion over
the face, and dry.

10. Apply powder over the face and
remove excess powder.

11. Raise the barber chair.

12. Comb hair neatly.

6. What are five important
points to remember in giv-
ing a plain facial?

7. Give seven reasons why a
customer may find fault with
a plain facial.

1. Have customer thoroughly relaxed.

2. Provide quiet atmosphere.

3. Maintain clean, orderly arrangement
of supplies.

4. Follow systematic procedure.

5. Give facial massage properly.

1. Not being careful and sanitary.

2. Harming or scratching the skin.

3. Excessive or rough massage.

4. Getting facial cream into eyes.

5. Using towels that are too hot.

6. Breathing into customer's face.

7. Offensive body odor, foul breath or
tobacco odor.

FACIAL TREATMENTS

199

SPECIAL PROBLEMS
DRY SKIN FACIAL

The purpose of a dry skin facial is to stimulate the
activity of the oil glands and to replenish a deficiency of
the natural oil on the skin.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Dry Skin Facial

1 . Prepare customer as for a plain facial.

2. Apply cleansing cream over the face.

3. Remove the cream with a soft, dry towel.

4. Swab face with cotton pads dipped in witch hazel.

5. Steam the face moderately with 3 or 4 warm towels.

6. Massage a tissue cream containing lanolin gently into
the skin, using stroking, circular and rotary movements.

7. Expose the skin to a red dermal light or infra-red
lamp for three to six minutes.

Applying Heat
with Infra-Red Lamp

Applying High-Frequency
Current

8. Knead the skin between the finger-tips and thumb
by gently twisting it to the right and then to the left.

9. Apply the high-frequency current with a glass elec-
trode for three to four minutes.

10. Wipe excess cream with three or four warm towels,
followed by a cold towel.

1 1 . Dry the face thoroughly with a soft towel.

12. Rub several drops of muscle oil into the skin.

13. Apply powder.

200

FACIAL TREATMENTS

FACIAL FOR OILY SKIN AND BLACKHEADS

An excessively oily skin or any skin showing signs of
enlarged pores or blackheads will benefit from this special
facial treatment. This condition may be due to excessive use
of starchy and oily foods, and also due to faulty hygienic
habits.

Step-by-Step Procedure For An Oily Skin Facial

1. Prepare customer as for a plain facial.

Notice Plug, or "Blackhead" Around Mouth
of Hair Follicle

2. Cleanse the skin either with cleansing cream or soap
and warm water.

3. Steam the skin with three hot towels.

4. Press out blackheads with a sterilized comedone ex-
tractor.

Comedone Extractor

FACIAL TREATMENTS

201

5. Pat the face with an astringent lotion and then apply
an astringent cream.

6. Apply regular hand manipulations for about five
minutes.

7. Apply the mild high-frequency current for three
to four minutes.

8. Apply warm towels to remove astringent cream.

9. Sponge the face with a soda solution (one table-
spoonful of baking soda to one quart of water).

10. Dip several layers of cheese cloth or a piece of linen
into astringent lotion and spread it over the face for a
few minutes.

11. Remove covering and apply one or two cold towels.

12. Apply an astringent lotion, dry and powder the face.

FACIAL FOR WHITEHEADS (MILIA)

Follow routine of facial for
oily skin and blackheads for

steps 1 to 3. The milia must be
removed by opening the tiny
sacs with the sharp sterilized
end of the comedone extractor
and expelling the contents. A
piece of cotton dipped in an an-
tiseptic solution should then be
applied. Continue the treat-
ment from steps 5 to 12.

Neck of Hair Follicle
and opening lor
Hair Shalt

Plug ol

Sebaceous Matter
including a
Coiled Hair

Hair Root

Hair Bulb

Hair Papilla

Formation of Milia (Whitehead)

and Enlargement of Sebaceous

Gland with Horny Plug

202 FACIAL TREATMENTS

CLAY PACK

The clay pack is suitable for
all types of skin except a dry skin.
It has a mild bleaching and tonic
effect which prevents undue
wrinkling of the skin.
Clay Pack

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Clay Pack

1. Prepare a warm clay pack according to the manu-
facturer's directions.

2. Prepare the customer by arranging the linen and fas-
tening a towel around the head to protect the hair.

3. Steam the skin with three moderately hot towels.

4. Spread the warm clay pack over the warm skin,
using continuous stroking and rotary movements.

5. Cover the eyes with cotton pads moistened in witch
hazel.

6. Dry the pack on the skin by exposure to a red
dermal lamp.

7. Remove the pack with warm, damp steam towels.

8. Expose the face to the soothing blue light for a few
minutes.

9. Apply cold cream or tissue cream with a few sooth-
ing massage movements.

10. Remove cream, and apply two cold towels.

11. Apply a mild lotion, dry and powder.

FACIAL TREATMENTS 203

HOT OIL MASK

The hot oil mask is recommended for extremely dry,
parched and scaly skins, prevalent during dry, hot or windy
weather. .It is used to soften, smooth and stimulate the skin
tissues.

Hot Oil Mask

Step-by-Step Procedure for Hot Oil Mask

1. Prepare customer as for plain facial.

2. Prepare mask. Saturate cotton pads (4x4 inches) or
an 18-inch square of gauze, in warm mineral or
muscle oil.

3. Follow steps 1 to 5 as in plain facial on page 190.

4. After the manipulations, do not remove cream, but
place the cotton pads or gauze over the face.

5. Adjust eye pads.

6. Use red dermal light or infra-red lamp from ten to
fifteen minutes.

7. Remove mask and cream.

8. Finish the facial as in plain facial.

204 FACIAL TREATMENTS

BLEACH PACK

The bleach pack is used for the purpose of lightening
the shade of any tan or freckles present on the skin. Re-
peated treatments are necessary before any noticeable im-
provement can be obtained.

A bleach pack can be prepared by mixing together the
following ingredients: One tablespoon of fine almond meal,
one tablespoon of starch, two tablespoons of citric acid,
ten drops of tincture of benzoin, and two or three table-
spoons of peroxide.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Bleach Pack

1. Prepare bleach pack freshly for each application.

2. Prepare customer by arranging linen and fastening
a towel around the head to protect the hair.

3. Cover the eyes with cotton pads and protect the
eyebrows and sideburns with cold cream.

4. Steam the skin with three warm towels.

5. Spread the bleach mixture with the finger-tips over
the entire face.

6. Retain the bleach mixture on the face for six to
eight minutes.

7. Remove the pack gently with warm, moist towels.

8. Apply lemon cream with light, soothing manipula-
tions.

9. Remove excess cream and apply two cool towels.
10. Apply a mild lotion, dry and powder.

FACIAL TREATMENTS

205

ACNE FACIAL

Upon the advice of a physician
local treatments are helpful in cor-
recting acne and in clearing up the
skin. Cleanliness and sterilization
must be strictly observed in treating
any form of acne.

Step-by-Step Procedure
For An Acne Facial

1. Cleanse the skin with cleans-
ing cream.

2. Steam the face with three
moderately hot towels, and remove

Pimples , . , . , ,

the cream with the last towel.

3. Press out whiteheads and blackheads with a steri-
lized comedone extractor.

4. Sponge the skin well with an
antiseptic acne lotion.

5. Rub an acne cream gently
into the skin.

6. Cover the eyes with cotton
pads moistened in witch hazel.

7. Expose the face to the red
dermal light or infra-red lamp from
five to ten minutes.

8. Apply high-frequency cur-
rent for five minutes. Do not spark.

9. Wipe off excess cream with
two or three warm towels.

10. Sponge the skin with an
astringent lotion.

1 1 . Apply one or two cool towels, followed by an appli-
cation of witch hazel.

12. Dry and powder the face.

Hmr Shall

Opening of Puslule

Formation of Acne Pustule

and Enlargement of
Sebaceous Gland with Pus

206 FACIAL TREATMENTS

ACNE ROSACEA FACIAL

Acne Rosacea is also known as Rosacea

Acne rosacea is a chronic, inflammatory congestion of the
cheeks and nose. It is characterized by redness, dilation of
the blood vessels, and the formation of papules and pustules.

Acne rosacea is usually caused by bad digestion and over-
indulgence in alcoholic liquors. It may also be caused by
over-exposure, constipation, faulty elimination and hyper-
acidity. It is usually aggravated by eating and drinking hot,
highly spiced, or highly seasoned foods or drinks.

The treatment of acne rosacea belongs in the hands of a
physician, but the barber can improve the condition by giving
the following treatment under the guidance of the physician.

Step-by-Step Procedure For Treating Rosacea

No hot towels are used in this facial.

1. Apply cleansing cream.

2. Remove cream gently with a soft towel.

3. Sponge the face with a soda lotion (dissolve one
large tablespoon of baking soda in one quart of water).

4. Apply astringent cream. • ,

5. Expose the face to the blue light for five minutes.

6. Apply high-frequency current from ten to fifteen
minutes. (The galvanic current may be used with the positive
electrode instead of the high-frequency current).

7. Sponge face with witch hazel.

8. Dry and powder the face.

FACIAL TREATMENTS 207

FARADIC FACIAL

Faradic facial is recommended as a general stimulant. It
gives the muscles and tissues a mild passive exercise with a
soothing relaxation to the nerves. It has no chemical effect.

Step-by-Step Procedure For A Faradic Facial

1. Cleanse the skin with a cleansing cream.

2. Steam the face mildly and apply a cold cream.

3. Apply the faradic current, using the electrode.

4. Give facial manipulations as in facial massage.

5. Wipe the cream with a couple of warm towels, and
finish with two cool towels.

6. Apply a good antiseptic astringent.

7. Dry and powder the face.

208

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

SPECIAL PROBLEMS— FACIAL TREATMENTS

1. What is the purpose of a dry
skin facial?

2. What are the principal caus-
es of an oily skin?

3. When is a bleach pack ad-
vised for a customer?

To stimulate the activity of the oil
glands and to replenish a deficiency
of natural oil on the skin.

Excessive intake of starchy and oily
foods, and faulty hygienic habits.

To lighten the shade of tan or freckles.

4. Which instrument is used to
press out blackheads and
whiteheads?

Sterilized comedone extractor.

5. What is the action of a clay
pack on the skin?

6. Which facial treatments re-
quire the guidance of a phy-
sician?

It has a mild bleaching and tonic ef-
fect which prevents undue wrinkling
of the skin.

Acne facial and rosacea facial.

7. What are the beneficial ef-
fects of a faradic facial?

8. In which facial treatments
should the eyes be covered
with cotton pads?

Affords mild exercises for the facial
muscles and relaxes the nerves.

Clay pack, bleach pack, and acne
facial.

9. In which facial treatments
should an astringent lotion
or cream be applied?

10. In which facial treatment are
hot towels omitted?

11. When is a hot oil mask rec-
ommended?

Oily skin facial, acne facial, rosacea
facial and faradic facial.

Rosacea facial.

For customers whose skin is extreme-
ly dry, parched and scaly.

PART III

BARBER SCIENCE

211

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy and physiology are sciences dealing with the
structure and functions of the body. The body is organized
into a complex network of bones, muscles, nerves and blood
vessels. What affects one part ultimately influences the wel-
fare of the entire body.

The study of anatomy and physiology will help the bar-
ber to adjust his procedures in accordance with bodily
conditions.

Physiology is the study of the functions or activities per-
formed by the various organs of the body.

Anatomy is the study of the gross structure of the body,
which can be seen with the naked eye, such as muscles,
bones and arteries.

Histology is the study of the minute structure of the body
which can be seen only with the aid of a microscope such as
the layers of the skin or hair.

To practice barbering it is necessary for the barber to
shave with the grain of the beard and to know the reaction
of the skin to shaving. It is equally important that he know
the reaction of the skin, scalp and hair to the applications of
hot and cold towels, soaps, hair tonics, creams, massage and
electricity. For these reasons, the barber should study his-
tology of the skin, scalp and hair as well as the anatomy of
the underlying structures of the head, face and neck.

CELLS

In order to understand anatomy and physiology it is nec-
essary to study the structure and activities of cells. The
human body is composed of millions of specialized cells which
perform the functions required for living.

Cells are the basic units of all living matter — animals,
plants and bacteria. Living cells differ from each other in
respect to their size, shape, structure and function. In the
human body, the cells are highly specialized, and perform
such vital functions as movement, absorption, reproduction,
growth and elimination.

212

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The cell consists of protoplasm and contains the following
essential parts:

Cell Membrane
or Wall

Centrosome
Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane
Nucleus

Nucleoli

STRUCTURE
OF THE CELL

Diagram illustrating Indirect Division or Mitosis of the Cell

Composition. Most cells consist of the following parts:

1. Protoplasm:

a) Cytoplasm. b) Centrosome. c) Nucleus.

2. Cell membrane or wall.

All living cells contain protoplasm, a colorless jelly-like
substance in which protein, fat, carbohydrate, water and

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 213

mineral salts are present. A thin cell membrane or wall per-
mits soluble substances to enter and leave the protoplasm.
Near the center of the cell a nucleus ( dense protoplasm ) is lo-
cated. Outside the nucleus, cytoplasm (less dense proto-
plasm) and a centrosome are found. The cytoplasm con-
tains food materials necessary for growth, reproduction and
self-repair. The centrosome and nucleus control the repro-
duction of the cell.

Growth of the cell. As long as the cell receives an ade-
quate supply of food, oxygen ancl water, eliminates waste
products and is surrounded by a favorable environment ( pro-
per temperature and the absence of poisons and pressure),
it will continue to grow and prosper. When these require-
ments are not fulfilled, the cell will stop growing and may
eventually die.

In the human body, the bone and nerve cells stop grow-
ing at maturity. Most body cells are capable of growth
and self-repair during their life cycle. However, the deli-
cate nerve cells are incapable of self -repair after injury or
destruction by disease.

Reproduction of the cell. When the cell reaches maturity,
reproduction may take place by direct or indirect division.

1. Direct division, or amitosis, is a simple process where-
by the cell elongates, the nucleus and cytoplasm divide in
half, forming two separate cells. This method of reproduc-
tion occurs mainly among bacteria and plant life and rarely
takes place in human tissues.

2. Indirect division, or mitosis, is a complex process
whereby a series of changes occur in the nucleus before the
cell divides in half. This method of reproduction occurs in
human tissues. (See illustration on preceding page.)

Metabolism is a complex chemical process whereby the
body cells are nourished and supplied with energy to carry on
their many activities. In a healthy body, the metabolic rate is
kept under control by a secretion from the thyroid gland.

There are two phases to metabolism:

1. Anabolism, a constructive process.

2. Catabolism, a destructive process.

^14 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

During anabolism, the cells of the body absorb water,
food and oxygen for the purposes of growth, reproduction
and repair. In catabolism, the cells consume what they have
absorbed in order to perform specialized functions, such as
muscular effort, secretion or digestion.

TISSUES

Tissues are composed of groups of cells of the same kind.
Each tissue has a specific function and can be recognized by
its characteristic appearance. Body tissues are classified as
follows :

1. Connective tissue: serves to support, protect and bind
together other tissues of the body. Bone, cartilage, ligament,
tendon, and adipose tissue are examples of connective tissue.
Adipose or fatty tissue forms a protective layer underneath
the skin, surrounds the vital organs and affords support to
blood vessels and nerves in these areas.

2. Muscular tissue: serves to contract and move various
parts of the body.

a) Voluntary muscle tissue (striated) is under the
control of the will and permits the movements of muscles
such as those of the face, arms and legs.

b) Involuntary muscle tissue (non-striated) is under
the control of special nerve centers which permit the move-
ment of the intestines, stomach, and blood vessels.

c) Heart muscle tissue (cardiac) permits the move-
ment of the heart as the blood is pumped through it.

3. Nerve tissue: serves to carry messages, controls and co-
ordinates body functions by means of neurons or nerve cells
found in the muscles, skin, vital organs and glands.

4. Epithelial tissue: serves as a protective covering of the
outer and inner body surfaces such as that found on the skin,
mucous membranes, linings of the heart, digestive and res-
piratory organs and glands.

5. Liquid tissue: serves as a carrier of food, waste prod-
ucts, and hormones, by means of the blood and lymph.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 215

ORGANS

Organs are structures containing two or more different
tissues which are combined to accomplish a definite func-
tion. Each organ is so constructed that in a state of health
it will perform its function with ease and efficiency. Among
the important organs found in the body are the brain,
heart, lungs, kidneys, and the various glands.

SYSTEMS

Systems are groups of organs which cooperate for a
common purpose. The human body is composed of the fol-
lowing important systems.

Skeletal System Circulatory System Respiratory System
Muscular System Endocrine System Digestive System
Nervous System Excretory System Reproductive System

The skeletal system is the physical foundation of the body.
It is composed of differently shaped bones united by movable
and immovable joints. The function of the skeletal system
is to serve as a means of protection, of support or of loco-
motion.

The muscular system covers and shapes the skeleton.
Practically every contraction and movement of the body is
due to the action of muscles. The obvious movements of
the arms and hands, the contraction of the heart and stom-
ach, ajid the changes in facial expression, are the direct
result of muscular activity.

The nervous system is a highly developed and sensitive
organization of nerve tissues. Through it the individual is
made aware of his existence and relation to the outside
world. Nerves, branching out from the brain and spinal
cord, carry messages to and from all parts of the body.

The circulatory system is composed of the heart, blood
vessels, blood and lymph. The pumping action of the heart
distributes the vital fluids, blood and lymph, through the
blood vessels to all parts of the body. The blood acts as

216 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

a two-way carrier of supplies, bringing oxygen and food
materials to the cells and taking away waste products and
secretions from the cells. The lymph reaches all parts of the
body not reached by the blood, and assists in the exchange of
supplies required by the cells.

The endocrine system represents a group of specialized
glands which produce secretions called hormones. Among
the important endocrine glands are the pituitary and thy-
roid glands whose hormones regulate the processes of growth
and metabolism.

The excretory system includes the skin, kidneys, liver,
lungs and large intestine, which are engaged in the process of
eliminating waste products from the body. The skin gives off
perspiration, the lungs exhale carbon dioxide gas, the kid-
neys excrete urine, and the large intestine discharges refuse
from the body. The liver produces bile which contains certain
waste products.

The respiratory system is confined to the chest cavity
where the lungs are located. The blood, as it passes through
the lungs, is purified by the removal of carbon dioxide gas
and the intake of oxygen gas.

The digestive system includes the mouth, stomach and
intestines, which are part of a continuous tube about thirty
feet in length. The function of digestion is to break down
complex food substances into simple materials fit to be ab-
sorbed and used by the body cells. Various digestive glands,
including the pancreas and liver, form and discharge, at
various points along the route, enzymes that act o'n food
in the process of digestion.

The reproductive system, the function of which is to
insure the continuance of the race by the reproduction of
other human beings.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

217

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1. Define anatomy.

Anatomy is the study of gross struc-
tures of the body, such as muscles,
bones or arteries.

2. Define physiology.

3. Why should the barber study
the anatomy of the head,
face and neck?

Physiology is the study of the func-
tions or activities performed by var-
ious organs of the body.
In order to have a knowledge of those
parts upon which the barber works.

Cells

1. What is a cell?

2. Of what are cells composed?

3. Name the principal parts of
the cells and their functions.

4. What is metabolism?

A cell is the basic unit of all living

matter.

Cells are composed of protoplasm and

a cell membrane or wall.

1. Cytoplasm — contains food materials.

2. Nucleus— necessary for reproduction
of the cell.

3. Centrosome — controls reproduction
of the cell.

4. Cell membrane or wall — permits sol-
uble substances to enter and leave the
protoplasm.

Complex chemical process whereby
body cells are nourished and perform
their functions.

5. Name two phases of metab-
olism.

Anabolism and catabolism.

6. Which activities occur dur-
ing anabolism?

The cell takes in whatever it needs of
food, water and oxygen.

7. Which activities occur dur-
ing catabolism?

The cell uses up whatever it has taken
in.

8. Name two methods of cellu-
lar reproduction.

Direct division or amitosis.
division or mitosis.

Indirect

9. What are tissues? Name 5.

Groups of cells performing the same
function. Bone tissue, muscle tissue,
nerve tissue, liquid tissue and epi-
thelial tissue.

10. What is an organ? Give five
examples.

A structure containing two or more
different tissues and performing a vi-
tal function of the body. Brain, heart,
lungs, kidneys and various glands.

11. What are systems?

A group of organs which work to-
gether in performing the various func-
tions of the body.

12. Name nine body systems.

Skeletal, muscular, nervous, circula-
tory, endocrine, excretory, respiratory,
digestive and reproductive systems.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

219

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is the framework of the body which
supports and protects the other body systems. It is composed
of bones, cartilages and ligaments.

The skeleton of the adult consists of 206 bones, compris-
ing about 1 6 % of the weight of the body, as follows :

Skull 22 Upper extremities 64

Spinal column 26 Lower extremities 62

Hyoid bone 1 Ear bones 6

Ribs and sternum 25

Total 206

Bones*

Composition. Bone is the hardest structure, forming the
framework of the body. It is composed of about one-third
animal matter and two-thirds mineral or earthy matter.

1. The animal (organic) matter consists of bone cells,
blood vessels, connective tissues and marrow.

2. The mineral (inorganic) matter consists mainly of
phosphate and carbonate of lime.

End covered
with Cartilage

Cancellous
Tissue

Medullary
Cavity

Compact
Tissue

End covered
with Cartilage

Cancellous
Tissue

Longitudinal Section of a Long Bone

Appearance. Externally, bone appears to be light pink
color; internally, deep red.

Bone tissue. There are two types of bone tissue: cancel-
lous (spongy) and dense (compact).

*Throughout this text the official B.N.A. (Basle Anatomical Nomen-
clature] system of classifying anatomical terms has been adopted. Old
terms are placed in parentheses.

NOTE: Side views of anatomical drawings have identical structures on
both sides.

220 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1. The compact tissue forms the hard bone found in
the shafts of long bones, and outside of flat bones. The com-
pact bony tissue is traversed by small channels called Haver-
sian canals, containing minute blood vessels.

2. The cancellous tissue forms the interior of bones, the
ends of bone shaft, and the very thin bones. It consists of
a meshwork of bony arches through which blood vessels
and nerves pass.

Marrow is a soft fatty substance filling the cavities of
bones whose function is largely concerned with the forma-
tion of red corpuscles (red blood cells).

Covering. The covering of bone is called periosteum,
a fibrous membrane whose function is to protect the bone,
and serve as an attachment for tendons, ligaments, blood
vessels and nerves.

Nutrition. Bone receives its nourishment through blood
vessels (capillaries) which make their way through the
periosteum into the interior of bones. Bone marrow also
aids in the nutrition of bone.

Functions of bones are as follows:

1. To give shape and strength to the body, and keep
the various parts and organs in position.

2. To protect organs from injury.

3. To afford a solid place for the attachment of muscles.

4. To act as levers for all bodily movements.

Forms or Shapes. There are several forms or shapes of
bones found in the human body, namely:

1. Flat bones, as the skull.

2. Long bones, as the legs and a'rms.

3. Short bones, as the fingers and toes.

4. Irregular bones, as the vertebrae (spine),

The various bones of which the skeleton consists are
connected -at different parts of their surfaces, and such con-
nections are called joints, or articulations.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 221

Joints. The various joints come under the following
classifications.

1. Movable — as in fingers.

2. Immovable — as in the skull.

3. Slightly movable — as in the spine.

Types of Joints. The various types of joints found in
the human body are as follows:

1. Pivot — the neck.

2. Hinge — the elbow and knees.

3. Ball and socket — the hips and shoulders.

4. Gliding — the spine.

5. Condyloid — the wrist and ankle.

Cartilage and Ligaments

Cartilage (also called gristle), is a firm and tough non-
vascular, elastic substance, similar to bone but without its
mineral content. It serves the following purposes:

1. To cushion the bones at the joints.

2. To prevent jarring between bones in motion, as
in walking.

3. To give shape to certain external features, such as the
nose or ears.

Ligaments are bands or sheets of fibrous tissues, which
help to support the bones at the joints, such as the wrist or
ankle.

The synovial fluid is a lubricating fluid whose function
is to prevent friction, at the joints.

The Bones of the Head and Face

The skull is the skeleton of the head. It is an oval bony
case which shapes the head, and protects the brain. The
skull is divided into two parts: the cranium, consisting of
eight bones; and the skeleton of the face, consisting of
fourteen bones.

The Eight Bones of the Cranium

Occipital bone — Situated at back and lower part of
the cranium.

222

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Two parietal bones — By their union the sides and roof
of the cranium are formed.

Frontal bone — This bone is divided into two portions : the
vertical portion forming the forehead, and the horizontal or
orbital portion, which is a part of the formation of the roof
of the orbits (eye sockets) and nasal fossae (depressions).

Two temporal bones — Situated on either side of the skull
below the parietal bones.

Zygomatic Arch

MastoiJ process

Cervical Vertebrae

BONES OF THE HEAD, FACE AND NECK

Facial Bones:

Two nasals.

Two turbinals (inferior nasal

Vomer. conchae)

Two lacrimals.

Two zygomatics (malar).

Two palatines (palate).

Two maxillae (upper jaw).

Mandible (lower jaw).
Cervical Vertebrae — Neck region of the spinal column.
Neck Bone — Hyoid bone — Front of throat.

Cranial Bones:

Occipital — Base of skull.
Two parietals — Crown.
Frontal — Forehead.
Two temporals — Ear region.
Ethmoid — Between the orbits.
Sphenoid — Base of cranium and
back of orbits (eye sockets).

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 223

Ethmoid bone — Light and spongy, situated between the
orbits (eye sockets) at the root of nose, forming part of the
nasal cavities.

Sphenoid bone — Situated at the base of the cranium and
back of orbits, joins together all the bones of the cranium.

The Fourteen Bones of the Face

Two nasal bones — Oblong bones placed side by side in
the upper middle part of the face, forming the bridge of nose.

Two turbinal bones (inferior nasal conchae) — Thin layers
of spongy bone curled upon themselves like a scroll, situated
on either side of outer wall of the nasal fossae (depressions).

Vomer — A single bone at the back of the nasal fossae,
forming part of the septum (dividing wall) of the nose.

Two lacrimal bones — The smallest and most fragile
bones of the face, situated at the front part of the inner
wall of the orbits (eye sockets). They contain part of the
canals through which the tear ducts run.

Two zygomatic or malar bones — Small quadrangular
bones in the upper and outer part of the face. They form
the prominence of the cheeks, part of the outer wall and
floor of the orbits, and part of the temporal and zygomatic
fossae (depressions).

Two palatine bones (palate) — Situated at the back part
of the nasal fossae, forming the floor and outer wall of the
nose, the roof of the mouth, and the floor of the orbits.

Two maxillae (upper jaw) — Largest bones of the face,
excepting the mandible ; by their union the whole upper jaw
is formed.

Mandible bone (lower jaw) — The largest and strongest
bone of the face.

Bones of the Neck

Hyoid bone — A "U" shaped bone, between the root of the
tongue and the laryngeal prominence (Adam's Apple). It
supports the tongue.

Cervical vertebrae — Form the top part of the vertebral
column located in the neck region.

224

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CRANIUM

CERVICAL
VERTEBRAE

BONES OF
TARSUS

BONES OF
METATARSUS

PHALANGES

Diagram illustrating the Human Skeleton

Front view., showing the principal bones, their size and shape.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

225

BONES

1. What is bone?

Bone is the hard tissue forming the
framework of the body.

2. What are four important
functions of bones in the
body?

1. Gives shape and strength to the body.

2. Protects organs from injury.

3. Serves as an attachment for muscles.

4. Acts as levers for all bodily move-
ments. •

3. Of what is bone composed?

About one-third organic matter (bone
cells, blood vessels, connective tissue
and marrow) and about two-thirds in-
organic matter (mainly phosphate and
carbonate of lime).

4. Describe the external part of
bones.

It has a light pink color and consists
of hard tissue protected by an outer
covering known as the periosteum.

5. Describe the internal part of
bones.

It has a deep red color and consists of
a spongy tissue containing cavities
filled with marrow.

6. How does the bone receive
its nourishment?

Through blood vessels which enter the
interior of the bone by way of the
periosteum.

7. What is a joint?

A connection between the surfaces of
bones.

8. What is cartilage or gristle?

Cartilage is a firm, elastic substance
resembling bone but lacking its min-
eral content, making it softer than bone.

9. What is the main purpose of
cartilage?

It serves to cushion the bones at the
joints.

10. What is a ligament?

A band of fibrous tissue which helps
to support the bones at the joints as in
the wrist or ankle.

11. What is the function of syn-
ovial fluid?

To lubricate the joints to prevent fric-
tion.

12. What is the skull?

An oval, bony case which shapes the
head and protects the brain.

13. How many bones are found
in the skull?

22 bones.

14. How many bones are found
in the cranium? Name them.

8 bones. One occipital, two parietals,
one frontal, two temporals, one eth-
moid and one sphenoid.

15. Locate the occipital bone.

Back and lower part of the skull.

16. Locate the parietal bones.

The sides and top of head.

17. Locate the frontal bone.

Forehead.

18. Locate the temporal bones. Located in the ear region.

19. Locate the ethmoid bone.

Placed between the eye sockets.

20. Locate the sphenoid bone.

Situated at the base of the cranium
and back of the eye sockets.

226

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

21. How many bones are found
in the face? Name them.

14 bones. Two nasals, two turbinals,
two lacrimals, one vomer, two zygo-
matics, two palatines, two maxillae
(upper jaw), and one mandible (low-
er jaw).

22. Locate the nasal bones.

23. Locate the vomer bone.

Placed side by side in the upper mid-
dle part of the face.

Located back of nasal depressions.

24. Locate the turbinal bones.

Situated on the side wall of the nose.

25. Locate the lacrimal bones.

Situated at the front part of inner wall
of eye sockets.

26. Locate the zygomatic bones.

Form the cheek bones at the upper
and outer part of the face.

27. Locate the palatine bones.
What does it form?

Situated at back part of nasal de-
depressions. Forms roof of mouth.

28. Which bony structure
formed by the maxillae?

is Upper jaw.

29. Which bony structure is
formed by the mandible?

Lower jaw.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 227

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system covers, shapes and supports the
skeleton, and its function is to effect all movements of
the body. The muscular system relies upon the skeletal and
nervous systems for its activities.

The muscular system consists of over 500 muscles, large
and small, comprising approximately 40% to 50% of the
weight of the body.

Muscles

Muscle is fibrous contractile and elastic tissue by which
movements of every part of the body are accomplished. Mus-
cles do not cover and surround the body in continuous
sheets, but consist of separate bundles made up of elastic
fibers varying in size and length, according to the function
of each muscle.

Muscles are attached to bones, cartilage, ligaments, ten-
dons, skin, and sometimes to each other.

Usually muscles are not directly connected to bones, but
'are joined by means of glistening cords, called tendons, or
sinews. Where one muscle connects with another, each mus-
cle ends in a flat expanded tendon or fibrous sheet, called an
aponeurosis. A delicate membrane of connective tissue called
fascia covers the muscles and separates their numerous layers.

Origin of muscle is the term applied to the more fixed
attacKmenls, such as muscles attached to bones (referred to
as skeletal muscles) or to some other muscle. Ia§ertio»-of
muscle is the term applied to the more movable attachments,
such as muscles attached to the skin, or movable muscles.

Nutrition. Each muscle has its own set of blood vessels,
nerves and lymphatics, from which it receives nourishment.

Types of muscles. There are three kinds of muscular
tissue, namely: voluntary, involuntary and cardiac.

1. Voluntary or striated muscles, which are controlled
by the will. These muscles are attached to the skeleton and
are in turn fastened to the bones, skin, and other muscles,

228

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

by tendons. They are composed of cells which appear striated
or striped under the microscope.

MUSCLE CELLS

NUCLEUS

Non-Striated

Striated

Cardiac

2. Involuntary or non-striated muscles, which function
without the action of the will. These muscles are found
in the walls of the stomach, intestines and blood vessels. They
consist of smooth spindle-shaped cells which overlap at the
ends.

3. Cardiac or heart muscles are found in the substance
of the heart. They are composed of cells which are not as dis-
tinctly striated as the cells of skeletal muscle. They are quad-
rangular in shape, joined end to end, and are grouped in
bundles supported by a framework of connective tissue.

Stimulation. Muscular tissue may be stimulated by any
of the following* agencies: chemical (acid or salt), mechani-
cal ( message), electrical agents (vibrator and faradic cur-
rent), thermal agents (heat and therapeutic lamps) and
nerve impulses.

Several characteristics that enable muscular tissue to
perform the functions of motion are:

1. Excitability or irritability — the power of responding
to stimulation.

2. Contractibility — the thickening of a muscle when in
action and its thinning when at rest.

3. Extensibility — the ability to stretch.

4. Elasticity — the ability to recover the original form.

5. Muscle tone — normal degree of tension and the quick-
ness with which the muscle responds to stimulation.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

229

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, FACE AND NECK

The voluntary muscles are the only ones affected by ex-
ternal manipulations, and of these the barber is concerned
only with the muscles of the face, head and neck. It is es-
sential that the barber know where these muscles are located,
so that facial and scalp manipulations will be directed at
the muscles.

Corrugator

Procerus

Nasalis

Di{at Nam Ant
Dilatator Naris Post.
Depressor Septi

Oris

Buccinator
Mentalis
Quad. Labii In/.

'riangularis

Muscles of the Head, Face and Neck

Muscle of the Scalp

Epicranius (occipito-frontalis) — A broad muscle covering
the top of the skull. It consists of two parts: the occipitalis,
or posterior part, and the frontalis, or anterior part, which

230

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

are connected by an aponeurosis called galea aponeurotica.
The two muscles act independently. The frontalis raises the
eyebrow, draws the scalp forward and causes transverse
wrinkles across the forehead. The occipitalis draws the scalp
backward.

Muscles of the Ear

Muscles of the ear are practically functionless.
Auricularis superior — Raises the ear slightly.
Auricularis posterior — Draws the ear backward slightly.
Auricularis anterior — Draws the ear forward slightly.

Muscles of the Eyebrow and Eyelid

Orbicularis oculi (orbicularis palpebrarum) — Surrounds
the margin of the orbit, and closes the eyelid. It has an
external or orbital section, which is controlled by the will;
and an internal or palpebral portion, whose action is in-
voluntary, as in blinking.

Corrugator (torrugator supercilii) — Extends along the
line of the brow. It draws the eyebrow downward and in-
ward, forming vertical wrinkles above the nose, as in
frowning.

Levator palpebrae superioris — Opens the eye by raising
the upper eyelid. (An internal eye muscle not affected by
massage treatment.)

MUSCLE SoP the

eye

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

231

Muscles of the Nose

Procerus ( pyramidalis nasi) — Covers the bridge of the
nose. Draws down eyebrow and puckers up the skin over
bridge of nose, causing transverse wrinkles over bridge
of nose.

Nasalis (compressor nasi) — Compresses the nostril.

Depressor septi (depressor alae nasi) — Contracts the
opening of the nostril.

Dilatator (dilator) naris posterior and anterior — Ex-
pands the opening of the nostrils.

MUSCLES of
the MOUTH

Muscles of the Mouth

Quadratus labii superioris (levator labii superioris) —
Consists of three portions (angular head, infra-orbital head
and zygomatic head) which function jointly to raise and
draw back the upper lip and elevate the nostril, as expressed
in distaste or contempt.

Caninus (levator anguli oris) — Raises angle of mouth
and aids to keep it closed.

Zygomaticus (zygomaticus major) — Raises angle of
mouth backward and upward, as in laughing or smiling.

232 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY •"

Mentalis (levator menti) — Raises and pushes up lower
lip, causing wrinkling of the chin.

Quadratus labii inferioris (depressor labii inferioris)—
Depresses the lower lip down and a little to one side, as in
the expression of sarcasm.

Triangularis (depressor anguli oris) — Pulls down the
corner of the mouth.

Buccinator — Contracts and compresses the cheek, as in
blowing ; accessory muscle of mastication.

Orbicularis oris — Forms a flat band around the upper
and lower lips. Holds mouth closed when contracted ; puck-
ers and wrinkles lips as in kissing or whistling.

Risorius — Draws corner of mouth out and back, as in a
broad grin.

Facial Expressions

Most of the changes in the expression of the face are
caused by the action of the mouth and eye muscles and of
those which are attached to them. For example, the lifting
of the eyelids by the frontalis expresses surprise. The wrink-
ling of the brows by the corrugator speaks disapproval or be-
wilderment. The risorius, or grinning muscle, draws the
corners of the mouth outward and backward. The quad-
ratus labii superioris lifts the nostrils and upper lip together,
expressing distaste or contempt. Pleasure is expressed by the
lifting of the angles of the lips upward and outward, while
grief depresses^ them. (There are but three of the depressors,
or grieving muscles, on each side, and six for the manifest-
ation of happier feelings.)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

233

MUSCLES of
MASTICATION

Superficial muscles have been removed to show
the underlying muscles of mastication.

Muscles of Mastication

Masseter — This muscle is made up of two layers, deep
portion and superficial portion. Closes jaws, as in chewing.

Temporalis (temporal muscle) — Closes the jaws.

Pterygoideus internus and externus (not shown on illus-
tration)— Between mandible and cheek bone. Draw lower
jaw (mandible) forward. (Not affected by massage treat-
ment:)

Muscles of the Neck and Back

Platysma (platysma myoides) — Depresses the lower jaw
and draws down the lower lip.

Sterno-cleido-mastoideus ( sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle)
— Turns head obliquely to one side; pulls head downward
and forward.

Trapezius — Covers the back of the neck and upper re-
gion of the back. Draws the head to one side or backward ;
rotates shoulder blade.

234

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

NOTE: BNA terms for various muscles are recorded in heavy type.

MUSCLES OF THE SCALP

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Epicranius Occipitalis
Occipito-
frontalis Frontalis

Occipital bone

Aponeurosis

Aponeurosis
Skin of forehead on
the line of eyebrows

Draws scalp backward.
Raises eyebrow, draws
scalp forward, causes
transverse wrinkles
across the forehead.

NERVES. The frontalis is supplied by the temporal branches, and the occipitalis by the posterior
auricular branch of the facial nerve.

MUSCLES OF THE NECK

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Platysma
Platysma myoides

Deep skin of neck
and shoulder region

Lower border of
mandible & skin &
muscles of mouth.

Depresses lower jaw
and draws down lower
lip.

NERVES. The platysma is supplied by the cervical branch of the facial nerve.

Trapezius

Middle of occipital
bone, and the ver-
tebrae of neck and
chest

All around the shoul-
der, the clavicle in
front and spine of
the scapula in back

Draws head to one side
or backward; rotates
the shoulder blade.

Sterno-cleido-
mastoideus

Sterno-cleido-mastoid
muscle

Sternum and clav-
icle, by two heads

Mastoid process of
temporal bone, and
occipital bone.

Turns head obliquely
to one side; draws
head downward and
forward.

NERVES. Trapezius and sterno-cleido-mastoideus are supplied by the spinal part of the accessory
nerve and branches from the second and third cervical nerves.

MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS AND EYEBROWS

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Orbicularis oculi
Orbicularis palpe-
brarum
This muscle consists of
palpebral (internal) or
orbital (external) parts.

Palpebral— Upper
part of nasal bone

Orbital— Frontal
process of maxilla
and frontal bones

Palpebral— Skin at
outer corner of eye

Orbital— Near its
own origin

Palpebral— Closes the
eye involuntarily as in
blinking.
Orbital — Closes the eye
forcibly, wrinkling the
surrounding skin.

Corrugator
Corrugator supercilii

Nasal prominence at
inner end of eye-
brow

Skin about half way
across the orbital
arch

Draws eyebrow down-
ward & inward, caus-
ing vertical lines above
nose, as in frowning.

NERVES. The Orbicularis oculi and Corrugator are supplied by the temporal and zygomatic
branches of the facial nerve.

Levator palpebrae superioris raises the upper eyelid. This muscle, being an internal eye
muscle, is not affected by massage treatment. It is supplied by the oculomotor nerve.

MUSCLES OF THE NOSE

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Procerus

Pyramidalis nasi

Skin covering bridge
of nose.

Skin over lower part
of forehead between
eyebrows

Draws down the eye-
brow and produces
transverse wrinkles
over bridge of nose.

Nasalis
Compressor nasi

Maxilla near wing
of nose

Skin at lower bridge
of nose

Compresses the
nostril.

Depressor septi
Depressor alae nasi

A depression in front
of maxilla

Septum and back
part of wing of
nose

Contracts the opening
of the nostril.

Dilatator (dilator)
naris anterior and
posterior

Nasal notch of max-
illa and cartilage
of nose

Skin near margin of
nostril

Expands the opening of
the nostril.

NERVES. Muscles of the nose are supplied by the buccal branches of the facial nerve.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

235

MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Quadratic labii
superior is
Levator labii
superior-is

Maxilla next to nose,
lower margin of or-
bit and zygomatic
bone

Cartilage wing and
skin ofynose, orbic-
ularis oris and up-
per lip

Raises and draws back
upper lip and elevates
nostril to express dis-
taste or contempt.

This muscle consists of three portions: angular head, infraorbital head, and zygomatic head.

Caninus
Levator anguli oris

Canine depression of
maxilla

Skin at angle of
mouth

Raises angle of mouth,
& aids to keep it closed.

Zygomaticus

Zygomaticus major

Outer arch of zygo-
matic bone

Skin at angle of
mouth

Draws angle of mouth
backward and upward,
as in laughing or
smiling.

Orbicularis oris

Other muscles of the
mouth surrounding

orbicularis oris.

Acts as insertion for
other muscles of
the mouth

Holds mouth closed
when contracted; puck-
ers & wrinkles lips as
in kissing or whistling.

NERVES. The above muscles of the mouth are supplied by the buccal branches of the facial nerves.

Mentalis
Levator menti

Incisive depression
of mandible

Skin of chin

Raises and pushes up
lower lip, causing
wrinkling of chin.

Quadratic labii
inferioris
Depressor labii
inferioris

Oblique line of
mandible

Skin of lower lip

Depresses lower lip
down and a little to
one side, as in expres-
sion of sarcasm.

Triangularis
Depressor anguli oris

Oblique line of
mandible

Skin at angle of
mouth

Pulls down corner of
mouth.

Risorius

Fascia near ear over
the masseter

Skin at angle of
mouth

Draws corner of mouth
out and back, as in a
broad grin.

NERVES. The above four muscles of the mouth are supplied by the mandibular and buccal branches
of the facial nerve.

Buccinator

Alveolar portions of
upper and lower
jaw bones

Orbicularis oris

Contracts and com-
presses cheek, as in
blowing; accessory
muscle of mastication.

NERVES. The buccinator is supplied by the buccal branches of the facial nerve. Buccinator nerve
from the trigeminal is sensory only in this area.

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Masseter

Arch of zygomatic
bone

Lower border and
around the corner
of mandible

Closes jaws, as in
chewing.

Temporalis

Temporal muscle

Temporal fossa and
fascia

Anterior border of
crown-shaped pro-
cess of m/ndible

Closes the jaws.

Pterygoideus externus and interims are two muscles which draw the lower jaw
forward. These muscles are not affected by massage treatments.

NERVES. Muscles of mastication are supplied by branches from the mandibular division of the
trigeminal nerve.

MUSCLES OF THE EAR

NAME

ORIGIN

INSERTION

FUNCTION

Auricularis anterior

Attrahens aurem

Frontalis and
aponeurosis

Front of ear

Draws the ear for- 2 i
ward slightly. « jj

Auricularis superior
Attollens aurem

Aponeurosis

Upper part of ear

Raises the ear *§^
slightly. 3 § j;

Auricularis posterior

Retrahens aurem

Mastoid portion- of
temporal bone

Back of ear

Draws ear back- w §"e
ward slightly. £ £.-2

NERVES. The' auriculares anterior and superior are supplied by the temporal branches; the auric*
ularis posterior is supplied by the posterior auricular branch of the facial nerve.

236

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1. What are the important
functions of muscles in the
body?

Muscles cover, shape and support the
skeleton, and effect all bodily move-
ments.

2. Of what is a muscle com-
posed?

Muscle is composed of fibrous contrac-
tile and elastic tissue.

3. Name three kinds of mus-
cular tissue.

1. Voluntary or striated muscle.

2. Involuntary or non-striated muscle.

3. Cardiac or heart muscle.

4. Distinguish between volun-
tary and involuntary mus-
cles.

Voluntary muscles such as those of
the face, arms and legs, are controlled
by the will. Involuntary muscles such
as those of the stomach and intestines,
are not controlled by the will.

5. What is a tendon or sinew?

A tendon is a white glistening bundle
of fibrous tissue which attaches a
muscle to a bone.

6. What is an aponeurosis?

An aponeurosis is an expanded ten-
don which serves to connect one mus-
cle with another.

7. What is a fascia?

A fascia is a membrane of connective
tissue which covers and separates mus-
cular layers.

8. How do the muscles receive
their nourishment?

Food elements are brought to the
muscles by small blood and lymph
vessels.

9. Name five agents capable of
stimulating muscular tissue.

1. Chemical agents, such as acids or
salts.

2. Mechanical agents, such as massage.

3. Electrical agents, such as the vibra-
tor and faradic current.

4. Thermal agents, such as heat and
therapeutic lamps.

5. Nerve impulses.

10. Name the scalp muscle and
its two portions.

Epicranius muscle, consists of occipi-
talis and frontalis.

11. Locate the scalp muscle and
its two portions.

The epicranius covers the entire top
of the scalp, from the base of the
skull to the eyebrows. The occipitalis
is the back portion; the frontalis is
the front portion.

12. Which structure connects the
occipitalis and frontalis?

An aponeurosis
euro tic a.

called galea apon-

13. What is the function of the
occipitalis?

Occipitalis draws the scalp backward.

14. What is the function of the
frontalis?

Raises the eyebrow and draws scalp
forward, causing transverse wrinkles
across forehead.

15. Name two muscles of the
eyes.

Orbicularis oculi and corrugator.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

237

16. Which muscle draws the eye-
brow downward and in-
ward?

Corrugator.

17. Which muscle closes the eye?

18. Which muscle covers the
bridge of the nose?

Orbicularis oculi.

Procerus.

19. Which muscle depresses the
lower lip?

Quadratus labii inferioris.

20. Which muscle raises and
draws back the upper lip?

21. Which muscle raises the
angle of the mouth back-
ward and upward?

Quadratus labii superioris.

Zygomaticus.

22. Which muscle holds the
mouth closed when con-
tracted?

Orbicularis oris.

23. Which muscle pulls down
the corner of the mouth?

Triangularis.

24. Which muscle raises and
pushes up the lower lip?

Mentalis.

25. Which muscle contracts and
compresses the cheek?

26. What is mastication?

Buccinator.

The act of chewing.

27. Name four important mus-
cles of mastication.

Masseter, temporalis, pterygoideus in-
terims and pterygoideus externus.

28. Name three important mus-
cles of the neck and back.

Platysma, trapezius and sterno-cleido-
mastoid muscle.

29. Which muscle draws the
head downward and for-
ward?

Sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle.

30. Which muscle depresses the
lower jaw and draws down
the lower lip?

Platysma.

31. Which muscle draws the head
backwards or to one side?

Trapezius.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

239

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is considered to be one of the most
important systems of the body because it controls and coor-
dinates the functions of all the other systems and makes
them work harmoniously and efficiently.

The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord,
cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

The functions of the nervous system are :

1. To rule the body by controlling all visible and invisi-
ble activities.

2. To control human thoughts and conduct.

3. To govern all internal and external movements of
the body.

4. To give the power to see, hear, smell, taste, move, talk,
feel, think and remember.

NUCLEUS
DENDRITES

PROTECTIVE
FATTY SHEATH

END
BRANCHES
AXON

A neuron.

A neuron is the structural unit of the nervous system.
It is composed of a nerve cell (cell body) and its outgrowth
of long and short fibers, called cell processes. The nerve
cell (cell body) stores energy and nutriment for the cell

240 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

processes which convey the nerve impulses throughout the
body. Practically all the nerve cells are contained in the
brain and spinal cord.

Nerves are long white cords made up of fibers (cell pro-
cesses) from nerve cells. They have their origin in the
brain and spinal cord, and distribute branches to all parts
of the body.

Nerves furnish both sensation and motion.

Sensory nerves, termed afferent nerves, carry impulses
or messages from sense organs to the brain where sensations
of touch, cold, heat, sight, hearing, smell, taste and pain are
experienced.

Motor nerves, termed efferent nerves, carry impulses
from the brain to the muscles, the transmitted impulses
causing movement.

/ 1., Central Jl. Brain

II. Cerebro-spinal ) System (2. Spinal cord

NERVOUS ) nervous system \ 2> Peripheral Jl. Cranial nerves

SYSTEM \ System \2. Spinal nerves

'2. Sympathetic U. Ganglia: issued from spinal cord
nervous system (2. Communicating Branches

The nervous system is divided into two main divisions,
namely: the cerebro-spinal nervous system, and the sympa-
thetic nervous system.

The cerebro-spinal nervous system, which consists of
both the brain and the spinal cord, as well as the spinal
nerves and cranial nerves, controls speech, taste, sight, touch
and smell, and governs the voluntary muscles. Making
up this large system are the central and peripheral systems.

The central system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain, the principal nerve center, is the largest and
most complex nerve tissue. It controls sensations, voluntary
muscles, and the power to think and feel. It includes:

1. Cerebrum, large frontal part, presides over such men-
tal activities as reasoning, will, and higher emotions.

2. Cerebellum, the smaller, lower part, keeps the body
balanced, makes muscular movements smooth and graceful.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

241

3. Medulla oblongata, connecting the brain with the
spinal cord, regulates the movements of the heart, and
organs of respiration and digestion.

4. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves, originating in the
brain, reach various parts of the head, face and neck.

Sp.nol COrd

Spinal Cord and
Spinal Nerves

Vertebrae

Esophagus

Diagram of the Head

The spinal cord is composed of masses of nerve cells
with fibers running upward and downward. It originates
from the brain and extends down to the lower extremity
of the trunk, being enclosed and protected by the spinal
column. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves extending from
the spinal cord are distributed to the muscles and skin of
trunk and limbs; and connect with the nerves of the sym-
pathetic system.

The peripheral system is located in the skin, muscles
and sense organs. It consists of the terminal endings of the
cranial and spinal nerves. These nerves send sensory im-
pulses to the brain and spinal cord and receive motor im-
pulses from the brain.

242

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The sympathetic or autonomic nervous system governs
the involuntary muscles controlling the functions of circula-
tion, digestion and respiration, and controls secretion of
the glands as well.

SKIN

RECEPTOR

SENSORY NEURON

SYNAPSE

EFFECTOR

MOTOR NEURON

The Path of a Nerve Impulse

PIN At
CORD

A reflex arc is the path through which a nervous im-
pulse travels in responding to a stimulus. For example, the
quick removal of the hand from a hot object.

Nerve fatigue is caused by excessive mental or mus-
cular work, resulting in an accumulation of waste products.
Weariness, poor complexion, and dull eyes may be signs
of nerve exhaustion. Rest and relaxation, assisted by mas-
sage, help to relieve nerve 'fatigue.

Nutrition. Nerves are nourished through blood vessels,
lymph spaces, and lymphatics found in the connective tis-
sues surronding them.

The nervous system may be stimulated by physical agents
and chemical agents.

1. Physical agents such as light, heat, electricity or
massage.

2. Chemical agents such as acids, bases or salts.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

243

Cerebral (Cranial) Nerves

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves all connected
to some part of the brain surface. They issue through open-
ings on the sides and base of the cranium. They are classi-
fied as motor, sensory, and mixed nerves containing both
motor and sensory fibers.

The cranial nerves are named numerically according to
the order in which they arise from the brain, and also by
names which describe their nature, function, or distribu-
tion, as follows:

Classification of Cerebral (Cranial) Nerves

Number and Names

Type

Function

1. Olfactory

Sensory

Sense of smell.

2. Optic

Sensory

Sense of sight. •

3. Oculomotor

Motor

Motor nerve to eye muscles.

4. Trochlear

Motor

Motor nerve to the superior oblique
muscle of the eye.

*5. Trigeminal or
Trifacial

Sensory-Motor

Sensory nerve to scalp, forehead and
face; motor nerve to muscles of mas-
tication.

6. Abducent

Motor

Motor nerve to lateral rectus muscle
of eye.

*7. Facial

Sensory-Motor

Sensory nerve to tongue (taste); motor
nerve to muscles of facial expression,
part of scalp and muscles of neck.

8. Acoustic or
Auditory

Sensory

Sense of hearing and maintenance of
equilibrium.

9. Glossopharyngeal

Sensory-Motor

Sensory nerve to tongue (taste); motor
nerve to muscles of pharynx.

10. Vagus or
Pneumogastric

Sensory-Motor

Sensory nerve to respiratory and di-
gestive organs; motor nerve to heart,
respiratory and digestive organs.

*11. Accessory

Motpr

Motor nerve to sterno-cleido-mastoid
and trapezius muscles of neck.

12. Hypoglossal

Motor

Motor nerve to muscles of tongue and
hyoid bone.

'Important nerves for the barber to know in facial and scalp services.

244

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

NERVES OF THE HEAD, FACE AND NECK

Of the twelve cerebral nerves, only three are of interest to
the barber in giving facial and scalp treatments. These are:

1. Fifth cerebral (trigeminal or trifacial) nerve.

2. Seventh cerebral (facial) nerve.

3. Eleventh cerebral (accessory) nerve.

The cervical nerve, originating from the spinal cord in
the neck, is also of interest to the barber.

The proper use of massage or electric current can favor-
ably influence the nerve and muscular functions of the area
being treated.

Temporal Br.
of Zygomatic N.

Auriculo'
Temporal N.

Temporal N.

Supra-Orbital N.
Supra-Trochlear N.

Infra-Trochlear N.

Nasal N.
Infra-Orbital N.

Upper Zygomatic N.
Lou'er Zygomatic N.

Buccal N.

Mental N.
Mandibutar N.

Cervical N.
Cervical Cutaneous N.

Ant. Supra Clavicular N.
Mid. Supra Clavicular N.

Nerve Supply to Scalp, Face and Side of Neck.
(Facial Nerves are marked in italics)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

245

Fifth Cerebral (Cranial) Nerve

Fifth cerebral (trigeminal or trifacial) nerve is the largest
of the cerebral nerves and is the chief sensory nerve of the
face and the motor nerve of the muscles of mastication. It
emerges from the brain, forms a ganglion just inside of the
skull, just forward of the ear. It splits into three main divi-
sions and many branches, all of which are inside of the skull
with the exception of a few terminal branches. The three
main divisions and their branches are ophthalmic, maxillary,
and mandibular.

1. Ophthalmic Division
v 2. Maxillary Division
[3. Mandibular Divv

Supra-Orbital N.
upra-Trochlear N.

Frontal N.
Naso-Ciliary N.
Infra-Trochlear N.

Infra-Orbital N

Nasal N.

Facial
Auriculo-Tempa

Inferior Alveolar N.
Lingual N.

External
Carotid Artery

Sup. Alveolar N.
Buccinator N.

Mental N.

External Maxillary
(Facial) Artery

Sub. Maxillary Gland

Fifth Cerebral Nerve

Only important anatomical terms are explained in the text. Anatomi-
cal terms of lesser importance are not explained in the text.

A. Ophthalmic Division ( sensory nerve ) supplies branches to
the skin of the forehead, eyelid, eyebrow and nose. Its
principal branches are:
1. Frontal nerve is subdivided to form:

a) Supra-orbital nerve; affects the forehead, scalp,
eyebrow, and upper eyelid.

246 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

b) Supra-trochlear nerve; affects skin between eyes
and upper side of nose.

2. Naso-ciliary (nasal) nerve is subdivided to form:

a) Infra-trochlear nerve; affects membrane and skin
of nose.

b) Nasal nerve; affects point and lower side of nose.

c) Lacrimal nerve; affects upper eyelid and tear
% glands. (Not shown on illustration.)

B. Maxillary Division (sensory nerve) supplies the forehead,
lower eyelid, upper lip and skin of cheek and nose. Its
principal branches are:

1. Zygomatic nerve; affects the temple, side of forehead
and skin of upper part of cheek.

2. Infra-orbital nerve; affects skin of lower eyelid, side
of nose, upper lip, mouth and their corresponding
glands.

G. Mandibular Division (motor and sensory nerve) supplies
the temple, auricle of ear, lower lip, lower part of face
and muscles of mastication. Its principal branches are:

1. The anterior portion (motor and sensory nerve) which
is subdivided to form:

a) Masseteric nerve; affects the masseter muscle.
(Not shown on illustration.)

b) Deep temporal nerves ; affect the muscles above the
temple. ( Not shown on illustration. )

c) Buccinator nerve (sensory) ; affects the buccinator
muscle and the skin of the cheek.

