Present-Day Impressions of Japan
HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY, YOSHIHITO, EMPEROR OF JAPAN
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HER IMPERIAL MAJESTY, EMPRESS SADAKO
Present Decy Impressions
OF
CTAe HISTORY, PEOPLE. COMMERCE,
INDUSTRIES and RESOURCES OF
JAPAN
JAPANS COLONIAJL EMPIRE
KWANTUNG, CHOSEN
TAIWAN KARAFUTO
Compiler WHMORrONCAMERON
i^ CLOSE ENCYCLOPEDIA
MflurSTREET COmp^Tiy LONOO'
CHICAGO YOKOHAMA SHA.NGK/ -
Copyright 1919, by
W. H. Morton Cameron
Rl
PREFACE
A CLEAR and unbiassed presentation of those facts which will enable the reader to choose a
safe way amidst the shoals of conflicting rumour and report, and read correctly those
signs of the times indicative of Japan's potential future. Such is the useful object
of this compilation.
To that end every article has been contributed by an expert, each a keen student of Japan
who has spent many years in the coimtr\', and who, guided by our polic\-, avoids on the one hand
that laudatory note so characteristic of the official or subsidised publication, and on the other that
too heavy and erudite style so much more effective as an inducement to sleep than as a medium of
information.
We have dealt with tables of statistics only where absolutely necessary, under the impression
that the business man whom this book will chiefly interest, prefers information presented in the
most assimilable form, as opposed to the befogging diagram and the formidable array of figures.
Our statistics, too, are mainly comparative of the pre-war years with 1916 and 191 7, from
which, by choosing the happy medium and making due allowance for the great progress we out-
line on every hand, one may arrive at some understanding of what the normal de\'elopment
will probably be during the period of reconstmction.
The descriptions of commercial enterprises are, we think, no more appreciative than they ought
to be, inasmuch as it is our good fortune to be able to present perhaps the most lengthy and truly
representative list of reputable and (in many cases) notable houses that has ever been included
in a book of this description on Japan.
The commercial illustrations we regard as quite the most interesting feature of the compilation ;
indeed, we have spared neither effort nor expense to make them so. What can be more interesting
to the busy man who is already either connected with the country, contemplates business, or wishes
merely to acquaint himself with the actual situation than the pictorial presentation of the c-ondi-
tions under which the merchant in Japan operates; of the power, transportation, labour, machinery,
and other facilities at his command?
By the use of illustrations of a different nature, presenting the elementary or historical stages
of the various industries; by the utilisation of tints varying with the subjects and the interpolation
of attractive colour pages throughout, we have endeavoured to introduce sufficient variet}' to
maintain the interest of the reader from cover to cover.
In the arrangement of the subjects we have kept in view the same object, that of affording
relief and contrast. Information relative to any enterprise will be found in connection with the
city in which the concern is located, and, in addition thereto, some local colour which may ser\^e
for further enlightenment.
It is an important part of our policy not to accept a Government subsidy, nor have we relied
to any degree upon Government departments for information. The book is in consequence entirely
free from that bias so characteristic of the official publication, and, apart from the occasional error
into which even an expert may fall, the information conveyed can be relied upon.
I B t HaeB
P K !•: F A (■ K
Coiiliiiiicil
To all import and export merchants and manufacturers who arc interested in any jiart of the
Far East, and to business men generally, we believe that this volume not only has a message, but a
significant message which each will have little difficulty in interjireting for himself. That all-
important question — "What place will Japan occupy in the future markets of the world?" may
perchance be answered through the medium of these pages.
We have had no choice but to make enthusiastic reference from time to time to what has been
accomplished, but it is far from our intention to convey the impression that Japan is prepared to
rest on her laurels. The Japanese business man has been so long accustomed to look abroad, to
make it his definite duty to study overseas business methods, etc., and adapt them to his purpose,
that he cannot quietly view matters with complacency. He doubtless looks with pride on local
developments, but his satisfaction is ever qualified by comparison with what is being done abroad.
In this connection, the writer, in conversation with a prominent member of the "Megata"
economic mission to the United States (1917), referred to the great development in Japan's industries
since the war, and was surprised to hear that gentleman rather depreciatingly compare America
and Japan commercially and industrially to the disadvantage of the latter.
Such a comparison is manifestly unfair, but it was not the foreigner, who is usually much
impressed, who made it, but a j^rominent representative of the \-ounger business men of Japan,
already highly placed, whose utterance may be taken as significant of what the future leaders of
the country' are thinking to-day, and valuable as a gauge to their ambitions.
At the conclusion of our work, despite every effort to achieve the best, we could wish the book
to be much better still, but trust that those who are inclined to criticise it adversely will stop a
moment to consider what, after all, has been accomplished.
W'U^ i.CWU'^^v,
Compiler.
• M-^ -^^av- ■ v■-:^-
CONTENTS
Chaptick
I
III
IV
VI
VII
VIII
IX
XI
XII
XIII
THE IMPERIAL FAMILY OF JAPAN .
Foundation of the Empire — The Emperor -
peror Yoshihito — The Princely Families.
Page
3
-The Imperial ronstitiition — 'l"he Late Emperor Mutsuhito — The Em-
THE COUNTRY
The Name — Position — Area — Coast Line — Orogra|)hy — Geology — Volcanic and Seismic Action — Hydrography —
Climate — Flora and Fauna — Population — Table of Weights, Measures, and Moneys, with English, American,
French, and German Equivalents.
THE PEOPLE
(A) The Age of Myths ( — to B. c. 660), Origin of the Japanese — Cosmogony — Archaeological Evidence — Dawn of
Empire^ — Early Civilisation. (B) The Yamato Empire (b. c. 660 to 794 a. d.), Consolidating the Infant Empire —
Expedition to Korea — Introduction of Buddhism — Beginning of Chinese Influence. (C) Period of Family Des-
potism (794 to 1603 A.D.), the Fujiwara Bureaucracy — Rise of the Taira and Minamoto Clans, 794 to 1199 a.d. —
The Shadow-shoguns, 1199 to 1334 a.d. — Arrival of Europeans and Christianity, 1334 to 1573 — Age of Usurpers,
1573 to 1603. (D) The Tokugawa Period (1600 to 1868), The Eradication of Christianity — The Laws of leyasu —
Fortign Relations in the Tokugawa Era — Reopening of Japan — Fall of the Shogunate. (E) The Era of Meiji
(1868 to 1914), Early Reforms — Foreign Relations — Modern Japan.
THE ARMY
Army of Old Japan — Evolution of a Modern Army — Recruiting — Army Organisation — Mobilisation and Equipment
— Army Finance.
THE NAVY
The Navy of Ancient Times — Birth of the Imperial Japanese Navy — The New Navy in War — Japan's Navy To-day
— Finance — Education and Personnel — The Imperial Dockyards.
FOREIGN EMBASSIES AND LEGATIONS
The British Embassy — The United States Embassy — Ihe French Embassy — The Russian Embassy — The Italian
Embassy — Germany — Austro-Hungary — The Netherlands Legation — The Spanish Legation — The Portuguese Le-
gation— The Belgian Legation — The Swedish Legation — The Chinese Legation — The Siamese Legation — The
Mexican Legation — Other Legations.
THE DIPLOMACY AND FOREIGN POLICY OF JAPAN. By D, J. Evans, Managing Editor of "The Japan
Chronicle"
The Opening of the Ports — The Recognition of Japan as a Great Power — Japan's Policy in Korea — Japan's Policy
toward China — Japan's Southward Expansion.
THE FUTURE OF JAPAN. By the Hon. Y. Takegoshi, Ex-Member of the House of Representatives ....
The Alliance of Races — Self-Government — Expansion beyond the Seas — The Japan-China War — The Japan-
Russian War — Lessons of Historj'.
BANKING, FINANCE, AND INSURANCE (Yokohama and Tokyo Section)
Economics of Old Japan — Financial Pohcy of the Tokugawa Shoguns — Early Meiji Finance — The First Banks —
Improvement of Monetary Organs — Currency Reform — Taxation and Revenue — The National Debt — Banks and
Banking — Foreigii Banks — Loan Associations — National Wealth of Japan — Exchanges — Foreign Banks — Insurance
Companies — Commercial Notices — A Short History of Coinage in Japan (By Dr. Yoshimasa Koga, F. C. S., Chief
iVssayer at the Imperial Japanese Mint, Osaka).
THE CITY OF TOKYO
Origin, History, and Development — The New Tokyo — Municipal Administration — Tokyo Finance — Future of
Tokyo — Commercial Notices.
SHIPPING (Yokohama and Tokyo Section)
History of Japanese Shipping — The Modem Era — The Position before the War — Leaders of the Industry — Capital
Invested — Government Subsidies — The Shi|jbuilding Industry — Harbours — Commercial Notices.
THE PORT OF YOKOHAMA
History and Progress — Government, Finance, Comnit-ree, ami Industry
26
44
52
76
«.?
qo
156
168
197
- Commercial Notice.
XIV
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS (Yokohama and Tokyo Section) 203
Trade in Old Japan — Beginnings of Trade with Europe — LTnlimited Trade — Causes of Trade Expansion — General
Survey of Markets — Proportion of Raw Materials to Finished Articles — Principal Exports and Imports — Japan's
Trade Pohcy — Commercial Institutions — Japan's Button Trade (By Mr. Emile Ott, of Messrs. Israel & Oppen-
heimer, Ltd., Kobe) — Commercial Notices.
ALACHINERY IMPORTERS AND EXPORTERS 271
■ I W I
Chatter
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIIl
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXIII
XXXIV
CONTENTS — Continued
Page
AGRICULTURE ^qs
General Considerations — Intensive Cultivation — The Farmer's Lot — Agricultural Productivity — Stock-breeding —
The Rice Industry (By Prof. Shosuke Sato of Tohoku Imperial University, Sapporo) — Origin and Development of
Rice Culture — Economic Importance of the Rice Industry during Feudal Times — Rice in the Modem Market and
in the National Economy — Rice Culture, its Extent and Varieties — Production and Consumption of Rice in Japan
— Relation of the Price to Other Commodities and to Wages — How Rice is Grown in Japan — Conclusion — Com-
mercial Industries — Commercial Notices.
TEA 330
Shizuoka — Tea (By Charles E. Atwood, Vice-President of the J. C. Whitney Company) — Commercial Notices.
THE SILK INDUSTRY OF JAPAN. By Mr. Akira Shito, Director of the Imperial Japanese Silk Conditioning
House 341
History of the Industry — Modern Developments — Development and Improvement — Production — Filature Opera-
tions— The Export Trade — Japan's Place in World Production — Commercial Notices.
THE CITY OF NAGOYA 357
FORESTRY 361
Afforestation — Distribution — Forest Acreage and Revenue — Other Forest Products — Commercial Notice.
FISHERIES 366
Present Conditions — Annual Catches — Deep-sea Fisheries — Marine Manufactured Products — Commercial Notice.
CONSTITUTION AND LAW OF JAPAN. By J. E. de Becker, LL. B., D. C. L 374
Bases of Japanese Law — Constitution — Codes — Civil Code — Civil Procedure — Commercial Code — Criminal Code
— Code of Criminal Procedure — Civil Law in General — Criminal Law — The Judiciary.
EDUCATION. By Dr. J. Ingram Bryan, M. A., M. Litt., Ph. D. The Meiji University and the Imperial Naval
College, and Japan Correspondent of the London "Morning Post' ' 384
Remote Beginnings and Early Development — Education in the Tokugawa Era —Introduction of Modern Education
— Japan's Educational System To-day — Outlay on Education.
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 396
The Japanese Language — Japanese Literature — Poetry and Drama.
THE PROGRESS OF MEDICINE IN JAPAN. By Prof. S. Kitasato, M. D., F. R. S., London, etc 409
History — Institutions for Medical Research — Medical Societies and Periodicals.
THE FOREIGNER IN JAPAN. By Robert Young, Editor and Proprietor of "The Japan Chronicle" 411
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS: THE PHYSICAL, THE MENTAL, AND THE MORAL. By Dr. J. Ingram
Bryan, M. A., M. Litt., Ph. D. The Meiji University and the Imperial Naval College, and Japan Correspon-
dent of the London "Morning Post" 4'4
Physical Characteristics — Mental Characteristics — Moral Characteristics.
JAPANESE ARTS OF SELF-DEFENSE. By E. J. Harrison, F. R. G. S 425
JAPAN AS A TOURIST LAND. By W. B. Mason, Joint-Author of "Murray's Handbook to Japan," etc., and Corre-
sponding Member for Japan of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society 430
THE CITY OF KYOTO 438
The Old Capital — Kyoto in Modern Times — Municipal Finance — Industry and Commerce — Commercial Notices.
RELIGION 445
Historical Outlines — Shinto — Confucianism — Buddhism — Christianity.
MINES AND MINERALS 461
Mining in Old Japan — New Era in Mining — Rapid Development — Mineral Production in Detail — The Future —
Condition of Miners — Commercial Notices of Mining Companies — The History of Oil in Japan (By A. P. Scott,
Managing Director, Rising Sun Petroleum Co., Ltd.) — Commercial Notices of Oil Companies.
NATIONAL ARTS AND CRAFTS. By Dr. J. Ingr.\m Bryan, M. A., M. Litt., Ph. D. The Meiji University and the
Imperial Naval College, and Japan Correspondent of the London " Morning Post " 495
Dawn of Art — The Cradle of Japanese Art — The Bronze Workers — Other Metals — Ivory and Wood Carving —
Ceramics — Cloisonne Enamel — Lacquer — Weaving and Embroidery — Pictorial Art — Minor Considerations.
THE CITY OF OSAKA 510
Antiquity — Modem Osaka — City Government — Finance — Industries and Trades.
BANKING, FINANCE, AND INSURANCE (Osaka and Kobe .Section) 517
jaWBdSSd^^
CONTENTS
Continued
Chapter
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
XXXVIII
XXXIX
XL
XLI
XLII
XLIII
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII
XLVIII
XLIX
Page
LABOUR CONDITIONS 539
Sudden Transformation — Phenomenal Growth of Cities — Japan Necessarily Industrial — Serious Aspects of the Situ-
ation— Unhealthy Conditions — Moral Dangers — Rights of Labour — Labour Unions Barred — Strikes Frequent —
Wages in Japan — Future of Japanese Labour.
547
540
THE PATENT SYSTEM. By Morio Nakamatsu, Esq., ex-Director of the Imperial Japanese Patent Office . . .
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Industry in Old Japan — Forms of Industry — Operatives — The Cotton Industry — The Woollen Industry — The
Brewing Industry — Machine-making— Ceramics — The Lacquer Industry — The Silk Industry — Other Industries
— Commercial Notices.
THE CITY OF KOBfi 654
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS (Kob^ and Osaka Section) 661
SPORTS AND RECREATIONS IN JAPAN 706
Golf — Yachting — Rowing — Horse Racing — Dramatics — Music.
PRESS AND PERIODICAL LITERATURE 710
News in Old Japan — Introduction of Modem Journalism — Make-up and Content of Leading Japanese Newspapers
— "The Japan Chronicle" — "The Japan Advertiser" — "The Japan Gazette."
SHIPPING (Osaka and Kob^ Section)
717
LI
LII
LIII
LIV
LV
OTHER IMPORTANT TOWNS OF JAPAN 762
The City of Wakayama — The City of Niigata — The City of Sendai — The City of Kanazawa — The City of Hiro-
shima.
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS 768
Brief History — Railway Nationalization and its Results — New Departures since Railway Nationalization — Some
Statistics Showing the Progress of the Government Railways.
POSTS, TELEGRAPHS, TELEPHONES, ROADS, RIVERS, AND BRIDGES 777
I. Post Offices: Courier System of Old Japan — Advent of a Modern Postal System — Development of Postal Busi-
ness. II. Telegraphs and Telephones: Early Development — Telegraph and Telephone Rates and Revenue.
III. Roads, Rivers, and Bridges.
GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES 783
The Tobacco Monopoly — The Salt Monopoly — The Camphor Monopoly — The Opium Monopoly — Commercial
Notices.
THE CITIES OF MOJI AND SHIMONOSEKI 789
THE CITY OF NAGASAKI 805
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE: THE PROVINCE OF KWANTUNG 812
How Acquired — Area, Population, and Government — Agriculture, Industry, and Trade — Finance and Banking —
Education — Communications — Dairen — Commercial Notices.
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE: CHOSEN (KOREA) 838
Ancient Relations with Japan — Modern Relations with Japan — The Annexation of Korea by Japan — Reforms
Inaugurated — Modern Regime — Area and Population — Forests and Fisheries — Agriculture and Industry — Com-
mercial Notices — Minerals and Mines — Trade and Commerce — Commercial Notices — Communications — Finance
and Banking — Banking and Currency — Commercial Notices — Education — Keijo (Seoul) — Commercial Notices.
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE: TAIWAN (FORMOSA) 869
History — Area, Physical Features, and Population — Administration — Finance — Commerce and Trade — Industry
— Communications — Education — Commercial Notices.
JAPAN'S SUGAR INDUSTRY 888
Sugar Production in Japan Proper — Sugar Production in Formosa — Commercial Notices.
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE: KARAFUTO (JAPANESE SAGHALIEN) 898
History — Area, Physical Features, and Population — Commerce and Industry — Communications — Administration
and Finance.
THE AINU. By the Venerable Archdeacon John B.\tchelor 902
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 908
INDEX OF COMMERCIAL NOTICES AND PORTRAITS 927
aam^mA I
FUJI-SA.N AT DAWN
I. The Imperial Family of Japan
Foundation of the Empire — Thr Emperor — The Imperial Constitution — The Late Emperor
MuTSUHiTo — The Emperor Yoshihito — The Princely Families
According to Japanese history
the Empire has maintained perfect
independence since its foundation
more than 2,500 years ago; and the present
Emperor, Yoshihito, is the 122nd sovereign
in the imperial line who has occupied the
throne in unbroken succession since its
establishment. It must be remembered,
however, that competent scholars can not
carry the authentic history of Japan farther
back than about half way over the course
ascribed to it in local annals, as no reli-
ance can be placed on any date or report
of Japanese tradition prior to the opening
of the fifth century A. D. The Japanese
Empire was no doubt founded at a very
remote period, and most probably there was
some substantial basis for the long-estab-
lished tradition; but the glimpses of the
country and its people obtained through
contemporary Korean and Chinese records
disclose, not an organised and peaceful state
of society in Japan, but segregated clans or
tribes practically illiterate and barbarous,
the southern elements leading, with prospects
of becoming sovereign. Thus the formal
establishment of the Japanese Empire cannot
be dated beyond the Christian era. From
the time that the capital was established
at Yamato in the early Christian era until
the present day, there is no doubt that the
Imperial House has reigned in unbroken
succession, though at times there were
rebellions and a divided dynasty, with the
ruler in exile; and sometimes the succession
had to be kept up by adoption.
THE EMPEROR
According to the Japanese system of
government the Emperor is the head and
centre of the organisation of the Empire.
The distinction between sovereign and sub-
ject is vital and permanent, and has been
definitely fixed since the establishment of the
imperial throne; from which time it has been
fully accepted that the sovereign is sacred
and his person inviolable, an attitude never
relaxed in spite of even modern ideas. The
Japanese maintain these propositions not-
withstanding that, as already mentioned, in
the nation's history we see emperors seized
and banished, being left to die in exile. On
the whole, however, the tenet that the
Emperor is sacred has been observed; obedi-
ence to him has been absolute and he has
been and is treated as a god incarnate on the
earth, representing the divine ancestors.
The religion of Japan is simply ancestor
worship; and the Emperor rules not in his
own right but as the representative of the
Imperial Ancestors. Japan is veritably a
theocracy ruled by gods innumerable. The
Imperial Ancestors are worshipped, not
because they are the ancestors of the present
sovereign, but because they are the sover-
eigns of the ancestors of the Japanese people.
To some this might seem like the essence of
self- worship; and when one looks at a Shinto
shrine and finds the chief object on the altar
is a mirror, the assumption might seem to
receive confirmation. But the whole thing is
very human. Man naturally turns with awe
and reverence to his creator, which by the
logic of his religion must extend back to the
Heavenly Father. The Empire of Japan ia
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE EMPEROR KAMMU, ONE OF THE EARLY
RULERS OF JAPAN — THE EMPEROR DAIGO.
BOTH FROM PAINTINGS IN THE IM-
PERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
one great family of which the Emperor is the
father and head, the representative of heaven
and earth. Indeed, Japanese views of deity
and of the Imperial Family would make the
Almighty a Japanese, just as the ideas of
some of the ancient Hebrews would make
God a Jew and the Jews alone his chosen
ones or children. The Japanese claim that
the rule of their Emperor has been divine
and that history affords no instance of falli-
bility; no Emperor has ever ruled despoti-
cally or arbitrarily, but always as the divine
father of his people. As the rulers have
always shown the greatest consideration for
the people, the people have always evinced
the utmost loyalty and respect for the sov-
ereign.
It is, of course, very difficult for an Occi-
dental mind to appreciate fully just what is
the relation between the Japanese people and
the Imperial House. It is doubtless the
most intimate possible for the human mind
to conceive. To say that the Japanese
believe in the divine right of riders is to
put the case much too mildly. To convey
to a Western mind any adequate conception
of the place occupied by the Emperor of
Japan in the hearts of his subjects and the
degree of reverential awe with which he
continues to be invested, even in these
materialistic times, is no easy thing to at-
tempt in mere words. One has to live in
the midst of this mystic loyalty and breathe
its atmosphere for years to realise what it
means. The Emperor of Japan is not only
the vicegerent of the ancestral gods on earth,
but is himself a god by virtue of his divine
descent, a god who rules, guides, guards,
and keeps his people with unbounded com-
passion and infallible widsom, a task possible
only to one who has inherited the attributes
of omnipotent and benevolent ancestors in
heaven. To the people of Japan the Emperor
is just as much a god as Christ is to the
Christians; and with far more immediate and
practical powers. There is no other poten-
tate on earth who receives .such veneration
and service as the ruler of Japan. He is to
them their heavenly father, present with
them on earth to share their joys and sorrows,
and to whose support all achievement is due.
Such a view of deity no doubt comes as a
shock to the pious-minded Occidental ; but
the Japanese seem to regard it as far more
rational than the Western notion of deity.
If it be objected that the Japanese view of
faith and loyalty assumes too much of
mortals, it will be replied that the Emperor
is just as much a heavenly father to his
people as Jehovah is to the European. The
Occidental can not claim that his god has
done more for him and his country than the
divine ruler of Japan has done for his country
and people. The religious people of Europe
say that they are the children of their
Heavenly Father; they claim the Almighty
as their first ancestor. If man is the child
of God he is of divine descent and can be a
god. The Japanese go farther and insist
that the divine succession has never been
broken and that they are still connected
with the original creator through their divine
ruler on earth. Such, at least, is the con-
ception of deity and sovereignty that the
European must be able to grasp before he
can appreciate what the Emperor of Japan
is to the nation.
In the ancient days the emperors of
Japan, as the descendants of the ancestral
IM.\GE OF THE EMPRESS JINGO-KOGO.
COLOURED WOOD, I FOOT 2 INCHES IN
HEIGHT. EARLY FUJIWARA PERIOD (888-
1068 A. D.), OWNED BY YAKUSHI-JI,
A TEMPLE IN NARA-KEN
gods, themselves administered the affairs of
state. As time went on the divine ruler
began to rule more and more through his
agents. First there was the Fujiwara fara" ■
which attained to martial fame and cc.i-
sequent great influence at the Imperial
Court, and from which the imperial con-
sorts have ever since been selected. Later
the political power passed into the control
of great military clans like the Taira and
the Minamoto, and finally to the shoguns.
If it be suggested that this seems like a
usurpation of imperial prerogative, it may
be replied that it is no more so than in
those European countries which hold the
divine right of kings yet entrust their ad-
ministration to governments authorised by
the sovereign. Even in the Church, God is
said to rule through regularly commissioned
officers, of which system the Papacy is,
perhaps, the best example. But no occupant
of the papal chair was ever believed so in-
fallible as the Emperor of Japan. The great
clans and latterly the shoguns did not make
themselves more independent of imperial rule
than the Pope of Rome has often done of
the Almighty. The military clans respected
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
HER LATE MAJESTY THE EMPRESS DOWAGER SHOKEN
THE LATE EMPEROR MEIJI TENNO
ihe Imperial Court and observed the ad-
ministrative power in such form as was en-
trusted to them by the Emperor, and in the
exercise of their power there existed a
formality transmitted by the court. A time
at 'ved, liowever, when the people preferred
to nave the direct rule of the divine ruler.
Like the Reformation in Europe, the Re-
storation in Japan was a reversion from in-
direct to direct relation with the divine
head. With the Restoration of imperial
rule the statecraft that came between the
Emperor and his people was done away with,
a change as great and as vital as the aboli tion
of priestcraft in the reformed churches of
Europe. With the central power presiding
over aU public affairs there was reestablished
that direct relationship between the ruler
and people that existed at the foundation
of the Empire.
" Those able to appreciate the force of what
ilias been said may be able to understand
t i<^ meant by the claim that, in spite of
Rebels and exiled emperors, the Japanese have
Iways b(;en loyal to the Imperial House, and
hat nev'.'r once through the long history of
the country has the supreme authority of
the Emperor been questioned. Even the
most arrogant of Japanese rebels would not
have admitted that he was up in arms
against the Emperor. Rebellions were always
against bad officials who were accused of
abusing the imperial power entrusted to
them. If it be asked why this was not left
to the Emperor, as being his concern chiefly,
the answer might come that the followers of
God do not leave the punishment of the
enemies of heaven to divine interposition.
Even during the centuries when the Emperors
of Japan would seem to have been reduced
to political and administrative impotence by
successive dynasties of military usurpers,
they still remained theoretically the final
source of all executive authority and the
sole fountain of honour. No act, not even
of the most powerful and arbitrary regent,
backed though it might be by irresistible
militar>' strength and efficiency, was valid
unless he was fortified by the commission of
the Emperor, who himself had not a single
soldier to enforce his commands. Military
leaders who held the commission were always
loyalists, though they might overturn all
existing government. Those without the
imperial commission were always rebels,
though they held the reins of government in
their own hands. Thus it wiU be seen that
the Japanese do not regard the Emperor as
any the less divine or infallible or omnipotent
because his will has not always been obeyed,
any more than religious people in the West
regard ungodliness as a reflection on the
Deity. After a divine manner the Emperors
of Japan have left the people to choose for
themselves whom they would serve, and for
the most part the people have responded to
the trust.
THE I.MPERIAL CONSTITUTION
With the restoration of direct relations
between sovereign and people a constitution
was granted, not creating any new principle
or policy, but stating and defining the divine
principles that had regulated the relations
of sovereign and people from the beginning.
As Japanese history was affirmed to afford
no instance of imperial tyranny or oppression
of the people, the portion of the constitution
relating to the Imperial House was formed
on a basis of great elasticity; w-hile all that
referred to the rights and duties of the people
was embodied in coded laws. Unlike the
constitutions of other countries that of
Japan is a divine covenant, not the result
of coercion nor accorded as a right, but
simply as a voluntary gift and blessing from
the divine ruler to his people. By the
P R K S E N T - n A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
terms of the Imperial Constitution the im-
perial power remained as before, or strengtli-
cned rather than impaired; while rights of
honour, liberty, life, property, and religion
were freely bestowed on the people. The
Emperor exercised his administrativ-e power
through the two Estates of the Realm, the
Peers and the Commoners, both vested with
extensive powers, but both of which ever
bow to the imperial will, however much
among themselves they may be given to
division and disputation.
The name usually given to the Emperor is
Tenno Heika, or Divine Ruler. The desig-
nation Mikado, or August Door, is seldom
used except among foreigners, though when
it is spoken it shows the reluctance felt by
the Japanese in using the imperial name.
The title Kolei, a Chinese word, meaning
King of Kings, is sometimes used; while
Kinri, Dairi, and Chutei all describe the
palace and are intended to signify the Em-
peror personally, as we do when we say "the
bench" instead of the judge." Tenno, how-
ever, is the title by which the ruler of Japan
is most commonly known among his people,
and also Tenshi, both implying his divine
descent as well as his all-seeing wisdom and
supreme authority. The Empress is referred
to as Kogo Heika, or Imperial Consort.
THE LATE EMPEROR MUTSUHITO
The late Emperor, Mutsuhito, was the
first ruler for nearly a thousand years to
come before the public and exercise direct
rale over the people, former sovereigns carry-
ing on the administration by proxy and
themselves livmg in the most profound
seclusion, the imperial, feet never being
allowed to touch the earth. During his rule
A MORE RECENT PHOTOGR.^PH OF HIS L.M'E
MAJESTY THE EMPEROR MEIJI TENNO
Japan became a modern state and attained
the position of a first-class power in the
comity of nations; all of which is ascribed
to the virtues of the sovereign. When he
ascended the throne in 1867 at the age of
sixteen he found his country in the throes
of rebirth from expiring feudalism. Tlie
nation was regarded by the powers of the
world as an isolated and self-centred ana-
chronism; but the young ruler, surrounding
himself by the choicest spirits of his time,
determined upon a thorough and radical
reform. Out of the seclusion to which the
shogunate had consigned him he emerged
upon a plane of triumphant and enlightened
rule, breaking the shackles of feudalism and
setting the people free. He found his
country a nation of 30,000,000 ignorant and
unhappy subjects; and after fort3'-five years
of illustrious rule he left a vast Empire
extended in territory and having more tlian
70,000,000 people. Well was his reign en-
titled the Meiji Period, the Age of Enlighten-
ment; and after his demise the great Emperor
was permanently given the posthumous desig-
nation of Meiji. The material, mental, and
moral progress of Japan during the reign of
the Emperor Meiji owed much to imperial
solicitude and direction. The profound
personal interest taken by the Emperor in
the welfare of the people may be illustrated
by one of the imperial poems, the late sov-
ereign having been one of the greatest poets
of the nation:
Teru ni tsukd
Kumoru ni tsuketd
Omou kana
Waga tamigusa no
Uye wa ikani to!
I Whether it rain or shine
I have one only care;
The burden of this heart of mine
Is how my people fare')
Taller and more robust than the majority
ot his subjects, with dark complexion and
pronounced features, the late Emperor always
seemed grave and impassive, ever maintain-
ing the austere dignity of one whose ancestry
is of heaven. vSeen by the present writer on
various occasions, social and official, the
same outward expression of grave dignity
remained without change through many
years. To all Japanese he appeared more
like a god than a man. They took the
keenest interest in every detail of his life,
so far as the public was permitted such in-
formation. The late Empcroi had many
THE APPROACH TO THE IMPERIAL P.\L,^CES, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
I
detached palaces, but he did not often occupy
them, seldom taking a lioHday, even in the
heat of summer. He refused to complain of
winter cold or summer heat, so long as the
toiling multitudes of his Empire had to
endure all weathers, this idea being expressed
in one of the imperial poems. The Emperor
always arose at six in the morning, bathed
and had breakfast before seven, his food
being the simplest. After satisfying his
physician that he was physically fit for the
day, the pure white habutai kimono was
put off for the uniform of a generalissimo of
the Imperial Guards. He insisted on this
even in the heat because the army officers
had to wear it. At ten the Emperor entered
his study to receive official reports and papers.
At one o'clock he took luncheon, usually
native dishes, and then lay down until two.
The afternoons were spent in the study or
in riding. At six the Emperor dined with
the Empress; and the evenings were spent
in poetry together. At nine, the physician
again appeared, and after massage the Em-
peror retired. His late Majesty's hobbies
were poetry and gardening.
The late Empress, who, like her predeces-
sors through so many centuries, belonged to
the Fujiwara family, also traced her descent
direct to the gods, as the Fujiwara were
descendants of the Imperial House. She
belonged to the Ichijo branch of the family
and showed in every line of her features the
refined and intellectual characteristics of
those who trace unmixed descent from the
highest nobility of old Japan, which are
better preserved in the women than in the
men. She was the first Empress to appear
among the people and take part in public
functions. The influence of the good Em-
press Haruko over the women of Japan was
remarkable, especially in the way of education
and charity. In Japanese history her name
will shine no less brightly than that of her
illustrious spouse, the Emperor Meiji, as an
ideal of devotion and duty.
THE EMPEROR YOSHIHITO
The present Emperor, Yoshihito, is the
122nd in the imperial line. He was born
August 31, 1879, being the third son of the
late Emperor. He was declared Imperial
Crown Prince on November 3, 1889, and
succeeded to the throne on July 30, 191 2, at
the moment of the demise of his father.
The formal ceremony of public accession to
the throne did not take place until Novem-
ber, 1914, owing to national mourning. On
the loth of May, 1900, while still Prince
Imperial, he was married to the Princess
Sadako, fourth daughter of Prince Kujo,
born June 22, 1884, the results of the union
being four sons.
H. I. H. CROWN PRINCE HIROHITO
The succession to the throne of Japan is
regulated b^' the Imperial House Law, passed
as supplementary to the Imperial Consti-
tution in 1889 under the Emperor's sign-
manual. It declares that "the Imperial
Throne of Japan, enjoying the grace of
heaven, and everlasting from ages eternal in
unbroken line of succession, has been trans-
mitted through successive reigns," and that
while "the fundamental rules of the Imperial
family were established, once and for all,
when the foundations of the Empire were
laid, and are even at this day as bright as
the celestial luminaries," it was desired "to
establish a House Law for posterity by which
the Imperial House should be founded in
everlasting strength and its dignity forever
maintained." This law provides for the
succession to the throne by male descendants
in the male line, by the imperial eldest son
or the imperial eldest grand.son, by younger
sons of the Emperor in order of birth, failing
an eldest son or grandson; by the Emperor's
brother or his descendants or by his uncle or
his descendants, or, failing these, by the
nearest member of the imperial family. It
is clear that in the above law two of the
nation's most ancient customs were departed
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
from: empresses were excluded from the
throne and the succession was limited to
male descendants of absolute lineage. An
empress or a princess is permitted to act as
regent during the minority or permanent
incapacity of the Emperor from illness, if
there is no prince of age or capacity to
undertake the duties. It is remarkable that
women should be thus excluded from the
tlirone, since some of the most illustrious
sovereigns of old Japan were empresses.
The male succession in direct line is now,
however, well assured, as the present ruler
is the son of the late Emperor, and has four
sons, his two elder brothers having died in
infancy.
The Emperor Yoshihito is the first really
modem ruler that Japan has had, as he was
educated in a modern way and has established
his family and houseliold on a modern basis.
The former Emperor was brought up after
the manner of old Japan; but the education
and training of the new Emperor combine
the best of the old with the best of the new
and modem. At the age of eight he entered
the primary department of the Peers'
College, and passed through all the grades
up to the high school with marked ability.
As a youth he was somewhat delicate in
constitution, but by persistence in care for
his health and in outdoor life and activity
the Emperor is now robust and hale. Upon
leaving the Peers' College the Prince con-
tinued his education at the Aoyama Palace
under private tutors. Up to the time of his
accession to the tlirone the Imperial Prince
gave most of his mornings to hearing special
private lectures from eminent scholars and
professors, showing a special aptitude for
Chinese and Japanese classics. Of foreign
languages he preferred French, in which he
made some progress. From a professional
point of view the young Emperor is a soldier,
though he is an officer of the navy as well.
While yet Crown Prince he used to take his
seat in the House of Peers and show unabated
interest in the affairs of state. Thus it may
be said that the new Emperor of Japan has
had a thorouglily modem education, attend-
ing the public school, mixing daily with com-
panions selected for him, and making himself
familiar with the duties of the high position
he was destined to fiU. On attaining man-
hood he neglected no opportunity of gaining
further knowledge of his country and people,
travelling to various parts of the Empire,
even to Korea. During his trips inland he
proved to be an excellent pedestrian and
mountain climber, often outspeeding his
companions and appearing unannounced
among the rustic villages. The present
writer, who has had the honour on more than
one occasion of taking luncheon in the same
H. I. H. FIELD MARSH.\L PRINXE S.\D.\N.^RU
FLSHIMINOMIY.\
room with His Majesty when he was Crown
Prince, noticed how genial he always was
with those about him, as well as being modest
and dignified in manner. It is said in Japan
that once when the late Emperor and the
Crown Prince were in conversation together,
the father said to the son: "In the past those
in high estate have shown themselves ig-
norant of those below them, and were often
haughty and arrogant. I pray you let it
not be so with you. At all times be ready to
help yourself." This wise counsel the Prince
always has carefully observed; and now that
he sits on the throne of his illustrious father
the young Emperor is ever solicitous of the
welfare of his people. When officials are apt
to be too officious in repressing the free-
dom of the public during imperial journevs,
it is said the Emperor expresses a desire that
his presence shall not delay traffic or interrupt
public business longer than actually necessary.
As a prince mixing among his companions he
always endeared himself to them by his
modest and unassuming ways; as a soldier
he was distinguished for his careful observance
of the military regulations, even joining the
mess and partaking of the rough fare of the
soldier, to the astonishment and admiration
of the officers and men. Once during
manoeuvres when a private was thrown from
his horse and none of the officers appeared
to notice it, treating it as an incident un-
worthy of attention, the Crown Prince leaped
from his saddle and helped the fallen soldier
to his feet, to the amazement of those
standing by. When they expressed great
awe at what he had done he replied: "I too
am a soldier!" On another occasion he was
taken out hunting and shot a stag. On
seeing the beautiful animal lying dead before
his camp the Prince wrote the following
poem :
Omoshiroku
Uchi wa shitsuredo
Naku shika no
Koe kiku toki wa
Aware nari keri!
( For my own amusement
The fatal shot I fired;
But when I heard the doe's lament
The pleasure all expired!)
Thus the people of Japan look upon their
young Emperor as not only brave and noble
but benevolent and tender-hearted as well.
Her Majesty, the young Empress Sadako,
reveals the same imperial qualities that make
her a gracious ornament to the throne and a
mother to her people. As a student at the
Peeress' College she showed untiring ability
in the acquirement of all knowledge, and was
distinguished for her humble and womanly
demeanor. She walked to and from school
like ordinary folk, and never fell below her
form in school. She was one of the most
admired and beloved of pupils by the teachers,
to whom she never forgot to show marked
kindnesses. The young Empress finds time
for attending public functions like Red Cross
Society meetings and so on, but most of her
time is devoted to her children. The eldest.
Prince Hirohito, was born April 29, 1901, and
proclaimed Crown Prince September 9, 1912.
He has graduated from the Peers' College,
is still taking private lessons, and is already
a Lieutenant of the Army and of the Navy.
The second of the imperial sons, Prince
Yasuliito, was born June 25, 1902, and is
still at school. Prince Nobuhito, the third
son of Their Majesties, was born January 3,
1905, while the last son. Prince Takahito, was
born December 2, 1915. The sons of the
Emperor are brought up with certain com-
panions selected for them from among the
sons of noble families; and they have good
times like other boys, going to school or
plajdng in the imperial gardens, being up to
all the mischief of boyhood. Not infre-
quently the imperial parents join in the
children's fun and add to an afternoon's
pleasure. The story goes that one day the
Imperial Princes were found in a pond
hunting tadpoles, up to their eyes in mud,
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
9
to the consternation of the attendants.
Thus the young Emperor and Empress rep-
resent the true Japanese family: keen and
ifitelligent with regard to all that concerns
the welfare of the nation, and in character
and habits simple and unostentatious, win-
ning the same sympathy and devotion so
lavishly bestowed on past rulers.
THE PRINCELY FAMILIES
As members of the imperial family the
princes and princesses of the blood also take
an important place. The Emperor has four
H. I. H. PKINCE KOTOHITO KANINNOMlY.\
sisters living. The Princess Masako married
Prince Takeda, the Princess Fusako married
Prince Kitashirakawa, the Princess Nobuko
married Prince Asaka, and the Priijcess
Toshiko is the consort of Prince Higashi-
kuni. Besides the imperial family there are
some fourteen princely families who are of
the imperial line, divided into two classes:
the Shinno, or imperial princes, and the O,
or ordinary princes. The term "O" means
a suzerain king, like the King of Burmah,
for example, or one of the rulers in Egypt.
There are four families of Shinno, the Im-
perial Princes of Arisugawa, Fushimi, Kannin,
and Higashi Fushimi, to whose descendants
the succession to the throne falls in the event
of failure in the direct line.
The oldest of the princely families is that
of Prince Fushimi, founded by a son of the
Emperor Shuko (1349-1352), and the present
head is the twenty-first of the line. It is
remarkable that from this house have sprung
all the other princely families except that of
Prince Arisugawa, which would have become
extinct had not the Emperor appointed his
third son, Nobuhito Takamatsu-no-miya, to
succeed the late Prince Arisugawa. The
eighteenth Prince Fushimi was Sadayoshi
who had four sons, the eldest of whom,
Prince Kuni-iye, succeeded him, and the
other three founded the princely houses of
Yamashina, Nashimoto, and Kuni. Prince
Kuni-iye had fourteen sons, nine of whom
became the heads of houses. The second
succeeded his father, becoming the twentieth
Prince Fushimi; and he, having no children,
was succeeded by his seventh brother, who
is the present prince. The eldest son founded
the house of Kitashirakawa, the third that
of Komatsu, and the fifth that of Kwacho.
The first Prince Kitashirakawa was succeeded
in turn by two of his brothers, the fourth and
sixth sons of Prince Kuni-iye. The eighth
son succeeded as the sixth Imperial Prince
of Kannin, and the ninth as the second
Imperial Prince Higashi Fushimi. Thus the
present heads of the houses of Fushimi,
Kannin, and Higashi Fushimi are Shinno, and
those of Yamashina, Nashimoto, Kuni, Kita-
shirakawa, and Kwacho are O princes; but all
are direct descendants by blood of the Prince
Sadayoshi and have the Emperor Shuko as
their common remote ancestor. Prince
Fushimi is a marshal of the Imperial Army,
commanded the First Army Division in the
war with Russia, and has visited England.
The house of Arisugawa was founded by
Prince Yoshihito, son of the Emperor Go-
Yozei (1587-1612), and has had four sons
of emperors as heads, the present head being
the third son of the present Emperor. The
family of Kannin was founded by a son of
the Emperor Higashiyama (1687-1710).
The founder of the house was followed by
four successors of his own blood, but the
fifth head of the house, being childless,
adopted a son and was succeeded by the
present holder of the title. Prince Kotohito,
one of the younger sons of Prince Kuni-iye.
The last of the imperial princely houses is
that of Higashi Fushimi. The title was
originall)' conferred after the Restoration on
Prince Akihito, the third son of Prince
Kuni-iye, who played a distinguished part
in the latest stages of the civil war. While
holding this title, Prince Akihito adopted
his bi-other Yorihito, thirteen years younger
than himself, as his heir, but subsequently
another title, that of Komatsu, was con-
ferred upon him, and that which he origi-
nally held passed at once to his adopted
heir, who accordingly became the second
Prince Higashi Fushimi. Prince Komatsu
died in 1903; and being childless, and his
adopted heir being already in possession of
another title of equal degree, that of Ko-
matsu, as an imperial princedom, became
extinct; but it has been revived as that of
a marquisate, in the ranks of the ordinary
nobility, and conferred on the youngest son
of the late Prince Kitashirakawa. The late
Prince Komatsu was one of the few Japanese
princes who distinguished himself by going
abroad for an education, and in later years
he again visited England on imperial missions.
Some may be curious to know how it is
that the sons of subsequent emperors of
VISCOUNT YOSHIN.\0 H.\TANO, MINISTER OF
THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD DEPARTMENT
Japan have not founded princely houses.
But it has been the custom for younger sons,
if there were any, to retire to a monastery
and lead a celibate life, so as to avoid rival
claimants to the throne. The monastery at
Ninnaji in Kyoto was considered a benefice
for priests of princely birth and was succes-
sively ruled by thirty-three princely abbots.
Four other princely houses of Japan are
those of Kayo, Takeda, Asaka, and Higashi
Kuni, the heads of which are scions of the
house of Fushimi and blood descendants of
Prince Sadayoshi, the houses being founded
by his grandsons, all the sons of Asahito,
first Prince Kuni. The house of Takeda
was founded by the third prince of Kita-
shirakawa who descended from the eldest
son of Sadayoshi. Of the princely houses
that of Arisugawa is now nearest the imperial
family in line of succession, as the head of
it is third son of the present Emperor.
The ties of relationship that exist between
the various princely houses are much too
lO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
COUNTRY SCENES
involved to be further gone into here ; but as
they frequently figure prominently in war
and peace one is usually interested in know-
ing what they are. All the princes of adult
age take a very active part in public life.
As members of the House of Peers they
take part in the debates and vote, and in
social functions they are usually prominent.
While the members of princely houses can
not be said to take the same part in war
and peace that is taken by the noble families
of England, there are notable exceptions,
such as those of Prince Arisugawa and
Prince Kitashirakawa who lost their lives
during the war with China. Members of
the imperial family cannot be arrested or
summoned before a court of law except with
the consent of the Emperor, though they
can be civilly sued before the Court of
Appeal in Tokyo, but their presence is not
required. The Emperor can deprive them
of their ranks and titles if they should prove
unworthy; and they cannot marry with-
out the consent of the Emperor, nor are
they allowed to marry outside of certain
families.
As already mentioned the four daughters
of the late Emperor married four of these
princes of the blood. Prince Fushimi is
married to a daughter of the late Prince
Arisugawa, Prince Higashi Fushimi to a
daughter of Prince Iwakura, Prince Kannin
to a daughter of the late Prince Sanjo, and
Prince Kayo to a daughter of the Marquis
Daigo, all members of the old court nobility
of Kyoto and connected with the Fujiwara
family. The young Imperial Prince of Ari-
sugawa is not yet married, but his prede-
cessor was married to a daughter of the late
Marquis Mayeda, Prince Kuni is married to
a daughter of Prince Shimadzu, and Prmce
Nashimoto to a daughter of the Marquis
Nabeshima, all great feudal families. The
princely houses receive an annual allowance
from the Civil List, varying from £3,000 to
£1,000, which leaves them to some degree
dependent on the Emperor. The Emperor's
own allowance from the Civil List is
£500,000, but he enjoys a larger amount
than this from Crown Lands and invest-
ments.
The Emperor and the Imperial Princes
reside in Tokyo, though they have their own
villas in various summer places. While the
imperial palace in Tokv'o is on a scale of
becoming art and splendour it is very limited
in comparison with the palaces of European
sovereigns. The Japanese, however, admire
this elegant simplicity as representative of
national spirit and taste.
THE INLAND SEA, FROM A POINT NEAR ONOMICHI
II. The Country
The Name — Position — Area — Coast Line — Oro(,raphy — Geology — Volcanic and Seismic
Action — Hydrography — Climate — Flora and Fauna — Population — Table of Weights,
Measures, and Moneys, with English, American, French, and German Equivalents
THE country which Europeans call
Japan is known to the people them-
selves as Dai Nippon, or Nihon,
which means "Great Sun-source Land,"
hence the term, "Land of the Rising Sun."
The name Japan had its origin with Marco
Polo, the distinguished Venetian traveller
who found his way to China toward the close
of the thirteenth century, and learned of a
great empire still farther eastward which the
Chinese called Jih-pen and he Zipangu,
gu meaning kuo or country, which, they
assured him, was rich in gold, even the
houses being decorated with it. Marco Polo
carried this news back to Europe, where it
excited no small interest, eventually induc-
ing Christopher Columbus to set out in
search of a westerly route to the East, when
he came upon the New World instead of
Old Japan. Thus Japan was indirectly the
cause of America's discovery. Up to the
year 670 A. D., however, the Empire of
Japan was officially known as Yamato, the
name of the province wherein the first
emperor established his capital. After this
time the official designation of the Empire
was Dai Nippon, referring to the whole
nation, and not the main island only, as
some foreigners supposed.
POSITION
\
The Empire of Japan is situated on the
northwest side of the Pacific Ocean, just off
the coast of China; and, with the exception
of the peninsula of Korea, consists of an
oblong group of islands extending crescent-
like down the coast from 50° 56' N. latitude
below the Kamchatka peninsula, south-
westward to 21° 48' N. latitude, near the
Phihppine Islands, a distance of over 2,000
miles. The most westerly point of the
Empire is in Hokoto in the Pescadores, 119°
20' E. longitude; and the most easterly
point is on the Island of Shumoshuto in the
Kurile group. Province of Chishima, 150°
32' E. longitude. The Empire of Japan
thus extends over 29° o' 8" of latitude and
37° 12' of longitude. (See map.)
AREA
Although the Empire includes some 3,000
islands only 541 are habitable, while no more
than six are of any extent and importance,
viz., Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu,
Formosa, and Saghalien, or Karafuto, as it
is known to the Japanese. Of these by far
the largest and most important is Honshu,
the main island, sometimes called Hondo,
and situated midway in the archipelago ex-
tending like a bow for 1,130 miles down the
coast of the continent from northwest to
southwest. The upper portion of the bow
has a length of 590 miles, bent toward the
Pacific, while the southern half bends for
540 miles toward the coast of Korea, behind
the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu. Next
to Honshu in size though not in importance
comes Hokkaido, formerly called Yezo, to
the north of the main island. It is a terri-
tory of bracing climate and fertile soil, but
sparsely settled and still in process of colo-
nisation from the southern islands. In order
of size and importance then follow Kyushu,
Shikoku, Formosa, which was ceded to Japan
by China as a result of the war of 1894, and
the southern half of Saghalien, ceded by
Russia as the result of war in 1905. The
more important of the smaller islands are
12
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Sado, Oki, Tsushima, Iki, Oshima, Awaji and
the four archipelagoes known as the Kuriles,
called Chishima by the Japanese, the Benin
Islands (Ogasawara in Japanese), and the
Luchu group, which the Japanese call Okin-
awa. The peninsula of Korea, called Chosen
by Japan, was annexed to the Empire owing
to political complications in 1910 and has
added considerably to the area and popula-
tion of the territory of Japan. The total
area of the Empire is now something over
253,929 square mUes, divided into the several
islands and their dependencies as follows:
case the geological formation is more broken
and the coast line serrated, resulting in the
formation of numerous gulfs and inlets, while
the comparatively unbroken line of the coast
along the Japan Sea affords few sheltered
harbours or safe anchorages. It naturally
follows that trade has gravitated toward the
area washed by the Pacific where communi-
cations, with the passing of time, have im-
proved both by land and sea. There are at
present sixty harbours open to foreign ship-
ping and capable of accommodating steam-
ships.
Name
Honshu ...
Hokkaido
Formosa (Taiwan)
Kyushu
Shikoku
Luchu (55 islands)
Chishima (Kuriles, 31 islands).
Sado
Tsushima
Awaji
Oki
Hokoto (Pescadores) . . . .
Iki
Ogasawara (Bonins, 20 islands)
Saghalien (Karafuto)
Chosen (Korea)
Area, Square Miles
81,843.88
30,299.87
• 13,851-99
15,600.54
7,036.48
935-18
6,028.48
335-73
266.53
218.67
130.46
47.62
51-43
26.82
13.154-00
84,102.00
Total. . . .253,929.68
COAST LINE
The coast line of Japan, omitting Sag-
halien which has not yet been accurately
determined, and Chosen, is 18,340 miles in
length, being a proportion of one mile to
eight square miles of area, a ratio unusually
large owing to the country consisting wholly
of islands. The proportion of area to coast
line of the major islands may be represented
as below:
Though the northern coast of Honshu is
unusually rocky, contributing to lack of
good harbours, there are coastal indentations
like the Bay of Aomori and the Sendai Gulf
farther south. This portion of the coast is
also noted for the beautiftd Bay of Matsu-
shima with its numerous pine-clad islets, a
region of fairyland very attractive to tourists
and ranked among the three most celebrated
examples of scenic beauty in Japan. Off
Name
Extent of
Coast Line
Area of
Island
Proportion of Area
to One Mile of
Coast Line
Miles
Square Miles
Square Miles
Honshu and dependencies . . .
Kyushu and dependencies . . .
6,040
4,507
1,650
1,535
896
87,450
15,920
7,037
30,300
13,851
14.6
3.51
4.26
19 74
16.18
Hokkaido and Chishima ....
Formosa, excluding Hokoto .
It is obvious that Kyushu has the greatest
proportion of coast line to area, with Shikoku
second, Honshu third, Formosa fourth, and
Hokkaido fifth.
Very marked differences characterise the
coasts of Japan facing the Pacific as compared
with those on the Japan Sea. In the former
this northeast coast lies the fifth deepest
sea-bed in the world, the descent being
4,655 fathoms. Proceeding southward the
coast is more or less unbroken until reaching
the mouth of the River Ton^, passing which
the Boshu Peninsula is turned, leading into
Tokyo Bay, which faces south. At the head
of this bay, which is some twenty miles long,
stands the capital of the Empire, but owing
to shallow water large ships will not be able
to enter until the new Tokyo harbour is
completed. Consequently foreign trade is
carried on at the port of Yokohama, some
twenty miles to the southwest. Other
smaller ports on this coast are Yokosuka,
one of the chief naval stations with extensive
dockyards, and Uraga, which also has ship-
building yards. Between Mizaki and the
Peninsula of Izu extends far inland the great
Bay of Sagami, with its seven Isles of Izu,
and the famous Fujisan dominating the
whole. Around the base of Fuji run the
rivers Oi and Fuji on their way to this body
of water. The next important indentation
on this coast is the fair Bay of Isi with the
port of Yokaichi at the head, and the city
of Nagoya not far away. From there past
Cape Irakozaki the coast is dangerously
precipitous, a menace to navigation, until
entering the Kii Channel leading to the
extensive Bay of Osaka with the nation's
commercial metropolis of the same name at
the head, and the important port of Kob6
to the left. Turning thither one faces the
entrance to the wonderful Inland Sea with
its innumerable islands, having a coast line
of more than 700 miles. From here passage
may be made to the Pacific tlirough the Kii
Channel, the Naruto Straits on the southeast,
or to the Japan Sea through the Straits of
Shimonoseki at the southwestern extremity
of Honshu. Following the coast of Honshu
along the Japan Sea, few important bays or
harbours are found, as already indicated,
except the Bay of Wakasa where are the
ports of Maizuru, Miyazu, and Tsuruga,
the first reserved as a naval station, and
the latter used as the port of departure for
Vladivostock and the Trans-Siberian railway.
In this bay also lies the noted scenic region
of Amanohashidate, another one of the three
most beautiful places in Japan. Farther
north are the ports of Naoyetsu and Niigata,
around the Noto Peninsula, and then the
circle of the main island is completed at
Aomori, the gateway to the northern island.
As to the coast line of Shikoku there is
no feature meriting special mention. The
island is bounded on the north by the Inland
Sea and the southeast coast of Honshu, and
on the south it faces the Pacific and the
Island of Kyushu. Shikoku has numerous
small bays, and the coast bears evidence of
extensive subsidence of the sea at some
remote period. The coast of Kyushu is
remarkably irregular with numerous small
islands, and bays that extend far inland.
On the Pacific lies the deep Bay of Kago-
shima with its pretty old town of the same
name, having steamship connection with
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
13
CAVES AT MATSUSHIMA TO WHICH HUDDHIST
PRIESTS OF MORE THAN TWELVE
HUNDRED YEARS AGO RETIRED
TO STUDY
the outlying islands. On the rocky east
coast harbours are rare. To the extreme
south lies the beautiful harbour of Nagasaki,
the Naples of the Orient; and farther west
the Sasebo naval station. Hokkaido is
rectangular in shape, with mountain ranges
running parallel to the coast line. South of
the island is Hakodate harbour, having con-
nections with the main island. The Pacific
coast of the island has long stretches of sand
dunes thrown up by the violence of the
wind and sea. Along this coast lies the port
of Otaru. The Island of Saghalien extends
like a monster fish up along the Russian
littoral, half belonging to Russia and half to
Japan. There are several bays along its
serrated coast, the most important of which
is Otomari. But the coast of the island is
generally devoid of good anchorages. For-
mosa, which runs north and south, with a
slight inclination to southwest, is high and
rocky on the east coast, and sloping toward
the west. The waters are deep on the
elevated side and shallow on the other.
The best harbour is Keelung in the north,
while Tamsui is another port, with other
inlets of less importance in the south. For-
mosa is not very distant from the Philippines.
On its western coast lie the forty-seven
islands of Hokoto; and between Formosa
and Kyushu stretch the Luchu Islands, over
fifty in number, while the Kuriles, or Chis-
hima, away in the north, reach from Hok-
kaido to Kamchatka.
OROGRAPHY
Japan is as noted for its mountains as for
its numerous islands, which cover nearly the
whole of the country in well-defined ranges.
taking up at least seven-eighths of tlie total
area, though there are extensive plains in
Hokkaido, Honshu, and Kyushu. Tokyo
stands on the plain of Musashi which is
included in the Kwanto plain where also
stands Yokohama; while the great cities of
Osaka, Kyoto, and Kob6 are on the plain of
Kinai. The plain of Tsukushi is in Kyushu
and covers large coal deposits. Among the
more important of the great mountain ranges
of the country is the chain which, rising in
north Saghalien and running southwest
across Hokkaido, goes through Honshu.
Another range runs from southwest to
northwest and forms the south wing of
middle Japan. This range originates in
China and, crossing the China Sea, passes
through Formosa, branching off through
Kyushu on one side and through Lake Biwa
on the other, finally joining the range from
Saghalien. The centre of Honshu thus
forms a meeting ground for not only the
important ranges of the island but for tliose
of the Empire, forming the divisions known
as North and South Japan and diversifying
the country in climate and characteristics if
not in soil. The tract of country facing the
Pacific abounds with aqueous rocks and has
few volcanoes, while the western side of
Japan shows an extremely complicated
geological formation with numerous vol-
canoes.
There are three princijial volcanic ranges
in the Empire. One runs along the line
which divides the country into north and
south, extending from the Mariana Islands
across the Bonin group to Izu and Honshu,
and is known as the Fuji Range. The
second, known as the Kurile Range, runs
from Chishima through Hokkaido to Hon-
shu, while the third, or Kirishima Range,
commences in Formosa and passes through
the Luchu Islands to Kyushu, the chief
vents being Sakurajima, Kirishima, and
Asosan. From these ranges rise various
important peaks, the highest of which are
Mount Niitaka in Formosa (14,240 feet) ;
Fujisan in Honshu (12,365 feet); Akaishi in
Shinano (10,214 feet); Shirand (10,212 feet);
Ontak6 (10,128 feet); and the volcano of
Asama (8,900 feet). The peaks of the Hida
Range in Shinano are unusually fine; and, as
they are covered with snow during the
winter months and far into the summer,
have been called the Japanese Alps. Of
course Fujisan is the queen of mountains to
all Japanese, towering golden-crowned into
the illimitable blue, with her eight beautiful
lakes at the base. Owing to the volcanic
nature of so many mountains in Japan the
country abounds in hot springs, which have
become popular watering places, the most
important of which are Kusatsu, Shiobara,
Ikao, Atami, Shuzcnji, Hakon^, all in Hon-
shu; and Dogo in Shikoku, Beppu in Ky-
ushu, and Hokuto in Formosa. There are
more than a hundred of these spas in all,
and the majority contain sulphur, saline
matter, or iron. Many of these hot springs
have won a wide reputation for their cura-
tive properties for rheumatism and skin
diseases.
GEOLOGY
Japan is probably for the most part a
newer geological formation than the main-
land of East Asia, though the subject has
not yet been thoroughly investigated. It is
obvious, however, that the country is rising
on the Pacific side and subsiding on the
coasts of the Japan Sea, suggesting that the
archipelago was formerly a part of the ad-
jacent continent. This conviction is con-
firmed by the fact that the coasts of Japan
slope toward Asia while suddenly descending
to abysmal depths on the Pacific side. The
configuration of the archipelago, stretching
like stepping stones between the continent
and the northern islands, and between the
southern extremity and Korea, also indicates
a possible connection with the mainland in
remote geological ages. The innumerable
disturbances in stratification experienced
by the framework of the islands, as well as by
the sedimentary formations, render the study
of stratification and the mutual relations of
strata very difficult, if one would reach that
degree of accuracy demanded by science.
Japanese scientists, however, have classified
(upper) YABAKEI VALI-EY, KYUSHU (lOWER)
GEMBUDO CAVE, A BAS.\LTIC FORMATION
ON THE COAST OF THE JAPAN SEA
H
PRESENT-DAY IxMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ims
V ^*^<l¥^
n
ill
VIEWS OF THE SHORE NEAR ONOMICHI AND MATSUSHIMA
the geological formation of the country as
follows:
Sedimentary Rock
Archaean
Palaeozoic
MesoEoic
Cainozoic
Older Period
Later Period
Total
Igneous Rock
Total . .
Grand Total
Per Cent
■ 3.78
10.24
7-95
■ 45-84
67.81
Per Cent
. 11.27
20.92
32.19
It is obvious that Japan consists largely
of igneous rocks, particularly in the Kurile
Islands, Kyushu, and the northern part of
Honshu. The principal rocks seem to fall
into three main divisions: Plutonic rocks,
more especially granite; volcanic rocks,
principally trachyte and dolerite; and Palae-
ozoic schists; while hmestone and sandstone.
particularly of the Mesozoic strata, are
strikingly deficient. Often the old crj'stal-
line rocks are for long distances overlaid by
also very old schists and quartzites, striking
generally in the main direction of the islands
northeast to southwest. The older regions
appear to reach an average height of from
3,000 to 3,700 feet, but at times as high as
6,000. In some districts Mesozoic sand-
stone and limestone are found in con-
nection, more frequently iti Tertiary for-
mations, but volcanic masses break through
and overlay all these rocks and deposits in
nimierous places. Often they fill up the
gaps between them and appear to prevail
for long distances, though frequently they
form only the higher summits of the older
mountains.
The basis of the islands consists of granite,
syenite, diorite, diabase and related rocks,
porphyry appearing comparatively seldom.
Often the granite prevails for long distances
as the chief rock; and then again it often
forms the foundation for thick strata of
schist and sandstone, itself only cropping
out in valleys of erosion, river boulders.
rocky projections along the coast, or in
mountain ranges or ridges. This is the case
in Kyushu, and especially in Shikoku. In
the composition of the mountains of Honshu
granite plays a prominent part. In the
Peninsula of Chikoku this rock forms a con-
tinuous mass, appearing in innumerable
places in the interior and toward the coast.
Old schists, free from fossils and rich in
quartz, overlay it in parallel chains through
the whole length of the peninsula, particularly
in the central and higher ridges, sometimes
bearing such ores as copper and magnetic
pyrites. These schist ridges are rich in
quartz and show considerable disintegration
to a depth of thirty or more feet, resulting
in pebble and quartz sand which affords
scant nourishment to the scrub pines that
try to cling to such foundations. In the hill
country on the borders of Ise, Owari, Mikawa,
and Totomi on the one side, and Omi, Mine,
and Shinano on the other, granite frequently
forms dark grey and much disintegrated
rock projections above schist and diluvial
quartz pebbles. The feldspar of a splendid
pegmatite and its products of disintegration
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
15
on the borders of Owari, Mine, and Mikawa
form the raw material of the extensive ke-
ramic industry of this district with head-
quarters at Seto. The meridional mountains
of Shinano are principally of granite, which,
together with Plutonic rocks, especially
diorite, hems in the valleys of the Kisogawa,
Saigawa, and many other rivers in the
district, whose clear waters flow over granite.
In the \'icinity of Nikko also, especially
along the upper valley of the Daiyagawa and
neighbouring mountains, this granite appears
with porphyry in large, pale flesh-coloured
crystals of orthoclase, dull triclinic feldspar,
quartz, and hornblende. In the border
range of Kotsuk^ and Echigo there are also
interesting varieties of geological formation.
The Tertiary and alluvial deposits form a
deep and friable mould easily worked and
very prolific, this being the chief source of
the nation's agriculture. Along the banks
of rivers occur Quaternary argillaceous soils
of an alluvial nature, which are still more
fertile; and as they lie low for the most part
they are well adapted to irrigation and con-
sequently to rice culture.
VOLCANIC AND SEISMIC ACTION
J.\PAN is indeed a land of volcanoes, having
more than fifty still active, with numerous
craters for the present quiescent. These
vents for subterranean forces are found along
throe clearly defined ranges, known as the
MOLNT ASA.MAYAM, AN .VCTIVI-: VOLCANO — LNZEN HOT SPRING, KYUSHL — HOT SPRINGS, KVUSHU-
COUNTRV AT SAKURAJIMA, AFTER A VOLCANIC ERUPTION
-ASPECT OF DEVASTATED
i6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Kuri]e, the Fuji, and the Kirishima Ranges,
which exliibit about two hundred craters.
The Fuji and Kirishima Hnes of force seem
to show activity alternately. For several
years such craters as Asama, Oshima, and
Yakedake in the Fuji Range were marked
by the most conspicuous activity, but after
the year 19 14 activity shifted more to the
Kirishima Range, with violent outbursts of
volcanic force in Kyushu. In 1915 the
strain returned to the Fuji Range and the
great crater of Yakedake re-awoke to violent
energ>-, with resultant subsidence of action
in the Kirishima Range. The most noble as
well as the most remarkable of Japan's
volcanoes is Asama, some eighty miles north
of Tokyo in the Province of Shinshu, its
giant cone soaring nearly nine thousand feet
above the surrounding hills, with great
masses of copper-hued firnie ever rising
sk>'ward. At present it ejects nothing more
harmfid than showers of ashes and pebbles,
but in 1793 a fatal eruption occurred when a
lava stream poured out which destroyed a
whole primeval forest and several villages.
The land for miles around was buried to a
depth of from two to four feet in showers of
pumice and scoria. In recent years Asama
has shown signs of further activity, but
Japanese scientists are assured that there
are no indications of violence. The last
eruption of Fuji was in 1707; and though the
base of the cone is warm and abounding in
hot springs, there appears to be no sign of
a retuni to activity. The largest volcano in
Japan is Asosan in Kyushu, whose crater is
about fourteen miles in diameter, though
the active portion is not so large or imposing
as the crater of Asama. Fugendake is
another volcano in Kyushu, rising above
the hot springs of Unzen. In 1914 the
V'Olcano on Sakurajima near Kagoshima burst
into violent fury, forcing out lava to a depth
of over two thousand feet above sea level
and kiUing fifty-seven persons, several others
being killed by the resultant earthquakes.
Agatsuma erupted with disastrous effect in
1903 when two geologists were killed, and
Bandaisan exploded with similar effect in
1888.
Japan may also be called a land of earth-
quakes, if an average of more than four a
day throughout the year be sufficient to
justify this description, though happily few
of them are of any importance. For some
time now the country has been experiencing
about 1,365 shocks annually; and during a
period of 21 years, ending in 1905, more
than 30,680 shocks were felt, omitting minor
vibrations detected only by the most delicate
instruments. As subterranean changes in
Japan are constant, the frequency of these
minor shocks is welcomed as a tendency to
remove weak cleavages and bind the strata
sufficiently firm to prevent severer ones. It
is when seismic disturbances are unusually
rare that the danger of disastrous earth-
quakes in Japan is greater. As has been
already indicated, the seismologists of Japan
have established the fact that the districts
bordering on the Pacific are slowly but
perceptibly rising, while those on the Japan
Sea are undergoing subsidence. On the
axis of the central mountain range the whole
main island appears to be twisting toward
China. During the last 300 years Japan has
been visited by no less than 108 shocks of
a more or less disastrous nature, seven of
them particularly so. Every Japanese ex-
pects to experience one severe earthquake
during a lifetime. From the year 1885 to
1909 Japan experienced as many as 37,642
earthquake shocks, an average of 1,506 per
annum for 25 years. Mild shocks passing
unnoticed except by the seismograph occur
daily. During the last 500 years earth-
quakes in which 5,000 or more persons were
killed occurred as follows:
members of the household each with a lamp,
all silently gazing in terror at each other,
wondering what it was all about, the shock
having subsided even before they reached
the hall.
The regions along the Pacific coast of
Japan exhibit distinctly different seismo-
logical phenomena from the opposite coast,
being more subject to secular movements
of a severer nature and affecting a more
extensive area, while the shocks on the
coast of the Japan Sea are more of a local
character. Along the Pacific coast the
shocks originate in the great ocean depths
just off Japan, and are not infrequently
attended by destructive tidal waves. The
districts least liable to experience seismic
disturbances are Kotsuke, Hida, Tajima, and
some parts of central Japan, while the wide
plain of Musashi, where Tokj-o stands, and
the region about Sagami, are most given to
such \-isitations. The Japan Earthquake
Commission, which has given more time to
the study of this subject than any other
scientific body, under the able supervision
Date
1505
1596
1703
1707
1792
1844
1855
1891
1896
Jan. 31.
Dec. 30,
Oct. 28.
Feb. 10.
May 8 . ,
Nov. II
Oct. 28.
June 15
Pl.\ce
Tokaido
Pacific Coast
Tok>'o and vicinity . . .
Coasts of Shikoku, etc
Hizen, Higo, etc
Shinano
Tokyo
Mino, Owari
Sanriku districts
Houses i
Destroyed 1
Deaths
20,162
2,2900
12,000
34.300
50,000
22,501
13,073
20,000
5,000
5.233
5.000
15,000
12,000
6,500
7.223
As to the above calamities the earthquakes
of 1707, 1792, and i8g6 were accompanied
by great tidal waves, which in some measure
explains the abnormal loss of life; but
numerous shocks have been omitted in
which from 500 to 4,000 fatalities occurred.
To the resident of Japan the minor shocks
are scarcely less alarming than the greater
ones, for w-hen a shock begins one never
knows what it is coming to. Consequently
preparations have to be immechately made
to face the worst. With the introduction of
electric lamps in most of the towns and
villages of Japan there is not the same danger
from fire as prevailed when oil lamps were in
use; but every Japanese house has its hibachi,
or small brazier for charcoal fire, which is
sure to cause a conflagration should the
timbers of the house be precipitated upon it.
The writer has grim recollections of having
been hurled a few inches above his seat
while quietly reading at night, jumping to
his feet and seizing the lamp from the table,
rushing into the hallway only to meet other
of Professor Omori, the greatest authority
on Japanese seismology, estimates that the
country has experienced 2,006 earthquakes
of an important character since the begin-
ning of the nation's authentic history. For
the last thirty j'ears or so Tokyo alone has
had an average of ninety-six shocks a year,
excluding those too mild for personal ex-
perience; but during the last fifty years the
capital has suffered but two shocks of any
great severity. The lesident of Tokyo
experiences at least one perceptible shock a
week on an average. The last serious disturb-
ance was in 1894 when twenty-four lives were
lost. Needless to say, the frequency of
secular movements in Japan has caused
the national architectiu'e to assume a dis-
tinct tj'pe calculated to withstand the strain
of constant temptation to sway. Professor
Omori is of the opinion that if regions ex-
posed to earthquakes abroad, such as Italy,
gave the same degree of attention as the
Japanese to proper construction of houses,
fatalities from seismological disturbances
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
17
would be reduced. Nearly all the greater
structures now erected in Japanese cities are
built after plans supposed to be earthquake-
proof, a claim which the first severe shock
will doubtless put to the test. Certainly the
Japanese, with their ages of experience,
have achieved more efficient means of pre-
caution than other nations with regard to
safety from earthquakes; for in the severe
shock of 1891 out of a population of 165,339
in the city of Nagoya only 190 persons
perished, whereas in the Reggio earthquake
in Italy in 1908 the victims numbered over
100,000, the difference being largely due to
wiser plans of house construction. In 1880
the Japan Seismic Society was founded under
the united auspices of Professor John Milne
and Professor Ewing, assisted by the late
Professor Sekiya who gave his life a martyr
to the science in the eruption of Mount
Azuma in 1903. The work has been very
efficiently carried on by Drs. Kato, Tana-
kadate, and Omori. The seismograph in-
vented by the society is one of the most
accurate instruments of the kind known to
modern science and has opened the way to
the creation of a science of seismology.
The proceedings of the Japan Seismic Society
in twenty volumes are universally regarded
as the most valuable contributions to this
science. With her more than two hundred
craters of which fifty are active Japan might
be supposed to suffer from earthquakes chiefly
on this account, but that there is any neces-
sary connection between frequency of telluric
movement and volcanic energy has not been
clearly established, though there can be no
doubt that active volcanoes act as safety
valves, places situated near them seldom
having suffered from seismic disaster.
HYDROGR.\PHY
Since the islands which form Japan are
narrow, and divided in the middle by moun-
AM.\N0H.^SH1DATE
tain ranges, the rivers are short and generally
swift, but the proximity of the sea to all
parts of the country and the great conden-
sation of vapour on all the mountain peaks
keep the country always well watered, and,
at times, destructive floods occur from
overflow of river banks. What the rivers
lack in depth and length, however, they
often make up in width, though for the
greater part of the year the actual stream
covers but a small area of the bed. Ad-
vantage has been taken of this to construct
great hydro-electric plants, which supply
light and power to towns and cities for
miles around. The shallowness of the
rivers is a great hindrance to inland navi-
gation, on which so much of the countn,'
still depends for transportation.
The two moimtain ranges which intersect
in Hokkaido form four distinct watersheds,
from which numerous streams flow down
through extremely fertile plains. The River
Ishikari, which runs west, is the largest
stream in Japan, being over 400 miles in
length, of which about 100 miles are navi-
gable for small ships. Other rivers of the
island are the Teshio, 192 miles; the Tokachi,
120 miles; while the Kujiro is 80 miles. In
Honshu the Abukuma and the Kitakami flow
into the Pacific, being 175 and 150 miles long
respectively. Other rivers in the northern
part of Honshu are the Omono, 173 miles;
and the Mogami, 140 miles. In middle
Honshu the Shinano River flows 215 miles
through the fertile plains of Echigo mto the
Sea of Japan, and is navigable to small
steamers for some 90 miles. The Jinzu and
the Imizu, about 150 miles each, and the
Kuzurin, 78 miles, are too swift for navi-
gation. Such rivers as the Kino, Katsura,
Ton6, and Oi near Tokyo are made to
furnish electric energy for lighting, traction,
and other purposes, only lack of capital
hindering further application of this force.
The Tond flows eastward into the Pacific for
a distance of some 200 miles, watering an
area of about 770 square miles, the largest
plain in Japan. The Edo, a branch of the
Tone, flows into Tokyo Bay, as also does the
Sumida, 73 miles, navigable for the greater
part. The River Fuji, which rises in Kai,
flows around the base of the celebrated
mountain of the same name, over a course
of 125 miles, when it falls into the Bay of
Suruga; while the Kiso, which rises in the
Kiso Mountains, after meeting the waters of
the Hida and Nagara, turns westward and
enters the Bay of Is^ after a journey of 130
miles. The Jodo flows from Lake Biwa past
Kyoto into the Bay of Osaka; and the River
Kamo runs for 85 miles in the same direction,
having its source in Yamato. The only
stream of importance in Shikoku is the
Yoshino, about 150 miles in length. The
rivers of Kyushu are extremely tortuous, like
the hills whence they rise, the most impor-
tant being the Chikugo, 85 miles, and the
Kawauchi, 112 miles. The largest stream in
Formosa is the Dakusuikei, 96 miles in
length, and, like most of the rivers of the
island, not suited to navigation.
The lakes of Japan, though for the most
part merely basins of water of seismic or
volcanic origin, are often extremely pictur-
esque in scenery, the largest being Lake
Biwa in Omi, with a circumference of about
180 miles. Other moderately extensive lakes
are the Towada in Mutsu, with circum-
ference of 37 miles; Inawashiro in Inashiro,
33 miles; while Chuzenji above Nikko,
Hakon^ near Mount Fuji, Lake Suwa in
Shinano, and the eight small lakes of
Fujisan, are all famous beauty spots form-
ing attractive summer resorts. In Hok-
kaido the largest lake is Saruma, with a
circumference of about 50 miles, while
Lakes Doya and Onuma are noted for
charming scenery.
i8
PRESR NT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OP JAPAN
CLIMATE
The climate of Japan, as might well be
expected from the countrj^'s extraordinary
projection north and south, varies to a con-
siderable degree according to locality and
in general characteristics, the districts bor-
dering on the Pacific being much milder
than those on the coast of the Japan Sea,
as the former shores are washed by the
equatorial currents and protected by moun-
tain ranges from cold winds. The so-called
knto-shco, or Black Current, divides at the
southern extremity of the archipelago, one
portion sweeping back into the Pacific
through the Straits of Tsushima, and the
other northward along the Pacific coast of
Japan. This renders the chmate on the
eastern side of the islands remarkably
temperate, colder in winter and warmer in
summer than that of England. In the
northern part of Honshu as well as in Hok-
kaido and Saghalien the degree of cold is
something severe during the winter months,
especially in January' and February, when
30° below zero is not infrequently registered
on the west coast and a depth of from 5 to
10 feet of snow experienced. Here the ther-
mometer often goes as low as 21° above
zero during the coolest nights in summer;
and only the hardiest grains and fruits can
thrive, while there is plenty of skiing and
skating in season. The lowness of winter
temperature is no doubt dne to the bitter
winds that sweep across this part of Japan
from the Siberian plains. The yearly mean
temperature noted at the meteorological
station at Sapporo in Hokkaido is 44° F.
In the more southerly portions of Honshu,
on the other liand, as well as in Shikoku and
Kyushu, winter seldom lasts longer than two
months, January and February alone being
recognised as winter months, though some-
times there may be occasional frost and
snow till the beginning of April. Tokyo and
Kyoto have a mean annual tempeiaturc of
57° F., while Nagoya, Sakai, and Okayama,
in the same island, have one degree more,
Osaka and Kobe having 59° F., and Naga-
saki 60° F. The farther one goes north-
ward on the main island the yearly average
is, of course, lower, being 50° F. at Ishino-
maki and 50° F. at Aomori. The more
southern portions of Honshu and the Islands
of Shikoku and Kyushu experience hot and
humid summers, when the atmosphere is
unpleasantly oppressive and the mercury
registers from 90° to 100° F. in the shade,
which is much more unbearable than the
same degree of heat in a less humid atmos-
phere. Periods of transition between sum-
mer and winter are short in the north, and
toward the south are more and more pro-
longed at the expense of winter. The short-
ness of the winter in the south somewhat
compensates for the extreme heat of mid-
summer. Oranges and semi-tropical fruits
gladden the eye everywhere. Though the
south seldom sees enough snow to cover the
ground, the more elevated mountain peaks
may be white all winter. In Formosa, of
course, with its lower half in the torrid
zone, the temperature is steadily high, the
mean annual temperature of Taihoku being
71° F. The following are the official figures
of the Japan Meteorological Bureau up to
Tgi2, given in Centigrade:
typlioons generally come in the rainy season
in August and September, and often cause
great floods, since the wind is accompanied
by heavy rains. Fortunately not many of
the great winds cause damage, but the more
violent of them wreck shipping, destroy
buildings, flood thousands of acres of land,
doing great injury to crops and roads, as
well as causing loss of life.
Rainfall. — The rainfall in Japan is more
than that of England and America, and in
some districts four times greater, but happily
the number of wet days in the year is less.
Monthly Average Temperature of Japan
Month
January
February ....
March
April
May
June
July
August
September . . .
October
November . . .
December . . .
Average .
JVIaximum
Minimum
3
o
157
14.0
16.9
20.7
23.8
26.6
27.9
27-7
26.2
23-3
19.6
16.7
21.6
370
■z
16.4
15-8
179
20.8
23 I
26.0
27.9
27-7
26.7
24.0
20.7
174
22.0
351
5-2
4.2
4.0
7-5
13 -4
17-5
21.8
25.8
27.2
23.2
16.9
II .2
6.3
14.9
37-6
-7.1
ni
M
IS
■z
15
36.7
— 5-2
o
o
c
Z
-1-4
-1-5
2.6
9 7
14.6
18.9
22.8
24.0
19-7
12.9
6.6
1 .0
13
36.6
— 8.1
36.3
— 16.4
1.5
1 .2
4-5
10.4
15.0
193
23.5
25-5
21.3
I5-I
9-4
4-1
-03
0.0
2.9
9.0
134
17-4
20. 9
22.9
19.6
13.6
7-7
2-3
12.6
39 I
—9 7
10.8
34-8
— 13.6
•a
o
—3-1
— 2.6
0.7
6.4
10.4
14
18
21
17
II
5
— o
8.3
— 0
— 5
2
3
6
9
14
17
15
10
4
— I
5-5
33-5
— 21 .7
31-4
—22.7
Winds. — During the colder season which
sets in with September and ends in April,
Japan is visited by northern and western
gales from the continent, due to low atmos-
pheric pressure on the Pacific which is often
down to 750 m.m., while on the mainland
the pressure maintains an average of 772
m.m., a difference of 22 m.m. In the warm
season from May to September the pressure
on the Pacific rises to 767 m.m. or so, while
that on the continent falls to 762 m.m.,
caiising a southwest wind of mild velocity.
Suttsu in Hokkaido experiences the fiercest
gales, the average being about 29 feet per
second. Soya, Akita, Choshi, and Yoko-
suka also have . to endure strong winds.
Kumamoto, Gifu, Tokaichi, and Tsushima
are least exposed to violent winds, the
average in these places being not more than
7 feet a second. A peculiar feature of the
Japanese climate is its liability to periodic
gales, known as typhoons, which generally
originate in the Philippines. These hurri-
canes usually visit Japan between June and
October, and their force not infrequently
attains a velocity of 70 miles an hour. The
and the cloudless beauty of the blue sky is
much more characteristic of Japan than of
Europe. The average annual rainfall for
the whole of Japan reaches 1,570 m.m.
The rainiest spot in the Empire is Oshima in
Kyushu, which experiences a rainfall of 3,400
m.m. a year; and next comes Koshun in
Formosa with 2,600; Taihoku, 2,400; while
the districts least exposed to rain are Abash-
iri, 715 m.m.; Soya, 840; Sapporo, 970;
Nagoya, 1,190; and Okayama 1,080 m.m.
In Japan it rains or snows on an average of
150 days a year, but the sunshine of the
remaining 215 makes up for it all. The
most delightful months of the year, as far
as climate goes, are April and May, and
November and December, when bright days,
with an agreeable atmosphere, prevail. The
most unpleasant season is that known as
the tsiiyti, or bai-u, which means "rainy
season," from the middle of June to the
beginning of July, due to the presence of
low pressure areas in the Yangtze Valley in
China, proceeding northeastward.
Generally speaking the climate of Japan is
less bracing and more trying to the European
PRESENT-DAY IMPkESSIONS OF lAPAN
19
JAPANESE WOMAN PRAYING AT THE
FAMILY ALTAR
than his own. One cannot do more than
half the amount of work in Japan that he
can do at home without feeling greater loss
of energy; and persistence in trying inevi-
tably brings on "Japanese head," an affec-
tion resembling nervous prostration, peculiar
to the country, which always involves being
invalided home. All foreigners, therefore,
while in Japan have to be careful not to
indulge in a greater degree of mental or
physical exertion than the climate allows.
It has been said that the lack of bracing
qualities experienced in the climate of Japan
is due to absence of ozone, owing to Japan's
forming the main conductor of the terrestrial
electric current, which follows the Rockies
and the Andes through North and South
America and returns through the Japanese
ranges. How much of scientific truth there
is in this opinion the writer does not under-
take to say. For those who suffer from the
exigencies of climate in Japan there are
attractive hill resorts and watering places
where refuge can be comfortably had from
the oppressive heat of summer or when in
need of rest, without being obliged to travel
far. The most common affections arising
from the climate of Japan are catarrh,
consumption, rheumatism, and brain troubles,
but many of these may be as much due to
ignorance of sanitation and hygiene as to
climate. The average Japanese ages earlier
than the European and American, but
whether the climate has anything to do
with this is uncertain. One is, however,
convinced that the tendency of the Japanese
to extremes of nervous insensibility on the
one hand and uncontrollable excitability on
the other is in some measure the effect of
climate. At the same time it must be ad-
mitted that Japan has as many centenarians
in proportion to population as most countries,
the last census giving 4,252 males and 4,655
females as over one hundred years of age;
hut it must be assumed that many of these
probably could not remember the exact date
of their birth. The Japanese climate on the
whole agrees admirably with foreign children,
which do not, as in India, have to be sent
home for recuperation. Their elders, how-
ever, find that to ensure permanent fitness of
condition they must take a year at home
every seven years or so, some of the mission-
ary societies insisting on furlough every five
years.
in any part of Jajjaii |)roper, not even in
Kyushu, though it is cultivated in small
quantities in the south, planted in March
and cut in September, after but six months
of vegetation. At the end of September
the rice fields begin to fade, and by the end
of October autumn tints dominate the land-
scape, surpassing in beauty even the boasted
colours of North American forests. The
tints of the Japanese maple in autumn are
particularly beautiful; and it assumes the
Average Monthly Rainfall and Snowfall in Jap\n
(In Millimetres)
Month
January
February
March
April
May..
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Days of rain or snow
91.0
130.7
175-8
137.6
204.9
241.2
207.0
246.9
233-2
102.7
72.6
93-1
1940.1 2154.2
136.8
130.8
149.9
169.9
258.6
284.7
183-7
289.0
183-9
166.8
144-4
100.2
185
51-5
49-4
104-5
151-4
T27.8
189-5
163-7
186.9
185.0
128.6
74-3
44.8
377-4
140
78.9
81.7
130.1
196.6
1 80. 1
294-9
245-3
77-5
210.9
117. 6
85-4
85-4
1884.4
164
o
>>
o
57-1
58.0
109.2
131.8
156.9
153-8
143-3
145.2
210.6
1 80. 1
100.3
54-1
1500.4
146
ac
Z
56.2
50.5
54-0
68.2
86.8
108.5
167.4
98.8
133. 1
77.5
50.3
530
1004.;
176
96.3
125.2
104.6
106.0
82.8
132-9
156-9
130.9
186.6
146.3
182.5
232.6
1793-5
237
49-3
45-5
75-9
88.5
122.4
117.6
145-I
"7-3
165. 1
1 19.6
58.4
45-8
■a
o
a
55-8
57-7
64.1
69-3
80.1
89.9
138.0
129.3
168.4
114.2
95-8
79-3
1 150.5 1 142.0
152
191
28.5
21. 1
43.7
70.2
97.9
90.6
85-9
94-0
134-5
88.1
79.2
62.0
825-7
156
FLOR.\ AND FAUNA
(.4) Flora
The wealth, variety, and luxuriance of
Japanese vegetation make the country one
of the most interesting outside the tropics
to the student of plant life. That the
nation itself has been so dependent on the
vegetable and plant world for existence has
always rendered the subject of wide interest
to" the people themselves. The Chinese
system of medicine, which was almost wholly
adopted in early Japan, demanded a thorough
knowledge of plants, and developed a famil-
iarity with and a love of flowers imequalled
elsewhere. The cold season of Hokkaido
limits the period of vegetation there to
about five months in the year, while in mid-
Japan the season is six, and farther south,
seven months, when the growths of all
woody plants are interrupted, including
even evergreens. As in all countries of low
temperature and regularly recurring periods
of suspended growth, the trees of Japan
exhibit distinct year rings. Even as far
south as Tokyo the palm flourishes only
under careful protection, and oranges are
produced only m the more fully sheltered
valleys. The sugar cane does not thrive
same rich colouring when budding out in
spring. By the end of October the decid-
uous trees are leafless, and but few plants
then refrain from winter rest, among them
the camillia, whose blossoming time is No-
vember and December, the last buds finally
fading before the severe frost. Another
camillia, called the Japonica, prolongs its
flowering time to April. With December the
grass has everywhere faded, and all the green
fields turn a dull grey, changing the entire
aspect of the country, which has been for
many months so verdant. The plum blos-
som, which is a favourite with the Japanese,
comes out in the south as early as February,
announcing the approach of spring; but in
the north its delicately tinted flowers are
not seen before March and often run into
April. The most beautiful blossom of April
is the Japanese cherry, but the number of
flowering plants at this season is still less
than three per cent of the nation's flora.
The most important winter crops are
barley, wheat, and rape, which are sown in
drills and rows at the end of October and
show a vigourous blade in November and
early December when their development
ceases until waked by the warm sun of
20
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
spring. The barley and rape make rapid
growth from April onward, and are ready
for harvest in June, with the wheat harvest
some two weeks later. In the south the
transition from winter to spring is much less
marked and rapid than in the north, where
everything quickly recovers its verdure with
the return of spring. Another reason why
spring is not so marked in the south is
because the deciduous trees of groves and
woodlands are so often mixed with ever-
greens that their change to spring attire is
not so readily noticeable. By the beginning
of May the fields of the south are in full
summer dress and the song of the Japanese
nightingale is again heard. Then spring
showers are frequent and plenteous; and
vegetation soon shows a variety ana luxuri-
ance that suggest the tropics.
The geographical distribution of Japanese
plants is decided apparently by the geological
formation of the countiy and the nature of
the soil, producing a different vegetation
according as the place is sand dune, fresh-
water land, plains, bush or hill country,
highlands and mountains. The number of
sand and salt plants is very great, while
marine flora are still more varied and plenti-
ful, many being used as food. Japan has no
heaths or moors, and consequently the
plants usually associated with such places
are wanting, especially peat mosses; but the
wet rice lands have a peculiar vegetation of
their own, starwort and pondweed being
prominent. In Japan the hills are terraced
and cultivated to a height and degree un-
surpassed in any other country-, but seldom
higher than from 300 to 900 feet above sea
level. Most of the hills are covered with red
pine and low brushwood, but in places are
quite bare. How barren and dry the soil of
some of the hills is may be inferred from the
scrubby conditions of the pines that try to
subsist on them. Trees of juniper, azalea,
and rose grow among the hill grasses, the
latter being known as coarse bamboo grass.
In early summer when everything is green
and the scent of pine resin mingles with the
perfume of wild flowers, and the grating and
chirping of cicadas on the trunks and
branches of the pines echo above the hum-
ming and buzzing of innumerable insects
among the wild flowers, the scene is animated
and delightful in the extreme. The red-
flowered azalea often sets the hills ablaze
with colour and presents a sight uniquely
picturesque. The plains are for the most
part given over to the growing of rice, there
being practically no fallow or meadow land.
But the higher hills are often not unlike
meadows in their lack of trees and in their
wealth of wild flowers, running up to 1,500
or even 3,000 feet, the more beautiful of
the flowers being the mountain lilies, the
azaleas, and wild roses.
Unlike the forests of Europe those of
Japan have a great variety of trees and
shrubs of all ages; and it is but seldom that
one finds such foliaceous growths as oaks
and beeches forming a forest by themselves.