2. The posterior portion (motor and sensory nerve) of
the mandibular division is subdivided to form:

a) Auriculo-temporal nerve; affects the external ear
'••"•" and the skin above the temple and up to the top

of the skull.

b) Inferior alveolar nerve; affects all the teeth along
the lower jaw. Its principal branch is:

1. Mental nerve; affects the skin of lower lip and
chin.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

247

Temporal Br.
'of ZygomatuTN.

Supra-Orbital N.

Supra-Trochlear N,

Auriculo-Temporal N.

Infra-Trochlear N.
Malar Br.

In/ra-Orbital
Plexus
Buccal N.
Mental 1

Lower Zygomatic N.
Buccal N.
Mandibular N.
Cervical N.

Distribution of the Fifth and Seventh Cerebral (Cranial) Nerves

To Head, Face and Neck.
(Facial nerves are marked in italics.)

Seventh cerebral (facial) nerve is the chief motor nerve of
the face. It emerges near the lower part of the ear ; its divi-
sions and their branches spread through all the muscles of
expression, and down to the muscles of the neck. Of all the
branches of the facial nerve, those most important to the
barber are:

1. Posterior auricular nerve; affects the muscles behind
the ear and at the base of skull.

2. Temporal nerve; affects the muscles of the forehead,
eyelid, temple and upper part of cheek.

3. Zygomatic nerve (upper and lower) ; affects the mus-
cles of the upper part of cheek.

4. Buccal nerve; affects the buccinator and orbicularis
oris muscles.

5. Mandibular nerve; affects the muscles of chin and
lower lip.

6. Cervical nerve; affects the side of the neck and the
prlatysma muscle.

248

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cervical Br.
of Facial Nerve

Greater Occipital N.

Smaller (Lesser)
Occipital N.

Cervical Cutaneous N.

Ant. Supra Clavicular N
Mid. Supra Clavicular N

Third Occipital N.
Great Auricular N.

Accessory N.

Post. Supra
Clavicular N.

Nerve Supply to Side of Neck and Back of Head

Eleventh cerebral (accessory) nerve (motor) extends over
the neck and upper part of back by means of two branches.

1. Accessory portion is distributed only to internal struc-
tures.

2. The spinal portion affects the sterno-cleido-mastoid
and trapezius muscles of the neck and back.

Cervical nerves originate at the spinal cord and their
branches supply the muscles and skin at the back of the head
and neck, as follows :

1 . Great Auricular nerve is subdivided to form :

a ) Anterior branches which affect the skin of the face
and external ear.

b) Posterior branches affect the skin behind the ear.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

249

2. Smaller (Lesser) Occipital nerve affects the scalp area
at the base of the skull.

3. Cervical Cutaneous (cutaneous colli) extends over
front and side of neck as far down as the breast bone.

4. Greater Occipital nerve affects the scalp and back
part of the head as far up as the top of the head.

MOTOR NERVE POINTS

Posterior Auricular
Greater Occipital -•

Smaller Occipital
Great Auricular

The Main Motor Nerve Points
of the Head, Face and Neck

Knowing the location of important nerve points of the
face and scalp helps the barber to stimulate particular mus-
cles with the least outside force. A nerve point represents that
part of a nerve which comes closest to the surface of the skin
and can, therefore, be reached by direct contact.

Stimulation of the following nerve points has a beneficial
effect in facial and scalp massage.

A. Derived from the fifth cerebral (cranial) nerve are:

1. Supra-orbital nerve point, located just above the
eye socket, affects the forehead, scalp, eyebrow
and upper eyelid.

2. Infra-orbital nerve point, located just below the
eye socket, affects the lower eyelid, side of nose,
upper lip and mouth.

3. Mental nerve point, located just below the pre-
molar teeth on either side of the lower jaw, affects
the lower lip and chin.

250 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

B. Derived from the seventh cerebral (cranial) nerve are:

1 . Facial nerve point, located in front of the ear lobe,
affects all the muscles of facial expression.

2. Temporal nerve point, located on sides of head,
affects the muscles of the forehead, eyelid, temple
and upper part of cheek.

3. Posterior auricular nerve point, located back of the
ear, affects the muscles behind the ear and at the
base of skull.

4. Mandibular nerve point, located slightly above
and in front of angle of jaw, affects muscles of
chin and lower lip.

C. Derived from the cervical nerve of the spinal cord are:

1 . Greater occipital nerve point, located in back of the
head, affects the scalp as far up as the top of
the head.

2. Smaller occipital nerve point, located at base of
scalp, affects the skin and muscles of this region.

3. Great auricular nerve point, located at side of
neck, affects the external ear and area in front and
back of ear.

4. Cervical cutaneous nerve point, located at side of
neck, affects the front and side of neck as far down
as the breast bone.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. What are the important 1. To rule the body by controlling all
functions of the nerves in visible and invisible activities.

the body? 2. To control human thoughts and

conduct.

3. To govern all internal and external
movements of the body.

4. To give the power to see, hear,
move, talk, feel, think and remember.

2. What is a neuron? A neuron is a nerve cell containing a

central portion or cell body and short
and long fibers called processes

3i What is a nerve? A nerve is a long white cord consist-

ing of nerve fibers and capable of car-
rying messages to and from various
parts of the body.

4. Name two kinds of nerves 1. Sensory or afferent nerves.
found in the body. 2. Motor or efferent nerves.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

251

5. What is the function of sens-
ory nerves?

Sensory nerves carry messages regard-
ing touch, heat, cold, sight, hearing,
smell, taste and pain to the nerve cen-
ters in the brain.

6. What is the function of mo-
tor nerves?

Motor nerves carry messages from the
brain to the muscles which produce
bodily movements.

7. Name the two main divisions
of the nervous system.

1. The cerebro-spinal nervous system.

2. The sympathetic nervous system.

8. Of what is the cerebro-spinal
nervous system composed?

Brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves and
spinal nerves.

9. What is the function of the
cerebro- spinal nervous sys-
tem?

To control all the voluntary muscles as
well as speech, taste, sight, touch and
smell.

10. What is the function of the
sympathetic nervous system?

To control involuntary muscles and the
functions of digestion, circulation, res-
piration and secretions of the various
glands.

11. What is the cause of nerve
fatigue?

Excessive mental or muscular work.

12. What are the signs of nerve
fatigue?

Weariness, poor complexion and dull
eyes.

13. What is the best way to re-
lieve nerve fatigue?

Proper use of rest, relaxation and
massage.

14. How many pairs of cerebral
(cranial) nerves are there,
and how are they known?

There are twelve pairs of cerebral
nerves, and they are known by their
number or name.

15. How many pairs of nerves
issue from the spinal cord,
and what are they called?

Thirty-one pairs of nerves issue from
the spinal cord, and they are called
spinal nerves.

16. Which two cerebral (cranial)
nerves are the most import-
ant in facial treatment?

1. The Fifth or trigeminal nerve.

2. The Seventh or facial nerve.

17. Which is the largest cerebral
(cranial) nerve?

The Fifth or trigeminal nerve.

18. What is the function of the
fifth or trigeminal nerve?

It is the chief sensory nerve of the
face and the motor nerve of the mus-
cles of mastication.

19. Name three nerve points or-
iginating from the fifth cere-
bral nerve.

The supra-orbital, infra-orbital and
mental nerve points.

20. Which cerebral (cranial)
nerve controls the muscles of
expression?

The Seventh or facial nerve.

21. Name four nerve points or-
iginating from the seventh
cerebral nerve.

The facial, posterior auricular, tem-
poral, and mandibular nerve points.

22. Name four nerve points or-
iginating from the cervical
nerve of the spinal cord.

Greater occipital, smaller occipital,
great auricular, and cervical cutan-
eous nerve points.

252

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

23. Which cerebral (cranial)
nerve controls the sense of
sight?

The optic nerve.

24. Which cerebral (cranial)
nerve controls the sense of
smell.

The olfactory nerve.

25. Which cerebral (cranial)
nerve controls the sense of
hearing?

The acoustic (auditory) nerve.

26. Which cerebral (cranial)
nerves control the motion of
the eyes?

The oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve
and abducent nerve.

27. Which region of the head is
supplied by the greater oc-
cipital nerve?

The scalp of back part of the head
as far up as the top of the head.

28. Which cerebral nerve sup-
plies the sterno-cleido-mas-
toid and trapezius muscles?

The spinal portion of the eleventh or
accessory nerve.

29. Which branches of the fifth
cerebral (cranial) nerve sup-
ply the following regions?

a) Forehead

b) Lower side of nose

c) Skin of upper lip

d) Skin of lower lip

e) Skin above temple

f ) Skin of upper part of cheek

a) Supra-orbital

b) Nasal

c) Infra-orbital

d) Mental

e) Auriculo-temporal

f) Zygomatic

30. Which branches of the sev-
enth cerebral nerve supply
the following regions or
muscles?

a) Muscle of the forehead a) Temporal

b) Muscles of chin and low- b) Mandibular
er lip

c) Platysma muscle

d) Muscle behind ear

e) Orbicularis oris

f) Muscles of upper part of
cheek

c) Cervical

d) Posterior Auricular

e) Buccal

f) Zygomatic

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 253

THE CIRCULATORY (VASCULAR) SYSTEM

The circulatory (vascular) system controls the circula-
tion of the blood through the body in a steady stream, by
means of the heart and blood vessels, and supplies body cells
with nutrient materials and carries away waste products.

There are two divisions to the vascular system:

1. The blood-vascular system, which comprises the heart
and blood vessels (arteries, capillaries and veins) for the
circulation of the blood.

2. The lymph-vascular system, or lymphatic system, con-
sisting of lymph glands and lymphatics through which the
lymph circulates.

These two systems are intimately linked with each other.
Lymph is derived from the blood and is gradually shifted
back into the blood stream.

THE BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM
The Heart

The heart is an efficient pump which keeps the blood
moving in a steady stream through a closed system of ar-
teries, capillaries and veins.

The heart is a muscular, conical-shaped organ, about the
size of a closed fist, located in the chest cavity, and enclosed
in a membrane, the pericardium. Two sets of nerves, the
vagus and sympathetic, regulate the heart beat. In a normal
adult, the heart beats about 72 to 80 times a minute.

The interior of the heart contains four chambers and
four valves. The upper thin-walled cavities are the right
atrium (auricle) and left atrium. The lower thick-walled
chambers are the right ventricle and left ventricle. Valves
allow the blood to flow in only one direction. With each
contraction and relaxation of the heart, the blood flows in,
travels from the auricles ( atria ) to the ventricles, and is then
driven out, to be distributed all over the body. The atrium
(pi., atria) is also called the auricle.

254

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Right Carotid Artery * jJLeft Carotid Artery
Right Jugular Vein^Ty / /)/ .1. Af Left Jugular Vein
Artery to right «"n*^f fcs/[Jl/£?-> Artery to left arm
Vein from right arm-^^J U^t==rTT^s^Vem from left arm

To Right Lungs
From Right Lungs

To Left Lungs
From Left Lungs

Diagram of the Heart

The Blood Vessels

The arteries, capillaries and veins, transport blood to
and horn the heart and the various tissues of the body.
The main artery of the body is the aorta which starts at
the left ventricle of the heart, and subdivides into smaller
arteries.

Arteries are thick-walled muscular and elastic vessels that
carry pure blood from the heart to the capillaries. They
vary in size from the aorta, which is about an inch in di-
ameter, to others which are but a small fraction of an inch.

Capillaries are minute thin-walled blood vessels whose
network connects the smaller arteries with the veins. Through
their walls, the tissues receive nourishment and eliminate
waste products.

Veins are thin-walled, inelastic blood vessels containing
cup-like valves to prevent backflow, and carrying impure
blood from the various capillaries back to the heart.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 255

The Circulation of the Blood

The blood is in constant circulation from the moment
it leaves until it returns to the heart. There are two systems
taking care of the circulation.

1. Pulmonary circulation is the blood circulation from
the heart to the lungs, and back again to the heart.

During the pulmonary circulation the blood is pumped
by the heart to the lungs to be purified. With each res-
piration, an exchange of gases takes place. During inhala-
tion, oxygen is absorbed into the blood. During exhalation,
carbon dioxide is expelled.

2. General or Systemic Circulation is the blood circula-
tion from the heart throughout the body and back again
to the heart.

Cycle of Blood Circulation

1. The right atrium or auricle receives impure blood
from a large vein, the vena cava.

2. From the right atrium or auricle, the venous blood
passes through a valve into the right ventricle.

3. From the right ventricle, the venous blood is carried
through the pulmonary artery up to the lungs to be oxygen-
ated or purified.

4. The left atrium or auricle receives the purified blood
through the pulmonary vein.

5. From the left atrium or auricle, the purified blood
passes through a valve into the left ventricle.

6. From the left ventricle, the aorta sends the arterial
blood to all parts of the body, except the lungs.

7. This cycle is repeated when the venous blood is
brought back again to the right atrium or auricle.

The Blood

Blood is the nutritive fluid circulating throughout the
blood-vascular system. It is salty and sticky, has an alkaline
reaction, and maintains a normal temperature of 98.6°
Fahrenheit. From 8 to 10 pints of blood fill the blood vessels
of an adult and constitute about 1/1 6th to l/20th of the

256 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

body's weight. The skin holds about 1/2 to 2/3 of all
the blood in the body.

Color of blood. The blood has a distinct color, varying
from bright red to scarlet in the arteries, and possessing a
dark-red to crimson tint in the veins. The exceptions to this
rule are the pulmonary artery (dark-red to crimson tint)
and the pulmonary vein (bright red to scarlet color). This
change in color is due to the gain or loss of oxygen as the
blood passes through the lungs and other tissues of the body.

Composition of blood. The blood is a liquid tissue con-
sisting of blood plasma, red corpuscles, white corpuscles and
blood platelets. Plasma constitutes about two-thirds of the
blood and the other bodies about one-third.

Plasma is the fluid part of the blood, straw-like in color,
in which the red corpuscles, white corpuscles and blood
platelets flow. About nine-tenths of plasma is water. The
blood plasma also contains proteins, nutrients, mineral salts,
waste products and other substances. Plasma is derived from
the food and water taken into the body.

Red corpuscles (red blood cells) or erythrocytes are cir-
cular bi-concave discs colored with a substance called hemo-
globin. The function of the red corpuscles is to carry oxygen
from the lungs to the body cells and transport carbon dioxide
from the cells to the lungs. The red blood cells are formed in
the red bone marrow and from cells lining the capillaries.
They are far more numerous than the white blood cells.

White corpuscles (white blood cells) or leucocytes differ
from red blood cells in many respects. They are larger in
size, colorless, and can change their form by movements.
White corpuscles are produced in the spleen, lymph glands,
and the yellow marrow of the long bones. The most im-
portant function of these cells is to protect the body against
disease by fighting harmful bacteria and their poisons.

Blood platelets or thrombocytes are colorless, irregular
bodies, much smaller than the red corpuscles. They are
formed in the bone marrow. These cells play an important
role in the clotting of the blood.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 257

Clotting. When the blood leaves the body and comes in
contact with the air, it hardens and clots. This clotting is
due to the hardening of the fibrin in the blood and the clot
thus prevents the further flow of the blood.

Diseases of the blood. Hemophilia is characterized by ex-
tremely slow clotting of blood and excessive bleeding from
even very slight cuts. This disease is a sex-linked disease af-
fecting only males, but transmitted by the female.

Anemia is a condition in which there are too few red
blood cells or too little hemoglobin. Iron (furnished by liver,
calf -brain, spinach, and oatmeal) is frequently beneficial.

Chief Functions of the Blood

1 . It carries water, oxygen, food and secretions to all cells
of the body.

2. It carries away carbon dioxide and waste products to
be eliminated through the lungs, skin, kidneys and large
intestine.

3. It helps to equalize the body temperature, thus pro-
tecting the body from extreme heat and cold.

4. It aids in protecting the body from harmful bacteria
and infections through the action of the white blood cells.

5. It coagulates or clots, thereby closing injured blood
vessels and preventing the loss of blood through hemorrhage.

258

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE LYMPH-VASCULAR SYSTEM

(Lymphatic System)

The lymph-vascular system acts as an aid to the venous
system, and consists of lymph spaces, lymphatics and lymph
glands.

Lymph spaces are channels found between the walls of
the capillaries and the body cells.

Lymphatics are minute vessels that convey lymph.

The smaller lymphatics unite to form two principal ves-
sels (the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct), which
empty their contents into a vein found below the base of
the neck. This, in turn, empties into the vena cava, and also
mixes the lymph with the venous blood just before it is re-
turned to the heart.

Lymph Nodes of the Head and Face

Lymph glands or nodes are ductless organs in the course
of lymphatic vessels. They filter the lymph and are a defense
against the spread of infection.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 259

Lymph

Composition. Lymph is a slightly viscid, alkaline fluid,
circulating through the lymph-vascular system. It is derived
from plasma which has been forced through the capillary
walls both by the pressure of the blood in the capillaries and
by osmosis (an exchange of fluids through a thin membrane).

Dissolved food materials and oxygen pass through the
blood vessels by osmosis and are conveyed by the lymph to
the body cells, which they enter by osmosis. In like manner,
water, carbon dioxide and wastes are removed from the body
cells. Lymph is well supplied with white blood cells.

The functions of lymph are:

1. To reach parts of the body not reached by the blood.

2. To carry nourishment from the blood to the body cells.

3. To remove waste material from the body cells.

4. Carries constant interchange with the blood.

260

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ARTERIES OF THE HEAD, FACE AND NECK

The common carotid arteries are the main sources of
blood supply to the head, face and neck. They are located
on either side of the neck, and each artery subdivides into an
internal and external branch. The internal branch of the
common carotid artery supplies the cranial cavity, while the
external branch supplies the superficial parts of the head,
face and neck.

Parietal Branch

(Posterior Temporal)

Supra-Orbital

Frontal Branch
(Anterior Temporal)

Frontal

Angular

Orbital
Lateral Nasal
Trans. Facial
Infra-Orbital
Septal
Superior Labial

Inferior Labial

Submenu*

External Maxillary
(Facial Artery)

Arteries of the Head and Face

The external carotid artery subdivides into a number of
branches which supply blood to various regions of the head
and face. Of particular interest to the barber are the fol-
lowing arteries:

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

261

1. External maxillary (facial artery).

2. Superficial temporal.

3. Occipital.

4. Posterior auricular.

Superior Labial
Inferior Labial

Submental

Maxillary
(Facial Artery)

EXTERNAL MAXILLARY (Facial Artery)
AND BRANCHES

The muscular tissue of the lips must be supposed
to have been cut away, in order to show the course
of the labial arteries.

A. External maxillary (facial artery) supplies the lower re-
gion of the face, and mouth and nose. Some of its
branches are.

1 . Submental artery ; supplies chin and lower lip.

2. Inferior labial artery; supplies the lower lip.

3. Angular artery; supplies side of nose.

4. Superior labial; supplies the upper lip, septum (di-
viding wall) of nose, and wing of nose.

262

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Parietal Branch
{Posterior

Temporal)

Frontal Branch
(Anterior Temporal)

Orbital

SUPERFICIAL TEMPORAL ARTERY
AND BRANCHES

B. Superficial temporal artery; continuation of the external
carotid artery supplies muscles, skin and scalp to front,
side and top of head. Some of its important branches are :

1. Frontal artery; supplies the forehead.

2. Parietal artery; supplies crown and side of head.

3. Transverse facial artery; supplies the masseter.

4. Middle temporal artery; supplies the temporalis.

5. Anterior auricular artery; supplies the anterior part
of the ear.

6. Orbital artery; supplies the orbicularis oculi.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

263

Auricular

SuperfidaJ ^Temporal "

''osterior Auricular

Mcorillar*

Maxillary

Lingual

OCCIPITAL AND POSTERIOR AURICULAR
ARTERIES

C. Occipital artery supplies the scalp, back of head up to the
crown. Its most important branch is the sterno-cleido-
mastoid artery which supplies muscle of the same name.

D. Posterior auricular artery supplies the scalp above and
back of the ear. Its most important branch is the auric-
ular artery which supplies the skin back of ear.

The internal carotid artery

consists of several branches, all of
which are inside the skull with the
exception of the ophthalmic art-
ery. This artery subdivides to form
the supra-orbital artery which sup-
plies the orbit, eyelid and fore-
head.

The frontal artery is an end
branch of the ophthalmic artery;
supplies the forehead.

Branches of the Ophthalmic Artery

Originating from the
Internal Carotid Artery

264

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

VEINS OF THE HEAD, FACE AND NECK

The blood returning to the heart from the head, face and
neck, flows on each side of the neck into two principal veins:
the internal jugular and external jugular. The most import-
ant veins of the face are placed almost parallel with the art-
eries and take the same names as the arteries.

Supra-Orbital
Superior Palpebral
Frontal

Angular

Anterior Facial
Inferior Labial

Submental
Lingual

Pharyngeal

Superior Thyroid

Veins of the Head, Face and Neck

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

265

FACIAL

TEMPORAL

EXTERNAL
JUGULAR

INTERNAL
JUGULAR

SUBCLAVIAN
AORTA

AXILLARY

BRACHIAL

RADIAL
ULNAR

DORSALIS
PEDIS

Diagram illustrating the General Circulation of the Blood,
Showing the Important Arteries and Veins of the Body

266

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

CIRCULATION

1. Name the two main divisions
of the circulatory system.

1. The blood-vascular system.

2. The lymph-vascular system.

2. Name the principal parts of
the blood -vascular system,
important
blood-vas-

3. What are the
functions of the
cular system?

Heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins
and capillaries).

1. Carries water, food and oxygen to
all cells of the body.

2. Removes waste products.

3. Regulates heat.

4. Fights harmful bacteria.

5. Clots to prevent loss of blood.

4. What is the function of the
heart?

Pumps blood to all parts of the body
by means of blood vessels and receives
the blood on its return.

5. Describe the interior of the
heart.

The heart consists of four chambers,
two upper auricles and two lower
ventricles, and four valves which con-
trol the flow of blood.

6. Name three kinds of vessels
found in the blood-vascular
system.

Arteries, veins, capillaries.

7. Which blood vessels are the
smallest in size?

The capillaries.

8. Which blood vessels carry
blood away from the heart?

The arteries.

9. Which vessels generally car-
ry blood back to the heart?

The veins.

10. What is the normal tempera-
ture of the blood?

98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.

11. What is the composition of
blood?

The blood is composed of two -thirds
plasma and one-third cells (red blood
cells, white blood cells and blood
platelets).

12. What is the composition of
blood plasma?

Blood plasma is composed of about
90% water, and balance consists of
proteins, nutrients, mineral salts, waste
products and other substances.

13. Which blood cells carry ox-
ygen to the body cells?

The red blood cells.

14. Which blood cells
harmful bacteria?

destroy The white blood cells.

15. Which blood cells aid in the
clotting of the blood after
an injury?

The blood platelets.

16. Which two systems take care
of the blood circulation?

1. The general circulation.

2. The pulmonary circulation.

17. Which path is taken by the
general circulation?

The blood flows from the heart
throughout the body and then back
again to the heart.

18. Which path is taken by the
pulmonary circulation?

The blood circulates from the heart
to the lungs and then back again.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

267

Lymphatic System

1. Name the principal parts of
the lymphatic system.

Lymph glands, lymphatic vessels and
lymph spaces.

2. What is lymph?

Lymph is a slightly viscid, alkaline
fluid originating from the blood plas-
ma and circulating through the lymph-
atic system.

3. What are the important
functions of the lymph?

1 The lymph reaches parts of the
body not reached by the blood.

2. The lymph carries nourishment to
body cells.

3. The lymph removes waste products
from body cells.

4. Carries constant interchange with
the blood.

4. In what way is the lymph
related to the blood?

Lymph is derived from the blood plas-
ma and contains white blood cells.

Blood Vessels of the Head, Face and Neck

1. Which main arteries supply
blood to the entire head, face
and neck?

Common carotid arteries.

2. Name two main branches of
the common carotid arteries.

Internal branch and external branch.

3. Which branch of the com-
mon carotid artery supplies
the cranial cavity?

Internal branch of the common car-
otid artery.

4. Which branch of the com-
mon carotid artery supplies
blood to the skin and mus-
cles of the head and face?

External branch of the common car-
otid artery.

5. Name four important branch-
es of the external carotid
artery.

External maxillary, superficial temper-
al, occipital, and posterior auricular.

6. Inferior labial and superior
labial arteries branch out
from what artery?

External maxillary.

7. The angular artery is the
end branch of what artery?

External maxillary.

8. Parietal branch and frontal
branch originate from what
artery?

Superficial temporal.

9. Name two arteries that
branch out from the oph-
thalmic artery.

Supra-orbital and frontal.

268

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

10. What parts of the head do
the following arteries supply?

a) Angular

b) Parietal branch

c) Superior labial

d) Occipital

e) Posterior auricular

f) Supra-orbital

g) Frontal artery
h) Submental

i) Inferior labial

a) Side of nose.

b) Crown and side of head.

c) Upper lip.

d) Back of head up to crown.

e) Scalp above and back of ear.

f) Forehead, eyelid and orbit.

g) Forehead.

h) Chin and lower lip.
i) Lower lip.

11. What muscles do the follow-
ing arteries supply?

a) Middle temporal

b) Orbital

c) Transverse facial

a) Temporalis.

b) Orbicularis oculi.

c) Masseter.

12. Name the principal veins by
which the blood from the
head, face and neck is re-
turned to the heart.

The internal jugular and the external
jugular.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system comprises a group of specialized
glands which may beneficially or adversely affect the growth,
reproduction and health of the body, depending on the qual-
ity and quantity of their secretions. The hormones present in
the blood stream have a profound influence on external ap-
pearance and body processes. The absence or deficiency of
certain hormones in the blood may cause certain glandular
diseases.

Glands are specialized organs which vary in size and
function. The blood and nerves are intimately connected
with the glands. The nervous system controls the functional
activities of the glands. The glands have the ability to remove
certain substances from the blood and to convert them into
new compounds. The secretions manufactured by the endo-
crine glands are known as hormones.

PINEAL GLAND

PITUITARY
GLAND

PARATHYROID
GLANDS

THYROID GLAND

THYMUS
GLAND

PANCREAS

ADRENALS

SEX OR
EPRODUCTIVe
GLANDS

The human endocrine glands.

There are two main sets of glands. One group is called
the duct glands (possess canals leading from the gland to
a particular part of the body). Sweat and oil glands of the

270 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

skin and intestinal glands belong to this group. The other
group, known as ductless or endocrine glands, have their se-
cretions thrown directly into the blood stream which in turn
influences the welfare of the entire body.

The endocrine glands operate as a unit. If there is an
under or an over functioning of any ductless gland, it is
bound to upset the delicate balance of the entire chain
of endocrine glands. Some of the endocrine glands exert
a regulatory and restraining influence over the other glands.

Among the important endocrine glands are the following :

The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain,
regulates the water balance and the height of the body.

The thyroid gland, situated on either side of the trachea
(wind pipe) produces a hormone, thyroxin, which controls
the weight and the metabolic rate of the body.

The adrenal glands, found immediately above the kid-
neys, regulate the blood circulation.

The sex glands are both duct and ductless glands. The
male and female sex glands manufacture the reproductive
cells and the sex hormones which are required for fertility
and reproduction.

The pancreas is located behind the stomach. Certain cells
in the pancreas produce a hormone, known as insulin. This
hormone is absorbed by the blood, brought to the tissues, and
helps in the use of sugars by the body.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

271

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. What is the endocrine sys-
tem?

The endocrine system is composed of
glands whose functions are to aid the
growth, health and reproduction of
the body.

2. How are the glands connect-
ed with other parts of the
body?

Each gland is linked with other parts
of the body by means of nerves and
the blood stream.

3. Why are glands dependent
upon an adequate nerve and
blood supply?

The blood supplies the raw materials
which glands utilize to produce se-
cretions. The nerves control the func-
tional activities of the glands.

4. What is the function of duct
glands?

Duct glands produce secretions which
are carried away through canals to
particular parts of the body.

5. Give examples of duct
glands and explain their
functions.

6. What is the function of a
ductless or endocrine gland?

The skin glands are duct glands. They
excrete perspiration and secrete se-
bum which keeps the skin moist and
lubricated.

A ductless or endocrine gland has no
duct but delivers its secretion directly
into the blood or lymph streams, caus-
ing actions remote from the regions of
their formation.

1. Give 2 examples of ductless
or endocrine glands and ex-
plain their functions.

The pituitary gland regulates the water
balance of the body. The thyroid
gland controls the weight and metab-
olic rate of the body.

8. What is an important differ-
ence between a duct and
ductless gland?

9. Which glands are both duct
and ductless glands?

A duct gland possesses a duct or ca-
nal; whereas a ductless gland has no
duct.

The pancreas and sex glands.

10. Which type of glands pro-
duce hormones?

The ductless or endocrine glands.

11. Why are hormones import-
ant to the body?

12. Briefly describe the location
and function of the adrenal
glands.

The hormones in the blood stream
have a profound influence on external
appearance and body processes.
Located immediately above the kid-
neys. They regulate the blood circu-
lation.

•272 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system, including the kidneys, liver, skin,
intestines and lungs, purifies the body by the elimination of
waste matter.

1. The kidneys excrete urine.

2. The liver discharges bile pigments.

3. The skin eliminates perspiration.

4. The large intestine evacuates decomposed and undi-
gested food.

5. The lungs exhale carbon dioxide.

Metabolic activities of body cells form various poisons
which if retained would harm the body.

Urinary System

The important organs of the urinary system are the
kidneys and the bladder. The kidneys are two bean-shaped
glands located at the lower end of the spinal column and
kept in place by the fatty tissues and the ureters. The
ureters are tubes leading from the kidneys to the bladder
where the urine is stored. The emptying of the bladder is
accomplished by the passage of the urine through the ureth-
ra. As the blood circulates through the kidneys it gives up
a certain amount of water and rejects the various end pro-
ducts of metabolism such as urea and uric acid.

Liver

With the exception of the skin, the liver is the largest
organ in the body and is situated on the upper right side
of the abdomen, immediately below and in contact with
the diaphragm. The liver neutralizes poisonous substances
which may have been absorbed from the intestines. The
liver salvages a portion of the old red blood cells, the re-
mainder being eliminated in the bile. The main functions of
the liver are the production of bile, which aids the digestion
of fats, and the storage of glycogen (animal starch) which is
a reserve form of energy to be used when the body needs it.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 273

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. Name the important organs The lungs, kidneys, skin, liver and
of the excretory system. large intestine.

2. What is the function of the The excretory system eliminates waste
excretory system? products formed in the body.

3. What happens if waste prod- The body will become poisoned by its
ucts are retained instead of own waste products.

being eliminated?

4. Enumerate the waste prod- The kidneys excrete urine. The skin
ucts removed by the various eliminates perspiration. The lungs ex-
excretory organs. hale carbon dioxide. The large in-
testine evacuates undigested food. The
liver discharges bile.

274

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is situated within the chest cav-
ity which is protected on both sides by the ribs. The dia-
phragm, a muscular partition which controls breathing, sep-
arates the chest from the abdominal regions.

The most important organs of the respiratory system are
the nose, trachea (wind pipe), the bronchial tubes, and the
lungs. When air is inhaled through the nose, it passes down
the pharynx, trachea and bronchial tubes, into the lungs. Be-
tween the trachea and the base of the tongue, the larynx
(voice box) is located.

Nasal breathing is healthier than mouth breathing because
the air is warmed by the surface capillaries and the bacteria
are caught by the hairs which line the mucous membranes of
the nasal passages.

NOSTRILS

MOUTH

EPIGLOTTIS

'HARYNX

GLOTTIS

LARYNX (Voice Box)
•TRACHEA

CARTILAGINOUS
RINGS

BRONCHUS

PLEURA

DIAPHRAGM

The human respiratory system,

Lungs

The lungs are spongy tissues composed of microscopic
cells into which the inhaled air penetrates. These tiny air
cells are enclosed in a skinlike tissue or epithelium. Behind

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 275

this epithelium, the fine capillaries of the blood vascular sys-
tem are found.

With each respiration, an exchange of gases takes place.
During inhalation, oxygen is absorbed into the blood, while
carbon dioxide is expelled during exhalation. As oxygen is
brought to the body cells, it reacts chemically with liquid
food, previously digested, to form living tissue. As a result,
heat, energy and carbon dioxide gas are formed.

Oxygen is more essential than either food or water to the
body. Although a man may live more than sixty days
without food, and a few days without water, if air is ex-
cluded for a few minutes, death ensues.

Breathing

Breathing is instinctive because it is necessary to carry
on the life functions. The rate of breathing is conditioned
by the activity of the individual. Muscular activity and
energy expenditures increase the bodily demands for ox-
ygen. As a result, the rate of breathing is increased. A
person requires about three times as much oxygen when
walking than when standing at rest.

The cultivation of abdominal breathing is of value in
building health. Costal breathing is common to many peo-
ple. This type of light or shallow breathing involves the
use of the ribs to the exclusion of the diaphragm. Ab-
dominal breathing means deep breathing, which brings the
diaphragm into action. The maximum intake of oxygen and
expulsion of carbon dioxide is accomplished with abdominal
breathing. The rhythmic movements of the diaphragm ex-
ert a favorable effect by massaging the liver and other
intestinal organs.

276

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Name the important organs
of the respiratory system.

Nose, trachea or wind pipe, bronchial
tubes and lungs.

2. What are the functions of
the respiratory system?

An exchange of gases takes place
through the capillaries in the lung tis-
sue, oxygen gas being inhaled and
carbon dioxide gas being exhaled.

3. What is the diaphragm and
what function does it per-
form?

The diaphragm is a muscular sheet
separating the chest from the abdom-
inal cavity. It helps in expanding and
contracting the lungs.

4. Describe the appearance of
the lung tissue.

The lungs are two spongy sacs com-
posed of microscopic cells into which
the inhaled air penetrates.

5. Why is abdominal breathing
preferred to costal or shal-
low breathing?

Abdominal breathing utilizes all the
lung space, thereby permitting a
greater intake of oxygen and a greater
expulsion of carbon dioxide.

6. Why is nasal breathing pre-
ferable to mouth breathing?

Nasal breathing warms and cleans the
air before entering the lungs.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 277

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system changes food into a form suitable
for use by the body. Digestion is started in the mouth and
completed in the small intestine. From the mouth, the food
passes down the pharynx and the esophagus (food pipe) into
the stomach. In the small intestine, the food is completely
digested with the aid of the secretions from the liver and the
pancreas. The large intestine (colon) stores the refuse before
being eliminated through the rectum. The time required for
the complete digestion of a meal is about nine hours.

Physical and Chemical Changes in Digestion
Digestion is a process involving physical and chemical
changes in the food taken into the body. Physical changes
take place when the food is chewed and mixed with the di-
gestive secretions. Responsible for the chemical changes in
food are the enzymes present in the digestive secretions.

Digestive enzymes are chemical agents which change cer-
tain kinds of food into a form capable of being used by the
body. Each enzyme is specific and can act only on a certain
food constituent.

The principal chemical constituents found in foods are
starches, sugars, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.

The Process of Digestion

The mouth prepares the food for entrance into the stom-
ach. Chewing stimulates the flow of saliva and tends to
soften the food. The saliva, secreted by the salivary glands,
contains an enzyme, ptyalin, which can change carbohydrate
foods into the sugar stage. The tongue aids in the tasting and
swallowing of the food. The chewed food easily passes down
the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach.

The stomach is a muscular sac, found below the dia-
phragm, and capable of holding from one to two quarts. The
soft, velvety lining of the stomach walls secrete an enzyme,
pepsin, which partly digests protein in the presence of hydro-
chloric acid. The churning action of the stomach brings the

278

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

food in contact with the gastric juice. Protein and fatty foods
remain in the stomach for a much longer period of time than
do starches and sugars.

Ascending

Rectum

Diagram illustrating the Human Alimentary Canal
with its Principal Digestive Glands

As the stomach contents empties into the small intestine,
it is acted upon by the pancreatic juice. The pancreatic se-
cretion contains three enzymes capable of completing the di-
gestion of carbohydrate, fat and protein containing foods.
The liver secretes bile which aids in the digestion of fats.
Besides the bile and the pancreatic secretion, the intestinal
secretion also assists in the process of digestion.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 279

The final end products of carbohydrate digestion are the
simple sugars; the end products of fat digestion are fatty
acids and glycerine; and the end products of protein diges-
tion are the amino salts. In the small intestine, the digested
food is absorbed into the blood stream.

Between the small and large intestine is found a valve,
which must open to permit the passage of the digested food.
The appendix is located on the right side of the large intest-
ine. Although the exact function of the appendix is un-
known, it is believed to be of value to the body. In the large
intestine, water is absorbed, thereby making the waste mat-
ter firm. When the rectum becomes full, bowel movement
occurs.

Overcoming Constipation

Constipation and intestinal decomposition are the basis of
many skin infections such as acne, acne rosacea and urticaria.
The absorption of toxic substances from the intestine, and its
subsequent elimination through the skin accounts for the
presence of many skin blemishes. The logical remedy is to
remove the underlying cause, namely constipation. A bal-
anced diet containing plenty of water to make the intestinal
contents soft, enough cellulose to stimulate intestinal move-
ment, and abdominal exercises to strengthen the intestinal
muscles — these measures will be helpful in overcoming con-
stipation.

280

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. What is digestion?

Digestion is a process involving phys-
ical and chemical changes in the food
taken into the body.

2. Name the principal chemical
constituents found in foods.

Starches, sugars, fats, proteins, miner-
als and vitamins.

3. Name the important organs
of the digestive system.

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, liver and pancreas.

4. In which organ is digestion
started?

The mouth.

5. In which organ is digestion
completed?

The small intestine.

6. How do digestive enzymes
aid digestion?

Digestive enzymes are chemical agents
which convert certain kinds of food
into a form capable of being used by
the body.

7. What digestive changes oc-
cur in the mouth?

Food is chewed and mixed with sa-
livary juice. Starchy foods are partly
digested.

8. What digestive changes oc-
cur in the stomach?

The food is combined with gastric
juice. Protein foods are digested.

9. What digestive changes oc-
cur in the small intestine?

Foods are completely digested and ab-
sorbed into the blood.

10. How does the liver aid di-
gestion?

The liver produces bile which enters
the small intestine and digests fats in
foods.

11. How does the pancreas aid
digestion?

The pancreas produces a juice which
enters the small intestine and digests
starches, proteins and fats in foods.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 281

THE SKIN

The scientific study of the skin forms the basis for
an effective program of skin care and barber treatments.
The skin is the largest organ in the body and performs many
vital functions required for health. The barber who has
a thorough understanding of the skin, its structure and
functions, will be in a better position to give professional
skin treatments.

A healthy skin shows signs of being smooth and flexible,
has proper color and is free from any blemish or disease.

The skin varies in thickness, being thinnest on the eye-
lids and thickest on the palms and soles. Continued pres-
sure over any part of the skin will cause it to thicken.

The structure of the skin contains two clearly defined
divisions :

1. The epidermis, cuticle or scarf skin is the outermost
protective layer.

2. The dermis, corium or true skin is the deeper layer
of the skin.

Subcutaneous (adipose) tissue is a fatty tissue found
below the dermis. ( See footnote *. )

The epidermis or cuticle forms the outer protective cov-
ering for the body. It contains no blood vessels but has
many small nerve endings. The epidermis contains the fol-
lowing layers:

1. The stratum corneum (horny layer) consists of tightly
packed, scale-like cells which are continually being shed
and replaced. As these cefls develop, they form keratin
which acts as a water-proof covering. This layer of cells
plays an important part in determining the character of
the complexion.

2. The stratum lucidum (clear layer) consists of small
transparent cells through which light can pass.

3. The stratum granulosum (granular layer) consists of
cells which look like distinct granules. These cells are al-

*Some hist olo gists refer to the subcutaneous tissue as a continuation of
the dermis, while others consider it as a separate layer.

282 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

most dead and undergo a change into a horny substance.

4. The stratum mucosum (Malpighian layer) is com-
posed of several layers of cells. Its deepest layer is sometimes
called the stratum germinativum. (See footnote *.)

5. The stratum germinativum (basal layer) is composed
of a single row of columnar cells often called mother cells,
responsible for the reproduction or growth of the epidermis.
These cells contain a pigment called melanin which is re-
sponsible for the coloration of the skin.

The dermis is the true skin. It is also called derma,
corium or cutis. In this layer is found an elastic network
of cells through which are distributed blood and lymph
vessels, nerves, sweat glands and oil glands. It contains the
following layers:

1. The papillary layer, which lies directly beneath the
epidermis, contains the papillae, or little cone-like projections,
made of fine strands of elastic tissue which extend upward
into the epidermis. Some of these papillae contain looped
capillaries, others contain terminations of nerve fibers called
tactile corpuscles. This layer also contains some of the mel-
anin skin pigment.

2. The reticular layer, in whose network is contained
the fat cells, the blood and lymph vessels, the sweat and
oil glands, and the hair follicles.

The subcutaneous tissue (subcutis) is regarded by some
histologists as a continuation of the dermis. It varies in thick-
ness according to the age, sex and general health of the indi-
vidual. This fatty (adipose) tissue gives smoothness and con-
tour to the body, besides providing a reservoir for fuel and
energy and also acting as a protective cushion for the outer
skin layers. This fatty layer contains a network of arteries,
and a superficial and deep network of lymphatics.

Blood and Lymph Supply to the Skin

From 1/2 to 2/3 of the total blood supply of the body
is found distributed to the skin. The blood and lymph, as

*Some histologists classify the stratum germinativum and the stratum
mucosum as one layer.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

283

they circulate through the skin, contribute essential materials
needed for its growth and nourishment. In the subcutaneous
tissue are found networks of arteries and lymphatics which
send their smaller branches to the papillae, the hair follicles

Diagram of a Section of the Skin

284 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

and the skin glands. The capillaries are quite numerous in
the skin.

Nerves of the skin. The skin contains the surface endings
of many nerve fibers classified as follows:

1. Motor nerve fibers which are distributed to the blood
vessels and the arrectores pilorum muscle of the hair
follicles.

2. Sensory nerve fibers which react to heat, cold, touch,
pressure and pain.

3. Secretory nerve fibers which are distributed to the
sweat and oil glands of the skin.

Pliability of the skin. It depends upon the elasticity of
the fibers of the dermis. For example, after expansion, the
skin regains its former shape almost immediately.

The color of the skin depends partly upon the blood
supply, but more upon the melanin pigment or coloring
matter which is deposited in the stratum germinativum and
the papillary layer of the dermis. The pigment varies in dif-
ferent people and races.

Sweat and Oil Glands

Glands of the skin. The skin contains two types of
glands which extract materials from the blood to form new
substances.

1. The sudoriferous (sweat) glands excrete sweat.

2. The sebaceous (oil) glands secrete sebum, an oily
substance.

The sweat glands (tubular type) consist of a coiled base
or fundus and a tube-like duct which terminates at the
skin surface to form the sweat pore. Practically all parts of
the body are supplied with sweat glands, being more nu-
merous on the palms, soles, forehead and under the arm-
pits. The sweat glands function like a miniature kidney
and help to eliminate waste products from the body. Their
activity is greatly increased by heat, exercise, mental excite-
ment and certain drugs. The excretion of sweat is under the
control of the nervous system.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 285

The oil glands (sacular type) consist of little sacs whose
duct opens into the neck of the hair follicle. They secrete
sebum which lubricates the skin and preserves the softness
of the hair. With the exception of the palms and soles,
these glands are found in all parts of the body, particularly
the face.

Functions of the Skin

The principal functions of the skin are:

1. Protection. 4. Sensation.

2. Heat Regulation. 5. Absorption.

3. Secretion and Excretion.

1. Protection. The skin protects the body from injury
and bacterial invasion.

2. Heat Regulation. The healthy body maintains a con-
stant internal temperature of about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.
As changes occur in the outside temperature, the blood and
sweat glands of the skin make necessary adjustments in
their functions. €

3. Secretion and Excretion. By means of its sweat and
oil glands, the skin acts both as a secretory and excretory
organ.

4. Sensation. The skin has a rich nerve supply which
responds to the influences of heat, cold, touch, pain and
pressure, thereby permitting the body to adapt itself to vary-
ing conditions of the environment.

5. Absorption. The skin has limited powers of absorp-
tion through its pores. Small amounts of lanolin creams or
fatty substances can be absorbed by the skin, whereas water
and alcohol are not absorbed at all.

Respiration. Some textbooks still list respiration among
the functions of the skin. Recent studies have disproved this
theory. However, in animals, there is a definite amount of
oxygen gas taken in and carbon dioxide gas discharged di-
rectly through the skin, but in man this is negligible.

The appendages of the skin are: hair, nails, sweat and
oil glands.

286

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

THE SKIN

1. Briefly describe the skin.

The skin is a soft, strong, flexible
covering of the body.

2. What are five important
functions of the skin?

Protection, heat regulation, secretion
and excretion, sensation, and absorp-
tion.

3. Name the two main divisions
of the skin.

The epidermis and dermis.

4. Briefly describe the struc-
ture of the epidermis.

The epidermis consists of five layers
and does not contain any blood ves-
sels or nerve endings.

STName the layers of the epi-
dermis.

1. Stratum corneum (horny layer).

2. Stratum lucidum (clear layer)

3. Stratum granulosum (granular lay-
er).

4. Stratum mucosum (Malpighian lay-
er).

5. Stratum germinativum (basal layer).

6. Which epidermal layer is
continually being shed and
replaced?

Stratum corneum.

7. Which epidermal layer con-
sists of small, transparent
cells?

Stratum lucidum.

8. Which epidermal layer starts
to undergo a change into a
horny substance?

Stratum granulosum.

9. Where is the coloring matter
of the skin found?

In the stratum germinativum (basal
layer) of the epidermis and the papil-
lary layer of the dermis.

10. What is the function of the
stratum germinativum?

Starts the reproduction of the epi-
dermis.

11. Describe the structure of Consists of an elastic network of cells
the dermis. containing blood and lymph vessels,

nerve endings, sweat glands, oil glands
and hair follicles.

12. Name the two layers of the
dermis.

The papillary layer and the reticular
layer.

13. Which structures are found
in the papillary layer?

Papillae or cone-like projections con-
taining either capillaries or nerve
endings

14. Which structures are found
in the reticular layer?

Fat cells, blood and lymph vessels,
sweat and oil glands and hair follicles.

15. Which structures render the
skin flexible?

The fibers in the dermis.

16. What is the function of the
subcutaneous tissue?

Acts as a protective cushion for outer
skin layers, gives smoothness and con-
tour to the body and also contains a
reserve supply of fats.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

287

Sweat and Oil Glands

1. What is a gland?

An organ which removes certain
materials from the blood and forms
new substances.

2. Name two types of glands
found in the skin.

Sudoriferous or sweat glands; se-
baceous or oil glands.

3. Describe the structure of the
sweat glands.

Consist of a coiled base and a tube-
like duct which forms a pore at the
surface of the skin.

4. Where are sweat glands
found?

Over the entire area of the skin,
more numerous on the palms, soles,
forehead and armpits.

5. What is the function of the
sweat glands?

Eliminates waste products in the
form of sweat.

6. Name four agents capable
of increasing the activity of
the sweat glands.

Heat, exercise, mental excitement and
certain drugs.

7. Describe the structure of
the oil glands.

Consist of small sacs whose ducts
open into the neck of the hair follicle.

8. Which substance is secreted
by the oil glands?

Sebum, an oily substance.

9. What is the chief function
of sebum?

Lubricates the skin and hair, keeping
them soft and pliable.

10. Where are the oil glands
found?

Oil glands are found in all parts of
the body with the exception of the
palms and soles.

288 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

THE HAIR

The study of the hair is of importance to the barber.
The chief purpose of the hair is to protect the body, promote
beauty and conserve heat. To keep the hair healthy, proper
attention must be given to its care and treatment. The bar-
ber who has the knowledge of hair structure, its character-
istics and qualities is in a better position to give professional
hair treatments.

Hair is a slender thread-like outgrowth of the skin and
scalp of the human body.

Composition of hair. Hair, an appendage of the skin, is
composed of a horny substance, mainly keratin. There is no
sense of feeling in the hair of the head or body, owing to the
absence of nerves in the hair.

The composition of the hair varies with different races
and individuals. Keratin, the chief constituent of the hair,
is made up of about 45% carbon and 30% oxygen, with
lesser amounts of such chemical elements as hydrogen, ni-
trogen and sulphur.

)S^~~

CURLY

f CURL
^^HAIK

Shapes and Cross-Sections of Different Forms of Hair
Shapes of the hair. The hair takes its shape, size and
direction from the shape, size and direction of the follicles.
The various shapes of hair are as follows:

1. Straight hair is usually round.

2. Wavy hair is usually oval.

3. Curly or kinky hair is usually flat.

Full grown hair as found on the human body is divided
into two principal parts:

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1. The hair root is that portion of the hair structure
found beneath the skin surface.

2. The hair shaft is that portion of the hair structure ex-
tending above the skin surface.

Structures closely associated with the hair root are the
hair follicle, hair bulb and hair papilla.

The hair follicle is a tube-like depression or pocket in the
skin, enveloping the hair root. For every hair, there is a fol-
licle. Hair follicles vary in depth from one thirty-second to
one-eighth of an inch, depending upon the thickness and lo-
cation of the skin.

MEDULLARY
SUBSTANCE

NECK OF
HAIR FOLLICLE

INNER
ROOT SHEATH

OUTER
ROOT SHEATH

SEBACEOUS
GLAND

ARRECTOR
PILI MUSCLE

HAIR BULB

HAIR PAPILLA

The Hair and Follicle

290

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The hair bulb is a thickened, club-shaped structure form-
ing the lower part of the hair root. The lower part of the
hair bulb is hollowed out to fit over the hair papilla.

The hair papilla is a small cone-shaped elevation found
at the bottom of the hair follicle that fits into the hair bulb.
Within the hair papilla is a rich blood and nerve supply
which contributes to the growth and regeneration of the hair.

Hair is found all over the body, with the exception of
the palms, soles, and lips. Due to human habits and en-
vironmental needs, hair grows long only on the head, and
there principally to form a cushion for the skull, which
contains the most important organ of the body.

There are three types of hair on the body: downy or
lanugo hair, found on the forehead and body; short or
bristly hair, such as eyelashes and eyebrows; and soft, long
hair, growing on the scalp, face, and armpits. Hair kept
closely cut as by shaving or trimming, does not coarsen
it nor stimulate its growth.

Technical terms given to hair on various part of body:

Hirsuties or hypertrichosis means the growth of an unus-
ual amount of hair, or of hair in unusual locations, as on the
face of women or the back of men ; hairy ; superfluous hair.
Capilli — the head. Barba — the beard.

Cilia — the eyelashes. Vibrissae — the nostrils.

Supercilia — the eyebrows. Tragi — the ears.

Medulla of Hair j

Cortex of Hair 5

i
Cuticle of Hair j

Inner or Epidermic Coat '

ttl

Outer or Dermic Coat d
Inner Root Sheath ^

Outer Root Sheath

Cross-Section of Hair and Follicle

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 291

Hair is composed of three layers: the medulla, the center,
pith or marrow of the hair shaft ; the cortex, the middle layer,
containing pigment or coloring matter; and the cuticle, the
outside layer, composed of scale-like cells overlapping like
fish scales to give strength and elasticity.

Cuticle Scales and Layers of Hair

Color of hair. The cortex constitutes the chief part of
the shaft. It is made up of long, spindle-shaped cells, in
which is found coloring matter, minute grains of pigment.
The source of pigment has not been definitely settled. It is
probably derived from the color-forming substances in the
blood, as is all pigment of the human body.

The color of the hair, light or dark, depends upon the
color of the grains of pigment. If the granules are dense
the color will be deep or dark. If the granules are scarce, the
color will be that of the granules, but lighter in tone. The
presence of air in the hair will make it a lighter shade. When
most of the pigment is gone and air spaces are still more
numerous, the hair will be white or gray. Gray hair is
really mottled hair-spots of white or whitish yellow scat-
tered about the shafts.

Albino is a person born with white hair, the result of an
absence of coloring matter in the hair shaft; accompanied
by no marked pigment coloring in the skin or iris of the eyes.

292

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The arrector pili muscle, connected to the hair follicle,
contracts with fear and cold, thus causing the sensation de-
scribed by "hair standing on end," and gives the skin ap-
pearance of "goose flesh."

Sebaceous (oil) glands are tiny glands emptying sebum
at the mouth of the follicle, thereby supplying natural oils
to hair and skin, keeping them soft and pliable.

Regeneration of hair. From the papilla comes material
for the growth of the hair. As long as the papilla is not de-
stroyed, the hair will grow. If the hair is pulled out from the
roots, it will nevertheless grow again, but if the papilla is de-
stroyed, it will never grow again.

In human beings there is a
constant death and replacement
of hair. In a hair about to be
shed, the bulb becomes corni-
fied and splits up into a num-
ber of fibers. The hair then be-
comes detached from the papil-
la and the root sheath, and is
cast off. The empty root sheath
collapses and forms a cord of
cells between the papilla and
lower end of the shedding hair.
If the dead hair is to replaced
by a new one, there will soon
occur a multiplication of cells
in the region of the old papilla.
From this "hair germ" the new
hair is formed growing upward,
under or to one side of the dead
hair, which it finally replaces.

If the blood supply to the pa-
pilla is weak, due to poor cir-
culation, the new hair produced
will be thin, dry and weak in
appearance.

New
Hair Bulb

Papilla

Vascular Loop
(blood supply)

New Hair
Replacing Old Hair

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 293

Life and density of hair. The average life of a hair on
the head is from two to four years, after which time it is;
replaced by a new one. Eyelashes and eyebrows are replaced
every four or five months. The number of hairs on the
head varies with the color of the hair, there being about
140,000 for light blonde, 110,000 for brown, and 100,000
for black and titian, the latter two are generally the coarsest.

Hair can be both beautiful and healthy regardless of
color or texture if there is a loose scalp, and elasticity in the
hair. Normal hair will stretch about one-fifth of its natural
length, and will spring back when released.

294

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

THE HAIR

1. What is hair?

Hair is a slender thread-like out-
growth of the skin and scalp of the
human body.

2. What is the chief constituent
of the hair?

Keratin.

3. Name three functions of
hair.

Protects the body, promotes beauty
and conserves heat.

4. Name three types of hair
found on the body.

Long hair; short, stiff hair; soft, la-
nugo hair.

5. Where is long hair found? Scalp and face of man.

6. Where is short, stiff hair
found?

Eyebrows and eyelashes.

7. Where is soft, lanugo hair
found?

On the forehead and other paiTs of
the body.

8. Which parts of the body do
not contain any hair?

Palms of the hands, soles of the feet
and lips.

9. Name the two parts into
which the length of the hair
is divided.

The hair root and hair shaft.

10. What is the hair shaft?

That portion of the hair which ex-
tends beyond the skin.

11. What is the hair root?

That portion of the hair beneath the
surface of the skin.

12. What is the hair follicle?

A tube-like depression or pocket in
the skin.

13. Which muscle and gland are
attached to the hair follicle?

The arrector pili muscle and oil gland
in the skin.

14. What is the hair bulb?

The club-shaped structure forming the
lower part of the hair root.

15. What is the hair papilla?

A small cone-shaped elevation at the
bottom of the hair follicle that fits
into the hair bulb.

16. How does the hair receive
its nourishment?

From the tiny blood vessels in the
papilla.

17. Which three factors determ-
ine the shape of the hair?

The size, shape and direction of the
hair follicle.

18. Name three shapes of hair.

Straight hair, wavy hair, and curly
or kinky hair.

19. Name three layers found in
hair.

Medulla, cortex and cuticle.

20. Which hair layer makes hair
elastic?

The cuticle of the hair.

21. Which hair layer contains
coloring matter?

The cortex of the hair.

22. Explain the process of hair
growth and replacement.

Active hair growth starts at the pa-
pilla. When the hair has reached its
fullest growth, it begins to shed. If
the hair papilla is alive and properly
nourished by the blood, a new hair
will grow again.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

295

THE NAIL

While the barber is not required to know the procedure
for manicuring, the study of the structure and function of
the nail will be beneficial.

The condition of the nail, like that of the skin, reflects
the general health of the body. The normal, healthy nail
is firm and flexible and exhibits a slightly pink color. Its
surface should be smooth, curved and unspotted without
any hollows or wavy ridges.