The unusual number of parasitic and climb-
ing plants reminds us of the virgin forests
of the tropics. There is indeed no doubt
that the forests of Japan show a greater
number of variously mingled trees than
those of North America. To name the con-
stituents of a Japanese forest would be to
enumerate at least half the entire flora of
VIEWS IN KORAKUEN PARK, OKAYAMA, ON THE INLAND SEA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
21
the world. In the higher mountains, as one
proceeds northward, with the exception of
conifers, there are few evergreens, and these
chiefly shrubs. The principal constituents
of such a deciduous forest are oaks, beeches,
hornbeams, maples, birches, horsechestnuts,
magnolias, azaleas, walnuts, elms, planes,
ashes, alders and so on, all of which flourish
best in the middle part of the Empire. The
great number of climbers one can do no
more than refer to, but some of them are
very beautiful, especially the wistaria, which
is often found climbing a hundred feet above
the earth on trees or cliffs. The multi-
formity of a Japanese foliaceous forest is
further increased by divers kinds of conif-
erous trees, especially firs, pines, and
cryptomerias, according to altitude. The
red pine and the black pine are the most
common conifers in Japan, found especially
in the lower levels and sandy places, like
dunes and barren hills. Another of this
family is the Alpine dwarf fir which prefers
the higher altitudes. At a height of from
1,500 to 3,000 feet is found the handsomest
of Japanese conifers, the cryptomeria, which
furnishes the most esteemed wood for build-
ing and industrial purposes. This noble tree
is the pride of temple groves, an ornament
wherever found, and the constant theme of
national poets. The mountains of Shinano
possess fine forests of these cypresses, of
which there are two kinds, the sugi or red
cypress, and the hinoki or white cypress,
which attain usually a height of about sixty
feet and a diameter of three. Firs and
larches grow at an altitude up to 7,000 feet,
though the forest limit is usually about
6,000 feet, growth depending on circum-
stances of wind and sun. Since growth in
Japan frequently depends more on wind and
sun than on temperature one often finds
the beautiful Japanese Alpine bell growing at
surprising altitudes. The flora of the higher
mountains is, therefore, a mixture of Alpine
and northern plant forms, the species being
such as are found widely in sub-arctic regions
of the Old and the New World; especially
common are they in the shady woods of the
north temperate zone, ascending to greater
elevations farther south. A small number of
species, however, are peculiar to Japan.
The origin of these has undoubtedly been in
Siberia and Kamchatka, the seeds being
borne southward by currents and monsoons,
though probably some were carried by birds,
especially by the ptarmigan.
With the exception of a few plants, like
tobacco and potatoes, most of the cultivated
products of Japan have been derived from
China, though it is possible some are in-
digenous, such as the lotus. Hemp, cotton,
and silk, which formed the chief material for
clothing in China, early came to Japan, as
well as rice for food and tea for drink. The
catalogue of endemic vascular plants of
Japan, however, is a long one; and the great
difference in their genera is astonishing. In
the enormous number of monotype genera
Japan stands alone among extra-tropical
countries, with a remarkable mixture of
species peculiar to the country, as well as
such forms as are distributed over China,
the Himalayas, tropical India, North Europe,
Siberia, and North America, the extra-
ordinary luxuriance and variety being due
for the most part to high temperature, fertile
soil, and abundant rainfall. Japan's close
connection with the Kurile Islands in the
north and the Luchu Islands in the south,
as well as with Korea, offers every attraction
for the immigration of Asiatic flora from the
north, west, and south, the intervals between
islands being bridged by sea currents and
winds. The more northern forms easily
found their habitat by pushing toward the
higher mountains with the assistance of
valley winds, the migration and develop-
ment probably taking place after the glacial
period.
To sum up, it may be said that existing
flora in Japan number:
Species
Phanerogamia, or flowering plants 3,200
Cryptogamia, or flowerless plants
and ferns 300
Algae, or seaweeds 400
For fuller information as to the various
trees, plants, and vegetables of Japan, the
readei is referred to the chapters on Forestry.
Tea, and Agriculture.
(B) Fauna
The animal world of Japan is indeed
scarcely less remarkable for interest and
variety than the nation's flora, extending
from anthropoid apes down to simple pro-
tozoa, species whose morphological relation
or correspondence to other species may be
separated widely in space and time. The
land fauna undoubtedly came originally from
China, Korea, and Manchuria, and belongs
for the most part to pateoarctic types, of
which most of the Japanese mammalia, birds,
and insects are but modifications, indicating
that Japan has been more recently connected
with the continent northward than south-
ward. Though assuredly related to its
neighbours of the northern half of Asia, the
fauna of Japan has its own peculiar stamp,
not, perhaps, so pronounced in the various
classes of animals. There is an absence of
several continental genera and a great vari-
ation of common species, with a persistence
of others which in other countries have to
be reckoned with extinct types. Japan is
quite an exception to the rule that the
fauna and flora of islands are poorer than
those of the neighbouring continent; for the
insect world alone surprises the scientist by
the great wealth of forms and individuals, of
which he may find more in a day's walk than
he could find in the whole British Isles,
with which Japan is sometimes compared in
point of size.
Marine Fauna. — The sea fauna is particu-
larly rich in species of fish, Crustacea, and
MoUusca, as well as in individuals, due
doubtless to the inter-mixture of northern
and southern marine fauna by sea currents
and their effect on climate. Thus while the
land fauna maintains its relation to that of
the continental temperate zone, the marine
fauna represents tropical and sub-tropical
species as well, some of which are to be met
with also in Malayan and Indian waters.
At the same time there occur numerous
species endemic to Japan. As fish forms
one of the chief items in the national dietary
of Japan much attention has been devoted
to the subject. The country is certainly one
of the most remarkable in the world for the
number and variety of its fish, those appear-
ing in the market alone reaching over six
hundred species. Even the inland waters
offer abundant quantities of trout, carp, shad,
and eel. Japanese fish seem to migrate with
the season, as do the birds, a fact that has to
be borne in mind if one is not to make
mistakes in studying the piscifauna of the
islands. The Sea of Japan has been called
the kingdom of the mackerel tribe, and with
truth, as there are about forty species of
this fish alone. One of the best fish is
known as lai, a bream of beautiful deep red
colour but with white meat. Tunny and
bonito are also plentiful, some of which weigh
over a hundred pounds. The haddock
family has many relations; as also has the
sole. Salmon is a very important fish,
too, of which there are several species,
ascending the lower rivers of the more
northern coasts in autumn in enormous
numbers and affording occupation and food
to thousands. Herring is also abundant, as
well as cod, sardine, and eel. Rays, sharks,
and whales also abound in Japanese waters,
and are used as food. It would be quite
impossible in the space at our disposal even
to enumerate in any lucid manner the great
variety of fish found in Japanese waters, of
which there are at least 1,230 species; and
of amphibians at least 22 species. On the
coasts of the Japan Sea there is a peculiar
cuttlefish of phosphorescent quality which
lights up the sea at night and affords
amusement to fishermen to catch. Among
Crustacea, crabs and lobsters, which are
really crawfish, as well as crawfish and
22
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
RECEPTION ROOM IN A JAPANESE HOME OF THE HIGHER CLASS
shrimp, abound. The hst of Mollusca is
also long, of which at least 1,200 species have
been classified. Among the more common
are mussels, oysters, clams, auks, and
himdreds of the snail variety. Most of the
Japanese sea molluscs point to the Indian
Ocean and the Malay Archipelago as their
place of origin, but many are allied to the
California coast. A considerable number of
the marine moUuscs of Japan form a valu-
able addition to the nation's food. Among
Echinoderms sea urchins and starfish have
numerous species, mostly related to those in
the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Corals,
rock-corals, and glass-sponges are also to be
found, more especially in the southern waters.
(For further information turn to the article
on Fisheries elsewhere in this volume.)
Mammals. — Even a slight zoological
knowledge of Japan soon reveals the fact
that the country possesses a great variety
of mammalian life. The red-cheeked ape is
among the older and more familiar inhabi-
tants of the islands, being found as far north
as the Straits of Tsugaru. Of bats there
are some ten or more species, though they
differ from those of Europe. There are no
hedgehogs, but there are six species of
insect-eaters. Moles, shrew-mice, and river-
rats abound, and the common rat in millions,
being a frequent conductor of pestilence.
Of Camivora Japan affords such specimens
as bears, of which there are three species,
wolves and martens, though no wild cats,
tigers or any of the tropical Camivora. The
flesh of the bear is eaten; and the animal is
held sacred by the Ainu. The badger and
fox are common, the latter being enrolled
among the figures guarding such shrines as
those to Inari, the god of rice. The animal
is believed to have powers of witchcraft and
to take possession of women. While Mar-
supials are not well represented, there are
numerous species of rodents, like squirrels and
flying squirrels, as well as the rats already
mentioned. Hares also are found, those in
the moimtains changing colour with winter.
The wild boar is another interesting denizen
of the mountain forests, affording sport to
huntsmen and food to the people. The
Japanese deer, or antelope, is a beautiful
animal with eight-branched antlers, and
found in various parts of the country.
Among domestic animals, birds, and insects,
Japan has the horse, a rather stunted animal,
the cow, pig, dog, cat, rabbit, fowl, duck,
pigeon, silkworm, and bee; the ass, mule,
sheep, and goose being absent. The Japanese
bantam and large gamecock arc celebrated.
Birds. — In birds, too, Japan is remarkably
rich, possessing more than four hundred
species, most of them being of palasoarctic
type and almost a quarter of them peculiar
to the country. While the greater number
of Japanese birds agree with the same
species in Europe, the jay, cuckoo, and robin
exhibit slight differences in size and colour.
Sparrows, crows or ravens, and swallows
are among the more common birds, as well as
kites, falcons, and eagles. The uguisu, or
Japanese nightingale, is more like the
English whitethroat, though its song is
musical enough. Its back is olive-green and
the breast grey and white. The golden-
crested wren prevails in woods, with numer-
ous companions of the tomtit family. The
Japanese finch sings well; and a species of
lark called the hibari. The water-ousel lives
in remote places like mountain streams.
One of the most beautiful of Japanese birds
is the kiji. or pheasant, of which there are
two species found in most of the hilly dis-
tricts. Among waders, cranes and herons
are plentiful and pretty, being mentioned
frequently in the national literature. Wild
ducks of various kinds abound, too, especially
the teal, flocks of which frequent even the
moats of the imperial palace in Tokyo un-
molested. The mandarin drake is famed in
Japan for its beauty. Wild geese and kindred
water fowl are numerous, with cormorants
and gulls beyond ntimber.
Reptiles. — These are no more prominent
in Japan than in China, as the country has
no more than thirty-four species, though
their relation to Indian, North American,
and North European reptiles is interesting.
The seven marine members, three turtles
and four sea snakes, suggest a tropical origin,
coming, as they no doubt do, on the Black
Current to the southern coasts of the archi-
pelago. There are also two species of
fresh-water turtles, which occur in the rivers
and ponds of southern Honshu, and in ,Shi-
koku and Kyushu, being regarded by the
people as a symbol of longevity. There are
several kinds of snakes, all harmless save
the niamushi, or \-iper, a small green snake
which is very poisonous, but which is, never-
theless, often eaten as a remedy against con-
sumption, or made into snake wine for the
same purpose. Of lizards there are three
species, and of frogs and toads several. The
giant salamander of Japan engages our
special interest because of its limited field of
distribution and its relation to fossil species.
It frequents clear mountain streams at a
height of 1,200 to 3,000 feet, and feeds on
trout, the larvs of insects, and batrachians.
1 11 seels and Spiders. — In Japan insects
thrive abundantly, and are for the most part
related to kindred species on the continent,
there being more than twenty thousand
species recorded. Everywhere beetles and
butterflies glow with richness and variety of
colour, and prevail in species too numerous
to mention. Ground beetles and stag beetles
are abundant. Fireflies are placed in cages
as toys to emit light at night, while any
insect that can emit a strident note is also
caged for its music. The butterflies are too
wonderful for description, there being over
four hundred species, many of them of
tropical colouring. Moths are still more
numerous and varied, and Japan is the
PRESKNT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
23
paradise of the entomologist. Wasps, bees,
hornets, and ants abound innumerably.
Gadflies, biting gnats, and mosquitoes are
in millions untold, while the common house
fly is a pest wherever odours invite. These
are confined to season and altitude, but the
ubiquitous flea defies all circumstances and
makes himself a perpetual guest. Happily
there are no bed-bugs, except as brought from
China. Of Neuroptera Japan has a mar-
vellous variety, the dragonfly being one of
the most beautiful of the more than one
hundred species. Grasshoppers, locusts, and
crickets also flourish in their season. Several
species of mantis, too, exist, though, owing to
their quiet habits and similarity of colour to
environment, they are seldom seen. The
Japanese cicada is much in evidence during
the heat of summer when he always insists on
being heard, making an ear-splitting noise.
Termites, together with tree-bugs and spi-
ders, are also abundant.
The species of fauna found in Japan and
those peculiar to the country may be sum-
marised as follows:
Species
Mammals 80
Peculiar to Japan 30
Birds 400
Reptiles 34
Amphibians 22
Fishes 1,230
Insects 20,000
Dragonflies over 100
Ants over 100
Cicadas over 38
Butterflies over 400
Spiders over 1,000
Mollusca over 3,000
Crustacea over 70
POPULATION
The crime of sterility, mooted in some
countries, can not be brought against the
Japanese, for the nation is increasing at the
rate of over 700.000 a year, and that without
any assistance from immigration. The birth
rate at present is nearly 4 per 100 of the
population, which is greater than any other
country except Germany. The birth rate of
males exceeds that of females, there being an
average of 105 of the former to 100 of the
latter, but the death rate among males is
sufficiently greater to compensate in a large
measure for the difference. Taking a de-
cennial period for which accurate figures are
available, the growth of population may be
seen in table at top of this page.
The birth rate may be clearly seen by
surveying the decennial period from 1897 to
1906, as shown in table at foot of this page.
The table will prove all the more interest-
ing if it be borne in mind, also, that the
period includes the years of the war with
Increase
Rate
Year
Male
Female
Total
Previous
Year
OF
Increase
1899
22,330,112
21,930,540
44,260,642
496,787
1-4
1900
22,613,177
22,202,821
44,815,980
555,338
I
25
1901
22,933,469
22,503,590
45,437.032
621,052
39
1902
23.233.676
22,788,833
46,022,476
585,444
29
1903
23,601,640
23,131,236
46,732,876
710,400
54
1904
23.834.398
23.381,237
47,215,635
482,754
03
1905
24,047,953
23,626,518
47,674,471
458,830
0
97
1906
24,312,779
23,848,062
48,160,825
486,365
01
1907
24,643,017
24,172,702
48,815,694
654,869
36
1908
25.045.,3,S9
24,541,884
49.587.243
771,549
58
Russia. Notwithstanding the losses from
war it will be seen that the average yearly
birth rate was 1,432,431, or 3.03 per 100 of
population.
As to the death rate, the number of deaths
from 1897 to 1906 was 945,102, the rate being
2.07 per 100 of population, greater among
males than females, as will be seen from the
first table on next page.
The present population of the Japanese
Empire, representing the latest census returns
which are up to the end of 1915, amounts to
approximately 74,000,000, distributed ac-
cording to provinces and dependencies as
follows :
Hokkaido 2,256,633
Tokyo 3,361,484
Kyoto . . 1,324,765
Osaka . 2,578,576
Kanagawa. . . 1,272,972
Hyogo . 2,214,932
Nagasaki, . . . 1,163,595
Niigata . 2,112,185
Saitama 1,375,471
Gumma . 1,042,279
Chiba . 1,426,404
Ibaraki 1,365,478
Tochigi 1,066,184
Nara 606,843
Miy6 . . 1,086,220
Aichi 2,178,345
Shizuoka 1,521,531
Yamanashi 613,907
Shiga 712,076
Gifu 1,165,199
Nagano 1,525,897
Miyagi 947.658
Fukushima 1,408,608
Iwate 896,679
Aomori 865,118
Yamagata 1,068,696
Akita 997,876
Fukui 651,053
Ishikawa 819,847
Toyama 923,620
Tottori 473,163
Shiman^ 762,135
Okayama 1,271,225
Hiroshima 1,706,087
Yamaguchi 1,107,994
Wakayama 775,116
Tokushima 758,073
Kagawa 767,682
Ehime 1,024,179
Kochi 691,759
Fukuoka i,953,i78
Oita 972,465
Saga 704,742
Kumamoto 1,318,502
Miyazaki 622,249
Kagoshima 1,434,321
Okinawa 549, 116
Formosa 3,392,063
Saghalien 35,823
Korea 13,125,027
Total 73,995,030
Births
Births
Year
Males
Females
Total
PER 100
OF
Population
OF M.\LES
PER 100
Females
1897
683,941
650,184
1. 334. 1 25
3 09
105.19
1898
696,137
673.501
1,369,688
313
103
36
1899
714,025
674.052
1,388,077
3 04
105
93
1900
728,648
693.271
1,421,919
317
105
03
1901
770,425
732.936
1,503.361
3-31
105
11
1902
774.484
738,606
1,513,090
3 29
104
86
1903
765.705
727.842
1.493.547
3.20
105
20
1904
740,241
704,066
1.444.307
3.06
105
14
1905
738,175
718,868
1.457.039
3.06
102
68
1906
728,768
670,435
I, .399.203
2.91
108
70
24
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Deaths
Deaths
Year
Males
Females
Total
PER TOO
OF
Population
OF Males
PER 100
Females
1897
452,383
424.454
876,837
2.03
106.58
1898
459,307
435,216
894,524
2.04
i05-,54
1899
478,255
456,301
934,566
2. II
104,96
1900
467,359
447,190
914,557
2.03
104 -53
1901
470,712
457,857
928,578
2.03
102.82
1902
488,615
473,476
962,097
2.09
103.41
1903
474,195
459,633
933,834
2.00
103.17
1904
524,670
474,946
999.621
2.12
110.26
1905
544,167
500,682
1.044.855
2.09
108.68
1906
484,675
476,872
961,551)
I 98
lOI .64
CiTV
1916
1906
Houses
Population
Houses
Populatii.i-N
Tokyo . . .
519.735
300,768
91,105
82,966
97,114
102,421
23,551
46,786
37,592
33,759
2,050,126
1,395,823
509,380
397,574
452,043
442,167
161,174
167,130
129,804
128,342
501,000
278,777
81,136
78,438
84,438
96,539
23,816
40,952
28,613
21,676
1,440,121
1,226,590
442,462
394,303
378,331
378,197
176,480
142,763
110,994
100,679
Osaka....
Kyoto ....
Yokohama
Nagoya
Koh6
Nagasaki
Hiroshima
Kanazawa ,
Kur6
Year
Married
Divorced
Married
PER 100
Divorced
PER 100
1897
365,207
124,075
8.45
2.87
1898
471,298
90,465
10
77
2,27
1899
297,428
66,626
6
72
I 51
1900
346,590
63,926
7
70
1.42
1901
378,637
63,593
8
33
I 41
1902
394,378
64,311
8
57
1.40
1903
371,187
65,571
7
97
1.40
1904
399,218
64,016
8
46
1.36
1905
351,260
60, 1 79
7
37
1.26
1906
353,274
65,510
7
34
1.36
1907
433,257
61,193
8
88
I 25
The density of population in various divi-
sions of the Japanese Empire may be in-
dicated thus:
Division
Population
PER Square
Ri (5-9552
Sq. Miles)
Population
PER
Family
Honshu (Middle)
Honshu (North)..
Honshu (West).. .
Shikoku
3,315
1,430
3,347
2,692
2,782
2,201
3,284
5
6
5
5
5
5
56
62
14
40
80
17
18
Kyushu
Okinawa
Hokkaido
The average density, tlierefore, per square
ri of the entire area of Japan, is 1,809, w-hich
is somewhat less than that of the British
Isles and in excess of the density of popula-
tion in Italy, Germany, and France.
Though agriculture is still the principal
occupation of the people there is a steady
drift toward the city, especially of the
young, who are attracted by what they deem
the less exacting life of industry and trade.
Ten years ago some 16 per cent of the popu-
lation resided in cities of over 10,000 inhabi-
tants, while to-day more than 25 per cent of
the population is urban. Indeed, it is not
too much to say that at least 30 per cent of
the population is now in cities, gravitation
being especially toward such industrial and
commercial centres as Osaka, Tokyo, Nagoya,
Kobe, and Nagasaki, while the country is
further depopulated by the numbers that
are attracted to Formosa, Korea, Manchuria,
California, and the outlying dependencies of
the Empire. The second table on this page
will indicate the rate of growth in the prin-
cipal cities. Thus all, with the exception of
Nagasaki, have shown remarkable growth in
the decade under review, the exception being
due chiefly to the removal of trade from Nag-
asaki to Moji. Minor towns exhibiting an un-
usual increase of population are Sapporo,
the capital of Hokkaido, Otaru in the
same island, Moji already mentioned,
Yokosuka, Sendai, Okayama, Sasebo, and
Wakayama.
The people of Japan are divided officially
into various classes, the four principal ones
being the Kwozoku, comprising the imperial
family only, whose spirits are entitled to
worship after departing this life; the Kwuzoku,
or nobles; the Shizoku, or gentry; and the
Heimin, or common people. Other classes
are chokunin, or government officials ap-
pointed by imperial mandate; and sonin, or
officials appointed by government depart-
ments. Of nobles there are about 5,000; of
gentry nearly 2,000,000, and of commoners
more than 40,000,000, tile rest being of no
class. In addition there are some 20,000
Ainu aborigines in the northern territories,
and about 115,000 savages in Formosa.
The number of foreigners residing in Japan
is nearly 20,000, of whom British, Americans,
and Chinese are by far in the majority.
A good deal has been said about the ratio
of marriage to divorce in Japan, the country
having long had the unenviable reputation
of showing the largest divorce rate in the
world. Happily the figures, though still
large, are on the decline, as the third table
on this page will indicate.
It may be questioned, however, whether
the rate of diminution in divorce is as great
as the above figures suggest, for divorce in
Japan is still very easy, nothing more being
necessary than a declaration by two reput-
able witnesses at the local police office that
the divorce has taken place by mutual con-
sent, judicial divorces being comparatively
rare; but it is doubtful whether all the
divorcees go to the trouble or publicity of
having the separation thus registered Still
there is no doubt that the new civil code
issued in 1898, requiring all marriages to be
registered and divorce noted officially, has
influenced in some appreciable measure the
rate of divorce in Japan. Whether Japan
will ever return to the old ratio of one
divorce to every three marriages remains to
be seen.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
25
TABLE OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEYS, WITH ENGLISH,
AMERICAN, FRENCH, AND GERMAN EQUIVALENTS
Japan
Great Britain
United States
OF America
France
Germany
Ri
2.44030 Miles
2.44029 Miles
3.92727 Kilo-
metres
3.92727 Kilo-
meter
Ri (marine)
1.15152 Miles
1.15151 Miles
1. 853 1 8 Kilo-
metre
1. 853 1 8 Kilo-
meter
Square Ri
5.95505 Square
Miles
5-95.'iOi Square
Miles
15.42347 Kilo-
metres Carrds
15.42347 Quad-
rat-kilometer
Cho = 10 Tan
= 3,000 Tstibo
2.45064 Arres
2.45062 Acres
99-17355 Ares
99-17355 Ar.
Tsubo
3-95369 Square
Yards
3-95367 Square
Yards
3-30579 Centi-
ares
3-3"579 Quad
rat-meter
Kokii = 10 To
= 100 Sho
4.96005 Bushels
47-65389 Gallons
(Liquid)
5.1 1902 Bushels
(Dry)
1.80391 Hecto-
litre
1.80391 Hekto-
liter
Koku (Capacity
of vessel)
y^g of one Ton
y-Q^ of one Ton
y 0 de Tonne
y'j Tonne
Kwan = I, oon
Moiintic
8.26733 lbs.
(Avoir.)
10.04711 lbs.
(Troy)
8.26733 lbs.
(Avoir.)
10.04711 lbs.
(Troy)
3.75000 Kilo-
grammes
3.75000 Kilo-
gram m
Kin = 160 Monnm
1.32277 lbs.
1.32277 lbs.
0.60000 Kilo-
0.60000 Kilo-
(Avoir.)
1.60754 lbs.
(Troy)
(Avoir.)
1.60754 lbs.
(Trov)
gramme
gramm
Momme
2.1 1644 Drams
2.41 131 Dwts.
0.13228 Ounce
(Avoir.)
0.12057 Ounce
(Troy)
3.75000 Gramme
3.75000 Gramm
Yen = 100 Sen
2s. 0.5821!.
0.49X4 Dollar
2.583 Francs
2.0924 Mark
The value of Yen is as follows: —
Prior to December, 1885
From January, 1886, to September, 18
Subsequent to October, 1897
. . .Gold Yen (0.4 Momme of pure gold)
17. .Silver Yen (6.7 Momme of pure silver)
. . . . Gold Yen (0.2 Momme of pure gold)
THE FISHERMAN SPEARS A S.\LMON TROUT
The question of emigration becomes one
of absorbing interest in view of Japan's
enormous annual increase in population;
and the majority of the nation is convinced
that some outlet must be found for the
surplus. Inducements are offered for settle-
ment in the outlying territories and colonies,
but the average Japanese does not care for
the cold of Hokkaido and Manchuria, nor
the torrid heat of the southern islands. He
prefers America, South America, Australia,
and Canada. It is a question, therefore,
whether the activities of Japan's surplus
population can be concentrated on the
regions of the Far East and devoted
wholly to the development of the nation's
new territories. There is at present grave
dissatisfaction with the restrictions against
immigration from Japan enforced in Amer-
ica and the British colonies, and most
Japanese are persuaded that these must
be removed and Japanese immigrants
placed on a level with those from
the countries of Europe.
.3*Cw
.'/ ^if
"^'i^K^,-
Hl.MEJl CASTLE
III. The People
(A) The Age of Myths ( — to b. c. 66o), Origin of the Japanese— Cosmogony — Arch.'E.
OLOGiCAL Evidence — Dawn OF Empire — Early Civilisation. (B) The Yamato Empire
(b. C. 660 to 794 A. D.), CONSOLIDATING THE InFANT EmPIRE — EXPEDITION TO KoREA — INTRO-
DUCTION OF Buddhism — Beginning of Chinese Influence. (C) Period of Family
Despotism (794 to 1503 a. d.), The Fujiwara Bureaucracy— Rise of the Taira and
MiNAMOTO Clans, 794 to 1199 a. d. — The Sh adow-Shoguns, 1199 to 1334 a. d. — Arrival
of Europeans and Christianity, 1334 to 1573 — Age of Usurpers, 1573 to I603.
(D) The Tokugawa Period ( 1600 to 1868), The Eradication of Christianity —
The Laws of Ieyasu — Foreign Relations in the Tokugawa Era —
Reopening of Japan — Fall of the Shogunate. (E) The Era of
MeIJI ( 1868 to 1914), EaRLY RefORMS — FoREIGN RELATIONS —
Modern Japan
(A) THE AGE OF MYTHS
— 10 B. C. 660
ORIGIN
THE origin of the Japanese, more
than that of most peoples, is lost in
the mists of antiquity. Oriental
ethnologists and anthropologists, however,
for the most part agree in ascribing
the birth and rise of the race that now in-
habits the islands of Japan to the blending of
two streams of immigration that set in to-
ward the archipelago in prehistoric time, the
one from the continent of East Asia and
the other from Malaya and the islands of
the Pacific. The southern colony, together
with intermittent infiltrations from the con-
tinent, settled on the island of Kyushu, par-
ticularly in the northern part, while the
adventurers from the north, most of whom
were of Korean, Chinese, Mongolian, and
Indonesian extraction, peopled the west
coast of Idzumo. The southern contingents,
pirates from the wild islands of the Pacific,
being very warlike and aggressive, pushed
their borders steadily northward, subduing
if not wholly absorbing the less spirited but
more highly civilized colonists of Idzumo,
while exterminating almost wholly the
savage aborigines that lay between. A
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
27
capital was finally established at Kashiwa-
bara in Yainato under their leader, Jummi
Tenno, who became first emperor of the
newly formed empire in is. c. 660.
It may be no more than a mere assumption
to suggest that the more salient streams of
immigration gave rise to the subsequent clans
which are found to have been so marked a
feature of Yamato civilisation and govern-
ment, as was the case in ancient Britain; V)ut
in all probability the incessant wars between
the contending tribal settlements led to tlie
preeminence of warriors who succeeded in
founding great families or clans under whom,
as in other countries, the commonalty
gathered for protection.
As the two main streams of immigration
perforce more and more harmonised and
blended into a united nation called the
Yamato, they waged relentless war against
the savage Ainu, as the latter in turn did
against the aboriginal koropok-guru (cave-
dwellers), or tsiichi-gitma (earth-spiders), as
the Yamato called them, which doubtless
were the first human inhabitants of the
islands. Thus the Yamato extended their
boundaries ever northward, partly subduing
and partly exterminating the native peoples,
until the whole of the main island and Kyushu
were brought under imperial rule.
That the above contentions have some
basis in reason and fact is clear from the
following considerations. The great equa-
torial current from the south, which does so
much to moderate the climate of Japan,
divides at the southern extremity of the
archipelago, one part sweeping toward the
Korean coast and into the Pacific through
the Straits of Tsushima, while the other
moves up the coast of Shikoku and the main
island and into the mid-Pacific, modifying
the temperature even as far as the coast of
the United States. The significance of these
currents, however, is not so much that they
have given Japan a climate of peculiar soft-
ness and moderation, but that they have
been the highways of immigration peopling
the islands of the rising sun. The ktiro-siwo,
or Black Current, brought the wild tribes of
the Pacific islands, and the Tsushima current
hastened the stream of migration from the
Asiatic continent, thus making that complex
mixture of races that now comprise the
people of Japan.
COSMOGONY
The above hypothesis is confirmed by
Japanese tradition, and tradition again by
archseology. According to Japanese mythol-
ogy there were two original deities, male
and female, named Izanagi and Izanami,
from whom in direct line the Emperor of
Japan is descended through the daughter of
IWINTING OF .WCIENT GODS (KASUG.\ MIO-JIN)
IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
the first divine pair, Amaterasu-Omikami,
the Sun Goddess. As Izanagi and Izanami
appeared one day on the bridge of high
heaven, reclining on the clouds, in order to
witness the raging of the depths beneath,
Izanagi, the male principle, happened to let
his richly decorated lance touch the sea,
upon which the latter straightway parted,
the land appeared, and the drops falling
from the lance became islands. The first
land to appear was the Island of Awaji on
which the divine couple settled, as did
Adam and Eve in Eden. From the same
creative act seven other islands arose and
bore thenceforth the name Gyashima, or
Great Eight Islands: Honshu, Kyushu, Shi-
koku, Sado, Tsushima, Oki, and Iki. The
fact that Hokkaido is not mentioned indi-
cates that it was unknown to the myth-
makers, who were naturally unacquainted
with the more northern limits of the archi-
pelago. But even in the best regulated
households there are troubles; and so the
divine couple at last quarrelled, the husband,
Izanagi, retiring to the land of Idzumo.
The incident, though mythical, is no doubt
based on the fact of the constant collision
between the insular and the continental im-
migrants, which was probably a marked
feature of the early colonisation of the
islands. When Japanese mythology further
intimates that Susano-Omikami and his elder
sister, Amaterasu-Omikami, son and daughter
of the first divine pair, had a quarrel, like
the first two offspring of Adam and Eve, the
brother being driven to Idzumo, as Cain was
to the land of Nod, it is probably a repetition
of the first legend, both suggesting the
monstrous regimen of woman even at that
early date. In fact, all Japanese mythology
tends to confirm the conviction that in the
settlement of the islands the southern im-
migrants vanquished the northern, which
renders the nature and origin of the southern
race a subject of great interest.
In Japanese mythology the southern race
is represented as two tribes; the Oyama-zumi,
or mountain-dwellers, ami the Honosuserino-
mikoto, or coast men. Doubtless the new-
comers, being fresh from the parent country,
were better equipped for war, and drove the
coast dwellers into the mountains, as the
Romans did the Britons, and as the English
colonists did the Indians in America.
ARCH^OLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Arch.bology tends to emphasise the truth
of the above tradition, as well as to throw
some light on the origin of the races indicated.
Fragments of pottery known as yayoi are
supposed to represent the early immigrants
who came up on the Black Current, as they
are found chiefly in Kyushu and Shikoku,
and even as far north as mid- Japan. The
fact that they have some remote resemblance
to utensils found in Java and Sumatra affords
interesting inferences. It is probable, on the
other hand, that the more recent coast-
dwellers were of Malayan origin. The name
Hososuserino-mikoto, by which they are
referred to in Japanese mythology, means
"blazing fire," which possibly suggests a
very warlike temperament. Landing on the
coasts of the Island of Kyushu, these Malay-
ans probably made their centre in Satsuma.
One tribe of these, called the Hayato, seems
to have worn clothes not unlike those in
Oceania. They were fond of dancing, and
were noted rebels, as may be inferred from
references to them in the legends of old
Japan. These Kyushu tribes were doubtless
of large, thickset build, brachycephalic, flat-
nosed, with thick lips and mouth, examples
of which can be seen among even the noble
famiUes of Satsuma to-day.
As to the tribes that came over by way
of Tsushima and settled on the Idzumo
coast, it is evident that they also varied to a
considerable extent, and had their clans, the
chief of which were the Idzumo people who
make Susano-Omikami, son of Izanagi and
28
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Izanami, their ancestor. There was also a
tribe known as the Tajima, headed by
Amano-hibokotono-mikoto, and another tribe
called the Tenson. It is obvious that the
Idzumo tribe came from Korea, as may be
inferred from the legends recorded in the
ancient fudoki, or provincial oflficial records
of Idzumo, where it is said that Susano-O
went to Korea. This people most probably
had acquired a considerable degree of
culture before immigrating to the islands,
associated, as they must have been, with
the civilisation of China, and skilled in
metallurgy, weaving, and agriculture.
Amano was possibly the son of a Korean
king of Shiragi. The tribe which he led to
the shores of Idzumo no doubt came into
collision with the tribes already there, as
did the Danes and Saxons in Britain, and
after much strife they were in turn very
likely brought into subjection to the Tenson
people, the superior of all the other tribes
in spirit, skill, and general civilisation.
This race was of Mongolian or Palasian
stock, dolichocephalic, of slender stature,
with long face and nose, and small mouth.
Japanese scientists are not quite agreed
as to whether the superior race came from
the north or the south. There is good author-
ity for beheving that the insular and con-
tinental tribes which peopled the north
coast of Kyushu were of quite superior
stock, estabhshing a sea kingdom known as
the Wadatsumi, there being no archaeological
remains to show that this tribe settled in
the south of the island. Moreover, the cult
of phallic worship which persisted for so
many centuries in Japan, and is not even
yet quite extinct, coincides remarkably with
similar ctdts in Borneo, and no doubt had its
rise in Polynesia, spreading over India,
Phoenicia, Greece, Egypt, and other countries.
The mathematics of Japanese mythology also
suggests a southern origin. In ancient Japan
they had a system of counting by eight,
which probably arose from omitting the
thumbs when counting on the hands, a
custom which exists in Borneo where a
sacred value is attached to the number eight.
Also in many ways Japanese physiognomy
resembles that of the natives of the Philip-
pines and the Tonga Islands. The customs
of colouring the teeth and of cockfighting
which prevailed in Japan were of Polynesian
origin. The architecture of the two races is
also somewhat alike, especially in thatching
and the elevation of the floor and general
openness. These facts, of course, do not
tend to discredit the fact of immigration
from Korea to Idzuma from which direction
the more superior of the Japanese race
probably came, especially the Tenson, which
some Japanese regard as the imperial race.
iJ
vv
■1<-
■^ -^iS'
r
SHIIR.\ MIO-JIX, ONE OF THE .\NCIENT GODS.
FROM A PAINTING IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM,
TOKYO
On the whole it seems safe to conclude
that the southern and northern streams of
immigration clashed and struggled until
fusion was finally complete and that unity
achieved which now characterises the people
of Japan. It cannot be denied, however,
that the uniformity is not so complete as to
have wholly obliterated the original diver-
gences of race and tribe, for reversion to
type is common, and enters even into politics
and caste in modern Japan. Archeology
further reaffirms the tradition of the Japanese
and the Ainu as to the existence of cave-
dwellers, or earth-spiders, who inhabited the
islands before the Ainu and their conquerors,
and who were of a culture approaching that
of the neolithic period. The kitchen remains
and stone implements found simultaneously
in Japan, Saghalien, and the Amur region
show that a similar culture prevailed in all
these countries, suggesting the northern
origin of the Ainu and their predecessors,
though such high authorities as Dr. Gordon
Monroe think the Ainu may have had a
more southern origin. One must at least
infer that the Ainu conquered the cave-
dwellers or real aborigines, and were in turn
themselves conquered by the Yamato. Thus
the Japanese race is a mixture of Mongolian,
Annamese, Malayan, Javan, and Indonesian
bloods, though their philological relations are
chiefly with the continent of East Asia.
D.\WN OF EMPIRE
Most of the tales with regard to the es-
tablishment of the Empire and its first ruler
must be regarded as mythical, though un-
doubtedly there are some substrata of truth
in them. Although there are no authentic
historical records before the sixth century
A. D., the Japanese believe that their
Empire has enjoyed an unbroken and in-
dependent history of 2,570 years. While
this obviously requires more faith in mythol-
ogy than the modern world is prepared to
approve, archaeology affords ample ground
for inferring that Japanese history and civil-
isation extend far behind the nation's written
records. The numerous objects of highly
developed art and utility that have come
down to us from prehistoric time in Japan
suggest at once a state of society so well
advanced that it must have had its origin
centuries before the beginning of recorded
annals. When objects indicating a highly
evolved stage of civilisation are found in the
Japan of the seventh century it is not too
much to suppose them the fruits of a social
system that had birth at least a thousand
years before. Yet it must not be forgotten
that Japanese civilisation, like the national
system of writing, came for the most part
ready-made from China, and soon dominated
the semi-civilised tribes crowding upon the
shores of the archipelago from the continent
and the islands of the Pacific. Consequently
the Yamato civilisation developed much more
rapidly than it could have done unaided.
The Kojiki, or Record of Ancient Matters,
is the oldest of Japan's historical records, but
nevertheless mostly of a mythical nature;
yet it very probably has some grain of histor-
ical truth in the assertion that the first
emperor was the direct descendant in the
fifth generation of the Sun Goddess, Ama-
terasu Omikami. His original home is in-
dicated as at the base of Mount Takachiho,
in the Province of Hyuga in Kyushu, whither
his ancestors had descended from on high.
He led an expedition northward; and after
many long travels by sea and land, including
some miraculous adventures, he reached the
land of Yamato in central Japan where
Kyoto now stands, establishing his capital
at a place between Osaka and Nara. There
he reigned seventy-five years, at last passing
away at the age of one hundred twenty-seven.
Divested of its mythical elements this prob-
ably means that the first ruler was the chief
of a body of immigrants which landed in
Kyushu; and having established a base on
the island, finally pushed authority as far
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
29
IRON HELMET RECOVERED FROM DOLMEN IN
YECHIZEN PROVINCE. IN THE
IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
north as the central portion of Honshu,
meeting the men from Idzumo on the way.
The first chieftain, like the vikings of Europe,
was undiscouraged by storms and other
dangers, but jiroceeded on his way, laying
waste the land and exterminating the Ainu
and the tsuchi-guma wherever they opposed
his march, until he met and overcame the
more highly civilised tribes of the north.
After the establishment of the capital at
Kashiwabara in Yamato the prowess of the
conquerors was chiefly bent on subduing the
Ainu and other northern savages, who in-
habited inaccessible places and stubbornly
contested every step of the imperial advance.
Since archsological remains of the Ainu are
found as far south as Kyushu it is supposed
that they one time inhabited the whole of
the archipelago and were driven north by
the immigrants. But who the Ainu are and
whence they came remains an unsolved
problem, in spite of extensive research. A
study of their language, as compared with
that of Japan, shows that the two tongues
have but little in common, though mutually
borrowing from each other. The traditions
of the Ainu themselves indicate a northern
origin. Up the rivers and bays of the
islands they came two thousand years ago
in their rude dugouts, and assaulted the
heights occupied by the unknown race now
extinct. They won their way south until
they met the Yamato and so were finally
turned back by the legions of Jimmu Tenno.
It is clear, however, that through the seventh
and eighth centuries they were still not fully
subdued, as expeditions were often sent
against them. Indeed, relations between the
Yamato and tlie Ainu were much the same as
those prevailing to-day between the Japanese
and the savages in Formosa, or as between
the Romans and Picts in ancient Britain.
EARLY CIVILIS.\TION
The state of civilisation prevailing in
Yamato from the days of Jimmu Tenno
down to the beginning of recorded history
in the sixth century A. D. may be inferred
from the Kojiki, the Nihongi and other
ancient chronicles, whose mythical nature
need not nullify their evidence as to the
current condition of society. The Yamato
of the mythic period long knew how to work
in iron, for they made swords and lances
and other objects of metal. One of the
southern tribes had bronze implements,
some of which have been found in archaeolog-
ical remains. Though pestle and mortar,
scythe and shuttle, are mentioned, nothing
is said of the saw and axe which must have
been quite as common. There is mention of
houses, temples, palaces and other buildings,
which appear to have been along the banks
of rivers and the seacoast. Ropes seem to
have been used in place of nails, as is still
often the custom in Japan, even for fastening
together the frames of houses, of which the
floors were on a level with the ground, afford-
ing access to reptiles and other creeping
things. The roof was of straw thatch in
which an opening was left for smoke to
escape. Houses had windows and skin mats,
doors had hinges, and there is mention of
silk. Cleanliness was apparently regarded
as important, bathing being common. The
main food was meat, fish and rice, but beans,
millet, and barley are also mentioned.
Food was served in pottery or on leaves.
Dress showed some degree of elegance, and
included jackets, loose trousers, girdles, hats,
bracelets, and necklaces, the material of
clothing being chiefly hemp or bark. Horses
and domestic fowls were kept, and the
cormorant was used for fishing. There is
no reference to cats, pigs, or sheep. The
orange is mentioned as having come from
the land of eternity. The people as yet
knew nothing of tea, fans, porcelain, lacquer,
carriages, chronology, money, medicine, or
letters. They made no difference, as many
Japanese still do, between blue and green;
and there was no difference between the word
for sister and for wife, as marriage with
sisters was common, especially if she were
the child of a different mother, as must often
(or perhaps always) have been the case in
a polygamous society. The custom still
prevails in Siam. There was no marriage
ceremony; and a citizen could have as many
wives as he liked. Burial was conducted
with due ceremony; and the house of a
deceased master was abandoned. Coffins
were of wood; and frequently the retainers
of great personages were buried alive with
their masters, the heads being left above the
earth. This custom prevailed down to 70
A. D., when clay figures were substituted for
living forms. But the idea of it being the
duty of the dependent to die with the
master still obtains in Japan, as was seen
in the action of the late General Baron Nogi,
who deliberately took his life to depart with
the late Emperor Meiji. In the later ages
of mythical Japan the dead were interred in
dolmens, many of which yet remain to in-
dicate the state of civilisation contempo-
raneous with them. Some of these dolmens
are of gigantic proportions and of a megalithic
construction that puzzles the mind of the
modern engineer to know how such mono-
liths were lifted into place. In these dol-
mens are found fragments of pottery, bronze
harness decorations, bronze mirrors, and
gold rings. Treachery and dishonesty appear
to have marred the social and moral life of
the ancient Yamato, examples of which are
numerous in the ancient chronicles.
(B) THE YAMATO EMPIRE
B. C. 660 to 794 A. D.
CONSOLIDATING THE INFANT EMPIRE
In Japanese history, even after the veil of
legend has been lifted and tradition begins
to assume a more tangible form there is still
a remarkable absence of reliable data by
which the ancient heroes can be disrobed of
the myths that enshroud them. As has
already been indicated, according to the
IRON CUIRASS RECOVERED FROM A DOLMEN
IN VECHIZEN PROVINCE. IN THE
IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
ancient chronicles, Jimmu Tenno, the first
emperor, set up his capital at Kashiwabara
in Yamato whence he subdued the tribes of
the neighbouring districts. He was the
founder of the imperial dynasty that still
rules Japan, of which the present Emperor
Yoshihito, is the 122nd in direct succession.
Jimmu means "Prime War Spirit," and
Tenno means "King of Heaven," and every
emperor of Japan has the latter title. As
30
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
imperial palladia the first emperor left to
his successor the three divine symbols given
him by the divine ancestors; the sacred
mirror, the sacred sword, and the sacred
jewel, which each ruler of Japan has since
received in turn, and without which no one
can ascend the imperial throne of the nation.
The three sacred treasures were handed down
in order by the succeeding ten emperors; but
in the reign of Sujin Tenno facsimiles of them
were made, and the originals deposited in the
imperial shrine erected at Ise, which was
built in honour of Tensho Daijin, the pos-
thumous name of the ancestor who first con-
ferred the sacred treasures on the Imperial
House. This shrine thenceforth became the
central altar of worship for the whole Empire,
as it stUl is, thousands making pilgrimages
to it from all parts of the country. The
tenth emperor, Suiin Tenno (b. c. 90 to 30),
like Jimmu Tenno, was a remarkably en-
lightened sovereign, who subdued his foes,
promoted civilisation and first introduced a
system of irrigation for rice fields, as well as
instituted ta.xation and regular religious wor-
ship. In his reign, for the first time, Japan
ONE OF THE FINEST -VND OLDEST SPECIMENS
OF ANCIENT JAP.^NESE ARMOUR, TRADI--
TIONALLY SAID TO HAVE BEEN' WORN BY
GENERAL MINAMOTONO YOSHIIJE
came into contact with Korea, then under
the suzerainty of China. The peninsula at
that time was divided into various petty
kingdoms, one of which appealed to Yamato
for aid against oppression from the north.
The Yamato empire sent an envoy to inter-
view the offender and his mission was success-
ful, which shows the respect in which the
Yamato country was held at that period.
The kingdom of Mimana offered compen-
sation for aggression on its southern neigh-
bour by sending tribute to Yamato, and
thus began a dependency which extended to
other Korean states, and was the seed which
sowed the policy leading to the annexation
of the peninsula 1942 years later. The
succeeding emperor, Suinin, (b. c. 29 to 70
A. D.), distinguished his reign by constructing
great rice warehouses and abolishing the
cruel custom of having retainers buried alive
with the body of their master. The Emperor
Keiko (71 to 130 a. d.) was an active
prince who had much to do with suppressing
the Kumaso tribe in Kyushu, in which war
his younger son. Prince Yamatodake, became
a great hero, whose name still lives in national
legend. He it was who also subdued the
Yemishi tribes of the northern plains between
Yedo Bay and the mountains of Nikko, in
fact the whole kwanto countr\'. In crossing
the Bay of Sagami he lost his beautiful wife,
Tachibana Hime, who flung herself into the
angry sea to appease the wrath of Kompira
(Neptune) and aUay the waves that threat-
ened to engulf her husband's boat, thus
becoming a perpetual example to faithful
wi\-es and earning the veneration of all
Japanese women, her statue being a con-
spicuous ornament in the capital of Japan.
EXPEDITION TO KOREA
In the reign of the fourteenth emperor,
Chuai (191 to 200 A. D.), the tribal im-
migrants in Kyushu raised another insur-
rection and the emperor himself led an
expedition against them, accompanied by
his consort, the beautiful Jingo-kogo, famed
for her piety and intelligence. She con-
ceived the idea of pushing the expedition
to Korea, which her lord declined to favour,
but as he soon died, she undertook to lead
the invasion of the peninsula herself in
person, which she successfully did, to the
dismay of the Korean kingdoms, all of which
yielded and consented to pay tribute to
Japan. This further contact of Japan with
Korea made the peninsula a regular medium
of communication with China, whence the
ci\alisation and art of that country now
steadily found their way into the Yamato
empire, changing its language, laws, and
industry. This tendency was further pro-
moted by the Emperor Ojin (270-310 a. d.)
ARMlU'R USED BY KUSUNOKl MASASHIGE, IX
THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
who was son of the Empress Jingo, and who
drew slaves from Korea and imported
horses, arms, miners, smiths, weavers, and
teachers from China. On account of his
martial prowess this emperor has been
apotheosized as Hachiman, the god of war,
with numerous temples still throughout the
Empire, succoring the souls of all Japanese
who fight for their country. During the
reign of Nintoku Tenno (311-399 A. d.)
were made the first experiments in the breed-
ing of silkworms in Yamato; and the reign
was further distinguished for liberal remission
of taxation and encouragement of rice cul-
tivation as well as by construction of roads.
An expedition had to be sent to Korea to
insist on keeping up payment of tribute, and
another revolt 01 the Yeraislii tribes had to
be stemlj' put down. Succeeding rulers for
some time appear to have been of little im-
portance, save as they weakened the Yamato
empire by their sensual inclinations and
general effeminac}-, loosening the ties with
Korea. The whole of the fifth century seems
to have been given to frequent revolts and
dynastic changes, or to quarrels with Korea.
IXTRODUCTIOX OF Bl'DDHIS.M
With the advent of Buddhism in the early
part of the sixth century a change for the
better came over the government and
country. The religion of Yamato was
Shinto, the Way of the Gods; but as the
gods, or kami, were only the national an-
cestors, not a very lofty ideal could have
been before the people for worship and
emulation; and consequently society neither
morally nor mentally much improved.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
31
Buddhism, while not introducing a much
more definite or rational thcogony, yet
brought more humane ways of life and civil-
isation, as well as some measure of the art
and culture it had given to India and China.
Buddhist statues appear to have reached the
land of Yamato before the religion they
represented. The first image of Buddha
reached the country in the reign of the
Emperor Ketai (507-5,^1 A. D.) as a gift
from a king of Korea. By the year 552 the
new religion began to inculcate its doctrines
through missionaries from Korea. An image
which the king of Korea sent to the Emperor
Kinmei (540-571 A. D.) seems to have
created considerable commotion in the
religious world of Yamato; for the king of
Korea praised the new religion, recounting
the wonders it had wrought for his country
and commending it to His Majesty of
Yamato, with accompaniments of mission-
aries, books, and altar ornaments; but the
strange faith met with spirited opposition
from the e.\ponents of Shinto, who feared it
would offend the national gods and bring
calamity on the Empire. The emperor
appears to have taken a more liberal view
and not to have assumed a partisan attitude
either way. He was, however, obliged to
make peace by handing over the objection-
able image to an officer of the court who had
gone over to the Buddhist faith, in whose
hands it became a Ijasis of Buddhist propa-
ganda. Thereafter the emperor contented
himself with requesting the king of Korea
to send to Yamato physicians, soothsayers,
and chronologists instead of Buddhist mis-
sionaries and their paraphernalia.
Through the whole of the sixth century
apparently there were incessant petty quarrels
among the kingdoms of Korea, Mimana,
and Korai finally getting the best of it and
in turn invoking the aid of Yamato, sending
valuable presents which the Yamato chron-
iclers describe as tribute. Meanwhile the
Buddhist religion continued to make headway
and take firm root in Yamato, although the
adherents of Shinto ascribed all fires, earth-
quakes, and national calamities to the anger
of the old gods on account of jealousy
against the new. The progress of the new
faith seems to have been due for the most
part to the tact of the Buddhist missionaries
in hitting upon a policy of compromise in
which the new gods were represented as
being really the Shinto gods under other
names, to prove which they welcomed many of
the Shinto deities into the Buddliist pantheon
or gave the Buddhist gods Shinto names.
BEGINNING OF CHINESE INFLUENCE
In the reign of the Emperor Sushun
(560-592 A. D.) the king of Kudara in
BELL-SHAPED BRONZES RECOVERED FROM
DOLMEN. VERY ANCIENT SPECIMENS OK
METAL WORK IN JAPAN. NOW IN
THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM
Korea sent over to Y'amato temple archi-
tects, wood workers, painters, priests, Bud-
dhas, and relics; and when the Empress
Suiko came to the throne in 593 she openly
declared herself in favour of the new religion
and thus gained it a wider admission. This
led to more intimate relations with the
BRONZE HALBERT AND DAGGER RECOVERED
FROM DOLMEN. NOW IN THE
IMPERI.\L MUSEUM
Korean kingdoins and especially with China.
Now came to Yamato knowledge of paper-
making, ink, and millstones, as well as music.
This empress further introduced the elabo-
rate ceremonies of the Chinese court with
all its rigidly maintained subordination of
class and rank. The Empress Suiko ruled
through her adopted son, Prince Shotoku, as
regent; and as he was a devoted disciple of
Buddha the religion made great progress
under his auspices. At his death there were
no less than 46 temples, 816 priests, and 569
monks in the country. Upon the demise of
the good empress internecine strife arose
over the succession and continued until the
Emperor Kotoku ascended the throne in 662,
after which time Yamato came still more
under the influence of China. Chinese titles
of rank, such as Daijin (Great Minister),
Sadaijin (Great Left Minister), Udaijin
(Great Right Minister), and Naidaijin (Great
Inside Minister) came into use for the first
time, and the country was divided into
provinces after the fashion of Chinese ter-
ritory. The custom of burying retainers
alive with their dead masters, which had
been revived with the growing laxity of
society in previous reigns, was now sternly
prohibited. The Emperor Tenji (662-670
A. D.) further increased • the system of
Chinese officialism, creating the office of
Daijodaijin, or Minister President, and made
his friend Fujiwara Imperial Counsellor,
next in rank to the Imperial Family. Thus
began an influence which the Fujiwara
family retained for centuries, the imperial
consorts always being taken therefrom; and
the custom continues even down to to-day,
the Fujiwara, next to the Imperial Family,
being the oldest in Japan. In this reign
China joined some of the Korean kingdoms
in an expedition against Japanese influence
in Kudara, when the Yamato garrison was
driven out and sent home, bringing witli it
a large Korean immigration. By this time
Yamato was w'ell under the influence of the
Buddhist religion; for we find the next Em-
peror, Temmu Tenno (673-686 A. D.),
making confession of Buddhist faith obliga-
tory, and prohibiting the eating of fiesh.
At this time silver was for the first time
found in Yamato, on the Island of Tsushima.
In the succeeding reign, that of the Empress
Jito (687-696 A. D.), the temples of Buddha
increased to 545; and tiles were for the first
time used in roofing houses. Under Mommu
Tenno (697-707 A. D.) the mulberry was
cultivated, as well as the lacquer tree, and
cremation used in disposing of the dead.
During the rule of the Empress Gemmei
(708-714 A. D.) the great highway, known
ever since as the Nakasendo, was constructed
through Mino and Shinano; and copper
32
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
mines were discovered and worked in Mu-
sashi. It was in this reign that the Kojiki,
the first written annals of the Empire, were
compiled, followed in the next reign, that of
the Empress Gensho (715-723 A. D.), by
the issue of the Nihongi, the second oldest
source of Japanese history. Through the
reign of the Emperor Shomei (723-748 A. D.)
expeditions were carried on by Fujiwara
Umakai against the northern savages, the
frontal barrier of the Empire being pushed
as far as the present Sendai. Chinese
learning at this period poured into Yamato;
and a Japanese who had lived long in China
introduced a sj-stem of syllabic writing
known as the katakana, used ever since.
The next four sovereigns of Yamato did
little worthy of record; but the reign of the
Emperor Kwammu (782-807 \. D.) opened
a very important chapter in the history of
the Empire. He was a ruler of unusual in-
telligence and application, directing all
departments of government with efficiency
and success. He built for himself a new
thv on the banks of the River Kamo which
he called Kyoto, and removed thither the
capital from Nara. By this time Buddhist
superstition seems to have taken full posses-
sion of society; for it was believed that the
approach of devils would always be from
what was called the devil's gate toward the
northeast of the new city; and consequently
the sovereign had a great new temple erected
at Mount Hiyei to keep watch and ward
over the capital, by reciting sutras and
be -it ng drums to keep away the evil spirits;
which explains why Heiyeizan has been held
sacred through succeeding generations.
Expeditions against the northern tribes had
to be undertaken in this reign also. Indians
wrecked on the coasts of Yamato brought
cotton seed to the islands for the first time;
but the cultivation of the plant did not
succeed and it had to be reintroduced later
from China.
Thus closes a period of more than a
thousand years of Yamato history in which
the chief events were the nation's increasing
intimacy with Korea and China and the
influence of Buddhism on Yamato civilisa-
tion. Both Buddhism and Chinese influence
instilled into the Japanese that reverence for
ceremonialism and "red tape" from which it
has not yet recovered, and led to an effem-
inacy of spirit that devoted more attention
to sensuous ease and inner refinement than
to the sterner \'irtues which manly discipline
demands. Manners became morals, and
etiquette more important than character.
The world was essentially evil and all good
lay in forsaking it or commanding supreme
influence in it. Government was for the
most part a system of rivalry between great
families, while society was marked by love
of ease and art, with the masses in poverty
and ignorance. With the firm implantation
of Chinese influence distinction between
soldiers and civilians became more marked.
The Mikado no longer took his place at the
head of his battalions, but relegated that
authority to successful warriors, giving rise
to three great rival families, the Fujiwara,
the Taira, and the Minamoto, who figure
prominently in succeeding history. The
monarch having thus abandoned direct
THE I.MPERI.M, PAL.^CE, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
33
connection with active government, lived
in seclusion with his court nobles, whilst
the military class thus created developed a
serving class known as samui-ai who fought
for their masters, paving the way for the
final introduction of feudalism. The Fuji-
wara family, through supplying consorts to
the rulers, ultimately had the upper hand
with the imperial court, and allotted the
supreme military command to members of
the Minamoto or the Taira clan.
(C) PERIOD OF FAMILY DESPOTISM
7Q4 to 1603 A. D.
THE FUJIWARA BUREAUCRACY
The Fujiwara family, which derived its
infliRnce from having been reputed friends
of the first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, as the
years went on occupied a position of in-
creasing importance in the government of
the country, always being in close relation
with the imperial court, supplying the em-
peror with his consort and the government
with counsel. For centuries this family hail
command of all the higher civil offices, and
there, as well as in the intrigues of the court,
they developed their main activity. As the
mothers and wives of the IVIikados were all
Fujiwara, and the princesses of the blood
were almost all married to members of that
family, its influence was on every side en-
hanced and established beyond question.
The Emperor Saga (810-823 a. d.) sup-
planted his brother Heizei Tenno who after-
ward conspired against him. He set free
many important Yemishi prisoners who had
been taken in war and allotted land to them;
and also introduced the cultivation of the
tea shrub, beside doing what he- could to
stay the degeneration of the Buddhist priest-
hood. His reign was marked by frequent
earthquakes and floods which enabled the
ruler to cooperate with the rich in alleviating
the misery of the people. The reign of Junna
Tenno (824-833 A. D.) suflfered from further
distress in consequence of draught and in-
fectious diseases. The next emperor, Nim-
mio Tenno (834-851 A. D.), was a ruler of
great independence and intelligence, pro-
moting agriculture and protecting the poor,
for whom he built almshouses, reducing the
income of the rich to get the necessary
funds; but after his death succeeding rulers
failed to exercise similar control, and the
Fujiwara placed a child on the throne,
themselves taking the regency. Lacking in
military qualities, they were unable to keep
down the savages, giving the Taira and Mina-
moto clans the opportunity to rise to superior
positions. A member of the Fujiwara
family during the next reign managed to
raise himself to the place of Kwanpaku, or
Chief of State, who was really regent, as the
ruler was thenceforth scarcely more than a
puppet. At this time pirates from Korea
ravaged the coasts of Japan, probably in
revenge for .similar raids by the Japanese
<m Korea, but were finally driven off. During
the reign of the Emperor Uda (888-897
a. d.), the Fujiwara had an influential rival
in the person of Sugawara Michizane, famous
for his erudition and piety and one time
tutor to the emperor, and liim they now
wislied to oust. The Fujiwara obliged the
reigning emperor to abdicate, placing on the
throne a child of twelve, Daigo Tenno, who
reigned until 930 a. d., and then banished
Sugawara to exile in Kyushu where he died
in misery. The noble spirit of Sugawara
Michizan^ has been deified as Tenjin, with
temples in many parts of the country, and
worshipped as a supreme example of loyalty.
THE OLD TOKUGAWA TOMB, ATAGO HILL,
TOKYO
In the time of Shujaku Tenno (931-946
A. D.), the Fujiwara influence began to wane
somewhat before the rising families of the
Taira and Minamoto. A revolution in
Korea led to the establishment of the king-
dom of Korai, from which the name "Korea"
is derived. Taira Masakado in this period
raised in rebellion against the Fujiwara
autocracy and attempted to l^ccome inde-
pendent in the Kwanto region over which
he was governor, the rebellion being finally
crushed by the Fujiwara and their influence
thereby continued. The most sought-after
position as time went on was that of Sei-i-
tai-shogun, or Generalissimo who chastises
the Barbarians, an office created on account
of the expeditions against the northern
savages; and the rival candidates for this
post were now from the Minamoto and the
Taira clans, both of which traced descent
from imperial blood.
RISE OF THE TAIRA AND MIXAMOTO
CLANS
/g4 to iigg A. D.
During the ninth, tenth, and eleventh
centuries while the Fujiwara still maintained
its bureaucratic position at court, and the
Taira ambitions were confined to the south-
west of the Empire, and those of the Mina-
moto to the northeast, both winning great
martial glory, the two houses managed to
maintain a tolerable understanding; but now
in their attempts to supplant the Fujiwara
influence at court they often came into
collision, and the violence of their enmity
led to bloody conflict. From 947 to 1 108
the Fujiwara kept the Mikado under their
fetters and would allow no intercourse be-
tween people and sovereign. During this
period there were Korean raids on the
Japanese coast, insurrections among the
savages and even among the Japanese of
Mutsu, with a menacing increase of insolence
among the Buddhist bonzes at Heiyeizan.
In expelling the Korean invaders and in
quelling the northern rebels the Minamoto
families had shown themselves warriors of
the first order. During the reigns of the
Emperors Shirakawa (1075-1086), Horikawa
(1086-1108), and Toba (1108-1123) the in-
solent attitude of the Buddhist monks con-
tinued. With the dawn of the twelfth
century feudalism and military despotism
begin to appear. The influence of the
Fujiwara is fast waning at court, and quite
lost in the provinces, where the military
chieftains are predominant. The authority
of the Mikado was like an empty "ash box
of which the Fujiwara carried the key. The
sword, rather than the court, henceforth
decided all important questions. For the
five succeeding centuries conflicts for posses-
sion of the supreme miHtary power and the
resultant authority of government devastate
Japan. No wonder the national historians
refer to this period as the Dark Age. The
Emperor Toba tried to prevent the samurai
of the provinces from flocking to the standards
of the Minamoto and the Taira, but it was of
no avail. The rivalry of the two houses
grew with their sense of self-sufficiency and
independence. Finally the pent-up rivalry
between the two great houses burst into a
conflagration consuming the whole country,
like the wars of the Guelphs and GhibeUines
in Italy, or of the Roses in England, only
the war in Japan lasted for centuries. In
the first conflict Taira Kiyomori was victori-
ous and assumed at court an attitude of in-
solence that outdid even the Fujiwara, treat-
ing the vanquished Minamoto with great
cruelty. Yoshitomo, the head of the Mina-
moto clan, was treacherously assassinated,
and his son Yoritomo took his place, aided
bj his half-brother Yoshitsune, both being
joined later by their cousin Yoshinaka, and
their forces marched victoriously into Kyoto,
the emperor welcoming them as his liberator
from the Taira bondage. Yoshinaga who
34
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
led this army, proved insolent and indiscreet,
taking a hostile attitude toward Yoritomo
whose headquarters were at Kamahura; so
the latter sent an expedition against him led
by Yoshitsun^, when Yoshinaga was defeated
and committed suicide. Yoshitsune followed
up his victory by pursuing the Taira forces
southward, finally completely defeating and
annihilating them in the historic battle of
Danno-oura near Shimonoseki, 1185 A. D.
The Taira clan was now cut off root and
branch, sparing neither age nor sex. In this
war the character of Yoshitsun^ shone ovit
above even that of his brother Yoritomo as
a knight without fear and without reproach,
which greatly excited the envy of Yoritomo
who thenceforth sought his brother's death,
the latter finally dying in exile. Yoritomo
now marched in magnificence to Kyoto
where he was received by the Emperor Go-
Shirakawa, had high civil and military rank
conferred upon him and then returned in
contentment to Kamakura, his miUtary
capital. It was Yoritomo who brought the
growing feudal system of Japan into its final
shape; and after the death of the emperor
he had conferred upon himself the title of
shogun, which thenceforth became hereditary
in the Minamoto family. Notwithstanding
his jealous and cruel disposition Yoritomo
was a man of great intelligence and firmness
of character, and did much for the consoli-
dation and improvement of the national
government, always showing special deference
to the imperial court. Time, however, can-
not pardon him his heartless ingratitude to
his brother Yoshitsune; and the mistake he
made in favouring the Hojo family repre-
senting his wife, led finally to the undoing
of his own family, the Minamoto.
THE SHADOW -SHOGUNS
iiQQ to i:;j4 A. D.
As the Japanese proverb says, "A brilliant
general never begets a brilliant son," and
Yoritomo, when he died at the age of fifty-
three, left to succeed him a libertine named
Yoriiye, who was unlike his father in every
way save physical strength. The youth's
mother, Masako, consulted with her father,
Hojo Tokimasa, how best to restrain the
waywardness of the young shogun; and it
was decided to persuade him to divide the
government of the provinces with his younger
brother, Sanetomo, and his son Ichiman,
which was only another way of placing the
power in the hands of the Hojo family, since
the persons named as governors were still
but children. The father-in-law of Yoshiiye
saw through the scheme and had the shogun
veto it, but Hojo defeated them, had his
enemies executed, and banished Yoriiye to
Izu, where he was secretly put to death,
Sanetomo being appointed his successor.
Thus at one sweep the Hojo family attained
the military ascendency once held by Yori-
tomo and the Minamoto family. In turn
they acted toward the shogunate, on the
one hand, and the imperial court, on the
other, very much as the Fujiwara family had
done toward the court in the days of old.
The Hojo treated the shogun as a puppet
and developed a despotism that threw the
annihilated Taira clan far in the shade.
During this period, therefore, when the
house of Hojo held the regenc^^ despotism
prevailed, though it cannot be denied that
some of the twelve regents were men of
ability and wisdom. The puppet-shogun,
Sanetomo, was finally assassinated by a
priest named Kugio, who regarded Sanetomo
as the murderer of his father; and thus
ended the main line of the Minamoto
family. The Imperial Court at Kyoto found
it impossible to tolerate the Hojo regents
and the Emperor Toba II determined if
possible to get rid of them. The imperial
forces were, however, routed and the emperor
banished to the Island of Oki, where he
died in 1229 at the age of sixty. Yoshitoki,
the representative of the Hojo family, now
made the Imperial House feel his power,
deposing emperors and banishing them right
and left, as well as all who had any sympathy
-w:*V?>^-.-7.s;.-
, ,.5rf-^»- -V^^a
-0'
FELD.\L C.\STLE AT N.\GOY.\
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
35
with the imperial cause. Under succeeding
regents government grew more and more
compUcated; and at one time (1260-1274)
there was a child-regent managing a child-
shogun, who was supposed to represent a
child-emperor. During the regency of Toki-
mune occurred the Mongol invasion of Japan
under Kublai Khan, whose forces were
driven back in 1281, a high wind and raging
sea assisting in the destruction of the enemy.
It was shortly after this time that Marco
Polo visited the Chinese capital and learned
of the untold wealth of Japan. During the
Hojo regency every Mikado who showed the
slightest tendency toward independence was
obliged to abdicate as soon as he came of
age; and no member of the Fujiwara or
Minamoto family was allowed to occupy
the imperial throne. As the absoluteism of
the Hojo family became more and more in-
tolerable the court at Kyoto sought further
opportunity to regain its freedom, though it
had not forgotten the misfortunes that had
followed similar attempts on the part of
pre\'ious sovereigns. But a season of drought
had led to famine in which the agents of tlie
Hojo regents had treated the people witli
cruelty; and this seemed a favourable time
to declare independence. A celebrated war-
rior named Kusunoki Masashige collected an
army in Kawachi and came to the assistance
of the emperor, joined later by another
warrior, Ashikaga Takauji, from the north.
Kamakura was taken and put to the flames,
many members of the Hojo family falling in
the struggle. Kyoto was also taken and the
Minamoto interests were again triumphant,
as represented by the house of Ashikaga.
ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS AND
CHRISTIANITY
1334 to 1573
After the fall of the Hojo family the Em-
peror Go-Daigo made the mistake of dis-
tributing many of the important offices left
vacant among unworthy favourites, exciting
the animosity of the Ashikaga family, which ,
although they themselves had received the
rich Provinces of Hitachi, Musashi, antl
Shimosa, were determined to assume a
position of supreme importance in the
Empire. The shogun at Kamakura, an
imperial prince named Moriyoshi, was a
weakling who neglected to keep the pro-
vinces in order, and came thus into collision
with the house of Ashikaga and marched
against Kamakura where he was welcomed
in place of Moriyoshi, proclaiming himself
shogun, though he had many a fight to
retain the title. Imperial forces were sent
against liim from Kyoto. Ashikaga set out
to meet them, crossing over the Hakone
Pass, where he totally defeated the Kyoto
army in 1336. Ashikaga then marched on
the capital, whence the Imperial Court fled
to Otsu. The famous hero, Kusunoki
Masashige, again rallied to the rescue of the
imperial cause, assisted by various loyal
daimyo and their troops. At first the im-
perial army was successful, but was later
defeated on the banks of the Minatogawa
near Kobe, after which Ashikaga marched in
triumph to Kyoto, where he placed the son
even the shores of the neighbouring conti-
nent. China complained to the Kyoto au-
thorities and compensation was paid, which
the Chinese afterward recorded as tribute
from Japan. The period was marked by the
rise of powerful daimyo in various provinces,
who waged relentless warfare with each
other, conspicuous among whom were Takeda
of Koshiu and Uyesugi of Echizen, while
most of the present great families of Japan,
.\NCIKNT IRON KETTLE AT RENZAN, CHOSE.N (DIMENSIONS: 9 FEET 7 INCHES IN DIAMETER;
29 FEET IN circumference; I INCH THICK)
of a former emperor on the throne, tlic real
emperor, Go-Daigo, having again fled for
refuge to the monks at Heiyeizan. A
bargain was struck with the deposed em-
peror to receive the sacred regalia in order
to have the Emperor Komyo legally en-
throned. Receiving encouragement from
sundry loyalists, the ex-emperor escaped from
the monastery and issued an edict proclaim-
ing the Ashikagas to be rebels and outlawing
them as usurpers. From this time for fifty-
six years Japan had two rival emperors,
known in history as the North and South
Dynasties, producing a state of internecine
war that deluged the country with blood
and misery. Takauji Ashikaga watched over
the imperial interests at Kyoto while his son
Yoshinori resided as shogun at Kamakura.
In 1392, during the shogunate of Ashikaga
Yoshimitsu, the two emperors were recon-
ciled, the Emperor Komiyama coming from
Yoshino to Kyoto and handing over the
regalia to Go-Komatsu. Constitutional wars
had disorganised the government and im-
po%'erished the peasantry, while bands of
robbers marauded the country. The coast
population was given up to piracy, ravaging
such as Shimadzu, Hosokawa, Mori, Toku-
gawa, Takeda, Maeda, and Satake, laid the
foundation of their power at the same period.
Toward the end of this period of political
confusion religion was characterised by the
dissoluteness of its teachers; and the country
suffered from famine and pestilence.
It was on this state of political and moral
darkness that there now dawned a light from
the West. The first European to reach
Japan was a Portuguese named Mendez
Pinto who was cast ashore on the Island of
Tanegashima, south of Kyushu, while on a
voyage from China to the colony at Goa.
Pinto was kindly received by the officials
and people, according to his own account,
and taught them how to make guns and gun-
powder, at which they proved apt pupils.
This was about the year 1543. After Pinto
had finally found his way back to China he
recounted his profitable experiences in Japan
to his countrymen, who induced him to set
out on another expedition to Japan, when he
was wrecked on the Luchu Islands. The
trade in arms and ammunition having been
thus opened with the Portuguese, the latter
were not slow to take advantage of it and a
36
PRESENT-DAV IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
brisk commerce sprang up in that lino, the
weapons greatly assisting the daimyo in
their feuds with one another. In the midst
of this trade with the Portuguese came the
celebrated missionary Francis Xavier, the
disciple of Loyola, who landed at Kgoshima
in 1549, having come all the way from
Malacca on a Chinese junk with two other
Jesuits named de Torres and Fernandez, and
one Japanese, who could speak Portuguese
and acted as interpreter. Xavier was
greatly pleased by the Japanese and praised
them as superior to any Jews or infidels he
had met. The presence of the foreigners
with their firearms soon led to jealousy
among the daimyo who sought such advan-
tages, and consequently the missionaries were
obliged to move on to Hirado and Nagato,
or Choshu, where they established missions.
In 1550 Xavier proceeded as far north as
Kyoto, in spite of the dangerous and dis-
turbed condition of the country. In the
capital he was disappointed to find nothing
but confusion and wretchedness in place of
the splendour reported by Marco Polo.
Xavier sought audience with the emperor
and the shogun, but failed on account of the
poverty of his appearance which rendered
him contemptible. After a stay of some
fourteen days, during which he preached in
vain to the people on the streets, Xavier
returned to Bungo, where he had various
controversies with the Buddhist priests, and
set out for China in 1 55 1 , dying at the mouth
of the Canton River. The seed which he
introduced into Japan, however, took root
and continued to grow, being followed by
the labours of succeeding missionaries, so
that within twenty years the number of
Christians was over 20.000.
AGE OF USURPERS
ij/j to 1603
The second half of the period covering
the Japanese Middle Ages forms an import-
ant epoch in Japanese annals, especially in
regard to the internal changes of the country
and the development of Christianity with
consequent persecutions. The three great
names associated with these movements were
those of Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and leyasu.
After the devastating wars and consequent
misery and defiance of order of the Ashikaga
era the country was awaiting a man of iron
hand to restore peace and reestablish the
social and political fabric; and this man
proved to be Oda Nobunaga, of Taira de-
scent, being a great-grandson of Kiyomori.
Oda showed great prowess in war and soon
added to his already valuable estates, be-
coming one of the most powerful feudal lords
in the Empire. The representatives of the
Ashikaga interests which he had at first
espoused, after receiving his assistance, con-
spired against him, and he deposed the last
shogun of that house in 1573, leaving the
office vacant until the rise of Tokugawa
leyasu in 1603. With the arrival of Oda in
Kyoto peace and order were restored and
regular government established. He built
for himself the palace of Nijo in the west of
the capital, a building which still remains.
Oda Nobunaga honestly attempted to govern
the country in the name of the Mikado, but
the attitude of the Buddhist priests and the
more powerful daimyo prevented him.
Feuda went on between Shimadzu of Sat-
suma and Mori of Yamaguchi, in the south;
and between Takcda of Kai and the Hojo in-
interests in the north. Of the five great
warriors who sided with Oda, Hideyoshi,
Shibata, Ikeda, and leyasu attained to wide
fame and influence. In order to crush the
Buddhist priesthood Oda favoured the
Christians, bestowing on them great privi-
leges and giving them land for their churches.
In 1 57 1 he despatched forces against the
Buddhist strongholds at Heiyeizan and Osa-
ka, reducing them to ashes; and his foremost
general, Hideyoshi, he sent against Mori of
Yamaguchi. In the height of his power,
however, in the year 1582, Oda was assassin-
ated by one of his generals, named Akechi
Mitsuhide, in revenge for a slight. Thus in
his thirty-ninth year ended the life of the
only man who had the courage and intelli-
gence to deal with the refractory daimyo and
tlie degenerate priesthood. His vanity in
setting up his own statue in a shrine for
worship and his double dealing in favouring
the Christians merely in revenge against the
Buddhist priests, no doubt betray a moral
weakness that Fate resents. At the time of
his death the Christians numbered over
150,000 and their churches more than 200,
and the new religion included among its ad-
herents daimyo and men of jjosition. With
the exception of the names and character of
the deity the new religion did not seem so
different from the old, as there were the same
rosaries and beads, with all the images, altars,
and general paraphernalia of the temple.
The foreigners were still favoured chiefly
because they brought firearms to the country.
The Christians became so powerful that they
were able to despatch an embassy to the
Pope in 1582, reaching Lisbon in 1584, It
was welcomed at Rome by the Church and
returned to Japan in 1588, much impressed
by the might and power of the Church and
the nations of Europe which it represented.
After the death of Oda Nobunaga, Hide-
yoshi returned to the capital, and, with the
help of leyasu, endeavored to restore order
and confidence. He suppressed his opponent,
the lord of Shibata in Echizen, improved the
plan and fortifications of the capital, and
laid the foundation of a great city and castle
at Osaka. In 1586 the emperor made him
Kwampaku, an office hitherto held only by
the Pujiwara family. How, with all his
selfishness, shamelessness, and sensuality he
could have raised himself from the life of a
Bm^^i^. _.
of
11
>7l^. '... '&W
i.
T
FRONT COrRTVARD, WITH TRIl'MPH.\L WAV, PErLING, OR NORTH MAUSOLEUM,
WHERE THE MANCHU EMPERORS WERE BURIED
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
37
peasant to the most exalted position in the
gift of tlie throne seems a mystery. He kept
on the good side of leyasu and had him visit
the emperor at Kyoto where high honours
were conferred upon him. Hojo of Oda-
wara, however, would not acquiesce in like
proceedings, so Hideyoshi received imperial
permission to bring Hojo to submission. He
set out for Odawara Castle at the head of
170,000 men. The enterprise was crowned
with success, Ujimasa Hojo was captured
and executed and Hideyoshi and leyasu
stood supreme in the Kwanto region. At
the suggestion of Hideyoshi, leyasu now
removed his headquarters to Yedo, an in-
significant village where Ota Dokwan had
built a castle, and where in 1591 the eight
provinces of Kwanto presented their com-
pliments to leyasu, their new feudal lord, on
New Year's Day.
For a long time Hideyoshi had contem-
plated the invasion of Korea; and now that
he had established peace in the Kwanto
regions and brought the feudal lords of
Yamaguchi and Satsuma to see eye to eye
with him, he began to make preparations
for the expedition to the peninsular kingdom.
By despatching insolent embassies which
were rejected by the Korean authorities, he
sought pretext for strife; and when his
great army of 480,000 men was ready, he
made Konishi, a Christian, one of the
generals, and the famous warrior, Kato
Kiyomasa the other. As there was no love
lost between the two they did not work well
together; but they landed in Korea, laid
waste country, demanding of the Koreans
an open road to China, as Germany did
through Belgium to France. Meanwhile the
Japanese fleet which had been left at Fusan,
was defeated by the Koreans, giving the in-
vaded country new courage; while the Japa-
nese had defeated on land not only the
Koreans but the Chinese army that had
come to their succour. The terms of peace
offered by the Japanese were that Korea
should cede to Japan five out of her eight
southern provinces; that the emperor of
China should send one of his daughters to
Hideyoshi to wife; that China and Japan
should resume former commercial relations;
and that both Korea and China should pay
an annual tribute to the treasury of Japan.
The Chinese replied simply demanding the
dismantling of the Japanese fortresses in
Korea and the withdrawal of the Japanese
troops, which greatly enraged Hideyoshi.
One of the trophies brought back by the
Japanese troops from Korea was the ears
of all the enemies killed in battle, numbering
many thousands, salted down for the purpose,
as it was too inconvenient to bring over
the heads of the victims- These ears were
buried in Kyoto and the grave had a stone
monument set up over it, called Mimidzuka,
or ear-monument, as a memorial of the con-
quest of Korea. At first Hideyoshi favoured
the missionaries, but when he found that they
interrupted his agents sent out to collect
beautiful girls for his harem, he took a dis-
like to them and set up a system of per-
secution against the Christians. In 1587 he
the south were on the side of Hideyori,
which leyasu did not forget after he became
shogun and held the reins of power. leyasu
entertained serious suspicions of the inten-
tions of Hideyori, and his lieutenant Ishida
Mitsunari, against him, and sought occasion
to make them show their hand. He
ordered the great temple of Buddha at Nara
to be reconstructed and commanded Hide-
tA.mmm
.J^^lli
^|BhH|
1 i^'-^^mW^^^
CHIMPO KINGS TOMB IN KWAZAN, CHOSEN
issued an edict banishing the Jesuits from
the country; and when no ship was found
leaving Japan within the prescribed time, he
ordered the foreign missionaries to proceed
to Hirado to wait an opportunity of sailing.
Persecution extended to the native members
of the Church who were given the choice of
renouncing the new religion or leaving the
country. In spite of persecution the Chris-
tian forces seemed to grow; and probably
persecution would have died down had it
not been for the arrival of the Spanish friars
from the Philippines, who defied the laws
and edicts against the Christians and were
ordered to be crucified at Nagasaki, the
sentence being rigidly carried out. Ex-
hausted by his dissolute life Hideyoshi was
attacked by cholera in 1598 and died in
September, obliging his vassals, before his
death, to swear fealty to his son Hideyori,
especially requesting leyasu, lord of the
Kwanto regions, to see that his last wishes
were fulfilled. After the death of Hide-
yoshi, however, the various daimyo rallied
around Hideyori on the one side and leyasu
on the other, and it was evident that a con-
flict would ensue. The Christian daimyo of
yori to defray the cost, with the hope of
thus weakening his finances so that he could
not use them in conspiracy against leyasu.
After the work was completed, leyasu found
fault with an inscription Hideyori had placed
on the temple bell, which he affected to
believe wished bad luck for the house of
Tokugawa. Mitsunari now summoned the
southern daimyo to rally to the support of
the son of Hideyoshi; and leyasu resolved to
lay siege to Osaka Castle as a great point of
vantage.
Thus began a war which ended finally
in the decisive victory of leyasu at the great
battle of Sekigahara in October, 1600. On
hearing of the victory of leyasu most of the
great daimyo, both north and south, sub-
mitted to him. There was a general redis-
tribution of estates and offices, after which
leyasu sent his son Hidetada to Kyoto to
report to the emperor and to obtain imperial
sanction for what had been done. In 1603
leyasu was honoured by the emperor with
the title of Udaijin, appointed head of the
Minamoto clan, and made shogun; after
which he received the homage of all the
daimyo in his castle at Yedo,
38
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
(D) THE TOKUGAWA PERIOD
1600 to 1S68
THE ERADICATION OF
CHRISTIANITY
The establishment of the Tokugawa sho-
gunate brought to Japan a new era, resulting
in two hundred fifty years of peace, a state
very welcome to the people after so many
centuries of strife. Side by side with a
further development and consolidation of
the feudal sj'stem went on an increasing
aversion to foreigners and a determination to
eradicate the Christian religion. First of all
leyasu set about reestablishing peaceful
relations with Korea and China, in which he
was successful. After this he retired in
favour of his son, Hidetada, in the year
1605, to his mansion at Shidzuoka in Suruga,
that he might devote his declining days to
the elaboration of laws for the nation, though
he never ceased to remain the soul of the
administration. After his death his body
was enshrined in a magnificent temple at
Nikko and his name raised among the gods
by the emperor. Thus passed away a man
of remarkable talent and wisdom, who raised
sionaries to pave the way for her invasion;
and a Spanish captain wrecked on the coast
of Japan, being subjected to what he deemed
unfair treatment, threatened that his king
would some day make Japan pay for it.
These things led the shogun to make investi-
gation into the history and policy of Spain;
and his suspicions of Spanish policy being
thereby confirmed, as it seemed to correspond
with the story told by the Dutch, he resolved
to banish the Spanish missionaries and to
suppress their religion. At the time when
the persecution began there were as many
as 600,000 Christians in the country; and
the attitude toward them was cruel in the
extreme. At first the persecution took the
form of a ban on Christianity and banish-
ment of the foreigners and all who adopted
the new religion; but this failing, severer
methods were soon resorted to. Most of
the native Christians remained true to their
profession and died a martyr's death, as did
many of the foreign missionaries. The test
of loyalty to the Empire was willingness to
renounce Christianity by trampling on the
crucifi.x. Rather than do this thousands
went to the stake and the cross, some being
foreigners were banished from the country
save the Dutch and Chinese who were per-
mitted to live on a small island, called
Dcshima, at Nagasaki. The Shogun lye-
mitsu was still more persistent in enforcing
the laws against the Christians, and thousands
fled to China, Formosa, and the Philippines,
while those left behind had to go to cruci-
fixion or the stake. After suffering such un-
told horrors for twenty years there was a
rising of Christians in Shimabara in Kyushu,
when some 30,000 of them were put to the
sword. In spite of the severe and cruel
measures enforced for the extermination of
Christianity it was not wholly accomplished,
for when the missionaries returned in modern
times, they found some native Christians
still at a little place called Urakami near
Nagasaki. It is but fair to admit that the
behaviour of the foreigners was in many
ways sufficient to justify the suspicions of
the authorities against them. Many of the
Portuguese and Spanish merchants were
unprincipled and defiant of law, engaging in
vice and slavery, while the history of their
countries in Mexico and the Netherlands, as
well as the venture of the Spanish armada,
tended further to warn the bakufu authori-
ties against allowing them any lease of
power.
^sysr-
^^
■V'*'*S*i''- .
ANCIENT ROYAL TOMB NEAR SINGEN, CHOSEN
himself from the position of a peasant to a
place ot supreme power in the councils of
the Empire. His son, Hidetada, held the
shogunate to 1623, the most conspicuous
acts of his regime being the edicts against
the Christians. The arrival of the Dutch
merchants at Nagasaki led to further sus-
picions against the Jesuits. The Dutch
informed the shogun that Spain had con-
quered numerous foreign lands, using mis-
dipped head first into boiling sulphur springs
until they recanted, which most of them did
not do. Mothers went to the flames with
their babes in their arms, choosing fire rather
than paganism. The churches at the same
time were everywhere demolished and their
altars scattered to the winds. In 161 7
foreign commerce was restricted to Nagasaki
and all Japanese were forbidden to leave the
country on pain of death. In 1624 all
THE LAWS OF lEYASU
The main aim of the Tokugawa shogunate
was the security of the Tokugawa family, its
supremacy of power in the State and the
maintenance of peace throughout the Em-
pire. To this end Christianity was banished,
for safety was supposed to He in ignorance
and the prevention of thought; and certain
laws were promulgated clearly establishing
between classes their mutual duties to one
another and the State. Emoluments and
estates were placed in the hands of favourites
of the Tokugawa family, whose loyalty was
held firm by constant dependence on the
Tokugawa shogunate. The proud old prince-
ly houses of Satsuma and Choshu had thus
to submit to the collective force of the
vassals of the shogun; and he placed his
vassals and spies in all the strategic points
and outposts of the Empire to prevent mal-
contents taking any advantage. The laws
which leyasu formulated for this purpose
and left to his heirs, known as The Legacy
of leyasu, held the country in leash for two
hundred fifty years, and thereby deserve con-
sideration as an example of mediseval states-
manship. Based on the five universal duties
of Confticius, the laws of leyasu dealt with
relation of subject to sovereign, of serf to
lord, child to parents, of wife to husband and
of brothers, sister and friends to each other.
The family was made the unit of society
PRESKNT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
39
FIGURE OF BUDDHA AT MYOKISSHO, KONGO-SAN, CHOSEN,
HEWN IN SOLID ROCK
SOME OF THE SEVEN BUDDHIST IMAGES OF KINZAN-JI,
NEAR KINTEI, CHOSEN
and the foundation of the State. As the
laws were not published but made simply
for the guidance of the government, the
people were held responsible of duties of
which they were largely ignorant, knowledge
of the law, as in ancient Greece, being the
right only of the priviliged. The code of
leyasu implied that virtue consisted in
ol)edience to superiors, and morality lay in
assiduously observing the law. Life is
guided by custom rather than by right; and
as the inferior is absolutely in the hands of
the superior he has no rights; and conse-
quently there is no reference to contract,
personal property, navigation, or trade; but
much emphasis is laid on punishment for
crime, and on legal relations between classes
on etiquette, rank, precedence, administra-
tion, and government. Private revenge was
recognised and provided for; an e)'e for an
eye and a tooth for a tooth. Society was
divided into four classes: the imperial family,
the court nobles, the feudal lords, and the
common people. Advantage was taken of
belief in the divinity of the em])cror to keep
the sovereign strictly secluded from the
people, that he might know nothing of their
condition and take no inconvenient interest
in public affairs. Through the course of
centuries this policy, started by the Fuji-
wara, developed by the Taira and Minamoto
clans and brought to its logical conclusion
under the Tokugawa shoguns, caused the
court and the court nobility to lose their
influence in the State until finally all power
was in the hands of the military chieftains
of which the shogun was now the head. The
daimyo, of which there were more than two
hundred fifty, had to have mansions in the
shogun's capital where they were obliged to
reside with their families at least six months
out of each year, presenting themselves
annually to take the oath of homage before
the shogun; and when they left Yedo they
had to leave their wives and families behind
as hostages. Each daimyo was like a sov-
ereign within his own estates, having an
army of samurai and soldiers to do his
bidding, as well as endless numbers of petty
officials; while all the daimyo were bound by
pledges of fealty to the shogun, through
whom alone they could approach the em-
peror deep in the shadow at Kyoto. Outside
the pale were the toiling millions living in
ignorance and poverty.
FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE
TOKUGAWA ERA
About the year 1600 Dutch ships first
appeared in the waters of Japan; and from
that time onward ships of the Dutch East
India Company began to cultivate a thriving
trade, being welcomed in place of the banished
Spanish and Portuguese of whom they were
the avowed enemies. Their activities, how-
ever, were confined to the Island of Deshima
at Nagasaki, the only open port after the
edict excluding foreigners. On one of these
Dutch ships came the Englishman, Will
Adams, who was so highly thought of that
he was detained in the country as foreign
adviser to the shogun who heaped upon him
wealth and honours until his death in 1620
when a fine monument was erected to his
memory. Ships from England under the
auspices of the East India Company came
to Japan in 1613; and a factory, or trade
station, was opened at Hirado. Captain
40
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
John .Saris brought a letter from King James
I, and was warmly received, being granted
a charter to trade where he pleased on equal
terms with the Dutch. Leaving Captain
Cocks in charge, Saris returned to England
to report his experiences; but owing to the
jealousy of the Dutch the British factory was
not a success and had to be given up. Eng-
lish traders did not venture to the coasts of
Japan again until 1673 when they were again
unsuccessful on account of the war with
Holland ; but Captains Beechy and Broughton
deserve mention as having explored the
northern coasts of Japan later, while the
French mariner, La Perouse, circumnavigated
the northern coasts, discovering the straits
named after him, and Vries the Island of
Oshima. Russia also came into unsuccessful
contact with Japan during this period. All
trade was confined to Deshima; and the
annual turnover is reported to have totalled
as much as £660,000. Enormous quantities
of gold were taken out of the country every
year, the Japanese not realising the value of
their coin, which was almost pure; but the
shogun placed a ban on exports of gold later.
The chief of the Dutch factory at Deshima
had to present himself before the shogun
once a year with presents, making the
journey to Yedo in state like a daimyo.
Thus for one hundred fifty years the Dutch
colony at Nagasaki was the port of entry
for Western knowledge to the Empire of
Japan; and as the Dutch always had men of
learning among them, such as Kaempfer and
von Siebold, Western science, medicine, art,
and letters found their way into the country,
many of the young Japanese learning the
Dutch language and mastering works written
in Holland.
REOPENING OF JAPAN
In process of time succeeding shoguns
ceased to inherit the political capacity and
energy of leyasu and the machinery of state
was left to officials and their officers until the
shogim became a mere administrative cipher
like the sovereign. Relieved of all anxiety
as to the security and permanency of their
dynasty the shoguns devoted their time to
lives of ease and pleasure. Meanwhile the
wrongs and injustices suffered by great
families like the Satsuma and the Choshu
clans, through several generations, had not
been forgotten, and they now only awaited
a favourable memont to assert their old
liberties. The opportunity came with the
arrival of the American fleet under Commo-
dore Perrv' in Yedo Bay in 1853, bringing a
letter from President Fillmore requesting a
treaty of amity with Japan. American
whalers cast ashore in Japan had been
cruelly treated, often mtirdered, and the
American government was determined to
put a stop to it; which accounts for Perry's
persistence in refusing to return home with-
out a treaty. He delivered the document
and sailed away, promising to return in a
year for an answer, which he did, ultimately
obtaining a treaty guaranteeing safety to
sailors of his country and safe anchorage for
American shijjs in certain harbours. The
arrival of the American fleet created con-
sternation throughout Japan. For the first
time every one realised the military impo-
tency of the nation and the uselessness of
opposing foreigners. The treaty obtained
by Perry was amplified by Townsend Harris
who came as the first consul-general of the
LTnited States; and in 1859 similar treaties
were secured by Great Britain and France.