The nail, an appendage of the skin, is a horny plate
which acts as a protective covering for the tips of the
fingers and toes.

Composition. The nails contain a complex substance,
called keratin, which imparts a whitish appearance and al-
lows the pink color of the nail bed to be seen.

Growth. The average rate of growth in the normal adult
is about one-eighth of an inch per month, being faster in the
summer than in the winter. The nails of children grow more

HYPONYCHIUM

^ ,^ FREE EDGE

EPIDERMIS

DERMA or
TRUE SKIN

3rd PHALANX

FREE EDGE
NAIL BODY

LUND LA

CUTICLE
NAIL ROOT

£ LATERAL
LIGAMENTS

ANAIL BED

J^NAIL BOD\
A-LUNULA

XROOT
\MATRIX

Diagram of the Nail

rapidly; whereas those of elderly persons grow more slowly.
The nail grows fastest on the middle finger and slowest on
the thumb. Although toe nails grow more slowly than finger
nails, they are thicker and harder.

296 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Definitions

Parts of the nail. The nail consists of three parts: the
body or plate, the root and the free edge.

The nail body or plate is the visible portion of the nail
extending from the nail root to the free edge.

The nail root is at the base of the nail and is imbedded
underneath the skin. The nail root originates from an act-
ively growing layer known as the matrix.

The free edge is the terminal portion of the nail body
and reaches over the fingers tips.

The lunula is the visible half -moon area at the base of
the nail body. The pale color of the lunula is due to the
numerous cells of the matrix which are less vascular.

The nail grooves are furrowed edges on either side of
the nail body.

The skin adjoining the finger nail includes the nail bed,
the matrix, the cuticle, the mantle and the nail walls.

The nail bed is the portion of the skin on which the
nail body rests. It is composed of vascular tissue correspond-
ing to dermis and stratum mucosum of the skin.

The matrix is that part of the nail bed extending be-
neath the nail root. The matrix produces the nail, the cells
of the matrix constantly undergoing a reproducing and
hardening process.

The cuticle is the overlapping part of the skin of the
finger around the nail.

The eponychium is the extension of excess cuticle at
the base of the nail.

The hyponychium is that portion of the epidermis, under
the free edge where the nail leaves the nail bed.

The mantle is the deep fold of the skin in which thfc
nail root is lodged.

The nail walls are the small folds of skin overlapping the
nail body.

297

ELECTRICITY

The beneficial effects of electricity have long been recog-
nized to be of value in barbering. Electricity is a valuable
servant, provided it is used intelligently and safely. Not
only does it supply light and heat, but it can operate var-
ious kinds of electrical machines and appliances to the
advantage of the barber and the customer. Thus, time and
energy are saved and the effectiveness of barber services
is improved.

Although the exact nature of electricity is not yet com-
pletely understood, its generating sources and effects are
known. It is generally believed that electricity is a form
of energy, which when in motion, produces magnetic, chem-
ical or heat effects.

Electricity cay be produced chemically or mechanically.
Battery cells, either dry or wet, change chemical energy
into electrical energy. Dynamos and magnetos are mech-
anical generators which convert the energy released by
waterfalls or burning coal into electricity.

A current of electricity is a stream of electrons (neg-
atively charged particles) moving along a conductor.

A conductor is a substance which readily transmits an
electric current. Metals (copper, gold, silver, aluminum,
zinc), carbon and watery solutions of acids and salts are
good conductors of electricity.

A non-conductor or insulator is a substance, such as
rubber, silk, dry wood, glass, cement or asbestos, which
resists the passage of an electric current.

An electric wire is composed of metal (conductor) which
is surrounded by rubber or silk (insulator or non-conductor).

Electrodes, composed of good conductors, serve as points
of contact when applying electricity to the body.

Two forms of electricity are employed for commercial
purposes, the direct and alternating currents.

298 ELECTRICITY

1. Direct current (D.C.) is a constant and even-flowing
current, traveling in one direction.

2. Alternating current (A.C.) is a rapid and interrupted
current, flowing first in one direction and then in the op-
posite direction.

If necessary, one type of current can be changed to the
other type by means of a converter or rectifier.

A converter is an apparatus used to convert a direct
current into an alternating current. A rectifier is used to
change an alternating current to a direct current, which
is required to generate galvanism.

A complete circuit of electricity is the entire path traveled
by the current from its generating source through various
conductors (wire, electrode, body) and back to its original
source.

A closed circuit is one in which the current flows after
proper connections have been made.

A ground circuit is one in which one pole is used to de-
liver current and the other pole is connected to a ground (a
water pipe or radiator).

An open circuit is one in which the flow of electricity
has been interrupted or disconnected.

A short (broken) circuit occurs when the current is
diverted from its regular path by faulty connections or by
frayed wires.

A fuse is a safety device which prevents the overheating
of electric wires. It will blow out because of overloading
(too many connections on one wire) or through a short
circuit. To re-establish the circuit, disconnect apparaus be-
fore inserting a new fuse.

ELECTRICITY

SAFETY PRACTICES
This

299

Use only one plug to each outlet. Overloading may cause fuse to
blow out.

To disconnect current, re-
move plug without pulling
cord. Never pull on cord as
the wires may become loos-
ened, and may cause a
short circuit.

In replacing a blown out
fuse, make sure to:

1. Use new fuse with prop-
er rating.

2. Stand on a dry surface.

3. Keep hands dry.

Examine cords regularly.
Repair or replace worn
cords to prevent short
circuit, shock or fire.

OFF

In an emergency, turn off
main switch, as illustrated,
to shut off electricity for en-
tire shop or building.

300 ELECTRICITY

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Electrical measurements are expressed in terms of the
following units:

The volt is a unit of electrical pressure.

The ampere is a unit of electrical strength.

The ohm is a unit of electrical resistance.

An electrical current flows through a conductor when the
pressure is sufficiently great to overcome the resistance offered
by the wire or body to the passage of the current. According
to Ohm's law, it takes one volt of pressure to drive one am-
pere of strength through one ohm of resistance in one sec-
ond's time.

Instead of the ampere which is too strong, the milli-
ampere, I/ 1000th part of an ampere, is used for facial and
scalp treatments. The milliamperemeter is an instrument for
measuring the rate of flow of an electric current.

The voltmeter is an instrument for measuring the exact
voltage of an electric current.

The transformer is a device for changing (either increas-
ing or decreasing) the voltage of an electric current. It can
be used only on alternating current.

The frequency of a current is the number of complete
cycles or waves occurring in one second. The ordinary alter-
nating current operates at a rate of 60 cycles and at a voltage
of 110.

A high-frequency current refers to a current with 10,000
or more cycles per second.

A watt is a unit of electrical power which flows at the rate
of one ampere under a pressure of one volt. It takes approx-
imately 746 watts to make one horsepower.

A kilowatt is a unit of quantity, representing 1000 watts.
It is used to figure the cost of power consumed in the barber
shop.

ELECTRICITY

301

HIGH-FREQUENCY CURRENT

There are three types of high-frequency current : d5 Arson-
val, Oudin and Tesla currents, named after their respective
discoverers. These currents are characterized by a high rate
of vibration, ranging from 10,000 or more cycles per second.
Of chief interest to the barber is the Tesla current, commonly
called the violet ray. The other two types are used in the
practice of medicine.

The Tesla current is of medium voltage and amperage
and can be connected to either the direct or alternating cur-
rents. The primary action of this current is thermal, or heat
producing. Because of its rapid vibrations, there are no mus-
cular contractions. The physiological effects are either stim-
ulating or soothing, depending on the method of application.

Facial Electrode

High Frequency (Tesla)

Scalp Electrode

Metal Electrode

The electrodes for high-frequency are made of glass or
metal. Their shapes vary, the facial electrode being flat and
the scalp electrode being rake-shaped. As the current passes
through the glass electrode, tiny violet sparks are emitted
when the electrode is held about half an inch from the skin.
All treatments given with high-frequency should be started

302

ELECTRICITY

with a mild current, and gradually increased to the required
strength. The length of the treatment depends upon the con-
dition to be treated. For a general facial or scalp treatment
about five minutes should be allowed.

Applying High-Frequency to Face Applying High-Frequency to Scalp
Using Facial Electrode. Using Rake Electrode.

There are three methods of using the Tesla current:

1 . Direct surface application. The barber holds the elec-
trode and applies it over the customer's skin. For effective
facial treatments, the electrode should be applied directly
over the cosmetic cream.

2. Indirect application. The customer holds the elec-
trode, while the barber uses his fingers to massage the surface
being treated. At no time is the electrode attached to the
barber. To prevent shock, the current is turned on after the
customer has the electrode firmly in his hand; the current
is turned off before removing the electrode from the cust-
omer's hand.

3. General electrification. By holding a metal electrode
in his hand, the customer's body is charged with electricity
without being touched by the barber.

To obtain sedative, calming or soothing effects with high-
frequency current, the general electrification treatment is
used, or the electrode is kept in close contact with the parts
treated by the use of direct surface application.

To obtain a stimulating effect, the electrode is lifted
slightly from the parts to be treated by using it through the
clothing or a towel.

ELECTRICITY 303

In using high-frequency with hair tonics, never use a
tonic with a high alcoholic content. If it is desirable to use
this type of tonic, use the electricity first, and the tonic after
the electricity has been applied.

The removal of growths such as warts and moles may be
accomplished by means of sparks of a high-frequency cur-
rent. This treatment is called fulguration.

The Vibrator

The vibrator is an electrical appliance used by the barber
as an aid in facial and scalp massage. It can be regulated to
produce either a slow, medium or fast rate of vibration.

When the vibrator is used for massage purposes, the fol-
lowing benefits are derived by the customer.

1 . Stimulates the functions of the skin.

2. Stimulates muscular tissues.

3. Increases the blood supply to the parts being massaged.

4. Increases glandular activities.

5. Soothes the nerves.

The vibrator may be used in two ways:

1. Indirectly with an applicator attached to the barber's
wrist or hand. When in use, the vibrations are trans-
mitted through the barber's fingers to the parts being
treated.

2. Directly with a rubber applicator. The rubber appli-
cator transmits the vibrations directly to the parts be-
ing treated. For sanitary reasons, a new rubber appli-
cator should be used on each customer. Used rubber
applicators cannot be effectively sterilized; therefore
must be replaced with a new one for each customer.

Although the vibrator produces beneficial results when
properly used, it should never be used if the customer has a
weak heart, fever, inflammation or an abscess.

304 ELECTRICITY

WALL PLATE

A wall plate is a device used to adapt the different types
of current supplied by the power plant or battery cells to suit
the requirements of electrical appliances used in the barber
shop. By adjusting certain switches, it is possible to obtain
the type of current desired.

GALVANIC CURRENT

The galvanic current is a constant and direct current
generated by a direct current (D.C.) or by battery cells.
It possesses polarity as manifested by the chemical changes
produced when this current is passed through certain solu-
tions containing acids or salts. Chemical effects are also pro-
duced when a galvanic current is passed through the tissues
and fluids of the body.

The negative pole of the galvanic current has a special
use in electrolysis, and is employed for the permanent re-
moval of unsightly hair from the body.

SHORT-WAVE DIATHERMY

The short-wave diathermy is another form of high-fre-
quency current, and is also used for the rapid and permanent
removal of undesirable hair from the body.

FARADIC CURRENT

The faradic current is an alternating and interrupted cur-
rent capable of producing a mechanical reaction without a
chemical effect. It is used principally to cause muscular
contractions.

SINUSOIDAL CURRENT

The sinusoidal current resembles the faradic current in
many respects. It is an alternating current which produces
a mechanical effect on the body. The manner of application
is the same as for the faradic current.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

305

ELECTRICITY

1. What is the nature of elec-
tricity?

A form of energy capable of pro-
ducing magnetic, chemical or heat
effects.

2. What is a conductor? What
substance is usually used as
a conductor in an electric
wire?

A substance which readily carries an
electric current. Copper is usually
used as a conductor.

3. What is a non-conductor or
insulator? Give three ex-
amples.

A substance which resists the passage
of an electric current, such as rubber,
silk and glass.

4. What are electrodes?

Applicators used in applying elec-
tricity to a customer.

5. What is
(B.C.)?

a direct current

A constant and even-flowing current,
traveling in one direction.

6. What is an alternating cur-
rent (A.C.)?

A rapid, interrupted current, flowing
first in one direction and then in the
opposite direction.

7. Which apparatus changes a
direct current into an alter-
nating current?

Converter.

8. Which apparatus changes an
alternating current to a di-
rect current?

Rectifier.

9. Define a closed circuit.

A closed circuit is one in which the
current flows after proper connections
have been made.

10. Which type of circuit will
not operate an electrical ap-
pliance?

An open circuit or a short circuit.

11. Which safety device is need-
ed to correct a short circuit?

Fuse.

12. Which three defects may
cause a fuse to blow out?

Overloading an electrical outlet, faulty
connections, and frayed wires.

13. What is a volt?

A unit of electrical pressure.

14. What is an ampere?

A unit of electrical strength.

15. What is an ohm?

A unit of electrical resistance.

16. What is a high-frequency
current?

A current having a high rate of vibra-
tion, ranging from 10,000 or more cy-
cles per second.

17. Which type of high-frequen-
cy current is commonly used
in the barber shop?

Tesla current.

18. What effects does the Tesla
current produce on the
body?

Either stimulating or soothing effects,
depending on the method of appli-
cation.

306

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

19. Name three kinds of elec-
trodes.

The facial electrode, the scalp elec-
trode and the metal electrode.

20. Name three methods of ap-
plying the Tesla current.

Direct surface application; indirect
application; general electrification.

21. Briefly describe how to use
direct surface application.

The barber holds the electrode and
applies it directly to customer's skin.

22. Briefly describe how to use
indirect application.

While the customer is holding the
electrode, the barber massages the
surface being treated.

23. Briefly describe how to use
general electrification.

The customer holds the metal elec-
trode in his hand, thereby charging
the body with electricity.

24. Which method of application
produces soothing results?

Either direct surface application or
general electrification.

25. How are stimulating effects
produced?

By lifting the electrode slightly from
the part being treated or by using it
through a towel or clothing.

26. How long should a general
facial or scalp treatment
last?

About five minutes.

27. What safety precaution
should be observed in using
hair tonics having a high
alcoholic content?

Use the high-frequency current first,
followed by the application of hair
tonic.

28. What is a vibrator?

An electrical appliance used as an
aid in massage.

29. Name five benefits produced
by vibratory massage.

1. Stimulates the functions of the skin.

2. Stimulates muscular tissues.

3. Increases the blood supply to the
part being massaged.

4. Increases glandular activities.

5. Soothes the nerves.

30. Under what conditions should
a vibrator never be used?

If the customer has a weak heart,
fever, inflammation or abscess.

31. Describe the methods
using the vibrator.

of The vibrator may be used directly
or indirectly. It can be used directly
with the rubber applicator to the
parts to be treated. Or it may be
used indirectly, by placing the vibra-
tor on the back of the barber's hand,
or wrist— the vibrations are thus trans-
mitted through the fingers to the parts
to be treated.

307

LIGHT THERAPY

Light therapy refers to the application of light rays for
treatment of disease. Light or electrical waves travel at a
tremendous speed — 186,000 miles per second. The Angstrom
Unit (A.U.) has been adopted to simplify the measurement
of these waves.

There are many kinds of light rays, but in barber shop
work we are concerned with only three — those producing
heat, known as infra-red rays ; those producing chemical and
germicidal reaction, known as ultra-violet rays; and visible
lights, all of which are contained within the spectrum of
the sun.

If a ray of sunshine is passed through a glass prism, it
will appear in seven different colors, known as the rainbow,
arrayed in the following manner: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. These colors which are visible to the
eye, constitute the visible spectrum, comprising about 12%
of sunshine.

Dispersion of Light Rays by a Prism

Scientists have discovered that at either end of the visible
spectrum are rays of the sun which are invisible to us. The
rays beyond the violet are the ultra-violet rays, also known as
actinic rays. These rays are the shortest and least penetrating
rays of the spectrum, comprising about 8% of sunshine. The
action of these rays is both chemical and germicidal.

Below the red rays of the spectrum are the infra-red rays.
These are pure heat rays, comprising about 80% of sunshine.

308

LIGHT THERAPY

Ultra Violet Rays

Solar Spectrum

Infra Red Rays

1 847 All to 3900 All

3900 All to 7700 AU

7700 AU to 14.000 AU

Far
1847-2200

Middle
2200-2900

Near
2900- 390Q

.*- o c 5 co

<U O> 9) o C

Penetrating

Gernvcida!

Therapeutic

Tonic

0^5 S H S"g
>,£SO>Oc£

Analgesic

Cold Invisible Rays

Visible Rays

Invisible Heat Rays

Natural sunshine is composed of:

8% ultra-violet rays; 12% visible light rays; 80% infra-red rays.

Properties of ultra-violet raysr

1. Short wave length.

2. High frequency.

3. Weak penetrating power.

Properties of infra-red rays:

1. Long wave length.

2. Low frequency.

3. Deep penetrating power.

How Light Rays Are Reproduced

A therapeutic lamp is an electrical apparatus capable of
producing certain rays of the spectrum. There are separate
lamps for infra-red and for ultra-violet.

Types of U lira-Violet Lamps
There are three general types of ultra-violet lamps.

1. The glass bulb.

2. The hot quartz.

3. The cold quartz.

ULTRA-VIOLET GENERATORS

Glass Bulb
Type

Cold Quartz Type

Hot Quartz Type

The glass bulb lamp produces mostly longer ultra-violet
rays. It is used mainly for cosmetic or tanning purposes.

The hot quartz lamp produces both short and long ultra-
violet rays. It is a general all purpose lamp suitable for tan-
ning, tonic, cosmetic or germicidal purposes.

LIGHT THERAPY

309

The cold quartz lamp produces mostly short ultra-violet
rays. It has a limited use in the barber shop.

Infra-red rays are best reproduced by metal generators,
giving no light whatsoever, only a rosy glow when active.
Special glass bulbs are also used to produce infra-red rays.

The visible rays, sometimes referred to as dermal lights,
are reproduced by carbon filament or tungsten bulbs in clear
glass which gives the white light, or in colored bulbs giving
the various colors.

Protecting the eyes. The customer's eyes should always be
protected with cotton pads saturated in a boric acid or witch
hazel solution, placed on the eyelids during such treatments.
The barber and customer should always wear goggles when
using ultra-violet rays.

ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS

Ultra-violet rays are invisible rays beyond the violet of
the spectrum. Their action is both chemical and germicidal.
Plant and animal life need ultra-violet rays for healthy
growth. In the human body, these rays produce changes in
the chemistry of the blood and also stimulate the activity of
body cells.

Effects of ultra-violet rays.
Ultra-violet rays increase re-
sistance to disease by increas-
ing the iron in the blood and
the red and white cells in the
blood. They also increase elim-
ination of waste products ; re-
store nutrition to the parts,
stimulate the circulation and
improve the flow of blood and
lymph.

Skin tanning is the result of one or more exposures to
ultra-violet rays which stimulate the production of pigment
or coloring matter in the skin.

Applying Ultra-Violet Rays

310 LIGHT THERAPY

Sunburn may be produced by ultra-violet rays, in various
degrees ; however, for cosmetic purposes, first degree only is
given. This is manifested by a slight reddening, appearing
several hours after application, without any signs of itching,
burning or peeling.

Treating diseases. Ultra-violet rays are used effectively in
the treatment of acne, tinea and seborrhea. They may also
be used to combat dandruff. They are beneficial in the pro-
cess of healing, as well as to the growth of hair, because they
increase the number of active tissue cells.

How applied. Ultra-violet rays are the shortest light rays
of the spectrum, and the farther they are from the visible
light region, the shorter they become. In practically all skin
and scalp disorders there is manifested a deficiency of cal-
cium. The long ultra-violet rays tend to increase the fixation
of calcium in the blood. If the lamp is placed from 30 to 36
inches away, practically none of the shorter rays will reach
the skin, so that the action is then limited to the effect of the
longer rays.

The shorter rays are obtained when the lamp is within
twelve inches from the skin. These rays are not only destruc-
tive to bacteria, but to tissue as well, if allowed to remain
in use for too long a period of time.

Average exposure may produce redness of the skin, and
overdoses may cause blistering. It is well to start with a
short exposure of two or three minutes, and gradually in-
crease the time to seven or eight minutes. The barber and
customer must wear eye goggles to protect their eyes.

The slightest obstruction, of any nature whatever, will
hinder ultra-violet rays from reaching the skin. Consequently
the skin must be entirely cleansed of creams, oils, powders,
etc., before being subjected to ultra-violet rays.

LIGHT THERAPY 311

INFRA-RED RAYS

Generally speaking, infra-red rays, which are the longest
rays of the spectrum, produce a soothing and beneficial type
of heat which extends for some distance into the tissues of
the body.

Use and effect of infra-red rays:

1. Increase metabolism in general.

2. Relieve pain.

3. Increase oxidation in tissues.

4. Increase perspiration and secretion of sebum on skin.

5. Dilate blood vessels, and therefore increase blood flow.

6. Relax dermal tissues.

7. Heat tissues in area of exposure to high temperature
without increasing body temperature.

Applying Infra-Red Rays

How applied. The lamp is operated at an average dis-
tance of thirty inches. It is placed closer at the start, and
then moved back gradually as the surface heat becomes more
pronounced. Always protect the eyes of the customer during
exposure.

312 LIGHT THERAPY

VISIBLE LIGHTS

The lamp used to reproduce visible lights is usually a
dome-shaped reflector, mounted on a pedestal with a flexible
neck. The dome is finished with highly polished metal lining
capable of reflecting heat rays. The bulbs used with this
lamp come in various colors for different purposes. As with
all other lamps, the customer's eyes must be protected from
the glare and heat of the light. For proper eye protection, the
customer's eyes are covered with pads.

Use and effect of the white light:

1 . Relieves pain, especially in the congested areas ; more
particularly around the nerve centers, such as the back of
the neck and around and within the ear.

Use and effect of the blue light:

1 . Has a tonic and irritating effect on the bare skin.

2. Is deficient in heat rays.

3. Has a soothing effect on the nerves.

4. To obtain the desired result, it is only used over the
bare skin. Creams, oils, powders, etc., must not be present
on the skin.

Use and effect of the red light:

1. Has strong heat rays.

2. Has a stimulating and tonic effect when used over the
bare skin.

3. Penetrates more deeply than the blue light.

4. Heat rays aid the absorption of cosmetic creams by
the skin.

5. Is recommended for dry, scaly, and shriveled skin.

REVIEW QUESTIONS' AND ANSWERS

313

LIGHT THERAPY

1. What is light therapy?

The application of light rays for the
treatment of disease.

2. At what speed does light
travel?

About 185,000 miles per second.

3. Which unit measures
wave length of light?

the Angstrom Unit (A.U.)

4. What is the average com-
position of natural sunshine?

80% infra-red rays; 12% visible rays;
8% ultra-violet rays.

5. Name the colors composing
the visible light rays.

Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, in-
digo, and violet.

6. Which rays of the sun are
invisible?

Ultra-violet rays and infra-red rays.

7. What is a therapeutic lamp?

An electrical apparatus used in pro-
ducing various rays of the sun.

8. Name three characteristics of
ultra-violet rays.

Short wave length, high frequency
and weak penetrating power.

9. Name three types of thera-
peutic lamps which produce
ultra-violet rays.

Glass bulb lamp, hot quartz lamp and
cold quartz lamp.

10. Which ultra-violet lamps are
desirable for the barber
shop?

Glass bulb lamp and hot quartz lamp.

11. What benefit does the blood
receive from ultra-violet
rays?

The blood becomes enriched by an
increase in the number of red and
white cells.

12. What effects do ultra-violet
rays have on the body?

Increases the blood and lymph flow,
restores nutrition and increases the
elimination of waste products.

13. Which skin and sca,lp dis-
orders are helped by ultra-
violet rays?

Acne, tinea, seborrhea and dandruff.

14. What benefit does the hair
receive from ultra-violet
rays?

Stimulates the growth of hair.

15. How far should the ultra-
violet lamp be kept from
the skin?

About twelve inches.

To prevent irritation and injury to
the eyes.

16. Why should the eyes be
covered with goggles during
exposure to ultra-violet
rays?

17. How long should the skin
be exposed for the first time?

About two or three minutes.

18. For how many minutes can
exposure be gradually in-
creased?

Seven or eight minutes

19. Why should prolonged ex-
posure be avoided?

May cause severe sunburn and blis-
ters

314

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

20. Which degree sunburn
safe for customers?

is First degree sunburn.

21. What are the signs of first
degree sunburn?

Slight reddening of the skin, ap-
pearing several hours after applica-
tion, without any signs of itching,
peeling or burning.

22. What causes the skin to tan?

The ultra-violet rays stimulate the
production of pigment or coloring
matter in the skin.

23. Why should the skin be
clean before exposure to ul-
tra-violet rays?

The slightest covering on the skin
prevents these rays from reaching the
skin.

24. Name three characteristics
of infra-red rays.

Long wave length, low frequency and
deep penetrating power.

25. Which types of therapeutic
lamps produce infra-red
rays?

Metal generators or special glass
bulbs.

26. How should the eyes be pro-
tected during exposure?

Cover the eyes with pads dipped into
boric acid or witch hazel solution.

27. How far should the infra-red
lamp be kept from the skin?

About thirty inches from the skin.

28. What are the effects of in-
fra-red rays on the body?

1. Heats and relaxes dermal tissues.

2. Increases blood flow.

3. Increases formation of sweat and
sebum.

4. Increases oxidation and metabolism.

5. Relieves pain.

29. Which types of therapeutic
lamps produce visible lights?

Dermal lights, having a tungsten or
carbon filament in clear or colored
bulbs.

30. Why should the eyes be
protected during exposure?

To protect the eyes from the heat
and glare of the light.

31. What are the benefits of
using a white light?

The heat relieves pain in congested
areas.

32. Which visible
heat rays?

light lacks Blue light.

33. What are the benefits of
using a blue light?

Tones the bare skin and soothes the
nerves.

34. What are the benefits of
using a red light?

The heat penetrates the skin, and has
a stimulating or tonic effect on the
bare skin.

315

CHEMISTRY

It is necessary for the barber to be familiar with
the fundamentals of chemistry, a subject that has a direct
bearing upon the composition and use of various cosmetics
in the barber shop.

Chemistry is the science which deals with the composition,
characteristics, and changes of matter.

Organic chemistry is that branch of chemistry which
treats of carbon and its compounds, which may be derived
from the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

Inorganic chemistry is that branch of chemistry that
treats of substances found in or on the earth and are gen-
erally of mineral origin.

Matter is any substance which occupies space and has
weight. It may exist in any or all of three forms:

1. Solid — having definite shape.

2. Liquid — having volume but no definite shape.

3. Gaseous — having neither volume nor definite shape.

Changes in matter may be either physical or chemical.

A physical change is one in which the identity of the sub-
stance remains the same both before and after the change.
There is merely a change in the physical combination of the
substance. Example: Mixtures such as powders, solu-
tions, etc., represent different combinations of matter. It is
possible to separate the ingredients from each other by phy-
sical means.

A chemical change is one in which the chemical nature
and characteristics of the substance are permanently lost and
an entirely new substance is produced. Example: Soap is
formed from the chemical reaction between an alkaline sub-
stance (potassium hydroxide) and an oil or fat. The soap
does not resemble the alkaline substance or the oil from
which is it formed.

Matter may be separated into two or more simple sub-
stances which cannot be decomposed by any known agents.
These substances are called elements. There are about ninety-
two elements recognized at the present time, of which the

316 CHEMISTRY

most common are hydrogen and oxygen. Each element is
identified by a letter or combination of letters, known as its
symbol. Thus, the symbol for oxygen is O ; for hydrogen, H.

A substance formed by the chemical union of two or more
elements is known as a compound. For example, water is
formed by the union of hydrogen and oxygen through the
agency of electricity. Compounds may possess characteristics
differing from any of the elements composing them. Hydro-
gen and oxygen are gases, but the water resulting from their
chemical union is a liquid.

A chemical reaction involves a change in the identity and
characteristics of the substance participating in the reaction.

Analysis is a chemical reaction in which a substance or
compound is separated into its component parts or elements.

Synthesis is a chemical reaction in which two or more
substances or compounds combine to form an entirely new
product.

A combination of elements which retain their identities
as separate substances, however thoroughly mingled, is called
a mixture, such as salt water.

Chemical compounds are known by the symbols of the
elements composing them. One atom, or smallest unit, of
the element sodium (Na) combined with one atom of chlor-
ine (Cl) makes one molecule (smallest particle of the com-
pound) of the resulting product, sodium chloride (NaCl)
or common salt. Two atoms of hydrogen (H) combined with
one atom of oxygen (O) form one molecule of water, for
which the formula is H2O.

Acids, Bases and Salts

The barber should observe certain elementary chemical
reactions of acids, bases and salts. For purposes of study,
absorbent litmus paper, dyed with a violet blue coloring
matter obtained from lichens, is used for testing.

Acids are sour substances containing hydrogen and some
other non-metallic element such as nitrogen, sulphur, etc.

CHEMISTRY 317

An acid solution will turn blue litmus paper red. Well known
acids include: Hydrochloric (HC1), Sulphuric (H2SO4),
Nitric (HNO8), Acetic (HC2H3O2), and Oxalic (C2H2O4).

Bases are bitter tasting substances containing hydrogen,
oxygen and some metal, such as sodium or potassium. They
are soapy to the touch and in solution will turn red litmus
paper blue. Bases are also known as alkalies. Sodium hydrox-
ide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH) are common
bases, both being used in the manufacture of soaps.

When there is any doubt regarding the nature of any so-
lution, litmus paper can be used to determine its acid or
alkaline content.

Salts are formed by the addition of acids to bases. Water
is also formed in this manner, because of the natural altera-
tion of hydrogen and oxygen. Acids are said to be neutralized
by their contact with bases which is proved by the fact that
litmus paper is not affected by salt solution. Salts contain
metal and non-metal, and in some cases oxygen. Remember-
ing the formulas of the acids and bases previously given, the
barber will readily see how water is a natural by-product in
the forming of salts. Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydrox-
ide :: water + sodium chloride (HG1 + NaOH :: H2O
+ NaCl).

Some common salts and their formulas are as follows:
sodium chloride (NaCl) contains sodium and chlorine; mag-
nesium sulphate (MgSO4) contains magnesium, sulphur and
oxygen; and potassium nitrate (KNO3) contains potassium,
nitrogen and oxygen.

Chemistry of Water

Water is the most abundant substance known. It covers
about 75% of the earth's surface and comprises about 65%
of the human body. Many foods are largely composed of
water. It is the universal solvent. It can absorb more heat
than any other substance and it is a good conductor of
electricity.

Water serves many useful purposes in the barber shop.
Only water of known purity is fit for drinking puposes.
Suspended or dissolved impurities render water unsatisfactory

318 CHEMISTRY

for cleansing objects and for use in barber treatments.

Impurities can be removed from water by the following
methods :

Filtration: passing through a porous substance, such as
charcoal.

Boiling: heating to a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit to
destroy microbic life and drive off gases.

Distillation: heating in a closed vessel arranged so that
the resulting vapor passes off through a tube and is cooled
and condensed to a liquid. This process is usually employed
to purify water used in the manufacture of cosmetics.

Soft water, such as rain water or distilled water, contains
little or no minerals. It is very important that soft water be
used for shampooing, bleaching or dyeing the hair. Hard
water contains mineral substances that curdle soap instead of
permitting a lather to form. Hard water may be softened by
boiling, distillation, or by the use of borax or washing soda.

For the latter method of softening water, a large vessel,
with a faucet near the bottom, is filled with water and placed
on a low platform. One pound of borax or washing soda is
dissolved in two quarts of water ; and for each unit of twenty
gallons of water in the tank, one ounce of borax solution is
added. The water in the vessel is stirred vigorously with a
clean wooden paddle. Any cloudiness appearing should be
allowed to settle and then a small amount of the water drawn
off for testing.

A good test for soft water employs a standard soap solu-
tion made by dissolving three-quarters of an ounce of pure
powdered castile soap in a pint of distilled water. A pint
bottle should be half rilled with fresh water, and one drop of
soap solution added. The bottle is then shaken vigorously.
If a lather forms at once and lasts for a few minutes, the
water is very soft. If a lather does not appear at once, an-
other drop of soap solution is added and the shaking repeated.
If more than a few drops of the soap solution are needed to
produce a good lather, the water must be softened.

CHEMISTRY 319

Softened water is tested as described, and another ounce
of the borax solution to each twenty gallons of water must be
added if a lather lasting two minutes cannot be produced. A
record of the findings in this test is helpful in softening the
next large quantity of water.

United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.)

The barber needs to become familiar with certain drugs
used in cosmetics. The United States Pharmacopeia
is a book defining and standardizing drugs and is therefore
in the possession of every druggist. The initials U.S.P. fol-
lowing the name of any drug is an indication that it is listed
in the above mentioned volume.

Alcohol (grain or ethyl) is a colorless liquid obtained by
the fermentation of certain sugars. It is a powerful antisep-
tic and disinfectant, a 70% solution being usable for steril-
ization of instruments, and 60% solution for the skin.

Alum is an aluminum derivative, supplied in the form of
crystals or powder, which has a strong astringent taste and
action. It is used as a styptic in cases of small cuts by dusting
the powder over the injury.

Ammonia water, as commercially used, is a colorless liq-
uid with a pungent, penetrating odor. It is a by-product of
the manufacture of coal gas. As it readily dissolves grease, it
is valued as a cleansing agent, and is also used with hydrogen
peroxide in bleaching hair. A 28% solution of ammonia gas
dissolved in water is commonly employed in the barber shop.

Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is prepared by heating
sodium bicarbonate. In the barber shop, it is used for water
softening and to prevent the rusting of metallic instruments
in sterilization.

Bichloride of mercury is usually sold in tablet form, about
7 J/2 grains, shaped peculiarly for ready identification. As
it is a very strong poison, it should be employed very sparingly
in barber shops. It may be used for the sterilization of the
hands in the proportion of 1/2500.

Boric acid, also called boracic acid, is a powder obtained

320 CHEMISTRY

from sodium borate. It is a mild, healing and antiseptic
agent. It is sometimes used as a dusting powder, and in so-
lution, as a cleansing lotion or eyewash.

Formaldehyde is a gas, but in a water solution containing
from 37% to 40% of the gas by weight, it is known as
formalin. The gas is rendered inactive by the addition of
ammonia. Formaldehyde has a very disagreeable strong
odor, and is very irritating to the eyes and the mucous lin-
ings of the nose and mouth. In barber shops formalin is used
both in wet and dry sterilizers for sterilization of instruments.

Glycerine is a clear, colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid with
a sweet taste. It is a type of alcohol formed by the decompo-
sition of oils, fats or molasses. It is an excellent skin softener,
and is an ingredient of face creams and lotions, brilliantine,
etc. In sterilization, glycerine is added to the chemical so-
lution to keep metal instruments from corroding.

Iodine is obtained from seaweed which is burned and
the ashes washed, yielding iodides of potassium and bromine.
Iodine is only slightly soluble in water, when it appears
gray, but is readily soluble in alcohol, when it appears
dark brown, and is called tincture of iodine. The 2%
tincture of iodine can be safely used on the skin to treat minor
cuts and bruises. Iodine stains are readily removed with
alcohol.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a colorless oily fluid, heavy,
with slight odor and sharp taste. It is very unstable, and since
it decomposes readily in the presence of heat and light, it is
kept in dark glass bottles, in a cool place. The 17 or 20 vol-
ume hydrogen peroxide solution is used as a bleaching agent
for the hair. A 3% or 10 volume solution of hydrogen per-
oxide possesses antiseptic qualities.

CHEMISTRY AS APPLIED TO COSMETICS

Chemistry as applied to cosmetics is both a science and
an art. The science of chemistry consists in knowing what to
do in the correct manner, art involves the proper methods of
preparing and applying the cosmetic to the body.

A barber will be better equipped to serve the public

CHEMISTRY 321

if he has an understanding of the chemical composition,
preparation and uses of cosmetics which are intended to
cleanse, beautify and improve the hygiene of the external
portions of the body.

Cosmetics used in the barber shop may be classified
according to their physical and chemical nature and the
characteristics by means of which they are recognized.

Physical and Chemical Classification of Cosmetics

1. Powders

2. Solutions

3. Emulsions

4. Ointments

5. Soaps

Powders

Powders are a uniform mixture of insoluble substances
which have been properly blended, perfumed and /or tinted
to produce a cosmetic which is free from coarse or gritty
particles.

Solutions

A solution is a preparation made by dissolving a solid,
liquid or gaseous substance in another substance, usually
liquid.

A solute is a substance dissolved in the fluid.

A solvent is a liquid used to dissolve a substance.

Solutions are clear and permanent mixtures of solute and
solvent which do not separate on standing. Since a good solu-
tion is clear, filtration is often necessary, particularly if
the solution is cloudy.

Water is called a universal solvent because it is capable
of dissolving more substances than any other solvent. Grain
alcohol and glycerine are frequently used as solvents. Water,
glycerine and alcohol readily mix with each other.

Emulsions

Emulsions (creams) are permanent mixtures of oil and
water which are united with the aid of a binder (gum) or

322 CHEMISTRY

an emulsifier (soap). Emulsions are usually milky white in
appearance.

Creams differ from ointments in the large amount of
water contained therein.

Ointments

Ointments such as sulphur ointment are semi-solid mix-
tures of organic substances (lard, petrolatum, wax) and a
medicinal agent. No water is present. For the ointment to
soften, its melting point should be below that of the body
temperature (98.6° Fahrenheit).

Soaps

Soaps are compounds formed in a chemical reaction be-
tween alkaline substances (potassium or sodium hydroxide)
and the fatty acids in the oil or fat. Besides the soap, glyc-
erine is also formed. Potassium hydroxide produces a soft
soap, whereas sodium hydroxide forms a hard soap. A mix-
ture of the two alkalies will yield a soap of intermediate
consistency.

A good soap does not contain an excess of free alkali and
is made from pure oils and fats.

Shaving Soaps

Shaving soaps can be purchased in various forms and
shapes. Hard shaving soaps include those sold in cake, stick
or powdered form, and are similar in composition to toilet
soaps. Available as soft soap is shaving cream in tube or jar.
Liquid soap can also be used by the barber.

Whatever form of shaving soap is used, it usually contains
animal and vegetable oils, alkaline substances and water. The
presence of cocoanut oil improves the lathering qualities of
the shaving soap.

CHEMISTRY

323

Cosmetics for the Skin, Scalp and Hair

NAME

COMPOSITION

USE

Soap

Contains oils and fats
combined chemically with
alkalies such as potas-
sium hydroxide.

Cleanses the skin.

Shaving soap

Contains soap combined
with water and glycerine.

Softens the hair and lubricates the
skin prior to shaving.

Cold cream

Contains oil, borax, wax,
water and perfume.

All-purpose cream used to cleanse,
protect and lubricate the skin.

Cleansing cream

Contains a cold cream
base with a high content
of mineral oil.

Melts quickly and cleanses the
skin.

Tissue cream

Contains oil, water, lano-
lin, wax and perfume.

Softens the skin and replaces any
natural deficiency of oil.

Massage cream

Contains a cold cream
base with starch or casein.

Cleanses the skin and aids in
facial massage.

Muscle oil

Contains vegetable or
mineral oil, lecithin or
cholesterol.

Softens and lubricates the skin
and aids in facial massage.

Astringent (after-
shave) lotion

—
Contains alcohol, astring-
ent and perfumed water.

Closes the pores, and corrects an
oily skin.

Witch hazel

Contains alcohol, water
and extract of witch hazel
bark.

Cools and refreshes the skin after
shaving.

Bay rum

Contains alcohol, oil of
bay or other fragrant oils.

Cools and refreshes the skin after
shaving.

Talcum powder

Contains insoluble magne-
sium compounds and per-
fume.

Soothes and dries the skin after
shaving or used on back of the
neck before and after haircutting.

Shampoo

Contains soap in liquid
form.

Cleanses the scalp and hair.

Hair rinse

Contains water, a mild
acid or coloring agent.

Removes insoluble soap residue
from the hair, or tints the hair a
definite shade.

Hair tonic or
scalp lotion

Contains alcohol, water,
oil, perfume and medi-
cinal agent (either anti-
septic or irritant).

Stimulates circulation, reduces dan-
druff, keeps scalp clean and
healthy, and dresses the hair.

Scalp ointment or
dandruff ointment

Contains lanolin, petrola-
tum and medicinal agents.

Used to correct dandruff and stim-
ulate circulation of blood to the
scalp.

Brilliantine or
pomade

Available in liquid and
solid form and contains
vegetable or mineral oil,
wax and perfume.

Used as a hair dressing to keep
the hair in place.

324

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

COSMETICS

1. What are cosmetics?

Cosmetics are preparations used to
cleanse and improve conditions of
the skin, scalp, and hair.

2. Why should the barber have
a knowledge of cosmetics
used in the barber shop?

In order to select the right kind of
cosmetic to meet the customer's re-
quirements.

3. What is the composition of
water?

Water contains the elements of 2 parts
hydrogen and 1 part oxygen, known
by the formula

4. What is soft water?

Water containing little or no minerals,
such as rain water or distilled water.

5. What is hard water?

Water containing small amounts of
mineral salts.

6. Which type of water does
not lather freely with soap?

Hard water.

7. Name three methods
softening hard water.

for

Boiling, distillation or the use of
borax or washing soda.

8. Which ingredients are used
in making soaps?

Alkalies such as sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide are added to fats
or oils to form a soap.

9. What are the qualities of
a good soap?

A good soap does not contain an ex-
cess of free alkali and is made from
pure fats or oils.

10. Which soap preparations may
be used by the barber?

Powdered soap, stick soap, cake soap,
liquid soap and shaving cream.

11. What is the composition of
creams?

Creams are a uniform mixture of
oils, fats, waxes, soap, water and
other special ingredients.

12. Name four kinds of creams
used by the barber.

Cold cream, cleansing cream, tissue
cream and massage cream.

13. What is the composition of
ointments? Give an example.

Ointments are semi-solid mixtures of
fatty substances, waxes and medicinal
agents. Sulphur ointment.

14. What is the composition of
face powders?

Face powders consist of a powder
base, perfume and with or without
a tint.

15. What is the composition of
facial lotions?

Facial lotions are solutions of alcohol,
water, astringent and perfume.

16. What is the composition of
witch hazel?

Witch hazel is a solution of alcohol,
water and an extract from witch
hazel bark.

17. What is the composition of
bay rum?

Bay rum is a solution of alcohol com-
bined with oil of bay or other fra-
grant oils.

18. What is the composition of
hair tonics?

Hair tonics are solutions of alcohol,
oil, water and an antiseptic or irritant.

19. What is the composition of
hair dressings?

Hair dressings are a mixture of veg-
etable or mineral oil, wax and per-
fume.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 325

20. Which cosmetics are gen- Cold cream, facial lotion, witch hazel,
erally used after shaving? bay rum and talcum powder.

21. Which cosmetics are gen- Hair tonic or hair dressing.

erally used after haircutting?

22. Which agents are generally Shampoo and water .
used to cleanse the hair?

23. Which agents are generally Soap and water, and cleansing cream.
used to cleanse the skin?

24! Name two types of shaving The brush shaving cream and the
creams. brushless shaving cream.

327

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP
AND HAIR

The barber should be able to recognize readily the com-
mon disorders of the skin and scalp so that preventive meas-
ures may be used to avoid more serious affections. Unusual
or unfamiliar symptoms of disorder should be immediately
referred to a physician for treatment.

Dermatology is the science of the skin, its nature, struc-
ture, functions, diseases and treatment.

Dermatologist is a skin specialist.

Trichology is the science of the hair and its diseases.

Etiology is the science of the causes of disease.

Diagnosis is the recognition of a disease from its
symptoms.

Prognosis is the foretelling of the probable course of a
disease.

Pathology is the science which treats of modifications of
function and changes in structure caused by disease.

LESIONS OF THE SKIN

A lesion is a structural change in the tissues caused by
injury or disease. There are three types: primary, secondary
and tertiary. The barber is concerned with primary and
secondary lesions only.

Symptom is a sign of disease. The symptoms in diseases
of the skin are divided into two groups.

1. Subjective — symptoms that can be felt, as in itching,
burning, pains, etc.

2. Objective — symptoms that can be seen, as in pimples,
pustules, etc.

Primary Lesions

1. Macule — a small discolored spot or patch on the sur-
face of the skin, neither raised nor sunken, usually found in
rashes, such as measles.

328

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

2. Papule — a small elevation of the skin containing no
fluid, but which may so develop that it will later contain pus.

3. Wheal — a raised ridge on the skin, usually caused by
the blow of a whip, bite of an insect, or as the characteristic
eruption of urticaria.

4. Tubercle — a solid elevation of the skin, varying in size
from that of a flaxseed to about the size of a hickory nut.

5. Tumor (phyma) — an external swelling, varying in
size, shape and color.

6. Vesicle — a small circumscribed elevation of the skin
containing a serum-like fluid, such as a blister.

7. Bulla (bleb) — a blister containing a serum-like fluid,
similar to a vesicle, but larger.

8. Pustule — an elevation of the skin having an inflamed
base, containing pus.

Papule pustule

Bleb

Tumor

Primary Skin Lesions

Crust

Excoriation Ulcer

Secondary Skin Lesions

Secondary Lesions

1. Scale (squama) — a dry or greasy separated portion of
the epidermis.

2. Crusts (scabs) — three varieties:

a) Blood crusts (red-black in color).

b) Pus crusts (yellow-green).

c) Serum crusts (honey-colored).

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 329

3. Excoriation (abrasion) — a raw surface due to the loss
of the superficial skin after an injury.

4. Fissure (rhagade) — a crack in the skin penetrating
into the derma, as in the case of chapped hands or lips.

5. Ulcer — an open lesion with formation of pus upon the
surface of the skin.

6. Scar (cicatrix) — the tissue formed after the healing of
a wound or an ulcer.

7. Stain — an abnormal discoloration remaining after the
disappearance of moles, freckles or liver spots, sometimes
apparent after certain diseases.

DEFINITIONS OF COMMON TERMS
APPLIED TO DISEASE

Before describing the diseases of the skin and scalp so
they will be recognized by the barber, it is well to understand
what is meant by disease.

A disease is any departure from a normal state of health.

A skin disease is an infection of the skin characterized by
an objective lesion (one that can be seen), which may consist
of scales, pustules, etc.

An acute disease is one manifested by symptoms of a more
or less violent character.

A chronic disease is one of long duration, usually marked
by no violent character.

An infectious disease is one due to a pathogenic micro-
organism taken into the body as a result of contact with a
lesion or contaminated object.

A contagious disease is one that is communicable by
contact.

A congenital disease is one that is present in the infant
at birth.

A seasonal disease is one that is influenced by the weather,
as prickly heat in the summer, and forms of eczema more
prevalent in cold weather.

330 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

An occupational disease is one that is due to certain kinds
of employment, such as dermatitis, caused by coming in
contact with chemicals or dyes.

A deficiency disease is one that is due to lack of some
element in the diet ; such as scurvy or rickets.

A parasitic disease is one that is caused by vegetable or
animal parasites, such as lice, scabies or ringworm.

A pathogenic disease is one produced by a disease pro-
ducing bacteria, such as staphylococcus and streptococcus,
pus-forming bacteria.

A systemic disease is one that is due to lack or over func-
tioning of the internal glands. One of the main causes may
be due to faulty diet.

A constitutional disease is one that is associated with or
marked by a disturbance of metabolism ; a blood disease.

A venereal disease is a contagious disease commonly ac-
quired by contact with an infected person during sexual
intercourse.

An epidemic is the manifestation of a disease that attacks
simultaneously a large number of persons living in a par-
ticular locality ; such as infantile paralysis, Spanish influenza
or small-pox.

Allergy is a sensitivity which certain persons develop to
normally harmless substances. Skin allergies are quite com-
mon. Contact with certain types of cosmetics, medicines and
dyes may bring about an itching eruption, accompanied by
redness, swelling, blisters, oozing and scaling.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

331

DISEASES OF THE SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS

There are several common diseases of the sebaceous (oil)
glands which the barber should be able to identify and
understand.

Comedones, or blackheads, are a worm-like mass of hard-
ened sebum, appearing most frequently on the face, forehead
and nose.

Blackhead (plug of sebaceous matter and dirt) Forming
Around Mouth of Hair Follicle

Blackheads accompanied by pimples frequently occur in
youths between the ages of 13 and 20. During the adolescent
period, the activity of the sebaceous glands is stimulated,
thereby contributing to the formation of blackheads and
pimples. Should this condition become severe, medical at-
tention is necessary.

Milia or whiteheads —

A disorder of the seba-
ceous (oil) glands caused
by the accumulation of
sebaceous matter beneath
the skin. Occurs on any
part of the face and may
be associated with black-
heads. L ,__..

Milia (Whiteheads)

332 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Acne rosacea is a

chronic, inflammatory con-
gestion of the cheeks and
nose. It is characterized
by redness, dilation of the
blood-vessels, and the for-
mation of papules and pus-
tules. It is usually caused
by poor digestion and over-
indulgence in alcoholic li-
Acne Rosacea quors. It may also be

caused by over-exposure, constipation, faulty elimination and
hyperacidity. It is usually aggravated by eating and drink-
ing hot, highly spiced, or highly seasoned foods or drinks. It
generally has three stages.

The first stage starts with a slight pinkness all over the
face, varying with the temperature, and temperament of the
individual.

The second stage affects the capillaries. Often they be-
come so dilated that they are apparent to the naked eye. At
this stage the sebaceous glands are always affected. Large
pores, oiliness and comedones invariably result.

The third stage is very disfiguring. The entire face be-
comes congested, and the condition may remain chronic al-
though dormant, for years, even after treatment.

Steatoma (wen) or sebaceous cyst, is a subcutaneous tu-
mor of the sebaceous glands, the contents consisting of sebum,
smooth pea to orange size; usually occurring on the scalp,
neck and back.

Asteatosis is a condition of dry skin, characterized by
absolute or relative deficiency of sebum, due to senile changes
(old age) or some constitutional disorder or disease. In
local conditions it may be caused by alkalies, such as are
found in soaps and washing powders.

Seborrhea is a skin condition due to over-activity and ex-
cessive secretion of the sebaceous or oil glands. The appear-
ance of the skin affected is oily and shiny. On the scalp it is

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

333

readily detected by the unusual amount of oil on the hair.
Seborrhea exists in two forms:

1. Seborrhea oleosa, an oily condition.

2. Seborrhea sicca, a dry condition.

Acne is a chronic inflammatory disease of the skin, oc-
curring in or around a sebaceous gland, characterized by
pustules, papules or tubercles, affecting chiefly the face. The
cause of acne is generally held to be microbic, but predispos-
ing factors are age and disturbances of the digestive tract.

The different forms
of acne are as follows:

Acne vulgaris or
simplex. The common
pimple. An inflamma-
tory skin disorder in-
volving the sebaceous
(oil) glands. Appears
chiefly on the face and
is often associated with
blackheads and an oily
skin. Acne (pimples)
occur among adoles-
cent youth.

Acne papulosa — vulgaris in which the papular lesions
predominate.

Acne pustulosa — vul-
garis in which the pustular
lesions predominate.

Acne Vulgaris
(The Common Pimple)

Acne Pustulosa

334

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Acne punctata — red papules in which blackheads are
usually found.

Acne albida — the presence of milia (whiteheads) in acne.

Acne hypertrophica

(acne scars) — Scar forma-
tion in acne varies with
the severity of the lesions.
Surface lesions give rise to
little scar formation. Pit-
ted scars result from deep-
seated lesions affecting the
sebaceous glands.

Acne Scars

Acne artificialis — caused by the application of external
irritants, or drugs taken internally.

Acne indurata — deep seated with hard tubercular lesions
occurring chiefly on the face, neck and back.

Acne cachecticorum — occurring in the subject of anemia,
or of some weakening constitutional diseases.

Acne keratosa — an eruption of papules consisting of horny
plugs projecting from the hair follicles, accompanied by in-
flammation.

Acne urticaria — a skin disease in which the lesions often
lead to marked scar formation.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN SCALP AND HAIR 335

DISEASES OF THE SUDORIFEROUS
(SWEAT) GLANDS

Anidrosis (lack of perspiration) is often a result of fever
or certain skin diseases.

Bromidrosis or osmidrosis refers to foul smelling perspira-
tion, usually noticeable in the armpits or on the feet.

Hyperidrosis (excessive perspiration) is caused by exces-
sive heat or general body weakness. The most commonly
affected parts are the armpits and joints.

Chromidrosis (discolored perspiration), which is very
rarely seen, is usually caused by nervous disorders. The
excretion is brown, yellow or bluish in color. It should be
referred to a physician for treatment.

Hemidrosis (bloody sweat) is an affection similar to chro-
midrosis except that the excretion is of a bloody fluid. It is
very rare ; usually follows hysteria or extreme nervous excite-
ment. It should be referred to a physician for treatment.

Hydrocystoma (cysts of the coil-ducts) is a chronic, non-
inflammable disorder, characterized by the presence on
the face of scattered, isolated, deep-seated, persistent, clear
vesicles.

Uridrosis is an affection of the sweat glands having the
characteristic odor of urine. It may occur with chromidrosis.
It should be referred to a physician for treatment.

Sudamen is a non-inflammatory affection of the sweat
glands, consisting of tiny pimples that do not contain pus,
but are filled with perspiration. It is accompanied by intense
itching.

Miliaria rubra (prickly heat), which is noticeable in
burning and itching skin, is usually caused by exposure to
excessive heat.

Miliary fever (sweating sickness) is an infectious disease
characterized by fever, profuse sweating and the production
of sudamina.

336 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

DANDRUFF

Dandruff is the presence of small, white scales usually
appearing on the scalp and hair. Dandruff is also known by
such medical terms as pityriasis and seborrhea sicca.

Just as the skin is continually being shed and replaced,
in a similar manner, the uppermost layer of the scalp is being
cast off all the time. Ordinarily, these horny scales are loose
and fall off freely. The natural shedding of the horny scales,
too infrequently removed, is often mistaken for dandruff.

Simple Dandruff Excessive Dandruff

Long neglected dandruff frequently leads to baldness.
Tb e causes of dandruff are as follows :

1 . A direct cause of dandruff is the excessive shedding of
the epithelial cells. Instead of growing to the surface
and falling off, the horny scales accumulate on the
scalp.

2. Indirect or associated causes of dandruff are a slug-
gish condition of the scalp occasioned by poor circula-
tion, lack of nerve stimulation, improper diet and un-
cleanliness. Contributing causes are the use of strong
soaps and insufficient rinsing of the hair after a
shampoo.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 337

The two principal types of dandruff are:

1. Pityriasis capitis simplex, dry type.

2. Pityriasis steatoides, a greasy or waxy type.

Pityriasis capitis simplex (dry dandruff) is characterized
by the presence of an itchy scalp and small, white scales us-
ually attached in masses to the scalp or scattered loose in the
hair, occasionally they are so profuse that they fall to the
shoulders.

Treatment — Frequent oil treatments and oil shampoos,
systematic and regular scalp massage, daily use of antiseptic
scalp lotions, applications of scalp ointments and electrical
treatments will correct this condition.

Pityriasis steatoides (greasy or waxy type of dandruff) is
scaliness of the epidermis mixed with sebum which causes it
to stick to the scalp in patches. The associated itchiness
causes the person to scratch the scalp, and if the greasy
scales are torn off, bleeding or oozing of sebum may follow.

Medical treatment is advisable.

Precaution

The nature of dandruff is not clearly defined by medical
authorities. It is generally believed to be of infectious origin.
Some authorities hold that it is due to a specific microbe.
However, from the barber's point of view, both forms of dan-
druff are to be considered contagious and may spread by the
use of common brushes, combs or hair pins. Therefore, the
barber must take the necessary precautions by sterilizing ev-
erything that comes in contact with the customer.

338

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

INFLAMMATIONS

Dermatitis

The term dermatitis is used to denote an inflammatory
condition of the skin. The lesions come in various forms, such
as vesicles, papules, etc.

Dermatitis venenata is an eruptive skin affection caused
by external applications of medicaments, such as lotions,
powders, iodine, hair dyes, etc.

Dermatitis medicamentosa is an eruption of blebs, pap-
ules, etc., caused by internal introduction of bromides, anti-
toxins, etc.