Settlements of foreigners were now estab-
lished at Nagasaki, Yokohama, and Hako-
date in which trade was aggressively carried
on; and thus the portals of the long-secluded
land of the gods had been broken and the
foreigner free to occupy the sacred soil of
Nippon. When Harris requested that an
American minister should be allowed to re-
side in Yedo the shogun was more puzzled
than ever, and had to refer the matter to
the Imperial Court at Kyoto, which showed
the great families how helpless was the
shogunate in the face of such a situation.
In the midst of divided counsel at Kyoto
the shogun granted the foreign petition,
creating a tremendous agitation against
foreigners and especially against the sho-
gunate. The old shogun died; and, as a
youth was appointed to succeed him, affairs
of state were in the hands of the great
Prime Minister li-Kamon, who had the
opponents of the bakufu and its policy
arrested and banished, and some of them
executed; which aroused the anger of the
nation still further, and the prime minister
was assassinated. In the ensuing commotion
government was set at nought and lawless-
ness prevailed, the lives of foreigners being
very insecure. The situation then became
very complicated. On the one hand were
many foreigners pouring into the country,
demanding treaty rights; and on the other
was the emperor and his friends calling for
the expulsion of the barbarians. Europeans
were ruthlessly mvu-dered in the streets, the
British legation at Yedo was twice attacked
by fanatics eager to slay those within, two
Englishmen were wounded and the secre-
tary of the American legation was killed.
The emperor ordered an assembly of powerful
daimyo to convene in Yedo to discuss the
situation: and the Prince of Satsuma was
proceeding thither when his procession met
an Englishman named Richardson at Kanag-
awa. The Englishman failed to dismount in
accordance with the custom and was immedi-
ately despatched by the irate samurai of
Satsuma. For this offence the bakufu had
to pay £100,000; and after having the city of
Kagoshima bombarded by a British fleet the
Prince of Satsuma agreed to pay an indemnity
of £25,000 and apologise to the British
go\'ernment. Choshu then flung down the
gauntlet of defiance in firing on foreign ships
passing the Straits of Shimonoseki, when his
forts were bombarded in turn by a combined
fleet of American, Dutch, French, and British
men-of-war. It soon became apparent to all
that foreign ships and foreign subjects could
not be insulted with impunity. Satsuma and
Choshu as well as the shogun having learned
bitter lessons, it became clear to all that the
proposal to banish foreigners was an impossi-
ble one; while at the same time the existing
government of the country was obviously
incompetent to deal with the situation.
FALL OF THE SHOGUNATE
In 1867 the Emperor Komei died and the
young Prince Mutsuhito, aged seventeen,
ascended the throne. Leaders everywhere
began to see now that what the nation most
needed was not the expulsion of foreigners
but a new government. The lords of Sat-
suma, Choshu, and Hizen now resol\-ed to
challenge the authority of the shogun and
declare for direct imperial rule. To this end
they presented a memorial to the shogun, to
which the emperor subscribed; and, to the
surprise of all, the shogun agreeably ac-
quiesced. The shogun, Tokugawa Yoshin-
obu, who belonged to the great clan of Mito,
had unbounded respect for the imperial house,
and his erudition had taught him that the
shogunate was anomalous from an imperial
point of view. So he readily handed in his
resignation to the emperor, though he still
had his numerous vassals behind him and did
not desire to come under the dominion of
Satsuma and Choshu who, he knew, bore him
no good will. But no sooner did the emperor
get all power in his own hands than he sub-
mitted to the advice of Satsuma and Choshu,
had the Aidzu troops which had for years
guarded the imperial palace removed, and
men of Satsuma put in their places, to the
great indignation of the Tokugawa family and
all its friends. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the
ex-shogun, while on his way to Kyoto was
attacked by the imperial troops under Sat-
suma and defeated, and thus the revolution
w-as accomplished with very little shedding of
blood. The imperial government w-as now
supreme; but matters were not yet well, for
the feeling against foreigners still ran high.
A British embassy under Sir Harry Parkes,
while on its way to an imperial audience at
Kyoto, was attacked by samurai, and ten
PR KSE NT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
41
French sailors and an officer were murdered at
Sakai. The difficulty was that most of the
officials of the new government were ignorant
of Western countries; and as they had prom-
ised those who assisted them in overthrowing
the shogunate that they would expel the
foreigner, they now had no easy role to fill,
knowing that they could not fulfil their
promises. The three classes, nobles, samurai,
and serfs, had no conception of the duties now
devolving upon them. The nobles knew
nothing save to rule, the samurai nothing save
to fight, and the people had no idea of the
rights of free citizens. Indeed, few statesmen
have ever had so difficult a task as that which
confronted the young emperor's advisers;
and it is remarkable how successfully they
carried it to a triumjihant conclusion.
(E) THE ERA OF MEIJI
1S6S to IQ14.
EARLY REFORMS
As Yedo had long been the seat of execu-
tive government it was decided to continue
it as such; and so the name was changed to
Tokyo, or Eastern Capital, and the imperial
residence was removed thither and the em-
peror expected to take an active share in the
new imperial administration. Instead of
attempting to drive out the foreigners the
new regime proclaimed the intention of
encouraging intercourse with Western na-
tions, and that European science and civili-
sation should be introduced into Japan.
The sacrifices which such changes demanded
were indeed great. The shogun had sacri-
ficed his power and prestige; the emperor
had emerged from his ease and retirement;
it was now for the nobles and their samurai
to face the great sacrifices entailed in the
abolition of feudalism. This was more than
some of the daimyo had expected. They
wanted the imperial restoration, but they
did not see why otherwise the feudal regime
should not continue. The clans of Satsuma
and Choshu merely wanted the place formerly
occupied by the Tokugawa. But the pres-
sure from abroad soon led them to see that
Japan's safety lay in united counsels, and they
too must be ready for the self-renunciation
displayed by the shogun. The young re-
formers finally succeeded in persuading the
daimyo of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, and Hi.':en.
four of the most powerful feudal chiefs in the
Empire, to surrender their fiefs to the em-
peror, a sacrifice of remarkable magnanimity
indeed. More than two hundred fifty
feudal lords followed their example; and thus
in a moment many separate governments
passed into one, its center Tokyo, and the
emperor its head. The daimyo, at first left
as governors in their several domains, in 1 871
were deprived of this office and all taxes were
ordered to be paid into the central treasury.
All officials were thenceforth to be appointed
by the central government, the feudal lords
were to retain one-tenth of their former in-
come and make Tokyo their place of resi-
dence, while the samurai were to retain their
pensions, the latter after two years being
commuted by the government. The spirit
in which these sacrifices were undertaken and
carried out must form a model of loyalty
for all time. All class privileges and disa-
bilities were now abolished; permission was
given to Japanese to go abroad for study;
the foundation was laid for a national army
recruited by conscription, and steps taken
for the creation of a navy. Carefully se-
lected teachers were brought from Western
lands to direct the new education, England
supplying instructors in railway, telegraph,
engineering, mint, and naval education; the
United States in postal and educational
CO.NSULTl.NG THE FORTUNE STICK
work; Germany in medical science, and
France in military science. The main aim
of the new government was to fit the people
for the privileges of constitutional govern-
ment when the time should arrive for its
inauguration. Japan must be raised to the
status of a great military power able to secure
immunity against foreign aggression and
commanding a place in the councils of the
world. The government should be supported
by increasing the country's industrial capacity
and development of foreign trade. Then
would come a realisation of Japan's main
ideals; the abolition of exterritoriality and
her assumption of supremacy in East Asia.
FOREIGN REL.\TIONS
The treaties which the shogun's govern-
ment had concluded with foreign powers
exempted Europeans resident in Japan from
the jurisdiction of Japanese law and author-
ity, leaving them subject to their own law
as administered by their consular courts.
The Japanese soon learned that this system
was derogatory to their dignity as an inde-
liendent nation, and they were determined
to have the stigma removed. The peninsula
of Korea, which had interested Japan from
ancient times, now showed signs of weakness
and Japan feared it might fall into the hands
of some foreign power that would menace
the safety of the Empire. Saigo, one of the
greatest heroes of the wars of the Restoration,
favoured stern measures in Korea; and when
the government ignored his opinions, he
withdrew from active participation in its
aflairs to his home in Kagoshima where he
started a military school that was interpreted
as a scheme to educate rebels against the
government. This gave rise to the Satsuma
Rebellion in 1878 when some 30,000 lives were
lost in battles between the government and
rebel troops, Saigo committing suicide on
being defeated. Japan was finally obliged
to take active interest in the aflfairs of Korea,
however, and to insist on similar reforms to
her own, if that country was to be saved from
foreign aggression. Korea rejected these
o\-ertures and was backed by China, leading
to the China-Japan War in 1894-5 in which
Japan was victorious. Ten years later she
had to cross swords with Russia on the same
question, dri\'ing the aggressor out of Korea
and herself eventually annexing the peninsula,
August, 1910. Japan's claim to have the
disability of exterritoriality removed was con-
ceded by the foreign powers in July, 1899,
when she recovered her judicial autonomy;
but she did not recover her tariff autonomy
until 1894. From this time relations between
Great Britain and Japan began to grow
increasingly intimate; and when, after the
war with China, Germany led France and
42
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Russia in ousting Japan from the fruits of
her victories in Manchuria, Great Britain
refused to be a party to it, the two nations
were drawn still closer together, until 1902
when they entered into a formal alliance for
the maintenance of the integrity of China
and mutual protection in Asia. The Anglo-
Jajianese Alliance was renewed with some
modifications in 191 1 and still forms, as it
long may do, the foundation of Japan's
foreign policy. It was in accordance with
this policy that Japan joined Great Britain
in the war with Germany, attacking and
capturing the fortress of Tsingtau and occu-
pying German possessions in the South Seas
in 1914-5. Relations with the United States
have been disturbed over questions of immi-
gration and rights of land ownership; but.
although these problems are as yet unsettled,
the invariable good tetnper of both countries
promises a near solution. By the so-called
"Gentleman's Agreement" with America in
1908 Japan consented to limit the number
of her immigrant labourers to the United
States; and a memorandum had been signed
with Canada to the same effect in 1907.
Japan formed a treaty of alliance with Russia
in 1916, establishing relations similar to those
with Great Britain in the Anglo- Japanese
Alliance, but in no sense menacing the latter ;
and new agreements were entered into with
China in the same year. Thus by her own
efforts, backed by the sympathy of the Eng-
Hsh-speaking peoples, Japan has obtained
the recognition of all the world-powers, and
to-day occupies a place second to none in
the comitv of nations.
MODERN J.\P.\N
Though the fathers of the Meiji Restoration
looked forward in some measure to the observ-
ance of constitutional principles, and a con-
stitution was conceded by the emperor and
eventually promulgated in 1889, and a parlia-
ment opened in 1890, Japan is still ruled by
an oligarchy of talented men, known as
Genro, or Elder Statesmen, representing the
great clans, some of whom had a hand in
bringing about the restoration of imperial
rule, and some of whom are of a later gen-
eration. The unwritten system is indeed
not unlike that which prevailed in Japan
before the development of feudalism and
military government. It is, however, meet-
ing W'ith increasing popular objection as the
years go on; and the contest between bureau-
cracy and democracy has still to be fought
out. The bureaucracy, nevertheless, has a
better grasp of foreign affairs than the rising
and more ignorant and inexperienced democ-
racy, and, therefore, has often saved the day
when the Empire would otherwise have been
endangered. But so long as out of a popu-
lation of nearly 60.000,000 in Japan proper,
no more than 1,600,000 are entitled to the
franchise, the impossibiUty of popular or
liberal government remains.
In some respects it is but natural that
Japanese affairs should still be in the hands
of those and their successors who brought
about the downfall of the shogunate, the
restoration of imperial rule and the moderni-
sation of the Empire. Of the forty-five or
more patriotic youths who braved death to
bring about the Restoration, twelve were
'•tt-:?w -
iSSlE;-'-
given a supreme place as Genro, namely,
Saigo, Okubo, Kido, Ito, Inouye, Oyama,
Soejima, Iwakura Sanjo, Matsukata, Yama-
gata, and Itagaki, of whom the last three
alone are still living, but Count Itagaki has
retired from politics. On his recent retire-
ment from the premiership Marquis Okuma
was added to the list of Elder Statesmen, and
doubtless Marquis Saionji will become one
also. Unhampered by precedents and deal-
ing with a people accustomed to autocracy
the Elder Statesmen, the Privy Council, and
the Emperor as supreme, have little difficulty
in manipulating state affairs after their own
will, or as circumstances dictate. The Upper
and Lower Houses of the Imperial Diet are
subordinate to the Imperial advisers and can
be dissolved at their instance on proving
recalcitrant. The Imperial Diet, however,
is given the general management of do-
mestic affairs; always, however, under the
supervising eye of the powers behind the
scene.
Constitutionalism, however, is making
some progress; and when one realises all that
the bureaucratic system has done for Japan
in bringing about reforms without resorting
to radical measures, there should be nothing
but admiration for its achievements and
patience with its anachronisms. It has
created and promoted an army and navy of
matchless efficiency; and under its paternal
auspices national industry and trade have
developed beyond a nascent stage and now
bid fair to rival all competitors in Far Eastern
markets. Laws incorporating the principles
of modern civilisation and justice have been
codified and enacted; the rights of the people
are recognised if not always allowed. The
Lunar calendar was replaced by the Western
calendar in 1873; and in the same year mili-
tary conscription was introduced. The ban
on Christianity was removed in that year
and religion made free, though school
children are still taken by their teachers
to the national or communal shrines to render
homage to their ancestors. In the same year
an official mission consisting of Kido, Okubo,
and Iwakura proceeded to America and
Europe to study the situation there and glean
suggestions for national reform; while the
visit of Ito in 1882 further prepared the way
for more constitutional methods of procedure.
After he had duly drafted the constitution
a cabinet was organised, a constitution pro-
mulgated and the Diet formally opened.
The grave doubts entertained as to the suc-
cess of a representative system of government
at its inauguration have not been justified,
simply for the reason that it is not represen-
tative in any sense that would seriously
threaten the prerogatives of the bureaucracy.
THE W.WMUE KJRTIJ-NE TELLER
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
43
THE PRAYER WHEEL
Dunng the twenty-six years of its liistory
the Imperial Diet has been dissolved numer-
ous times, with eighteen changes of cabinet
and twelve general elections. In 19 lo the
election laws were revised, extending the
franchise to those paying a minimum tax
of ten yen a year, whereas before the mini-
mum was fifteen yen; which, of course, was
not any great extension; and the system of
signed ballots was discontinued. In July,
igi2, the Emperor Mutsuhito, posthumously
known as Meiji Tenno, passed away; and His
Majesty, the Emperor Yoshihito, I22d in
the dynasty, ascended the throne, naming
the new era, Taisho, or the Era of Great
Righteousness, succeeding the last era which
is known as Mciji, or the Era of Enlight-
enment.
The forty- five years comprising the reign of
Meiji Tenno were unparalleled in the history
of the nation's progress. Among the innu-
merable reforms of the period three stand out
as paramount: the promulgation of the
Imperial Constitution, including the estab-
lishment of the Imperial Diet, with local
self-government in prefectures, counties,
cities, towns, and villages; the codification
of national law to take the place of mere cus-
tom and ancestral prestige, paving the way
for the last but not least great reform, the
revision of foreign treaties, and the abolition
of extraterritoriality. Whether the Taisho
era will be able to maintain the glory of the
former period remains to be seen. The
weakness of the nation is its disposition to
disputation and lack of great leadership,
rendered more complex by clan precedence
and prejudice. Education, which was at
first established on American lines, has since
diverged into a German system, very narrow
and formal, with more attention to the ac-
quirement of facts and ideas than to any
practical application of them. The whole
country is still in a state of transition between
old and new, in which now one side has the
upper hand and now the other, often with
amusing eccentricities. But the main policy
of Japan is to aJapl foreign ways while adopt-
ing them: in other words, to Japanise every-
thing, even the truth itself. Signs are not
wanting, however, that every phase of Japa-
nese society, civilisation and polity having a
no more stable basis than mere prejudice,
superstition, or fancy, may suffer a rude
upheaval as time proceeds. Modem science
is undermining many of the more sacred and
treasured traditions of the nation and point-
ing to practical efficiency under altruistic
principles as the more certain way to perma-
nent progress.
Should Japan, in her ambition to be the
moral, intellectual, and political torch of
East Asia and the arbiter of Oriental
destiny, ignore these signs of the times, her
future can only be vague and uncertain.
But the Japanese are a brave, industrious,
and intelligent people; and if they are wisely
led, or are not hindered in leading themselves,
Japan will have Httle difficulty in becoming
what she has long desired, the Great Britain
of the East.
MAKING OBSERVATIONS DURING ARMY MANCEUVRES, I9I7
IV. The Army
Army of Old Japan -Evolution of a Modern Army — Recruiting — Army Organisation
— Mobilisation and Equipment— Army Finance
THE Japanese must be accounted war-
riors from the days of their first
appearance as conquerors of the isles
of Nippon; and consistently the first thousand
years of their history in settlement of the
archipelago may be regarded as largely a
period of strife, either with opposing aborigi-
nes or with succeeding migrations from the
continent. That they were skilled in tlie
arts of war there is no doubt, since they
appear to have had small difSculty in
enforcing an occupation of the land, the
southerners under Jimniu Tenno proving
the more dauntless and aggressive of
the various tribes. It must be assumed
that most of the military tactics of old
Japan had their origin in China, whence the
nation derived all 'its other arts. In the
national records of ancient matters one reads
that in the year 760 A. D. soldiers were sent
to Kyushu to study the art of warfare under
a military instructor named Kibi Makibi,
who in turn had made a study of the science
of tactics in China, the lessons learned being
taken chiefly from books prepared by Chinese
strategists. The imperial court usually kept
a teacher of Chinese strategy; and there is
mention of the custom of ascertaining the
whereabouts of enemy troops by the behav-
iour of birds, especially wild geese, by means
of which in the past enemies had been de-
tected and defeated. This scrap of history
is quite consistent with Japanese tradition
that the race descended from warriors who
became the ancestors of great military
families, most prominent among whom was
the imperial family itself, tradition asserting
that the Empress Jingo in 200 A. d. led an
expedition in person to Korea to subdue
refractory kingdoms there. During the
sixth and seventh centuries there appears
to have been much attention devoted to the
question of national defence, and guards of
the court and of the national frontiers were
established. In 661 A. D. it is said that the
Emperor Tenchi issued instructions for
regulating the national army, in preparation
for an encounter with China. In 701 it
seems that the imperial forces were divided
into corps, each consisting of a thousand
soldiers; and at the same time a cavalry sec-
tion was organised, and all the court families
were obliged to lend themselves to the move-
ment. Under the Emperor Konin in 780 A. D.
conscription took a definite form, when every
able-bodied man was compelled to fight, the
incompetent being left to work the land.
From this time began that military class-
distinction based on fighting quaUty, which
has ever since characterised the Japanese.
The military power thus created brought
about a long period of peace, which in turn
resulted in luxurious effeminacy that reacted
unfavourably on the nation. In many
places defence gave place to plunder and
rebellion, and the integrity of the nation
could only be restored and upheld by the
military class. With the rise of great feudal
families the army became decentrahsed , and
for a time military power continued to be
associated with the Minamoto and the Taira
families. The long dissension between these
great military clans kept the country in
intermittent strife for centuries; and finally
with the triumph of the Minamoto clan
and its establishment of military govern-
ment at Kamakura, the indomitable
fighting spirit was conserved and handed
on to future generations.
ARMY OF OLD JAPAN
These extended periods of ancient warfare
were for the most part under the auspices of
Chinese methods of fighting, though we may
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
45
be sure such sturdy warriors as the Japanese
had early begun to develop their own devices.
Up to the ninth century it was a principle of
Japanese tactics to attack always at night
or early in the morning, which well suited
the national disposition and temperament.
This practice was undoubtedly continued all
through the civil wars of the eleventh, twelfth,
and thirteenth centuries. It was indeed
seldom that forces of any considerable
strength met on the open plains or even in
valleys, as the native warrior never acquitted
himself so well under such circumstances.
In the warfare of ancient times battles were
sometimes decided by contests of individual
prowess, not unlike what one sees traces of
in Britain during the age of chivalry. Some-
what after the manner of Gohath a Japanese
general would stalk out in front of his forces
and challenge a representative of the enemy
to single combat. The challenging hero
stood erect between the opposing hosts, and
in stentorian tones recited his lineage and
military achievements: it was the only
moment in a samurai's life when he was free
to boast, demanding a man of equal family
and martial attainments on the enemy's side
to be pitted against him. As a rule the chal-
lenge was promptly accepted. In a similar
manner a hero from the enemy's ranks would
step forward and proclaim in a loud voice
his family history and his own deeds of
prowess on the field of battle. There stood
the two heroes face to face amid the silence
of intense excitement and suspense of the
assembled troops. At once the duel began.
It was nothing if not fierce, a battle to the
death. One of the combatants fallen, an-
other was ready to step in, and after two
or three such contests the spirit of the on-
lookers was up and the two armies closed in
on one another with fearful carnage. It was
seldom, however, that in such battles the
entire forces on both sides participated, as
the strategists preferred to depend on a
night attack for the final result.
Through the Middle Ages two schools of
tacticians developed in Japan, chiefly under
the impetus of the civil wars already alluded
to. The one was known as the Echigo sys-
tem, of which the celebrated warrior, Uyesugi
Kenshin, was the exponent; and the other
was called the Koshu method, elaborated
by one of the most famous enemies of Ken-
shin, named Takeda Shingen. The Echigo
tactics involved a rapid movement of troops
and the springing of unheard-of surprises
on the enemy, as may be seen from a careful
study of the plan adopted at the noted battle
of Kawanakajima. The Koshu tacticians,
on the other hand, aimed at placing their
troops in strategic positions, and insisted on
pressing a steady frontal attack with a fight
to the finish. The latter way came to be
regarded by the majority of soldiers as the
more scientific, and for a considerable time
it prevailed among the leading clansmen-
at-arms. Succeeding warriors of renown
further elaborated the Koshu system, each
giving it his own name; and so we have men-
tion of the Obata tactics, the Kagemori
tactics, the Hojo Ujimasa method, and the
popular tactics of Yamaga Soko.
Of course the introduction of guns and
modern weapons completely changed the
army system of old Japan. The bowman and
the lancer had small chance before the West-
ern musket and cannon. The introduction
of the new methods obliged a complete rear-
rangement of the line of battle. The musket-
eers were now placed in front, with the archers
behind and the spearmen in the rear, each
vmder a special officer. The muskets were
discharged, the bowmen delivered their
shafts and emptied their quivers, and the
spearmen then closed in on the struggling
forces, while the musketeers and archers pre-
pared for a second onslaught. These Euro-
pean ideas of military science came with the
arms and ammunition which the Portuguese
and Spanish traders brought to Japan in the
middle of the sixteenth century. The first
firearm ever seen in the country was a musket
presented to the daimyo of Higo by a Portu-
guese merchant in the year 1551. It was
not, however, until 1660 that the daimyo
seriously determined on the use of Western
firearms, and then foreign instructors were
engaged. In that year Hojo Masafusa, a
celebrated warrior of the day, took lessons
in miUtary tactics and the use of Western
war weapons from a Dutch officer, special
emphasis being laid on the use of cannon.
Some time later the governor of Nagasaki
brought with him to Osaka and Yedo a
Dutchman skilled in the use of Western
implements of war. When the foreigner saw
the walls of Osaka Castle, the Japanese ex-
pected him to be much impressed by their
impregnabihty; but he only laughed and
said "bom-bom," as the Japanese accounts
have it, which greatly puzzled his hearers
and the great man whose guest he was. The
governor finally learned from the Dutchman
his meaning, which proved to be that the
Europeans had a weapon which would destroy
the greatest castle in Japan with a few shots.
The Japanese were so much impressed by
what they heard of cannon that they set
about a study of ordnance and soon equipped
themselves with big guns of their own. Thus
the military men of Nagasaki, being more in
touch with Europeans than the officers of
other fiefs, were the first to realise the great
importance of more modem military equip-
ment, and memorialised the Government to
that eflect in 1818, asking also that warships
be constructed for coast defence purposes
and that existing castles be replaced by more
impregnable fortresses. Shuhan Takashima,
of Nagasaki, for his presumption in thus
daring to instruct the shogunate, was cast
into prison; but the invasion of the Kurile
Islands by Russia and the increasing visi-
tations by foreign warships soon showed the
authorities that something should be done
for national defence. Some time later a young
officer named Enomoto Buyo, afterward
destined to play an important part in the
nation's history, went to Holland to study
naval and military science, while Count Katsu
took lessons from Dutch officers at Nagasaki.
Such was about the sum total of Japan's
knowledge of modem war at the beginning
of the Meiji period, though there no doubt
had been more of experiment and progress
than is recorded, as may be seen from evidence
still extant. In Nagasaki, for example, the
writer saw set up as a monument or ancient
relic on the water front a huge iron ball,
more than two feet in diameter. It looked
like an ancient cannon ball, except that the
past has afforded no gim of sufficient calibre
to receive it. No reliable account of its
history could be obtained, but the most
likely story is worth repeating. It is said
that some military genius of old Japan con-
ceived the idea of defending the port from
foreign ships by excavating a deep hole in
the side of a lofty hill, the hole lined with
heavy timber to form a sort of howitzer gun,
which could be charged with powder and
then loaded with the hea\'y ball. The enemy
would be driven to a certain spot in the
harbour where the angle of the gun would
throw or drop the huge ball, thus penetrating
the enemy's deck and even bottom. Be the
story a joke or not, it is the only way found
to account for the existence of the huge iron
ball which must have been much larger cen-
turies ago, as it is eaten deeply by rust.
As to recruiting, it may be said that after
the army decentralisation caused by the rise
of the feudal system, every daimyo had his
own military organisation; but with most
of them it was the rule to take one-fourth of
all the men between the ages of twenty and
forty for training as soldiers, while the other
three-fourths of this class were obliged to
provide themselves with armour and weapons
so as to be in readiness when called up for
war in emergency. As the army was then
constituted, fifty men formed a band, and
five hundred men a company, either infantry
or cavalry, each with its leader or captain.
Two such companies were a corps; and troops
numbering twenty thousand had one general,
one lieutenant-general, and two commis-
sioned officers. This system was kept up
46
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIOTSTS OF JAPAN
until the tenth century; but as the daimyo
became more and more independent they
often followed their own de\ices, until ulti-
mately all semblance of military uniformity
was lost. The chief weapons used in war
were the bow and arrow, the spear and a long
spear like a halberd, with shields of tw'O sizes
for defence, a small one for fighting and
a large one when encamping. These large
shields were used to form a wall between
an army encampment and a sneaking enemy.
Much more could be said about the uses of the
various weapons of war used in old Japan, but
lack of space forbids. The great war museum
at Kudan in Tokyo will afford those inter-
ested any information desired on this score.
EVOLUTION OF A MODERN ARMY
With the abdication of the shogun in 1868
the supreme command over all the naval and
military forces of the Empire reverted to the
Emperor. The expeditious manner in which
the men of Satsuma and Choshu overthrew
the opponents of the new regime showed that
even at that time Japan possessed warriors
of no mean skill and prowess. The Naval
and Military Bureau organised in 1868 soon
evolved into the Bureau of National Defence,
which in time became the War Office. As
the new national army consisted of the various
heterogeneous forces formerly under command
of the feudal lords, it represented anything
but a mobile unit of defence; and so the
French military system was at first adopted
with the hope of producing some show of
uniformity' and cohesion. Regular bodies of
infantry, cavalr>-, artillery, and engineering
corps were organised, including an Imperial
Bodyguard. A garrison was stationed in
Tokj-o for the protection of the northern
provinces, another in Osaka for the security
of the western provinces, while other garrison
detachments were posted at certain strategic
points. Thus in a remarkably short time
great improvements were brought about in
the military system of the country. With
the abolition of feudalism, the disappearance
of clan troops and the introduction of a
national conscription system in 1871 a most
drastic transformation was accomplished.
The military profession which for centuries
had been a monopoly of the samurai, was
flung open to every male citizen of the Em-
pire irrespective of class or clan. In 1873
the nation was divided into six military dis-
tricts, with centres at Sendai, Tokj'O, Nagoya,
Osaka, Hiroshima, and Kumamoto, at all of
which garrisons were stationed. The men
recruited by conscription went into battle
with the clan troops for the first time in the
Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, and they proved
themselves equal in every way to the veteran
soldiers of the feudal days, beside w-hom many
A TRIUMPHAL ARCH FOR THE VICTORIOUS ARMY OF TS1NGT.A.O
of them now fought. In 1878 the War Office
was reorganised with the aim of further
improving the military organisation of the
country, a general staff was appointed for the
super\asion of national defence as well as
strategy', and a superintending inspector's
office was established for general military
inspection and improvement of ordnance.
From the year 1882 onward Japan began
to realise more and more the necessity of
stronger armaments if a balance of power was
to be maintained in East Asia; and from that
time her militarj' forces have been augmented
year by year. The nation's system of mili-
tary command, her military schools, army
organisation, training, accounts, sanitation.
and all other essential functions were com-
pletely remodeled, chiefly after the German
system, as that country had in Japan's opin-
ion proved superior to France in the Franco-
Prussian War. In 1884 Generals Oyama.
Kawakami, and Katsura went to Europe to
make a thorough study of the Prussian mili-
tary system, and brought back with them a
German officer. General Mickel, who put the
Japanese army through its Prussian drill,
and was the tutor of most of the Japanese
army officers of to-day. As time passed it
became increasingly e\'ident to Japan that
she must concentrate expenditure on means
of national defence and offence. Indeed,
everything was directed toward that great
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
47
military effort which culminated in the war
with China in 1895. For the previous ten
years army reorganisation had been steadily
and thoroughly proceeding under the direc-
tion of German instruction. A military staff
college had been established, the military
academies were extended, and the army medi-
cal college was improved. Non-commissioned
officers were trained to qualify for commis-
sions and the whole system of uniform and
drill was revised. In 1888 garrisons were
organised as units, complete with infantry,
cavalry, artillery, railway corps, and colonial
militia, ready, if need be, for service overseas.
By 1893 Japan had established 16 military
schools, attended by 2,602 students with
hundreds of thousands of young recruits
under drill; and in 1894 she was ready to
oppose China with an army of more than 240,-
000 trained men, with 6,495 irregulars and
100,000 coolies. Further reforms were intro-
duced during the war with a view to making
the army more mobile and to defend more
efficiently the outposts of the Empire. More-
over, Japan's association with the European
troops during the Boxer trouble in China in
1900 gave her many new ideas concerning
ammunition and armaments; and improve-
ment and expansion of the imperial army
went on steadily up to the war with Russia,
the results of which we know.
After the Russo-Japanese War the military
leaders of Japan became deeply impressed
with the need of further army expansion ; and
Prince Yamagata memorialised the Throne
suggesting that the armed forces of the nation
should be increased to twenty-five divisions
and the navy to two squadrons of eight
dreadnoughts and four battle-cruisers each,
with cruiser squadrons and ample flotillas
to match. The Emperor quite agreed with
the suggestion and the military authorities
had only to await the necessary funds to
carry the new programme into effect. The
army that opposed and triumphed over Rus-
sia consisted of thirteen divisions, four other
divisions having been provisionally organised
during the war; but in 1907, two years after
the restoration of peace, we find the Japanese
army with six new divisions fully organised,
making a total army strength of nineteen
divisions, or 100,000 more men than before.
At the time of Japan's conflict with Russia
her available military forces were 600,000
fighting men: two years after the war these
had expanded to some 2,000,000 men. In
1914 the Government sanctioned the addition
of two more army divisions, to be stationed in
Korea, one of which has already been organ-
ised, so that Japan's army strength at present
consists of twenty divisions.
Here the question naturally arises as to
why Japan is so intent on military expansion.
Before the European war her hypothetic
objective was undoubtedly Russia, as she
had the conviction that the northern power
was some day sure to return to retrieve her
losses and humiliation in Manchuria, and the
Japanese army should be of sufficient strength
to discourage this. Japan's interests in
Manchuria and China must be guarded at all
costs. During the European war, however,
Japan and Russia arrived at a special under-
standing as to mutual spheres of interest in
China, and now Japan's potential objective
is supposed to be across the Pacific, should
forces from that direction interfere with
Japan's progress in China. Thus naval and
armamental expansion goes on to the full
limit of Japan's financial capacity.
RECRUITING
In Japan military service is personal, uni-
versal, and obligatory upon every citizen
between the ages of seventeen and forty.
Out of a population of some 57,000,000 in
Japan proper the number of youths who
annually reach the age of conscription is
about 450,000; but since no more than about
260,000 of these are found physically fit for
army service the task of increasing the mili-
tary forces of the nation to twenty-five divi-
sions is not so easy. The most common
causes of failure to qualify for army service
are venereal diseases and the eye affection
known as trachoma, the next most common
defect being low stature or general debility.
Defective physique proved most common in
the years when those born during the wars
with China and Russia came of age. The
number of Japanese recruits above 5 feet
6 inches in stature does not number more than
1 1 ,000 a year, while more than 50,000 are
less than 5 feet. The number of recruits
above 5.3 feet in stature is about 323 per
1,000. The military authorities report the
eagerness with which recruits enter the army ,
but desertions number about 1,000 a year,
mostly privates, 38 per cent of which are said
to be due to dislike of military service and
the rest to cruelty. The penalties for deser-
tion are so severe, however, that it would be
a mistake to estimate the popularity of the
service by the number remaining loyal to it.
One frequently hears of cases where the
body has been mutilated so as to prevent be-
ing conscripted, and soldiers are said to
commit suicide rather than meet the trials
to be endured. The custom of drilling
and marching soldiers in the hottest
weather results in frequent cases of sunstroke
and death, and indicates a desire to weed out
of the army all unable to endure such strain,
however cruel the process. Of the 260,000
men annually qualifying for conscription
about 120,000 are drafted and 150,000 left
as reserves to be called up any time. The
numbers above indicated can not be enlarged
at present without lowering the general
efficiency of the service. The conscript is
called up during the year which follows that
in which he reaches the age of twenty. Re-
cruits are divided into three grades after
being drafted, and the number desired is
drawn by lot from the highest grade. The
only exemptions allowed under the conscrip-
tion law are for an only son where the parent
is over sixty years of age and incompetent to
support himself or herself. Lads registered
in schools of certain grades may have mili-
tary service postponed until finishing their
studies, but the age of postponement must
not exceed twenty-eight. There are reports
of youths registering at schools merely to
escape conscription, even though they do not
attend classes. There is also a service of one
year for scholars and those of the upper class,
who, after putting in the year in sections, are
registered in the reserve service with the
rank of non-commissioned officer. These
have to pay their own expenses while in bar-
racks. Recruits drafted into the annual con-
tingent have to pass two whole years with
the colours in the case of infantry, and three
years in the case of other arms. They then
belong to the Yobi, or reserve of the active
army, until the age of twenty-seven, after
which they become Kobi, or Landwehr, for
ten years, until reaching the age of thirty-
seven, from which time until arriving at the
age of forty they are ranked as Kokiimin, or
Landslurm. The service is thus divided into
an active service of two years for infantry,
three for cavalry and engineers, reserve ser-
vice of four years and depot service of ten
years, covering in all a period of seventeen
years beginning from the age of twenty.
The Japanese army is further expanded by
what is known as the Ersatz system by which
men are trained for a period of ninety days
in the first year, sixty in the second and third
years, the candidates serving as a reserve of
recruiting and enabling the waste in each
annual draft to be made good. The Ersatz
belong to the active and reserve forces until
the age of twenty-seven when they become
territorials. As for the Landslurm it includes
all youths between the ages of seventeen and
twenty as well as all those up to the age of
forty classed as good for service or excused
from service for reasons other than physical
unfitness. This category, which is at present
untrained, forms a reserve of something over
3,000,000 men who can be drawn upon any
time in case of emergency, but need not be
considered in the effective force.
The organisation of the recruiting territory
is based upon that of the divisional unit.
Each army division has an area of country
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SCENES DURING THE JAPANESE ARMY MANCEUVRES, iqi;
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
49
allotted to it, from which it draws its recruits
in peace and its reserves on mobilisation.
There are eighteen divisional districts, the
divisions detached in Korea and Manchuria
retaining their districts in Japan. The
Imperial Guards alone are recruited from the
whole territory. In each divisional district the
country is divided up into infantry, brigade,
regimental, and battalion areas. Other
forces are recruited from the divisional dis-
trict as a whole or from appointed portions
of it, while some troops are allotted special
or larger areas. Formosa has a special garri-
son, as have also Tsushima, Saghalien, and
the other colonies. The total number of
troops quartered outside of Japan are the
divisions in Korea and 34,000 others, includ-
ing 10,000 railway guards, in Manchuria.
The peace strength of the Japanese army
is now about 250,000 men, with some 6,000
officers, and the first line of defence easily
musters 600,000 strong, including 260,000
reservists; while the total fighting force at
Japan's disposal in case of need is, as has
been before mentioned, not less than 2,000,-
000.
As to mounts, Japan has been importing
large numbers of Australian horses since the
war with Russia, but not enough for the
requirements of the army, and consequently
the supply has been supplemented by half-
breed animals known as zashu, which are by
foreign sires from home-bred mares, raised
for the most part on the government stock
farms and in Hokkaido. These zashu are
preferred to foreign horses by most Japanese
officers, as they are said to stand the climate
better and are more amenable to Japanese
ways of handling. The Japanese army
requires about 130,000 horses; and the whole
country possesses not more than 1,600,000,
of which not more than 14,000 are imported,
and 530,000 are half-breeds. There is a
drastic law in existence for the registration,
classification, and requisition of horses and
wagons on mobilisation; but it must be
remembered that horses are not of such great
importance in the Japanese military system.
.■\R.MY ORGANIS.A.TION
The Japanese army, as has been already
pointed out, consists of twenty divisions,
with prospects of five more in the near futiu-e.
A division is composed of two brigades of
infantry, a regiment of cavalry, one of artil-
lery, and a battalion each of engineers and
army service corps. Each regiment of
infantry consists of four battalions of 600
men each, while a regiment of cavalry has
four squadrons of 100 sabres each. A regi-
ment of field artillery is made up of six bat-
teries, each of four guns and 24 machine guns;
a battalion of engineers has three companies
FIELD-MARSHAL PRINCE YAMAGATA, HEAD OF
THE GENRO, OR ELDER STATESMEN,
AND ONE OF THE MOST INFLU-
ENTIAL MEN OF JAPAN
of 200 men each, while the army service corpb
has 300 men, including a Ijridging train,
telegraph section, medical corps, eight ammu-
nition columns, four supply columns, four to
six field hospitals, and a mobile remount
depot. The six-gun battery was abandoned
for one of four guns after the war with Russia,
as it was found impossible to carry more
than 289 shells for each gun, a supply quite
insufficient for a hot artillery duel when guns
often discharge as many as 500 rounds a day;
GENERAL BARON V. UEHARA, A DIS-
TINGUISHED SOLDIER, FORMERLY MIN-
ISTER OF W.4R IN THE SAIONJI
CABINET, NOW CHIEF OF THE
GENER.\L ST.\FF
so that four guns were all that really could
be handled with advantage. An infantry
company numbers 156 all ranks, a squadron
140 with 135 horses, and the field battery
128 with 62 horses; an engineer company
1 70 or 200. Thus the Japanese army division
remains, as before, the largest imit of the war
organisation. The division has its head-
quarters, including chief-of-staff and adju-
liuifiir, and on active duty it has about 18,875
men, with 4,938 horses and 1,765 carriages.
In addition to the twenty divisions com-
posed as above, the Japanese army has troops
numbering four brigades of cavalry, each
having three regiments of five squadrons;
two batteries of horse artillery; three inde-
pendent brigades of field artillery forming
six regiments with 216 guns; three indepen-
dent mountain batteries with 54 guns; four
regiments of hea\'y field artillery; railway
troops, wireless and other telegraph units; a
balloon company; searchlight detachments
and field gendarmerie. There are also troops
for lines of connection; 24 batteries of heavy
artillery for coast defence, beside the garrisons
outside Japan. It has been the practice of
Japan to add a brigade of reservists to each
division on active service, but as time goes
on this may be unnecessary. The use of
these reserve troops is a secret of the higher
command; but probably the trend is toward
the German custom of depending chiefly on
highly trained troops and not to hamper
them with inferior elements. In the war
with Russia Japan created four or five
armies, as she would doubtless do in case of
war again; but there exists no permanent
arrangement of the divisions into armies and
there are no staffs. The Emperor is the
supreme head of the army and navy; and in
time of war he directs the combined opera-
tions of these forces through the headquarters
staff, assisted by the Field Marshal, the mili-
tary council consisting of the chief officers
of the army and navy and others. The army
in time of peace is governed by the Minister
of War, the Chief of the General Staff, and
the Director of Military Education and
Training. The chiefs of these departments
are independent of one another and directly
under the Emperor. The systems followed
by the War Office and the General Staff
Office are after the German model.
-MOBILISATION AND EQUIPMENT
During mobihsation in Japan, as in Eu-
rope, the reser\'es are called out, depots are
formed and reserve formations prepared on
the required scale and in the orthodox man-
ner. Usually the first divisions mobilised
are allowed 10 days for preparation, this time
having been proved to be ample. Reservists
set out for their destinations on the second
50
PRESENT-DAY I>rPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE MILITARV STAFF OFFICE, TOKVt> — OFFICE OF THE GENERAL STAFF, TOKYO, WITH EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF PRINCE KITASHIRAKAWA
day of mobilisation. The first troops are
generally ready to entrain or embark on the
seventh day of mobilisation; the entire first
line is ready in between 12 and 20 daj's,
and the reservists between 20 and 25 days.
Japan has nearly 7,000 miles of railway with
over 2,500 locomotives and plenty of rolling
stock for transportation of troops; while her
marine transportation facilities are also of
the best, possessing, as she does, over 2,000,-
000 tons. Embarkation drill is frequently
practiced in harbours and on open beaches.
The regulations allow one ton of shipping per
man for the transport of troops by sea, and
four and one-half tons per horse. There is
no doubt that in case of war Japan would
have no difficulty in transporting her active
forces to the continent or elsewhere in two
echelons, and that the first echelon would be
ready for sea as soon as the troops were
ready to embark.
As to equipment, the Japanese army is
supplied with an improved design of the
Murata rifle, a strong and serviceable weapon
rather than a delicate and highly finished arm.
The field artillery has guns made at the Osaka
arsenal from Krupp patterns of the 1889
type, as well as quick-firing mountain guns
of the same type and date. The calibre is
2.95 inches, weight of gun 3,450 pounds
behind the teams, and it fires a shell of I3}<j
pounds and has a range of 6,783 yards with
igniting fuses and ammunition. With fixed
ammunition the extreme range is 9,295 yards
and the fuse is said to burn up to a range of
8,749 yards. The shield is of steel, .118 inch
thick. It extends over the wheels and has a
hinged portion under the axle-tree. The
mountain gun takes the same ammunition
as the field gun, and has a range of 5,500
yards. New heavy guns of 10 centimetres,
and 12-centimetre howitzers, with 24-centi-
metre and 28-centimetre coast defence guns,
are also in use. The i o-centimetre gun has
a weight of 5,200 pounds behind a team of
eight horses; and its initial velocity is 1,770
f. s., with a range of 10,396 yards. It fires a
40-pound projectile, and carries a shield
similar to that of the field gun. The Japa-
nese also use the Hotchkiss gun, taking .256-
inch ammunition, the same as the infantry
rifle; and the gun is sighted up to 2,187 yards.
It has an all-round traverse and tripod
mounting, its chief defect being that it weighs
lietween 70 and 100 pounds including tripod.
The field service dress of the whole army is
khaki, cloth in winter and linen in summer,
while the cap is somewhat after the Russian
pattern. The cap is gravely defective as a
protection from the torrid heat of the Japa-
nese summer, to which many soldiers succumb
on the march. The chief military arsenals
are at Tokyo and Osaka, the first manufac-
turing small arms with ammunition therefor,
and the Osaka works dealing with gims and
their ammunition. Most of the arm)' cloth
is made at the Government woollen mill
near Tokyo, the uniforms being made up
regimentally.
Military education in Japan, as already
indicated, is based on the German model,
with district preparatory schools, central
preparatory school, officers' school and mili-
tary staff college, as well as the Toyama
Tactical School, the Cavalry School, and
various schools for artillerj' and engineering.
The education given is thorough and the
discipline very strict. The rules for promo-
tion of military officers in Japan are as follows,
the limit being reduced one-half in time of
war; two years each from sub-lieutenant to
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
51
lieutenant, and to a captaincy two years
more, with an additional four years for a
major and three more years for a lieutenant-
colonel, three years to a colonel and three
more to the rank of major-general, and three
years again to the rank of lieutenant-general,
promotion to the rank of general and marshal
being left to the will of the Emperor, 'ilie
age limit for officers on active service is 45
for a sub-lieutenant and lieutenant, 48 for a
caiitain, 50 for a major, 53 for lieutenant-
colonel, 55 for a colonel, 58 for a major-
general, 62 for a lieutenant-general, and 65
for a general, there being no limit of age for
a marshal. At present there are in the
Japanese army 65 generals and officers rank-
ing as such, 581 field officers and those of
equal rank, 1,429 company officers of the
highest rank, non-commissioned officers of
highest rank, 546, ordinary non-commis-
sioned officers, 3,103. The total number of
army officers is about 5,524, with some 2,835
civilian officers.
Aviation was not introduced into the
Japanese army until 191 1 when two native
officers trained in France returned to organise
an air service. By 19 12 two more officers
were trained, and three others in 1913. Since
then this service has seen much greater
development. A training ground was estab-
lished at Tokorozaw'a near Tokyo, where
some ten flight officers are graduated every
year. The army now possesses 20 aeroplanes
and one airship. So far no great skill in air
navigation or in the handling of planes has
been displayed by the Japanese; while the
number of victims to disaster in comparison
to the number of officers is probably larger
than in any other country, or army. This
may be due largely to the prevailing care-
lessness that is evident among nearly all
Japanese with regard to machinery; and the
numerous air accidents in Japan might
doubtless be considerably reduced by more
expert and responsible engineers. One can
not help feeling that many of these air dis-
asters are due to not examining the parts of
the machine with sufficient care before as-
cending. The machines thus far preferred
are Morris-Farman biplanes and Newbolt
monoplanes, which arc rather out of date
beside the magnificent machines used in
Europe. The motors at best do not develop
a horsepower above 75, and by the Japanese
themselves they are held largely responsiljle
for the many tragic accidents that have
occurred. Occasional visits from expert
American aviators have shown the Japanese
how far behind they yet are in the science of
air navigation, and lent much impetus to
the development of a better army air service.
Consequently in 1916 the Government
appropriated some 600,000 yen as against
the 400,000 yen of the preceding year for
improvement of aviation in the army, with
orders for the construction of forty more
machines. Motors of 150 horsepower are
to be imported from Europe, and others after
the same model constructed at home. The
solitary airship possessed by the Japanese
army is of no great importance, having a
horsepower of 300 and a speed of only twenty
miles. The Japanese aviation battalion now
has forty trained officers; and the service
rendered by them during the siege of Tsingtau
as well as during army manoeuvres has
proved quite effective.
AR.MY FINANCE
J,\p.\N is a country where army expenditure
centres on equipment rather than on per-
sonnel. Since 19 10 the monthly allowance
to soldiers has been increased to i .95 yen for
first-class privates, and 1.56 for other ranks
of infantry. An extra allowance of from 15
to 20 sen a month is given for stationery.
Privates are not permitted to receive money
from home. As to food, the private soldier
is allowed l quart of rice a day, with from
7 to 1 1 sen a day for relishes, the money
allowance being increased to 15 sen in the
colonies and 25 sen in the China garrisons.
The infantry soldier is allowed from 27 to 34
yen a year for clothes; the cavalry soldier
from 31 to 37 yen; artillery 30 to 36 yen;
engineers from 28 to 34 yen, and the commis-
sariat from 29 to 35 yen. Other allowances
are given for camping utensils and barracks
necessities. The cavalry are allowed fodder
in hay and barley at so much a month, with
so much for shoeing and clipping.
Army expenditure is divided into ordinary
and extraordinary, all drawn from the
national treasury. The ordinary expenditure
includes the annual outlay of the War Depart-
ment and of the various corps, while extraor-
dinary expenses include outlays on con-
struction of barracks and batteries, on quell"
ing disturbances, on medical aid for sick and
wounded, manufacture of weapons and other
equipment, as well as transport of troops and
arms. The accompanying table will indicate
the amount Japan has spent on her army
since 1878 at intervals of five years.
It is clear from the above that the military
expenses of Japan have been increasing
vastly and that it must tax the country to
its utmost to sustain such outlay on unpro-
ductive enterprise. It is indeed remarkable
that so large a proportion of the nation's
financial resources should be concentrated
on development of forces and armaments in
a country whose territory is practically
unassailable, not only by any .single enemy
but by any reasonable combination of ene-
mies. Such sustained outlay is undoubtedly
having an unfavourable effect on the inter-
nal development of the country, and there is
naturally a strong reaction against the heavy
taxation essential to the maintenance of so
enormous an expenditure. But the army and
navy are the only two departments of public
service where efficiency has been c|uite
attained; and even there it could not have
been attained without a tremendous sacrifice.
Japan is now sufficiently defended to deter
any power except, perhaps, England and
America, from attacking her in her own
waters; while her two fighting services com-
bined with her geographical position assure
her a predominant position in the Far East.
In weight of numbers, excellence of organi-
sation, adequacy of armament, skill of per-
sonnel, knowledge of war science, and
splendour of fighting spirit Japan ranks with
the best that any fighting nation can com-
mand. She believes that to maintain her
supremacy in Oriental waters, to command
the wholesome respect of the great powers
of the world, and watch over the destinies
of China a formidable army and navy are
essential; and toward this end Japan will
bend her main energies for some years to
come.
Urdinwry
E.XTR.\ORDIXARY
Total
Ye.\r
Yen
Yen-
Yen-
1878
6,409,000
220,740
6,629,740
1883
10,764,590
771,190
11.535.780
1888
11,842,620
,565,920
12,408,540
i«93
12,419,830
2,301,400
14,721,230
1898
33.577.310
i6,973.«90
52,551,200
1903
39,169,670
10,272,390
49,442,060
1908
70,209,780
37,206,990
107,416,770
191,^
80,175,381
23,950,008
104,125,389
1918
7*^.855.757
15.457.357
94.313. 1 14
=fi«£.^
TORPEDO-BOAT DESTROYER " KASHIWA, ' OF THE MODERN JAPANESE TYPE
V. The Navy
The Navy of Ancient Times^Birth of the Imperial Japanese Navy— The New
Navy in War — Japan's Navy To-day— Finance — Education
AND Personnel— The Imperial Dockyards
IN the art of navigation and maritime
prowess the people who conquered and
settled upon the islands of Nippon seem
to have been remarkably skilled for so remote
a period. Allowing that the Yamato race
arrived in the archipelago six hundred years
before the Christian era, it must have reached
the islands in ships capable of resisting the
savage hordes that probably opposed the
landing of the strangers; and thus it is clear
that from the beginning of Japanese history,
or tradition, the art of navigation and sea
warfare was sufficiently developed to allow
of transportation of troops from the continent
and their forcing an entrance to the neigh-
bouring islands. According to the most
ancient records of Japan navigation showed
considerable progress between the years
B. c. 97 and 30, when troops were despatched
to Korea to assist those of the warring king-
doms there who were friendly to Japan; and
this was the beginning of Japan's influence
in the peninsula, leading to what was tanta-
mount to a protectorate later. During the
various incipient insurrections among the
savage tribes whom the Yamato brought
under their sway, especially the virile Kumaso
who inhabited Kyushu and caused an upris-
ing in 71 A. D., warships were used with
telling effect; and in a subsequent rebellion
in 200 A. D. the Emperor Chuai led a naval
expedition to Chikuzen. The emperor died
during the campaign; and the Empress
Jingo, having discovered that the rebels were
aided by kindred from Korea, went herself
on an expedition to that country to cut off
assistance to the rebels and to carry out
punitive operations. In the year 310 A. D.
we find that the art of navigation had so far
developed in Yamato that it was necessary
to appoint maritime officials in various cen-
tres and Japanese sails were seen in all the
waters of the Far East. In 655 .\. D. a naval
expedition subdued the Island of Oshima.
During the prolonged internecine strife of
the Middle Ages between the Taira and the
Minamoto clans, naval engagements were
frequent, the most notable being the great
sea fight at Dannoura in 1185. The military
government established by Yoritomo at
Kamakura in the twelfth century had a
powerfid navy for that time, and the various
feudal lords were not slow to imitate the
shogun in their prowess at sea. When Kublai
Khan invaded Japan with his Mongol Armada
in the thirteenth century he found a resistless
maritime force waiting to oppose his landing,
and he was driven back to sea, where a furi-
ous gale completed his destruction. The sea
power of Japan thenceforth expanded rap-
idly, both internally and externally, until
its development was checked and finally
arrested as a consequence of the admission
of foreigners to Japan. But there is no doubt
that the gradual internal consolidation of the
Empire at the beginning was largely the work
of an efficient sea power.
With the opening of a route from Europe
by way of the Cape of Good Hope foreign
navigators began to make their way to Japan,
encouraged by opportunities of trade with a
people not yet aware of the values of the main
items of barter and trade. From these Euro-
pean seamen Japan learned something of the
outside world and how to come in contact with
it. During the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies the art of nav'igation in Japan had so
developed that junks of three masts were
built, a special government department was
organised for the regulation of merchant
marine, and vessels engaging in foreign trade
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
53
had to have a special license. In the days of
Hideyoshi vessels of Japan were found in
the ports of China, Siam, India, and even
across the Pacific in Mexico. Between the
years 1604 and 1616 the number of licenses
given to vessels trading abroad was over
two hundred. Owing to the increasing
danger of complications with foreign coun-
tries, however, emphasised by suspicions
circulated by rivals in trade, the Shogun
lyemitsu in the year 1636 placed an embargo
on all communications with foreign lands, and
the building of seagoing ships was prohibited.
From this time Japan's naval power began to
decline. With the expulsion of foreigners
from Japan intercourse by sea was cut off"
save for the limited privileges accorded the
Dutch at Nagasaki under the most humil-
iating conditions, and navigation abroad was
not reopened until Commodore Perry broke
down the walls of seclusion in 1853.
BIRTH OF THE IMPERIAL NAVY
With the reopening of Japan to foreign
intercourse the necessity of possessing a
strong naval force was keenly felt by the
nation. The ease with which the so-called
"black ships" of the stranger accomplished
their mission in the presence of the helpless
native war-junks showed the Japanese that
the shogunate was now the victim of its own
policy, and that so inefficient a government
should be replaced by one more in harmony
with the expanding needs and relations of
the Empire. The people of Japan did not
require much persuading as to the need of
reviving the navy. It was soon seen that
the old sea power suppressed during the
Tokugawa regime was not dead but sleeping.
The Dutch Government suggested the estab-
lishment of a navy on the European model.
A naval school was opened at Nagasaki in
1855, with Dutch instructors; and not long
afterward a shipyard and iron works were
opened at the same port, the beginning of
the present great establishment known as the
Mitsu Bishi Dockyard, the greatest ship-
building works in the Empire. Another
naval school was established at Yedo where
graduates of the Nagasaki institution were
brought for higher studies and further naval
training, the Kanko Maru, a present from the
Dutch Government, being the first training
ship. The nucleus of a navy was created
by gifts from various countries and by pur-
chases from the United States and Europe,
one of the gifts being a warship from Queen
Victoria. The Yedo Government now be-
gan to despatch students to Europe to pursue
naval studies, and the feudal lords did
likewise. A naval dockyard was opened
at Yokosuka for the promotion of an im-
perial navy.
ADMIR.'^L TOGO, J.\PAN S GREAT NAVAL HERO
It must soon have become evident to the
shogun's government, however, that its
efforts were rather belated ; for when a British
squadron was obliged to carry out a punitive
bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 and the
comliined fleets of England, America, France,
and Holland had to bombard the forts at
Shimonoseki in the following year, there was
no sea power capable of offering practical
resistance. In the years immediately follow-
ing these episodes naval preparations were
hastened with great expedition, officers being
invited from Europe to advise and instruct
the infant navy, among whom was the late
Admiral Sir Richard Tracey,, who, though
he had as a young commander taken part
in the operations at Kagoshima, was subse-
quently called upon to lay the foundations
of the new Japanese navy. When the sho-
gunate was finally overthrown in 1867 the
young navy of Japan passed into the hands
of the Emperor as the commander-in-chief
of all the forces of the Empire.
The Restoration of Imperial Rule was not
accomplished, however, without the aid of
the navy, when it had a chance to show
something of its mettle. In the various con-
flicts that ensued, leading eventually to the
triumph of the imperial cause, the bulk of the
feudal na\'y sided with the shogunate party;
and under Commander Enomoto, one of the
young officers trained in Holland, it made a
gallant Ijut vain resistance against the
superior forces of the Empire. Baffled in the
south, Enomoto retired with his fleet to the
north, where the rebels still held out at
Hokodatc. There, after some bold fighting,
he was forced to surrender to the imperial
fleet, the first triumph of the new-bom navy.
The rebel ships were at once incorporated
into the navy of the nation, and Enomoto
and his men, after some unnecessary hard-
ships, were pardoned and ultimately absorbed
into the imperial service. Enomoto himself
subsequently became Admiral of the Fleet,
Minister to Russia, Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and finally Prime Minister.
Thus when the wars of the Restoration
were over and the imperial forces supreme
on land and sea, a fleet of but nine small
vessels, mere gunboats, none of which was
over one thousand tons, was all the navy
Japan possessed. The dockyards that had
been established turned out only wooden
vessels. It was not until 1887 that Japan
launched her first iron ship, most of the fleet
up to that time having been purchased abroad.
The nation now devoted itself with energy
and determination to the organisation and
evolution of an efficient navy. What the
nascent dockyards and arsenals could not
as yet supply in the way of ships and arma-
ment continued to be purchased from Europe ;
while with amazing application, intelligence,
and insight the Japanese set themselves to
learn the best uses of their new naval equip-
ment. Nor did they make the mistake of
supposing that the more important factor in
naval efficiency was materiel, realising from
the start that naval warfare is mainly an
affair of personnel, a truth which those who
have since had the misfortune to challenge
Japan on land and sea, have never learned.
Not content with acquiring and mastering
Western knowledge of the forces of nature,
Japan engaged officers of fine personality
and efficiency from England to put her bud-
ding naval personnel into fighting trim.
In addition to the services of Admiral Tracey,
already mentioned, Admiral Douglas was
selected to lead a naval mission to Japan,
consisting mainly of British naval officers,
to instruct the Japanese navy, the leader of
the mission becoming director of the Imperial
Naval College from 1873 to 1875. Later
Rear-Admiral Ingles came as naval adviser
to the Japanese Government, while Dr.
William Anderson laid the foundations of
naval medical education in Japan.
It is interesting to note what rapid evolu-
tion characterised Japan's naval progress
during the years it was under British advise-
ment. Between the years 1870 and 1880
various uprisings marked the political prog-
ress of Japan: notably the Saga rebellion in
1874, the attack by Korea in 1875, the Hagi
disaffection and the Satsuma Rebellion in
1876, in all of which the imperial navy had
to carry out punitive operations of some
sort, and this it did so effectively as to prove
its remarkable development. The warship
54
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
DISTINGUISHED NAVAL OFFICERS
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Admiral Saneyuki Akiyama, a Distinguished Naval Tactician — Admiral Baron H. Shimamura, Chief of
the Naval General Staff — Vice-Admiral Isamu Takeshita, Member of the Naval General Staff and Instructor at the Naval College.
(Lower Row) Vice-Admiral Baron RoKURO Yashiro, Fonnerh' Minister of Marine, now Commander of the Second Battle Squadron
— Vice-Admiral Tetsutaro Sato, President of the Naval College — Vice-Admiral Takeshi Takarabe, Member of the Board of
Admirals and Commander of the Maizuru Naval Station
Jungei was launched from the Yokosuka
navy yard in 1876, 1,450 tons, being
considerably larger than the Seiki of the
previous year which was only 897 tons. The
latter was the first Japanese-built ship to
visit Europe, making the trip in 1878. But
by 1876 Japanese yards were capable of
repairing their own ships without foreign
assistance. To promote more rapid naval
development three ships were ordered from
England in 1878, the old Fuso, 3,777 tons,
the old Kongo, and Hiyei, 2,248 tons each.
In 1884 the Admiralty Station was removed
to Yokosuka, and two more were established,
one at Kure and one at Sasebo, in 1889. In
1892 the Government issued a new- naval
programme, formulated under imperial re-
script, to which the Emperor contributed
from the privy purse the sum of 300,000 yen
for six years, government officers and high
officials following the Imperial example by
giving ten per cent of their salaries, and there
were liberal private contributions as well.
Thus the infant navy of Japan grew in
materiel and personnel under the assistance
and advice of British friends until at the time
of its first test, in the war with China in
1894, the aggregate tonnage was 57,600,
representing 28 ships and 24 torpedo boats,
the total outlay on naval repletion up to that
time having been about 240,000,000 yen.
THE NEW NAVY IN WAR
In the war with China, her first naval
engagement of any importance in modem
times, Japan showed that during the short
space of forty years she was able to evolve a
navy capable of efficiently performing every
duty devolving upon it. She proved to the
world not only the superb prowess and
endurance of her fighting sons but also how
thoroughly her leaders had understood and
assimilated the eternal principles which make
for sea power. It seems to have been seen
by Japan from the beginning that the success
of her entire operations against China de-
pended on keeping the sea clear for trans-
portation of her troops, a point China failed
to perceive, if she saw it at all, until it was too
late. With Japan's destruction of the
Chinese fleet the command of the sea was
thenceforth hers and she was able to keep
sufficient forces under her command to carry
everything before her in Manchuria. Japan
came out of the war with seventeen more
ships added to her navj-. The terms of peace
with China contained the germs of the next
war, for they gave Japan a position in Korea
and China that Russia was certain to chal-
lenge. Japan clearly saw this, and after the
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
55
■■jamtmmmm^mtm*
4^ :
llJ
■-
ttT^'t^^^'^'^tBPI
-1 •• ^
^^■^H^^^— 1 ( ^^^^
THE "kIRISHIMA," A BATTLE CRUISER OF THE MODERN JAPANESE TYPE
war with China, and her subsequent com-
pulsory withdrawal from Port Arthur, she
set about acquiring a navy that even any
Western power might hesitate to provoke.
New naval stations were established, new
arsenals opened, new ordnance works built,
new powder factories set up, and powerful
fighting units gradually added to the fleet,
many of which were launched from home
yards. The whole navy system was reor-
ganised on a greatly improved scale, and
stricter attention was devoted to education
and personnel. A squadron of first-class
battleships was added to the armoured
cruisers that had beaten China. When the
anticipated crisis came in 1904 and war with
Russia was imminent, Japan found herself
with a total tonnage of 258,000, of which at
least 233,876 tons represented ships above the
destroyer class ; and she came out of the war,
notwithstanding important losses, with a
total tonnage of 410,000, having taken
twelve battleships and cruisers beside numer-
ous small craft from her opponent. In that
war Russia was wholly outwitted by Japanese
strategy; for she divided her naval forces
between Port Arthur and Vladivostock,
making no intelligent effort to prevent
Japan's command of the sea, thus leaving
the latter with her fleet intact to meet the
main naval forces of Russia.
japan's navy to-day
Since the war with Russia Japan has
relaxed none of her efforts for the evolution
of a navy adequate to her needs and worthy
of the Empire. The twelve battleships and
cruisers captured from Russia were in them-
selves a valuable addition to her fleet, repre-
senting, as they did, an extra 103,500 tons or
so. Three of these cruisers were subse-
quently returned to Russia during the Euro-
pean war for a consideration of 14,500,000
yen. After the war with Russia great im-
provements were made in the nation's ship-
building capacity, and Japan was soon able
to construct and equip all sizes and kinds of
warships at home; so that in any future war
her strategy will not be hampered by con-
sideration of the impossibility of obtaining
reinforcements during its continuance. Ja-
pan's idea has been to assure herself of com-
petence to encounter successfully any force
that any foreign State, with the exception of
England, may send against her in Oriental
waters; and judging by the performance of
the Baltic fleet, as well as the round-the-
world cruise of the American navy, Japan
assumes that a Western power is able to send
its whole fleet into the Orient. The ambition
to have a fleet of heavy fighting ships aggre-
gating over 500,000 tons has been cherished
by Japan for some time. In 1915 the Eight-
,vvi« ^"^^
THE " HYUGA," TYPE OF MODERN JAPANESE BATTLESHIP
56
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
four programme was formally adopted in the
Imperial Diet; which means that Japan will
eventually have three squadrons consisting
of eight dreadnoughts and four battle-
cruisers each, with attendant flotillas, the
whole to cost, omitting the flotillas, about
310,000,000 yen, and to be complete by 1924.
Into this programme enter the first-line-of-
battle units, Fuso and Yamashiro, recently
completed and now in commission, together
with the sister ships Hyuga, Isi', and Nagato
in course of construction. The seven-year
programme includes two battle-cruisers to
replace the Hiyei and Kongo which in that
time will have to fall back to the second
line; and eleven light cruisers, with thirty-
two destroyers and sixteen submarines.
Owing to financial considerations Japan's
dreadnoughts have had to be separated by as
many as four years in date of launching, so
that the)^ may not be up-to-date in design
after the close of the European war, as it has
been found impossible to utilise the lessons
of that struggle in their construction. The
four new dreadnoughts to be launched during
the next four years will be more favourably
situated in this respect, and will have a main
armament considerably in advance of the
first four of the squadron unit. It may be
noted here with interest that the battleship
Hyuga is said to be an entirely Japanese
design and quite unlike anything of its class
in the British or other fleets, the most impor-
tant features being an extreme steadiness
favouring efficient gunnery, and an original
axial emplacement for her 10 14-inch guns,
as well as increased capacity for storage of
oil side by side with coal. Her displacement
is 30,500 tons; length, 683 feet; water line,
630 feet; beam, 94 feet; draught, 28 feet;
speed, 23 knots; main armament 10 14-inch
guns; secondary armament, 20 6-inch guns.
Recently the Japanese have been making
comparisons with regard to probable objec-
tives, with the following results in the year
1918: United States: 17 first-Une-of-battle
ships; 9 light cruisers; 64 destroyers, and
62 submarines. Russia: 14 first-Une-of-
battle ships; 14 Ught cruisers; 67 destroyers,
and 63 submarines. Japan has 8 first-line-
of -battle ships; 3 light cruisers; 22 destroy-
ers, and 8 submarines. But this does not
adequately express Japan's main fighting
strength, as the accompanying table will
indicate; while the American naval pro-
gramme during the European war has com-
pletely changed her naval status.
In addition to the above Japan has 46
third-class torpedo-boat destroyers most of
which are about 381 tons displacement,
having a speed of from 29 to 30 knots and
nearly all with two torpedo tubes, all built
between 1898 and 19 10. Of first-class tor-
The Imperial Fleet
Battleships
Name
z
w
Eh
»
&•
a
s-
z
a
►J
Where
Launched
Horse-
Power
s-
0
z
Q
M
a
00
a
CO
"It,
Id
as
u
Z
*—*
a
0
s
PS
<
Main
Armament
(Inches)
Shikishima
1-1,580
14.765
15.362
12,700
15.950
16,400
19.350
19,800
20,800
20,800
30,600
30,600
400
400
400
374
420
425
482
482
479
479
673
673
England, 1S98. .
England, 1899. .
England, 1900. .
America, 1900. .
England, 1905. .
England, 1905. .
Yokosuka, 1906.
Kur6, 1907
Yokosuka, :9io
Kure, 191 1
Kure, 1914
Yokosuka, 1915.
14.500
15.207
15,207
16,000
16,000
15,600
17.300
24,000
25,000
25,000
40,000
40,000
18
18
18
18
18
18
18.6
20
20.5
20.5
22
22
5
4
4
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
12
12
12(4): 6(14)
12(4): 6(14)
12(4): 6(14)
12 ( 4): 6(12)
12 ( 4): 10 ( 4)
12 ( 4): 10 ( 4)
12 ( 4): ID (12)
12 ( 4): 10 (12)
12 (12): 6 (10)
12(12): 6(10)
14 (12): 6 (16)
14(12): 6(16)
Mikasa
Hizen
Katori
Kashima
Satsunia
Aki .
Kawachi
Settsu
Fuso
Yamashiro
Battle-Cruisers
Ikoma . . .
Kurama. .
Ibuki
Hiyei. . . .
Kongo. . .
Kirishima
Haruna. .
13,750
440
14,600
450
14,600
450
27,500
704
27,500
704
27,500
704
27,500
704
Kure, 1906
Yokosuka, 1911
Kure, 1911
Yokosuka, 19 12
England, 1912. .
Nagasaki, 19 13
Kobe, 1913
20,500
20
5
7
22,500
21
5
7
24,000
22
5
7
64,000
25
8
64,000
25
8
. . . .
64,000
27-5
8
64,000
275
8
12 ( 4):
12 ( 4):
12 ( 4):
14 ( 8):
14 ( 8):
14 ( 8):
14 ( 8):
(12)
( 8)
(8)
(l6)
(16)
(16)
(16)
First-class Cruisers
Asama. .
Tokiwa .
Yakumo
Azuma. .
Iwate. . .
Izumo . .
Kasuga .
Nisshin .
Aso
9,^&5
408
9,885
408
9,735
407
9,426
431
9,826
400
9,826
400
7,700
344
7,700
344
7,800
443
England, 1898.
England, 1898.
Germany, 1899
France, 1899. .
England, 19 10
England, 1899.
Italy, 1902 ....
Italy, 1903. . ,
France, 1900.
18,248
20. I
5
7
8 ( 4)
18,248
20
5
7
8 ( 4)-
15,500
20
5
7
8( 4):
16,600
20
5
6
8( 4):
14,700
20
4
7
8( 4):
14,700
20
4
7
8( 4):
14,696
20
4
6
10 ( I):
14,696
20
4
6
8( 4):
17,000
21
2
3
8( 2):
6( 6)
6( 6)
6(12)
6(12)
6(14)
6(14)
8(2):
6(14)
6(14)
6( 8)
Second-class Cruisers
Kasagi . . .
Chitose. .
Tsugaru . .
Tone
Chikuma .
Hirado. . .
Suma . . . .
Akashi . . ,
Niitaka . .
Tsushima
Otowa. . .
Yahagi. . .
5.503
374
4-992
395
6,630
413
4,100
400
4,950
4.950
2,700
2,800
295
3,420
235
3.420
235
3.000
341
4.950
America, 189!
America, 189I
Russia, 1899.
Sasebo, 1907 .
Sasebo, 1911 .
Kob^, 19 1 1..
Yokosuka, 1895.
Yokosuka, 1897
Yokosuka, 1902
Kur^, 1902
Yokosuka, 1903
Nagasaki, 1911 .
17,235
22.7
4
4
15.714
22.5
4
4
11,600
20
6
3
15,000
23
3
22,500
22,500
8,500
26
26
20
2
2
8,500
20
2
2
9.400
20
2
9,400
20
2
10,000
20
22,500
26
( 2)
( 2)
( 8) (Sold)
(12)
( 8)
( 8)
( 2)
( 2)
( 6)
( 6)
( 2)
( 8)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
57
The Imperial Fleet— (Continued)
First-class Coast Defence Boats
Fuji .
I wain
Suwo
12,649
374
13.516
367
12,674
401
England, 1896.
Russia, 1902 . .
Russia, 1900. . .
13,678
16,500
14.500
18
19
12 ( 4)
12 ( 4)
6 (10)
8 ( 6)
(Sold)
0(4): 6 (10)
(Sold)
Second-class Coast Defence Boats
Okinoshima .
Itsukushima
Hashidat^ . .
Chiyoda. . . .
Akitsusliima
Manshu. . . .
Matsuye. . .
Karasaki. . .
Yamato . . . .
Musashi ....
Komabashi .
4,126
4.278
4,278
2.439
3. 112
3.916
2.550
10,500
1.502
1.502
1.230
295
295
206
206
Russia, 1896. . . .
France, 1889. . .
Yokosuka, 1891.
England, 1890. .
Yokosuka, 1892.
Austria, 1901 . . .
1898..
England, 1896. .
Onohama, 1885.
Yokosuka, 1886.
Sasebo, 1913. . .
6,000
5.400
5.400
5.6/8
8,516
5.000
1,500
2,300
1,622
1,622
1,824
16
16
16
17
19
18
13
13
ID
2
2
4
3
Wood
Wood
10 (3)
12 (6)
12 (6)
4 (7)
6 (4)
3 (2)
3 (I)
3 (4)
3 (4)
First-class Gunboats
Chihaya
Mogami
Yodo . . .
1.263
273
1,350
316
1.250
300
Yokosuka, 1900
Nagasaki, igo8 .
Kobe, 1907
6,000
21
5
8,000
23
2
6,500
22
2
4 (7)
4 (7)
4 (7)
Second-class Gunboats
Uji....
Sumida.
Fushimi
Toba . . .
Saga. . .
620
180
126
180
250
785
Kure, 1903. . . .
England, 1903.
England, 1906 .
Sasebo, 191 1 . .
Sasebo, 1912 . .
1,000
680
800
800
1,600
13
13
13
15
15
(4)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(I)
First-class Torpedo-boat Destroyers
1 . 1 50
1 . 1 50
1910. . .
35
35
4
4
4 (7)
4 (7)
Yamakaze
T Cl T T .
"
Second-class Tor pedo-boat Destroyers
Name
Sakura . . .
Tachibana
Matsu. . . .
Kashiwa . .
Kaba
Sasaki ....
Kusunoki .
Ume
Katsura. .
Kayede . . .
Sugi
Kiri
Urakaz^ . .
Displace-
ment
Launched
(Tons)
600
1911
600
1913
655
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
665
1915
955
1915
pedo boats the imperial navy has 16, most of
which have a displacement of 152 tons, and
all built between 1899 and 1904, together with
10 second-class torpedo boats ranging from
70 to 100 tons, and 15 submarines.
The imperial fleet as organised at present
is divided into three sections, or fleets,
the first being stationed at Yokosuka,
the second at Kur^, and the third at
Sasebo, the first fleet consisting of four
squadrons, the second of three, and the third
of three, each squadron having its flagship
and from three to four first-line-of-battle
shipt- with attendant flotillas.
The Japanese navy did not begin to take
up aviation until 1912 when some officers
returned from a study of the science in
France, after which a training ground was
opened at Oppama near Yokosuka. A naval
aviation corps was organised in 1916, and
the sum of 630,000 yen appropriated for
equipment. At present the navy possesses
some thirty flight officers, though so far no
very great progress has been achieved or skill
displayed, accidents being far too numerous,
owing to lack of care on the part of engineers
and the inexperience of aeronauts. The
subject will be found more fully treated in
the article on Japan's army elsewhere in this
volume.
FINANCE
There is nothing very special to be said
about naval finance, except to show what
Japan has expended on naval repletion and
expansion since the year 1871, which will
prove that her naval outlay has proceeded at
a greater rate than that of any other naval
power, reduction being marked in any year
only by the necessities of war. According
to her eight-four programme, already men-
tioned, Japan proposes to lay out on naval
expansion during the next seven years some
310,000,000 yen; but as she is following the
policy of scrapping all ships that reach the
stage of obsolescence, probably a much
greater sum will have to be expended. Japan
is bent on a naval programme of utmost
preparedness without provocation or vindic-
tiveness. She desires for the most part to
build her ships in her own yards, though she
can not yet do so as cheaply as she can pur-
chase them in Britain, but she is convinced
that her builders need to be kept up to the
utmost mark of efficiency in steady practice,
and she orders ships abroad only for the sake
of keeping foreign models well in evidence
among her designers. (See table next page.)
education and personnel
For the educatiort of her naval officers
Japan has a fine array of schools, even to a
Paymasters' College, which work other na-
tions usually leave to extraneous institutions.
The chief educational establishments are the
Naval Staff College in Tokyo, for completing
the training of her specialists, the Naval
Engineering College at Yokosuka, the Naval
Cadets' School at Etajima, the Naval Pay-
masters' College and the Naval Medical Col-
lege in Tokyo. There are torpedo and gun-
nery schools also at Yokosuka as w-ell as a
school for the training of na\-al mechanics and
machinists. The highest institution is the
Naval Staff College where men are trained
for staff officers and future commanders.
The entrants must be either lieutenants who
have finished their course at the gunnery,
torpedo, or navigation schools, or officers who
have served two whole years at sea. Appli-
58
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
cants have to undergo a stiff examination
before they can be admitted to the courses
in the Staff College. There is in the same
institution a special course divided into navi-
gation and engineering subjects. The en-
trants to the Naval Medical College are grad-
uates of some recognised medical college,
and their course of special training for the
navy lasts about six months. Senior surgeons
are selected for a year's post-graduate work at
this college after having served some years in
ships. The Paymasters' College admits stu-
dents by examination from the national
middle schools, and their training lasts three-
years and four months. Special students may
be admitted for a six months' course pro-
vided they are graduates of some higher
school or university recognised by the naval
authorities. Senior officers in the accounting
department are selected every year for a
year of special study at this college in prep-
aration for staff paymasters and specialists.
Naval Expenditure
Disbursements
ToT.AL State
Outlay
Percent-
age OF
Year
Ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
Total to
State
Outlay
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1871
886,856.16
1,995,509-13
2,141,681.49
2,622,439.26
886,856.16
19,235,158
0.461
1872
1,995,509.13
57,730,025
0.346
1873
1874
2,141,681.49
62,678,601
0.342
167,004.42
2,789.443-68
82,269,528
0.339
1875
5,342,515.00
1,627,424.00
6,969.939-00
66,134,772
0.604
1876
2,468,975.92
985,783-69
3.454,759-61
59,308,956
0-583
1877
2,235,720.91
1,477,436-47
3,713,157-39
48,428,324
0.767
1878
2,817,453-65
16,494.74
2,833,947.40
60,941,336
0.465
1879
2,904,347-96
237,326.15
3,141,674.11
60,317,578
0.521
1880
3,024,123.86
391,747.91
3,415,871.78
63,140,897
o.,54i
1881
2,851,576.50
256,939-40
3,108,515.90
71,460,321
0-435
1882
3,249,675.81
396,327.90
3,646,003.71
73,480,667
0.496
1883
3,171,466.15
3,064,032.14
6,236,498.29
83,106,859
0.750
1884
3,324,782.31
4,186,154.47
7,510,936.78
76,663,108
0.980
1885
2,878,204.67
2,208,171.36
5,086,376.03
61,115.313
0.832
1886
4,731.959-47
4,220,408.31
8,952,367-78
83,223,960
1.076
1887
4,941,523-77
5,954,845.19
10,896,368.96
79,453,036
1-371
1888
5,468,551.95
4,340,908.59
9,809,460.55
81,504,024
1.203
1889
5,277.331,56
4,045,825.71
9,232,157.27
79,713,671
1.170
1890
5,786,381.36
4,372,923.28
10,159,304.65
82,125,403
1-237
1891
5,412,490.61
4,089,200.79
9,501,691.40
83,555.891
I-I37
1892
5,347,185.88
3.785.919-72
9,133,105-60
76,734,740
1.190
1893
5,141,475-39
2,959,445-77
8,100,921.16
84,581,872
0.958
1894
4.573.605-46
5,679,549-19
10,253,154.66
78,128,643
1.312
1895
4,913,243.95
8,607,025.18
13,520,269.13
85.317,179
1-585
1896
7,351,329-92
12,659,428.00
20,005,757.92
168,856,509
1. 190
1897
9,543,888.99
40,850,645.21
50,.394.534-20
223,678,844
2.253
1898
11,191,474.86
47,338,427.03
58,529,901.89
219,757,569
2.663
1899
14,577,114-24
47,084,495.87
61,661,610.11
254.165.538
2.426
1900
16,911,000.08
41,363,895.02
58,274,895.10
292,750,059
1.990
1901
19,484,952.74
24,494,374-85
43,979.327-60
266,856,824
1.648
1902
21,063,345.00
15,262,843.29
36,326,188.29
289,226,626
1.256
1903
21,530,237.00
14,587,619.95
36,117,856.95
249,596,953
1-447
1904
8,132,720.08
12,480,498.67
20,613,218.76
277,055,682
0-744
1905
12,332.139-14
11,079,801.72
23,411,940.86
420,731,068
0-556
1906
27,991,349-97
33,885,320.09
61,876,670.07
464,275,583
1-333
1907
31,292,935.91
40.979.383-87
72,272,319.78
602,400,959
1.200
1908
34,347,699.64
37,230,748.13
71,578,447.77
626,788,419
1.141
1909
35,143,415.80
35,902,959-24
71,046,374.10
582,893,635
1-333
1910
38,359,312.42
45,481,219.75
83,840,532.17
569,124,027
1-473
1911
40,208,251.47
60,255,366.29
100,463,617.76
585.374.613
1.721
1912
41,533,600.57
53,951,538.60
95,485,139.17
593.596,444
1.609
1913
38,885,701.72
57,559,890.04
96,445,591-76
573,633,925
1.681
1914
30,398,898.97
52,861,106.66
83,260,005.64
648,420,409
1.284
1915
43,112,320.00
52,376,637.00
95,488,957-00
602,610,719
1-449
1916
46,496,165.00
55,747.761-00
102,243,926.00
602,262,972
1.699
gyashirazu cliff, karenko district,
FORMOSA
To some the Japanese navy may appear
to be overstaffed as compared with the
British and other navies. The British fleet
with its more than 2,500,000 of tonnage has
scarcely more than 3,000 officers, while the
Japanese fleet with a little over half a million
tons has nearly the same number of officers.
The reason is that Japan aims always to have
sufficient officers ready on active service to
fill any complement on emergency; and thus
while the British navy has about 1.35 officers
per ton the Japanese navy has 3.42 per ton.
The Japanese custom of employing officers
on active service for shore duty and routine
work may not make for the efficiency of the
service at sea. In practice the Japanese
subordinate officer rarely remains at sea
longer than two years when he is transferred
to shore service. Sometimes one hears of
admirals and rear-admirals whose service at
sea has not been above a few years on training
ships or as deck officers. In the Japanese
navy promotion is always by selection and
never by seniority of service. Promotions
are decided at the conference of the Admirals'
Council, the limit being reduced one-half in
time of war. Midshipmen, after finishing at
the Cadets' School, have six months on a
training ship, and are then assigned to various
warships. A year's practical service having
been completed they may become second
sub-lieutenants, and in four months more
of special study they rise to first sub-lieu-
tenants, and must have spent full two years
in active service before they become lieuten-
ants. A lieutenant-commander must have
seen five years of active service, and two years
after promotion he may become a com-
mander, and another two years can make him
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
59
a captain, if the Admirals' Council selects
him for promotion. A rear-admiral must
have had two years' experience as a captain,
and in three more years after promotion he
may be advanced to the rank of vice-admiral,
Admirals are men of long experience and are
alwaj's appointed by imperial order. The
age limit for admirals is 65, vice-admirals 60.
rear-admirals 56, captains 53, warrant officers
or engineer commanders 50, commanders 47,
lieutenant-commanders 45, lieutenants 44,
first and second lieutenants 40, and other
ranks are decided according to competency.
The following table gives the number of
naval officers and non-commissioned officers
up to 1916:
era, and was provided with a technical stafi
of naval constructors, foremen, and leading
hands by the French Government. At first
it was used mainly for general shipbuilding,
but in 1872 it became the principal ship-
building establishment of the Japanese navy.
Up to 1885 only wooden vessels were at-
tempted, and in 1887 the first iron ship was
launched, followed by several third-class
cruisers, and in 1906 the first battleship to be
built in Japan, the Satsuma, was launched
from Yokosuka. In addition to its two
slips for constructing large ships, there are
three others suitable for destroyers and
torpedo boats. The yard has four graving
docks, the largest of which is capable of
Ranks
Active
Service
Reserve
Special
Reserve
Grand
Total
Admirals and those receiving equal treatment.
Captains, lieutenants, and those receiving
corresponding treatment
Special commissioned officers and those
receiving corresponding treatment
Cadets
Non-commissioned officers
Civil officials in the navy
99
3.95'>
1,642
173
31.836
1 ,069
92
503
271
18,638
44
127
329
11,678
235
4..S86
2,242
173
82,172
1.069
7 0/0/
.S8.77.S
I9„S24
12,17^
W.477
The rank and file of the Jajianese navy is
recruited from both conscripts and volun-
teers, conscription being regarded mostly as
a supplementary resource, as the service
always aims to have more volunteers than
conscripts, the proportions for an average
five years standing thus:
taking any ship afloat. In 1865 the Yoko-
suka yard employed 960 workmen; in 191 1
it employed over 8,000; in war time it em-
ploys as many as 16,000; to-day the number
engaged there is about 11,000. At the out-
set the area occupied by this yard was only
18 acres which have now been increased to
Year
Conscripts
Volunteers
Total
1910
3.23,S
3.487
6.722
191 1
4,092
4,009
8,101
1912
4,457
4.363
8,820
1913
2,145
3,112
5,257
1914
4,501
3.637
8,138
IMPERIAL DOCKYARDS
The Imperial Navy Yards at present num-
ber four, Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, and
Maizuru, with three repairing yards of less
importance at Port Arthur and two other
places. All the four principal yards possess
dry docks for the accommodation of large
warships; and the first two have cradles for
the construction of dreadnoughts, but the
latter two yards are able to build only light
cruisers and destroyers. The Yokosuka navy
yard is now in equipment, efficiency, and
execution equal to any yard of its size abroad.
It was opened in 1864 during the Tokugawa
1 16. From the Yokosuka yard were launched
fighting monsters like the Kawachi, the
Hiyei, and the Yamashiro, for which it was
able to provide all the propelling machinery,
castings, forgings, and most of the auxiliary
machinery. The Kurd dockyard dates from
1889, and first assumed a place of importance
just before the war with China in 1894. Its
two large building slips have launched some
of Japan's biggest fighting units, while its
smaller slips have turned out several de-
stroyers and torpedo boats. It has two
fair-sized graving docks and one large one,
able to accommodate the largest of ships.
The warship Ibuki was launched from this
yard in six months after laying down the keel,
and the fine cruiser Tsukiiba, unfortunately
blown up at Yokosuka in 191 7, was also
built at Kure. to say nothing of the Seltsu
and the Fuso, of 21,000 and 31,000 tons
respectively. At this dockyard the ordnance
department is equipped for constructing
guns and mountings up to the largest size,
most of the armaments for warships built
in Japan in recent years being produced here.
The Kure armour plate is reputed to have
proved more irresistible to modern gunnery
than that imported. Some 17,000 hands
are employed at Kurd. The Sasebo navy
yard is in southwestern Kyushu, not far from
Nagasaki. Originally intended only for re-
pair work the yard has shown remarkable
development. Sasebo is now able to build
cruisers, and its five docks have good accom-
modations for quick repairing. The most
recent of the national navy yards is the one
at Maizuru on the Sea of Japan, within rail-
way reach of Osaka. Like Sasebo it was first
established as a repair depot, but it has
developed into a fine construction yard where
cruisers of a formidable type can be turned
out, as well as destroyers and torpedo boats.
It has two large and two smaller graving
docks, with the usual facilities for every sort
of repair work. Port Arthur possesses a
good dry dock but still lacks the means for
constructing ships, while the repair stations
at Ominato and Takeshiki have floating docks
equal to minor repairs. The total number of
workmen engaged in naval construction,
marine engineering, and other duties con-
nected with the imperial dockyards is now
something over 40,000. It is unnecessary
to say what further facilities Japan enjoys
in the way of private dockyards capable of
building the largest ships, as these are dealt
with under the heading of Shipping and
Harbours elsewhere in this volume. These
private dockyards underwent considerable
development during the European war, and
are to-day better equipped than ever for
increasing and replenishing the imperial navy
as circumstances shall demand.
Japan's greatest inconvenience in regard
to ship construction is lack of material.
This was especially felt during the European
war when supplies were cut off from Great
Britain and Europe and the American steel
mills were engaged in filling orders at home
and for Europe. Japan has no iron mines
of any great importance, and is largely de-
pendent on China for ore. The Imperial
Steel Works at Yawata in Kyushu can turn
out 60,000 tons of plate annually if the ore
is available. The new steel works established
at Muroran in 1908, as a joint undertaking
of the Hokkaido Colliery and Steamship
6o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
F??;
Company and Messrs. Armstrong and
Vickers, of England, is a great assistance to
the imperial navy in casting big guns. The
Government is at present devoting consid-
erable sums to the enlargement of its steel
works, and securing sources of ore, so as to
place the Empire in a more independent posi-
tion as regards ship-construction material
NAVAL OFFICE, TOKYO
in case of emergency. For her decks Japan
brings teak from Siam and pine from Oregon,
using native woods generally for interiors
and decorations.
On the whole it may be said that the
struggle for a greater and more efficient navy
in Japan is a question mainly of expenditure.
Japan has the skill and equipment if she
can only be sure of the material, and that
depends on the outlay she can afford.
It is a problem whether it would not be advis-
able to discontinue subsidising her mercantile
marine so liberally and devote the money to
the more immediate needs of the imperial
navy, thus doing away with a process that
is threatening her reserves.
VIEW OF SUMA BEACH, NEAR KOBE
VI. Foreign Embassies and Legations
The British Embassy— The United States Embassy— The French Embassy— The Russian
Embassy— The Italian Embassy— Germany— Austro-Hungary— The Netherlands
Legation— The Spanish Legation— The Portuguese Legation— The Belgian
Legation— The Swedish Legation— The Chinese Legation— The Siamese
Legation— The Mexican Lecjation— Other Legations
THE foreign embassies and legations in
Tokyo stand for something more than
the mere diplomatic representation
that pertains to their office in other national
capitals. They also signify the influence
that Western nations have had and still are
having on Japan, and through Japan on that
portion of Asia which she aspires to lead.
From the remote period of her obscure
origin at the dawn of the Christian era, down
to comparatively modern times, Japan had
practically no diplomatic intercourse with
any country save Korea and China, and with
them mainly in the way of acquiring knowl-
edge and of attempted aggression. N'o
sooner had the tribes that colonised the
Japanese archipelago been fused into a united
empire by Jimmu Tenno and assumed terri-
torial independence of China and Korea than
the new nation began to take an interest in
the continent from which it had sprung.
Yamato had to rely on her continental neigh-
bours for instruction in the arts of civiUsation ;
but having once acquired these she assumed
an attitude of futile aggression. It is true
Japan may have been stung to indignation
by the raids of Korean pirates and the
attempts of the Korean kingdoms to foster
rebellion within the Yamato empire, and was
thus led to enter upon her earlier invasion
of the peninsula; but she had no such excuse
for her later depredations on the continent.