Dermatitis combustionis is a variety of dermatitis pro-
duced by extreme heat, or by the sun's rays.

Dermatitis seborrheica is

an inflammation of the skin
co-existent with seborrhea. It
is sometimes called eczema
seborrheicum. It may be dis-
tinguished from other forms
of dermatitis and from simple
eczema by its origin on the
scalp, its oily secretion and

crusts, and the yellowish color and sharp outline of its lesions.

It should be referred to a physician for treatment. ^

Eczema

Eczema is an inflammation of
the skin of acute or chronic na-
ture, presenting many forms of dry
or moist lesions. It is frequently
accompanied by itching, burning,
and various other unpleasant sen-
sations. All cases of eczema should
be referred to a physician for treat-
ment.

Dermatitis Seborrheica

Eczema

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 339

The difference between dermatitis and eczema is that
dermatitis usually refers to skin eruptions due to a known
cause, while eczema refers to dermatitis of unknown origin.

The unsatisfactory explanation of this condition by medi-
cal authorities makes it almost impossible to describe eczema
with any great degree of certainty. A great majority of phy-
sicians class eczema under the general head of dermatitis.

In general, eczema is not contagious. However, the stage
of eczema where pustules are present (usually found on the
scalp and supposed to result from poor nourishment) is some-
times classed as infectious eczema or dermatitis, and is also
known as eczema contagiosa.

Miscellaneous Inflammatory Affections

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease which,
when appearing on the scalp, forms patches of dry, white
scales. These scales when scratched leave tiny bleeding points.
Its cause is associated with internal disorders and certain
foods. It should be referred to a physician for treatment.

Herpes simplex is a virus infection commonly known as
"fever blisters". It is characterized by the eruption of a
single or group of vesicles on a red swollen base. The erup-
tion may appear on the lips, nostrils, face or any part of the
body. An attack rarely extends over a period of a week.

Herpes Simplex or Fever Blisters
involving the lips and nostrils

340

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Pityriasis Pilaris

Impetigo contagiosa

(scrum-pox) is an inflam-
matory skin disease. Pus-
tules appear in isolated
form as in small pox; the
eruptions of pustules,
which open, rupture or be-
come crusted. They occur
chiefly on the face, around
the mouth and nostrils.
Usually associated with

Pityriasis pilaris is a chronic
inflammatory disease character-
ized by an eruption of papules
surrounding the hair follicles,
each papule being pierced by a
hair, and tipped with a horny
plug or scale. This condition
should be referred to a phy-

sician.

Impetigo

general weakness, faulty nutrition or hygienic neglect.

Impetigo Contagiosa, showing formation of Skin Blister
Filled with Pus Cells and Bacteria

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

341

Variola or smallpox — A

contagious skin disease iden-
tified by the presence of pap-
ules, vesicles and pustules and
associated with fever, head-
ache and pains.

Variola (Smallpox)

Furuncle or Boil

Furuncle or boil is an
acute staphylococci in-
fection of a hair follicle
producing constant pain.
A furuncle is the result
of an active inflamma-
tory process limited to a
definite area and subse-
quently producing a pus-
tule perforated by a hair.
Carbuncle is the
result of an acute
deep-seated staphyli-
cocci infection larger
than a furuncle, or
boil. It should be re-
ferred to a physician.

Erysipelas, also
known as St. Antho-
ny's fire, is an acute,
infectious disease
characterized by intense inflammation of the skin and subcu-
taneous tissue; it is limited in area, and attended by many
constitutional symptoms, such as chills, fever and nausea. The
skin assumes a shining redness with swelling, heat, and pain,
and in many cases shows a tendency to vesicular or bleb
formation. This disease is uncommon today.

Carbuncle appears as a Deep Skin
Infection, involving several Hair Shafts

342

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Urticaria (hives or nettle-rash) is an affection of the
skin, characterized by eruptions of itching and stinging
wheals or red elevations. Causes: external contact with
herbs or shrubs of the nettle family, by eating shellfish,
strawberries, etc., or the use of cosmetics which do not agree
with the individual skin.

Anthrax — An inflamma-
tory skin disorder caused by
the use of an infected shav-
ing brush. Detected by the
presence of a small, red pap-
ule, followed by the forma-
tion of a pustule, vesicle and
hard swelling. Accompanied
by itching and burning feel-
ings at the point of infection.

Anthrax

Ivy dermatitis — A skin
inflammation caused by ex-
posure to the poison ivy, poi-
son oak or poison sumac
leaves. Blisters and itching
develop soon after contact
occurs. The infection spreads
from one part of the body to
another. It is very conta-
gious and should be referred
to a physician for treatment.

Ivy Dermatitis (Poison Ivy)

Alopecia

Alopecia refers to the abnormal loss of hair arising from
any cause, usually affecting the scalp. It is the technical term
for any form of baldness.

The natural falling out of the hair should not be con-
fused with alopecia. When hair has grown to its full length,
it comes out by itself and is replaced by a new hair. The
natural shedding of the hair occurs most frequently in spring

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

343

and fall. On the other hand, the hair lost in alopecia does
not come back, unless special treatments are given to en-
courage hair growth.

Alopecia adnata is the technical term for congenital bald-
ness. It is the complete absence, or partial absence, of hair,
occurring at or soon after birth, due to a more or less com-
pletely arrested development of the hair follicle.

Alopecia senilis is the form of baldness occurring in old
age. The loss of the hair is permanent.

Alopecia premature. There are two types, as follow :

1 . Alopecia prematura idiopathica is the form of baldness
beginning any time before middle age by a slow thinning
process, due to the fact that the first hairs that fall out are
replaced by regrowth of weaker ones.

2. Alopecia prematura symptomatica is the form of bald-
ness resulting from some local or general disease, either of the
scalp or body, such as fevers, shocks from operations, blood
diseases, neurosis, pneumonia, etc.

Alopecia areata is the

sudden falling out of hair in
round patches, or baldness in
spots, sometimes caused by
anemia, scarlet fever or ty-
phoid fever, grippe, erysipe-
las or syphilis. Affected areas
are slightly depressed, smooth
and very pale due to the de-
creased blood supply. Patches
may be round or irregular,
and vary in size from J4 inch
to 2 or 3 inches in diameter.
In most conditions of alopecia areata, the nervous system
has been subjected to some injury. And since the flow of
blood is influenced by the nervous system the affected area
is poorly nourished as well.

Alopecia seborrheica (or seborrhea capitis) is loss of hair
caused by a disease of the sebaceous glands.

Alopecia Areata, caused by a
syphilitic infection attacking the
central neryous system.

344

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Alopecia Cicatrisata

Alopecia cicatrisata — A

scalp disorder identified
by the presence of circu-
lar, oval or irregular patch-
es of baldness. The main
lesions are small, reddish,
inflammatory papules or
pustules located at the
mouth of hair follicles and
pierced by hairs. Crusts
and scars also form on the
scalp and permanent bald-
ness may result.

Alopecia syphilitica is loss of hair resulting from syphilis
occurring in the second stage of this disease.

Alopecia dynamica is hair loss due to destruction of the
hair follicle by ulceration or some disease process.

Alopecia follicularis is
hair loss occasioned when
the hair follicle becomes
inflamed, resulting in the
loss of hair in the affected
area.

Alopecia localis is hair
loss occurring in patches
on the course of a nerve at
the site of an injury.

Alopecia maligna is a
term denoting a form of alopecia that is severe and persistent.

Alopecia universalis is a condition manifested by general
falling out of the hair of the body.

Alopecia follicularis is hair loss occasioned when the hair
follicles become inflamed, resulting in the loss of hair in the
affected area.

Alopecia localis is hair loss occurring in patches on the
course of a nerve at the site of an injury.

Folliculitis, infection of hair follicle

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 345

PARASITIC AFFECTIONS

Tinea is the medical term for ringworm. The following
are the different forms of ringworm:

Tinea tonsurans or trichophytosis capitis ( ringworm of the
scalp) is a contagious, vegetable parasitic disease of the hairy
scalp, characterized by red papules or scalp spots at the open-
ing of the hair follicles. The patches spread, the hair becomes
brittle and lifeless and breaks off, leaving a stump, or falls
from the enlarged open follicles. It is very contagious and
should be referred to a physician.

Tinea sycosis or trichophytosis barbae (barber's itch) is a
fungus infection occurring chiefly over the bearded area of
the face. Beginning as small, rounded, slightly scaly, inflamed
patches, the areas enlarge, clearing up somewhat centrally
with elevation of the borders. As the parasites invade the
hairs and follicles, hard lumpy swellings develop. In severe
cases, pustules form around the hair follicles and rupture,
forming crusts. In the later stage, the hairs become dry, break
off, and fall out or are readily extracted. Being highly con-
tagious, medical treatment is required.

Tinea Sycosis (Barber's Itch)

Sycosis vulgaris ( f olliculitis barbae) is a chronic staphy-
lococci infection involving the hair follicles of the beard and
mustache areas. Caused by the use of unsterilized towels or
barber implements, and made worse by irritation such as
shaving or a continual nasal discharge. The main lesions are
papules and pustules pierced by hairs. The surrounding skin
is tender, reddened, swollen at times, and tends to itch. Med-

346

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

ical care is required. (This affection must not be confused
with tinea sycosis, which is due to ringworm fungus. )

Sycosis Vulgaris

Differential
Tinea Sycosis

Typical case presents large
lumpy or nodular tumefactions
due to trichophyton fungus in-
fection.

Beard area affected but the
mustache is rarely affected.
Hairs broken and easily extract-
ed. Roots usually dry.

Course rapid. Marked changes
from week to week.

Not so chronic.

Very contagious — medical at-
tention required.

Diagnosis
Sycosis Vulgaris

Typical case presents small
discrete papules or pustules
pierced by hairs due to staphy-
lococci infection.

Beard area affected and mus-
tache is frequently affected.

Hairs firmly attached until
loosened by suppuration.

Course slow. Little change
from week to week.

Very chronic.

Very contagious — medical at-
tention required.

Favus (tinea favosa or
honeycomb ringworm) is an

infectious fungus growth due
to a vegetable parasitic dis-
ease that is characterized by
dry sulphur-yellow, cup-like
crusts, called scutula, on the
scalp, having a peculiar mou-
Favus sy odor. Scars from favus are

bald patches ; pink or white and shiny. It is very contagious,

and should be referred to a physician.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 347

Scabies (the itch) is a highly contagious animal parasitic
skin disease, due to the itch mite. From the irritation of the
parasite and still more from the scratching of the affected
areas, vesicles and pustules may form.

Ringworm (tinea) of the hands. A highly contagious
disease caused by a fungus (vegetable parasite). The princi-
pal symptoms are papular, red lesions occurring as patches or
rings over the hands. Itching may be slight or severe. Ring-
worm may also affect the nails.

Ringworm (Tinea) of the Hands

Pediculosis capitis is a contagious condition caused by
the head louse (animal parasite) infesting the hair of the
scalp. As the parasites feed on the scalp, itching symptoms
are felt. The head louse is transmitted from one person to
another by intimate contact with infested hats, combs,
brushes or other personal articles.

To treat head lice, shampoo the entire head with equal
parts of larkspur tincture and ether before retiring. The next
morning, shampoo again with germicidal soap. Repeat treat-
ment as necessary.

348

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Tinea unguium (ringworm
of the nails) — A local infectious
disease. As the disease spreads,
the nails become thickened, brit-
tle and lose their natural shape.
It is very contagious.

Ringworm (Tinea)
of the Nails

Ringworm (Tinea) of the Foot
(Athlete's Foot)

Ringworm (tinea) of the foot. (Athlete's foot) — A local
infectious disease. The inflamed areas on the sole of the foot
and between the toes show signs of redness, blisters and
cracking of the skin. Itching and excessive sweating are
also present. It is very contagious.

Precaution

Ringworm of the feet may spread and infect other parts
of the body. Every barber infected must take special pre-
caution to prevent the spread of this disease by sterilizing
his hands, feet and socks until cured.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 349

NON-CONTAGIOUS AFFECTIONS OF THE HAIR

There are six non-contagious affections of the hair, as
follows :

Canities — grayness of hair.

Trichoptilosis — split hair.

Hypertrichosis (hirsuties) — superfluous hair.

Trichorrhexis nodosa — knotted hair.

Monilethrix — beaded hair.

Fragilitas crinium — brittle hair.

Canities

Canities is the technical term for gray hair. It may be
either of three types, as follows:

1. Congenital canities — occurs in albinism and occasion-
ally in persons with perfectly normal skin. The patchy type
of congenital canities may develop slowly or rapidly, accord-
ing to the cause of the condition.

2. Accidental canities — grayness of hair resulting from
fright.

3. Acquired canities — may be due to old age; or pre-
mature, as in early adult life.

Several causes of acquired canities are worry, anxiety,
nervous strain, prolonged illness, various wasting diseases
and hereditary tendency. All these play an important part in
acquired canities.

Ringed hair — A rare form of canities, due to the alternate
formation of medulla and no medulla, in which the hairs ap-
pear silvery gray and dark in alternating bands. Usually
seen in several members of the family.

Hair losing its color is due to the absence of pigment in
the cortex and the presence of air particles. As the pigment
lessens in the cortex, the white color increases. No treatment
is available, unless dyes are used.

Trichoptilosis is the technical name for split hair. Treat-
ment: The hair should be well oiled to soften and lubricate
the excessively dry ends. The ends may also be removed by
clipping or singeing.

350 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Hypertrichosis (hirsuties) means superfluous hair; an
abnormal development of hair on areas of the body nor-
mally bearing only lanugo hair. Treatments:

1. Dark hairs — bleached to render them less conspicuous.

2. Severe cases — by electrolysis, shaving or epilation.

Trichorrhexis nodosa, or knotted hair, is a dry, brittle
condition with the formation of nodular swellings along the
hair shaft. The hair breaks easily and shows a queer brush-
like spreading out of the fibers of the broken off hair while
the underlying tissues are normal. Shaving the head or soft-
ening the hair with ointments may prove beneficial.

Monilethrix is the technical term for beaded hair. The
hair breaks between the beads or nodes. Scalp treatment
may be beneficial.

Fragilitas crinium is the technical term for brittle hair.
The hairs may split at any part of their length. The hair
should be brushed to distribute the natural oil, and scalp
treatments may be given.

Pigmentations of the Skin

Tan is caused by excessive exposure to the sun.

Lentigines (singular, lentigo) (freckles) are manifested
by small yellowish to brownish colored spots occurring on
those parts of the body exposed to sunlight and atmosphere,
principally the face, hands and arms.

Chloasma (moth patches or liver spots) is characterized
by increased deposits of pigment in the skin that have taken
in a more or less localized portion of the body, mainly on the
forehead, nose and cheeks.

Naevus (nevus) is commonly known as birthmark. It is
a small circumscribed malformation of the skin due to pig-
mentation or dilated capillaries.

Leucoderma refers to abnormal whiteness in patches, a
congenital condition of defective pigmentations of the skin.
It is a colorless condition of the skin, classified as follows:

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

351

1. Vitiligo — an acquired condition of leucoderma. There
is no treatment for this condition except to bleach the sur-
rounding parts, thus making them less conspicuous.

2. Albinism — a congenital absence of pigment in the body
including the skin, hair and eyes. This condition may be
partial or entire.

Epithelioma — A destruct-
ive skin cancer present on the
skin. The new growth may
appear on the surface of the
skin or be deep-seated. It
should always be referred to
a physician.

Deep-Seated Epithelioma
(Skin Cancer)

352

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Hypertrophies (New Growths)

Keratoma (callous) are acquired, superficial, circum-
scribed, thickened patches of epidermis, occurring for the
most part in regions of pressure and friction on the hands
and feet.

Verruca is the technical term for wart.

Xanthoma is a wart-like growth commonly located on
the eyelids.

Keloid, a growth that develops in the subcutaneous tissue,
is a dense fibrous growth usually forming at the site of a scar
after an operation.

Acne Keloid of the Chin

Acne keloid of the chin —

An inflammation of the sub-
cutaneous tissue of the skin,
starting as pinhead papules
which come together to form
irregularly shaped scars. Also
affects the subcutaneous tis-
sue of the skin along the hair
line at the back of the neck.

Fibroma is a tumor composed mainly of fibrous connect-
ive tissue and is non-malignant.

Adenoma sebaceum is a small tumor of translucent ap-
pearance, usually occurring on the face in multiples, origin-
ating in the sebaceous glands.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 353

NAIL DISORDERS

The barber should be able to recognize and tell the dif-
ference between normal and abnormal conditions of the nail.

Nail Irregularities

Corrugations or wavy ridges are caused by an uneven
growth of the nails, usually resulting from illness. This con-
dition is benefited by soaking the finger tips in warm olive
oil for five minutes each day.

Leuconychia or white spots are caused by bruises or air
bubbles in the nail body. Sometimes the white spots are
caused by injuring the nail root. As the nail continues to
grow, these white spots eventually disappear.

Onychauxis or hypertrophy is an overgrowth of the nail,
either in length or thickness, usually caused by a local infec-
tion or other bodily disturbance.

Onychatrophia, atrophy or wasting away of the nail
causes the nail to lose its lustre, become smaller and may shed
entirely. Injury or disease may account for this nail irreg-
ularity. The nail should be protected from injury or ex-
posure to strong soaps and washing powders.

Onychophagy or bitten nails is an acquired nervous habit
which prompts the individual to chew the nail or the hard-
ened cuticle. As a result, the nail may become permanently
deformed. Oil should be applied to the cuticle regularly.

Onychorrhexis or brittle nails. This condition is caused
by strongly alkaline soaps or chemicals and by rough manual
labor. To correct this condition, discontinue the use of dry-
ing agents on the nails. Hot oil treatments are recommended.
Cream or oil applied to the nail base, is also recommended.

Hangnails (agnails) is a condition in which the cuticle
splits around the nail. Failure to correct dryness of the cut-
icle or cutting the cuticle too short or unevenly may result in
hangnails. The cuticle should be softened with warm oil and
then trimmed carefully.

354 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Pterygium is a forward growth of the cuticle which ad-
heres to the base of the nail. To remove the adhering growth
use a sharp knife or instrument.

A bruised nail may be kept from discoloring, by placing
it alternately in bowls of hot and cold water, immediately
after the accident. A tablespoonful of epsom salt, added to
the hot water, has a healing effect.

Nail Diseases

Any nail disease which shows signs of infection or in-
flammation (redness, pain, swelling or pus). Medical treat-
ment is required for all nail diseases.

Onychosis (onychonosus) is a technical term applied to
any nail disease.

Onychomycosis, tinea unguium or ringworm of the nails

is an infectious disease caused by a vegetable parasite. The
nails tend to become thick, furrowed and brittle in appear-
ance.

Paronychia or felon is an infectious and inflammatory
condition of the tissues surrounding the nails. This condition
is traceable to bacterial infection.

Onychia is an inflammation of the nail matrix accomp-
anied by pus formation. Improper sterilization of nail im-
struments and bacterial infection may cause this disease.

Onychocryptosis or ingrown nails may affect either the
finger or toe. In this condition, the nail grows into the sides
of the flesh and may set up an infection. Rounding nail
corners and failing to correct hangnails are often responsible
for ingrown nails.

Blue nails may be attributed to poor blood circulation or
a cardiac disorder.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 355

SYPHILIS

Syphilis probably kills more people than any other con-
tagious disease. It may have serious consequences for the in-
fected person if not properly treated. If neglected, it may
cause grave complications such as heart trouble, blindness,
paralysis or insanity. Besides causing harm to the individual,
syphilis is also a menace to the community. This disease may
be carried from one person to another.

Syphilis is a dangerous disease caused by tiny germs
known to doctors as the treponema pallida (also called the
spirochaeta pallida). The disease germs enter the body
through the skin or mucous membranes of the body. The
most common way of infection is through sexual intercourse
with a person having the disease. Other channels of infec-
tion are kissing an infected person and the use of infected
materials.

The barber can do his part in preventing the spread of
this harmful disease. Through his friendly help, the barber
can direct a customer to seek competent advice if there is the
slightest suspicion of syphilis. Delay reduces the chances of
cure. Only a physician is qualified to diagnose and prescribe
treatment for this condition. The infected person must never
get into the hands of a quack doctor, or try to cure himself
with patent medicines. If in doubt as to who is qualified to
treat syphilis consult with your local Health Department.

The symptoms or signs of syphilis appear in three stages.

First stage. Several weeks after the disease germs get
into the body, a sore or chancre usually appears at the spot
where they entered. Little discomfort is experienced in early
syphilis. After a few weeks, the chancre heals and leaves a
scar. In the meantime, the disease germs reach the blood-
stream and are carried to all parts of the body where they
begin to do their damage.

Second stage. This stage of syphilis develops about three
to six weeks after the chancre has appeared. As the disease

356 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

Patchy Syphilitic Alopecia
Occurring during the second stage of syphilis

progresses, the following symptoms may occur in a mild or
severe form.

1. Skin rash. 4. Loss of hair.

2. Sores in mouth and throat. 5. Fever and headache.

3. Swollen glands.

Third stage. If syphilis has not been treated and cured
at this stage, it may damage the vital organs such as the
heart and brain.

Syphilis is most infectious in the primary and secondary
stages, especially when the lesions (chancre and mucous
patches) are located on an exposed part of the body or in
the mouth. The open sores or chancres in syphilis contain
the germs of the disease. Syphilis can be readily spread from
the infected to the healthy person by direct, or immediate
body to body contact ; and by indirect means through con-
tact with infected objects. The barber has a responsibility
to himself and his customers and should refuse to serve any
person known or suspected of having syphilis in its early
stages. If in doubt whether a person has syphilis, take every
precaution to sterilize all objects coming in contact with
the customer.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR 357

GONORRHEA

Gonorrhea is a contagious disease which generally attacks
the mucous membranes covering the mouth, eyes, sex organs
and other internal structures of the body. It is caused by a
tiny germ called the diplococcus (gonococcus) of Neisser.
Gonorrhea, like syphilis, is usually spread by sexual relations
with an infected person or contact with infected objects har-
boring the disease germs.

The first symptoms of gonorrhea usually appear in from
two to five days after exposure. At first, itching and burning
feelings are experienced in the affected parts. Shortly after-
ward, a discharge of pus begins to come from the inflamed
organ. The pus discharge from an infected person contains
an abundance of disease germs. At this stage, gonorrhea is
highly contagious and the barber should take every precau-
tion to prevent the spread of the disease to others.

As with syphilis, the barber should refuse to serve any
person known or suspected of having gonorrhea. The best
assistance the barber can give is to recommend medical treat-
ment as soon as possible.

Failure to treat gonorrhea in its early stages may cause
the disease to spread to adjacent or remote tissues, thereby
causing further complications. Occasionally, in the later
stages, gonorrhea attacks the lining of the heart, the joints
and the lining around the .\iver.

358 DISEASES OF THE SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR

THE CONTROL OF VENEREAL DISEASE

The success of any program to eliminate syphilis and
gonorrhea depends upon the wholehearted cooperation of
every barber and member of the community.

An effective program of venereal disease control is based
upon prevention, diagnosis and treatment.

The aim of every health program for control of venereal
disease is to find infected persons and start treatment soon
after the infection. The person who receives prompt treat-
ment is more likely to be cured, besides preventing the spread
of the infection to other people. If every infected person
would refrain from exposing others to the disease, begin early
treatment and continue treatments until cured or rendered
non-infectious, venereal disease would soon be conquered.

Medical science has introduced the use of penicillin and
sulfa drugs for the treatment of venereal diseases. Patients
may now be treated in hospitals and rendered non-infectious
within a short period of time. Health Departments are now
offering free treatments to those who cannot afford the
services of a private doctor.

Syphilis and gonorrhea can be cured if treated by a
skilled physician as soon as the first sign of infection is de-
tected. If treatment is either neglected or delayed, the cure
may take a long time and permanent damage may be the
final result. Only a reliable physician can safely decide which
treatment is best for the patient.

The barber can make his contribution to public health by:

1 . Eliminating the sources of infection in the barber shop.

2. Encouraging early medical treatment for those who
need it.

3. Urging the infected person to follow the doctor's in-
structions.

4. Cooperating with health officials on any campaign to
control venereal diseases.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

359

DISORDERS OF THE SKIN

1. a) Define dermatology,
b) What is a dermatologist?

a) Dermatology is the science of the
skin, its nature, structure, functions,
diseases and treatment.

b) A dermatologist is a skin specialist.

2. a) What is the most com-
mon disease of the oil
glands?
b) What causes it?

a) Comedones or blackheads.

b) A worm-like mass of hardened se-
bum obstructing the duct of the oil
gland.

3. Name the primary lesions of
the skin.

Macule, papule, wheal, tubercle, tu-
mor, vesicle, bulla, pustule.

4. Differentiate between objec-
tive lesion and subjective
lesion.

An objective lesion is one that can be
seen, such as pimples, while a subjec-
tive lesion is one that can be felt, as
in itching, pains, etc.

5. Define acne rosacea; is it
contagious?

Acne rosacea is a chronic congestion of
the skin, usually confined to the nose
and cheeks. It is not contagious.

6. What are freckles, and what
causes them?

Freckles are yellowish to brownish
colored spots occurring on those parts
of the body exposed to sunlight and
atmosphere, and are caused by excess
pigmentation.

7. Name the secondary lesions
of the skin.

Scale, crust, excoriation, fissure, ulcer,
scar and skin stain.

8. What is acne?

Give three suggestions for its
prevention.

Acne is a chronic inflammation of the
oil glands.

Prevention— extreme cleanliness, prop-
er diet, and regular and thorough
evacuation.

9. Define hyperidrosis; what
parts of the body are most
commonly affected?

Hyperidrosis is excessive perspiration.
The most commonly affected parts are
the armpits and joints.

10. Name a disease of the skin
caused by a vegetable para-
site.

Ringworm.

11. Matching test:

freckles cicatrix
warts furuncles

scar lentigines

blackheads verrucae
boils comedones

Freckles— lentigines.
Warts — verrucae.
Scar — cicatrix.
Blackheads — comedones.
Boils— furuncles.

12. Name six different forms of
acne.

Acne vulgaris or simplex, acne punc-
tata, acne papulosa, acne pustulosa,
acne indurata, and acne rosacea.

13. Matching test:

milia tumor

phyma fever blister

squama whiteheads

dermatitis inflammation

herpes scale

simplex

impetigo scrum-pox

Milia— whiteheads.
Phyma — tumor.
Squama — scale.
Dermatitis — inflammation.
Herpes simplex— fever blister.

Impetigo — scrum-pox.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

14. What is a carbuncle, and
what causes it?

Carbuncle is a boil, caused by bac-
terial infection.

15. Define the following:

a) eczema.

b) albinism.

a) Eczema is an inflammation of the
skin accompanied by itching, burning,
and other unpleasant sensations.

b) Albinism is a congenital condition,
a deficiency of the pigment in the
skin, hair and eyes.

16. Place the medical term after
the common name in the list
below:

a) birthmark. a) naevus.

b) liver spots. b) chloasma.

c) hives. c) urticaria.

d) callous. d) keratoma.

17. Name six diseases of
sebaceous (oil) glands.

the

Seborrhea, asteatosis, comedones, acne,
milia and steatoma.

18. What causes urticaria?
Describe its appearance.

Urticaria is caused by eating shellfish,
strawberries, etc., or by contact with
herbs or shrubs of the nettle family.
It is characterized by eruptions of
itching wheals or red elevations.

19. Name the common diseases
of the sweat glands, and
briefly describe each.

Hyperidrosis— excessive sweating.
Bromidrosis — foul-smelling sweat.
Miliaria rubra— prickly heat.
Anidrosis — lack of perspiration.
Sudamen — non-inflammatory eruption
containing perspiration.

DISORDERS OF THE SCALP AND HAIR

1. Define trichology.

Trichology is the science of the hair
and its diseases.

2. Is the ordinary falling out of
hair considered a disease?
Explain.

No; a certain amount of hair, that has
grown to its full length, falls out when
it is replaced by new hair.

3. At what time of the year is
falling out of the hair most
noticeable?

In the spring and fall.

4. Define the following:

a) trichoptilosis.

b) trichophytosis.

c) trichorrhexis nodosa.

a) trichoptilosis— split hair.

b) trichophytosis— ringworm of the
scalp.

c) trichorrhexis nodosa — knotted hair.

5. What is meant by:

a) canities?

b) name three types.

a) Canities is the technical term for
gray hair.

b) Congenital canities, accidental ca-
nities and acquired canities.

6. What is meant by ringed
hair?

Ringed hair is a form of canities in
which the hair shows alternate pig-
mented and white segments.

7. Give several causes for ac-
quired canities.

Worry, anxiety, nervous strain, pro-
longed illness, various wasting diseases,
and hereditary tendency.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

361

8. How is dandruff recognized?

Dandruff is recognized by the presence
of white scales in the hair, and on the
scalp.

9. What is a direct cause of
dandruff?

A direct cause of dandruff is the ex-
cessive shedding of the epithelial cells.
Instead of growing to the surface and
falling off, the horny scales accumu-
late on the scalp.

10. Give the medical term for:

a) dandruff.

b) dry type of dandruff.

c) greasy or waxy type of
dandruff.

a) Pityriasis.

b) Pityriasis capitis simplex.

c) Pityriasis steatoides.

11. What is meant by alopecia?
Can it be cured?

Alopecia is the technical term for bald-
ness. It is curable only in the early
stages of the disease.

12. What is alopecia senilis?

Alopecia senilis is baldness occurring
in old age.

13. What is the common name
for each of the following
medical terms?

a) pediculosis capitis.

b) tinea sycosis.

c) tinea favosa.

d) tinea tonsurans.

e) scabies.

a) Head louse.

b) Ringworm of the bearded area.

c) Honeycomb ringworm of the scalp.

d) Ringworm of the scalp.

e) The itch.

14. How is pediculosis capitis
treated?

The entire head is shampooed with
equal parts of larkspur tincture and
ether before retiring, and shampooed
with germicidal soap the next morn-
ing. If necessary, the treatment should
be repeated.

15. What is alopecia areata?

Alopecia areata is baldness in spots.

16. What is hypertrichosis?

Hypertrichosis is superfluous hair.

17. What does oily condition of
the hair indicate?

A disturbance of the sebaceous glands,
due to an excessive discharge of sebum.

18. What is favus? What treat-
ment would you suggest?

Favus is an infectious parasitic fungus
growth characterized by round crusts
on the scalp, having a peculiar mousy
odor. The customer should be referred
to a physician.

19. Name three contagious nail
diseases.

Onychomycosis, paronychia, and
onychia.

20. Name two contagious vener-
eal diseases.

Syphilis and gonorrhea.

PART IV

WOMEN'S HAIRGUTTING

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

MEN'S HAIR TINTING AND BLEACHING

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

STATE BOARD REGULATIONS

365

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

The art of haircutting or bobbing requires thorough in-
struction in the proper way to shorten, thin and shape the
hair by means of shears, razor or clipper. Skill can be de-
veloped only after patient practice on living models. A good
haircut is important because it serves as a foundation for
beautiful coiffures. The barber's education is not complete
until he has acquired artistic skill and judgment in hair-
cutting.

Modern haircuts are styled to bring out the customer's
individuality and to accentuate her good points while con-

VARIOUS SHAPES OF HEADS

Normal

Receding

Bumpy

Flat

cealing her poor features. The barber must be guided by the
customer's wishes as well as what is best for her personality.
In selecting the proper hair style, the barber should take into
consideration the customer's head shape, her facial contour,
her neck line and hair texture.

Preparation of Customer

A hydraulic chair is used for hair cutting, and a tissue
neck band is adjusted closely around the customer's neck. A
hair cloth is then adjusted, allowing the tissue band to pro-
trude for about half its width.

The hair is then carefully combed straight down on the
sides and in the back, and the contour of the head studied
carefully.

366

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Cutting Virgin Hair

In cutting a virgin head of hair, it is customary to cut off
the long hair with a few clips of the haircutting shears at a
point about half an inch below the desired length. This will
create a long straight bob. If this type of cut is desired, the
shears are used to trim off any projecting ends. In case the
hair is very thick, this straight bob must be thinned out, as
described later.

Cutting Hair Straight Off (Club Cutting)

Slithering

To bring out the graceful curves of the head, the hair
must be thinned and tapered by slithering. This is accomp-
lished by either of the following methods.

Method 1 — Using regular
haircutting shears, hold a small
strand of hair between the
thumb and index finger, and
insert the hair in the shears so
that only the underneath sec-
tion of the hair will be short-
ened. Slide the shears up and
down the strand, closing them
slightly each time the shears is
moved towards the scalp. Slith-
er enough to allow the hair to
lie close to the scalp wherever needed.

The Process of Thinning
the Hair (Slithering)

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

367

\\vMu\\\i ill, 1 1/' W

Back-Combing the

Shortest Hair
(Ruffing or Teasing)

Slithering the Hair
After Back-Combing

The short hair may be ruffed or back-combed as shown
in illustration, and then slithered as explained above.

STRANDS OF HAIR

Before
Thinning

Medium
Thinned

Thinned
Extremely

368

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Method 2 — Holding the hair between the index and
middle fingers. In this method more hair is slithered, thereby
hastening the process.

Holding the Hair between the Middle and Index Fingers

In order to avoid the slipping out of the hair, the middle
finger should overlap the index finger a trifle.

Method 3 — Using thinning shears, take a strand of hair
between the index and middle fingers. Spread it well, and

Thinning the Hair, using the
Thinning (Serrated) Shears

cut by means of simply closing the thinning shears held at
right angles. The cuts are made starting about one inch
from the scalp and repeated toward the ends of the hair, at
regular intervals; then the hair strands are combed out to
remove the cut hair ends.

Method 4 — Using the razor for thinning and tapering.
For detailed instructions, see Razor Cutting on page 371.

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

369

Layer Haircutting with Scissors
and Thinning Shears

Layer haircutting is the thinning operation repeated all
over the head until the desired results are obtained.

The Hair Correctly
Sectioned

Thinning the Lowest Layer

Using Shears

Top Layer Held Out of Way
•with Comb

Before the hair can be properly cut, it is combed and
brushed free from tangles.

Part the hair across the crown from back of ear to back
of ear, and then from each temple to crown. Pin the remain-
ing hair on top of the head. The hair on each side of the head
is held out of the way with combs.

Thinning the Lowest Layer Using

Serrated Shears

Top Layer Held Out of Way

with Comb

Thinning the Hair by Holding it

between Index and Middle

Fingers

370 WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Starting at the lowest layer, the thinning is done by di-
viding the hair into small sections and parting and lifting
each resulting lock separately. The length of the stroke in
slithering depends upon the thickness or thinness of the hair.
For instance, if the strand is thick the stroke is short, and if
the strand is thin the stroke is long.

After the lowest layer is completed, repeat the thinning
process on the second layer, and continue with each layer
until you have reached the crown.

To thin the sides, part the hair previously pinned to the
top of the head and slither the hair on the sides in layers, as
directed for the back of the head.

Suggestions for Deformed Heads

For a long neck — Do not expose the neck by giving a bob
or shingle cut ; leave the hair longer.

For a narrow head — Thin the hair at the back of the head
and leave it tapered and fluffy at the sides.

For a broad head — Thin the hair at the sides and leave it
full or fluffy at the back.

For a short, round head — Taper the neck line into a V
shape ; do not give a bob with a round neck line.

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

371

Razor Haircutting

Haircutting with a razor differs from other methods of
haircutting in that a sharp razor is used when cutting hair
that has been dampened by water. This method of haircut-
ting is preferred by many hairstylist. Much care and skill
are required to know where and how to cut the hair properly.

Proper way to Hold the Hair
for Razor Haircutting

Layer Haircutting the Back
Part of the Head

After the hair has been dampened, combed, blocked and
sectioned, it is ready to be cut with a razor. As the hair
strand is drawn towards the operator, the razor is placed
flat, not erect, about one inch from the scalp. Using short,
steady, downward strokes towards the ends, the hair is
tapered to the necessary thickness and length. Many hair-
stylists prefer to taper both on top and bottom of the strand.

Layer Haircutting the
Sides of the Head

Layer Haircutting
the Bangs

372

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

THE BOYISH BOB

Also Known as The Shingle Bob

The Boyish Bob may be parted on the side or in the mid-
dle. It is cut in the following manner:

First part the hair
as desired and smooth
down with comb and
brush. If the hair is
too long, cut evenly all
around, about one and
one-half inches below
the ear lobe. Start to
cut at the back of the
head about three-quar-
ters up from the nape
of the neck. Continue
this operation with
graduating shortness as
you go down toward
the neck, increasing the
length gradually as you
go toward the side. How
long the hair should be,
or how close to the scalp

it should be cut, must be decided in each case, depending
upon the desire of the customer and the shape of the head.

If thinning or tapering is desired, follow directions as
previously explained.

After establishing a hair line, taper upward, being careful
to leave the ears well covered. Taper the side below the ear
lobe slightly upward, and taper the hair below and in back
of the ears to create a smooth contour.

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

373

Helpful Hints On Shingling
For The Boyish Bob

Shingling the back of the head
in a graduating effect

Trimming the hair ends over

forefinger and middle finger to

even up any irregularities or

protruding ends

Trimming the neckline upward Shaping the neckline with the
in a graduating effect points of the scissors

Cleaning the Neck
with Clippers

Cleaning the Neck with the
Points of the Shears

374

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

Tapering the Hair Ends by

Cutting the Hair held in an

Upward Position

Trimming and Tapering the

Hair Ends by Using the

Slithering Method

Shaping Neck Line

The neck lines of short bobs can be shaped into natural,
"V," oval or round shape first, then followed by shingling
the hair to conform with the neck line, taking care not to
allow too much of the neck exposed. The neck lines of con-
servative bobs are shaped after the thinning is done.

Completing the Haircut

The customer is then given the opportunity of viewing
her head in the mirror with the aid of a large hand mirror.
The hair cloth is loosened, the tissue removed and discarded,
and the hair cloth carefully removed so that no cut hair falls
onto the customer's clothes. If any short hairs remain on the
neck after the tissue band is removed, they can be removed
with tissues sprinkled with talcum powder.

Hair requiring waving. Should the hair require waving,
leave the hair one inch longer to allow for the waves.

Concerning the Clippers

There is a mistaken idea amongst women that the use of
the clippers to clean the neck line has a tendency to make
the hair grow in thicker at the neck. This is not true, how-
ever, as the amount of human hair can only be as great as
the number of follicles on the neck, and these do not increase
by the use of the clippers or any other instrument.

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

375

POPULAR HAIR STYLES FOR YOUNG GIRLS

Special consideration should be given to children. Know-
ing how to handle the children is where their mothers go
and have their own hair done.

376 WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

SPECIAL PROBLEMS
Correcting Split Hair Ends

Trichoptilosis is the technical term for split hair ends.
When the hair becomes dry and brittle, due to several causes,
the hair ends frequently split. Temporary relief for this
condition may be obtained either by singeing or clipping the
hair ends.

Singeing is the process of burning off split ends of the
hair, and should be given just before a shampoo.

The hair is combed thoroughly and divided into small,
equal sections. Each section or strand is twisted tightly from
the scalp to the ends, and left for an instant while the wax
taper is lighted.

The twisted strand is then held in the left hand while the
extended fingers of the right hand ruff the strand upward
to the scalp. During this process the lighted taper stands
erect and out of the way. This ruffing motion frees the split
end, which will now protrude from the tightly twisted strand
of hair.

Next the taper is passed under the strand so that the
frayed hair ends are ignited. The strands are all treated in
the same way, the taper is extinguished, and the hair thor-
oughly brushed to remove burnt particles. The hair is then
shampooed in the usual way.

Ruffing the Protruding Singeing the Protruding

Hair Ends Hair Ends

WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING 377

Clipping

Split ends may be clipped in case the customer prefers
this process to singeing.

Clipping the Protruding
Hair Ends

The hair is combed, divided, twisted and ruffed as before,
but the split hair ends are removed with clipping shears. Be-
ginning near the scalp, cut alongside of the strand all pro-
truding hair ends, gradually moving downward to the end
of the strand, where the remaining ends are cut. The hair
is then brushed briskly to remove the short hair clippings.

Terms Used in Connection with Haircutting

Hairdressing is the art of arranging the hair into various
becoming shapes or styles. The contour of the face, shape of
the head, and the current season's styles, must all be con-
sidered in this phase of the work.

Hair stylist — A hairdresser who has the artistic ability to
suggest and create a becoming new hair fashion.

Haircutting — The shortening, thinning and tapering of
the hair, using comb and shears, to mold the hair into a
becoming shape.

Hair bobbing — The term commonly applied to the cut-
ting of women's and children's hair.

Hair trim or trimming — Cutting the hair lightly in going
over the already existing formed lines, cleaning and tidying
the neckline.

Shingling — Cutting the hair close to the nape of the neck,
leaving the hair gradually longer as you go higher toward the

378 WOMEN'S HAIRCUTTING

crown of the head, without showing a definite line.

Thinning — Decreasing the thickness of the hair where it
is too heavy.

Tapering — Shortening and thinning the hair at the
same time.

Feathering — Another term for thinning and tapering.

Slithering — The process used in tapering and thinning
the hair.

Shredding — Another term for slithering.

Effileing — A French term for slithering.

Clipping — The operation of removing the hair by the use
of hair clippers. Removing split hair ends or cutting the ex-
treme ends of the hair with the shears is also known as
clipping.

Singeing — Burning the hair ends by the quick passing of
a lighted wax taper over the split ends of the hair.

Club cutting — Cutting the hair straight off, without thin-
ning or tapering.

Layer cutting — Tapering and thinning the hair by di-
viding it into many thin layers.

Razor cutting — The use of the razor in thinning or cut-
ting the hair.

Natural hair line — Where no artificial hair line is cre-
ated; the hair at the nape of the neck is left in its natural
hair line.

Artificial hair line — A neck line which has been changed
by cutting into a V, oval, or round shape.

Featheredge — When the hair line at the nape of the neck
is carried smoothly upward into a graceful, straight effect,
and the neck is cleaned at the base with clippers, a little
higher than the natural hair line.

Back-combing — Combing the short hairs towards the
scalp. Other terms used for back-combing are: teasing,
ruffing.

379

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

Finger Waving

Finger waving is popular in the designing of artistic hair
styles. No expensive equipment nor complicated procedures
are required for finger waving. With the aid of water, comb
and his own fingers, the barber can employ finger waving
anywhere and anytime. A barber who is competent as a
finger waver can always command a good paying position.

Finger waving is the art of shaping the hair, wetted with
waving lotion, into becoming waves with the aid of the fin-
gers and comb. Better results in producing soft, natural
waves are obtained with hair that has a natural wave or has
been permanently waved, rather than with straight hair.

The use of the right kind of waving lotion is an aid to
better finger waving. Besides making the hair more pliable,
the application of a waving lotion holds the hair in place
while the hair is drying. A good waving lotion is harmless to
the hair and should not flake upon drying.

A pleasing finger wave should harmonize with the shape
of the customer's head, as well as her features.

Practice on Dressing Block

It is very much easier for beginners to learn finger waving
by practice on hair pieces before attempting to wave living
hair, and for that reason preliminary instructions are given
for work on hair pieces.

Preparation of hair. An ordinary switch or weft may be
used, the support is fastened firmly to a dressing block. The
hair piece is thoroughly moistened with water, using the fine
teeth of a dressing comb to comb the water through the hair
until the hair piece lies flat on the block.

380

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING
Movements For A Right-Going Wave

1. The hair is combed at
a slightly slanted angle
to the left.

2. The index finger of the
left hand is placed di-
rectly above the position
for the first ridge and
the hair under the index
finger is combed down-
ward.

3. With teeth pointing
slightly upward, the comb
is inserted directly under
the index finger. In one
motion, draw the comb
l/4" away from the index
finger and direct the hair
3/4 to the right.

5. Remove the left hand
from the dressing block and
place the middle finger
above the ridge and the in-
dex finger on the teeth of
the comb. Emphasize the
ridge by closing the two
fingers and applying pres-
sure to the dressing block.
DO NOT SQUEEZE THE
RIDGE UPWARD.

6. Without removing the
comb, the teeth are
turned downward and
the hair combed in a
right semi-circular effect
to form a dip in the
groove of the right-going
wave.

4: With the teeth
still inserted in the
ridge, the comb is
flattened against
the dressing block
in order to hold
the ridge in place.
(The left hand is
not shown in the
illustration so that
you may see the
ridge and position
of comb.)

Left-going wave. The fingers of the left hand are now
moved carefully. The index finger is placed directly above
the position for the second ridge (to give the average size
wave the index finger is placed about I1/? inches from the
ridge just formed) the comb and fingers are now used to
build another ridge by repeating the movements, except that
the hair is directed to the left. The movements are repeated
for the entire length of the hair strand.

The index finger and the middle finger have the double
duty of holding down the waves already made and forming
the ridges between them.

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

381

Matching Waves

When the student has learned to finger wave a straight
hair piece, he is ready to learn the matching of waves.

Part the hair into 2^ -inch sections for convenience in
waving. Special care must be taken to match the waves
exactly so that the finished work will show no line of demar-
cation between the sections. This will require considerable
practice before the waves can be matched perfectly without
disturbing the complete section.

The ends of the hair may be coiled into pin curls.

Matching
Right-going Waves

Connecting
Right-going Waves

Place forefinger 1/4" to the left and above the ridge
already made. With teeth upward, place comb under
the forefinger and repeat the finger waving movements
described previously, allowing the comb to work over
part of the adjoining ridge and wave.

Left Wave
Begin on Left

Connecting the
Second Wave

For a left-going wave, begin work on the left side of
the hair piece or weft.

The time spent in matching waves on the dressing block
will be profitably expended as the student will learn to make
even-sized, regular waves, and will become accustomed to the
way in which hair lies on the human head.

382

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

FINGER WAVING ON A LIVE MODEL

The barber washes his hands and has available sterile
implements and clean supplies. The customer is seated com-
fortably and a neck strip and shampoo cape are properly ad-
justed. The proper amount of waving lotion to use should
be based on the following factors :

Naturally or permanently waved hair requires either light,
medium or heavy waving lotion, governed by the texture and
condition of the customer's hair.

Shaping the Finger Wave

1. Comb hair on heavy side away from the face.

2. Place index finger of left hand on the front part of the
head, from two to three inches from the part.

Comb Hair
Away from Face

Directing the Hair for
Left-Going Wave

3. With comb in right hand, insert the teeth under index
finger and direct hair for a left-going wave towards the face
as previously explained on pages 380-381.

4. To emphasize the ridge, press the fingers against the
head. (Do not pinch the ridge as the hair would be pushed
upward and out of position.)

5. Roll the index finger upward and re-insert the fine
teeth of the comb, and comb hair smooth.

6. Follow the line of this ridge to crown where it is lost.
(See illustration on next page.)

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

The First Ridge
Completed

Diagram for Side Part
Wide Wave Hair Style

7. Now move to the opposite side of the customer.

8. Comb hair on thin side away from face.

9. Proceed for a right-going wave and continue this ridge
around the head. This will complete the first wave on heavy
side of the head.

Light Side Completed

Heavy Side Completed

10. Begin second wave at the hair line on the heavy side,
directing the hair towards the face. Continue this ridge
around the head to the thin side. Work from one side to the
other until the entire head of hair is waved.

11. Finish the ends of the hair with pin curls.

Completing the Finger Wave

1. Attach net to hair and safeguard customer's forehead
and ears with rubber discs and paper protectors.

2. Adjust the dryer to medium and allow hair to dry
thoroughly.

3. Remove dryer, hair net and pins from hair.

4. Comb out curls and reset waves into a soft coiffure.

384

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

Popular Finger Waved Hair Styles

Side Part Medium Wave
Hair Style

Diagram for Side Part
Medium Wave Hair Style

Semi-Swirl Finger Wave
Hair Style

Diagram for
Semi-Swirl Hair Style

Pompadour
Hair Style

Diagram for
Pompadour Hair Style

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

PARTING THE HAIR

The manner of parting the customer's hair should be ad-
justed to her facial type and the desired hair style.

The hair stylist should be guided by the natural parting
of the customer's hair. To locate this part, first comb the hair
back tightly and then push it forward.

The following illustrations reveal the best hair partings
for various facial types.

Side part. A high
side parting is suit-
able for the oval
facial type, whereas
the low side parting
is advisable for the
triangle, round or
square facial type.

Center part. Usual-
ly suggested for the
oval facial type.

Diagonal part. Rec-
ommended for the
round or square fa-
cial type.

Ear to ear . crown
parting. Suggested
for hair styles with
high and low effects
and forward move-
ment of bangs.

Center back part-
ing. Creates length
to the head. Sug-
gested for warm
weather.

Cap shape crown. Some heads dress better without back
partings. A cap shape wave that combs from the crown is
suggested. This style requires a well-shaped head, and the
face needs a halo effect of curls to frame it.

386

FINGER WAVING AND PIN CURLING

PIN CURLS

Pin curls, also called sculpture curls, are suitable for
naturally curly or permanently waved hair. There are many
methods of making pin curls. The ones described here are the
most commonly used. The hair must be in a moist condition
with water or with waving lotion.

Hair Ends Inside of Curls

Winding from Hair Ends
to Scalp

Winding from Scalp
to Hair Ends

1— Separate the hair into small
strands, and comb smoothly.
2 — Place back of index finger of left
hand against scalp.
3 — Wind hair with right hand around
tip of finger, in the direction in which
the resultant curl is to be set.
4— Force curl off fingers with hair
ends inside of curl and pin it se-
curely.

1— Separate the hair into small
strands and comb smoothly.
2 — Place index finger about two
inches on the strand from hair ends.
3— Wind the hair ends around index
finger, remove the wound hair off
finger, pull slightly to insure a
tight curl.

4 — Roll the curl towards the scalp.
5 — Pin the curl securely (left or
right) in the direction in which it is
to be combed.

Illustration shows clockwise (c) wind-
ing. To obtain counterclock (cc) curl
reverse the winding.

Overlapping Curl

Hair Ends Outside of Curls

1 — Separate the hair into small strands, and comb

smoothly.

2 — Place tip of left index finger in center of square

and at right angles to the scalp.

3— Wind the hair flat with right hand around the

index finger, in the direction in which the resultant

curl is to be set.

4— Remove finger from curl and pin it securely.

Hair Line Ringlets

A small strand of hair is rolled between the
thumb and index fingers of both hands, and adjusted
in a circular form with the hair ends on the inside
of the circle. Pin securely until dry.

Hair Line Ringlet

387

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

Hair bleaching is a profitable source of income to the bar-
ber who possesses the necessary knowledge, experience and
skill of this specialty. Men are prompted to have their hair
bleached mostly because of necessity, and to improve their
appearance. The man who is satisfied with the initial treat-
ment, is bound to come back for a retouch at periodic
intervals.

Hair bleaching removes color, upon application, and there
is partial or total removal of the natural pigment.

Hair bleaching involves the application of chemical
agents for the purpose of:

1. Lightening darker hairs so that gray hairs will not
be too obvious.

2. Restoring hair to its original shade (if hair had been
previously tinted).

3. Producing an entirely new shade of hair.

Hair bleaching corrective treatments are recommended
for:

1. Men with prematurely gray hair. (Light complexion.)

2. The business man.

3. Men who must maintain a youthful appearance.

4. Changing an unattractive shade of hair.

To bleach hair successfully, one must have a know-
ledge of:

1. The general structure of hair and skin.

2. The composition, merits and limitations of all bleach-
ing agents and formulas.

3. The chemical reactions following their application.

4. The correct method of application.

It is of great advantage to the barber to be capable in the
art of hair coloring. His services become unlimited, and his
customers do not have to look elsewhere for this service. The
barber has a big advantage over the beautician when it comes
to coloring hair. The application of bleach on women's hair

388 MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

is much more involved than the application to men's hair.
Although the fee for the coloring service may be the same for
both men and women, the cost of material for women's hair
bleach is at least twice as much as that of men ; plus the fact
that there is less than half the time involved for the applica-
tion of bleaching men's hair.

Hair Bleaching

Hair bleaching is the process of partially removing the
natural pigment from the hair. Hair that is not in the best
possible condition, may be damaged by bleaching treatments.
Hence, the barber should carefully examine the texture and
condition of the hair. A bleach should never be given to a
customer whose scalp is not free from eruptions or abrasions.

The customer who has had his hair bleached for the first
time, will appreciate good service by coming back for a re-
touch to the same shop and the same barber. If a written
record is kept of the bleaching treatments, the work of the
barber, in giving the retouch, will be simplified.
Prepared Bleaches

Many of the prepared bleaching agents in use today con-
tain coloring matter. As a hair coloring technician, you
should use these products as directed by the manufacturer in
order to achieve the most satisfactory results.
Essentials For Hair Bleaching

To produce the best results in hair bleaching, the tech-
nician barber must be equipped with:

1. Various sizes of glass or porcelain dishes or flat cups.

2. Swab sticks and brushes.

3. Measuring cup.

4. Dropper.

5. Fresh peroxide — 17 to 20 volume.

(Some barbers prefer to use 25 volume hydrogen peroxide for
quicker bleaching results.)

6. Ammonia water — 28%.

7. White henna.

8. Oil bleaches.

9. Absorbent cotton.

10. Soap flakes.

1 1 . Cream rinse.

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING 389

There are many formulas for bleaching hair in use today,
but professionally, the following agents are used:

1. Peroxide — 17 to 20 volume. 25 volume for a quicker
bleaching process.

2. Peroxide and ammonia.

3. Peroxide, ammonia and white henna.

4. Prepared bleaching powder and peroxide.

5. Colored oil bleaches.

6. Peroxide, ammonia and soap flakes.

Hydrogen Peroxide

The chemical composition of hydrogen peroxide is H2O2,
which is two parts of hydrogen and two parts of oxygen. Hy-
drogen peroxide is a safe and dependable bleaching, softening
and oxidizing agent, provided it is a fresh product, having
17 to 20 volume strength. It is available in two forms, liquid
and tablet.

1. When tablets are used, it is important that they be
completely crushed and dissolved, otherwise the full
strength of the 20 volume hydrogen peroxide will not
be released.

2. Liquid hydrogen peroxide deteriorates, and should be
purchased in pint sizes, kept closed when not in use,
and stored in a cool, dark, dry place.

Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide

As a bleaching agent, hydrogen peroxide solution, whose
function is to soften the cuticle of the hair shaft, oxidizes to
a lighter shade the grains of pigment or coloring matter in
its inner cortical layer. If a solution of less than 17 volume
is used, it will act too slowly. Some barbers prefer to use
25 volume hydrogen peroxide for quicker bleaching results.

Bleaching makes the hair porous, as well as lighter in
color. The shades that may be obtained range from light
brown and golden brown to straw color and platinum, de-
pending upon the basic color of the hair and the formula
of the bleach. Continued use of bleaches will make some
hair over-dry and brittle. The addition of 28% ammonia
water hastens the bleaching action of hydrogen peroxide.

390

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

An excess of ammonia is undesirable, since it imparts a red-
dish tint to the hair.

As a softening agent, hydrogen peroxide solution softens
the outer cuticle of the hair and makes it more receptive to
the penetrating action of an aniline derivative dye. Care
must be taken to control the softening process so that the hair
is not bleached.

As an oxidizing agent, hydrogen peroxide solution is used
in all penetrating hair dyes. It acts as a developer to liberate
oxygen gas which changes para-phenylene-diamine into a
dark-colored compound capable of dyeing the hair.

Testing For Volume Content

There are two methods for testing the volume content of
peroxide.

1. The hydrometer method.

2. The J tube method.

The most popular and quicker of the two is the hydrom-
eter method because it requires the least
amount of equipment.

The hydrometer method. Pour a little of
the liquid peroxide into a test tube. Immerse
hydrometer into peroxide so that it floats in
the peroxide. The reading on the hydrom-
eter reveals the strength of the peroxide.

The J tube method. With the second me-
thod, peroxide may be tested by the use of
a small instrument, consisting of a J tube,
marked off in graduations, each representing
one unit volume of gas. A solution of copper
sulphate (blue vitriol), containing free am-
monia, is added to the tube. The pipette (a
slender, transparent glass tube) is rilled with
peroxide to be tested. One cubic centimeter
of the peroxide is then released very slowly
into the solution in the J tube, where oxida-

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

391

tion immediately begins. Oxygen bubbles immediately form
and come to the surface at the top of the long arm of the
J tube.

When the last bubble has
formed, note the number of the
graduations to which the oxygen
has forced the blue liquid. This
number shows precisely the num-
ber of cubic centimeters of oxygen
gas, or unit volumes, contained in
the original cubic centimeter of
peroxide. If the number noted is
less than "15 volume," it is not
satisfactory for hair dyeing or

hair bleaching purposes.