Having completed the mastery of Korean
and Chinese civilisation by the sixteenth
century Japan set out to invade these coun-
tries in l,S93, the expedition, after devas-
tating the peninsula of Korea, ultimately
proving unsuccessful. Then came the Portu-
guese, Spanish, English, and Dutch, with all
of whose countries there were desultory
negotiations leading to nothing of any
importance except to apprise Japan of the
62
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
fact that countries more formidable than
China and Korea lay beyond and threatened
invasion of the East. Thereupon Japan
banished all foreigners from her Empire and
retired into seclusion for more than two hun-
dred years.
When history shall have placed all the great
political events of the nineteenth century in
their proper perspective, probably none will
appear more important to posterity than the
arrival of Commodore Perry's fleet in Japa-
nese waters on July 8, 1853. For this was the
beginning of that mighty influence which
Western nations have had on Japan in awak-
ening her to a sense of her power to assimilate
Occidental ways and means for the estab-
lishment of her supremacy in East Asia.
The past centiu^y has witnessed the fall of the
Napoleonic Empire, the unification of Italy,
the growth of the Germanic ascendency with
such tragic and disastrous consequences, the
disintegration of Turkey, the expansion of
the United States and of the British self-
governing colonies as well as the opening up
of Africa; but none of these will eventually
have a more profound effect on world-civili-
sation than the modernisation of Japan. In
the flexibility and tenacity of her racial spirit
Japan is diff'erent from all other Asiatic peo-
ples; and if she succeeds in becoming the
leader of Asia it will be a question of the
white and the yellow races marching together
as brothers or the one endeavouring to rule
the other. Japan's ambition to be regarded
the leader of Asia would have been impossible
but for the opening up of the country to inter-
national intercourse.
The great events of world-history outlined
in the last paragraph all served to mark fur-
ther stages in the development of mankind
under the dominating influence of Western
civilisation, confirming the ascendency of the
white races in spite of their numerical inferi-
ority. But the opening of Japan, her rapid
transformation from a feudal to a modern
state, and her emergence on the plain of inter-
nationalism equipped with all the material
implements of peace and war, mark the first
check to Occidental supremacy over the other
races of the world. For the changes wrought
in Japan by the advent of Western civilisation
are not those experienced by other races
where the white man has come. Japan has
simply changed her weapons, but not her
soul. It is a change of method rather than a
change of mind. Japan has simply put on
the garments of Western civilisation as con-
venient to her policy and purpose, but at
heart she is still what the ages have made her,
a proud nation that believes in her own
innate superiority to all others, her people
verily the children of the gods. Here for the
first time since the battle of Tours in the
eighth century we have an Asiatic nation
fully assured that the supremacy of the white
races is not indisputable, and one that
DISTINGUISHED DIPLO.M.\TS
(Upper Row, Left to Right) His Excellency, Keishiro Matsui, Ambassador to France since 1915 — Viscount Sutemi Chind.a, Ambassador
to Great Britain. (Lower Row, Left to Right) Baron Megat.\, Head of the Japanese Financial and Commercial Mission to the
United States in 191 7 — Mr. Aimaro Sato, Former Ambassador to the United States
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
63
intends to see that they do not much longer
rely on the continuance of their vested monop-
oly of a domineering civilisation. Japan is
an excellent example of a whole Tiation stoop-
ing to conquer!
The foreign embassies and legations in
Tokyo, therefore, find themselves confronting
a racial obstinacy not experienced perhaps
elsewhere outside of Berlin. Ostensibly the
foreign diplomat is, of course, received with
every cordiality; but the Japanese never
forget that he forced his recognition on the
sacred soil of the gods, and they believe that
he is still anxious to lead Japan after Western
ideals, while she has to see to it that he does
not succeed. At the same time, Japan has
to appear grateful for what the foreigner has
done in equipping her as a modern state. It
is a difficult role for both the Japanese
authorities and the foreign diplomats to fill;
but all make the best of it and harmony
prevails. Yet no countr}- takes matters out
of the hands of local diplomats and sends her
own special envoys abroad more often than
does Japan. The corps diplomatique is re-
garded as largely ornamental, a compliment
to Japan's recognition as a first-class power.
These representatives of Western nations
engage in the wonted round of felicitations
and receptions in season, to which the Japa-
nese authorities duly respond with polite
advances, but not a step farther than tlie
utmost diplomatic propriety prescribes.
There is never any degree of profuse cordiality
between the embassies and the authorities.
Get the confidence of the Western diplomat
and he will admit that he does not feel quite
sure of Japan. Happily he is more inclined
to put it down to his own possible misunder-
standing of the remarkable people than to
any real ground for distrust. Yet, as his
association is altogether with the higher
classes of the people, he must essentially have
a higher opinion of Japan than the merchant
who mixes mostly with the lower orders of
the community. Consequently an adequate
estimate of the situation should include the
experiences of both.
The truth has to be admitted that Japan
does not really want the foreigner, and en-
dures his presence only as a dire necessity,
while the laws in Western countries against
Japanese immigration render the Japanese
population all the more averse. Echoes of
Japan's aversion to foreigners must be heard
at times in the embassies and legations of
Tokyo, though silence must perforce be ob-
served on such matters. The racial spirit
and prejudice of the Japanese is narrower and
more impenetrable to alien influence than is
the case with any other race known to diplo-
macy; and yet no people are more adept at
hiding their feelings. The art, if it may be
VISCOUNT K. ISHII
.AMB.\SS.\DOR TO THE UNITED ST.\TES
termed so, is due to the discipline of ages of
feudalism, wherein an inconvenient show of
feelings would often cost a man his head.
Consequently there is practically little real
social intercourse between foreigners and
Japanese. There is indeed scarcely any con-
tact save in the way of trade, which is apt
to foster jealousy and misunderstanding
rather than friendship. The Japanese is
always laboiu-ing under the irritation and
strain of trying to be himself while accom-
modating himself to the practice of Western
method and enterprise, and he satisfies neither
himself nor his customer. Overconfidence in
his own instincts leads the average Japanese
to misjudge or to mistrust the intentions of
the West. He regards all foreigners as aim-
ing from the start to get the better of him.
And this in spite of the fact that Britain and
America, at least, have always striven to be
altruistic in their relations with Japan. But
Japan's success in attaining the rank of a
first-class nation, annexing the peninsula of
Korea, and establishing herself permanently
on the continent of East Asia, are not re-
garded by her people as due to the good will
of the powers, but in spite of them, and the
result of national diplomacy and military
prowess. During the European war the
prevaiUng disposition in Japan was to trust
neither side to the conflict, but to assume an
attitude of cynical independence, though, of
course, the authorities did not openly counte-
nance this.
Sufficient has been said, perhaps, to show
that the position of a foreign diplomat in
64
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Japan is one of the most difficult in the gift
of his government, and should be filled only
by the ver>' ablest of men. With Japan
herself diplomacy is both an art and a science
of the profoundest study and training. All
her embassy officials abroad are men of care-
ful education and long experience, speaking
fluently the language of the country to which
they are accredited. As none of the foreign
ambassadors and ministers to Japan speak
the language of the country, there is a conse-
quent tendency to discount their importance
and influence. The practice of having the
speeches of the Emperor translated by an
interpreter for the convenience of foreign
diplomats has recently been abandoned by
the imperial court, on the score that it is
undignified to adhere to a custom not ob-
ser\-ed in Europe. If this is a hint that all
foreign diplomats should be able to under-
stand when addressed by the Emperor of
Japan, as Japanese diplomats do when spoken
to by any sovereign in Europe, it is safe to
say that it will be some time before the sug-
gestion is acted upon. Yet there is no doubt
that Western governments would be well
advised in having as their ambassadors and
ministers men who are familiar w-ith the
language and civilisation of Japan.
EMBASSIES
THE BRITISH EMBASSY
The British Legation, now the British
Embassy, in Tokyo, from the time of its
establishment more than sixty years ago,
has occupied a position of prominence and
power in the Japanese capital, exercising an
invaluable influence, not only on relations
between Japan and Great Britain, but on the
promotion of modem progress within the
Japanese Empire. This attitude for the good
of the country w'as particularly manifest in
the refusal of the British authorities to con-
cede treaty revision and the abolition of
extraterritoriality until Japan had modern-
ised her institutions, especially the judiciary
under which foreigners were to come.
Japan's earliest relations with England
were through individuals charged with no
diplomatic mission, but who, nevertheless,
paved the way for international amity later.
The first British subject to put foot on the
shores of Japan was a man of Kent, William
Adams, who was cast ashore from the wreck
of a Dutch ship in the year i5oo. He was
detained in the country by the shogun as an
interpreter and teacher of Western ways,
especially of shipbuilding; and after serving
the authorities faithfully for twenty years,
during which time he gave Japan a taste of
the British spirit in the "spacious days of
good Queen Bess," Will Adams, as history
calls him, died, full of honours and master
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. SIR
CONYNGHAM GREENE, K. C. B.,
BRITISH .AMB.\SS.\DOR TO JAPAN
of a fine estate. Various other Englishmen
came to Japan under the auspices of the East
India Company, for purposes of trade, con-
spicuous among whom was Captain John
Saris, who arrived in the ship Clove in 1613
and met with a cordial reception, being given
the right to trade where he pleased. After
some thirteen years the English factory, or
trading station, in Japan closed down as
unprofitable, and Japan had no further rela-
tions with Englishmen until modern times.
In the year 1853, more than two hundred
years after the departure of the English mer-
chants from Hirado, Japan was obliged once
more to open her gates to foreigners by the
arrival of Commodore Perry and his fieet
from the United States. The American offi-
cer succeeded in securing a treaty of amity
and commerce from Japan in 1854; and some
six months afterward a British admiral sailed
into the harbour of Nagasaki and demanded
a similar treaty, the request being granted.
The convention signed at Nagasaki was fol-
lowed by a larger treaty obtained by Lord
Elgin in 1858, modelled after the treaty con-
cluded between America and Japan by Town-
send Harris in 1857. The British repre-
sentative remained but five days in Yedo,
and upon conclusion of the negotiations he
presented Japan with a ship sent by Queen
Victoria. The first resident British minister
to Japan was Sir Rutherford -Alcock, who
arrived in 1859 as a result of the treaties
permitting foreigners to reside in the capital
of the shogun. The years of Sir Rutherford
Alcock's tenure of office were a crucial period
for foreigners, many of whom were killed as
hated intruders on the sacred domain of the
gods. The secretary to the American Lega-
tion was murdered and an Englishman named
Richardson was cut down by the samurai of
Satsuma because he failed to dismount on
meeting their lord. This was too much for
the British Government and the shogun was
oliliged to pay an indemnity of £50,000 and
the daimyo of Satsuma £100,000, the latter
not complying until after the bombardment
of his capital at Kagoshima by a British fleet.
Later a British fleet was obliged to participate
in the bombardment of the forts of Choshu
at Shimonoseki on account of Japanese firing
on foreign vessels passing through the straits.
At this time both Emperor and shogun were
bitterly opposed to opening the country to
foreigners, the treaties with whom had been
signed by the shogun only through fear of
invasion. Peace was finally restored in 1863,
Japan paying an indemnity of £600,000.
Sir Rutherford Alcock retired in 1865, hav-
ing proved himself an able diplomat and
an earnest student of things Japanese. Dur-
ing the four years of his residence in Japan
the nation learned something of British
ideas of justice and the sacredness of treaty
relations.
The next British Minister to Japan was the
famous Sir Harry Parkes, one of the most
remarkable diplomats ever sent to the Far
East. Having been born and brought up
in the East he had an adequate knowledge of
Oriental character. Before coming to Japan
in 1865 he had been British representative
in China where he had once been captured and
put to the torture, he of aU his companions
surviving. Familiar with the wiles of Ori-
ental diplomacy and entertaining a whole-
some fear of Oriental civilisation, Sir Harry
Parkes was in a position to know just how to
deal with affairs in Japan, and he successfully
engineered his country through some of the
most thrilling episodes of Japanese history.
As Japan began to experience the birth-throes
of the Restoration the British Minister saw
what was going to happen and took the side
of the Emperor, while most of the other
diplomats were disposed to aid the shogun.
Sir Harry Parkes won for himself a reputation
for great firmness of character and irresistible
energy, and was universally respected for
his honesty of motive and candid patriotism.
Through him Japan obtained the assistance
of British officers in founding her new navy
and the inauguration of other important
reforms and enterprises.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
65
THE BRITISH LEGATION AT TOKYO
In 1883 Sir Harry was succeeded by the
Right Honourable .Sir F. R. Plunkett, who
retired in 1888 and was followed by Mr.
Hugh Frascr, a man of marked character,
whose charming wife was a sister of the late
Marion Crawford, the novelist. Mr. Fraser
died at his post in 1894 and his place was tak-
en by the Honourable P. le Poer Trench, as
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary. .Sir Ernest Satow succeeded Mr.
Trench in 1895. Sir Ernest was the first of
a long line of distinguished Oriental scholars
who have been officials at the British Legation
in Tokyo, such as Aston, Gubbins, and Hamp-
den ; but he has been the only one rising to be
chief. During the incumbency of Sir Ernest
Satow the foreign treaties saw revision and
Japan regained her long-desired autonomy.
With the removal of Sir Ernest Satow to
Pekin in 1900 the new British Minister to
Tokyo was Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald;
and when the Legation was raised to an
Embassy in 1905 Sir Claude became the first
British Ambassador to Japan, a position he
filled with great distinction imtil his retire-
ment from diplomatic service in 1913. Dur-
ing his twelve years as British representative
in Japan Sir Claude MacDonald saw the
satisfactory conclusion of such important
treaties as the Anglo- Japanese Alliance and
the new Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
with Great Britain, the latter requiring the
utmost tact and delicacy in the face of a
high protective tariff on one side and free
trade on the other. No mention of what
Sir Claude did for Japan and Great Britain
would be complete without reference to the
gracious influence of Lady MacDonald and
her family on the life and civilisation of
Linan.
The present British Ambassador to Japan,
the Right Honourable William Conyngham
Greene, was appointed in 19 13, being pro-
moted from Copenhagen. Sir Conyngham
was born in Ireland on the 29th of October,
1854, was educated at Harrow and at Pem-
broke College, Oxford, and passed the exami-
nation for a clerkship in the British Foreign
Office in 1877. He became third secretary
of the Legation at Athens in 1880 and was
appointed acting third secretary at Stuttgart
in 1883, and later was charge d'affaires there.
He went to the same position at Darmstadt
in 1884 and back to Stuttgart in 1885, being
raised to the rank of second secretary in
diplomatic service in 1887, after which he
was charge d'affaires at Stuttgart till 1889.
In that year he was transferred to The Hague
where he acted as charge d'affaires until
1892, when he was promoted as secretary to
legation at Teheran, acting there as charge
d'affaires until 1894. He became H. B. M.
agent at Pretoria in 1896, and received the
title of C. B. the following year, later receiving
the Jubilee Medal and being gazetted K. C. B.
In May, 1900, Sir Conyngham was appointed
Minister to Switzerland from which he was
transferred to Copenhagen in 1 9 11 , where
he remained until his promotion to the British
Embassy in Tokyo in 1913, previous to which
he had been sworn as a Privy Councillor.
He was gazetted a G. C. M. G. in June, 19 14.
In 1915 Sir Conyngham was decorated with
the Order of the Grand Cordon of Paulownia
by the Emperor of Japan. He was married
to Lady Lily Frances Stopford, fifth daughter
of the fifth Earl of Courtown, in 1884, and
has two sons and two daughters. .Sir Conyng-
ham had no easy position to fill during the
period of the European war when the machin-
ations of the enemy were rife in the Far East;
but managed diplomatic affairs with great tact
and distinction, while Lady Lily supervised the
remarkable work done by the British ladies
in Tokyo for the relief of wounded soldiers.
The Councillor of the British Embassy in
Tokyo since 19 14 has been Mr. Herman
66
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Cameron Norman. Mr. Norman was born
June 8, 1872, and after passing through the
schools was nominated atlache in 1894, when
he passed the competitive examination, and
was appointed to Cairo in 1896, where he
received an allowance for knowledge of
Arabic. He was promoted third secretary in
1897 and transferred to Constantinople,
being granted an allowance for knowledge of
Turkish in 1898. Mr. Norman was trans-
ferred to the British Embassy at Washington
in 1900, rising to the rank of second secre-
tary the same year. He attended the repre-
sentative of the Dominican Republic at the
coronation of King Edward VII and received
the Coronation Medal. Transferred to St.
Petersburg in 1903 he received the allowance
for knowledge of Russian in 1904, and then
returned to the Foreign Office in London till
1906, when he was promoted to the rank of
first secretary in the diplomatic service and
acted as secretary to the conference on sleep-
ing sickness convened in London in 1907 and
to the International Naval Conference in
1908. Mr. Norman attended the Persian
representative at the coronation of King
George V and received the Coronation Medal.
He organised the secretariat of the conference
of Allied Balkan States which met at St.
James's Palace to conclude peace with Tur-
key in 1912, and was appointed to his present
post in Tokyo in 19 1 4.
Other important members of the British
Embassy staff are Mr. C. Wingfield, who is
first secretary. Count Charles Henry Ben-
tinck, the second secretary, and Mr. H.
Hobart-Hampden, Japanese secretary.
THE UNITED STATES EMBASSY
As America was the first nation to open
diplomatic intercourse with Japan her repre-
sentation was naturally the first to be estab-
lished in the Empire. Various futile attempts
had been made by individvial Americans to
open up negotiations with Japan for pur-
poses of trade, the more important of which
was the visit of the ship Morrison in 1837,
which, though bearing a party of shipwrecked
Japanese on board, was nevertheless fired at
on approaching Yedo Bay and forced to retire
with its mission unfulfilled. Captain Cooper
came with another group of Japanese cast-
aways in 1845, and met with a more cordial
reception owing to Japan's greater familiarity
with foreigners in the meantime. Though
allowed to remain four days he was warned
on his departure never to return, no matter
how many Japanese he should find in distress.
Commodore Biddle appeared in Yedo Bay
in 1846, but was immediately surrounded by a
cordon of war-junks and informed that no
intercourse would be permitted between
foreigners and Japan. In 1849 Commander
HON. ROLAND S. MORRIS,
.\MERIC.\N AMBASS.\DOR TO JAPAN
Glynn of the American ship Preble sailed into
Nagasaki harbour and demanded the release
of some shipwrecked American sailors held
prisoners there, and his request was reluc-
tantly obeyed. Reports of ill treatment
and often cruelty to American sailors created
apprehension in America; and as the Japanese
coast was now swarming with American
whalers who might at any time find them-
selves cast ashore, it was felt by the United
States Government that some understanding
with Japan was absolutely necessary. And
so in 1853 Commodore Perry was commis-
sioned by the President of the United States
to proceed to Japan with a small fleet and
open friendly intercourse with the country.
He arrived in the Bay of Yedo with his "black
ships, " whose dense volumes of lilack smoke
terrified the inhabitants of the shogun's
capital, but succeeded only in delivering the
letter he had brought from President Fillmore,
saying he would return the following year
for a reply. In March, 1854, Perry came
back and succeeded in negotiating a treaty
of intercourse with Japan. The Japanese
contend that he forced a treaty on the helpless
shogun at the muzzle of his guns, but Ameri-
can official papers and the evidence of eye
witnesses, two of whom are still living, do
not bear out this view. At any rate Perry
gained a signal victory in a diplomatic sense
without firing a single shot or unduly offend-
ing the sensibilities of the Japanese. To
have knocked at the portals of a nation closed
to foreign intercourse for more than two hun-
dred years and to have gained an entrance
was regarded as a triumph by the nations of
the world, all of whom forthwith rushed in
to obtain a similar favour.
An American consul was despatched to
Shimoda and another to Hakodate, the other
open port. The consul sent to Shimoda, a
little town in the peninsula of Izu, was the
famous Townsend Harris who afterward
became United States Minister to Tokyo.
During his incumbency the American Lega-
tion secured the opening of additional ports
to trade and the various powers the right of
sending representatives to the Japanese
capital. With the assistance of the American
Minister Japan despatched her first embassy
abroad in i860. After rendering numerous
invaluable services both to Japan and his
own country Townsend Harris retired through
ill health in 1862, and was succeeded by the
Honourable R. H. Prnyn of New York. The
new Minister had to weather the storm of
anti-foreign agitation that now broke out.
The American Legation was burnt and its
secretary, Mr. Heusken, was murdered.
Then came the bombardment of the forts of
Choshu at Shimonoseki and the big indemnity
paid by Japan, the American portion,
amounting to some $300,000, being subse-
quently returned. Mr. R. B. van Valken-
burg came to the American Legation in 1866,
and within a year was able to notify his
government of the repeal of a decree that had
for more than two centuries prohibited Japa-
nese from leaving their country. The repre-
sentative of the United States exercised a
powerful influence during the years 1868-9
when the Restoration of imperial power was
brought about, joining with the British
Minister in supporting the imperial cause
against the shogun. The American Legation
also had much to do with removing the ban
on Christianity, and when there came a
revival of restrictions against the foreign
religion the protest of the American Minister
to his home government led to complete
freedom of faith in Japan. Owing to Japan's
antiquated system of laws and customs she
lost some of her judicial and trade autonomy
in the first treaties with foreign nations; and
when she later became naturally restless
under this discrimination and sought a re\d-
sion of the treaties in her favour, the Ameri-
can Legation did everything possible to fur-
ther this end, and assisted in sending a Japa-
nese embassy abroad for this purpose in 1871 .
The policy adopted by Commodore Perry
of frankly stating facts and conditions and
requesting official action on the basis of truth
and fact has always been followed by the
United States representatives in Tokyo and
has done much to help toward a mutual
understanding between the two countries.
After the retirement of Mr. Charles de Long
as American Minister in 1873 he was
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
67
succeeded by Mr. John A. Bingham, who was
the first representative from the United States
to bear the title Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Pleni])otentiary. He was followed
by Mr. Richard B. Hubbard in 1885, and he
again by Mr. John F. Swift in 1889. Mr.
Frank L. Coombs arrived as Minister in
1892 and Mr. Edwin Dun in 1893. His
successor, Colonel Alfred E. Buck, was a
man of remarkable personality and left an
indelible impression foi good on Japanese
and foreigners alike, being a notable gentle-
man of the old school. Mr. Lloyd C. Gris-
com, who was Minister during the Russo-
Japanese War, displayed great tact and
aljility at a crucial period, and was followed
by Governor Luke E. Wright in 1906, he
being the first American Ambassador to
Japan. During his brief tenure of one year
Ambassador Wright dealt successfully with
the difficult immigration problem, and was
succeeded by the Honourable Thomas J.
O'Brien in 1907, who was promoted from
Denmark. The new Ambassador had the
by no means easy task of carrying through
the negotiations with regard to Japanese
rights in California and the Treaty of Com-
merce and Navigation between America and
Japan, as well as adjusting the rights of
American citizens in Korea after annexation.
The next Ambassador was Colonel Charles
Page Bryan who had previously been Ameri-
can Minister to Lisbon, and to Brussels.
Colonel Bryan did much to draw Americans
and Japanese into closer friendship and re-
tired in 19 1 1 , to be succeeded by the Honour-
able Larz Anderson, whose brief sojourn in
Japan afforded an excellent example of an
American samurai. With the change of
government at Washington in 19 13 the new
American Ambassador to Japan was the
Honourable George Wilkins Gutherie, who
died at his post in 1917, and was succeeded
by Mr. Roland S. Morris of Philadelphia who
still remains Ambassador at the time of
writing. Ambassador Morris was born on
the nth of March, 1874, was educated at the
University of Princeton in arts and at the
University of Pennsylvania in law, being
graduated in 1899. In 1903 he married Miss
August Shippen West of Philadelphia and
has two children. Before coming to Japan
Mr. Morris was a prominent member of the
American bar and influential in political
circles, having been a law examiner and a
chairman of the Democratic State Committee,
presiding at the conference of such state
committees as met at Washington.
The councillor of the American Embassy is
Dr. Post Wheeler who was born in New York
in 1 87 1, educated at Princeton University
and the Sorbonne in Paris. He married
Miss Hallie E. Rives, the authoress, and was
HIS E.XCELLENCY M. EUGENE LOUIS GEORGES REGN.-^ULT, AMB.\SS.'iDEUR E.\TR.\ORDINAlKE
ET PLENIPOTENTIAIRE DE LA REPUBLIC FRANfAISE
appointed second secretary to the American
Embassy in Tokyo in 1906. He was first
secretary at Petrograd in 19 10 and at Rome
in 1913, being appointed to the same posi-
tion in Tokyo in 1914, and later made em-
bassy councillor, acting as charge d'affaires
during the absence of the Ambassador. The
Japanese secretary of the embassy is Mr.
Charles J. Arnell who was bom in 1881.
After valuable service in various government
positions he became private secretary to the
American Ambassador in 1906, American
Vice-Consul-General at Mukden in 1907, at
Antung in 1908, and Japanese secretary at
the Embassy in 1909. As attaches and other
officials of the Embassy frequently change,
their names can not be included in this
volume.
THE FRENCH EMB.\SSY
Fr.^nce, though long prominent in India
and at one time influential in Siara, seems
to have made little effort to open up inter-
course with Japan during the period when
Spain and Portugal, Holland and England,
were endeavouring to exploit the treasures
of the Far East. During the reign of
Louis XIV, however, the great financier
Colbert seems to have projected an expedi-
tion to Japan for the purpose of obtaining
gold and rehabilitating the depleted finances
of France. Accordingly a French East
India Company was established and prepara-
tions made for opening up of trade with the
Far East, with Caron, who had already been
in Japan with the Dutch East India Com-
pany, at the head of the expedition. The
project finally fell through and we do not hear
of any subsequent effort to establish inter-
course with Japan until 1S43 when a French
ship touched at the Luchu Islands. Three
years later a French ship entered the harbour
of Nagasaki to ask for provisions and to
present a petition asking kind treatment for
French subjects shipwrecked on ths shores
of Japan, receiving no reply from the Japa-
nese authorities. In 1859 Nagasaki was again
visited by a French admiral who requested
intercourse; but the strange ship was quickly
surrounded by war-junks and the French
left without accomplishing their mission.
Eight years later the French frigate Cleo-
patra called at Hakodate, Shimoda, and
Nagasaki to open friendly intercourse with
Japan on the same terms as had been accorded
Commodore Perry. After being threatened
by war-junks Admiral Cecille sailed up to
Yedo Bay and demanded a treaty direct
from the shogun, as Perry had done. The
request was complied with after much
negotiation and a French Minister was
appointed to Yedo in 1859 in the person of
M. Duchesne de Bellecourt, who was hon-
oured with a personal audience by the shogun.
Three years later he was succeeded by M.
Leon Roches as Minister Plenipotentiary,
68
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
who proved an able diplomat and carried his
legation safely through the trj-ing period of
anti-foreign agitation. In l86,-5 when the
Tokugawa government repented of having
granted concessions to foreigners and the
ports opened were closed and the various
daimyo warned to prevent the passage of
foreign ships, a French ship was fired upon
while passing through the Straits of Shimono-
seki, leading to a Ijombardraent of the forts
by a combined fleet of the powers. From
this time onward relations between France
and Japan proved of the most amiable
nature. The French Minister, M. Roches,
found able contemporaries in the British,
German, and American Ministers in Yedo,
but in friendly rivalry made, the mistake of
siding with the shogun against the Imperial
Restoration. The French Minister, how-
ever, succeeded in thus ingratiating himself
with the Bakufu authorities and a Japanese
envoy was sent to France to make arrange-
ments for introducing the French military
system into Japan. In the wars of the
Revolution French officers assisted the troops
of the shogun, and the authorities were also
on the point of utilising French warships
to maintain their position, when it was sug-
gested that a dangerous precedent for the
interference of foreigners in Japanese affairs
might thereby be established. In 1.868 the
new French Minister. M. Maxime Outrey,
arrived in Tokyo and continued to occupy
the Legation for the next five years, during
which period the Franco-Prussian War
broke out. As France was worsted in the
conflict Japan now abandoned her adoption
of the French militars' system and took the
German. In 1873 Compt de Berthemey
came as French Minister to Japan, remaining
until 1876, when a change again took place
in the French Legation, M. de Geofroy be-
coming Minister and Envoy Extraordinary.
M. Guillaume de Roquette became Minister
in 1880 and had to do with the revision of
the treaties between France and Japan,
which were again revised in 1900. The
French Minister at Tokv'O in 1883 was
M. Tricon, and iVl. Sienkiewiez became
Minister in 1894, soon followed by M. Har-
mand, who was in Tokyo when France united
with Russia and Germany in excluding Japan
from possession of the Liaotung Peninsula
after the war with China. Then came M.
Auguste Gerard, one of the ablest represen-
tatives France has ever had in Japan, and her
first Ambassador after the Legation was
raised to an Embassy, in 1906. M. Gerard
was exceedingly popular among all nation-
alities and not least among the Japanese.
He retired in 19 13 and was succeeded by
M. Eugene Louis Georges Regnault, the
present Ambassador of France in Tok\'o.
M. Regnault was born on the 28th of Decem-
ber, 1857, graduated in law and entered the
Foreign Office in 1883, becoming secretary of
THE FRENCH CONSULATE, .\T THE FOOT OF THE BLLFF, YOKOHAMA
the Tunisian Government in 1884. He was
appointed consul at Piraeus in 1891 and at
Salonika in 1892, taking an important posi-
tion in the Foreign Office again in 1 894. He
went on a special mission to the East in
1895, became chief of the foreign secretary's
office in 1896, and went with the foreign
minister to Petrograd on a mission in 1897.
M. Regnault was appointed Constil-General
at Geneva in 1898 and was made a charge
of the Morocco mission in 1904. He was
made an officer of the Legion of Honour in
1904 and second plenipotentiary to the
Algeciras Conference in 1906, and later
became Minister to Morocco. He received
the decoration of the Commander of the
Legion of Honour in 19 12 and was appointed
French Ambassador to Tokyo in 19 1 3.
M. Regnault married Mile. Cardon. As
the chief officials of the Embassy were absent
during the war in Europe their names are
not mentioned here.
THE RUSSI.\N E.MBASSY
Relations between Japan and Russia
were for many years based on the circum-
stance that Japan was a backdoor neighbour,
until recent events, which have contributed
to a mutual recognition of each other's rights.
It is true that while other nations were
endeavouring to open up commercial inter-
course with Japan, Russia was lient upon
similar favours, but she was constantly sus-
pected of territorial ambitions as well.
In 1 713 Russian ships explored the Kurile
and other northern islands and later, in 1 736,
a second attempt was made to regard these
islands as Russian, the surveyors coming as
far south as Yezo and even surveying some
of the harbours of Japan. These explorations '
were renewed by Potonchew in 1777, and
ten years later La Perouse made maps of
Yezo and of the straits that bear his name,
obtaining for Europe its first reliable knowl-
edge of Japan. In 1783 the Empress of
Russia, Catherine II, directed certain Japa-
nese castaways to be returned to Japan, and
advantage was taken of the mission to seek
to open commercial and diplomatic inter-
course with Japan. The expedition arrived
at Matsumae in the north in 1792 and was
informed that Japan had no intercourse with
foreign nations and to depart and never
return. The interest taken by Russia in
Japan at this time may be seen from
the fact that Japanese sailors cast ashore
on the Russian littoral were employed
as teachers of Japanese in schools in
Irkutsk. In 1804 a Russian ship under
Captain Krusenstern arrived at Nagasaki
with Count Resanoff, an envoy from
the Tzar, negotiations being carried on
through Dutch interpreters. The Japanese
PRESENT-DAV IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
69
evinced abnormal suspicion of tlic mission
and nothing could be accomplished, the
Russians putting it down to the jealousy of
the Dutch. In retaliation for this treat-
ment reprisals were made on the Kuriles in
1806, the raids creating immense excitement
in Japan. In 181 1 Captain Golownin, a
Russian naval officer, and his companions,
while engaged in taking surveys of the Kurile
Islands, were invited into a fort for negotia-
tions and taken prisoner by the Japanese, who
subjected them to great hardships. They did
not succeed in obtaining their freedom until
two years afterward when Captain Rikord
came with a Russian apology for the raids
on the Kuriles. No further attempts were
made to open intercourse with Japan until a
Russian squadron sailed into Nagasaki in
1853 and demanded treatment similar to
that accorded Commodore Perry. Admiral
Pontiatine obtained his request, the new
treaty being of great advantage to Russia
at a time when she was at war with Britain
and wanted a place of refuge for her ships
in Oriental waters. A special embassy from
the shogun's government was despatched to
Russia in 1864 but without effect, and
further negotiations were opened in 1875
for the settlement of disputes regarding
Saghalien and the Kuriles, when Japan was
obliged to exchange the former for the latter.
The first Russian representative in Japan
was M. Eugenie Byustoff, who was Consul-
General and charge d'affaires. He was
followed by M. Sturve in 1875, the latter
being created Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary in 1877. M. David-
off was appointed Minister to Japan in 1883
and two years later was succeeded by
M. Schievitch, during whose tenure of office
occurred the unfortunate attack on the
Russian Legation and, in i8gi, the following
year, on the life of the Tzarevitch who was
on a visit to Japan. In 1893 M. Hitrovo
became Minister to Japan, and remained
until relieved by the arrival of Baron Rosen
in 1897. He was succeeded by M. Iswolsky
in 1900. Baron Rosen was again appointed
to Tokyo in 1903 as relations between Japan
and Russia then were such as to demand the
presence of one well versed in Japanese
affairs. Baron Rosen had the difficult task
of the negotiations immediately preceding
the war with Japan. Upon the resumption
of peace the new Russian Minister to Japan
was M. Bakhmeteff, who arrived in 1906,
since when both countries have been on the
best of terms, with ever brighter prospects
diplomatically for the future, their mutual
interests in East Asia rendering amicable
relations essential. Russia sent her first
Ambassador to Japan in 1908 in the person
of M. Nicolas Malewitch Malewsky, who
represented his country with distinction until
his retirement in 1916, when M. Basilc
Kroupensky came to the Embassy.
M. Kroupensky began his diplomatic
career as third secretary of the Russian
Legation at Constantinople, being promoted
to second secretary at the same place in
1898. He was subsequently transferred to
the same position in the Legation at Pekin,
and was besieged there with the other diplo-
mats during the Boxer Rebellion. Subse-
quently he became councillor to the Russian
Embassies in Washington and Berlin and
later at Vienna. In 19 12 he became Russian
Minister to China, and was promoted to
his present position at Tokyo in 1916. The
councillor of the Russian Embassy in Tokyo
M. Shekine and the first secretary is Baron
IS
Behr.
THE ITALI.\N EMBASSY
In a way Italy has the honour of first mak-
ing known to the Western world the existence
of Japan. Before the thirteenth century
Europe had some dim knowledge of the land
of Far Cathay, but not even a suspicion that
there was such a country as Japan. But in
the year 1275 a Venetian traveller, Marco
Polo, had succeeded in making his way by
the Indian route to China where, at the
court of the famous ruler, Khublai Khan, he
learned of an empire still farther eastward
whose wealth in gold was limitless. The
information was brought back to Europe by
A JAPANESE GARDEN K1 KYOTO
70
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Marco Polo and resulted in the organisation
of East Indian trading companies for the
exploitation of East Asia. One of the first
to take advantage of the knowledge im-
parted by the returned traveller was another
son of Italy, Christopher Columbus, the
Genoese sailor, who set out for the East and
discovered America instead. Thus did Amer-
ica come between Japan and European inva-
sion, tiuTiing the drift of immigration to the
New World. In this way the sons of Italy
have had a far-reaching effect on Japan even
before any of them ever visited her shores.
The first Italians to set foot on Japanese
soil were Jesuit missionaries; and as these
were imder the jurisdiction of the Pope of
Rome, they naturally brought Japan into
contact with Italy. An embassy went from
Japan to Italy in 1582 and another in 1614.
The Jesuit father, Sidotti, was one of the
most fearless of the missionaries dming the
days of bloody persecution; and from him
the Japanese obtained much knowledge of
Western countries. After the Japanese
authorities began to concede treaties of inter-
course to Western countries, Italy made
application for similar favours and obtained
them. In the year 1866 an Italian warship
arrived for this purpose and concluded a
provisional treaty with the shogun, a regular
and permanent treaty being negotiated the
following year, along the lines of those con-
ceded to other countries. In the year 1869
the first Italian Minister to Japan arrived
in the person of Count Vittorio Sallier de la
Tour, who was succeeded in the following
year by Count Alessandro F6 D'Ostiani.
The latter remained seven years and then in
1877 Count Raffaele Ulisse Barbolani was
appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minis-
ter Plenipotentiary to Japan, during whose
tenure an Italian Royal Prince visited Japan
and was accorded imperial honours. In
1882 came Chevalier Eugenio Martin Lan-
ciarez who acted as charge d'affaires during
the revision of the foreign treaties, and was
succeeded by Count Renato de Martino in
1883. Coimt de Martino remained until
1894 when Count Ercole Orfini was appointed
Minister to Tokyo. He continued in the
Legation until 1901, when he was replaced
by Coimt Gulio Melegari, w'ho represented
Italy in Tokyo until 1904. Count Gulie
Cesare Vinci then became Minister to Japan.
After the European nations raised their
legations in Tokyo to embassies the first
Italian Ambassador to Japan was Count
Giovaimi Gallina, who arrived in 1907, and
was succeeded by Marquis Alessandro
Guiccioli in the following year. The present
Italian Ambassador to Tokyo is Count
Fausto Cucchi-Boasso, who was appointed
in 1916.
GERMANY
It is very natural that Imperial Germany
should have long held a definite place in the
mind of Imperial Japan, who has based her
national constitution and many of her laws
on those of Germany. In fact, the two na-
tions have had so much in common in various
ways that they have never been overdemon-
strative, toward each other, and the war in
Europe has separated them still farther.
German influence in Japan, however, has
been very great, especially on the national
army and on the national educational system.
Diplomatically Germany was somewhat
behind Great Britain and America in opening
up relations with Japan. A Prussian war-
ship arrived in Yedo Bay in i860 and asked
for a treaty of intercourse such as had been
conceded to the United States and England,
and though the Bakufii at first hesitated, the
perseverance of the German admiral pre-
vailed and a provisional treaty was finally
arranged. Another German warship ap-
peared in Yedo Bay in 1863 and proceeded
to make a sur\'ey of the waters. In 1868
Germany appealed for a more satisfactory
treaty with Japan, and one was granted
giving full rights and privileges. Herr von
Brandt, the first German representative,
took up his residence in 1863 as Consul and
was made Consul- General in 1868. After
the unification of Germany in 1871 Herr \-on
Brandt was appointed the first German
Minister to Japan, presenting his credentials
from the emperor of the newly organised
empire, William I. Herr von Brandt was
German Minister in Tokyo during the time
that Sir Harry Parkes represented Great
Britain, and the two diplomats worked
together in an amicable spirit for the progress
of Japan toward modern ways, even keeping
up a regular correspondence after the removal
of the German Mini.ster to Pekin. The next
German Minister to Tokyo was Herr von
Eisendecher who came in 1875 and remained
until 1880, when he was succeeded by Count
Doenhoff as Envoy Extraordinary and Min-
ister Plenipotentiary. In 1879 the Emperor
of Japan conferred on the Emperor of Ger-
many the Grand Cordon of the Chrysan-
themum, the highest honour within the
imperial gift ; and in the following year Prince
William Heinrich visited Japan and conveyed
to the Emperor the Order of the Black Eagle.
Dr. von Holleben was accredited Minister to
Japan in 1886 and Baron von Gutschmid in
1892. It was at this time that Germany
united with Russia and France in ousting
Japan from the Liaotung Peninsula, and
diplomatic relations were much strained.
Count Leyden was appointed Minister to
Tokyo in 1898 and was succeeded three years
later by Count von Arco Valley. When the
Legation was raised to the rank of an Em-
bassy in 1906 the first German Ambassador
to Japan was Baron Mumm von Schwarzen-
stein who remained until 191 1, when Count
von Rex became Ambassador. Count von
Rex held office until the rupture of relations
with Japan in 19 14 on the outbreak of the
war in Europe. Japan, in accordance with
the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance,
took the side of England in the struggle,
and requested Germany to withdraw from
Kiaouchou. Germany refused and Japan
invested Tsingtau and reduced the fortress
to submission.
.\USTRO-HUNG.\RY
Though the Empire of Austro-Hungary
forms one of the great powers of Europe,
relations with Japan have been of such recent
date that there is not a great deal to be said
in the way of history. Austria, for many
years both before and after its union with
the Crown of Hungary, was engaged in such
constant warfare that there was little time
or opportunity for opening up intercourse
with regions more remote. But as soon as
Japan opened her ports to foreign commerce
and began to make treaties with the nations
of Europe, Austro-Hungary came in for
similar favours.
The first negotiations for treaty relations
between Japan and Austria began in 1869,
the proceedings being conducted by the
Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs. The
treaty concluded was signed on the 12th of
September the same year, and the first
Austrian Minister to Japan, Count Petz,
presented his credentials and was accorded
an audience by the Emperor of Japan. On
the 28th of November, 1871, Japan opened
further negotiations for improvement of
treaty relations with Austria and a new treaty
was formally signed on the 3d of December
in the same year. The new Austro-Hunga-
rian Minister was Heinrich Freiberr von
Calice who remained in Tokyo until March,
1874. During the year 1873 relations be-
tween Japan and Austria were made closer
by an invitation from Vienna asking Japan
to participate in the great International
Exhibition to be held there. This was one of
Japan's earliest opportunities of introducing
her arts and manufactures to the Western
world, and she in t\irn brought back from
Europe many valuable hints with regard to
industry. In March, 1874, Pgnaz Freiberr
von Schaeffer came as Minister to Japan,
remaining three years, when he was suc-
ceeded by Herr Carl Ritter von Boleslawski
during whose two years of office no important
event marked the relations between the two
countries. From 1879 to 1882 Herr Mixi-
milian Ritter Hoffer von Hoffenfels was
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
71
Austrian Minister in Tokyo, after which the
legation was occupied by Carl Graff Zalushi,
during whose tenure of office the foreign
treaties were revised. In 1888 Rudiger
Freiherr von Biegeleben represented his
country at the Court of the Mikado, remain-
ing until 1895, when he was succeeded by
Christoph Graf von Wydenbruch who con-
tinued to represent his country until October,
1899, during which period a revised Treaty
of Navigation and Commerce was success-
fully concluded with Japan. Adalbert Am-
bro von Adamosz, who came as Minister in
October, 1899, was promoted to the rank
of Ambassador in 1907, and was succeeded
by Baron Guido de Call in March, 1909. In
September, 1912, Baron Ladislaus Miillcr
was appointed Ambassador to Japan and
remained until the rupture of diplomatic
relations in 19 14 on account of the European
war.
LEGATIONS
THE NETHERLANDS LEGATION
The Dutch, as is well known, were among
the first Europeans to open up intercourse
with Japan. The first Hollander to set foot
on the sacred soil of the gods was Derrick
Gerritson who came on a ship of the Portu-
guese East India Company in 1585. On
his return to Europe Gerritson spread the
report that there was a good opening for
woollen cloth in Japan and a Dutch East
India Company was established in 1602 to
engage in trade with Japan and the Far
East. The organisation of the company was
furthered by the expulsion of the Dutch from
Lisbon by Philip of Spain when he became
king of Portugal in 1580; and to make up for
their loss of trade as distributors of spices in
Europe they started out to trade with the
East on their own account. Indeed, the
Netherlands had been so ruthlessly pillaged
by Spain that the only hope of the country
was on the sea whence the people endeavoured
to repair their shattered fortunes by trade.
Dutchmen arrived in Japan on the same ship
with Will Adams, the Englishman; and one
of these, Jan Yoosen van Lodenstein, was
employed as an interpreter by the shogun,
but he fell into debt and bad habits and was
finally banished the country. He has left
his name in Tokyo, however, Yalsucho in
Nihonbashi, the place where his house stood,
being called after him. The first Dutch
ships that came to Japan were welcomed and
given permission to trade where they would,
and from 1608 to 1638 there was unre-
stricted trade between Japan and Holland;
but when foreigners were finally banished the
Dutch were confined to Nagasaki and
allowed to trade when all other foreigners
except Chinese had been driven out. During
A WELL KNOWN SPOT NEAR THE IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO
the seventeenth century Dutch ships came
regularly to Nagasaki, save toward the end,
when they had carried away so much gold
that only two a year were permitted to
arrive; and as these carried American sailors
to avoid seizure by the English, the Japanese
became suspicious of them and serious com-
plications threatened. Up to the middle of
the nineteenth century the Dutch settlement
at Nagasaki was Japan's only means of com-
munication with the outside world. In this
way, however, sufficient knowledge was
acquired to prepare Japan for the subsequent
intercourse forced upon her by Western
nations. Among the Dutchmen at Nagasaki
there were some distinguished scholars, such
as Kaempfer and von Siebold, who imparted
stores of knowledge to Japan and made Japan
known in the Western world. In i860 a
Dutch subject in the employ of the American
Legation as secretary and interpreter, Mr.
Huesken, was assassinated. The first Consul
METROPOLITAN POLICE OFFICE AND IMPERIAL THEATRE, TOKYO
^2
PRESENT-DAY I M I' U K S S I O N S OF JAPAN
from the Netherlands came to Japan in 1 868
in the person of Herr van Vorsblok and he
was followed by Herr van Doerfen in 1871,
who also acted for Norway and Sweden.
He was the first foreign representative in
Tok}-o to call at the imperial palace on New
Year's Day to offer felicitations to the Em-
peror, a custom subsequently adopted and
since continued by all foreign representatives
in Tokj-o. The first treaty between Japan
and Holland was concluded in 1856 shortly
after the opening of the country, this being
replaced by another in 1866 and this again
was changed, when the foreign treaties were
revised and consular jurisdiction abolished.