J Tube and Accessories

Procedure for Bleaching Virgin Head

A virgin head of hair is one which has not been previously
bleached or tinted.

It is desirable to bleach the hair before giving a haircut
in order to have more hair to work with.

1 . Examine scalp and hair ; shampoo and dry hair.

2. Section hair into quarters.

Sectioned in
quarters

Subdividing hair into
quarter inch strands

Approximate number

of quarter inch

strands

3. Prepare bleaching formula and use immediately to
prevent deterioration. Note : The order of applying the
bleach around the head is immaterial. If the hair

392

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

seems resistant or especially dark around the crown,
then it is advisable to start at the back of the head to
allow for extra time of contact at this region.

4. Apply bleach with swab
or brush in quarter inch
strands, proceeding from
scalp to within one inch
of the hair ends.

5. Continue to apply the
bleach until the entire
head is completed.

6. At the sides of the head
where the hair is ex-
tremely short, the bleach

is applied directly to hair without any attempt at
sectioning.

7. Comb the bleach through to the hair ends.

Manner of applying
bleach

Applying bleach to neck hair
with swab

Applying bleach to sideburns
with swab

8. Watch carefully for the development of proper shade.

9. Rinse hair with water and shampoo lightly.

10. Apply cream rinse. After 3 minutes rinse with warm
water.

11. Dry hair and comb or dress hair as desired.

Causes of Unsatisfactory Hair Bleaching

1. Weakened peroxide.

2. Too much ammonia water in the bleach.

3. Bleaching formula left on the hair too long.

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING 393

4. Bleaching formula removed too soon.

5. Poor application (overlapping).

6. Too slow in applying bleaching formula.

7. Using too large a swab for application.

Bleach Retouch

White henna, bleach cream or oil bleach, are generally
used for a bleach retouch because its adhesive quality pre-
vents the overlapping of the previously bleached hair.

White henna is made by mixing powdered magnesium
carbonate with 17 to 20 volume hydrogen peroxide, and cor-
rect amount of 28% ammonia water to the consistency of a
paste. To each ounce of peroxide add 3 to 5 drops of am-
monia water, depending on the texture and color of the hair.

For quicker bleaching results, 25 volume peroxide is
used, provided the patron can tolerate the stronger peroxide.

A bleach cream is prepared by beating the following in-
gredients into a creamy foam:

Half ounce of 1 7 to 20 volume hydrogen peroxide.

One to three drops of 28% ammonia water.

Add enough soap flakes to make a creamy mixture.

A colored oil bleach is a mixture of oil, certified color,
ammonia water and peroxide. It exerts a fast bleaching
action and does not run. The presence of the oil offsets the
harsh action of the bleach. It is available in four different
shades (neutral, gold, red, drab). Use only as directed by
the manufacturer.

Procedure for a Bleach Retouch

The procedure for a bleach retouch is the same as that for
bleaching a virgin head, except that the mixture is applied
only to the new growth of hair and not to the rest of the
bleached hair. A swab is employed to apply the bleach mix-
ture from the scalp to a point where the new growth ends,
being careful to prevent overlapping. Using a swab, the
bleach may be applied freely at the sides of the head and at
the neckline where the hair is extremely short.

394

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

In keeping records of retouch bleaching, include such
information as date, bleaching mixture, what section of the

head application was started
and length of time bleach re-
mained on the hair.

Bleaching Shampoos

Bleaching shampoos are used
to lighten the hair, but not to
the extent where a retouch
would be necessary. The effects
of a bleaching shampoo fade
out within a four week period,
at which time, another application may be given. The fact
that a retouch would not be necessary, indicates that a large
range of shades cannot be produced with this process. Bleach-
ing shampoos highlight and brighten the hair while the range
of natural color remains the same.

Manner of applying
a bleach retouch

Apply the bleach on the neck
with a swab

Apply the bleach to sideburns
with a swab

Bleaching shampoo is prepared with the following ingred-
ients :

Three parts of 20 volume peroxide.

One part of concentrated shampoo.

Five drops of 28% ammonia water.

The mixture is applied as a regular shampoo treatment.

Bleaching shampoos should be recommended to all cus-
tomers who feel that their hair is lacking in color, but do

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING 395

not wish a drastic change in hair color. The only disadvant-
age of bleaching shampoos is that frequent application will
leave a line of demarcation.

Bleaching Rinses

The bleaching rinse is similar to the bleaching shampoo,
with the exception of application. The bleaching rinse is
applied on dry hair and is allowed to remain on the hair from
two to four minutes before it is shampooed. The more porous
the hair, the less time it remains on the hair. Although the
mixture is the same as the bleaching shampoo, the action on
the hair is twice as fast because it is applied on dry hair and
is allowed to remain there from two to four minutes. Bleach-
ing rinses are only recommended for the customer who wishes
a noticeable change with one treatment.

Caution must be taken not to repeat bleaching rinses too
frequently. The effects of the rinse last approximately four to
six weeks. If a second application is given before the effects
of the first rinse wears off, the change in color will be too
light, and will require a touch-up as in regular hair bleaching.

While the actual color of the hair remains the same, the
bleaching rinse will highlight and lighten the hair noticeably
in one treatment.

396 MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

Special Problems in Hair Bleaching

Reconditioning bleached hair. No matter how well hair
has been treated during a bleaching process, it becomes very
much affected by exposure to sun or salt water. Therefore, it
is necessary to give reconditioning treatments at regular in-
tervals. Commercial products are available for this treat-
ment. Regular oil or cream treatments, although much slow-
in responding, can be used for reconditioning. Hair that has
been rendered very dry, brittle or porous, by excessive bleach-
ing, requires reconditioning treatments to restore it to its
normal condition. Remember that in giving reconditioning
treatments, you are treating the hair itself, rather than the
scalp. Take the hair between the palms of the hands and
with a rotary movement, rub the oil well into the hair. After
the application of oil or cream, the hair may be steamed or
the therapeutic lamp or heating cap may be used. This treat-
ment should be continued over a period of time until the
hair is reconditioned.

Over-bleaching. The hair becomes over-bleached be-
cause it has been abused by the use of a strong bleaching
formula, overlapping, or by retaining the bleach too long on
the hair. If the hair is coarse, spongy and mats easily when
wetted, it is over-bleached. Such hair should be given oil
treatments, cream treatments or egg shampoos until such
time as this condition has been corrected.

Testing for copper. Hair that is suspected of having been
dyed with copper salts should be tested to reveal the presence
or absence of copper before giving a bleaching treatment.
Prepare a mixture of one-half ounce of hydrogen peroxide
and 5 drops of 28% ammonia water. Holding a small strand
(preferably in the front of the head underneath the part)
between two fingers, apply the mixture and observe if the
hair becomes warm to the touch. If it does, it indicates that
copper salts have been used on the hair and should, there-
fore, be removed before bleaching is attempted; otherwise,
breakage is likely to occur.

MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING 397

Bleaching Streaked Hair

Streaks of discoloration often appear on the hair, caused
in part by unsuccessful and unskillful bleach applications.
To correct streaked hair:

1. Prepare bleach solution as for virgin head.

2. Apply mixture only to the darker streaks.

3. Work one strand at a time.

4. Allow to remain until all streaks are removed.

5. Shampoo hair.

Removing Yellow Streaks

Yellow streaks often appear in gray hair caused prin-
cipally by strong soaps and exposure to sun.
To remove streaks caused by soap or sun:

1. Prepare bleach solution of one ounce 17 to 20 volume
hydrogen peroxide with equal parts of alcohol, and
one-quarter ounce of table salt.

2. Apply with brush only to yellow streaks.

3. Allow to remain, rewetting if necessary, until all traces
of yellow disappear.

4. Witch hazel rinse may be used to remove the salt
after the hair has had one soaping. Avoid the use of
colored rinses until the hair has had time to recover
from treatments.

Bleaching Partly Gray Hair

Partly gray hair, particularly if the natural shade was
light, may be bleached to a more even shade. While the
bleach mixture will not affect the color of the gray hair, it
will lighten the still natural color hair. Commercial products
are available under the name of Drab Bleach for this treat-
ment. Follow directions of manufacturer when using these
products.

Mustache and Eyebrow Bleaching

The formula for mustache and eyebrow bleaching con-
sists of:

398 MEN'S HAIR BLEACHING

1. 1 ounce 20 volume peroxide.

2. 3 drops of ammonia water.

3. Enough white henna to make a paste.

It is applied to the hair only. Avoid getting the paste on
the skin; allowing it to remain on the skin will result in a
peroxide burn. It is dangerous to use any other bleaching
formula for this purpose.

Reminders and Hints for Hair Bleaching

1. Always wash your hands, and use sterile swabs,
brushes, combs and linens.

2. Be careful in applying bleach so that it does not run
over clothing, nor come in contact with skin of the hands,
face and neck.

3. To prepare an effective bleaching formula, use fresh
materials having the proper strength, measure accurately,
and use immediately after mixing.

4. The strength of hydrogen peroxide and ammonia water
solutions becomes weakened when such bottles are exposed
to the air for a long time, or stored in a warm place.

5. The strength of the bleaching formula and the length
of time it is to be left on the hair, vary with the condition
and texture of the hair and the shade of hair desired. Oily
hair requires more time for bleaching than does dry hair.

6. A preliminary shampoo is advisable if the hair is ex-
cessively oily or dirty. Avoid irritation to the scalp during the
shampoo.

7. Never use an acid rinse before a bleach.

8. Work as rapidly as possible in applying the bleach to
produce a uniform shade without streaks.

9. Overlapping in a retouch can be prevented by using
just enough moisture on the swab for the hair to absorb.

10. The final shampoo is given when desired shade has
been obtained and all the paste mixture has been removed.

1 1 . Bleached hair is fragile and, therefore, requires special
care. A mild cleanser for bleached hair is an egg shampoo,
followed by a hand dry.

12. Keep a complete and confidential record of all bleach-
ing treatments.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

HAIR BLEACHING

1. What actually takes place
when hair is bleached?

The bleaching agent removes or oxi-
dizes some of the original color in the
hair.

2. Give three uses for hydro-
gen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide may be used as a
bleaching agent, as a softening agent
prior to hair tinting, and as an oxi-
dizing agent when mixed with a dye.

3. How is the strength of the
peroxide preserved?

Keep bottle closed and store it in a
cool, dark and dry place. Use bleach-
ing formula soon after it is prepared.

4. What shades can be ob-
tained with a peroxide
bleach?

Light brown, golden
color and platinum.

brown, straw

5. How long should a peroxide
and ammonia bleach be left
on the hair?

Until the color of the hair reaches the
desired shade.

6. What are the most frequent
causes of overbleaching?

Too much ammonia water in the
bleach, overlapping, and too long an
application of the bleach will cause
over-bleaching.

7. What is the best treatment
for overbleached hair?

Hot oil treatments, cream treatments
or egg shampoos.

8. How can the action of the
peroxide be hastened?

The addition of ammonia water to the
bleaching formula will hasten the ac-
tion of peroxide.

9. How can the action of per-
oxide be slowed down?

Diluting the bleaching mixture with
water or antiseptic oil.

10. What will stop the action of
the bleach?

Drying of the hair or a shampoo.

11. What is white henna
when is it used?

and White henna is a creamy substance of
powdered magnesium carbonate with
hydrogen peroxide and ammonia
water. It is used for a bleach retouch.

12. To what part of the hair is a
bleach retouch applied?

A bleach retouch is applied only to
the new growth of hair.

13. Name two preparations that
can be used instead of white
henna for bleach retouch.

Bleach cream and colored oil bleach.

14. a) Give two methods for
testing the volume content of
hydrogen peroxide, b) Which
is the quickest method?

a) The hydrometer method and the J
tube method.

b) The hydrometer method.

400 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

MEN'S HAIR TINTING

Hair tinting is another profitable source of income to the
barber who possesses the necessary knowledge, experience
and skill. Hair tinting involves the addition of an artificial
color to the natural pigment in the hair. The resultant color
may duplicate a natural shade or produce an entirely new
shade of hair.

Hair Tinting

Hair tinting falls into two main groups, depending upon
the action of the colorings, whether they are temporary or
permanent.

All hair dyes on the market are proprietary products,
with the exception of vegetable colorings, the dyes should
be used according to the manufacturer's directions.

The routines given here, with minor exceptions, will be
found satisfactory with practically every dye manufactured.

Hair tinting involves the application of chemical agents
for the purpose of:

1. Covering gray hair.

2. Restoring hair to its original shade.

3. Producing an entirely new shade of hair.
Hair tinting treatments are recommended for:

1. Men with prematurely gray hair.

2. The business man.

3. Men who must maintain a youthful appearance.

4. Restoring bleached hair to its natural shade.

5. Changing an unattractive shade of hair.

Aniline derivative dyes are the most popular with men's
hair tinting because they can duplicate a natural shade of
hair. A very small percentage of the men tinting their hair
use metallic or compound dyestuffs.

The successful barber who has a hair tinting practice,
must have the knowledge of:

1. The general structure of the hair and skin.

2. The composition, merits and limitations of softeners,
developers, hair dyes and bleaches.

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 401

3. The chemical reactions following their application.

4. The correct method of application.

There are unlimited advantages for the barber who main-
tains a practice in hair tinting. Although his customer may
stop off and get his hair cut in another establishment, the
chances are that the same customer will never allow any one
else to color his hair. This extra service not only insures a
better income, but puts the barber on a higher level with his
customers.

Men's hair tinting is easier and more profitable than
women's. The application of dye on women's hair is much
more involved than the application on men's hair. Although
the fee for coloring may be the same for both men and wo-
men, the cost of material for women's hair tinting is at least
twice as much as that for men ; plus the fact that there is less
than half the time involved for the application on men's hair.

The combination of smaller costs for material and less
time for application, means greater profits in men's hair
tinting.

Examining Scalp and Hair

The scalp and hair are carefully examined to determine
if it is safe to use an aniline derivative dye and whether any
special hair dyeing problems exist.

An aniline derivative dye should not be used if the fol-
lowing conditions are recognized.

1. Signs of a positive skin test, such as redness, swelling,
itching and blisters.

2. Scalp sores or eruptions.

3. Contagious scalp or hair disease.

If the scalp and hair are in a healthy condition, carefully
observe and record data relative to:

1. Type of hair. Degree of porosity either very receptive,
moderately receptive, very resistant or moderately resistant.

2. Texture of hair. Coarse, medium, fine or wiry hair.

3. Color of hair. Natural or artificial and the percentage
of gray hair present.

402 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

4. Forms of hair. Straight, curly, wavy or permanently
waved.

5. Condition of hair and scalp. Dry, normal or oily.
The results of such an examination may indicate the need

for any of the following :

1. Giving reconditioning treatments.

2. Using the proper strength of softener for the particu-
lar type and texture of hair.

3. Using hair dye remover to dissolve accumulated col-
oring matter on the hair.

4. Selecting an appropriate shade of hair dye.

5. Testing the hair for color or breakage.

Essentials For Hair Tinting

To produce the best results in hair tinting, the barber
must be equipped with:

1. Various sizes of glass or porcelain dishes or flat cups.

2. Swab sticks and dye brushes.

3. Measuring cup.

4. Dropper.

5. Fresh peroxide — 20 volume.

6. Absorbent cotton.

Temporary Hair Colorings

1. Colored rinses are prepared rinses used to clean the
hair and bring out its luster, or add color to the hair which
will remain on the hair until the next shampoo. They are
applied in the manner prescribed under the subject of rinses.

2. Progressive shampoo tints are preparations similar to
colored rinses compounded with soap. Several applications
may be necessary in order to obtain the desired shade. How-
ever, these tints must be applied according to the manufac-
turer's directions.

3. Crayons are sticks of coloring, compounded with soaps
or synthetic waxes, used to color gray or white hairs between
hair dye retouches.

4. Color blenders are special hair tinting preparations
which serve to blend in gray hair, while giving added color

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 403

to the hair. Various colors are available for all shades of
hair. Applied as a 15 minute shampoo, the results last for
about six weeks. These products have the added advantage
of not leaving any line of demarcation. No retouch is nec-
essary.

Permanent Hair Colorings

Permanent hair colorings are grouped according to their
chemical composition and their effects on the hair shaft.
There are four different classes of permanent hair colorings,
as follows:

1. Aniline derivative dyes or synthetic organic dyes are
those dyes having a base derived from aniline, a coal tar
product. These preparations penetrate the horny layer of
the hair shaft. The action of these dyes is instantaneous and
their effect is permanent. Shampoo tints come under this
classification.

2. Pure vegetable dyes, comprised of Egyptian henna,
indigo, camomile and sage. They deposit a thin film or coat-
ing on the hair shaft.

3. Metallic or mineral dyes are of the progressive type
and form a metallic coating over the hair shaft. Applica-
tions are made successively until the proper shade has de-
veloped.

4. Compound dyestuffs, such as compound henna, are
combinations of vegetable dyes with certain metallic salts
and other dyestuffs. The metallic salts are used as a mordant
to fix the color. Compound dyes coat the hair shaft and are
progressive in action.

Aniline Derivative Dyes

Aniline derivative dyes are also known as organic dyes,
synthetic dyes, coal tar dyes, peroxide dyes, or liquid dyes.

The most effective type of hair dye contains, as its es-
sential ingredient, para-phenylene-diamine, or a related
chemical compound. With this type of preparation, it is
possible to duplicate the most unusual shade of human hair
without impairing its luster or texture. The color of the hair
remains permanent. A small percentage of customers are

404 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

sensitive to aniline derivative dyes. To identify such indi-
viduals, a skin test is required for all customers prior to ap-
plying the dye. This is required by law. The stock of these
dyes should be kept fresh as they deteriorate on standing.
When the barber mixes the developer with the dye, a chem-
ical reaction, known as oxidation, begins. After the mixture
is applied to the hair, the reaction continues as long as the
dye remains wet, or until removed when the desired shade
has developed. Timing the development of the applied dye
requires that the barber have a thorough knowledge of the
commercial product, besides consulting the customer's hair
dye record.

Hydrogen Peroxide

Its uses, how available, and method of testing for volume
content, see page 389.

Skin Test

A skin test is also known as a patch test or predisposition
test. Its purpose is to detect customers who may be sensitive
to an aniline derivative dye. It is the duty of every barber
to test the skin of every customer. It is required by law.
The dye used for the skin test must be of the same mixture as
the product intended to be used for the hair dyeing.

The following procedure is suggested in giving a skin test :

1 . Select test area, either behind ear extending partly into
hairline, or on inner fold of elbow.

2. Wash test area, about the size of a quarter, with mild
soap and water.

3. Dry test area by patting with absorbent cotton.

4. Prepare test solution by mixing one-half teaspoon of
dye and one-half teaspoon of 20 volume peroxide.

5. Apply enough test solution with absorbent cotton-
tipped applicator to cover the area previously cleansed.

6. Allow test area to dry. Leave uncovered and undis-
turbed for 24 hours.

7. Examine test area for either negative or positive
reactions.

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 405

A negative skin test will show no sign of inflammation;
hence, an aniline derivative dye may be applied with safety.

A positive skin test is recognized by the presence of in-
flammatory signs, such as redness, burning, itching, blisters
or eruptions. A customer, evidencing such symptoms, is al-
lergic to an aniline derivative dye, and under no circum-
stances should this particular kind of dye be used.

Symptoms of hair dye poisoning are as follows:

1. Itchy red spots which may spread to all parts of the
body.

2. Tiny blisters from which serum oozes.

3. The customer suffers from headaches and vomiting.
If these warning signs are neglected, and the customer

fails to get immediate medical attention, other complications
may ensue.

Hair Tinting

For successful hair tinting with an aniline derivative dye,
the barber must plan and follow a definite procedure which
makes for the greatest efficiency and also suits the customer's
needs. A permanent record should be kept of each customer's
hair dye treatments. Without a plan, the work takes longer,
mistakes are apt to be made, and the customer readily be-
comes dissatisfied. Customers will have more confidence in
the barber's ability if he does his hair dyeing systematically.

It is desirable to tint the hair before giving a haircut in
order to have more hair to work with.

The procedure for coloring a virgin head of hair which
has not been previously bleached or dyed, is as follows :

1. Preparation.

a) Examine scalp and hair.

b) Choose the correct shade of dye.

c) Give skin test.

d) Recondition hair, if necessary.

2. Procedure.

a) Shampoo, dry, and section hair.

b) Soften or bleach hair, and dry.

406

MEN'S HAIR TINTING

c) Re-section hair.

d) Prepare and apply hair dye.
3. Completion.

a) Test for color development.

b) Give a final shampoo.

c) Complete with vinegar rinse.

Choosing The Correct Shade of Hair Dye

The customer is always consulted in selecting the best
shade to match the existing color of the hair or to impart an
entirely new color to the hair. As a general rule, choose the
shade which will cause the skin to appear lighter, yet har-
monize with the general complexion. For a small percentage
of gray hair, select a somewhat lighter shade of hair dye. In
every case, follow the directions for selecting the proper shade
as outlined by the manufacturer of the hair dye.
Shampooing and Sectioning the Hair

Give a preliminary shampoo with warm water, rinse and
dry hair thoroughly.

Water as here mentioned refers to soft water. Do not use hard water
unless it is first softened by chemical treatment. Distilled water can be
used in place of hard water.

Comb the hair and divide it into four sections, parting
the hair from forehead to nape of neck, and from ear to ear.
Leave one section free for the application of softener or
bleach.

For normal hair. Leave the right front section free.

For partly gray and abnormal hair. Leave the hair sec-
tion free in which the color of the hair is darkest.

Hair sectioned
in quarters

Subdividing hair into
quarter-inch strands

Approximate number

of quarter-inch

strands

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 407

Softening or Bleaching the Hair

The hair is bleached first only when it is to be dyed to a
lighter shade. Otherwise, the hair is softened so that it will
readily absorb the dye and thereby produce a more lasting
shade. Insufficient softening often is the cause of an incom-
plete development of the dye, and an insufficient coverage
of gray hair.

Preparation. Prepare softener or bleach. For coarse hair
add 28% ammonia water to the peroxide. Measure the
quantities accurately and keep a written record of the
formula used.

Procedure for normal hair. Apply softener or bleach on
the front right section and continue application all around
head. When applying the dye, begin on the same section of
hair to which the softener or bleach was last applied.

Procedure for partly gray and abnormal hair. On partly
gray hair or hair that has a variable color, the softener or
bleach is applied where the color is darkest. Start to apply
the dye where the hair is grayest or lightest in color.

Apply softener or bleach with brush to quarter-inch
strands. Moisten both sides of strand from the scalp to with-
in one inch of hair ends. When this is completed, comb
through the hair to the ends. At sides of head, and at neck-
line, where the hair is extremely short, apply the softener
directly to the hair with a swab but without sectioning the
hair. Allow softener to remain for the required length of
time ( 10 to 30 minutes or longer, depending on the type and
texture of hair). Finally, dry hair thoroughly.

Preparing and Applying the Hair Dye

Most aniline derivative dyes which are sold without de-
velopers, use 20 volume peroxide as a developer. Other man-
ufacturers who use tablets as a developer, supply the tablet
with each bottle of dye. One bottle of hair dye is usually re-
quired for treating a virgin head of men's hair.

Mix equal parts, dye with 20 volume peroxide, in a glass
dish, or cup, and use immediately. If a tablet is used as a

408

MEN'S HAIR TINTING

developer, crush it to a powder before opening and adding
the dye solution.

Applying the dye. The hair is ready to be tinted when it
is perfectly dry and re-sectioned in quarters. Wear rubber
gloves to avoid staining the hands. Begin application of dye

as explained for normal hair or
gray and abnormal hair. With a
brush, apply an adequate amount
of dye to both sides of quarter
inch hair strands and stop within
one inch of the hair ends. Care
must be taken to prevent spilling
the dye and having it run over the
hairline. Apply the dye freely
with a swab at sides and nape of
neck without any attempt to sec-
tioning the hair.

Manner of applying dye to
quarter-inch strands

When all sections have been treated, comb the dye
through to the hair ends. This procedure is modified with
extremely porous hair by diluting the remaining portion of

Applying dye to neck hair
with swab

Applying dye to sideburns
•with swab

the dye with an equal amount of water or shampoo, and then
applying this mixture to the hair ends. In this way, the por-
ous hair ends will not develop a darker shade than the rest
of the hair.

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 409

Judging from the manufacturer's directions and the hair
texture, allow the dye to remain on the hair for the required
length of time. The action of the hair dye continues so long
as the hair and the dye remain in a moist condition.

Test For Color Development

After the dye has been on the hair for fifteen to twenty
minutes, it is necessary to test for color development. This is
done by wetting a small piece of cotton with soap and water
or shampoo, wringing out some of the moisture, and then se-
lecting a section of hair where most gray hair is evident. Re-
move the dye with wet cotton. If the gray hair still shows,
re-moisten this strand of hair with the dye, and leave the
dye on for another five to ten minutes. Then make another
test for color.

It is impossible to give definite instructions as to the
length of time required for color development, as no two
heads of hair are alike. The barber will become proficient in
determining the necessary time as he progresses with this
work, and gains experience in judging hair textures. Again,
we must emphasize the necessity for testing the ends of the
hair and watching them carefully for color development, as
the ends absorb the dye more readily than the rest of the hair.

Giving A Final Shampoo

Before proceeding with the shampoo, remove all dye
stains from skin of hairline, ears and neck. This is accom-
plished with either hydrogen peroxide, hot oil, cream, or left-
over dye.

After the color has developed to the desired shade, the
hair must be sprayed thoroughly with a strong force of
water.* This serves to set the color and removes all excess dye
from the hair; the hair is then shampooed lightly with a
neutral soap. Pour a vinegar rinse through the hair, to hard-
en the color, and rinse off with warm water immediately.
Then dry, or proceed with any other treatment the customer
desires.

*Some dye manufacturers recommend the use of water that is as hot as the
customer can stand it; follow the manufacturer's instructions.

410

MEN'S HAIR TINTING

Causes of Unsatisfactory Hair Tinting

1. Dye not applied immediately after mixing with de-
veloper.

2. Developer (peroxide — 20 volume) in weakened
strength.

3. Poor application (overlapping).

4. Improper application of softener.

5. Improper mixture of softener.

6. Softener removed too soon from the hair.

7. Hair dye removed too soon from the hair.

8. Hair dye remained on the hair for too long a period.

9. Improper blending of retouch with hair previously
dyed.

Retouching Tinted Hair

A "retouch" is the term commonly applied to hair which
has been dyed, but where the new growth from the scalp
must be dyed to match the rest of the hair. The customer's
hair dye record should be consulted to determine the exact
shade of dye to use, the strength of softener, and how long
to keep it on the hair.

The same procedure is followed as for dyeing virgin hair,
except that a swab is used in applying both the softener and

the dye. Both softener and dye are
applied from the scalp to the point
where the hair has already been
dyed. Great care should be exer-
cised to prevent either the dye or
softener from running down on the
hair that has already been dyed.
Such overlapping would cause a
streak which would not only be
very ugly, but would make that
portion of the hair darker than the
rest. Should the dye or softener
run, causing overlapping, remove
it immediately by lifting the hair
with the comb and rubbing a piece

Manner of applying dye
retouch with swab to
quarter-inch strands

MEN'S HAIR TINTING

411

of dry absorbent cotton over it. Keep the wet hair free from
the dyed hair as much as possible, otherwise the retouched
hair may cause the previous hair coloring to streak. Make
a test for color in the usual way, and once the color has suf-
ficiently developed, shampoo and dry the hair. If hair, which
had been previously dyed, is faded in color, add a little
shampoo to the remaining dye mixture and wash through the
hair for two minutes before shampooing.

Applying dye to neck hair
with swab

Applying dye to sideburns
with swab

Prevent overlapping. Overlapping will not occur if the
barber is careful to use a swab that is not too wet, and if both
softener and dye are applied only to the point where the hair
has already been dyed.

Hair Dye Records

A permanent record (either a book or a card file) should
be kept of all hair dye treatments.

It is of the utmost importance to keep an accurate record
so that any difficulties encountered in one treatment, may be
avoided in subsequent ones. A complete record should be
made with information such as "dries out rapidly," "dye
does not develop fast enough," or any other data connected
with that particular head.

412 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

HAIR DYE RECORD CARD

Name Tel. No.

Address City

DESCRIPTION OF HAIR

Form: Length: Texture: Type:

^] straight n long n fine n coarse D porous

^] wavy Q] medium Q soft n harsh Q normal

H curly n short n silky n wiry n resistant

fn dry n oily n streaked n faded n % gray

Condition: <! previously bleached for (time)

[previously dyed with for

(Original sample to be enclosed)

PRELIMINARY TREATMENT

Corrective treatments with

(Sample of corrected hair to be enclosed)
Time required for development of color minutes

HAIR TINTING PROCESS
Whole Head Retouch inches Shampooed

Softened with 1 oz. peroxide and f no ) ammonia for minutes

1 dr.j

Shade desired:

Shade used: equal parts of color and developer.

color; developer; water

Results: n good n poor n too light n too dark n streaked
(Sample of tinted hair to be enclosed)

Date Operator Date Operator

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 413

Definitions Relating to Hair Tinting

A virgin head of hair is a head of normal hair which has
had no bleaching or dyeing treatments.

A touch-up or retouch is the application of coloring to
the new growth of hair, using the same procedure and shade
as was employed in the virgin head treatment.

Blending is the application of the same shade of liquid
dye to faded hair ends in order to produce a uniform color,
or match new dye with the old dye.

Softening is the application of peroxide for a given length
of time in order to prepare the hair to absorb the dye.

Dye back is the coloring of the hair to its natural shade,
after it has been bleached.

Dye removal is the use of a dye solvent, bleach, or soften-
ing treatments to remove an unsatisfactory shade of dye
from the hair.

Toning down is the application of a hair dye or shampoo
tint on overbleached hair for the purpose of adding more
color to the hair.

Color testing is a method of sampling the action of a
selected dye on a small strand of hair or the shampooing of a
small strand of dyed hair to determine if the color has de-
veloped to the desired intensity.

Oxidation is a chemical reaction which takes place when
peroxide and dye solution are mixed and applied to softened
hair.

A developer is an oxidizing agent, such as hydrogen per-
oxide solution, which supplies the oxygen necessary for
oxidation.

Allergy is a condition of increased sensitivity of the body
to some chemical substance. Only those people who are sus-
ceptible, manifest definite physical reactions or symptoms
upon contact with a particular chemical substance.

Susceptible means capable of being allergic.

414 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

Idiosyncrasy is an individual peculiarity which makes one
susceptible to chemical substances in cosmetics, drugs and
foods.

A skin test is a procedure for determining whether or not
a person is allergic to an aniline derivative dye.

Reminders and Hints for Hair Tinting

1. Always wash your hands and use sterile swabs, brush-
es, combs and linens.

2. A hair dye should never be used if there is a con-
tagious disease or an eruption present anywhere on the scalp.

3. Keep a complete and confidential record of all hair
dyeing treatments. Consult this record whenever necessary.

4. Examine scalp and hair and give skin test before ap-
plying dye. If necessary, make a test for color or breakage.

5. Avoid irritating the scalp with sharp fingernails, strong
massage movements or hot water during preliminary sham-
pooing.

6. A preliminary shampoo, with a mild soap and soft
water, removes dirt and oil which would ordinarily interfere
with the action of the dye and the development of the
proper shade.

7. Choose a shade of dye which will cause the skin to
appear lighter, yet harmonize with the general complexion.

8. If hair is to be dyed to a lighter shade, it is bleached
first and then dyed.

9. A glass or porcelain dish is best for mixing the dye
with the developer. Use a brush applicator for a virgin head
and a swab for retouching. Discard left-over dye.

10. Hair ends are more absorbent, whereas the hair next to
the scalp is more resistant to the action of the dye. A full
strength is not applied, nor allowed to collect at the hair ends.

11. For brittle and split hair, the action of the dye is
slowed down by adding water* or liquid soap, and combing
the solution through the hair ends.

12. Before applying dye, drain excess liquid from appli-
cator by pressing it against side of dish. To distribute dye

* Where hard water is the only kind available, soft water or distilled
water must be used instead.

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 415

evenly, apply it to hair which is spread out in an upward di-
rection, away from the scalp.

13. Dye stains on the skin are removed with either hydro-
gen peroxide, hot oil, cream, or left-over dye.

14. The hair must be dry before applying the softener.
The softening process takes anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes
or longer, depending upon the texture and type of the hair.
Resistant hair may require a second application of the
softener.

15. Depending upon the quality and condition of the hair,
begin the application of the dye to the last strand of hair,
wetted by the softener. On partly gray hair, the dye is ap-
plied to the grayest part first. At the time the dye is applied,
the hair should be thoroughly dry.

16. As long as the hair remains moist, the action of the
dye continues.

17. The action of the dye is slowed by the addition of
water or shampoo. The color of the dye is lightened by add-
ing hydrogen peroxide.

18. To prevent overlapping in a retouch, use the dye
sparingly and apply only to the point where the hair has
already been dyed.

19. Tinted hair will be kept in prime condition by the use
of oil or cream treatments.

Metallic Hair Tints

Metallic dyes are erroneously referred to as "color re-
storers" or "hair restorers." They are of the progressive type,
and form a metallic coating over the hair shaft. Applications
are made successively until the proper shade has developed.

The many disadvantages of metallic dyes limit their use-
fulness in the barber shop. There is always the danger of
absorption and poisoning by the metallic compound. The
choice of shades is restricted to colors ranging from dark
brown to black. Repeated applications result in unnatural
and uncertain shades, besides causing the hair to become
brittle.

416 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

Metallic dyes are not used professionally by the barbers.
They are sold in retail stores for home use. Continued use
will leave a strong odor in the hair.

Vegetable Hair Tints

Pure vegetable dyes which deposit a thin film or coating
on the hair shaft, are harmless, less effective and less perma-
nent than aniline derivative dyes. They are used as a liquid
or paste, and yield a limited range in shades. Repeated ap-
plications, at frequent intervals, are required to offset the
fading in the color of the hair.

. Egyptian henna grows abundantly in Egypt and Asia. On
the market it is available as green and brown henna. The
green henna is stronger in staining qualities than the brown
henna. Egyptian henna is employed as a tint, pack or rinse,
which imparts a red tone to the hair. The exclusive use of
henna coarsens the hair.

Indigo is a very dark blue vegetable coloring which is
used to modify unsatisfactory henna applications. When
added to henna paste, indigo darkens the resulting shade.

Camomile can be used as a rinse or pack to highlight
faded blonde hair.

Sage is used mainly as a rinse to darken hair and impart
a greenish brown tone.

Application of vegetable hair tints* Follow the manu-
facture r's instructions.

Henna Pack for Virgin Hair

A henna pack imparts a red tone to hair and is indicated
to highlight medium to dark shades of brown hair. The true
shade does not develop until two to three days after the
henna pack has been applied. For best results in the use of
henna, buy a standard and reliable product. Henna is not
suitable for black hair, nor for hair which has turned gray.

Henna packs are not popular in the barber shop because
of their unnatural look, and can only be recommended to one
who has had natural red hair, or a complexion that will go
with it

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 417

The following procedure is recommended for preparing
and applying a henna pack.

1. Examine color, condition and texture of the hair.

2. Shampoo hair and partially dry with towel.

3. Comb and section hair into quarters.

4. Consult customer regarding desired shade.

5. Prepare henna pack by mixing 6 ounces of Egyptian
henna with 12 ounces of hot water to form a smooth
paste. Heat mixture in water bath.

6. Treat each hair strand separately. Start with the
right rear section and work clockwise around the
head, treating the temple and hairs at the nape of the
neck last.

7. Apply hot henna paste with wide paint brush to center
of strand of hair, work toward the scalp and then to
within one inch of the ends. Comb henna through hair
and apply to ends.

8. Cover head with shower cap or waxed paper and place
customer under a white therapeutic lamp or heating
cap until the desired shade develops. For example:
fifteen minutes for a slight tint, and thirty minutes for
a brighter shade.

9. Test for shade by sponging a small strand of hair with
cotton, wet with shampoo or warm water. More than
one test may be necessary before a satisfactory shade
develops.

10. Rinse henna from hair and shampoo.

1 1 . Give acid rinse if necessary.

Henna Pack Retouch

The procedure for a henna pack retouch is identical with
that of a virgin henna pack, except that the paste is applied
only to the new growth of hair. When the desired shade has
been obtained, the paste may be rinsed off and a thorough
shampoo given, or else dilute the adhering paste with warm
water and apply to the remainder of the hair for additional
brightening.

418 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

Shampoo Tints

Shampoo tints are an innovation which have become in-
creasingly popular with customers who may be reluctant to
dye their hair, yet want a simple and quick way to blend gray
hairs with the natural shade of their hair. The barber who is
prepared and capable of rendering such a service, is not only
a great help to his customer, but a valuable asset to his em-
ployer. Shampoo tints possess the following advantages over
the ordinary hair dyes.

1 . Sales are more readily made and repeated.

2. Less time is consumed in completing the treatment.

3. Can be used on all textures, including bleached hair.

4. Can be used over any penetrating dye.

5. Fading of the shade is not very pronounced.

There are various kinds of shampoo tints on the market.
Basically, they are a mixture of a soap or soapless shampoo,
together with a dye, producing very heavy lather, thoroughly
cleansing the hair and scalp, leaving the hair lustrous and
beautiful. The soap rinses out easily and no film is left on
the hair.

The action of shampoo tints falls into two main groups.

1. Progressive shampoo tints which require a series of
applications to color the hair to the desired shade.
These tints must be applied according to the manu-
facturer's instructions.

2. Instantaneous shampoo tints which color the hair in
one application. This type acts exactly like the pene-
trating (aniline derivative) dyes, allowing for minor
differences in manufacturers' directions. They may be
used in two ways.

a) With softener, applied to "ndividual strands, as in
the standard method. The results are about the
same.

b) Without softener. This method requires more time
for development of shade and the colors wear off
more quickly.

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 419

Skin test must be given to determine if the patron can
tolerate the aniline derivative type of shampoo tints.

The actual application of shampoo tints is exactly the
same as that of hair dyes, whether it be a virgin head or a
touch-up.

Color Rinses

Color rinses serve as a temporary tinge of color to the
hair, making it appear lustrous and blend in gray hair. There
are two types of color rinses. The plain type, which is ap-
plied to the hair after a shampoo, and fades out within one
week; the other type has a more penetrating effect and re-
mains on the hair until it is shampooed out of the hair.

Color rinses should always be prepared according to the
directions given with the product by the manufacturer. Be-
fore applying the color rinse, remove excess moisture by
towel drying the hair. These color rinses come in about 14
different shades. The barber should recommend them to most
all of his customers.

For the man who does not have gray hair, the rinse will
add color and highlight his natural color of hair. It is ap-
plied by pouring the rinse over the head several times, catch-
ing what is poured in another pan. Remove excess moisture
and comb hair.

For the customer who has gray hair, or small amounts of
gray hair, we use the penetrating color rinse. Apply by part-
ing the hair in small strands, treating the gray strands first.
Continue by working your way from the back of the head to
the front hairline, and finally the short hairs at the side of
the head.

Allow the rinse to remain on the hair for the length of
time specified by the manufacturer, then rinse off with cool
water. The rinsing action hardens the color and does not
come off the hair until the hair is shampooed.

420 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

Special Problems In Men's Hair Tinting

Reconditioning hair which has been dyed, is of major im-
portance, no matter how well the hair has been treated dur-
ing the tinting process. It becomes very much affected by
exposure to the sun or salt water. Therefore, it is advisable
to give reconditioning treatments at regular intervals. Com-
mercial products are available for this treatment.

Regular oil treatments are also recommended for recon-
ditioning but are much slower in responding.

Hair that has been rendered very dry, brittle or porous,
by excessive dyeing, requires reconditioning treatments to re-
store it to its normal condition. All hair that has been sub-
jected to the use of any metallic substance or discolored from
the use of any of the various hair color restorers, etc., must
be reconditioned before the hair dye is applied. Remember,
that in giving reconditioning treatments, you are treating the
hair itself, rather than the scalp. Take the hair between the
palms of the hands and with a rotary movement, rub the oil
well into the hair. After the application of oil, the hair may
be steamed or the therapeutic lamp may be used. This treat-
ment should be continued over a period of time until the hair
is reconditioned.

Dye Removal

There are three ways in which hair dye can be removed
from the hair:

1. Application of dye solvent.

2. White henna preparations.

3. Hydrogen peroxide.

It is a lengthy process and the hair passes through many
light red shades before the dye is removed. There are many
commercial hair dye removers on the market. When using
such a product, follow the directions of the manufacturer.

Correcting Poorly Tinted Hair

With a little study, the barber will soon become familiar
with the appearance of the hair when treated by the various
hair preparations. Upon first examining the customer's hair,

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 421

be sure to notice whether any preparations have been used,
no matter how vociferously the customer may tell you he has
used nothing. Many people do not realize that some of the
so-called vegetable rinses and hair color restorers, are really
hair dyes in disguise. A prospective customer should be ques-
tioned as to the treatment of his hair during the past year.
From the customer's description of the preparation used, the
barber should be able to tell what treatment should be given.
When in doubt, treatments should be given to remove the
preparation that was previously used. If there is any ques-
tion in your mind, it is advisable to make a test for color
or breakage.

Take a small strand of hair beneath the part, preferably
in front of the head where any unknown preparation has
been used most lavishly. Dye the strand as you would if you
were dyeing the entire head, going through the same prelim-
inary steps, and taking the same precautions (softening or
bleaching, then dyeing). Allow twenty- four hours to elapse.
Test the hair for breakage and look for discoloration. If dis-
coloration or breakage occurs, preparations previously used,
must be removed from the hair.

Correcting Dark Streaks

Dark streaks in tinted hair may be caused by improper
application of softener, overlapping in retouching new
growth, and the use of too much dye. To remove streaks,
apply hydrogen peroxide, or hydrogen peroxide and am-
monia water, and pass a hot iron over the streaked strands
only.

Tinting Bleached Hair To Its Natural Shade

An appropriate shade of dye, with which to tint bleached
hair, is selected so that it will match the natural shade of hair
next to the scalp. A test for color on one or more strands of
bleached hair is advisable, since it helps the barber in judging
the proper dilution and timing of the dye.

Since the bleached portion of the hair is very porous, the
dye is diluted with hydrogen peroxide and water, or with
equal parts of shampoo, and applied according to the manu-

422 MEN'S HAIR TINTING

facturer's directions. The new growth of hair, next to the
scalp, is neither bleached nor dyed. The development of a
very dark color can be prevented by working rapidly and
drying each section as it is dyed.

Correcting Over-Bleached Hair

In correcting or toning down over-bleached hair, test first
for the color the customer desires. It is advisable always to
use two shades lighter than the customer requests, because
the hair will appear much darker to the customer who has
been accustomed to a light shade. Over-bleached hair should
not be softened before the dye is applied, since it is already
in a very porous condition, and will accept the dye very
quickly.

A drab shade is likely to turn purple on this type of hair
due to the fact that the hair accepts the dye too readily, and
an off-shade may be the result. It is, therefore, advisable to
choose one of the warm shades in preference to a drab shade.
Before applying the dye to the entire head, make a test for
color as follows:

Apply the dye to a strand of hair from the scalp to
the ends. Watch the development carefully until it reaches
the desired shade, timing the color development with each
test made, and noting the shade and varying dilutions it may
be necessary to use. If the action is too fast and the hair im-
mediately turns dark, the action of the dye must be slowed
down by adding two to three parts of water to the amount of
dye used. If this solution turns a purple or off-shade on the
hair, a warm shade should be chosen for testing. If this
shade in turn is not satisfactory, use one part dye to two
parts of hydrogen peroxide, and two parts of water. The ad-
dition of water to the dye is not for the purpose of changing
the shade, but to slow the action of the dye.

If the original shade decided upon does not develop satis-
factorily, another shade must be chosen and experimented
with, until the desired result is obtained.

After the correct shade has been determined, enough wa-
ter should be added to the dye to allow the barber time to
do the entire head.

MEN'S HAIR TINTING 423

Toning down over-bleached hair correctly is one of the
most difficult things to do in hair dyeing. Only through prac-
tice and experience will the barber become expert in this
particular field.

Tinting Eyebrows and Mustache

An aniline derivative dye should never be used for color-
ing the eyebrows or the mustache ; to do so may cause serious
injury. Commercial products are available for this purpose.
The choice of color is limited to light brown, dark brown
or black. The light brown is used for customers with very
light complexions only. Follow the directions given with
the product.

Rules For Coloring Eyebrows and Mustache

1. Never shave around the mustache immediately before
or after the dye treatment.

2. Use cold instead of warm water to cleanse the skin
around the eyebrows and the mustache.

3. To prevent staining the surrounding skin, apply vase-
line above and below the hairline of both eyebrows
and mustache.

4. The eyebrows and the mustache are colored from the
outer end toward the nose.

5. The color development varies with the product used,
and is usually from 3 to 5 minutes.

6. To remove grease and free coloring from eyebrows and
mustache, use soap and water.

7. Use stain remover solution with small swab if stains do
not respond to soap and water.

8. Smooth skin with cream.

424

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON HAIR TINTING

1. Give three good reasons why
a customer might wish to
have his hair dyed or sham-
poo tinted.

To retain a youthful appearance when
hair becomes gray, to restore bleached
hair to its natural shade, and to
change an unattractive shade of hair.

2. Classify hair dyes.

Hair dyes are classified as follows:
vegetable products, metallic prepara-
tions, compound dyestuffs, and aniline
derivatives.

3. What preparations are in-
cluded under pure vegetable
dyes?

Egyptian henna, camomile, indigo and
sage.

4. What is the action of metal-
lic dyes?

Metallic dyes form a coating over the
hair shafts; applications are made suc-
cessively until proper shade is ob-
tained.

5. What are compound dye-
stuffs? Give an example.

Compound dyestuffs are combinations
of metallic preparations and vegetable
extracts. Example— compound henna,
a mixture of henna and metallic salts.

6. What are aniline deriva-
tives? Describe their action.

Aniline derivatives are dyes having a
base derived from aniline, a coal tar
product. They penetrate the horny
layer of the hair shaft, and deposit the
coloring in the deeper layers.

7. From what group of dyes
should a preliminary 24-hour
skin test be given? Why?

The aniline derivative group, in order
to determine if the customer is allergic
to the ingredients contained in the
dye. A skin test is required by law.

8. To be a successful hair dyer,
what knowledge is essential?

A knowledge of the general structure
of the hair; composition of hair dyes;
the chemical reactions following their
application, and correct method of ap-
plying them.

9. How is a skin test given?

Wash a spot behind the ear or bend
of the arm with soap and water, dry,
and then paint with a mixture of the
dye and peroxide to be used; allow to
dry and leave undisturbed for 24
hours. If the spot is free from irrita-
tion, it is safe to presume that the in-
dividual is not allergic to the dye.

10. Name two ways of using
peroxide in dyeing with an
aniline dye.

Peroxide is used as a preliminary soft-
ener or bleach, and as an oxidizing
agent.

11. How long should peroxide
be left on the hair as a soft-
ener?

From ten to thirty minutes, depending
upon how porous or resistant the hair
may be.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

425

12. What kinds of hair require
reconditioning treatments?

Dry, brittle or porous hair.

13. Why must the hair be moist
while the proper shade is
developing?

The action of the dye continues only
as long as the hair remains moist.

14. Can hair be dyed from a
darker to a lighter shade?
Explain.

No; it must first be bleached to a
light shade, and then dyed to the de-
sired shade.

15. How are dye stains removed
from the skin and scalp?

By using hydrogen peroxide, hot oil,
cream, or left-over dye.

16. What would you do for hair
that has been dyed too dark?

It may be lightened with a dye re-
mover or hot oil treatments.

17. How can the action of the
dye be slowed?

Dilute the dye with water or shampoo.

18. What is the difference be-
tween hair color restorers
and penetrating dyes; which
is considered better, and
why?

Restorers are usually a metallic form
of dye and leave a deposit on the hair
shaft which gives the hair its color.
Penetrating dyes color the hair by
actually penetrating into the hair
shaft. The penetrating dyes are most
commonly used because they tint the
hair in shades which more closely re-
semble natural hair.

19. State the difference between
compound henna and plain
Egyptian henna.

Egyptian henna is a vegetable color-
ing which produces only red shades.
Compound henna comes in various
shades and usually contains metallic
substances to give darker colors.

20. What are dyes called that
require a series of applica-
tions?

Progressive.

21. What are dyes called that
require one application?

Instantaneous.

22. What type of dyes are in-
stantaneous dyes, and by
what various names are they
commonly known?

Aniline derivative dyes; they are var-
iously known as synthetic dyes, or-
ganic dyes, peroxide dyes, and liquid
dyes.

23. What type of dyes are pro-
gressive dyes?

Metallic dyes.

24. What test should be given
to determine whether the
customer is allergic to the
hair dye?

A skin test.

25. What is the most important
factor when considering a
hair dye; why?

A preliminary examination of the hair
and scalp, to determine whether me-
tallic substances have been used on
the hair, and if there are abrasions on
the scalp.

426

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

26. Which part of the hair ab-
sorbs the dye most readily?

The hair ends.

27. To what part of the hair is
a retouch applied?

Only to the new growth of hair.

28. What is meant by virgin
hair in hair dyeing?

Head of hair that has never been
dyed or bleached.

29. Why should a skin test al-
ways be given prior to dye-
ing the hair?

A skin test is given to determine
whether the customer is allergic to a
hair dye.

30. What does the long contin-
ued use of henna do to each
hair?

It coats the hair, and makes it coarser.

31. a) What is a henna pack?
b) When is it used?

a) A henna pack is powdered Egyp-
tian henna mixed with water to form
a paste.

b) It is used to highlight medium to
dark shades of brown hair.

32. What is a shampoo tint?

A mixture of soap or soapless sham-
poo together with a dye.

33. What advantages do sham-
poo tints possess?

They require less time, can- be used
for all textures of hair, and the fading
of the shade is not very pronounced.

34. Why does the instantaneous
shampoo tint produce a more
permanent color than the
progressive shampoo tint?

The instantaneous shampoo tint con-
tains an aniline derivative dye and a
developer which penetrate into the
hair shaft.

35. What kind of dye should
never be used to color eye-
brows?

An aniline derivative dye.

36. Why should barbers keep an
accurate record card for
each customer?

In order to follow the information on
the record card when giving a re-
touch.

427

BARBER ETHICS

Barber ethics deals with the proper conduct and business
dealings of the barber in relation to his employer, customers
and co-workers. The essential considerations in barber ethics
are honesty, fairness, courtesy and respect for the feelings and
rights of others. The ethical barber always gives the best pos-
sible service to his customers, keeping in mind their desires,
needs and welfare.

Good ethics — To build public confidence and retain a
good following, the individual barber should live up to these
rules of ethics:

1. Acquire a thorough knowledge and practice of bar-
bering.

2. Believe in barbering sincerely and practice it con-
scientiously.

3. Keep your word and fulfill all your obligations.

4. Obey all provisions of the Barber State Law.

5. Cherish a good reputation and set an example of good
conduct and behavior.

6. Treat all customers fairly ; do not show any favoritism.

7. Be loyal to your employer and associates.

Poor ethics — Barber ethics is violated by resorting to
questionable practices, extravagant claims and unfulfilled
promises which cast an unfavorable light on barbering in gen-
eral and the individual barber in particular.

BARBER ETHICS

1. What is meant by barber Barber ethics deals with the proper
ethics? conduct and business dealings of the

barber in relation to his employer,
customers and co-workers.

2. How should the ethical bar- Give the best possible service to his
ber treat his customers? customers; cater to their desires, needs

and welfare; treat all customers fairly.

3. How should the ethical bar- Speak only good of his fellow^barbers.
ber speak of his fellow bar-

bers?

4. How should the ethical bar- Be loyal and conscientious towards
ber behave towards his em- your employer; keep your word and
ployer? fulfill your obligations.

5. Which three practices reflect Resorting to questionable barber prac-
unfavorably on the barber? tices, extravagant claims and unful-
filled promises.

428

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

For a barber shop to be
successful, it must be care-
fully planned and effi-
ciently managed. Barber
shop management implies
the direct control and co-
ordination of all activities
that occur while the shop
is in operation. Besides
being an experienced bar-
ber, a prospective owner
of a barber shop must
have a knowledge of busi-
ness principles and book-
keeping and must be able

to cooperate with his employees in rendering satisfactory

service to the public.

Five important functions are performed by every barber
shop. They are:

1 . Finance or capital investment.

2. Purchasing of equipment and fixtures.

3. Publicity.

4. Salesmanship.

5. Systematic records as an aid in efficient management.

Organizing the Barber Shop

The type of barber shop organization depends largely on
the amount of available capital. If the individual has enough
money to be the sole proprietor, then the individual form of
ownership should be considered. A lack of sufficient capital
necessitates either a loan or a partner. When three or more
people intend to operate a barber shop, the corporation is the
best form of organization.

The individual form of organization has certain merits
over the partnership and corporation.

1. The owner is his own boss and manager.

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT 429

2. The owner can determine his own policies and de-
cisions.

3. The owner receives all the profits.

The individual form of organization has the following
disadvantages:

1 . The owner's expenditures are limited by the amount of
capital investment.

2. The owner is personally liable for all debts in the
business.

The partnership, being a combination of two or three
people, has certain advantages over the individual form of
ownership. There should always be a written agreement de-
fining the duties and responsibilities of each member. The
main advantages of a partnership are:

1. More capital is made available to equip and operate
the barber shop.

2. Work, responsibilities and losses are shared.

3. The combined ability and experience of each partner
assist in the solution of business problems.

The chief disadvantages of a partnership are :

1. Each partner is responsible for the business actions of
the other.

2. Disputes and misunderstandings may arise between
partners.

A corporation has the advantage over a partnership in
that its stockholders are not legally responsible in case of loss
or bankruptcy. The earning capacity is in proportion to the
profits and the number of stocks the individual has in the
corporation. Although the corporation has a considerable
financial backing, it may only do what is specifically auth-
orized in the charter and approved by the board of directors.
The corporation is subject to taxation and regulation by the
State.

In transacting business for the individual, partnership or
corporation, a checking account is a convenient and safe way
to make payments and withdrawals. The cancelled checks
serve as receipts. If one person is the sole owner, the bank

430 BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

and checking account is in his own name. In a partnership,
there is usually a joint account, in which one or both partners
may sign checks and withdraw money. A corporation bank
account is issued in its own name, with a responsible person
authorized to withdraw money and issue checks.

Selecting A Location for the Barber Shop

Just as important as capital investment is the selection of
a desirable location for the barber shop. The best kind of
store is one that is conveniently located and has the greatest
number of people passing its windows. In a residential
neighborhood, the main source of customers will be from that
vicinity. On the other hand, a transient section supplies pa-
trons both from surrounding and remote places.

Before selecting a store, consult the local bank or real
estate agent for assistance. Find out what the earning capac-
ity and the living standards are of the people in a particular
neighborhood. This information will help in deciding policies
and prices. It is not advisable for a beginner to open a barber
shop in a locality where there are many competitors.

In judging the merits of a particular store, consideration
must be given to the entrance, the window space, the inside
area of the store, the water, lighting and heating facilities, the
presence of a sanitary toilet and a sufficient number of win-
dows for adequate ventilation.

A lease is protection against any possible increase in rent.
There should be a provision in the lease concerning altera-
tions and painting of the barber shop. Before signing a lease,
it should be read carefully to avoid any misunderstanding.

Equipping The Barber Shop

After the best site has been chosen by comparing various
locations, the store is then ready to be furnished with fixtures
and equipment. Standard and durable supplies, either new
or renovated, are the best. If in the future, equipment has to
be replaced or increased, it is easy to duplicate standard sup-
plies. Electrical appliances should be able to work with var-
ious types of current and under different conditions. Insur-

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT 431

ance of the store's contents is a protection against theft and
fire.

The main requisites for an attractive barber shop are
cleanliness and comfortableness. The equipment should be
easily accessible and arranged in an orderly manner. The
electric lighting must be neither too dull nor too bright. Dirty
towels or linens are not to be used again, but kept in closed
containers. Sanitation and sterilization rules must be en-
forced for the public's protection.

Advertising The Barber Shop

The right kind of publicity is important because it ac-
quaints the public with the various services rendered by the
barber shop. The best kind of publicity is that which reaches
the greatest number of 'people at the cheapest cost. The
choice of advertising medium is either a direct mailing, the
distribution of circulars, an advertisement in the local town
paper, or over the radio. For advertising to be effective, it
must be repeated to make a lasting impression. Once a cus-
tomer is attracted to the barber shop, only courteous and
efficient service will bring him back and have him recom-
mend others.

A pleased customer is the best form of advertising. A
pleasing personality is a priceless asset that creates good will
and a friendly atmosphere. The barber must be mindful of
his hygienic habits, being clean and tidy in his clothing and
extremely careful to avoid body odor and bad breath. It is
frequently necessary to sense the thoughts and feelings of
customers so as not to antagonize them by word or action.

Salesmanship In The Barber Shop

The satisfaction of customers depends on the extent to
which their needs are fulfilled. Besides trying to improve the
quality of haircut and shave, the barber should practice the
selling of additional services such as shampoo, facial and scalp
massage, hair tonics, etc. The barber should be acquainted
with the types of service offered, the names of the various
cosmetic products, their costs and manner of application. By
selling extra services the barber will make himself of greater

432 BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

value to the customer, besides helping to increase the profits
of the barber shop.

The barber has occasion to use the art of salesmanship in
convincing customers as to the merits and benefits of various
facial and scalp preparations and treatments. A good sales-
man knows all about the service or product he is selling.
After a basis for confidence has been established, suggestive
language, without any high-pressure tactics, may create a de-
sire in the customer to try the new service or product. An
attractive feature is to offer combination services at special
prices.

Records In The Barber Shop

One of the causes for failure in operating a barber shop
is the lack of complete and systematic records. All business
transactions must be recorded in order to judge the condition
of the business at a particular time. Records are valuable to
the proprietor for the following reasons:

1. Efficient operation of the barber shop.

2. Indication of income, expenses, profits and losses.

3. Proves value of barber shop to prospective buyer.

4. Arrange for a loan from the bank.

5. Basis for such reports as income tax, social security,
unemployment insurance, minimum hour law and accident
compensation.

If a barber shop is to operate profitably, a simple system
of bookkeeping must be instituted. An easy plan is to keep
a daily account of income and expenses. The cash register in-
dicates the daily income, whereas the receipts and cancelled
checks constitute proof of payments. By adding the daily
total income and expense, the weekly and monthly totals can
be obtained. The difference between the total income and the
total expense is the net profit. A profit accrues when the in-
come is greater than the expense. When the expense is great-
er than the profit, a loss occurs. Continued profits spell suc-
cess, and continued losses may finally result in bankruptcy.

A budget must be kept so that the income of money will
be sufficient to cover the expenses. The following list of ex-

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 433

penses are commonly met in the barber shop :

Operating and Administrative Expenses

Salaries Advertising and printing

Rent Heat, light and water

Taxes Sundry supplies such as soaps,

Insurance tonics, towels, etc.

Repairs Telephone

Gleaning Miscellaneous

The payments made on debts, equipment and fixtures are
not classified as expenses, but are considered as a reduction in
indebtedness which in turn adds to the value of the barber
shop.

From time to time, an inventory must be taken of all
sundry supplies in the barber shop. This record will show
what supplies have been consumed and what new supplies are
needed. It is a better policy to have a slight excess of ma-
terials rather than a deficiency.

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

1. Name five important func- Finance or capital investment, pur-
tions performed by a barber chase of equipment and fixtures, pub-
shop, licity, salesmanship and the keeping

of systematic records.

2. Name three forms of owner- Individual ownership, partnership and
ship. corporation.

3. What is the best location for A barber shop that is conveniently lo-
a barber shop? cated and has the greatest number of

people passing its windows.

4. Of what protection is a lease A lease is a protection against any
for a barber shop? possible increase in rent and defines

the rights and responsibilities of the
tenant.

5. What is the best form of ad- A pleased customer.
vertising?

6. Of what value are records in Indicates the income, expenses, profits
the barber shop? and losses. Necessary for income tax,

Social Security, unemployment insur-
ance, minimum hour law and accident
compensation.

7. When is first aid necessary? In cases of accidents or emergencies

before the arrival of medical assistance.

434 BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

FIRST AID

Emergencies arise in every line of business, and a knowledge of
first aid measures is invaluable to shop managers and employees.

A physician should be called as soon as possible after any acci-
dent has occurred, both as a courtesy to the patient and as a pro-
tection to the barber shop. There are certain first aid treatments,
however, which the layman can give while awaiting medical as-
sistance.

Burns. Burns may be caused by electricity, hot irons, or flames,
while scalds are usually due to exposure to hot liquids or live steam.
Burns are classified as first degree, characterized by redness; sec-
ond degree, having watery blisters; and third degree, involving
deeper structures of the flesh with possible charring of tissues.
First degree burns are treated by an application of cloths saturated
with a solution of salt or baking soda. A mild dusting powder, such
as boric acid, or a 5% boric acid ointment, may be applied. 10%
boric acid, vaseline or 10% ichthyol ointment is used for second
degree burns. A 1% solution of picric acid may be used as a wet
dressing for second and third degree burns. If a burn is caused by
a mineral acid, the flesh should be washed with running water, if
possible, followed by a sodium bicarbonate solution. An alkali burn
should also be flushed with water, and a dilute solution of vinegar
and water applied.

Electric shock. Severe electric shock seldom occurs in a barber
shop, but in case such an accident should take place, the barber
should be prepared for the emergency. The clothing should be loos-
ened and the patient removed to a cool place. The head should be
raised, and the tongue drawn forward to prevent strangulation.
Artificial respiration should be administered as outlined below, and
massage given over the heart. Alcoholic stimulants should not
be given.

Artificial respiration. The Schafer method of artificial respira-
tion, to be employed in severe electric shock, prolonged fainting,
drowning, poisoning, gas suffocation, etc., is outlined as follows:

Place the patient on his abdomen with his face turned toward
one side. Kneel beside or astride the patient, with the knees at
his hips, facing his head.

Place the palms of the hands on the small of his back, with the
fingers extended and palms in line with his spine.

First bear forward and bring the weight of your body on your
hands, avoiding roughness. Hold this position for two seconds.

Release all pressure and swing back to rest on your heels. Hold
this position for two seconds.

Repeat the above movements, alternating the application and
release of pressure, at the rate of twelve to fifteen a minute until
natural breathing is resumed.

In obstinate cases, artificial respiration should be continued for
at least two hours before hope of revival is abandoned.

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT 435

Epileptic fit. An epileptic fit is a nervous disorder, character-
ized by unconsciousness, convulsions, contortions of the face, foam-
ing at the mouth, and rolling of the eyes.

Treatment consists of placing the patient in a flat posi-
tion and fixing a wad of cotton between the teeth to prevent biting
the tongue. Mild stimulants may be administered in moderation
after recovery. If the patient falls into a deep sleep after the at-
tack, he should not be disturbed until he awakens naturally.

Fainting. Fainting is caused by lack of blood flowing to the
brain, bad air, indigestion, nervous condition and unpleasant odors.
It is characterized by pallor and loss of muscular control. There is
temporary suspension of respiration and circulation. If there is a
sign of fainting before it actually occurs, the patient should hold
his head between his knees, as this action may check the faintness
by causing the blood to flow quickly to the head. Treatment for
fainting consists of loosening all tight clothing, changing the air
in the room, and placing the patient in a reclining position with
the head slightly lower than the body. If the patient is conscious,
he should take aromatic spirits of ammonia and stimulants such as
hot coffee, tea or milk. If the patient is unconscious, cold applica-
tions to the face, chest, and over the heart are given, but cold
water should not be dashed in the patient's face.

Heat exhaustion. Heat exhaustion is a general functional de-
pression due to heat. It is characterized by a cool, moist skin, and
collapse. Clothing should be loosened and the patient removed to
a cool, dark, quiet place. If conscious, the patient should take aro-
matic spirits of ammonia. He should be kept lying down for sev-
eral hours, as rest and quiet will hasten recovery.

Nose bleed. Nose bleed is a hemorrhage from the nose, and is
treated by loosening the collar and applying ice or pads saturated
with cold water to the back of the neck. A solution formed by
adding a teaspoonful of salt or vinegar to a cup of cold water may
be snuffed up the nose.

436

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

THINGS TO CONSIDER
WHEN GOING INTO BUSINESS

CAPITAL

Amount available
Amount required

ORGANIZATION

Individual

Partnership

Corporation

BANKING

Opening a bank account
Deposits
Drawing checks
Monthly statements
Notes and Drafts

SELECTING LOCATION

Population

Transportation facilities

Transients

Trade possibilities

Space required

DECORATING and
FLOOR PLAN

Selection of furniture
Floor covering
Installing telephone
Interior decorating
Exterior decorating

Window displays

Electric signs

EQUIPMENT and SUPPLIES

Selecting equipment
Comparative values
Installation
Labor saving steps

ADVERTISING

Planning

Direct mail

Newspaper

Radio

Local house organs

BOOKKEEPING SYSTEM'

Installation

Record of appointments

Receipts

Disbursements

Petty Cash

Profit and Loss

LEGAL

Lease

Contracts

Claims and law suits

COST OF OPERATION

Rent

Light

Salaries

Supplies

Depreciation

Telephone

Linen service

Sundries

Taxes

MANAGEMENT

Methods of building goodwill

Analysis of materials and la-
bor in relation to service
charges.

Greeting customers

Adjusting complaints

Handling employees

Selling merchandise

OFFICE ADMINISTRATION

Office supplies

Stationery

Inventory

INSURANCE

Public liability
Compensation
Disability
Unemployment
Social Security
Fire and burglary

METHODS OF PAYMENT

In advance

C.O.D.

Open account

Time payments

COMPLIANCE WITH
LABOR LAWS

Minimum wage law
Hours of employment
Minors

ETHICS

Courtesy

Observation of trade practices

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT 437

BUSINESS LAW FOR THE BARBER SHOP

A barber shop may be owned and operated by an individual,
a partnership, or a corporation. Before deciding which type of
ownership is most desirable, one should be acquainted with the
relative merits of each.

INDIVIDUAL OWNERSHIP

1. The proprietor is boss and manager.

2. The proprietor can determine policies and make decisions.

3. The proprietor receives all profits and bears all losses.

PARTNERSHIP

1. More capital is available for investment.

2. The combined ability and experience of each partner makes
it easier to share work and responsibilities and make decisions.

3. Profits are equally shared.

4. Each partner assumes unlimited liability for debts and
bankruptcy.

CORPORATION

1. A charter has to be obtained from the State.

2. A corporation is subject to taxation and regulation by
the State.

3. The management resides in a board of directors who de-
termine policies and make decisions in accordance with the con-
stitution of the charter.

4. The dividing of profits is proportionate to the number of
shares of stock possessed by each stockholder.

5. The stockholder is not legally responsible for losses or bank-
ruptcy.

BEFORE BUYING OR SELLING A BARBER SHOP

1. A written purchase and sale agreement should be formu-
lated in order to clarify any misunderstandings or errors between
the contracting parties.

2. For safe keeping and enforcement, the written agreement
should be placed in the hands of an impartial third person who is
to deliver the agreement to the grantee (one to whom the property
is transferred) upon the performance of fulfillment of the speci-
fied contract.

3. The buyer or seller should take and sign a complete state-
ment of inventory (goods, fixtures, etc.) and the value of each
article.

4. If there is a transfer of chattel mortgage, notes, lease, and
bill of sale, an investigation should be made to determine any de-
fault in the payment of debts.

5. Consult your lawyer for additional guidance.

438 BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

AN AGREEMENT TO BUY AN ESTABLISHED
BARBER SHOP SHOULD INCLUDE

1. Correct identity of owner.

2. True representations concerning the value and inducements
offered to buy the barber shop.

3. Use of shop's name and reputation for a definite period of
time.

4. An understanding that the seller will not compete with the
prospective owner within a reasonable distance from present lo-
cation.

PROTECTION IN MAKING A LEASE

1. Secure exemption of fixtures or appliances which may be at-
tached to the store or loft, so that they can be removed without
violating the lease.

2. Insert into lease an agreement relative to necessary renova-
tions such as painting, plumbing, fixtures and electrical installation.

3. Secure option from landlord to assign lease to another per-
son; in this way, the obligations for the payment of rental are kept
separate from the responsibilities in operating the business.

PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE, THEFT AND LAWSUITS

1. Employ honest and able employees and keep premises se-
curely locked. Follow safety precautions to prevent fire, injury and
lawsuits. Liability, fire and burglary insurance should be obtained.

2. Do not violate the medical practice law of your state by at-
tempting to diagnose, treat or cure disease.

3. Become thoroughly familiar with the barber law and sanitary
code of your city and state.

4. Keep accurate records of number of workers, salaries, length
of employment, and Social Security numbers, for various State and
Federal laws affecting the social welfare of employees.

Remember — Ignorance of the Law is No Excuse for its Violation

CODE — Explanation of numbers and abbreviations on page 439

1 — No reciprocity.

2 — Two years of barber experience.

3 — Three years of barber experience.

4 — Four years of barber experience.

5 — Five years of barber experience.

6 — Licensed apprentice or barber from another state must have substantially

the same requirements as for barbers in this state.
7 — Attended an approved barber school and completed 21/2 years apprenticeship

in this state.
8 — Examination required.

9 — Alabama — No law except in Mobile and Jefferson Counties.
10 — Virginia — No law except in Arlington County.
None spec. — None specified.
Jour. — journeyman.

BARBER SHOP MANAGEMENT

439

State Boards Educational Requirements
For Barber License

State or Territory

Preliminary
Education

Required Training and Education

Red-
procitY*

Barber School Apprenticeship

Ala., Mobile Co.-9

8th grade

Pass test in Barber Science & Practice

Ala., Jeff. Co.-9

Alaska

None spec.

I
678

Arizona

8th grade

1000 hrs.

18 mos.

Arkansas

7th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos.

18 mos.

California

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos.

18 mos.

Colorado

8th grade

1200 hrs. for 6 mos.

24 mos.

Connecticut

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

30 mos. plus
144 hrs. study

Delaware

5th grade

36 mos.

Dist. of Col.

None spec.

1000 hrs. AND

24 mos.

1,8

Florida

8th grade

1000 hrs.

1, 5,8

Georgia

None spec.

Indefinite

Hawaii

Idaho

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

12 mos.

6 or 3, 8 "*

Illinois

8th grade

1248 hrs.

30 mos.

5 or 7, 8

Indiana

None spec.

1000 hrs. AND

18 mos.

6 or 2 PI

Iowa

8th grade

6 mos. AND

18 mos.

1,5,8 -3

Kansas

None spec.

1000 hrs.

18 mos.

6,8 g

Kentucky

2 yrs. H. S.

1248 hrs. for 6 mos. OR

12 mos.

1,8 £

Louisiana

8th grade

1500 hrs. AND

18 mos.

1,8 J5

Maine

None spec.

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. OR

18 mos.

6 ?

Maryland

None spec.

1200 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

30 or 36 mos.

1,3,8 8

Massachusetts

None spec.

5 mos. AND

24 mos.

1, 2, 8 g

Michigan

None spec.

1000 hrs. AND

12 mos.

1 S

Minnesota

8th grade

1200 hrs. for 9 mos. AND

15 mos.

1, 5, 6, 8 1

Mississippi

8th grade

1500 hrs.

12 mos.

1,8 5

Missouri

None spec.

1000 hrs. AND

18 mos.

1,8 £

Montana

None spec.

1000 hrs. AND

12 or 18 mos.

1,8 <

Nebraska

8th grade

1248 hrs. for 6 mos.

18 mos.

1 •«

Nevada

8th grade

1000 hrs.

18 mos.

Non spec. {j

New Hampshire

None spec.

12 mos.

1 •

New Jersey

None spec.

18 mos.

5 ^

New Mexico

None spec.

1000 hrs. for 6 mos.

1 €

New York

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

18 or 24 mos.

1 2

No. Carolina

None spec.

8 mos.

1 -8

No. Dakota

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

24 mos.

i g

Ohio

8th grade

1000 hrs. AND

18 mos.

6 or 2, 8 $

Oklahoma

None spec.

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. OR

18 mos.

i g

Oregon

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

18 mos.

6 or 2, 8 -5

Pennsylvania

8th grade

1250 hrs. for 9 mos. AND

15 mos.
(1250 hrs.)

i 1

Rhode Island

8th grade

1500 hrs. for 12 mos. OR

24 mos.

1,2,8

So. Carolina

None spec

6 mos. AND

18 mos.

So. Dakota

8th grade

6 mos.

24 mos.

6 or 5, 8

Tennessee

None spec.

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

12 mos.

6,8

Texas

Read & write

1000 hrs. for 6 mos. AND

18 mos.

1,8

Utah

None spec.

6 mos.

12 mos.

1, 3, 8

Vermont

None spec.

1800 hrs. OR

12 mos. or
comb, of both

Virginia-10

No law

Washington

8th grade

1000 hrs. for 6 mos.

1,8

W. Virginia

8th grade

1800 hrs.

1,8

Wisconsin

8th grade

36 mos.
Jour. 12 mos.

1,4,8

Wyoming

8th grade

1000 hrs.

18 mos.

Non spec.

PARTY

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

442 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

HISTORY OF BARBERING

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

DIRECTIONS: Carefully read each statement. Some are true; others are
false. If you believe the statement is true, draw a circle around the letter
T; if you believe the statement is false, draw a circle around the letter F.

1. The word barber comes from the Latin word meaning
beard T P

2. Barbering was never practiced in ancient Egypt or
China T F

3. The wearing of beards was a part of many religious
customs T F

4. Soap was first discovered in ancient Rome T F

5. Barbering was a highly developed art in ancient Greece

and Rome T F

6. During the Middle Ages, barbers were not allowed to
perform surgical operations T F

ANSWERS
1— T 2— F 3— T 4— T 5— T 6— F

PART II — INSERTION TEST

DIRECTIONS: Read each statement carefully. Select one or more words
from the following list and insert in proper space provided in the sentence.

guilds Chicago Swedish

England Minnesota France

surgeons Dutch

1. During the Middle Ages, barbering was regulated by trade

2. Barber-surgeons were brought to America by and

settlers.

3. The first state in the United States to pass a barber law was

4. After 1745, England separated the barbers from the

5. The first barber school in the United States was started about
1893 in

ANSWERS

1 — guilds 4 — surgeons

2 — Dutch, Swedish 5 — Chicago

3 — Minnesota

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 443

PERSONAL HYGIENE

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. Personal hygiene helps the barber to preserve his
health T P

2. The mind has no influence on the health of the body T F

3. Cleanliness is an essential part of personal hygiene T F

4. Air, water and food, of good quality, are required by the

body to maintain health T F

5. The over-eating of good foods is not harmful to health T F

ANSWERS
1_T • 2— F 3— T 4— T 5— F

PART II — INSERTION TEST

deodorants inward fatigue

forward sleep circulation

1. Faulty standing posture tends to increase

2. In good standing posture, the chest is kept up and

while the abdomen is kept

3. Exercise is beneficial because it stimulates breathing and

4. Rest and helps to combat fatigue.

5. The use of offsets offensive body odor.

ANSWERS

1 — fatigue 4 — sleep

2 — forward, inward 5 — deodorants

3 — circulation

444 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

BACTERIOLOGY

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. Bacteriology is the science that treats of infection T F

2. Streptococci bacteria grow in chains T F

3. Bacilli are rod-shaped organisms T F

4. Pathogenic organisms produce disease T F

5. All bacteria are harmful T F

6. Immunity means lack of resistance to disease T F

7. Moisture is essential for the growth of bacteria T F

8. Infection refers to the entrance of bacteria into the
tissues T F

9. Bacteria are found everywhere 'T F

10. Bacteria grow more favorably in dark, damp places T F

11. A bacterial spore can be revived under favorable condi-
tions T F

12. Non-pathogenic germs are not disease-producing T F

13. Boiling water will destroy most bacteria but not spore-
forming bacteria T F

14. Bacteria are to be found where dirt and unsanitary con-
ditions exist T F

15. The staphylococci bacteria produce boils and abscesses T F

16. Harmful bacteria produce poisons T F

17. Blood poisoning is caused by streptococci T F

18. Gonorrhea is caused by a gonococcus T F

19. A boil is general infection T F

20. Improperly sterilized razors may cause an infection T F

21. Immunity means the ability to get sick T F

22. Infection is the destruction of harmful germs in the body T F

23. Toxin means good health T F

ANSWERS

1— F 2— T 3— T 4— T 5— F

6— F 7— T 8— T 9— T 10— T

11— T 12— T 13— T 14— T 15— T

16— T 17— T 18— T 19— F 20— T

21— F 22— F 23— F

PART II — MATCHING TEST

DIRECTIONS: Select the appropriate term from the following list and
place in parenthesis alongside of statement.

Bacilli Streptococci Bacteria

Cocci Staphylococci Pathogenic

Spirilla Infectious Non-Pathogenic

1. Bacteria which are rod-shaped ( )

2. Bacteria which grow in chains ( )

3. Bacteria which are round-shaped ( )

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 445

4. Bacteria which grow in bunches ( )

5. Bacteria which are spiral-shaped ( )

6. Bacteria capable of producing disease ( )

7. A disease spread from one person to another ( )

8. Bacteria incapable of producing disease ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Bacilli 4 — Staphylococci 7 — Infectious

2 — Streptococci 5 — Spirilla 8 — Non-pathogenic

3 — Cocci 6 — Pathogenic

PART III — INSERTION TEST

immunity infect food

infection cells broken

dirt animals vegetable

reproduce microscope unbroken

1. Bacteria are minute one-celled micro-organisms.

2. Many dangerous bacteria are found in

3. Bacteria can enter the body through the skin.

4. Bacteria are living organisms which grow and

5. The ability of the body to resist disease is known as

6. Bacteria are so small that it is necessary to have a

to see them.

7. Bacteria consist of single

8. First aid care for cuts and wounds helps to prevent

9. A human disease carrier can other persons.

10. Without some bacteria will die.

ANSWERS

1 — vegetable 4 — reproduce 7 — cells

2 — dirt 5 — immunity 8 — infection

3 — broken 6 — microscope 9 — infect

10— food

446 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

SANITATION AND STERILIZATION

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. An antiseptic prevents the growth of germs T F

2. Borax and formalin are used in a cabinet sterilizer T F

3. Sanitation applies to public health only T F

4. Spatulas are used for removing creams from jars T F

5. The headrest on each chair need not be changed for each
customer T F

6. When a comb is not in use, the barber may keep it in his
pocket T F

7. Lump alum as a styptic may be used on several cus-
tomers T F

8. The hands must be washed before and after working on

each customer T F

9. An object that has fallen to the floor should be treated

as though it had already been used T F

10. Cover coughs and sneezes with a handkerchief T F

11. Keep clean towels in dust-proof cabinets T F

12. A communicable disease is one which cannot be avoided T F

13. For sterilization, water must be heated to 150 degrees
Fahrenheit T F

14. Hydrogen peroxide is used as an antiseptic T F

15. Fumigation produces chemical vapors in a cabinet ster-
ilizer T F

16. Any implement that cannot withstand heat may be ster-
ilized by chemicals T F

17. Boric acid solution is used as a germicide T F

18. Instruments that cannot be boiled may be sterilized by
dipping them into 40% alcohol T F

19. A disinfectant and a germicide can destroy germs T F

20. Metal instruments, glass, towels and linens may be ster-
ilized by boiling for two minutes T F

21. Phenol is also known as carbolic acid T F

22. Hard rubber combs and hair brushes are best sterilized

in boiling water T F

23. Electrodes may be sterilized with alcohol used on cotton
pledget T F

24. Glycerine added to formalin will prevent the rusting of
instruments T F

25. An object is sterile when it is free from germs T F

26. Disinfectants may be used on the human body T F

27. 25% formalin solution is a germicide T F

28. 60% alcohol may be used on the skin as an antiseptic .... T F

29. Combs and brushes are sufficiently sterilized by placing

them in a cabinet sterilizer T F

30. Complete sterilization is essential in order to destroy all
germs and prevent infection T F

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 447

ANSWERS

1— T 2— T 3— F 4— T 5— F

6— F 7— F 8— T 9— T 10— T

11— T 12— F 13— F 14— T 15— T

16— T 17— F 18— F 19— T 20— F

21— T 22— F 23— T 24— T 25— T

26— F 27— T 28— T 29— F 30— T

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Sterilization Dry heat Styptic

Chemical Eye pads Wet sterilizer

Deodorant Formalin Cabinet sterilizer

Hygiene Combs Tincture of iodine

1. Implements sterilized with disinfectant solution ( )

2. A 40% solution of formaldehyde gas in water ....( )

3. A use for cotton moistened with boric acid solu-
tion ( )

4. Method of sterilization for objects that cannot

be boiled ( (

5. The science of preserving health ( )

6. The destruction of all germs ( )

7. An agent which stops minor bleeding on the skin( )

8. An antiseptic for cuts and bruises ( )

9. Receptacle for keeping sterilized implements ....( )

10. Receptacle for a disinfectant solution ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Combs 4 — Chemical 7 — Styptic

2 — Formalin 5 — Hygiene 8 — Tincture of iodine

3 — Eye pads 6 — Sterilization 9 — Cabinet sterilizer

10— Wet sterilizer

PART III — INSERTION TEST

customer cabinet soap

closed asepsis unsterilized

water open protects

barber infectious formaldehyde

1. Responsibility for the prevention of disease in the barber
shop rests with the

2. Customers having an disease should not be treated

in the barber shop.

3. The active ingredient of formalin solution is gas.

4. Sterilized implements are best stored in a closed ster-
ilizer.

448 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

5. A sanitary barber shop the public's health.

6. The opposite of sepsis is

7. Boiling is an effective agent for sterilizing barber

implements.

8. Clean all implements with and warm water before

immersing them into a disinfectant.

9. All refuse and hair cuttings should be kept in contain-
ers.

10. Infection can be caused by the use of implements.

ANSWERS

1 — barber 4 — cabinet 7 — water

2 — infectious 5 — protects 8 — soap

3 — formaldehyde 6 — asepsis 9 — closed

10 — unsterilized

PART IV — MATCHING TEST

Prophylaxis Boiling point of water

Asepsis Disinfectant

Styptic Formalin

Sepsis Antiseptic

Deodorant Fumigation

1. Stops bleeding ( )

2. Prevention of disease ( )

3. Destroys offensive odors ( )

4. Poisoning due to germs ( )

5. Freedom from germs ( )

6. Checks bacterial growth ( )

7. 37-40% solution of formaldehyde ( )

8. Destroys bacteria ( )

9. Disinfect with chemical vapor ( )

10. 212 degrees Fahrenheit ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Styptic 6 — Antiseptic

2 — Prophylaxis 7 — Formalin

3 — Deodorant 8 — Disinfectant

4 — Sepsis 9 — Fumigation

5 — Asepsis 10 — Boiling point of water

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 449

CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. An organ is a group of similar cells performing the

the same function T F

2. The human body is composed of millions of specialized

cells T F

3. All cells have the same size and shape T F

4. Muscle tissue is capable of contraction T F

5. Metabolism represents both constructive and destructive
processes T F

6. Protoplasm is a jelly-like substance found in living cells T F

7. Epithelial tissue serves as a protective covering of body
surfaces T F

8. The skin is a part of the endocrine system T F

9. The heart is an example of an organ T F

10. Cells do not have the power to grow and reproduce T F

ANSWERS

1— F 2— T 3— F 4— T 5— T

6— T 7— T 8— F 9— T 10— F

PART II — INSERTION TEST

respiratory thyroid organ

circulatory mitosis food

excretory amitosis tissue

nucleus nerve muscles

1. Metabolism is a complex chemical process controlled by the
gland.

2. Cells of the human body reproduce by a process called

3. The stomach is an example of an

4. The blood is an example of a liquid

5. An injured cell is incapable of self-repair.

6. The controls the reproduction of the cell.

7. Adequate favors the growth of the cell.

8. The movements of the body are due to the action of

9. Waste matter is eliminated from the body through the

system.

10. The heart is an important organ of the system.

ANSWERS

1 — thyroid 4 — tissue 7 — food

2 — mitosis 5 — nerve 8 — muscles

3 — organ 6 — nucleus 9 — excretory

10 — circulatory

450 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

PART III — MATCHING TEST

Cell Nucleus

Anabolism Catabolism

Cytoplasm

1. Less dense protoplasm ( )

2. Dense protoplasm ( )

3. Unit of living matter ( )

4. Destructive process ( )

5. Constructive process ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Cytoplasm 4 — Catabolism

2 — Nucleus 5 — Anabolism

3— Cell

BONES

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. The cranium consists of ten bones T F

2. The mandible is located at the lower part of the face .... T F

3. Bone is composed of organic and inorganic matter T F

4. The cranium protects the brain T F

5. The cranium is the bony case which encases the brain .... T F

6. The occipital is located at the crown T F

7. The parietal is located at the forehead T F

8. Periosteum is a disease of the bone T F

9. There are fourteen bones of the face T F

10. The maxilla is a small bone of the ear T F

ANSWERS

1— F 2— T 3— T 4— T 5— T

6— F 7— F 8— F 9— T 10— F

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Hyoid Malar Periosteum

Marrow Anatomy Ethmoid

Mandible Frontal Sphenoid

Occipital Temporal Physiology

1. The study of the structure of the body ( )

2. A bone forming the back and lower part of the

cranium ( )

3. The portion of the bone which supports blood

vessels and nerves and also nourishes the bone....( )

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 451

4. A soft, fatty substance filling the cavities of the

bone ( )

5. A U-shaped bone at the base of the tongue ( )

6. The cheek bone '... ( )

7. A bone at the side of the head ( )

8. The lower jaw bone ( )

9. A bone forming the forehead ( )

10. A bone which joins together all bones of the

cranium ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Anatomy 4 — Marrow 7 — Temporal

2 — Occipital 5 — Hyoid 8 — Mandible

3— Periosteum 6— Malar 9— Frontal

10 — Sphenoid

PART III — MATCHING TEST

Base of skull Ear region

Base of cranium Bridge of nose

Lower jaw Forehead

Upper jaw Front of throat

Cheek Sides and crown of head

1. Frontal ( )

2. Temporal ( )

3. Sphenoid ( )

4. Occipital ( )

5. Parietal ( )

6. Hyoid ( )

7. Mandible ( )

8. Maxilla ( )

9. Malar ( )

10. Nasal ( )

ANSWERS

1— Forehead 6— Front of throat

2 — Ear region 7 — Lower jaw

3 — Base of cranium 8 — Upper jaw

4 — Base of skull 9 — Cheek

5 — Sides and crown of head 10 — Bridge of nose

452 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

MUSCLES

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. The function of muscles is to produce all movements
of the body

2. The heart has no muscular structure

3. The corrugator causes vertical wrinkles above the nose

4. The arrector pili is one of the largest muscles of the face T F

5. The epicranius controls the movements of the scalp, and
wrinkles the forehead

6. Voluntary muscles are controlled by the will

7. The cardiac muscle is a voluntary muscle

8. Aponeurosis is a flat expanded tendon T F

9. Muscles may be stimulated by massage, heat, and
electric current

10. Striated muscles are involuntary

11. The orbicularis oris is the muscle that surrounds the eye

12. Muscles are always connected directly to bones T F

13. The muscular system relies upon the skeletal and nerv-
ous systems for its activities

14. Contractility means able to be stretched or extended

15. Muscles clothe and support the framework of the body T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— F 3— T 4— F 5— T

6— T 7— F 8— T 9— T 10— F

11— F 12— F 13— T 14— F 15— T

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Tendon Epicranius Non-striated

Elastic Caninus Trapezius

Aponeurosis Striated

1. Meaning the same as voluntary muscle ( )

2. A broad, flat tendon, which serves to connect one

muscle to another ( )

3. Meaning the same as involuntary muscle ( )

4. A fibrous tissue which connects muscle with bone( )

5. A muscle which draws the head backwards or

to one side ( )

6. The ability to stretch and return to its natural

shape ( )

7. The scalp muscle ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Striated 3 — Non-striated 5 — Trapezius

2 — Aponeurosis 4 — Tendon 6 — Elastic

7 — Epicranius

PART III — MATCHING TEST

Anterior Posterior Levator

Superior Inferior Lateral

Dilator

1. On the side ( )

2. Situated lower .. ( )

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 453

3. Situated higher ( )

4. In front of ( )

5. In back of ( )

6. That which enlarges ( )

7. That which lifts ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Lateral 3 — Superior 5 — Posterior

2 — Inferior 4 — Anterior 6 — Dilator

7 — Levator

PART IV — CLASSIFICATION TEST

Platysma Temporalis Risorius

Masseter Orbicularis oculi Epicranius

Depressor septi Orbicularis oris Procerus

Trapezius

1. Scalp Muscle ( )

2. Eye Muscle ( )

3. Nose Muscles ( )

4. Mouth Muscles ( )

5. Muscles of Mastication ( )

6. Neck Muscles ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Epicranius 4 — Orbicularis oris, risorius

2 — Orbicularis oculi 5 — Masseter, temporalis

3 — Depressor septi, procerus 6 — Platysma, trapezius

PART V — MATCHING TEST

Cheek region Side of mouth Neck

Nose Around mouth Entire scalp

Side of head Around eyes Back part of scalp

Front part of scalp

1. Orbicularis oris ( )

2. Orbicularis oculi ( )

3. Epicranius ( )

4. Procerus ( )

5. Platysma ( )

6. Occipitalis ( )

7. Frontalis ( )

8. Buccinator ( )

9. Temporalis ( )

10. Risorius ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Around mouth 6 — Back part of scalp

2 — Around eyes 7 — Front part of scalp

3 — Entire scalp 8 — Cheek region

4— Nose 9— Side of head

5— Neck 10— Side of mouth

454 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

NERVES

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. Nerves can be both motor and sensory T F

2. Nerves can be stimulated with massage T F

3. The trifacial nerve is the smallest of all the cranial
nerves T F

4. The facial nerve controls the muscles of expression T F

5. The cervical nerves supply the muscles and skin at the

back of the head and neck T F

6. There are twelve pairs of cerebral (cranial) nerves T F

7. The trifacial nerve is the same as the facial nerve T F

8. Nerves which respond to heat, cold, pressure, touch and

pain are called sensory nerves T F

9. Nerve points are not intended to be stimulated T F

10. There are 15 pairs of spinal nerves T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— T 3— F 4— T 5— T

6— T 7— F 8— T 9— F 10— F

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Neuron Optic nerve

Sympathetic system Motor nerve

Sensory nerve Facial nerve

Cerebro-spinal system 12 pairs

Trigeminal nerve 31 pairs

1. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves

and cranial nerves ( )

2. Controls the involuntary muscles which affect
respiration, circulation and digestion ( )

3. Carries impulses from a nerve center to a

muscle ( )

4. A nerve cell ( )

5. The chief sensory nerve of the face ( )

6. A nerve which controls the sense of sight ( )

7. A nerve carrying sensations to a nerve center ....( )

8. A nerve which controls facial expression ( )

9. Number of cranial nerves ( )

10. Number of spinal nerves ( )

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 455

ANSWERS

1 — Cerebro-spinal system 6 — Optic nerve

2 — Sympathetic system 7 — Sensory nerve

3 — Motor nerve 8 — Facial nerve

4 — Neuron 9 — 12 pairs

5 — Trigeminal nerve 10 — 31 pairs

PART III — MATCHING TEST

Scalp area at base of skull Lower side of nose

Forehead and temple Side of neck

Behind ear Temple and ear

Forehead and scalp Upper part of cheek

Lower lip and chin Side of nose and mouth

1. Supra-orbital ( )

2. Cervical ( )

3. Mental ( )

4. Infra-orbital ( )

5. Auriculo-temporal ( )

6. Lesser occipital ( )

7. Zygomatic ( )

8. Temporal ( )

9. Posterior auricular ( )

10. Nasal ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Forehead and scalp 6 — Scalp area at base of skull

2 — Side of neck 7 — Upper part of cheek

3 — Lower lip and chin 8 — Forehead and temple

4 — Side of nose and mouth 9 — Behind ear

5 — Temple and ear 10 — Lower side of nose

PART IV — CLASSIFICATION TEST

Directions: Classify the following cerebral nerves. Insert the correct
nerves under the proper headings.

Facial Optic Oculomotor

Trifacial Acoustic Abducent

Olfactory Vagus Accessory

1. Sensory Nerves: 2. Motor Nerves: 3. Sensory-Motor:

ANSWERS

1 — Olfactory, optic, acoustic

2 — Oculomotor, accessory, abducent

3 — Trifacial, facial, vagus&

456 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

CIRCULATION

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. The blood vascular system controls the circulation of
blood T F

2. The supra-orbital artery supplies the back of the head.... T F

3. From 8 to 10 pints of blood circulates in the body of an
adult person T F

4. Lymph reaches parts of the body not reached by the
blood T F

5. General circulation carries the blood from the heart to

the lungs T F

6. The blood carries oxygen to the cells and carbon dioxide

from them T F

7. Arteries always carry the impure blood T F

8. The vascular system consists of the heart and blood
vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) T F

9. Red blood cells fight germs in the blood T F

10. Arteries, veins and capillaries are blood vessels T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— F 3— T 4— T 5— F

6— T 7— F 8— T 9— F 10— T

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Auricles Ventricles

General circulation Vein

Vascular Plasma

White blood cells Red blood cells

Jugular vein Lymph

Carotid arteries Capillary
Pulmonary circulation

1. The smallest blood vessel ( )

2. Upper chambers of the heart ( )

3. Blood cells which carry oxygen ( )

4. Blood circulation throughout the body ( )

5. Main arteries supplying the head, face and neck ( )

6. The fluid part of the blood ( )

7. Blood cells which destroy pathogenic bacteria ....( )

8. The lower chambers of the heart ( )

9. A fluid derived from blood plasma ( )

10. Blood circulation from the heart to the lungs ... .( )

ANSWERS

1 — Capillary 6 — Plasma

2— Auricles 7— White blood cells

3— Red blood cells 8— Ventricles

4 — General circulation 9 — Lymph

5 — Carotid arteries 10 — Pulmonary circulation

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 457

PART III — MATCHING TEST

Back of head Forehead

Chin and lower lip Side of nose

Orbicularis oculi Upper lip

Scalp above and back of ear Crown and side of head

Eye socket and forehead Lower lip

1. Frontal ( )

2. Posterior auricular ( )

3. Submental (. )

4. Supra-orbital ( )

5. Angular ( )

6. Superior labial ( )

7. Occipital ( )

8. Parietal ( )

9. Inferior labial ( )

10. Orbital ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Forehead 6 — Upper lip

2 — Scalp above and back of ear 7 — Back of head

3 — Chin and lower lip 8 — Crown and side of head

4 — Eye socket and forehead 9 — Lower lip

5 — Side of nose 10 — Orbicularis oculi

PART IV — MATCHING TEST

Auricles Hemoglobin Veins

Ventricles Lymphatics Pericardium

1. A membrane enclosing the heart ( )

2. Vessels which convey lymph ( )

3. Upper cavities of the heart ( )

4. Blood vessels containing valves ( )

5. Coloring matter of red corpuscles ( )

6. Lower cavities of the heart ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Pericardium 3 — Auricles 5 — Hemoglobin

2 — Lymphatics 4 — Veins 6 — Ventricles

PART V — MATCHING TEST

Frontal Superior labial

Parietal Transverse facial

Posterior auricular

1. Crown and side of head ( )

2. Upper lip and septum of nose ( )

3. Masseter muscle ( )

4. Forehead ( )

5. Scalp, back of ear ( )

ANSWERS

1— Parietal 4— Frontal

2 — Superior labial 5 — Posterior auricular

3 — Transverse facial

458 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

SKIN, HAIR AND GLANDS

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. The subcutaneous tissue of the skin lies directly beneath

the corium T F

2. Corium, derma and true skin are the same T F

3. The skin is an external non-flexible covering of the body T F

4. Dermatology is the study of the hair T F

5. The appendages of the skin are the nails, hair, seba-
ceous and sudoriferous glands T F

6. Skin absorbs water readily T F

7. Health, age and occupation have no influence on the
texture of the skin T F

8. The skin is the organ of protection, absorption, elimina-
tion, heat regulation, and sensation T F

9. The skin is the seat of the organ of touch T F

10. The sebaceous glands secrete sebum T F

11. The blood vessels which nourish the hair are located in

the hair papilla T F

12. When the blood supply is cut off, the growth of hair is
stopped T F

13. Under normal conditions hair grows about one-half inch

a month T F

14. Sebum cools the skin T F

15. Hair will grow again even though the papilla has been
destroyed T F

16. There are more hairs than follicles T F

17. After a hair has fallen out, new hair will appear in
about three days T F

18. Hair has no blood vessels T F

19. The average life of a hair is from seven to eight years T F

20. The health of the hair depends on the health of the body T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— T 3— F 4— F 5— T

6— F 7— F 8— T 9— T 10— T

11— T 12— T 13— T 14— F 15— F

16— F 17— F 18— T 19— F 20— T

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 459

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Sudoriferous glands Subcutaneous tissue

Melanin Sebaceous glands

Derma Papilla

Epidermis Follicle

Stratum corneum Perspiration
Sebum

1. The outer layer of the skin ( )

2. The fatty tissue of the skin ( )

3. The true layer of the skin ( )

4. Glands which secrete sebum ( )

5. An excretion which cools the skin by evaporation ( )

6. Cone-shaped elevation which nourishes the hair ( )

7. Glands which produce perspiration ( )

8. The coloring pigment in the skin ( )

9. A product secreted by the oil glands ( )

10. The horny layer of the epidermis ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Epidermis 6 — Papilla

2 — Subcutaneous tissue 7 — Sudoriferous glands

3 — Derma 8 — Melanin

4 — Sebaceous glands 9 — Sebum

5 — Perspiration 10 — Stratum corneum

PART III — INSERTION TEST

Touch Melanin Granulosum

Eyelids Skin Corneum

Germinativum Arrector pili Limited

Lucidum Blood Unlimited

Nervous Duct

1. The actively growing layer of the skin is called the stratum

2. The excretion of sweat is under the control of the

system.

3. Attached to the hair follicle is the muscle.

4. The skin is thinnest on the

5. The coloring matter of the skin and hair is known as

6. The sweat and oil glands of the skin are type of

glands.

7. The stratum is continually being shed and replaced.

8. The skin has powers of absorption through its pores.

9. The largest organ of the body is the

10. The skin has nerve endings which respond to heat, cold and

11. The largest amount of is found in the skin.

460 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

ANSWERS

1 — Germinativum 5 — Melanin 9 — Skin

2 — Nervous 6 — Duct 10 — Touch

3 — Arrector pili 7 — Corneum 11 — Blood

4 — Eyelids 8 — Limited

PART IV — MATCHING TEST

Papillary layer Hirsute

Stratum corneum Stratum germinativum

Dermis Keratin

Stratum lucidum Follicle

Subcutaneous tissue Cortex

Papilla

1. Clear layer of the epidermis ( )

2. Skin layer containing elastic fibers ( )

3. Fatty tissue of the skin ( )

4. Layer of epidermis containing keratin ( )

5. Layer of dermis containing tactile corpuscles ....( )

6. A horny substance found in hair ( )

7. A tube-like depression extending into the dermis ( )

8. Hair layer containing pigment ( )

9. Hairy ( )

10. Cone-like elevation at the base of hair follicle.. ( )

11. Basal layer of epidermis ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Stratum lucidum 7 — Follicle

2 — Dermis 8 — Cortex

3 — Subcutaneous tissue 9 — Hirsute

4 — Stratum corneum 10 — Papilla

5 — Papillary layer 11 — Stratum germinativum

6 — Keratin

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 461

SKIN, SCALP AND HAIR DISEASES

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. Trichophytosis is the term applied to ringworm of the
scalp T F

2. Gray hair is best treated with safe hair dyes

3. Anthrax may be treated by a barber T F

4. Regular alopecia treatments alternated with hot oil
treatments will correct canities T F

5. Scabies refers to head lice T F

6. Tinea tonsurans is ringworm of the scalp T F

7. Keloid is a wartlike growth commonly located in the
eyelids '. T F

8. A communicable disease is one that can be transmitted

from person to person T F

9. Alopecia areata is baldness at time of birth T F

10. Pityriasis is the term applied to an excessively oily con-
dition of the scalp T F

11. Canities is caused by fever, shock, nervousness, or

old age T F

12. Eczema is a contagious, parasitic disease of the skin,

with crust formations, emitting a mousy odor T F

13. Symptoms of alopecia areata and alopecia senilis are

the same T F

14. Pediculosis capitis is a scaly condition of the scalp T F

15. A tight scalp is favorable to the growth of hair T F

16. Skin friction may cause the formation of a callous T F

17. The skin cannot function properly if the pores are
clogged with dust, creams or sebum T F

18. If the skin has a tendency to be very dry, soap should

be used regularly T F

19. Acne is a chronic inflammation of the sebaceous glands

of the skin T F

20. No hair brushing is required when treating a dry scalp T F

21. Long neglected dandruff frequently leads to baldness .... T F

22. Pityriasis steatoides is also known as greasy or waxy
dandruff T F

23. The symptoms of pityriasis capitis simplex are itching

scalp and dry dandruff T F

24. Dandruff is considered a disease if the shedding of scales

is excessive T F

25. Oily foods tend to aggravate a dry condition of the skin T F

26. Acne rosacea affects the sweat glands T F

27. Anidrosis means the same as excessive perspiration .... T F

28. In many cases the early stages of baldness can be cor-
rected by proper treatment T F

29. The cause of eczema is unknown T F

30. Ringworm is a non-contagious disease T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— T 3— F 4— F 5— F

6— T 7— F 8— T 9— F 10— F

11— T 12— F 13— F 14— F 15— F

16— T 17— T 18— F 19— T 20— F

21— T 22— T 23— T 24— T 25— F

26— F 27— F 28— T 29— T 30— F

462 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Comedones Hyperidrosis Canities

Pityriasis Papule Acne

Seborrhea Eczema Pustule

1. A chronic inflammatory disease of the skin

occurring in or around a sebaceous gland ( )

2. A condition characterized by an excessive dis-
charge of sebum ( )

3. Blackheads ( )

4. Excessive perspiration ( )

5. A lesion which contains pus ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Acne 3 — Comedones 5 — Pustule

2 — Seborrhea 4 — Hyperidrosis

PART III — INSERTION TEST

baldness brpmidrosis greasy

gray skin non-contagious

contagious pus follicle

chronic contagious acute

dry dermatitis

1. Alopecia means

2. Canities means hair.

3. Foul smelling perspiration is known as

4. Dermatology deals with diseases of the

5. Dandruff may occur in a or form.

6. A pustule is an elevation of the skin having an inflamed base
containing

7. A tumor is a skin lesion.

8. A disease of long duration is known as a disease.

9. Inflammation of the skin is called

10. A boil is an infection of a hair

ANSWERS

1 — baldness 4 — skin 7 — non-contagious

2 — gray 5 — dry, greasy 8 — chronic

3 — bromidrosis 6 — pus 9 — dermatitis

10— follicle

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 463

PART IV — MATCHING TEST

Scar Fissure Tumor

Ulcer Vesicle

1. Deep crack in the skin ( )

2. A blister ( )

3. External swelling ( )

4. Open lesion having pus ( )

5. Healed wound or healed ulcer ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Fissure 3 — Tumor 5 — Scar

2 — Vesicle 4 — Ulcer

PART V — MATCHING TEST

Asteatosis Acne pustulosa Acne vulgaris

Seborrhea Acne indurata

1. The common pimple ( )

2. Excessive discharge of sebum ( )

3. Deep-seated hardened lesions ( )

4. Dry skin due to senile changes ( )

5. Pimples containing pus ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Acne vulgaris 3 — Acne indurata 5 — Acne pustulosa
2 — Seborrhea 4 — Asteatosis

464 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT THERAPY

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. An alternating current flows first in one direction and

then in the opposite direction T F

2. High-frequency treatments may be given after an al-
coholic tonic has been applied T F

3. Infra-red rays are purely heat rays T F

4. Ultra-violet rays are chemical rays T F

5. Electricity may be transmitted to the customers through

the use of the vibrator T F

6. High-frequency is an oscillating current which is stim-
ulating T F

7. A closed circuit is one in which a current is continually
flowing T F

8. It is unnecessary to sterilize electrodes used with high-
frequency T F

9. An insulator conveys an electrical current T F

10. Only first degree sunburn has cosmetic value T F

11. An ohm is a unit of current resistance T F

12. The infra-red rays have a chemical effect T F

13. To obtain the most benefit from ultra-violet rays, the

skin must be free of creams or other cosmetics T F

14. Any substance which carries electricity freely is called

a conductor T F

15. The customer's eyes should be protected with goggles
when using ultra-violet rays T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— F 3— T 4— T 5— F

6— T 7— T 8— F 9— F 10— T

11— T 12— F 13— T 14— T 15— T

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Conductor Ultra-violet rays

Volt Ampere

Infra-red rays Non-conductor

High-frequency current Ohm

1. A unit of electrical resistance ( )

2. The strength of an electric current ( )

3. Rays emitted from a quartz lamp ( )

4. A unit of electrical pressure ( )

5. Rays which have a deep penetrating effect on

the skin ( )

6. A substance which transmits electricity ( )

ANSWERS

1— Ohm 4— Volt

2 — Ampere 5 — Infra-red rays

3 — Ultra-violet rays 6 — Conductor

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 465

SHAVING AND HAIRCUTTING

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE

1. The width of the razor should be about % of an inch T F

2. Steel razors are more durable than silver-plated ones.... T F

3. The French type of shears has no finger brace T F

4. Shears having a gauge of 7 inches and a plain edge are
preferred to other kinds T F

5. The number 1 cutting edge of a hair clipper is the small-
est size available T F

6. A razor is never used for thinning or tapering the hair T F

7. Shaving cake soap or stick should never be used in
common T F

8. A razor has a perfect edge when its teeth are coarse ' T F

9. A rotary movement is best in lathering the beard T F

10. Before shaving, use hot towels for a sensitive or
chapped face T F

11. Ingrown hair is caused by close shaving T F

12. In giving a haircut it is not necessary to consider the
customer's facial features T F

13. Alcohol may be used to sterilize clipper blades T F

14. Use a fresh neck strip and towel for each customer .... T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— T 3— F 4— T 5— F

6— F 7— T 8— F 9— T 10— F

11— T 12— F 13— T 14— T

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Thinning Free hand Ingrown hair

Singeing Tapering Clipping

Hone Back hand

1. Decreasing the amount of hair where it is

too thick ( )

2. Burning the hair ends ( )

3. Hair growing underneath the skin ( )

4. A shaving stroke used most frequently ( )

5. An implement used to sharpen the dull edge of a

razor ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Thinning 4 — Free hand

2 — Singeing 5 — Hone

3 — Ingrown hair

466 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

PART III — INSERTION TEST

fourteen dull test

steam two stropping

left synthetic 0000

right free 00

grain back

1. There are standard shaving areas.

2. A towel is usually applied before and after shaving.

3. Shaving strokes are made with the of the hair.

4. The side of the face is usually shaved first.

5. A number cutting blade on a hair clipper gives the

shortest cut.

6. A hone is a fast cutting hone.

7. The edge of the razor requires honing and stropping.

8. The hand stroke is used most often in face shaving.

9. Always a razor after honing or stropping.

10. The purpose of a razor before shaving is to make its

edge smooth.

ANSWERS

1 — fourteen 4 — right 7 — dull

2— steam 5—0000 8— free

3 — grain 6 — synthetic 9 — test

10 — stropping

REVIEW EXAMINATIONS 467

FACIAL AND SCALP TREATMENTS

PART I — TRUE OR FALSE TEST

1. Facial or scalp treatments are not to be given if a
communicable disease is recognized in a customer T F

2. The barber gives massage treatments only to the head,

face and neck T F

3. Dry hair requires more frequent shampooing than oily

hair T F

4. Firm kneading or fast tapping movements help to re-
duce fatty tissue T F

5. A lanolin cream is best for a dry skin T F

6. An astringent lotion is recommended for an excessively

dry skin T F

7. A clay pack is good for all types of skin except a dry

skin T F

8. A hot oil mask is recommended for a dry skin T F

9. After extracting comedones, do not apply an antiseptic
solution to the skin T F

10. Regular scalp massage will make a tight scalp flexible T F

11. Regular and systematic treatments for the skin or scalp

are more effective than an occasional treatment T F

12. After an egg shampoo, use hot water to rinse the hair T F

13. The frequent use of strong soaps and alcoholic tonics

will cause the hair to become dry T F

14. An acne facial may be given without the advice of

a physician T F

15. Pure castile soap is good for a general shampoo T F

ANSWERS

1— T 2— T 3— F 4— T 5— T

6 — F 7 — T 8 — T 9 — F 10 — T

11— T 12— F 13— T 14— F 15— T

468 REVIEW EXAMINATIONS

PART II — MATCHING TEST

Dry hair Sulphur ointment Hard water

Soft water Oily hair Neutral

Alkaline Boiling Ultra-violet

Egg shampoo Acid Manipulations

1. Soap will not lather with ( )

2. Soap will form a lather with ( )

3. The easiest way to soften water is by ( )

4. The best therapeutic rays for the treatment of

dandruff ( )

5. A medicinal ointment used in the treatment of

alopecia ( )

6. Hand movements ( )

ANSWERS

1 — Hard water 3 — Boiling 5 — Sulphur ointment

2 — Soft water 4 — Ultra-violet 6 — Manipulations

PART III — INSERTION TEST

effleurage stimulating pressure

petrissage hands rotary

relaxing face shaking

nerves skin

1. Massage is applied either with the or with electric

appliances.

2. Massage by the barber is usually limited to the regions of the
head, and neck.

3. A kneading massage movement is known as

4. A stroking massage movement is applied in a slow, rhythmic
manner without

5 massage movements are frequently used in scalp

massage.

6. The are rested and soothed by massage.

7. Applying massage with an even rhythm produces a

effect on the customer.

8. Vibration is described as a massage movement.

9. Friction stimulates the circulation and glandular activities of
the

10. A stroking massage movement is also known as

ANSWERS

1 — hands 4 — pressure 7 — relaxing

2 — face 5 — rotary 8 — shaking

3 — petrissage 6 — nerves 9 — skin

10 — effleurage

PART VI

GLOSSARY

Used in connection with Barbering
relationship only.

ABDOMEN

470

ADIPOSE TISSUE

GLOSSARY

Compiled of words used in connection with barbering, defined in the sense of
anatomical, medical, electrical, and barbering relationship only. Key to pro-
nunciation will be found at bottom of each page.

abdomen (ab-do'men): the belly.

abducent nerve (ab-du'sent nurv) : the
sixth cerebral nerve; a small motor
nerve supplying the external rectus
muscle of the eye.

abductor (ab-duk'ter) : a muscle that
draws a part away from the median
line (opp., adductor).

abnormal (ab-nor'mal) : irregular; con-
trary to the natural law or custom-
ary order.

abrasion (a-bra'zhun) : scraping of skin.

abscess (ab'ses): an enclosed cavity
containing pus.

absorption (ab-sorp'shun) : assimilation
of one body by another; act of ab-
sorbing.

accessory nerve (ak-ses'6-re nurv):
spinal accessory nerve; eleventh cer-
ebral nerve; affects the sterno-cleido-
mastoid and trapezius muscles of the
neck and back.

acetic (a-set'ik): pertaining to vinegar;
sour.

acid (as'id): any chemical compound
having a sour taste.

acid rinse (as'id rms): a solution of
water and lemon juice or vinegar.

acidosis (as-i-do'sis): a condition in
which there is an excess of acid
products in the blood or excreted in
the urine.

acidum boricum (as'i-dum bor'i-kum) :
boric acid.

acne (ak'ne): a skin disorder due to
inflammatory changes of the seba-
ceous glands.

acne albida (al'bi-da): milium; white-
head.

acne artificialis (ar-ti-f ish-al'is) : pim-
ples due to external irritants or
drugs take internally.

acne atrophica (a-trof 'i-ka) : acne in
which the lesions leave a slight
amount of scarring.

acne cachecticorum (ka-kek-ti-kor-
um): pimples occurring in the sub-
jects having anemia or some weak-
ening body disease.

acne hypertrophica (hi-per-trof 'I-ka) :
pimples in which the lesions on
healing leave conspicuous pits and
scars.

acne indurata (m-du-ra'ta): deeply
seated pimples with hard tubercles
occurring chiefly on the back.

acne keratosa (ker-a-to'sa) : an erup-
tion of papules consisting of horny
plugs projecting from the hair fol-
licles, accompanied by inflammation.

acne punctata (punk-ta'ta) : appear as
red papules in which are usually
found blackheads.

acne pustulosa (pus-tu-16'sa) : acne
in which the pustular lesions pre-
dominate.

acne rosacea (ro-za'she-a) : a form of
acne usually occurring around the
nose and cheeks, due to congestion,
in which the capillaries become di-
lated and sometimes broken.

acne simplex (sim'pleks): acne vulgar-
is; simple uncomplicated pimples.

acne vulgaris (vul-gar'is) : acne sim-
plex; simple uncomplicated pimples.

acoustic (a-kdbs'tik) : auditory; eighth
cerebral nerve; controlling the sense
of hearing.

actinic (ak-tin'ik): relating to the
chemically active rays of the spec-
trum.

activity (ak-tiv'i-te) : natural or norm-
al function or operation; physical
motion or exercise of force.

acute (a-kutO: attended with severe
symptoms; having a short and rela-
ively short course.

ad (ad): a prefix denoting to, toward,
addition.

adductor (a-duk'ter): a muscle that
draws a part toward the median line.

adenoma sebaceum (a-den-6'ma se-
ba'se-um): small tumor of trans-
parent appearance, originating in the
sebaceous glands.

adipose tissue (tish'u): fatty tissue;
connective tissue containing fat cells;
subcutaneous tissue.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, Svent, end, recent, ever; ice,

ADOLESCENCE 471

adolescence (ad-6-les'ens) : state or
process of growing from childhood
to manhood or womanhood.

adrenal (ad-re'nal): an endocrine gland
situated on the top of the kidneys.

adult (a-dultO: grown up to full age,
size or strength.

aeration (a-er-a'shun): the change of
venous into arterial blood in the
lungs.

aerobic (a-er-6'bik): unable to live
without oxygen.

aesthetic, esthetic (es-thet'ik) : relating
to sensation, either mental or phys-
ical; appreciation of beauty and art.

afferent nerves (a-fer'ent nurvz): con-
vey stimulus from the external or-
gans to the brain.

affinity (a-fm-i-te): attraction.

agent (a'jent): an active power which
can produce a physical, chemical or
medicinal effect.

al (al): a word termination denoting
belonging to, of, or pertaining to.

alae nasi (ale na'zi): the wing cartil-
age of the nose.

albinism (al-bi-niz'm) : congenital leu-
coderma or absence of coloring in
the skin, hair and iris.

albino (al-bi'no): a subject of albi-
nism; a person with very little or
no pigment in the skin, hair or iris.

alcohol (al'ko-hol): a readily evapo-
rating colorless liquid with a pun-
gent odor and burning taste; power-
ful stimulant and antiseptic.

alimentary (al-i-men'ta-re): nourish-
ing; relating to food or nutrition.

alkali (al'ka-11): an electropositive
substance; capable of making soaps
from fats; used to neutralize acids.

alkaline (al'ka-lin): having the prop-
erties of an alkali.

allergic (a-lur'jik): sensitive to; sus-
ceptible.

allergy (a'lur-je): a disorder due to
extreme sensitivity to certain foods
or chemicals.

alopecia (al-6-pe'she-a) : deficiency of
hair; baldness.

alopecia adnata (ad-na'ta): baldness
at birth.

alopecia areata (a-re-a'ta): baldness
in spots or patches.

alopecia cicatrisata (si-ka-tri-sa'ta) :
baldness in irregular spots or patch-
es, due to shrinkage of the skin.

ANATOMY

alopecia dynamica (dlnam'i-ka): loss
of hair due to destruction of the
hair follicle by ulceration or some
other disease process.

alopecia follicularis (fol-ik-u-lar'is):
loss of hair due to inflamed hair
follicles.

alopecia localis (16-ka'Hs): loss of hair
occurring in patches on the course
of a nerve at the site of an injury.

alopecia maligiia (ma-lig'na): a term
applied to any form of alopecia that
is severe and persistent.

alopecia prematura (pre-ma-tu'ra) :
baldness beginning before middle
age.

alopecia seborrheica (seb-6r-e'I-ka) :
baldness caused by diseased seba-
ceous glands

alopecia senilis (se-nil'is^: oaianess oc-
curring in old age.

alopecia syphilitica (sif-il-it'i'ka) : loss
of hair resulting from syphilis; usu-
ally a symptom of the second stage
of the disease.

alopecia universalis (u-ni-ver-sa'lis) :
a condition manifested by general
falling out of the hair of the body.

alum, alumen (arum, a-lu'men): sul-
phate of potassium and aluminum;
an astringent; used as a styptic.

amitosis (am-i-to'sis) : cell multiplica-
tion by direct division of the nucleus
in the cell.

ammonia (a-mo'ne-a): a colorless gas
with a pungent odor; very soluble
in water.

amperage (am-par'aj, am'per-aj): the
strength of an electric curent.

ampere (am-par): the unit of meas-
urement of strength of an electric
current.

anabolism (an-ab'6-liz'm) : construct-
ive metabolism; the process of assim-
ilation of nutritive material and its
change into living substance.

analysis (a-nal'i-sis) : a process by
which the nature of a substance is
recognized and its chemical compo-
sition determined.

anaphoresis (an-a-f 6r-e'sis) : the pro-
cess of forcing liquids into the tis-
sues from the negative toward the
positive pole while using the gal-
vanic current.

anatomy (a-nat'6-me) : the science of
the gross structure of the body.

HI; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

ANEMIA

472

AURICULAR

anemia, anaemia (a-ne'me-a) : a con-
dition in which the blood is deficient
in red corpuscles, or in hemoglobin,
or both.

anesthetic, anaesthetic (an-es-thet'ik) :
a substance administered to make
the body incapable of feeling pain.

angiology (an-je-61'6-je): the science
of the blood vessels and lymphatics.

Angstrom (ang'strom): a unit of meas-
urement for the wave length of light.

angular artery (ang'u-lar ar'ter-e):
supplies muscles and skin at side of
nose.

anidrosis, anhidrosis (an-i-dro'sis) : a
deficiency in perspiration.

aniline (an'i-lm, -len): a product of
coal tar used in the manufacture of
artificial dyes.

anode (an'od): the positive terminal
of an electric source.

anterior (an-te're-er) : situated before
or in front of.

anthrax (an'thraks): malignant pus-
tule; gangrenous carbuncle-like le-
sion.

antibody (an'ti-bod-i) : a substance
in the blood which builds resistance
to disease.

antidote (an'ti-dot): an agent prevent-
ing or counteracting the action of
a poison.

an ti-pcrspi rant (an-ti-per-spi'rant) : a
strong astringent liquid or cream
used to stop the flow of perspiration
in the region of the armpits, hands
or feet.

antiseptic (an-ti-sep'tik) : a chemical
agent that kills or prevents the
growth of bacteria.

antitoxin (an-ti-tok'sm) : a substance
in serum which binds and neutral-
izes toxin (poison).

aorta (a-or'ta) : the main arterial trunk
leaving the heart, and carrying blood
to the various arteries throughout
the body.

apex (a'peks) : the upper end of a lung
or the heart.

aponeurosis (ap-6-nu-ro'sis) : a broad,
flat tendon; attachment of muscles.

appendage (a-pen'dej): that which is
attached to an organ, and is a part
of it.

appendix (a-pen'diks) : a small intes-
tinal organ.

applicator (ap'li-ka-ter) : an instru-
ment for the application of cosmetics
or electricity to the body.

aqueous (a'kwe-us): watery; pertain-
ing to water.

aromatic (ar-6-mat'ik) : pertaining to
or containing aroma; fragrant.

arrector pili (a-rek'tor pill): plural of
arrectores pilorum.

arrectores pilorum (a-rek-to'rez pi-
lor'um): a minute involuntary mus-
cle fiber in the skin inserted into
the base of the hair follicle.

art (art): skill in performing any op-
eration, intellectual or physical.

arterial (ar-te're'al) : pertaining to an
artery.

artery (ar'ter-e) : a vessel that conveys
blood from the heart.

articulation (ar-tik-u-la'shun) : joint;
a connection between two or more
bones.

asepsis (a-sep'sis) : a condition in
which harmful bacteria are absent.

assimilation (a-sim-i-la'shun): the
change of food into living tissue.

asteatosis (as-te-a-to'sis): a deficiency
or absence of the sebaceous secre-
tions.

astringent (as-trm'jent): a substance
or medicine that causes contraction
of the tissues, and checks secretions.

athlete's foot (athlete fdot): a fungus
foot infection; ringworm of the foot.

atom (at'um): the smallest part of an
element capable of entering into the
formation of a chemical compound.

atrium (at're-um); pi., atria (-a): the
auricle of the heart.

atrophy (at'ro-fe): a wasting away of
the tissues of a part or of the entire
body from lack of nutrition.

attollens aurem (at'6-lens 6'rem): aur-
icularis superior; muscle that ele-
vates the ear slightly.

attrahens aurem (at'ra-hens 6'rem):
auricularis anterior; muscle which
pulls the ear forward slightly.

auditory (6'di-to-re): eighth cerebral
nerve; controlling sense of hearing.

auricle (6'ri-k'l): the external ear; one
of the upper cavities of the heart.

auriculo-temporal (6-rik-u-16 tem'por-
al): sensory nerve affecting the tem-
ple and external ear.

auricular (6-rik'u-lar) : pertaining to
the ear or cardiac auricle.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, event, end, recent, ever; Ice,

AUTO

auto (6'to): a prefix meaning self; of
itself.

autonomic nervous system (6-ton'o-
mik nurv'us sis'tem): the sympa-
thetic nervous system; controls the
involuntary muscles.

473 BLOOD POISON

axilla (ak-sil'a): the armpit.
axon (ak'son): a long nerve fiber ex-
tending from the cell body.

bacillus (ba-sil'us); pi., bacilli (-1):
rod-like shaped bacterium.

bacteria (bak-te're-a) : microbes, or
germs.

bactericide (bak-te'ri-sid) : an agent
that destroys bacteria.

bacteriology (bak-te-re-ol'o-je): the
science which deals with bacteria.

bacterium (bak-te're-um); pi., bacte-
ria (-a): one-celled vegetable micro-
organism.

baldness (bold'ness): a deficiency of
hair; hair loss.

barber (bar'ber): one whose occupa-
tion is to shave or trim the beard,
and to cut and dress the hair.

barber science (si'ens): the study of
the skin, scalp, beard and hair, and
their treatments.

barber's itch (bar'berz ich): tinea sy-
cosis; ringworm of the beard; chron-
ic inflammation of the hair follicles.

basal layer (la'er): the layer of cells
at base of epidermis closest to the
dermis; stratum germinativum.

base (bas): the lower part or bottom;
chief substance of a compound; an
electropositive element that unites
with an acid to form a salt.

battery (bat'er-e): an apparatus con-
taining two or more cells, for gen-
erating electricity.

bayberry plant (ba'ber-e plant): the
leaves of Myrcia acris yield oil of
bay which is used to make bay rum.

bay rum (ba rum): after shaving lo-
tion; used as a tonic and astringent.

benign (be-nln): mild in character.

benzine (ben'zen): an inflammable li-
quid derived from petroleum and
used as a cleansing fluid.

Bernay tablets (bur'na tablets): a
trade name; special tablets dis-
solved in water to be used as an an-
tiseptic.

bi (bi): a prefix denoting two, twice,
double

bicarbonate of soda (bi-kar'bon-at of
so'da): baking soda; relieves burns,
itching and insect bites. Adding bak-
ing soda to the water in which in-
struments are to be boiled will
keep them bright.

bichloride (bi-klo'rid) : a compound
having two parts or equivalents of
chlorine to one of the other element.

bile (bil): a yellowish or greenish vis-
cid fluid secreted by the liver; an
aid to digestion.

binding posts (bin'dmg posts): small
metal posts in which are fitted the
metal tips of the conducting cords.

biology (bi-ol'6-je): the science of life
and living things.

birthmark (burth'mark) : any mark
which is present at birth, usually
lasting; a form of nevus.

blackhead (blak'hed): a comedone; a
plug of sebaceous matter.

bleach (blech): to whiten or lighten.

bleached hair (blecht har): hair from
which the color has been wholly or
partially removed by means of a
bleaching solution.

bleaching solution (blech'ing so-lu-
shun): hydrogen peroxide with ad-
dition of ammonia.

bleb (bleb): a blister of the skin filled
with watery fluid.

blemish (blem'ish): a mark, spot or
defect, marring the appearance.

blister (blister): a vesicle; a collection
of serous fluid causing an elevation
of the skin.

blond; blonde (blond) : a person of fair
complexion, with light hair and eyes.

blood (blud): the nutritive fluid cir-
culating through the arteries and
veins.

blood poison (poi'z'n): an infection
which gets into the blood stream.

ill; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

474

CARBOLIC ACID

blood vascular system (vas'ku-lar sis'-
tem): comprised of structures (the
heart, arteries, veins and capillaries)
which distribute blood throughout
the body.

blood vessel (ves'el): an artery, vein
or capillary.

blue light (blob lit): a therapeutic
lamp used to soothe the nerves and
ease pain.

bluing rinse (bloo'mg rms): a solution
used to neutralize the unbecoming
yellowish tinge on gray or white
hair.

B.N.A. — meaning Basle Anatomical
Nomenclature; a list of anatomical
terms adopted by the German Ana-
tomical Society in 1895.

bob (bob): a short haircut for women
and children.

boil (boil): a furuncle; a deep skin
abscess which drains out onto the
surface of the skin

boiling point (boiling point): 212° F.
or 100° C. the temperature at which
water begins to boil.

bone (bon): os; the hard tissue form-
ing the framework of the body.

borax (bo'raks): sodium tetraborate;
a white powder used as an antisep-
tic and cleansing agent.

boric acid (bo'rik as'id): used as an

antiseptic dusting powder; in liquid

form as an eye wash.
brain (bran): that part of the central

nervous system contained in the

cranial cavity.
brilliantine (bril-yan-tenO: an oily

composition that imparts luster to

the hair.
bristle (bris"l): short, stiff hairs found

on brushes.

brittle (brit'l): easily broken; fragile.
bromidrosis (bro-mi-dro'sis) : perspi-
ration which smells foul.
bronchus (bron'kus); pi., bronchi

(-ki): the main branch of the wind

pipe.

brow (brou): the forehead.
brunette (brob-net): a person having

brown or olive skin, brown or black

hair and eyes.
buccal nerve (buk'al nurv): a motor

nerve affecting the buccinator and

the orbicularis oris muscle.
buccinator (buk'si-na-ter) : a thin, flat

muscle of the cheek, shaped like a

trumpet.
bulla (bobl'a, bul'a): a large bleb or

blister.

calamine lotion (kal'a-min 16'shun):
zinc carbonate in alcohol used for
the treatment of dermatitis in its
various forms.

calcium (kaTse-um): a brilliant sil-
very-white metal; enters into the
composition of bone.

callous, callus (kaTus): skin which has
become hardened; thick-skinned.

calory, calorie (kal'6-re): a unit of
heat.

caiicellous (kan'se-lus) : having a por-
ous or spongy structure.

cancer (kan'ser): a harmful growth,
especially one attended with great
pain and ulceration.

caninus (kan-nin'us) : the levator ang-
uli oris muscle which lifts the angle
of mouth and help to keep it closed.

canitics (ka-nit'iKs): the science which
treats of canities.

canities (ka-msh'i-ez) : grayness or
whiteness of the hair.

canities, accidental (ak-si-den'tal) :

grayness of hair caused by fright.
canities, congenital (kon-jen'i-tal):

a type of gray hair transmitted by

heredity as in albinism.
canities, premature (pre-ma-tur) :

grayness of hair at an early age.
canities, senile (se'nil, -ml): grayness

of hair in old age.

capillary (kap'i-la-re): any one of the
minute blood vessels which connect
the arteries and veins; hair-like.

caput (ka'put); poss., capitis (kap'i-
tis): pertaining to the head.

carbohydrate (kar-bo-hi'drat) : an or-
ganic substance containing carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen; such as
starches and cellulose.

carbolic acid (kar-bol'ik as'ld) : phenol;
used in dilute solution as an anti-
septic.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, Svent, end, recent, ever; ice,

CARBON

475

CILIA

carbon (kar'bon): coal; an elementary
substance in nature which is found
in all organic compounds, charcoal,
and lampblack.

carbon-arc lamp (kar'bon ark lamp):
an instrument which produces ultra-
violet rays.

carbon dioxide (di-ok'sid): carbonic
acid gas; product of the combustion
of carbon with a free supply of air.

carbon monoxide (mon-ok'sld) : a col-
orless, odorless and poisonous gas.

carbuncle (kar'bun-k'l) : a large en-
closed inflammation of the deep skin
tissue, similar to a furuncle, but
much more extensive.

cardiac (kar'de-ak): pertaining to the
heart.

carotid (ka-rot'id): the principal art-
ery of the neck.

cartilage (kar'ti-laj): gristle; a non-
vascular connective tissue softer
than bone.

castile soap (kas'tel sop): a fine, hard,
white soap containing olive oil and
other oils; originally came from
Castile, Spain.

catabolism (ka-tab'6-liz'm) : chemical
changes which involve the breaking
down process within the cells.

cataphoresis (ka-taf -6-re'sis) : the pro-
cess of forcing medicinal substances
into the deeper tissues, using the
positive pole of the galvanic current.

cathode (kath'od): the negative pole
or electrode of a constant electric
current.

cation (kat'Ion): an ion carrying a
charge of positive electricity.

caustic (kos'tik): an agent that burns
and chars tissue.

cavity (kav'i-te): a hollow space.

cell (sel): a minute mass of proto-
plasm forming the structural unit
of every organized body.

cellular (sel'u-lar): consisting of or
pertaining to cells.

cellulose (seTu-los): a carbohydrate,
such as vegetable fiber.

centigrade (sen'ti-grad) : consisting of
100 degrees; of or pertaining to cent-
igrade thermometer.

centrosome (sen'tro-som) : a cellular
body which controls the division of
the ceU.

cerebellum (ser-e-beTum) : the post-
erior and lower part of the brain.

cerebral (ser'e-bral): pertaining to the
cerebrum.

cerebrospinal system (ser-e-bro'spi'nal
sis'tem): consists of the brain, spinal
cord, spinal nerves and the cranial
nerves.

cerebrum (ser'e-brum) : the superior
and larger part of the brain.

chancre (shan'ker): the primary lesion
of syphilis.

chemical (kem'i-kal): relating to
chemistry.

chemical dye remover (dl re-moov'er) :
a dye remover containing a chemi-
cal solvent.

chemistry (kem'is-tre) : the science
dealing with the composition of sub-
stances, their reactions and the
changes resulting from the formation
and decomposition of compounds.

chloasma (klo-az'ma): large brown
irregular patches on the skin, such
as liver spots.

chlorazene (klo'ra-zene) : a trade term;
a chemical used for preparing an
antiseptic or disinfectant.

chloro-zol (klo'ro-zol) : a trade name;
a special tablet used for preparing
an antiseptic or disinfectant.

cholesterin; cholesterol (ko-les'ter-in;
-61): a waxy alcohol found in ani-
mal tissues; present in lanolin.

chromosome (kro'mo-som) : tiny dark-
stained bodies found in the nucleus
of the cell; transmits hereditary
characteristics in cell division.

chromatin (kro'ma-tin) : a substance
found in the nucleus of a cell.

chromidrosis (kro-mi-dro'sis) : the ex-
cretion of colored sweat.

chronic (kron'ik): long- continued; the
reverse of acute.

chrysarobin (kris-a-ro'bm) : a power-
ful parasiticide; used in the treat-
ment of various forms of tinea.

chyle (kil): a creamy fluid taken up
by the lacteals from the intestine
during digestion.

chyme (kim): food reduced to a liquid
form in the process of digestion.

cicatrix (si-ka'triks, sik'a-triks) ; pi.,
cicatrices (sik-a-tri'sez) : the skin or
film which forms over a wound,
later contracting to form a scar.

cilia (sil'i-a): the eyelashes; micro-
scopic hair-like extensions which as-
sist bacteria in locomotion.

ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

CIRCUIT

circuit (cur'kit): the path of an elec-
tric current.

circuit, broken (bro'ken): caused by
anything which changes the current
from its regular circuit.

circuit, closed (kloz'd): a circuit in
which a current is continually flow-
ing.

circuit, complete (kom-plet): the path
of an electric current in actual op-
eration.

circuit, ground (ground): electricity
in which one pole is used to deliver
current and the other pole is con-
nected to a ground (waterpipe or
radiator).

circuit, open (6'pen): a circuit through
which the flow of current is inter-
rupted.

circuit, short (short): caused by any-
thing which changes the current
from its regular circuit.

circulation (sur-ku-la'shun) : the pass-
age of blood throughout the body.

circulation, general (jen'er-al): blood
circulation from the heart through-
out the body and back again.

circulation, pulmonary (purmo-na-
re): blood circulation from the heart
to the lungs and back to the heart.

citric acid (sit'rik as'id): acid found
in the lemon, orange, grapefruit;
used for making a lemon rinse.

clavicle (klav'i-k'l): collar bone, join-
ing the sternum and scapula.

clay (kla): an earthy substance con-
taining kaolin, etc. and used for
facial packs.

cleido (kli'do): prefix meaning per-
taining to the clavicle (collar bone).

clot (klot): a mass or lump of coag-
ulated blood.

club cutting (klub kut'mg): cutting
the hair straight off without thin-
ning or slithering.

coagulate (ko-ag'u-lat) : to clot; to
change a fluid into a soft jelly-like
solid.

coccus (kok'us); pi., cocci (kok'si):
spherical cell bacterium.

coiffeur (kwa-furO: a male hairdres-
ser.

coiffeuse (kwa-fuzO: a female hair-
dresser.

coiffure (kwa-furO: an arrangement
or styling of the hair.

476

CONTAGION

color rinse (kul'er rms): a rinse which

gives a temporary tint to the hair,
comb (kom): an instrument used to

dress, comb and arrange the hair.
combustion (kom-bus'chun) : the rapid

burning of any substance.
comedo; comedone (kom'e-do; -don):
blackhead; a worm-like mass in an
obstructed sebaceous duct.

communicable (ko-mu'm-ka-b'l): able
to be communicated; transferable.

compact tissue (kom-pakf tish'u): a
dense, hard type of bony tissue.

complexion (kom-plek'shun) : hue or
general appearance of the skin, es-
pecially the face.

composition (kom-po-zish'un) : the
quality of being put together.

compound henna (kom'pound hen'a):
Egyptian henna to which has been
added one or more metallic prep-
arations.

compressor (kom-pres'er) : a muscle
that presses; an instrument for ap-
plying pressure on a blood vessel to
prevent loss of blood.

concentrated (kon'sen-trat-ed) : con-
densed; increasing the strength by
diminishing the bulk of a substance.

conducting cords (kon-dukt'mg
kordz) : insulated copper wires which
convey the current from the wall
plate to the customer and operator.

conductor (kon-duk'ter) : any sub-
stance which will attract or allow
a current to flow through it easily.

congeal (kon-jel): to change from a
fluid to a solid state.

congenital (kon- jen'i-tal) : existing at
birth; born with.

congestion (kon-jes'chun): overfull-
ness of the capillary and other blood
vessels in any locality or organ.

connecting cords (kon-ekt'ing kordz):
the insulated strands of copper wires-
which join together the apparatus
and the commercial electric current.

connective (ko-nek'tiv) : connecting;
joining.

constitutional (kon-sti-tu-shun-al) : be-
longing to or affecting the physical
or vital powers of an individual.

contact (kon'takt): bringing together
so as to touch.

contagion (kan-ta'jun) : transmission
of specific diseases by contact.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, 6vent, end, recent, ever; ice,

CONTAGIOSA IMPETIGO

contagiosa impetigo (kon-ta-je-6'sa
im-pet-i-go): a form of impetigo
marked by flat vesicles that first be-
come pustular, then crusted.

contagious (kon-ta'jus): acquired by
contact.

contamination (kon-tam-i-na'shun) :
pollution; soiling with infectious
matter.

contour (kon'tobr): the outline of a
figure or body.

contour of the hair: shape of the hair,
straight, curly or wavy.

contra (kon'tra): a prefix denoting
against; opposite; contrary.

contraction (kon-trak'shun) : having
power to become shorter; the act of
shrinking, drawing together.

converter (kun-vur'ter) : an apparatus
used to change the direct current
to alternating current.

copious (ko'pe-us): large in amount.

copper (kop'er): a metallic element,
being a good conductor of heat and
electricity.

core (kor): the heart or most vital
part of anything.

corium (ko're-um): the derma or true
skin.

cornification (kor-m-fi-ka'shun) : the
process of becoming a horny sub-
stance or tissue.

coronary (kur'6-na-re) : relating to a
crown; encircling as a vessel or
nerve.

corpuscles, red (kor'pus-'l red): blood
cells whose function is to carry
oxygen to the cells.

corpuscles, white (whit): blood cells
whose function is to destroy disease
germs.

corrode (ko-rodO: to destroy a metal-
lic substance by chemical action.

corrosive sublimate (ko-ro'siv sub'H-
mat): an antiseptic, similar to
mercury bichloride.

corrugations (kor-oo-ga'shuns) : alter-
nate ridges and furrows; wrinkles.

corrugator; corrugator supercilii (kor'-
db-ga-ter su-per-sITe-i) : draws the
eyebrows inward and downward,
thus causing vertical wrinkles above
the nose.

cortex (kor'teks): the second layer of
the hair.

477

CURRENT, GALVANIC

cortical (kor'ti-kal) : pertaining to the
cortex.

cosmetic dermatology (koz-met'ik
dur-ma-t6r6-je): a branch of der-
matology devoted to improving the
health and beauty of the skin, hair
and nails.

cosmetic therapy (ther'a-pe): a term
used by some State Boards to desig-
nate the practice of cosmetology;
cosmetic treatment for skin, hair or
nail disorders.

cosmetics (koz-met'iks) : any external
application intended to beautify the
complexion, skin, hair or nails.

costal breathing (kos'tal breth'ing):
shallow breathing involving the use
of the ribs.

cowlick (kou'Hk): a tuft of hair form-
ing a whorl.

cranial (kra'ne-al): of or pertaining
to the cranium.

cranium (kra'ne-um): the bones of the
head excluding bones of the face;
bony case for the brain.

cream (krem): a semi-solid cosmetic.

cresol (kre'sol): a colorless, oily liquid
or solid derived from coal tar and
wood tar and used as a disinfectant.

crown of the head (kroun): the top
part of the head.

curd (kurd): soap residue found on
the hair after an unsatisfactory
shampoo.

curd soap (sop): a white soap of cur-
dy texture, usually containing free
alkali.

cure (kur): to take care of; to heal.

current, alternating; A.C. (kur'ent, al-
ter-nat-ing) : an interrupted current.

current, D'arsonval (d'-ar'son-val): a
high-frequency current of low volt-
age and high amperage.

current, direct; D.C. (di-rektO: an un-
interrupted and even-flowing cur-
rent.

current, electric (e-lek'trik) : electrici-
ty in motion, or moving within a
conductor.

current, faradic (fa-rad'ik): an in-
duced interrupted current whose
action is mechanical.

current, galvanic (gal-van'ik) : a direct
constant current having a positive
and negative pole and producing a
chemical action.

ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, tip, circus; those

CURRENT, HIGH FREQUENCY

current, high-frequency; Tesla (hi-
fre-kwen-se; tes'la): an electric cur-
rent of medium voltage and medium
amperage.

current, sinusoidal (sin-u-soi'dal) : an
induced interrupted current some-
what similar to faradic current.

curriculum (ku-rik'u-lum) : the course
of study in a school.

cutaneous (ku-ta'ne-us) : pertaining to
the skin.

478 DIAGNOSIS

cuticle (ku'ti-k'l): epidermis; the very
thin outer layer of the skin or hair.

cutis (ku'tis): the derma or true skin.

cycle (si'k'l): circle; a complete wave
of an alternating current.

cyst (sist): a closed abnormally devel-
oped sac containing fluid.

cytoplasm (si'to-plaz'm) : the proto-
plasm of the cell body, exclusive of
the nucleus.

dandruff (dan'drof): pityriasis; scurf
or scales formed in excess upon the
scalp.

de (de): a prefix denoting from; down
or away.

decomposition (de-kom-po-zish'un) :
act or process of separating the parts
of a substance.

deficiency (de-f ish'en-se) : a lacking;
something wanting.

deltoid (deTtoid): a muscle of the
shoulder.

dense (dens): close; thick; heavy.

deodorant (de-6'der-ant) : a substance
that removes or conceals offensive
odors.

depilatory (de-pil'a-to-re) : a sub-
stance used to dissolve or remove
the hair.

deportment (de-port'ment) : manner
of conduct or behavior.

depressor (de-pres'er) : that which
presses or draws down; a muscle
that depresses.

depressor alae nasi (ale na'si): de-
pressor septi; a muscle which con-
tracts the opening of the nostril.

depressor anguli oris (ang'u-li or'is):
triangularis; a muscle that depresses
the corner of the mouth.

depressor labii inferioris (la'be-I in-
fe-re-6r'is) : quadratus labii inferi-
oris; a muscle that depresses lower
lip down and a little to one side.

derivative (de-riv'a-tiv) : anything ob-
tained from another substance.

derma (dur'ma): the true skin; the
corium; the sensitive layer of the
skin below the epidermis.

dermal (dur'mal): pertaining to the
skin.

dermatician (dur-ma-tish'an) : one
skilled in the treatment of the skin.

dermatitis (dur-ma-ti'tis) : inflamma-
tion of the skin.

dermatitis combustiones (kom-bus-ti-
6'nes): a type of dermatitis pro-
duced by extreme heat.

dermatitis medicamentosa (me-dik-a-
men-to'sa): a type of dermatitis
caused by the internal use of medi-
cines, such as bromides.

dermatitis seborrheica (seb-6-re'i-ka):
a type of dermatitis found co-exist-
ent with seborrhea.

dermatitis venenata (ve-ne-na'ta) : in-
flammation of the skin caused by
the action of an irritant substance
such as hair dye.

dermatologist (dur-ma-tol'o-jist): a
specialist who understands the sci-
ence of treating the skin and its dis-
eases.

dermatology (dur-ma-tol'o- je) : the
science which treats of the skin and
its diseases.

dermatosis (dur-ma-to'sis) : any di-
sease of the skin.

dermis, derma (dur'mis, dur'ma): the
layer below the epidermis; the co-
rium or true skin.

detergent (de-tur'jent): an agent that
cleanses the skin.

device (de-visO: an apparatus for a
particular use and purpose.

dexterity (deks-ter'i-te): skill and
ease in using the hands.

di (di): a prefix denoting two-fold;
double; twice; separation or revers-
al.

dia (di'a): a prefix denoting through;
apart; asunder; between.

diagnosis (di-ag-no'sis) : the recogni-
tion of a disease from its symptoms.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, £vent, end, recent, ever; ice,

DIAPHRAGM

479

diaphragm (di'a-f ram) : a muscular
wall which separates the chest from
the abdomen.

diathermy (di'a-thur-me): an instru-
ment capable of generating a high-
frequency current and elevating of
temperature in the deep tissues.

diet (di'et): a course of food selected
with reference to a particular state
of health.

digestion (di-jes'chun): the process of
converting food into a form which can
be readily absorbed by the body.

digits (dij'its): fingers or toes.

dilatator; dilator (di-la-ta'-ter; di-; di-
la'ter; di-): that which expands or
enlarges a cavity or an opening.

dilator naris anterior (na'ris an-te're-
er): a muscle which expands the
opening of the nostril.

dilute (di-luf; di-): to make thinner
by mixing, especially with water.

diphtheria (dif-the're-a) : an infectious
disease involving the air passages,
and the throat.

diplococcus (di-plo-kok'us) : a coccus
occurring in pairs; bacterium caus-
ing pneumonia.

dis (dis): a prefix denoting apart;
away; asunder; between.

ELECTRODE

discharge (dis-charj): the escape or
flowing away of the contents of a
cavity.

disease (di-zez): a pathologic condi-
tion of any part or organ of the
body, or of the mind.

disease carrier (kar'i-er): a healthy
person capable of transmitting dis-
ease germs to another person.

disinfectant (dis-in-f ek'tant) : an ag-
ent used for destroying germs.

dispensary (dis-pen'sa-ri): a place
where medicines or other supplies
are prepared and dispensed.

dissolve (di-zolv): to make a solution
of; to break up.

distal (dis'tal): farthest from the cen-
ter or median line.

dormant (dor'mant): inactive; asleep.

dorsal (dor'sal): pertaining to the
back.

duct (dukt): a passage or canal for
fluids.

dye (di): to stain or color.

dye remover (re-mobv'er) : a chemical
liquid used to remove old dye from
the hair.

dynamo (di'na-mo): a machine for
changing mechanical energy into
electrical power.

ecto (ek'to): a prefix denoting with-
out; outside; external.

eczema (ek'ze-ma): an inflammatory
itching disease of the skin.

efferent (ef'er-ent): carrying outward,
as efferent nerves carrying impulses
away from the central nervous sys-
tem.

efficiency (e-fish'en-se): usefulness;
quality or degree of being able to
produce results.

effleurage (e-flu-razh') : a stroking
movement in massage.

Egyptian henna (e-jip'shan hen'a): a
pure vegetable hair dye.

elasticity (e-las'tis'i-te) : the quality
of being elastic.

electrical (e-lek'tri-kal) : consisting of,
containing, producing, or operated
by electricity.

electricity (e-lek-tris'i-te): a form of
energy, which when in motion, ex-
hibits magnetic, chemical or thermal
effects.

electricity, fractional (f rik'shon-al) :
a kind of electricity produced by
rubbing certain objects together.

electricity, induced or inductive (in-
dust or in-duk'tiv): a kind of elec-
tricity produced by nearness to an
electrified body.

electricity, magnetic (mag-net'ik) : a
kind of electricity developed by
bringing a conductor near the poles
of a magnet.

electricity, static (stat'ik): frictional
electricity.

electricity, voltaic (vol-ta'ik): galvan-
ic or chemical electricity.

electrification (e-lek'tri-f i-ka'shun) :
the application of electricity to the
body by holding an electrode in the
hand and charging the body with
electricity.

electrode (e-lek'trod): an applicator
for directing the use of electricity on
a customer.

fll; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

ELECTROLOGY

480

EXPERT

electrology (e-lek-trol'6- je) : science
in relation to electricity.

electrolysis (e-lek-troH-sis) : decomp-
osition of a chemical compound or
body tissues by means of electricity.

electrolytic cup (e-lek-tro-lit'ik kup):
an appliance used to cleanse the
skin, before giving a massage.

electron (e-lek'tron) : an extremely
minute body or charge of negative
electricity.

electropositive (e-lek"tr6-p6z'i-tiv) :
relating to or charged with positive
electricity.

element (eTe-ment): a simple sub-
stance, one which is incapable of
being split up into other substances.

elimination (e-lim-i-na'shun): act of
expelling or excreting.

embellish (em-beTish): to make beau-
tiful or decorate.

embryo (em'bre-o): in the first stages
of development; a bud.

emollient (e-mol'yent): an agent that
softens or soothes the surface of the
skin.

emotion (e-mo'shun): mental excite-
ment.

emulsion (e-mul'shun) : a milky fluid
obtained by suspending oil in water.

endo (en'do): a prefix denoting inner;
within.

endocrine (en'do-krin) : any internal
secretion or hormone.

endosteum (en-dos'te-um) : the mem-
brane covering the inner surface of
bone in the medullary cavity.

energy (en'er'je): power or capacity
for performing work.

environment (en-vi'run-ment) : the
surrounding conditions.

enzyme (en'zim): a complex organic
substance which affects the rate of
chemical reactions.

epi (ep-i): a prefix denoting upon: be-
side.

epicranium (ep-i-kran'm-um) : the
structure covering the cranium.

epicranius (ep-i-kra'ne-us) : the occip-
ito-frontalis; the scalp muscle.

epidemic (ep-i-dem'ik) : common to
many people; a prevailing disease.

epidermis (ep-i-dur'mis) : the outer
epithelial portion of the skin.

epithelium (ep-i-the'le'um) : a cellular
tissue or membrane, covering a free
surface or lining a cavity.

eponychium (ep-6-mk'e-um): the ex-
tension of excess cuticle at base of
nail.

erector (e-rek'ter) : an elevating mus-
cle.

eruption (e-riip'shun) : a skin lesion
due to a disease, marked by redness
or papular condition, or both.

erysipelas (er-i-sip'e-les) : an acute in-
fectious disease accompanied by a
spreading inflammation of the skin
and mucous membrane.

erythema (er-i-the'ma) : a superficial
blush or redness of the skin.

erythrocyte (e-rith'ro-sit) : a red blood
cell; red corpuscle.

eschar (es'kar): a dry slough, crust,
or scab following a burn.

esophagus; oesophagus (e-sof'a-gus):
the canal leading from the pharynx
to the stomach.

esthetic; aesthetic (es-thet'ik): relating
to sensation, either mental or phys-
ical.

ethics (eth'iks): principles of good
character and proper conduct.

ethmoid (eth'moid): a bone forming
part of the walls of the nasal cavity.

etiology (e-te-61'o-je) : the science of
the causes of disease.

evaporation (e-vap-6-ra'shun): change
from liquid to vapor form.

ex (eks): a prefix denoting out of;
from; away from.

excitation (ek-si-ta'shun) : the act of
stimulating or irritating.

excoriation (eks-ko-re-a'shun) : act of
stripping or wearing off the skin; an
abrasion.

excretion (eks-kre'shun) : that which
is thrown off or eliminated from
the body.

exercise (ek'ser-slz) putting muscles
into action.

exfoliation (eks-f o-le-a'shun) : the
process of throwing off scales from
the skin, as in dandruff.

exhalation (eks-ha-la'shun) : the act
of breathing outward.

exhaustion (eg-zos'chun) : loss of vital
and nervous power from fatigue or
disease.

expansion (eks-pan'shun) : distention;
dilation or swelling.

expert (eks'purt): an experienced per-
son; one who has special knowledge
or skill in a particular subject.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, (jvent, end, recent, ever; ice,

EXTENSIBILITY

481

extensibility (eks-ten-si-bil'i-ti) : cap-
able of being extended or stretched.

extensor (eks-ten'sor) : a muscle which
serves to extend or straighten out a
limb or part.

exterior (eks-te're-er) : outside.

external (eks-tur'nal) : pertaining to
the outside.

externus (eks-tur'nus) : external; per-
taining to the outside.

extremity (eks-trem'i-te) : the distant
end or part of any organ; a hand or
foot.

FREE EDGE

exudation (eks-u-da'shun) : act of dis-
charging from a body through pores
or cuts as sweat, moisture or other
liquid; oozing out.

eye (I): the organ of vision.

eyeball (I-bol): the globe of the eye.

eyebrow (i'brou): the hair, skin and
tissue above the eye.

eyelashes (Ilesh-es): the hair of the
eyelids.

eyelid (Hid): the protective covering
of the eyeball.

facial (fa'shal): pertaining to the face;
the seventh cerebral nerve.

Fahrenheit (f a'ren-hit) : pertaining to
the Fahrenheit thermometer or
scale; water freezes at 32° F. and
boils at 212° F.

faradism (f ar'a-diz'm) : a form of elec-
trical treatment used for stimulating
activity of the tissues.

fascia (fash'e-a): a sheet of connective
tissue covering the muscles and sep-
arating their layers.

fat (fat): a greasy, soft-solid material
found in animal tissue.

fatigue (fa-tegO: body or mental ex-
haustion.

favus (fa'vus): a contagious parasitic
disease of the skin, with crusts.

feather edge (feth'er ej): a haircutting
term; a very thin fringe of hair re-
sembling the edge of a feather.

fetid (fet'id; fa'tid): having a foul
smell; stinking.

fever (fe'ver): rise of body tempera-
ture.

fever blister (blis'ter): an acute skin
disease characterized by the pres-
ence of vesicles over an inflamma-
tory base; herpes simplex.

fiber; fibre (fl'ber): a slender thread
or filament; thread-like in structure.

fibrin (fi'brm): the active agent in co-
agulation of the blood.

fibrous (fi'brus): containing, consisting
of, or like fibers.

finesse (fi-nes): delicate skill.

finger (fm'ger): one of the digits of
the hand.

fissure (fish'ur): a narrow opening
made by separation of parts; a fur-
row; a slit.

flabby (flab'e): lacking firmness; flac-
cid.

flagella (fla-jel'a): slender hair-like
parts which permit movement in
certain bacteria.

flexible (flek'si-b'l) : that which may
be bent; not stiff.

flexor (flek'sor): a muscle that bends
or flexes a part or a joint.

florid (flor'id): flushed with red.

fluid (flob'id): a non-solid liquid.

foam (fom): white bubbles forming
on the surface of a liquid as a result
of mixing or decomposition.

folliculitis (fo-Hk-u-li'tis): an inflam-
mation of any follicle.

foramen (fo-ra'men): a passage or op-
ening through a bone or membrane.

formaldehyde (f or-maTde-hld) : a pun-
gent gas possessing powerful disin-
fectant properties.

formalin (f or'ma-lin) : a 37% to 40%
solution of formaldehyde.

formula (for'mu-la): a prescribed me-
thod or rule; a recipe or prescription.

fossa (fos'a): pi., fossae (-e): a de-
pression, furrow or sinus, below the
level of the surface of a part.

fragilitas crinium (fra-jil'i-tas kri'ne-
um): brittleness of the hair.

frayed (frad): worn away by friction
or use.

freckle (frek"l): a yellow or brown
spot on the skin; lentigo.

free edge (fre ej): part of the nail-
body extending over the ringer tip.

ill; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

FREQUENCY 482

frequency (f re'kwen-se) : the number
of complete cycles of current pro-
duced by an alternating current
generator per second. Standard fre-
quencies are 25 and 60 cycles per
second.

friction (frik'shun): the resistance met
in rubbing one body on another.

frontal (frun'tal): in front; relating to
the forehead; the bone of the fore-
head.

frontalis (f ron-ta'lis) : anterior portion
of the epicranius; muscle of the
scalp.

fulling (fdol'ing): a massage move-
ment in which the limb is rolled
back and forth between the hands.

GUMMA

fumigate (fu'mi-gat): disinfect by the
action of smoke or fumes.

function (f unk'shun) : a normal or spe-
cial action of a part.

fundus (fun'dus): the bottom or low-
est part of a sac or hollow organ.

fungus (fun'gus): a vegetable para-
site; a spongy growth of diseased
tissue on the body.

furrow (fur'6): a groove; wrinkle.

furuncle (f u-run'k'l) : a boil.

fuse (fuz): a special device which pre-
vents excessive current from pass-
ing through a cirruit.

galea (gale-a): the aponeurotic por-
tion of the occipito-frontalis muscle.

galvanism (garva-mz'm) : a constant
current of electricity the action of
which is chemical.

ganglion (gan'gle-an) ; pi., ganglia (-a):
bundles of nerve cells in the brain,
in organs of special sense, or forming
units of the sympathetic nervous
system.

gangrene (gan-grenO: the dying of
tissue due to interference with local
nutrition.

gastric juice (gas'trik jobs): the diges-
tive fluid secreted by the glands of
the stomach.

generator (jen'er-a-ter): a machine
for changing mechanical energy into
electrical energy; a dynamo; an ap-
paratus for producing heat.

germ (jurm): a bacillus; a microbe.

germicide (jur'mi-sid): any chemical,
especially a solution that will de-
stroy germs.

germinative layer (jur-mi-na'tiv la'-
er): stratum germinativum; the
deepest layer of the epidermis rest-
ing on the corium.

germitabs (jur'mi-tabs): a trade name;
special tablets, which, when dis-
solved in water, form an antiseptic
solution.

gland (gland): a secretory organ of
the body.

glossopharyngeal (glos-6-f a-rm'je-al) :
pertaining to the tongue and phar-
ynx; the ninth cerebral nerve.

glycerin; glycerine (glis'er-in) : sweet
oily fluid, used as an application for
roughened and chapped skin; also
used as a solvent.

gonococcus (gon-6-kok'us) ; pi., gono-
cocci (-se): the germ causing gon-
orrhea.

gonorrhea (gon-6-re'a) : a contagious
disease of the sex organs.

granular layer (gran'u-lar la'er): the
stratum granulosum of the skin.

granules (gran'ulz): small grains;
small pills.

granulosum (gran'u-los'um) : granular
layer of the epidermis.

great auricular (grat o-rik'u-lar) : a
nerve affecting the face, ear and
skin behind the ear.

greater occipital (grat'er ok-sip'e-tal) :
nerve affecting the scalp and back
of the head as far up as the top
of the head.

gristle (gris"l): cartilage.

groom (groom): to make neat or tidy.

ground wire (ground wir): a wire
which connects an electric current
to a ground (waterpipe or radiator).

gumma (gum'a): the gummy tumor
in the tertiary stage of syphilis.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, £vent, end, recent, ever; ice,

HABIT

483

HERPES

habit (hab'it): an acquired tendency
to repetition.

hacking (hak'ing): a chopping stroke
made with the edge of the hand in
massage.

hair (har): pilus; a slender thread-like
outgrowth of the skin and scalp.

hair bobbing (bob'ing): the term com-
monly applied to the cutting of wo-
men's and children's hair.

hair bulb (bulb): the lower extremity
of the hair.

hair clipping (klip'ing): removing the
hair by the use of hair clippers; re-
moving split hair ends of the hair
with the scissors.

haircutting (har'kut'ing) : cutting and
molding the hair into a becoming
style.

hair dressing (har dres'mg): art of
arranging the hair into various be-
coming shapes or styles.

hair dyeing (di'ing): to give the hair
new and permanent color by im-
pregnating it with a coloring agent.

hair follicle (fol'i-k'l): the depression
in the skin containing the root of
the hair.

hairline (har'lin): the edge of the
scalp at the brow or neck where the
hair growth begins.

hair papilla (har pa-pil'a): a small
cone-shaped elevation at the bottom
of the hair follicle.

hair pressing (pres'mg): a method of
straightening curly or kinky hair by
means of a heated iron or comb.

hair pressing oil (oil): an oily or waxy
mixture used in hair pressing.

hair restorer (re-stor'er) : a prepara-
tion containing a metallic dye.

hair root (root): that part of the hair
contained within the follicle.

hair shaft (shaft): the portion of the
hair which projects beyond the skin.

hair shaping (shaping): the art of
haircutting.

hair straightener (strat'n-er) : a phy-
sical or chemical agent used in
straightening kinky or over-curly
hair.

hair test (test): a sampling of how
the hair will react to a particular
treatment.

hair tint (tint): to give a coloring to
the hair; color or shade of hair.

hair trim (trim): trimming; cutting
the hair lightly over the already ex-
isting formed lines.

halitosis (haT'i-to'sis) : offensive odor
from the mouth; foul breath.

hamamelis (ham-a-me'lis) : a shrub of
eastern North America; witch-hazel
is an extract of this plant, and is
used as an astringent.

hangnail (hang'nal): a tearing up of a
strip of epidermis at the side of the
nail; agnail.

hard water (hard wo'ter): water con-
taining certain minerals; does not
lather with soap.

Haversian canals (ha-vur'shan ka-
nalzO: small channels in bone tissue
which contain minute blood vessels.

health (helth): state of being hale or
sound in body and mind.

heart (hart): a hollow muscular organ
which, by contracting regularly keeps
up the circulation of the blood.

hematidrosis; hemidrosis (hem"a-ti-
dro'sis, hem-i-dro'sis) : the excretion
of sweat stained with blood or blood
coloring.

hematocyte (he'ma-to-sit) : a blood
corpuscle.

hemi (hem'i): a prefix signifying half.

hemoglobin; haemoglobin (he"m6-gl6'-
bin): the coloring matter of the
red blood cell.

hemorrhage (hem'6-raj): bleeding; a
flow of blood, especially when pro-
fuse.

henna (hen'a) : the leaves of an Asiatic
plant used as a dye to impart a red-
dish tint.

henna, compound (kom'pound): Egyp-
tian henna to which has been added
one or more metallic preparations.

henna, white (whit): a mixture of
magnesium carbonate, peroxide and
ammonia used in giving a bleach
retouch.

heredity (he-red'i-ti) : the transfer of
qualities or disease from parents to
offspring.

herpes (hiir'pez): an inflammatory di-
sease of the skin having small vesi-
cles in clusters.

ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

HERPES SIMPLEX

herpes simplex (sim'pleks): fever blis-
ter; cold sore.

hidrosis (hi-dro'sis) : abnormally pro-
fuse sweating.

high-frequency, tesla (hi-fre'kwen-se,
tes'la): violet ray; an electric current
of medium voltage and medium am-
perage.

hirsute (hur'sut; her-sut'); hirsuties.

hirsuties (hur-su'shi-ez) ; hypertricho-
sis; growth of an unusual amount of
hair in unusual locations, as on the
face of women or the back of men;
hairy; superfluous hair.

histology (his-tol'o-je): the science of
the minute structure of organic tis-
sues; microscopic anatomy.

hives (hivz): urticaria; a skin eruption.

hormone (hor'mon): a chemical sub-
stance formed in one organ or part
of the body and carried in the blood
to another organ or part which it
stimulates to functional activity.

humidity (hu-mid'i-ti) : moisture;
dampness.

hydro (hl'dro): a prefix denoting wa-
ter; hydrogen.

hydrocystoma (hid-ro-sis-to'ma) : a
variety of sudamina appearing on
the face.

484

INFECTION, LOCAL

hydrogen (hi'dro-jen): a gaseous ele-
ment, lighter than any other known
substance.

hydrogen peroxide (per-ok'sid) : a
powerful oxidizing and bleaching
agent; in liquid form is used as an
antiseptic.

hygiene (hi-jen): the science of pre-
serving health.

hygroscopic (hi-gro'skop'ik): readily
absorbing and holding moisture.

hyoid (hi'-oid): the "u" shaped bone at
the base of the tongue.

hyperemia (hi"per-e'me-a) : the pres-
ence of an excessive quantity of
blood in a part of the body.

hyperhidrosis, hyperidrosis (hi"per-i-
dro'sis) : excessive sweating.

hypersecretion (hr"per-se-kre'shun) :
excessive secretion.

hypertrophy (hi"per-tr6'fe) : abnormal
increase in the size or a part of an
organ; overgrowth.

hypo (hi'po): a prefix denoting under;
beneath; lower state of oxidation.

hypodermic (hr'po-dur'mik) : beneath
the skin; a liquid injection into the
subcutaneous tissues.

hypoglossal (hr'po-glos'al): under the
tongue; the twelfth cerebral nerve.

idiosyncrasy (id-e-6-sm'kra-se) : an
individual characteristic due to the
action of certain drugs or substances
in certain food.

imbrications of hair: tiny overlapping
scales found on the hair cuticle.

immerse (I-mursO: to plunge into; dip
into a liquid.

immiscible (i-mis'i-b'l) : a liquid that
will not mix with another liquid.

immunity (i-mun'i-te) : resistant to
disease.

impetigo (im-pe-ti'go) : an eruption of
pustules, which soon rupture or be-
come crusted, occurring chiefly on
the face around the mouth and the
nostrils.

impetigo contagiosa (k6n-ta"je-6'sa):
scrum-pox; a contagious disease,
characterized by an eruption of flat
vesicles and pustules.

implement (im'ple-ment) : an instru-
ment or tool used by man to ac-
complish a given work.

in (in): a prefix denoting not; nega-
tive; within; inside.

incandescent (m-kan-des'ent) : giving
forth light and heat.

incubation (in-ku-ba'shun) : the per-
iod of a disease between the im-
planting of the contagion and the
development of the symptoms.

index (in'deks): the forefinger; the
pointing finger.

induction (m-duk'shun) : the transfer
of electricity from a current to a
magnetized object.

inert (m-urt): inactive.

infection (m-f ek'shun) : the invasion
of the body tissues by disease germs.

infection, general (jen'er-el): the re-
sult of the disease germs gaining
entrance into the blood stream and
thereby circulating throughout the
entire body.

infection, local (16'kal): confined to
only certain portions of the body,
such as an abscess.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, £vent, end, recent, ever; ice,

INFECTIOUS

infectious (m-f ek'shus) : capable of
spreading infection.

inferior (in-fe're-er): situated lower
down, or nearer the bottom or base.

inferioris (in-f e"re-6r'is) : below;
lower.

inflammation (in-na-ma'shun) : the re-
action of the body to irritation with
accompanying redness, pain, heat,
and swelling.

influenza (in-fldb-en'za) : a contagious
epidemic catarrhal fever, with great
weakness and varying symptoms.

infra (m'fra) : a prefix denoting below;
lower.

infra-mandibular (m''fra-man-dib'u-
lar): below the lower jaw.

infra-mental (men'tal): below the
chin.

infra-orbital (or'bi-tal): below the or-
bit; nerve affecting the skin of low-
er eyelid, side of nose, upper lip,
mouth and their glands.

infra-red (in"f ra-red) : pertaining to
that part of the spectrum lying out-
side of the visible spectrum and be-
low the red rays.

infra-trochlear (trokle-ar) : nerve af-
fecting the membrane and skin of
the nose.

ingrown hair (In'gron har): a wild
hair that has grown underneath the
skin, thereby causing an infection.

ingrown nail (m'gron nal): the growth
of the nail into the flesh instead of
toward the tip of the finger or toe,
thereby causing an infection.

inhalation (in-ha-la'shun) : the in-
breathing of air or other vapors.

innervation (in-er-va'shun) : distribu-
tion of the nerves in a part.

inoculation (m-ok-u-la'shun) : the
process by which protective agents
are introduced into the body.

inorganic (m-6r-gan'ik) : composed of
matter not relating to living organ-
isms.

insanitary; unsanitary (i-san'i-ta-re) ;
un-); not sanitary or healthful; in-
jurious to health; unclean.

485 JUGULAR

insoluble (in-sol'u-b'l) : incapable of
being dissolved or very difficult to
dissolve.

instantaneous (m-stan-ta'ne-us) : act-
ing immediately.

insulator (in'su-la-ter) : a non-con-
ducting material or substance. Ma-
terials used to cover electric wires.

insurance (m-shobr'ans) : protection
against loss, damage or injury.

integument (in-teg'u-ment) : a cover-
ing, especially the skin.

inter (m'ter): a prefix denoting amid;
between; among.

intercellular (m-ter-sel'u-lar) : be-
tween or among cells.

interior (in-te're-er) : inside.

internal (m-tur'nal) : pertaining to the
inside; inner part.

interims (in-tur'nus) : internal; per-
taining to the inside.

interosseous (m-ter-os'e-us) : lying be-
tween or connecting bones.

intestine (m-tes'tm) : the digestive
tube from the stomach to the anus.

invasion (in-va'zhun) : the beginning
of a disease.

involuntary muscle (In-v6run-ta-re
musl): function without the action
of the will.

iodine d'6-dm; -din): a non-metallic
element used as an antiseptic for
cuts, bruises, etc.

ion (I'on): an atom or group of atoms
carrying an electric charge.

ionization (I-6n-i-za'shun) : the separ-
ating of a substance into ions.

irradiation (i-ra"di-a'shun) : the pro-
cess of exposing an object to the
natural or artificial sunlight.

irritability (ir-i-ta-bil'i-ti) : readily ex-
cited or stimulated.

irritant (ir'i-tant): causing irritation;
an irritating agent; a stimulus.

ive (iv): a word ending meaning re-
lating or belonging to, such as
active.

ize (iz): a word ending forming verbs,
such as sterilize.

jowl (jol): the hanging part of a

double chin.
joint (joint): a connection between

two or more bones.

jugular ( joo'gu-lar) : pertaining to the
neck or throat; the large vein in the
neck.

HI; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

KELOID

486

LOTION

keloid (keloid): a fibrous growth
arising from irritation and usually
from a scar.

keratin (ker'a-tm): the principal con-
stituent of horny tissues, hair, nails
and feathers.

kidney (kid'ne): a glandular organ
which excretes urine.

kilowatt (klTo-wot): one thousand
watts of electricity.

kinky (kmk'i): very curly hair.

knead (ned): to work and press with
the hands as in massage.

knowledge (nol'ej): instruction; learn-
ing; practical skill.

laboratory (lab'6-ra-to-re) : a room
containing apparatus for conducting
experiments.

lachrymal; lacrimal (lak'ri-mal) : per-
taining to tears or weeping; bone at
front part of inner wall of the orbit.

lac tea Is (lak'te-alz): any one of the
lymphatics of the small intestines
that take up the chyle.

lanolin (lan'6-lin): purified wool fat.

lanugo (la-nu'go): the fine hair which
covers most of the body.

larkspur (lark'spur): the seeds of the
Delphinium plant; its tincture is
used to treat head lice.

larynx (lar'mks): the upper part of
the trachea or wind pipe; the organ
of voice production.

lateral (lat'er-al): on the side.

lather (lath'er): froth made by mix-
ing soap and water.

latissimus dorsi (la-tis'i-mus dor'si):
a broad, flat superficial muscle of
the back.

laxative (lak'sa-tiv) : a medicinal agent
which relieves constipation.

layer cutting (la'er kut'ing): tapering
and thinning the hair by dividing
it into many thin layers.

lemon rinse (lem'un rins): a product
containing lemon juice or citric acid;
used to lighten the color of the hair.

lentigo (len-tl'go): pi., lentigines (len-
ti-jl'nez): a freckle; spot or colora-
tion in the skin.

lesion (le'zhun): a structural tissue
change caused by injury or disease.

lesser (smaller) occipital (les'er 6k-
sip'i-tal): the nerve supplying scalp
area at the base of the skull.

leuco (lu'ko): a prefix denoting white;
colorless.

leucocyte (lu'ko-sit): a white corpus-
cle; white blood cell.

leucoderma (lu-ko-dur'ma) : abnormal
white patches on the skin; absence
of color in the skin.

leuconychia (lu-ko-mk'e-a) : a whitish
discoloration of nails; white spots.

levator (le-va'tor): a muscle that ele-
vates a part.

levator anguli oris (ang'u-li or'is): ca-
ninus; muscle that raises the angle
of mouth and helps to keep it closed.

levator labii superioris (la'be-I su-pe-
re-6r'is): quadratus labii superioris;
muscle that elevates and draws back
upper lip and dilates the nostril.

levator palpebrae superioris (pal'pe-
bre): muscle that raises upper eye-
lid.

ligament (Hg'a-ment) : a tough band
of fibrous tissue, serving to support
bones at the joints.

light therapy (lit ther'a-pe): the ap-
plication of light rays for treatment
of diseases.

liquefy (lik'we-fi): to reduce to the
liquid state; said of both solids and
gases.

liquid (Hk'wid): flowing like water; a
fluid that is not solid or gaseous.

liquor cresolis compound (Kk'er kre'
sol'is kom'pound): a powerful ger-
micide.

listerine (Hs-ter-enO : a trade name; a
mild antiseptic in liquid form.

litmus paper (Ht'mus pa'per): strip of
paper containing a blue coloring
matter that is reddened by acids
and turned blue again by alkalies.

liver (H'ver): an internal organ which
secretes bile for digestion.

liver spots (liv'er spots): the lesions
of chloasma.

locomotion (lo-ko-mo'shun) : animal
movement.

lotion (16'shun): a liquid solution used
for bathing the skin.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, £vent, end, recent, ever; ice,

LOUSE

487

louse (lous); pi., lice (Us): pediculus;
an animal parasite infesting the
hairs of the head.

lubricant (lu'bri-kant) : anything that
makes things smooth and slippery,
such as oil.

lung (lung): one of the two organs of
respiration.

lunula (lu'nu-la): the half moon-
shaped area at the base of the nail.

MENTAL NERVE

lymph (Hmf): a clear yellowish or
light straw colored fluid.

lymphatic system (Hm-fat'ik sis'tem):
consists of lymph flowing through
the lymph spaces, lymph vessels,
lacteals, and lymph nodes or glands.

lysol (li'sol): a trade name; a disin-
fectant and antiseptic; a mixture of
soaps and phenols.

macroscopic (mak-ro-skop'ik) : visible

to the unaided eye.
macula (mak'u-la); pi., maculae (-le):
a spot or discoloration level with
skin; a freckle; macule.
magnet (mag'net) : an instrument hav-
ing the power to attract iron bodies.
magnify (mag'ni-fl): to increase the

size or importance of.
malar (ma'lar): of or pertaining to the

cheek; the cheek bone.
malignant (ma-lig'nant) : resistant to
treatment; growing worse; occurring
in severe form.

malnutrition (mal-nu-trish'un) : poor
nutrition resulting from the eating
of improper foods or faulty assim-
ilation.

malpighian (mal-pig'e-an) : stratum
mucosum; the deeper portion of the
epidermis.
management (man'aj-ment): directing;

carrying on; control.
mandible (man'di-b'l): the lower jaw

bone.

mandibular nerve (man-dib'u-lar
nurv): branch of the fifth cerebral
nerve which supplies the temple,
auricle of ear, lower lip, lower part
of face and muscles of mastication.
manipulation (ma-nip-u-la'shun): act
or process of treating, working or
operating with the hands or by me-
chanical means, especially with skill.
manus (ma'nus); pi., mani (-ni): the

hand.

marrow (mar'6): a soft fatty sub-
stance filling the cavities of bone.
mask (mask): a special cosmetic form-
ula used to beautify the face.
massage (ma-sazhO: systematic manip-
ulations of body tissues with the
hands and/or mechanical or elec-
trical appliances.

masseter (ma-se'ter): a chewer; the
muscle which closes the jaws.

masseur (ma-surO: a man who prac-
tices massage. ,

masseuse (ma-suzO: a woman who
practices massage.

mastication (mas-ti-ka'shun) : the act
of chewing.

mastoid process (mas'toyd pros'es): a
conical nipple-like projection of the
temporal bone.

matter (mat'er): pus; a substance that
occupies space and has weight.

maxilla (mak-si'la): jaw bone.

maxilla, inferior (m-fe're-er): lower
jaw bone or mandible.

maxilla, superior (su-pe're-er) : upper
jaw bone.

mechanical (me-kan'i-kal) : relating to
a machine; performed by means of
some apparatus not manual.

medial; median (me'de-al; -an): per-
taining to the middle.

medicine (med'i-sin): a drug; the art
of preventing or curing disease.

medius (me'de-us): the middle finger.

medulla (me-duTa) : the marrow in the
various bone cavities; pith of the hair.

medulla oblongata (ob-lon-ga'ta) : the
lowest, or posterior part of the brain,
continuous with the spinal cord.

medullary space (med'u-la-re spas):
the cavity through the shaft of the
long bones.

mega (meg'a): a prefix denoting great;
extended; powerful; a million.

melanin (mel'a-nm) : the dark or black

coloring which imparts various

shades of coloring to skin and hair.

membrane (mem'bran): a thin layer

of tissue, serving as a covering.
mental nerve (men'tal nurv): a nerve
which supplies the skin of the lower
lip and chin.

ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

MENTALIS

mentalis (men-ta'lis) : the muscle that
elevates and pushes up the lower lip.

mercurochrome (mer-ku'ro-krom) : a
trade name; a germicide.

mercury bichloride (mur'ku-re bi-klo'-
rid): a powerful germicide, poison-
ous and also corrosive to metal.

mercury cyanide (si'a-md): a power-
ful germicide, very poisonous.

meso (mes'6): a prefix denoting in the
middle; intermediate.

meta (met'a): a prefix signifying over;
beyond; among.

metabolism (me-tab'6-liz'm) : the con-
structive and destructive life pro-
cesses of the cell.

metacarpus (met-a-kar'pus) : the bones
of the palm of the hand.

metatarsus (met-a-tar'sus) : the bones
which make up the instep of the
foot.

metallic (me-tal'ik): relating to, or re-
sembling metal.

meter (me'ter): an instrument used
for measuring; a measure of length,
the basis of the metric system.

metric (met'rik): pertaining to the
meter as a standard of measurement.

micro (mi'kro) : a prefix denoting very
small; slight; millionth part of.

microbe (ml'krdb): a micro-organism;
a minute one-celled vegetable bac-
terium.

micrococcus (mi-kro-kok'us) : a mi-
nute bacterial cell having a spherical
shape.

micro-organism (mi"kr6-6r'gan-iz'm') :
microscopic plant or animal cell; a
bacterium.

microscope (mi'kro-skop) : an instru-
ment for making enlarged views of
minute objects.

mid (mid): a prefix denoting the mid-
dle part.

milliampere (mil-e-am-par) : one thou-
sandth of an ampere.

milliamperemeter (-me'ter): an elec-
trical instrument which registers the
amount of current required for a
given treatment.

miliaria (mil-e-a're-a) : an eruption of
minute blisters at the mouths of the
sweat glands.

miliaria rubra (robb'ra): prickly heat;
burning and itching usually caused
by exposure to excessive heat.

488 MUSCLE OIL

miliary fever (rmTe-a-re fe'ver):
sweating sickness; an infectious di-
sease characterized by fever, profuse
sweating and sudamina.

milium (miFe-um); pi., milia (-a):
a small whitish pimple due to a re-
tention of sebum, beneath the epi-
dermis; a whitehead.

mineral (min'er-al) : any inorganic
material found in the earth's crust.

minor (min'er): smaller; lesser; under
age.

mitosis (mi-to'sis): indirect nuclear
division, the usual process of repro-
duction of the human cells.

mobility (mo-bil'i-ti) : being easily
moved.

mode (mod): fashion; way; style.

mold; mould (mold): to form into a
particular shape.

mole (mol): a small brownish spot on
the skin.

molecule (mol'e-kul): the smallest
possible unit of existence of any
substance.

monilethrix (mo-nil'e-thriks) : a con-
dition in which the hairs show
bead-like enlargements along the
shaft and become brittle; beaded
hair.

morbid (mor'bid): diseased.

motile (mo'til): having the power of
movement, as certain bacteria.

motor nerves (mo'ter mirvz): carry
impulses from nerve centers to mus-
cles for certain motions.

motor oculi (ok'u-H): oculomotor;
third cerebral nerve; the nerve con-
trolling most of the eye muscles.

mucous membrane (mu-kus mem'-
bran): a membrane secreting mu-
cus.

mucus (mu'kus): the clear thick se-
cretion which lubricates the mu-
cous membranes found at natural
openings of the body.

mug (mug): a cup used for shaving
soap.

muscle (mus"l): the contractile tissue
of the body by which movement is
accomplished.

muscle oil (oil): an oil, vegetable or
mineral, in which either lecithin or
cholesterin is dissolved; used in con-
junction with massage to relieve fa-
tigue and sore muscles.

fate, senate, care, fan, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, event, end, recent, ever; Ice,

MUSCLE STRAPPING

muscle strapping (strap'ing): a heavy
massage treatment used to reduce
fatty deposits.

muscle tone (ton): the normal degree
of tension in a healthy muscle.

489 NON-STRIATED

myology (mi-61'6- je) : the science of
the function, structure, and diseases
of muscles.

naevus; nevus (ne'vus); pi., naevi;
nevi (vi): a birthmark; a congenital
skin blemish.

nail (nal): unguis; the horny protect-
ive plate located at the end of the
finger or toe.

nail-bed (bed): that portion of the
skin on which the body of the nail
rests.

nail-body (bod'e): the horny nail
blade resting upon the nail-bed.

nail-fold (f old) : _nail-wall.

nail-grooves (groovz): the furrows be-
tween the nail-walls and the nail-
bed.

nail matrix (ma'triks): the portion of
the nail-bed extending beneath the
nail-root.

nail-root (root): located at the base of
the nail, imbedded underneath the
skin.

nail-wall (wol): cuticle covering the
sides and base of the nail body.

nape (nap) : the back part of the neck.

naris (na'ris); pi., nares (-rez): a nos-
tril.

nasalis (na-sa'lis): a muscle of the
nose.

nasociliary (na-zo-sfl'ya-re) : a nerve
affecting the mucous membrane of
the nose.

neck duster (nek dus'ter): a brush
used to brush the hair from the
neck after cutting; in most states its
use is prohibited.

neck line (nek lin): in hair cutting,
where the hair growth of the head
ends and the neck begins; hair line.

negative (neg'a-tiv): the opposite of
positive; expressing denial.

negative pole, N. or — (pol): the pole
from which negative current flows.

nerve (nurv) : a whitish cord, made up
of bundles of nerve fibers, through
which impulses are carried.

nerve papillae (pa-pil'e): a bundle of
nerve tissue in the derma.

nervous (nur'vus): easily excited.

network (net'wurk): any system of
lines crossing each other at certain
intervals.

neuritis (nu-ri'tis): inflammation of
nerves.

neurology (nu-rol'6- je) : the science of
the structure, function and pathol-
ogy of the nervous system.

neuron (nu'ron): the unit of the ner-
vous system, consisting of the nerve
cell and its various processes,

neurosis (nu-ro'sis): a functional ner-
vous disorder.

neutral (nu'tral): exhibiting no posi-
tive properties; indifferent; in chem-
istry, neither acid nor alkaline.

neutralization (nu-tral-i-za'shun) : the
rendering ineffective of any action
or process; a chemical reaction be-
tween an acid and a base.

neutralizer (nu'tral-iz-er) : an agent
capable of neutralizing another sub-
stance.

nevus (ne'vus): a birthmark.

nit (mt): the egg of a louse, usually
attached to a hair.

nitrogen (m'tro-jen): a colorless gas-
eous element, tasteless and odorless
found in air and living tissue.

node (nod): a knot or knob; a swell-
ing; a knuckle or finger joint.

nodosa (no-dos'a): having nodes or
knot-like swellings.

nodule (nod'ul): a small node.

non (non): a prefix denoting not.

non-conductor (non-kon-duk'ter) : any
substance that resists the passage of
electricity, light or heat towards or
through it.

non-pathogenic (non-path-6- jen'ik) :
non-disease producing; growth pro-
moting.

non-striated (stri'at-ed): involuntary
muscle function without the action
of the will; consists of spindle shaped
cells without striations; smooth mus-
cle.

Ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

NON-VASCULAR

490

OSIS

non-vascular (vas'ku-lar) : not sup-
plied with blood vessels.

nourishment (nur'ish-ment) : anything
which nourishes; nutriment; food.

noxious (nok'shus): harmful; poison-
ous.

nucleus (nu'kle-us); pi., nuclei (-1).

the active center of cells,
nutrition (nu-trish'un) : the process of

nourishment.

obese (6-bes): extremely fat.

oblique (ob-lek'; -Ilk); obliquis (-us);
slanting, or inclined.

obnoxious odor (6b-n6k'shus 6-der):
offensive ; hateful .

occipital (ok-sip'i-tal) : pertaining to
the back part of the head; the bone
which forms the back and lower
part of the cranium.

occipito-frontalis (ok-sip'i-to-fron-ta'-
lis): epicranius; the scalp muscle.

occiput (ok'si-put): the back of the
head.

occupational disease (ok-u-pa'shun-al
di-zez): due to certain kinds of em-
ployment, such as coming into con-
tact with chemicals, dyes, etc.

oculomotor (6k"u-16-m6'ter): third
cerebral nerve; controlling the mo-
tion of the eye.

oculus (ok'u-lus): pi., oculi (li): the
eye.

odor (6'der): smell.

offensive (6-fen'siv): giving offense;
disagreeable; obnoxious; distasteful.

ohm (6m): a unit of measurement
used to denote the amount of resist-
ance in an electrical system or de-
vice.

Ohm's law (om's 16): the simple state-
ment that the current in an electric
circuit is equal to the pressure di-
vided by the resistance.

oil (oil): a greasy liquid.

ointment (oint'ment): a fatty, medica-
ted mixture used externally.

olfactory (61-fak'to-re): relating to the
sense of smell; first cerebral nerve,
the special nerve of smell.

onychia (6-mk'e-a): inflammation of
the matrix of the nail with pus for-
mation and shedding of the nail

onychophagy (on-i-kof'a-je): the habit
of eating or biting the nails.

onychorrhexis (on-i-ko-rek'sis) : ab-
normal brittleness of the nails with
splitting of the free edge.

onyx (6-niks): a nail of the fingers
or toes.

opaque (6-pak): not transparent to
light.

operator (op'er-a-ter) : one who is
able to perform correctly any ser-
vice rendered professionally in the
care of the face, hair, etc.

ophthalmic (of-thal'mik) : pertaining
to the eye.

optic (op'tic): second cerebral nerve;
the nerve of sight; pertaining to the
eye, or to vision.

optimistic (op-ti-mis'tik) : hoping for
the best.

orbicular (or-bik'u-lar) : circular; a
muscle whose fibers are circularly
arranged.

orbicularis oculi (6k'u-H): orbicularis
palpebrarum; the ring muscle of the
eye.

orbicularis oris (or-bik'u-la'ris o'ris):
orbicular muscle; muscle of the
mouth.

orbit (or'bit): the bony cavity of the
eyeball; the eye-socket.

organ (6r-gan): any part of the body
exercising a specific function.

organic (or-gan'ik): relating to an or-
gan; pertaining to substances de-
rived from living organisms.

organism (or'gan-iz'm) : any living be-
ing, either animal or vegetable.

orifice (or'i-fis): a mouth; an opening.

origin (or'i-jin): the beginning; the
starting point of a nerve; the place
of attachment of a muscle to a bone.

oris (o'ris): pertaining to the mouth;
an opening.

orris root (or'is root): a special pow-
der used to give a dry shampoo.

os (6s): a bone.

osis (6'sis): a word ending denoting
an abnormal or a diseased condition.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, fcvent, end, recent, ever; ice,

OSMIDROSIS

osmidrosis (os-mi-dro'sis; 6z-): brom-
idrosis; foul smelling perspiration.

osmosis (os-mo'sis 6z-): the passage
of fluids and solution through a
membrane or other porous sub-
stance.

osseous; osseus (os'e-us): bony.

osteology (os-te-ol'o-je): science of
the anatomy, structure, and function
of bones.

491 PETROLEUM

Oudin current (<56'dm kur'rent): high
frequency current of high voltage
and low amperage.

oxidation (ok-si-da'shun): the act of
combining oxygen with another sub-
stance.

oxygen (ok'si-jen): a gaseous element,
essential to animal and plant life.

oxygenation (6k"si-je-na'shun): com-
bination with oxygen as the blood
passes through the lungs.

pack (pak): a special cosmetic formu-
la used to beautify the face.

palate (parat): the roof of the mouth
and the floor of the nose.

palatine bones (bonz): situated at the
back part of the nasal fossae.

palmar (pal'mar): referring to the
palm of the hand.

palpebra (pal'pe-bra); pi., palpebrae
(-bre): eyelid.

palpebrarum (pal-pe-bra'rum): of or
pertaining to the eyelids.

pancreas (pan'kre-as) : a gland con-
nected with the digestive tract.

papilla, hair (pa-pil'a, har): a small
cone-shaped elevation at the bottom
of the hair follicle in the dermis.

papillary layer (pap'i-la-re la'er): the
outer layer of the dermis.

papular (pap'u-lar): characterized by
papules.

papule (pap'ul): a pimple; a small,
enclosed elevation on the skin con-
taining no fluid.

para (pa'ra): a prefix denoting along-
side of; beyond; beside; against; near.

para-phenylene-diamine (par-a-fen'-
i-len-di-am'm; di'a-men): an aniline
derivative used in hair dyeing.

parasite (par'a-sit): a vegetable or ani-
mal organism which lives on or
in another organism, and draws its
nourishment therefrom.

parasiticide (par-a-sit'i-sid) : a sub-
stance that destroys parasites.

parietal (pa-ri'e-tal) : pertaining to the
wall of a cavity; a bone at the side
of the head.

paronychia (par-6-mk'e-a) : felon; an
inflammation of the tissues sur-
rounding the nail.

parotid (pa-rot'id): near the ear; a
gland near the ear.

patch test (pach test): a skin test used
to determine individual reaction to
a chemical substance.

pathogenic (path-6-jen'ik) : causing
disease; disease producing.

pathology (path-61'o-je): the science
which treats of modification of the
structural and functional changes
caused by disease.

patron (pa'trun): the person to whom
service is rendered.

pediculosis capitis (pe-dik"u-16'sis
kap'i-tis): lousiness of the hair of
the head.

percussion (per-kush'un) : a form of
massage consisting of repeated blows
or taps of varying force.

pH: symbol for hydrogen-ion concen-
tration; the relative degree of acid-
ity or alkalinity.

peri (per'i-): a prefix denoting about;
near; around.

periosteum (per-i-6s'te-um) : the fi-
brous membrane covering the sur-
face of the bones.

peripheral system (pe-rif'er-al sis-
tem): consists of the nerve endings
in the skin and sense organs.

peroxide rinse (rms): it is used to
lighten the color of the hair.

personality (pur-sun-al'i-ti) : the sum
total of physical and mental quali-
ties in a person.

perspiration (pur'spi-ra'shun) : sweat;
the fluid excreted from the sweat
glands of the skin.

petrissage (pet-ri-saj): the kneading
movement in massage.

petrolatum (pet-ro-la'tum) : petroleum
jelly; vaseline; a purified, yellow
mixture of semi-solid hydrocarbons
obtained from petroleum.

petroleum (pe-tro'le-um) : an oily li-
quid coming from the earth.

ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus;

PHAGOCYTE

492

POST

phagocyte (fag'6-sit): a cell possessing
the property of ingesting bacteria,
particles, and other harmful cells.

phalanx (falanks); pi., phalanges (fa-
lan'jez): the long bone of the finger
or toe.

pharynx (far'inks): the upper portion
of the digestive tube, behind the
nose and mouth.

phenol (fe'nol): carbolic acid; caus-
tic poison; in dilute solution is used
as an antiseptic and disinfectant.

phoresis (fo-re'sis): the process of in-
troducing solutions into the tissues
through the skin by the use of gal-
vanic current.

phosphorus (f os'f 6r-us) : a chemical
element found in the bones, muscles
and the nerves.

phyma (fi'ma): pi., phymata (fi'ma-
ta): an enclosed swelling on the
skin larger than a tubercle.

physic (fiz'ik): a medicine, especially
a laxative; drugs in general.

physical (fiz'i-kal): relating to the
body, as distinguished from the
mind.

physics (fiz'iks): the branch of science
that deals with matter and motion
and comprises the study of light,
heat, electricity, sound and me-
chanics.

physiology (fiz-e-ol'o-je): the science
of functions of living things.

pigment (pig'ment): any organic col-
oring matter, as that of the red
blood cells, of the hair, skin and iris.

pigmentation (pig"men-ta'shun) : the
deposition of coloring in the skin
or tissues.

pilus (pilus); pi., pili (-11): hair.

pimple (pim'p'l): any small pointed
elevation of the skin; a papule or
small pustule.

pit (pit): a surface depression or hol-
low.

pith (pith): the marrow of bones; the
center of the hair.

pituitary (pi-tu'i-ter-e) : a ductless
gland located at the base of the
brain.

pityriasis (pit-i-ri'a-sis) : dandruff; an
inflammation of the skin character-
ized by the formation and flaking of
fine branny scales.

pityriasis capitis simplex (kap'i-tis
sim'pleks): a scalp inflammation
marked by dry dandruff or branny
scales.

pityriasis pilaris (pi-la-ris): character-
ized by an eruption of papules sur-
rounding the hair follicles, each
papule pierced by a hair, and tipped
with a horny plug or scale.

pityriasis steatoides (ste-a-toy'dez): a
scalp inflammation marked by fatty
type of dandruff characterized by
yellowish to brownish waxy scales
or crusts on the scalp.

plasma (plaz'ma): the fluid part of
the blood and lymph.

platelets (plat'lets): blood cells which
aid in the formation of clots.

platysma (pla-tiz'ma) : a broad thin
muscle of the neck.

pledget (plej'et): a compress or small
flat mass of lint, absorbent cotton,
or the like.

plexus (plek'sus): a network of nerves
or veins.

pluck (pluk): to pull with sudden
force.

pneumogastric nerve (nu-mo-gas'trik
nurv): vagus nerve; tenth cerebral
nerve.

poise (poiz): the manner in which the
head or body is carried.

poison (poi'z'n): a substance, which
when taken internally, is injurious
to health, or dangerous to life.

poison ivy (I'vi): a harmful plant
which is poisonous to the touch.

polarity (po-lar'i-te) : the property of
having two opposite poles, as that
possessed by a magnet or galvanic
current

pollex (pol-eks): the thumb.

pomade (po-mad'; -mad'): a medi-
cated ointment for the hair.

pomphus (pom'fus): a whitish or
pinkish elevation of the skin; a
wheal.

pore (por): a small opening of the
sweat glands of the skin.

porous (po'rus): full of pores.

portable (por'ta-b'l) : easily carried.

positive (poz'i-tiv): not negative; the
presence of abnormal condition; hav-
ing a relative high potential in elec-
tricity.

positive pole, P. or -)- (pol): the pole
from which positive electricity flows.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, 6vent, end, recent, ever; Ice,

POST

493

post (p5st): a prefix denoting back;
after.

posterior (pos-te're-er) : situated be-
hind; coming after or behind.

posterior auricular (6-rik'u-lar): a
nerve which supplies muscles be-
hind the ear and at base of the skull.

posture (pos'tur): the position of the
body as a whole.

potassium hydroxide (hi-drok'sid) : a
powerful alkali, used in the manu-
facture of soft soaps.

potential (po-ten'shal) : indicating pos-
sibility; electric pressure enabling it
to do work under suitable condi-
tions.

powder (pou'der): a dry mass of ex-
tremely fine particles.

precaution (pre-ko'shun) : to warn or
advise beforehand.

predisposition (pre-dis-po-zish'un): a
condition of special susceptibility to
disease; allergy.

preventive (pre-ven'tiv) : a prophylac-
tic; warding off disease.

primary (pri'ma-re): first; primitive.

procerus (pro-se'rus) : pyramidalis na-
si muscle.

process (pro'sess): a course of devel-
opment; a projecting part.

profession (pro-f esh'un) : vocation;
those engaged in work which re-
quires special knowledge to serve
the public in a particular art.

progressive dyes (pro-gres'iv diz) : hair
restorers requiring time to oxidize;
color develops gradually.

prophylactic (pro-f i-lak'tik) : prevent-
ing disease; relating to prophylaxis.

prophylaxis (pro-f I-lak'sis): preven-
tion of disease.

proportion (pro-por'shun) : compara-
tive relation of one thing to another.

QUARANTINE

protection (pro-tek'shun) : the act of
shielding from injury.

protein (pro'te-in): a complex organ-
ic substance present in all living
tissues, both animal and vegetable,
necessary in the diet.

protoplasm (pro'to-plaz'm) : the mate-
rial basis of life; a substance found
in all living cells.

protozoa (pro-to-zo'a) : a class of ani-
mal organisms.

proximal (prok'sim-al) : nearest.

psoriasis (so-ri'a-sis) : a skin disease
with enclosed red patches, covered
with adherent white scales.

psychic (si'kik): relating to the mind.

psychology (si-kol'o-je): the science
of the mind and its operations.

pterygium (te-rij'e-um) : a forward
growth of the eponychium with ad-
herence to the surface of the nail.

pterygoideus (ter-i-goid'e-us) : intern-
us and externus muscle between
mandible and cheek bone, draws
mandible forward.

puberty (pu'ber-te): the period of life
in which the organs of reproduction
are developed.

pulse (piils): the rhythmical dilation
of an artery.

purification (pu-ri-f i-ka'shun) : the act
of cleaning or removing foreign
matter.

pus (pus): a fluid product of inflam-
mation, consisting of a liquid con-
taining leucocytes, dead cells and
tissue elements.

pustule (pus'tul): an inflamed pimple
containing pus.

pyogenic (pi-6-jen'ik): pus forming.

pyramidalis nasi (pi-ram-i-da'lis na -
si): procerus; muscle of the nose.

quadratus labii super ioris kwod-ra'tus
la'be-i su-pe'/re-6r/is) : a muscle of
the upper lip.

quality (kwol'i-ti): distinctive kind
trait, or character.

quarantine (kwor'an-ten) : the keeping
of a person away from others to
prevent spread of a contagious di-

111; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

RADIATION

494

SCAB

radiation (ra-di-a'shun) : the process
of giving off light or heat rays.

rash (rash): a skin eruption having
little or no elevation.

receptacle (re-sep'ta-k'l): a utensil
used for storage.

reconditioning treatment (re-kon-di-
shun-mg tret'ment) : a treatment to
bring the hair back to a healthy
condition; cream or oil treatment.

rectifier (rek'ti-f I-er) : an apparatus to
change an alternating current of
electricity into a direct current.

rectus (rek'tus): in a straight line; the
name of small muscle of the eye.

reflex (re'fleks): an involuntary nerve
reaction.

relaxation (re-lak-sa'shun) : the act of
being loose and less tense.

reproductive (re-pro-duk'tiv) : per-
taining to reproduction or the pro-
cess by which plants and animals
give rise to offspring.

research (re-surch'): a careful search
for facts or principles.

residue (rez'i-du): that which remains
after a part is taken; remainder.

resilient (re-ziFi-ent) : elastic.

resistance (re-zis'tans) : opposition; in
electricity the opposition of a sub-
stance to the passage through it of
an electric current.

respiration (res-pi-ra'shun) : the act of
breathing; the process of inhaling
air into the lungs and expelling it.

respiratory system (re-splr'a-to-re
sis'tem): consists of the nose, phar-
ynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
lungs which assist in breathing.

retouch (re'-tuch): application of hair
dye or bleach to new growth of hair.

retrahens aurem (re'tra-henz or'em):
auricularis posterior; a muscle back
of the ear.

rhagades (rag'a-dez): cracks, fissures
or chaps on the skin.

rheostat (re-6-stat): a resistance coil;
an instrument used to regulate the
strength of an electric current.

rhythm (rith'm): regular recurring
movements.

rickettsia (rik-et'si-a) : a type of path-
ogenic microorganism, capable of
producing typhus fever.

ringed hair (rmgd har): a variety of
canities in which the hair appears
white or colored in rings.

ringworm (rmg'wurm): a vegetable
parasitic disease of the skin and its
appendages which appears in cir-
cular lesions and is contagious.

rinse (rins): to cleanse with a second
or repeated application of water af-
ter washing; a prepared rinse water.

risorius (ri-zor'e-us) : muscle at the
corner of the mouth.

rolling (ro'mg): massage movement in
which tissues are pressed and twisted.

root (root): in anatomy the base; the
foundation or beginning of any part.

rotary (ro'ta-ri): circular motion of
the fingers as in massage.

Sabouraud Rousseau (sa'boo-ro roo'-
so): a discoverer of a 24-hour skin
test used in hair dyeing to deter-
mine whether or not a patron can
tolerate an aniline derivative hair
dye.

sage tea rinse (saj te rins): given to
darken the hair.

saline (sa'lin): salty; containing salt.

saliva (sa-li'va): the secretion of the
salivary glands.

salivary gland (sal'i-va-re gland): the
gland in the mouth secreting saliva.

salt (solt): the union of a base with
an acid.

sanitary (san'i-ta-re) : pertaining to
cleanliness; promoting health.

sanitation (san-i-ta'shun) : the use of
methods to bring about favorable
conditions of health.

saponification (sa-pon'i-f i-ka'shun) :
act, process or result of changing
into soap.

saprophyte (sap'ro-f it) : a micro-or-
ganism which grows normally on
dead matter, as distinguished from
a parasite.

saturate (sat'u-rat): to cause to be-
come soaked.

scab (skab): a crust formed on the
surface of a sore.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, fevent, end, recent, ever; ice,

SCABIES

495

scabies (ska'bi-ez): a skin disease
caused by an animal parasite, at-
tended with intense itching; the
itch.

scale (skal): any thin plate of horny
epidermis; regular markings used as
a standard in measuring and weigh-
ing.

scalp (skalp): the skin covering of
the cranium.

scalpial (skarpe-al): the technical
term for general all around treat-
ment of the scalp.

scapula (skap'u-la): the shoulder
blade; a large flat triangular bone of
the shoulder.

scar (skar): a mark remaining after a
wound has healed.

scarf skin (skarf skin): epidermis.

science (si'ens): knowledge duly ar-
ranged and systematized.

scientific (sl-en-tif'ik): pertaining to,
or used in science.

scrum-pox (skrum'poks) : impetigo
contagiosa.

scurf (skurf): thin dry scales or scabs
on the body especially on the scalp;
dandruff.

sebaceous (se-ba'shus) : oily; fatty.
sebaceous cyst (sist): an enlarged oily

or fatty sac.
sebaceous glands (glandz): oil glands

of the skin.
seborrhea (seb-6-re'a) : over-action of

the sebaceous glands.
seborrhea oleosa (6-le-o'sa): excessive

oiliness of the skin, particularly the

forehead and nose.
seborrhea sicca (sik'a): dandruff; pity-

riasis.

sebum (se'bum): the fatty or oily se-
cretions of the sebaceous glands.

secondary (sek'un-da-re) : second in
order.

secretion (se-kre'shun) : a product
manufactured by a gland for a use-
ful purpose.

sectioning (sek'shun-ing) : dividing the
hair into separate parts.

segment (seg'ment): to divide and re-
divide into small equal parts.

selector switch (se-lek'ter swich): an
apparatus used to select the kind of
current desired for a treatment.

SLEEK

senility (se-nu'i-te) : quality or state
of being old.

sensation (sen-sa'shun) : a feeling or
impression arising as a result of
the stimulation of an afferent nerve.

sensitive (sen'si-tiv) : easily affected
by outside influences.

sensory nerve (sen'so-re nurv): affer-
ent nerve; a nerve carrying sensa-
tions.

sepsis (sep'sis): the presence of var-
ious pus forming and other harmful
organisms, or their toxins, in the
blood or tissues.

septic (sep'tik): relating to or caused
by sepsis.

septum (sep'tum): a dividing wall; a
partition.

serous (se'rus): relating to, or contain-
ing serum.

serratus anterior (se-ra'tus an-te're-
er): a muscle of the chest assisting
in breathing and in raising the arm.

sewage (su'aj): the waste matter, sol-
id and liquid, passing through a
sewer.

shaft (shaft): slender stem-like struc-
ture; the long slender part of the
hair above the scalp.

shampoo (sham-poo): to subject the
scalp and hair to washing and rub-
bing with some cleansing agent such
as soap and water.

sheen (shen): gloss; brightness.

shingling (shingling): cutting a wom-
an's hair close to the nape of the
neck and gradually longer toward
the crown.

short wave (short wav): a form of
high-frequency current used in per-
manent hair removal.

singeing (smj'ing): process of lightly
burning hair ends with a lighted
wax taper.

sinus (si'mis): a cavity or depression;
a hollow in bone or other tissue.

skeletal muscles (skeTe-tal musTz):
muscles connected to the skeleton.

skeleton (skeTe-tun): the bony frame-
work of the body.

skin (skin): the external covering of
the body.

skull (skul): the bony case or the
framework of the head.

sleek (slek): to render smooth, soft,
and glossy.

HI; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

SLITHERING

slithering (slith'er-mg) : tapering the
hair to graduated lengths with scis-
sors.

slough (sluf): to separate as dead mat-
ter from living tissues; to discard.

small pox (smol poks): a contagious
skin disease resulting in the produc-
tion of pock marks.

snarls (snarlz): tangles, as of hair.

soap (sop): compound of fatty acid
with an alkaline base.

soapless shampoo (soples sham-poo):
a shampoo made with sulfonated oil,
alcohol, mineral oil and water; this
type of shampoo does not foam, and
is usually slightly acid in reaction.

socket (sok'et): a cavity in which a
movable part is inserted.

sodium bicarbonate (so-de-um bi-kar-
bon-at): baking soda; bicarbonate of
soda; it relieves burns and insect
bites.

sodium carbonate (kar'bon-at) : wash-
ing soda; used to prevent rusting
of metallic instruments when added
to boiling water.

sodium hydroxide (hl-drok'sid) : pow-
erful alkali used in the manufacture
of hard soaps.

soft water (soft woter): water which
readily lathers with soap.

soluble (sol'u-b'l): capable of being
dissolved.

solution (so-lu'shun) : the act or pro-
cess by which a substance is ab-
sorbed into a liquid.

solvent (sol'vent): an agent capable of
dissolving substances.

sparsely (spars'le): pertaining to the
hair, thinly scattered.

spatula (spat'u-la): a flexible, knife-
like implement for removing creams
from jars.

specialist (spesh'a-list) : one who de-
votes himself to some special branch
of learning, art, or business.

spectrum (spek'trum): the band of
rainbow colors produced by decom-
posing light by means of a prism.

spermaceti (spur-ma-set'e) : an animal
wax; used to give firmness to creams.

sphenoid (sfe'noid): wedge-shaped; a
bone in the cranium.

spinal (spi'nal): pertaining to the
spine or vertebral column.

spinal accessory (ak-ses'6-re) : elev-
enth cerebral nerve.

496

STIMULATION

spinal column (kol'um): the backbone
or vertebral column.

spinal cord (kord): the portion of the
central nervous system contained
within the spinal, or vertebral canal.

spinal nerves (nurz): the nerves aris-
ing from the spinal cord.

spine (spin): a short process of bone;
the backbone.

spirillum (spi-ril'iim); pi., spirilla (-a):
curved bacterium.

spirochaeta pallida (spi-ro-ke'ta pal'-
i-da): pathogenic bacteria respon-
sible for syphilis.

spongy (spun'je): like a sponge; por-
ous.

spore (spor): a tiny bacterial body
having a protective covering to
withstand unfavorable conditions.

spray (spra): to discharge liquid in
the form of fine vapor.

squama (skwa'ma): an epidermic
scale made up of thin, flat cells.

staphylococcus (staf -i-16-kok'us) : coc-
cus which is grouped in clusters
like a bunch of grapes; found in
pustules and boils.

steamer, facial (stem'er fa'shal): an
apparatus, used in place of hot tow-
els, for steaming the scalp or face.

steatoma (ste-a-to'ma) : a sebaceous
cyst; a fatty tumor.

sterile (ster'il): barren; free from all
living organisms.

sterilization (ster-i-li-za'shun): the
process of making sterile; the de-
struction of germs.

sterilizer (ster'-i-ll-zer) : an agent or
receptacle for sterilization.

sterilizer, wet (wet): a receptacle con-
taining a disinfectant for the pur-
pose of sterilizing implements.

sterilizer, cabinet or dry (kab'i-net or
dri): a closed receptacle containing
chemical vapors to keep sterilized
objects ready for use.

sterno-cleido-mastoideus (stur"no-kli-
do-mas-toid'e-us) : a muscle of the
neck which depresses and rotates
the head.

sternomastoid (stur-no-mas'toid) : per-
taining to the sternum and the mas-
toid process.

stimulant (stim'u-lant) : an agent that
arouses functional activity.

stimulation (stim-u-la'shun) : act of a-
rousing increased functional activity.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, fevent, end, recent, ever; ice,

STIMULUS

497

stimulus (stim'u-lus) : an agent which
causes stimulation.

stomach (stum'uk): the dilated por-
tion of the alimentary canal, in
which the first process of digestion
takes place.

strand (strand): a fiber, hair or the
like.

stratum (stra'tum); pi., strata (-a):
layer of tissue.

stratum corneum (kor'ne-um): horny
layer of the epidermis.

stratum germinativum (jur-mi-na'tiv-
um): the deepest layer of the epi-
dermis resting on the corium.

stratum granulosum (gran-u-16'sum) :
granular layer of the epidermis.

stratum lucidum (lu'si-dum): clear
layer of the epidermis.

stratum muscosum (mu-ko'sum): mu-
cous or malpighian layer of the
epidermis.

streptococcus (strep-to-kok'us): pus-
forming bacteria that grow in chains;
found in erysipelas and blood pois-
oning.

striated (stri'at-ed) : marked with par-
allel lines or bands; striped; volun-
tary muscle.

stroking (strok'ing): a gliding move-
ment over a surface; to pass the
finger or any instrument gently over
a surface; effleurage.

structure (struk'tur): organization;
manner of building or form.

sty, stye (sti); pi., sties, styes (stiz):
inflammation of one of the sebace-
ous glands of the eyelid.

styptic (stip'tik): an agent causing
contraction of living tissue: used to
stop bleeding; an astringent.

sub (sub): a prefix denoting under;
below.

subcutaneous (sub-ku-ta'ne-us) : un-
der the skin.

submental artery (sub-men'tal ar'ter-
e): supplies blood to the chin and
lower lip.

substance (sub'stans): matter; mater-
ial.

sudameii (su-da'men); pi., sudamina
su-dam'i-na) : a disorder of the sweat
glands with obstruction of their
ducts.

sudor (su'dor): sweat; perspiration.

sudoriferous glands (su-dor-if'er-us
glandz): sweat glands of the skin.

SYMPTOM, SUBJECTIVE

sulfonated oil (sul'fun-at-ed oil): an
organic substance prepared by the
chemical combination of oils with
sulphuric acid; has a slightly acid
reaction and mixes with water; used
as a base in soapless shampoos.

sulphur (sul'fur): a chemical element
whose compounds are used in
certain scalp ointments.

sunburn (sun'burn): inflammation of
the skin caused by excessive expo-
sure to the sun.

sunlight (sun'lit): the light rays com-
ing from the sun.

suntan (sun'tan): a brownish coloring
of the skin as a result of sun expo-
sure.

super (su'per): a prefix denoting over;
above; beyond.

supercilium (su'per-sfl'e-um) ; pi., su-
percilia (-a): the eyebrow.

superficial cervical (su-per-fish'al sur'-
vi-kal): a nerve which supplies the
muscle and skin at back of head
and neck.

superior (su-pe're-er) : higher; upper;
better or of more value.

suppuration (sup-u-ra'shun) : the for-
mation of pus.

supra (su'pra): a prefix denoting on
top of, above, over, beyond, besides;
more than.

supra-orbital (su-pra-ar'bi-tal) : above
the orbit or eye.

susceptible (su-sep'ti-b'l) : capable of
being influenced or easily acted on.

sycosis (sl-ko'sis): a chronic pustular
inflammation of the hair follicles.

sycosis barbae (bar'be): a chronic in-
flammation of the hair follicles of
the beard; folliculitis barbae.

symbol (sim'bol): a mark represent-
ing an atom of an element or a
molecule of a radical.

sympathetic nervous system (sim-pa-
thet'ik nur'vus sis'tem): controls the
involuntary muscles which affect
respiration, circulation and digestion.

symptom (sim'tum): a change in the
body or its functions which indicates
disease.

symptom, objective (ob-jek'tiv): that
which can be seen, as in pimples,
pustules, etc.

symptom, subjective (sub-jek'tiv): that
which can be felt, as in itching.

ill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

SYNTHETIC

synthetic (sin-thet'ik) : made artificial-
ly by the union of two or more
substances.

syphilis (sif'i-lis): a chronic, infectious
venereal disease.

system (sis' tern): a group of organs
which especially contribute toward
one of the more important vital
functions.

498 TINT

systematic (sis-tem-at'ik) : proceeding
according to system or regular
method.

systemic (sis-tem'ik): pertaining to a
system or to the body as a whole.

tactile corpuscle (tak'til kor'pus-'l):
touch nerve endings found within
the skin.

tan (tan): sunburn; pigmentation of
the skin from exposure to the sun.

tannic acid (tan'ik as'id): a plant ex-
tract used as an astringent.

taper (ta'per): regularly narrowed to
a point.

tapotement (ta-pot-manO: a massage
movement using a short, quick slap-
ping or tapping movement.

tapping (tap'ing): a massage move-
ment; striking lightly with the part-
ly flexed fingers.

taut (tot): tensely stretched; not slack.

technic; technique (tek'nik; tek'nek):
manner of performance; a skill; a
process.

technical (tek'ni-kal) : relating to a
technic.

temperature (tem'per-a-tor) : the de-
gree of heat or cold.

temple (tern'pl): the flattened space
on the side of the forehead.

temporal bone (temp'6-ral bon): the
bone at the side of the skull.

temporalis (tem-po-ralis) : the tem-
poral muscle.

tendon (ten'dun): fibrous cord or
band connecting muscle with bone.

tension (ten'shun): stress caused by
stretching or pulling.

tepid (tep'id): neither hot nor cold;
lukewarm; about blood heat.

terminal (tur'mi-nal) : of or pertaining
to the end or extremity.

tertiary (tur'she-a-re): third in order.

testes (tes'tes): the male reproductive
glands.

test, hair dye (test, hardi): a test made
upon the scalp, behind the ear, or
in the bend of the arm, for predis-
position to the dye agent used; a
test to determine the reaction of the

dye upon the sample strand, regard-
ing both color and breakage.

texture of hair (har): the general
quality and feel of the hair.

texture of skin (skin): the general
feel and appearance of the skin.

theory (the'6-re): a reasoned and
probable explanation.

therapeutic lamp (ther-a-pu'tik lamp):
an electrical apparatus producing
any of the various rays of the spec-
trum; used for skin and scalp treat-
ments.

therapy (ther'a-pe): the science and
art of healing.

thermal (thur'mal): pertaining to heat.

thermometer (ther-mom'e-ter) : any
device for measuring temperature.

thinning, hair (thin'ing): decreasing
the thickness of the hair where it is
too heavy.

thorax (tho'raks) : the part of the body
between the neck and the abdomen;
the chest.

thrombocyte (throm'bo-sit) : a blood
platelet which aids in clotting.

thyroid gland (thi'roid gland): a large
ductless gland situated in the neck.

tinea (tin'e-a): a skin disease, espe-
cially ringworm.

tinea barbae (bar'be): tinea sycosis.

tinea capitis (kap'i-tis): tinea tonsur-
ans; ringworm of the scalp.

tinea favosa (fa-vo'sa): favus; honey
comb ringworm.

tinea sycosis (si-ko'sis): parasitic sy-
cosis; ringworm of the beard; bar-
ber's itch.

tinea tonsurans (ton-su'ranz) : tinea
capitis; ringworm of the scalp.

tinea unguium (un'gwe-um): ring-
worm of the nail.

tint (tint): to color the hair by means
of hair dye, color rinse, or hair tint.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, event, end, recent, ever; ice,

TISSUE

tissue (tish'u): a collection of similar
cells which perform a particular
function.

tissue, connective (ko-nek'tiv): bind-
ing and supporting tissue.

tone (ton): the normal activity or
vigor of the body or its parts.

tonic (ton'ik): increasing the strength
or tone of the body.

toupee (tob-peO: a small wig used to
cover the top or crown of the head.

toxemia (tok-se'me-a) : a form of blood
poisoning.

toxic (tok'sik): due to, or of the na-
ture of poison; poisonous.

toxin; toxine (tok'sm; -sen): a poison-
ous substance of undetermined
chemical nature, produced during
the growth of harmful micro-or-
ganisms.

trachea (tra'ke-a; tra-ke'a): wind-pipe.

transformer (trans-for'mer): used for
the purpose of increasing or de-
ceasing the voltage of the current
used; it can only be used on an
alternating current.

transmission ( trans -mish'un): passing
on by anything, often said of di-
sease.

transverse facial (trans-vurs' fa'shal):
an artery supplying the masseter
muscle.

trapezius (tra-pe'ze-us) : muscle that
draws the head backward and side-
ways.

tremor (tre'mor; trem'or): an invol-
untary trembling or shaking.

Treponema pallidum (trep-6-ne'ma
pal'i-dum): the pathogenic parasite
of syphilis.

499 URTICARIA

triangularis (tri-an-gu-la'ris) : depres-
sor anguli oris; a muscle that pulls
down corner of the mouth.

trichology (tri-kol'6-je): the science
of the care of the hair.

trichonosus (trik-6-no'sus) : any dis-
ease of the hair.

trichophyton (tri-kofi-ton): a fungus
parasite responsible for ringworm.

trichophytosis (tri-kof-i-to'sis) : ring-
worm of the skin and scalp, due to
growth of a fungus parasite.

trichoptilosis (tri-kop-ti-16'sis) : a
splitting of the hair ends, giving
them a feathery appearance.

trichorrhexis (trik-6-rek'sis) : brittle-
ness of the hair.

trichosis (tri-ko'sis) : any disease or
abnormal growth of hair.

trifacial (tri-fa'shal): the fifth cere-
bral nerve; trigeminus nerve.

trigeminal (tri-jem'i-nal): relating to
the fifth cerebral or trigeminal nerve.

true skin (trob skin): the corium.

tubercle (tu'ber-k'l) : a rounded, solid
elevation on the skin or membrane.

tumor (tu'mer): a swelling; an abnor-
mal enlargement; a mass of new tis-
sue which persists and grows in-
dependently of its surrounding
structures, and which has no physi-
ological use.

turbinal; turbinate (tur'bi-nal; -nat):
a bone in the nose.

tweezers (twez'ers): a pair of small
forceps to remove or extract hair.

ulcer (ul'ser): an open sore not caused
by a wound.

ulna (ul'na): the inner and larger
bone of the forearm.

ultra (ul'tra): a prefix denoting be-
yond; on the other side; excessively.

ultra-violet (ul'tra-vi'6-let) : invisible
rays of the spectrum which are be-
yond the violet rays.

un (un): a prefix denoting not; con-
trary.

imguis (un'gwis); pi., ungues (gwez):
the nail of a finger or toe.

^nguium, tinea (un'gwe-um tin'e-a):
ringworm of the nails.

unit (u'mt): a single thing or value.

United States Pharmacopeia (u-mt'ed
stats f ar-ma-ko-pe'ya) : an official
book of drug and medicinal stand-
ards.

unsanitary (un-san'i-ta-re) : not san-
itary; injurious to health.

uridrosis (u-ri-dro'sis) : the presence
of urea in sweat.

urine (u'rin): the fluid secreted by
the kidneys.

urticaria (ur-ti-ka're-a) : a skin dis-
ease in which wheals and severe
itching develops; hives; nettle rash.

Jill; old, obey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

VACCINATION

500

VOMER

vaccination (vak-si-na'shun) : injection
of the virus of cowpox, or vaccina
as a means of producing resistance
against small pox.

vagus (va'gus): pneumogastric nerve;
tenth cerebral nerve.

valve (valv): a structure which tem-
porarily closes a passage or opening
or permits flow in one direction only.

vapor (va'per): the gaseous state of a
liquid or solid.

vascular (vas'ku-lar) : supplied with
or pertaining to blood or lymph
vessels.

vaseline (vas'e-lin; en): a trade name;
petrolatum; a semi-solid greasy or
oily mixture of hydrocarbons ob-
tained from petroleum.

vaso-constrictor (vas-6-kon-strik'ter) :
a nerve which, when stimulated,
causes narrowing of blood vessels.

vaso-dilator (vas-6-di-la'ter) : a nerve
which, when stimulated, causes ex-
pansion of the blood vessels.

vegetable dyes (vej'e-ta-bl diz): com-
prised of Egyptian henna, indigo,
and camomile used as hair dyes or
hair rinses.

vein; vena (van;ve'na): a blood vessel
carrying blood toward the heart.

vena cava (ka'va): one of the large
veins which carry the blood to the
right auricle of the heart.

venereal (ve-ne're-al) : pertaining to
a disease arising from unlawful sex-
ual indulgence with an infected
person.

ventilate (ven'ti-lat) : to renew the air
in a place.

ventricle (ven'tri-k'l) : a small cavity;
particularly in the brain or heart.

vermin (vur'min): parasitic insects, as
lice and bedbugs.

verruca (ve-rob'ka) : a wart; small
growths covered by thickened epi-
dermis.

vertebra (vur-te-bra) ; pi., vertebrae
(bre): a bony segment of the spinal
column.

vertex (vur'teks): the crown or top of
the head.

vesicle (ves'I-k'l): a small blister or
sac; a small elevation on the skin.

vessel (ves"l): tube or canal in which
blood, lymph, or other fluid is con-
tained and circulated.

vibration (vi-bra'shun) : shaking; a to
and fro massage movement.

vibrator (vi'-bra-ter) : an electrically
driven massage apparatus causing a
swinging, shaking sensation on the
body, producing stimulation.

vibrissae (vi-bris'a): stiff hairs in the
nostrils.

vibroid (vi'broid): a vibratory move-
ment in massage.

vinegar (vm'e-ger): formed by fer-
mentation of wine, cider, etc.; it
contains acetic acid, used as a rinse
to remove soap curds from the hair.

violet-ray (vi'6-let ra): high-frequen-
cy; Tesla; an electric current of
medium voltage and medium am-
perage.

virgin hair (vur'jm har): normal hair
which has had no previous bleach-
ing or dyeing treatments.

virulent (vir'ob-lent) : extremely poi-
sonous.

virus (vi'rus): poison; the specific poi-
son of an infectious disease.

vitality (vi-tal'i-te): the state or qual-
ity of being vital; power of enduring
or of continuing.

vitamin (vi'-ta-mm) : one of a group
of organic substances present in a
very small quantity in natural food-
stuffs, which are essential to normal
metabolism, and the lack of which
in the diet causes deficiency diseases.

vitiligo (vit-i-li'go) : milky-white spots
of the skin, common in negroes.

vogue (vog): fashion; custom; style.

volatile (vol'a-til): easily evaporating;
diffusing freely; not permanent.

volt (volt): the unit of electromotive
force.

voltage (vol'taj): electrical potential
difference expressed in volts.

volume (vol'um): space occupied, as
measured in cubic units.

voluntary (vol'un-ta-re) : under the
control of the will.

vomer (vo'mer): the thin plate of
bone between the nostrils.

fate, senate, care, am, final, arm, ask, sofa; eve, eVent, end, recent, ever; Ice,

WALL PLATE

501

ZYGOMATICUS

wall plate (wol plat): an apparatus
equipped with indicators and con-
trolling devices to produce various
currents.

wall socket (sok'et): a wall receptacle
into which may be fitted the plug
of an electrical appliance.

wart (wort): verruca; an enclosed
overgrowth covered by thickened
epidermis.

water (wo'ter): a compound of oxy-
gen and hydrogen.

water softener (sof"n-er): certain
chemicals, such as the carbonate or
phosphate of sodium, used to soften
hard water to permit the lathering
of soap.

watt (wet): the electrical unit of en-
ergy.

wattage (wot'aj): amount of electric
power expressed in watts.

wen (wen): a sebaceous cyst, usually
on the scalp.

wheal (whel): a raised ridge on the
skin, usually caused by a blow, a
bite of an insect, urticaria, or sting
of a nettle.

whitehead (whit'hed): milium.

wig (wig): an artificial covering for
the head, consisting of hair inter-
woven by a kind of network.

windpipe (wind'pip): trachea.

witch hazel (wich ha'z'l): after-shav-
ing lotion; an extract of the bark of
the hamamelis shrub.

wrinkle (rmk'l): a small ridge or a
furrow.

wrist electrode (rist e-lek'trod): an
electrode connected to the wrist.

zygoma (zl-go'ma): a bone of the skull
which extends along the upper and
outer part of the face, below the
eye; the malar or cheek bone.

zygomatic (zi-go-mat'ik) : pertaining
to the zygoma; pertaining to the
malar or cheek bone.

zygomaticus (zi-go-mat'i-kus) : a mus-
cle that raises angle of mouth back-
ward and upward.

HI; old, 6bey, orb, odd, connect, soft, food, foot; use, unite, urn, up, circus; those

In the preparation of this book, the following works have been
consulted as authorities on the various phases of barbering treated
herein. The student who seeks amplification of points covered
briefly in this book will do well to refer to these sources:

Men's Hair Tinting and Bleaching

Anthony Colletti (Milady Publishing Corp.)
The Hair and Scalp— A. Savill, M.A., M.B.
Electrotherapy and Light Therapy — Richard Kovacs, M.D.
Physical Treatment— James B. Mennell, M.A., M.D., B.C.
Morris' Human Anatomy —

J. Parsons Schaeffer, A.M., M.D., Ph.D., Sc.D.
Human Anatomy and Physiology —

N. D. Millard, R.N., M.A., and Barry G. King, Ph.D.
Modern Textbook of Barbering —

S. C. Thorpe (Milady Publishing Corp.)
Barber State Board Regulations — Milady Publishing Corp.
The Barbers' Manual— A. B. Moler.
Skin Deep— M. G. Phillips.

Anatomy and Physiology — Kimber, Gray, Stackpole and Leavell.
Gray's Anatomy — Charles Mayo Goss, M.D.
Normal Histology — William H. F. Addison.
Diseases of the Skin — Oliver S. Ormsby.
Electricity and Light— Noble M. Eberhart, M.D.
Electricity Manual — Glendora Stingley.
Care of the Skin and Health — Herman Goodman, M.D.
Sanitation, Hygiene, Bacteriology and Sterilization —

Herman Goodman, M.D.

Gould's Medical Dictionary — George M. Gould, A.M., M.D.
Stedman's Medical Dictionary —

Thomas Lathrop Stedman, A.M., M.D.
Standard Textbook of Cosmetology —

Constance V. Kibbe (Milady Publishing Corp.)
Baldness — Richard Muller, M.D.
Modern Cosmetics — E. G. Thomssen.

Date Due

—

KANSAS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
LIBRARY

6/6.7
T398

Thorpe, Sidney C.

Practice and science
r*d barber ir-.

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