One of the most popular representatives of
the Netherlands in Tokyo was Herr J. H. van
Roj-en who remained until the appointment
of the present Minister, Baron Dirk van
Asbeck. The councillor of the Dutch Lega-
tion, Herr Leon van de Polder, is one of the
oldest and most respected diplomatic officials
in Tokyo, having been in office there for a
great many years.
THE SPANISH LEGATION
Spain was one of the first European na-
tions to have communication witli Japan,
her merchants and missionaries arriving about
the middle of the sixteenth century. The
saintly Francis Xavier landed near Kago-
shima in 1548 and from that time there was
a steady influx of missionaries until, in half
a century, there were nearly a million Chris-
tians among the Japanese. These Spanish
missionaries and merchants gave Japan her
earliest authentic knowledge of Europe and
of Western civiUsation. But through the
jealousy of the Portuguese the Japanese
authorities began to hear of Spanish aggres-
sion in Mexico, South America, and the
Philippines, and this, together with the
adverse attitude of the Spanish missionaries
to Japanese laws and morals, aroused suspi-
cion in the minds of the authorities and
finally all foreigners were banished the coun-
try except the Dutch and Chinese. The
expulsion of the missionaries was not accom-
plished without persecution of the most
bloodthirsty nature, an account of which
will be found in the article on Religion else-
where in this volume. One can not refrain
from seeing in the awful sufferings of the
Spanish missionaries in Japan something of
the Nemesis of fate for the tortures of the
"Holy Inquisition" in Spain itself. Not-
withstanding his determination to rid the
countr>' of foreigners, the shogun had no
desire to force a rupture of relations with
Spain, and an embassy was sent to Europe
in 1 61 4 with the idea of seeking an audience
with the King of Spain as well as proceeding
to Rome to see the Pope. In 1609 a Spanish
ship bearing Don Rodrigo, then governor of
the Philippines, was wrecked on the shores of
Japan, when the castaways were cordially
received and kindly treated, being allowed
to build a ship imder the direction of the Eng-
Hsh exile. Will Adams, in which they sailed
for Mexico carrying with them a Japanese
envoy to the King of Spain, with a special
request that mining engineers be sent to
Japan. From the time of the enforcement of
the exclusion policy in 1623 down to the
period of opening Japan to international
intercoiu"se, there were no fiorther relations
with Spain; and when a treaty was asked for
it was cordially conceded by the same sho-
gunate that had broken off all relations with
Spain nearly two centuries before. The new
treaty with Spain was signed on the 28th of
September, 1868, since which date relations
between the two countries have been of the
best. The various ministers that have
THE .MHONHASHI BRIDGE, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
73
THE GOLF LINKS AND CLUB HOUSE AT ROKKOSAN
represented Spain at the Court of the Mikado
have been well received and have left a
very pleasing impression on Japan. The
present Spanish Minister to Japan is Don
Jose Caro y Szccheuyi.
THE PORTUGUESE LEGATION
After the famous Portuguese navigator,
Vasco de Gama, made his way into the Indian
Ocean around the Cape of Good Hope in
1497 his country soon established itself in
the East, taking the trade in silks and spices
from the Arabs and Venetians. The adven-
turers in time found their way to the shores
of Japan. The first natives of Portugal to
reach Japan were Anthony de Moto and two
companions who were cast ashore by the
wreck of a Chinese junk in 1542; and the
following year came Mendez Pinto, also being
driven ashore by contrary winds. From him
the Japanese first learned of the existence of
firearms, and one can imagine the astonish-
ment and awe of the crowd that gathered to
see him put his iron tube to his shoulder and
bring down a bird. The people at first be-
lieved that the energy exerted by the weapon
was due to enchantment or magic. Pinto
and his men were forthwith treated as won-
der-workers and borne in palanquins through
the town like daimyo. The musket was
finally presented to the daimyo, who sent a
present of 1,000 tales of silver in return.
The Portuguese not only taught the Japanese
how to use firearms but how to manufacture
them. It was this advantage which won an
opening for all foreigners who arrived in
Japan afterward. It was Pinto who opened
the way for the coming of the missionaries;
for during his first visit in 1543 he took away
with him to Goa a Japanese who learned
Spanish and returned as interpreter with
Francis Xavier in 1548, Pinto also accom-
panying them. From this time all Portu-
guese ships coming to Japan carried two com-
modities: firearms and friars. All were suc-
cessful until the arrival of the Franciscans
from Manila, when jealousy broke out and
backbiting created suspicion among the
authorities. The rivalry of the Franciscans
with the Portuguese Jesuits was further
accentuated by rivalry between the Spanish
and Portuguese merchants, finally leading
to the banishment of religion and trade
alike.
For some ninety years after the edict ban-
ishing foreigners no Portuguese ship ven-
tured near the shores of Japan, and the one
that did appear later was promptly dis-
missed with a copy of the edict. Intercourse
between Japan and Portugal remained qui-
escent until the opening of Japan to Western
nations, when the usual treaties were nego-
tiated and signed between the two countries.
This was in the year 1859, when a Portuguese
ship sailed into the Bay of Yedo and re-
quested a treaty such as had been accorded
the United States. This was followed by a
more permanent treaty in 1862. In 1873
Sgr. Bicono San Shanwalico, the first Portu-
guese Minister to Japan, arrived in Tokyo
and was duly accorded an audience by the
Emperor. Portugal amicably acquiesced in
Japan's desire for a revision of her foreign
treaties, and Portugal agreed to the abolition
of her extraterritoriality in 1892, being the
first of the Occidental nations to abandon
consular jurisdiction in Japan. At present
Portugal is represented in Japan by Sgr.
Cesar de Sousa Mendes, as charge d'affaires.
THE UNITED STATES LEGATION AT TOKYO
74
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE BELGIAN LEGATION
At a time when other European countries
were pushing their interests in the Far East
Belgium was subject to Spanish rule, passing
successively into the hands of France and
Austria; and later she united with Holland
when that countrj' was extending its sea trade
eastward, though there is no record to show
how far Belgium shared in this. After Bel-
gium separated from Holland and elected
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as her king
in 1 83 1, she began to take more interest in
overseas trade. But formal negotiations for
a treaty with Japan were not begun imtil
some time after the other powers had achieved
this end. A provisional treaty was agreed
to in 1866 and in 1870 the first representative
of Belgium, M. Auguste Kint, arrived in
Tokyo, and was succeeded in 1873 by M. Carl
de Claut. Japan was invited to participate
in the International Commercial Congress at
Brussels in 1880, and in the same year the
King of Belgium conferred on the Emperor of
Japan the Order of Knight of Leopold.
When the conference for the revision of for-
eign treaties was held in Tokyo in 1886 Bel-
gium was represented by M. George Martins,
and a new treaty was concluded with Belgium
in I goo. Among the various distinguished
citizens of Belgium who have represented
their country in Japan none has been more
favourably known than the late Baron
d'Anethan, who was for many years the
doyen of the diplomatic corps in the Japanese
capital. The present Belgian Minister is
Count della Faille de Leverghem, who has
occupied the Legation since 1910. He was
bom in 1871 and entered diplomatic life by
being appointed attache to the Legation at
Berlin in 1893, and secretary at Lisbon in
1894. He was promoted to a similar position
at Rome in 1898 and again to Berlin in 1900,
being raised to the rank of councillor in 1906.
From this time until 1909 he was councillor
at the Belgian Legation at The Hague,
coming to the Belgian Legation in Tokj'O as
Minister in 1910. The Belgian Minister
bears the royal decoration of a Knight of the
Order of Leopold, and the First Class Order
of the Rising Sun has been conferred upon
him by the Emperor of Japan. He holds
numerous other orders from Belgium as well.
The Countess was a daughter of M. Maskins,
Belgian Minister to Rome, and there are two
children. The first secretary of the Belgian
Legation is M. Lemaire de Warzee d'Her-
malle.
THE SWEDISH LEGATION
While the Northmen were the greatest
sailors of the early European world, they did
not find their way to the Orient as soon as
their southern neighbours, the Dutch; and
Sweden did not open relations with Japan
until 1868, when negotiations were begun for
the conclusion of a treaty, which was signed
on the 7th of November, 1870. This treaty
was revised and enlarged in 1896, the same
being true of Norway which was united with
Sweden at this time. Relations between
Japan and Sweden have always been very
cordial; and when the distinguished traveller.
Dr. Sven Hedin, visited Japan in 1910 he
was accorded a most enthusiastic reception.
Japan sent delegates to the Olympic Games
in Sweden in 1912. Until the present war
Japan has drawn her supply of wood pulp
largely from Sweden.
The present Minister of Sweden in Tokyo
is M. Gustaf Oscar Wallenberg, who arrived
in 1907, and represents his country at Pekin
as well. M. W^allenberg was educated as
a naval officer and served in that capacity
at home, later becoming a member of the
Swedish Parliament, and serving on many
royal commissions. After his promotion to
the rank of captain in the royal na\'y of
Sweden he was appointed Minister to Japan
and China. Captain Wallenberg holds many
distinguished orders, including First Class
Order of the Swedish Polar Star, the First
Class Order of the Rising Sun, and the First
Class Chinese Double Dragon, as well as
various French and Spanish decorations.
THE NORWEGIAN LEGATION
Relations between Japan and Norway
are included in those with Sweden, and since
the separation of Norway from Sweden the
representative of Norway in Japan has been
Baron d'Anker, acting as charge d'affaires.
THE CHINESE LEGATION
The beginning of relations between Japan
and China must be placed far back in the
mists of prehistoric time; for they are as old
as those of Britain with her ancestral shores
across the Oceanus Germanicus. The first
historic mention of diplomatic intercourse
with China is in the time of the Emperor
Suin, 40 A. D. The Han dynasty of China
did all in its power to encourage intercourse
with Japan. We have mention of presents
brought to the Emperor of Japan in the
middle of the third century A. D., which sug-
gests diplomatic relations. The influence of
Chinese literatitre and art as well as Budd-
hism brought the two countries closer to-
gether; but China's attempted invasion of
Japan in the thirteenth century and Japan's
attempted invasion of China in the sixteenth
century show that diplomatic relations
were never intimate after Japan secured her
independence. A close study of the frequent
embassies exchanged by the two countries
between the years 600 A. d. and 1600 A. D.
will show the truth of the last statement.
These embassies, which were most elaborate
and expensive in the eighth and ninth cen-
turies, declined after the tenth century, with
the rise of national autonomy. The twelfth
and thirteenth centuries in Japan were taken
up with the constant clash of mighty clans,
and there was no time for foreign diplomacy,
though China intruded by an abortive inva-
sion. In the seventeenth century when Euro-
pean ships were trading with Japan, those of
China were accorded similar privileges, for
it was a policy of the shoguns to keep the
peace with China.
When Japan consented to negotiate treaties
with Western powers China was granted a
like privilege, an agreement was concluded
between the two countries in 1869, and the
first Chinese consul arrived in Japan in 1877.
Disputes with China over Formosa occurred
in 1874 and over Korea in 1894, the latter
trouble leading to war. In recent years
relations between Japan and China have not
been overcordial, chiefly owing to Japan's
policy of seeking to control China so as to
prevent foreign concessions, on the score of
Japan's own safety. The present Chinese
Minister in Tokyo is Mr. Chang Tsung-
Hsiang, who was born in 1877 and educated
at the University of Pekin and in Tokyo. In
19 10 he became Commissioner of Police in
Pekin, and was Chief of the Supreme Court
in 1913, becoming Minister of Justice in
1915. The following year he was appointed
Chinese Minister to Tokyo. The first secre-
tary to the Chinese Legation is Mr. Wong
Hung-Nien.
THE SIAMESE LEGATION
Japan opened international relations with
Siam in much the same way as she did with
Portugal, Spain, and England, through her
traders and merchant adventurers of the
sixteenth century. Japan learned about
Siam from the Spanish and Portuguese
traders and missionaries coming to her shores,
and many Japanese began to find their way
to Siam. In 1605 it is recorded that the
Shogun leyasu sent a letter to the King of
Siam demanding tribute, and another
missive five years later asking for guns and
ammunition. The story of early Japanese
adventure in Siam reads like a tale of
the Arabian Nights. The Japanese settle-
ment there was so large and influential that
during a rebellion the Japanese aided the
king in suppressing it, the king giving Ya-
mada Nagamasa, the leader, his daughter
as a reward for his valour. In 1625 the
ruler of Siam sent an envoy to Yedo to
thank the shogun for the assistance rendered
by the Japanese. The Japanese, however,
became too much for the Siamese and they
were later banished from the country; which
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
75
THE BRITISH CONSULATE AT YOKOHAMA
did not much matter to the shogun, as about
this time he issued an edict prohibiting all
his subjects from going abroad. Thus from
the middle of the seventeenth century to the
year 1875, when negotiations were reopened
between them, there was no formal inter-
course between Tokyo and Bangkok.
There was no definite outcome of the first
negotiations with Siam, and not until Prince
Deva Ouguz^ arrived in Japan in 1887 were
formal relations fully restored. The prince
presented to the Emperor of Japan the Siam-
ese Order of the White Elephant, and in re-
turn received for the King of Siam the Order
of the Rising Sun. From that time the gov-
ernment of Siam began to employ Japanese,
and the relations have been most cordial.
The present representative of Siam at the
Court of the Mikado is Phya Chammong
Dithakar, who came in 191 1. He was born
in 1874, being the son of a former Minister
of Foreign Affairs, and was educated in Siam
and in England, entering diplomatic service
in 1897. He became secretary of legation at
Tokyo in 1901, when he also acted as charge
d'affaires. He was transferred to London in
1903 and acted as charge d'affaires at Paris in
1904, returning to London in 1905. In
1907 he was transferred to Petrograd where
he remained until being appointed to the
consular bureau of the Foreign Office in 1909,
after which he was appointed Siamese Minis-
ter to Japan. The Siamese Minister holds
several distinguished decorations, including
the Fourth Class Order of the White Ele-
phant and the First Class Order of the Rising
Sun.
THE MEXICAN LEGATION
How early Japan and Mexico had more or
less distant relations is a matter of specula-
tion; but there is good reason to believe that
Japanese drifted to the shores of that country
in prehistoric times as well as subsequently,
and it is altogether likely that the ancestors
of the tribes that peopled North and South
America came from Asia. At any rate the
archaeology of Mexico and Central America
is more suggestive of Japan than of any other
country. But Japan had no formal knowl-
edge of Mexico until the Spanish came to her
shores in the fifteenth century. During the
Tokugawa period leyasu was anxious to pro-
mote good relations with Mexico for reasons
of trade, and even sent for miners from that
country. The first treaty between Japan
and Mexico was negotiated in January, 1888,
the document being signed at Washington by
the Japanese Minister there and a represent-
ative of Mexico. Since then relations
between the two countries have been very
intimate, indeed, so much so as to have
aroused suspicion in some quarters. The
present Minister of Mexico in Tokyo is
M. Manuel Perez Romero, who has been
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary since 1916. M. Romero belongs
to an old family of Mexico and was educated
at home and at Stanford University, Cali-
fornia. On the election of his brother-in-law,
the late Francisco Madero, as President of
Mexico, M. Romero entered politics, taking
a prominent part in the revolutionary move-
ment initiated by President Carranza. Be-
fore being appointed Minister to Japan
M. Romero was a member of the Mexican
Legislature and Governor of the State of
Vera Cruz. The first secretary of the Mexi-
can Legation is M. Manuel C. Tellez, who
acted as Mexican consul in various countries
before coming to Japan.
OTHER LEGATIONS
The remaining legations in Tokyo are of
those nations that have but recently entered
into close relations with Japan and keep
usually but one official in residence. These are:
The Danish Legation: Minister, Count
P. Ahlefeldt Laurvig.
The Swiss Legation: Minister, M. Ferdi-
nand de Salis.
The Argentine Legation: Minister, M.
Francisco Ortiz.
The Brazilian Legation: Minister, E. L.
Chermont.
The Chilian Legation: Minister, M. Fran-
cisco Rivas Vicuna.
IKUTA TEMPLE, KOBE
VII. The Diplomacy and Foreign
Policy of Japan
By D. J. EVANS, Managing Editor o( "The Japan Chronicle"
The Opening of the Ports— The Recognition of Japan as a Great Power— Japans Policy
IN Korea— Japans Policy Toward China— Japans Southward Expansion
Some twenty years ago, when that
well-known figure in Japanese politics,
Marquis Okuma, was Minister for
Foreign Affairs, he delivered some obiter
dicta on the subject of diplomacy which may
well serve as an introduction to this brief
sketch of Japan's foreign policy during the
last sixty years. The then Foreign Minister
said; "Diplomacy is justice. It may per-
haps be well sometimes in diplomacy to be
entrenched within fortifications, but I do
not intend so to shield myself. I shall, on
the contrary, be guided by a spirit of perfect
frankness. Adhesion to this policy has, I
think, been the secret of Japan's success."
Much water has flowed under the bridges
since this speech was made, but probably
Marquis Okuma would say, if he were ques-
tioned to-day, that what he said in 1896 ex-
actly and precisely represented the views he
held in 1916 as Premier, the notoriously un-
just and unfrank Twenty-one Demands he
made upon China notwithstanding, of which
mention shall be made later.
In outlining Japan's foreign policy and
diplomacy during a period of sixty odd years,
it will be convenient to divide the review into
three sections: First, from the arrival of
Perry to the abolition of extraterritoriality
and the Sino-Japanese War; second, from that
date down to the Russo-Japanese War; and
third, from that great struggle down to the
time of writing. All three periods have their
own peculiar and particular interest, the first
as showing the gradual awakening of Japan,
the second as showing the consequences of
that awakening, and the third as indicating
more or less clearly the line of Japan's future
development.
It may be of interest to devote some little
space to sketching Japan before the arrival
of the Perry Expedition, which, of course,
was not the first time that American ships
had entered Japanese waters. During the
first half of the nineteenth century the num-
ber of American vessels engaged in sealing
in the northern Pacific rapidly increased, and
from time to time they put into Japanese
ports, although the country was not open to
foreign trade. Sometimes these visits were
due to stress of weather, and ships made for
the nearest port in order to get food or new-
tackle. Sometimes foreign ships would call,
to land Japanese fishermen carried out to
sea by storms and rescued by a foreign ship.
There is reason to believe that in some cases
it was not altogether the humane- desire to
restore to his fellow countrymen an unlucky
castaway which jjrompted the master of a
foreign ship to make for the coast of Japan.
Enterprising men were the shipmasters of
those days, and the prospect of doing a little
prohibited, but profitable, trade with the
Japanese probably counted for much in con-
sidering whether the ship's course should be
changed, and her head pointed direct for the
coast of Japan to land two or three fishermen.
The attitude of the Japanese toward these
intruders, however, was not at all cor-
dial; shipwrecked foreigners were sometimes
treated well, but often with much harshness;
unarmed foreign ships were usually fired
upon, but men-of-war were received in quite
a different spirit. They were towed in and
out of harbour without charge, and so long
as they did not wish to enter into negotiations,
provisions were supplied free on the under-
standing that they left at once. The delicate
distinction shown in the manner of receiving
armed and unarmed strangers — equally un-
welcome— is decidedly interesting.
THE OPENING OF THE PORTS
It was about 1830 that the question of
opening trade relations with Japan was
actively discussed in America, and after
various unsuccessful preliminary efforts in
this direction. Commodore Perry in 1852 was
instructed to proceed to Japan on a threefold
mission — to make arrangements for the better
treatment of shipwrecked Americans landing
in Japan, to obtain permission for American
ships to call at one or more ports, and to seek
the concession of a coaling depot. The story
of Perry's mission is so well known that it
need only be briefly touched upon here. His
I' R E S li N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
11
fleet of four men-of-war sailed into Uraga,
Tokyo Bay, in July, 1853, and having ex-
plained his mission. Perry sailed away nine
days later, intimating to the Japanese that
he would return in the following spring with
a larger squadron. In February, 1854, he
arrived with six ships, and at the end of the
following month Japan opened relations with
a foreign nation by signing a treaty opening
the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to
American ships. This treaty, however, did
not give American citizens the right of resi-
dence in Japan; it merely provided for
American ships entering the two ports named,
and landing goods and loading other goods in
exchange. As a matter of fact, neither
Shimoda nor Hakodate were places which
offered much prospect of commercial develop-
ment. It was a concession, however, which
though not particularly valuable in itself,
was an important one inasmuch as it placed
relations between Japan and a foreign coun-
try on a new and regular footing. Mr. Gub-
bins (one-time Secretary of the British Lega-
tion in Tokyo) quotes a Japanese authority
to the effect that the men who negotiated
this treaty with Perry took credit to them-
selves for having conceded so little, an exam-
ple of one-sided "reciprocity" which has been
frequently repeated, and they also prided
themselves upon having reached a settlement
with Perry, without having answered the
letter from the President of the United States,
which Perry had handed to the Japanese on
his first appearance in 1853. Further satis-
faction was expressed at the fact that the
whole affair had been arranged without the
members of the council being called upon to
place their seals upon any document, which
"they thought was a worthy upholding of
Japan's dignity."
Seven months after Perry obtained the
concessions above-mentioned. Admiral Stir-
ling (who was accompanied by four war-
ships) obtained a concession for Great
Britain whereby Nagasaki and Hakodate
were opened to British ships for supplies and
refitting. No right of residence was granted,
and it was actually stipulated that "no high
officer coming to Japan should alter" the
treaty which made the meagre concessions
mentioned. Mr. Gubbins says this was
evidently intended to place on record the fact
that the terms of the convention marked the
high-water mark of Japanese concessions.
Certainly the British Admiral was content
with very little, for although there was a
most-favoured-nation clause in the treaty,
it was also stipulated that this was not to
apply to the advantage accruing to the Dutch
and Chinese from their existing relations
with Japan. Next came a Russian Admiral
with four warships, and in due course Shi-
moda, Hakodate, and Nagasaki were opened
COMMODORE MATTHEW C. PERRY
to Russian trade. There was another impor-
tant feature of the first Russo-Japanese
Treaty, however, inasmuch as it provided
for the residence in the ports of Russian
subjects with their wives and families, and
for the first time the important principle of
extraterritoriality was recognised. The fol-
lowing year (1856) saw the arrival of Mr.
Townsend Harris in Japan as the first Am-
erican Consul-General, a very unwelcome
visitor. The Japanese understood that the
treaty made with Admiral Perry provided
that a Consul should be appointed by the
United States only if some difficulty arose
between the two governments, and no diffi-
culty having arisen they deeply resented the
coming of Townsend Harris. This was for-
eign invasion at last, and every form of
annoyance and aggravation was resorted to
in the hope of exhausting the American emis-
sary's patience and forcing him to return to
Washington disappointed and defeated. An
78
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
appeal to the commander of the warship on
which Mr. Harris crossed the Pacific, to take
the undesired visitor away, proving ineffec-
tive, the Japanese resorted to a deliberate
plan of passive resistance amounting to boy-
cott. Despatches were unanswered, and
inquiries for information evaded. After ten
months of prevarication and procrastination
on the part of the Japanese, Mr. Harris was
able in June, 1857, to conclude a treaty ampli-
fying that made by Commodore Perry, open-
ing the port of Nagasaki in addition and
establishing the principle of extraterrito-
riality. Realising the desirability of a still
broader understanding, Mr. Harris resumed
negotiations with the Japanese authorities,
and on July 29, 1858, a treaty was signed at
Kanagawa (in Tokyo Bay), on board an
American warship, which amplified and ex-
panded the preceding agreement. Lord
Elgin next made a treaty for Britain, and the
French, Russians, and Dutch concluded simi-
lar treaties, closely following the lines of the
British documents. On July 4, 1859, Mr.
Townsend Harris landed from the U. S. A.
Mississippi at Kanagawa, accompanied by
the captain and officers, and at noon the Stars
and Stripes was hoisted to mark the opening
of Yokohama to foreign trade. The British
Consul-General (Sir Rutherford Alcock) and
other foreign officials were present on this
notable occasion, which marked the success-
ful termination of many months of patient
and painstaking negotiations in the face of
the most tremendous difficulties. In her first
experiment in diplomacy, Japan's seclusion
policy was defeated; the undesired alien won
his point, and Japan was opened to foreign
trade and residence.
THE RECOGNITION OF JAPAN
AS A GREAT POWER
With the resumption of foreign intercourse
after more than two centuries of seclusion it
became necessary for Japan to frame another
foreign policy. At first that policy was some-
what obscvire owing to the strong opposition
of a section of the Japanese to the foreign
barbarian. This feeling was most marked
among the "two-sworded men" of samurai
class; the common people as a whole were
friendly enough, but the warrior class were
very bitter in their attitude toward the for-
eigners. Loyalty to the Emperor, in their
opinion, demanded that the intruders be
driven out of the country, but the wiser
among the nation had seen — or at least had
heard of — the tremendous strength and
resources of the Western Powers, and realised
that any attempt to force the foreigners to
surrender the rights they had gained by
treaty (supported by warships) would result
in swift and stem retribution. Those who
had any doubts were convinced by the bom-
bardment of Shimonoseki by American,
British, French, and Dutch warships. Ja-
pan's next foreign policy, then, was one of
imitation. Experts were engaged in Europe
and America to build railways in Japan, to
establish telegraphs, lighthouses, to teach in
schools, to act as naval and military instruc-
tors, as jurists, as financial advisers, and in a
hundred different ways to guide and assist
Japan to follow in the steps of the nations
with whom she had suddenly been brought
in contact. The Japanese were apt pupils,
and rapidly learned the Western arts intro-
duced to them by the expert foreigners
engaged by the Japanese Government to
expedite the change from feudalism to
modernism. So rapid was the process of
advancement, indeed, that in 1872 we find
an effort being made to take advantage of
the opportunity given for revising the
treaties with foreign powers, Japan's principal
object being to obtain the abolition of extra-
territoriality. Prince Iwakura was sent to
America to conclude a new treaty to this
end, but after a year returned with nothing
accomplished. Japan's claims were regarded
as premature. Under the extraterritorial
system, foreigners residing in Japan in the
settlements set apart for them, were under
the jurisdiction of their Consuls. A foreigner
committing a criminal offence, or engaging in
civil proceeding as plaintiff, had the law of
his own country administered by the resident
Consul, but Japanese were never tried by
foreign judges, and any process against them
was conducted through the Japanese author-
ities. One of the first aims of Japan's early
foreign policy was to bring about the aboli-
tion of this right of extraterritoriality,
secured by the treaties with the various
powers, and the achievement of that aim
marks an important stage of Japan's diplo-
matic policy.
A well-known American writer on things
Japanese, Dr. Griffis, has given quite a mis-
leading account of the history of treaty
revision. In his work entitled "Townsend
Harris in Japan" the American writer says
that Japan's efforts at obtaining a revision of
the treaties were steadily repulsed by the
Treaty Powers, and "her rights trampled
upon and her wrongs multiplied by a delay
every hour of which is injustice." Dr. Griffis
describes the extraterritorial system as "the
intolerable burden under which the govern-
ments of both Yedo and Tokyo groaned for
a generation." Yet Mr. Townsend Harris has
put it on record that the Japanese without
any demur whatever agreed to his proposi-
tion that Americans should be tried by
their Consul and punished in accord with
American law, — indeed, it is difficult to see
how the case could be otherwise, seeing that
Japanese law, as law is understood by for-
eigners, was practically non-existent. Vis-
count Enomoto, who at one time was Japan's
Foreign Minister, speaking some years ago
in the Diet, admitted that when the treaties
were made for the "intolerable burden"
which Dr. Griffis says was placed upon Japan,
his complaints regarding the delay in restor-
ing to Japan complete autonomy over for-
eigners resident within her dominions are
equally unfounded. It was the vacillating
attitude of the Japanese themselves which
caused the delay. From 1880 to 1890 nego-
tiations were going on between Japan and the
Treaty Powers in regard to treaty revision,
and more than once a settlement was almost
reached, when the Japanese suddenly shifted
their ground, and the task had to be com-
menced afresh. The despatches which passed
between the British Government and its
representative in Tokyo show clearly that
liberal concessions were made to Japan. In
1889 the counter-draft of a treaty was sent
from London to Tokyo in which practically
all the Japanese claims were conceded.
Then came the attack upon Count Okuma
(now Marquis, who was then Foreign Minis-
ter), and the would-be assassin's demonstra-
tion of national hostility to the Japanese
Government's attitude led to the resignation
of the ministry and to further delay in the
negotiations for treaty revision. To blame
the Treaty Powers for the long delay in carry-
ing out this first big move in Japan's foreign
policy is quite unfair, but it is a charge fre-
quently made by Japanese writers and by
certain foreigners whose studies of Japanese
affairs show an extraordinary bias against
the foreign point of view. Professor Cham-
berlain— than whom Japan has no warmer
friend, and whose place as an authority on
things Japanese is beyond question — sums
up the situation very tersely. Some months
after the attack upon Okuma the Japanese
press started a new slogan, taito joyaku
kaisei, on treaty revision on a footing of
equality. This was the second classic exam-
ple of "one-sided" reciprocity, for "on exami-
nation it turned out to mean simply that the
foreign powers should concede everj'thing,
and Japan nothing at all." Incredible
though it may seem, in due course Japan won
her point, and thus revenged herself upon
those who had disturbed her seclusion some
forty years previously.
"The year 1894-5 ffs-Y bs said to mark a
turning-point in the modem history of Japa-
nese diplomacy," writes a professor at Waseda
University, Tokyo, in a brief essay on the
history of Japanese diplomatic affairs, upon
which subject he is regarded as an authority.
The Sino- Japanese War "arising out of the
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
79
rival claims of Iioth countries on Korea,"
was one notable event of this period, and the
other was "that after repeated failures Japan
finally succeeded in revising the humiliating
treaties with the powers." It has been al-
ready shown that the treaties were not
humiliating to Japan, and that the repeated
failures of negotiations for revision were due,
not to the injustice and illiberality of the
Western nations, as Dr. Griffis says, but to
the attitude of the Japanese Government.
Let us now turn to consider the " rival claims "
to Korea, and what came of them, for this
forms another important chapter in the his-
tory of Japan's foreign policy.
japan's policy in KOREA
It was the Ming dynasty in China that
placed the Korean emperors back upon the
throne after Hideyoshi's expedition from
Japan at the end of the sixteenth century,
and thus gave China the rank of suzerain
power in the peninsula. In this respect,
when Korea was opened to foreign trade in
1876, the position of that country vis-a-vis
China and Japan was just what it was nearly
three hundred years previously. The rapid
adoption by Japan of Western ideas, and the
abandonment of so many customs and preju-
dices more or less shared with Korea and
China in feudal days, was regarded with grave
disfavour by the conservative Chinese and
Koreans. Moreover, from the very begin-
ning of the Meiji era in 1868 the military
party in Japan adopted an aggressive attitude
toward Korea, though there were other influ-
ential men who tried to restrain this feeling,
which they foresaw would lead to serious
complications. The suspicions of the Kore-
ans steadily developed into manifestations
of fear and open hostility. Probably they
realised that with the increasing strength of
Japan, there was increasing danger to their
own independence. If they did realise this,
their expectations were fulfilled; if they did
not realise it, they went the right way about
it to hasten the fatal day.
A series of outrages occurred in Seoul in
the early eighties, of which Japanese were the
frequent victims, together with many of
the more progressive Koreans. These men,
rightly or wrongly, were regarded as rene-
gades by their conservative fellow-country-
men. Some of them probably were, but
there were others who were progressive with-
out being so " pro- Japanese " that they were
willing to further Japanese aims in the penin-
sula. The conservative Koreans, how-ever,
made no fine distinctions of this kind, and so
the muddle went on. Irritation in Japan at
the unsettled state of affairs in Korea steadily
increased until in 1894 — the year in which
judicial and tariff autonomy was conceded by
Britain (followed by other powers) to Japan,
as already mentioned — the crisis came. A
secret society known as the Tonghaks — sus-
pected in some quarters of being agents of
Japan — started to make trouble in Korea,
and the troops being unable to control them,
the Korean Government appealed to the
Chinese Resident at Seoul for help. Before
troops from China could arrive on the scene
Japanese troops had taken up positions
around Seoul (by virtue of an agreement with
China which provided for Chinese and
Japanese troops in equal number to maintain
order), and the Korean Government was
informed that unless conditions were at once
reorganised, Japan would undertake the
task herself. At the same time Japan noti-
fied China that the latter's suzerainty over
Korea was not recognised. As proof of this,
a transport loaded with Chinese troops on
their way to Seoul was intercepted and sunk,
and a week later Japan formally declared
war against China. The fighting lasted
about a year, but in spite of Japan's easy
victory, the political situation in Korea was
much the same as before the war, owing to
the frequent plots and counter-plots peculiar
to Oriental politics, as the result of which
the men who were in power when Japan
intervened, returned from their hiding-
places and resumed authority. This was
unfortunate indeed for Japan's policy in
regard to Korea, and an attempt to improve
matters led to still more disastrous results.
Viscount Miura was sent to Seoul as the Japa-
nese Minister Plenipotentiary, and five weeks
after his arrival the Queen of Korea was mur-
dered, together with a number of high coiu-t
officials and the queen's women attendants.
As the result in large measure of the action
taken by the British Minister at Seoul,
Viscount Miura was recalled to Japan and
with a number of others was put on trial.
The Court found that the conspiracy against
the Queen of Korea was formed and the
actual crime instigated by the Japanese
Minister, the First Secretary in the Legation,
and the Adviser to the Legation. But, the
judgment of the Japanese Court proceeded,
' ' there is not sufficient evidence to prove
that any of the accused actually committed
the crime originally meditated by them."
In other words, though the accused con-
cocted the plot and hired the assassins, and
though the selected victim was undoubtedly
murdered, the guilt of the conspirators was
not established to the satisfaction of the
Court. Whether persons of lesser importance
than high diplomatic officials would have been
discharged in similar circumstances, the
reader may judge. The finding of the Hiro-
shima Court, of course, deceived no one, and
before long the frightened Korean King,
accompanied by the Crown Prince, fled from
his palace to the Russian Legation in Seoul,
which was strongly guarded by Russian troops
and marines. Chinese influence had indeed
been completely crushed in Korea, but in
its place Japan now found a still stronger
influence — that of Russia. Mr Putnam
Weale, in summarising the situation at this
stage, says that "eighteen months after the
war with China, Russia was entrenched more
powerfully than China had ever been in
Korea — thus making the net results of a
conflict which had cost Japan at least £30,-
000,000 absolutely nil." A new start had to
be made by Japan with a view to retrieving
this costly blunder in her Korean policy. Of
the events leading up to the Russo-Japanese
War it is not necessary to dwell at much
length, since the facts are better known than
those sketched above dealing with the previ-
ous decade. Russian politicians, naval and
military men, and financiers visited Korea
in turn and started their own little schemes
to their own ends. The Japanese, however,
were not idle, and profiting by the lesson of
the Miura contretemps, set to work in another
direction. They succeeded at last in getting
the Korean royal family away from the
Russian Legation, and when the king said
he wished to become emperor, it was Japan
who first recognised the new title, knowing
that whatever he might call himself, the last
thing the nominal ruler of Korea would do
would be to rule. A few successful railway
deals, and the next thing was a Russo-
Japanese convention recognising the sover-
eignty and independence of Korea, and
pledging the signatories not to interfere in
Korean internal affairs. This was in 1898,
but there were men in Russia who saw that
Japan was making headway in Korea with
various industrial and commercial under-
takings, and considered that Russian prestige
was consequently in danger. During the
next four or five years Seoul was the centre
of constant intrigue and counter-intrigue
between Russian and Japanese interests, but
something of the sort was also going on in
Europe, where Japan was playing off Russia
and Britain against each other. The manner
in which the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was
concluded has been told by a Japanese states-
man. Count Hayashi. Only part of this
extremely interesting story was published in
Japan, the newspaper which commenced to
publish the deceased diplomat's memoirs
being warned by the Japanese Government
that further disclosures would not be per-
mitted. The whole story w-as made public,
however, in England, but owing to the war
attracted less attention from a preoccupied
world than it otherwise would have received.
In view of what has happened since, it is
80
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
curious indeed to note that Germany was
ready at this time to make an alliance with
Great Britain and Japan with the object of
maintaining the peace of the Far East.
The British Government and Count Hayashi
(then Japanese Minister in London) both
approved the idea when first mooted, but the
latter seemed to change his views somewhat,
and during the informal conversations that
followed, the British Secretary for Foreign
Aflfairs had occasion to remind the Japanese
Minister more than once that a triple alliance
would have to include one other party in
addition to Britain and Japan. Count
Hayashi seemed to have some suspicion of
Germa'ny's intentions, and Britain certainly
had a lively fear of Russia's, for it was appre-
hension of the apparent imminence of a
Russo-Japanese Alliance that stimulated the
British Government into abandoning the
long observed policy of "splendid isolation,"
and joining Japan in an alliance which
brought the latter country into line with
the Great Powers. Count Hayashi himself
has told how he played on the fears of Britain
in getting his own plans accepted. Finding
that negotiations with the British Govern-
ment toward the conclusion of an Anglo-
Japanese Alliance did not make progress at
the pace he desired, he cabled to his Govern-
ment in Tokyo suggesting that Britain might
be "stimulated" into expressing speedy
acquiescence with his proposal.
Now in Japan there was another party, led
by Marquis Ito, which favoured an under-
standing with Russia as a preliminary to an
Anglo- Japanese Alliance. Ito was of opinion
— and events showed his view to be correct —
that an alliance with Britain would arouse
suspicion in Russia. Therefore, before con-
cluding an Anglo-Japanese Alliance, he
favoured the arrangement of an understand-
ing with Russia disposing of the various out-
standing issues which were causing constant
irritation in Tokyo and Petrograd. Having
obtained permission from high authority to
see what could be done in this direction, Ito
went to Europe via America on what was said
to be a "holiday tour." Mention of Petro-
grad as a holiday resort for a Japanese
diplomat struck the British as rather strange,
and soon it began to be rumoured that Ito
was on his way to Russia to conclude an
agreement. These reports had the "stimu-
lating" effect desired by Japan's representa-
tive in London, and before long the Anglo-
Japanese Alliance was signed. Soon after,
as Ito had prophesied would happen unless
Russia's suspicions were first dispelled, Rus-
sia and Japan were at each other's throats in
a struggle which was to decide the doom of
Korea. The contest resulted in the humil
iating defeat of Russia by a nation numeri-
cally and financially weaker at the outset,
and further weakened almost to the verge of
collapse by the tremendous sacrifices of men
and money she had made. It was the incom-
petence and cowardice of the Russian milita-
ry leaders that gave Japan the victory, but it
is results that count these days, not causes.
Following close upon the moral triumph of
securing an alliance with Britain came this
material triumph over Russia, giving Japan
undisputed control over chaotic Korea, and
limited control over territory belonging to
China which had been leased to Russia.
Japan was now firmly established on the
mainland. No longer was she merely an
island empire; Korea was under her "pro-
tection," and the Kwantung Peninsula was
under her occupation for the period it had
been leased by China to Russia — until 1923.
Captain Brinkley, a never-failing apologist
for Japan in all international dififerences, and
for years the sturdiest champion in the local
and London press that Japan had, or could
have had, refers in his "History of the Japa-
nese People" to the peculiar position which
Japan found herself in after the Russo-Japan-
ese War. Speaking of the peace treaty
signed at Portsmouth — another quiet yet
brilliant diplomatic success for Japan — Cap-
tain Brinkley said: "Thus, Japan came to
hold in Manchuria a position somewhat
contradictory. On the one hand, she figured
as the champion of the Chinese Empire's
integrity and as an exponent of the new prin-
ciple of equal opportunity and the open door.
On the other, she appeared as the legatee of
many privileges more or less inconsistent with
that principle. Undoubtedly it was a posi-
tion in which some nations would have felt
embarrassed, but as nothing succeeds like
success, Japan went boldly forward with her
plans. Having established a protectorate
over Korea in 1905, the country was wholly
annexed by Japan in 1910. The independ-
ence of Korea had been guaranteed by Japan,
but the tearing-up of this ' scrap of paper ' was
not protested against by Britain, America,
or any other Great Power. Outside a few
Christian missions, and a fewer number of
gold-mining companies, there were no for-
eigners personally interested in the fate of
Korea, while those who were interested
politically, recognised that Japan had reached
the goal she had been striving after for so
long, and as nobody but a few 'ungrateful'
Koreans objected, there was nothing more to
be said. Her position in Korea being now
effectively established, Japan began to look
to her interests in Manchuria."
japan's policy toward china
To deal adequately with Japan's diplo-
matic i3olicy toward China would fill a book.
and a very interesting book it would be.
For twenty odd years it has been the pro-
fessed object of Japan to develop Sino-
Japanese friendship, but the good results of
that policy are microscopic. In Japan this
melancholy fact is explained in various ways:
by the unwarrantable suspicions of the
Chinese; by third parties who do not wish
to see closer relations between the Chinese
and Japanese peoples, circulating damaging
reports regarding Japan's real motives; by
all sorts of theories but the right one — that
it is Japan's own record and attitude which
stands in the way of closer relations between
the two nations. In the Lansing-Ishii
Agreement (which has just been concluded
as these lines are being written), the world is
again assured that Japan has no intention of
encroaching upon the independence or terri-
torial integrity of China, and that she pledges
herself once more to uphold the commercial
principles of the Open Door and "Equal
opportunity." The publication of this agree-
ment aroused much criticism in China, not
because there was any objection to the main-
tenance of the excellent principles set forth
by the American and Japanese diplomatists
who framed and .signed the document, but
because China resented the idea of two other
nations discussing the line of policy they
intended to pursue in China without China
being consulted in the matter at all. At
first glance probably few people in America —
and none at all in Japan — could see what
grievance China could make out of the con-
clusion of this agreement between America
and Japan, but a moment's reflection will
show that when two nations get together to
guarantee the integrity and independence of
a third, who is not approached, consulted,
or considered in any way, the signs and por-
tents regarding the future of the uncon-
sidered and unconsulted third party are not
reassuring. Further, the resentment of the
third party at having his affairs discussed in
detail by two outsiders without his own
feelings being considered is natural enough,
even though the intentions expressed are
of the most honourable character. But
when one of these two parties is regarded
with considerable suspicion, a suspicion
which it must be admitted is not without
justification in the light of history, the
indignation with which the news of the
signing of the Lansing-Ishii Agreement was
received in China can be easily understood.
Japan declared war on Russia to main-
tain the integrity and independence of
Korea; that country to-day has neither
integrity nor independence; it is Japanese
territory, and, ruled with a rod of iron, its
people are dumb, dispirited, and nationally
dead. Is it to be wondered at that China
rriii m, TWi'itii 1 1 '■ .■ ■ Tr^
iiiiii
THE PRESENT IMPERIAL JAPANESE CABINET
(Upper row, left to right) Lieutenant-General GiiCHi Tanaka, Minister of War — Tatsuo Yamamoto, Esq., Minister of Agriculture and
Commerce — Utaro Noda, Esq., Minister of Communications. (Second row, left to right) Viscount KosAi Uchida, Minister of
Foreign Affairs — Takashi Hara, Esq., Prime Minister and Minister of Justice — Takejiro Tokonami, Esq., Minister of Home Affairs.
(Third row, left to right) ToGUC.ORO Nakahashi, Esq., Minister of Education — Vice-Admiral Tomosaburo K.\to, Minister of the Navy —
Baron Korekiyo Takahashi, Minister of Finance
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
8i
is suspicious of Japanese guarantees of
her integrity and independence?
For twenty years the necessity for drawing
China and Japan into closer bonds of friend-
ship has been preaclicd in Japan by the most
brilliant speakers and writers in the country.
To-day the bonds between the two countries
are as far apart as they were at the end of
the Sino- Japanese War. What is the reason?
The undoubted advantages of territorial
propinquity, to which reference is made in the
Ishii-Lansing Agreement, have not led to any
closer friendship between Chinese and
Japanese; on the contrary, Chinese suspicions
have been deepened. True, the formal
diplomatic relations between the two govern-
ments are on the surface friendly enough,
especially since the fall of the Okuma Admin-
istration, but as the more observant of
Japanese publicists have frequently pointed
out, it is closer friendship between the two
peoples, rather than between the two govern-
ments, that it is desirable to bring about.
That twenty years of effort in this direction
have been without result obviously shows
there is some serious obstacle in the %vay, and
it is necessary to find out where and what that
obstacle is. As the result of the Sino-Japa-
nese War the Island of Formosa was surren-
dered by China to Japan. The record of
Japanese administration in Formosa is not
an enviable one. No doubt there have been
a certain number of improvements of a char-
acter likely to impress visitors; it may also
be admitted that the administration is better
than under the Chinese regime. Neverthe-
less, things have been done in Formosa by
the bureaucratic militarism which Japan has
placed in power there which are no credit
to a civilised nation. The victims have been
Formosan Chinese and the savage aborigines,
but, moreover, the Chinese at home have
seen what happened in Formosa repeated in
a measure in Korea. Formosa and Korea,
with the assistance of subsidies, are being
exploited for the benefit of Japanese rather
than of the population of those territories.
All this, it may be said, is of only academic
interest to China, and does not affect her
individually. This is true, but the policy
adopted in the territory already under Japa-
nese control is regarded as indicating Japan's
real disposition to those weaker than herself,
and as shadows of coming events in closer
proximity to Peking.
Long before the revolution which toppled
the tottering power of the Manchus to the
ground and established a republic in China,
there were frequent "incidents" in Chinese
territory wherein Japanese invariably figured,
which led to considerable friction. A Japa-
nese pedlar, wandering about in a part of
the country where according to treat}', no
foreigner should be, is murdered by bandits,
whereupon an international "incident" is
precipitated. Japanese newspapers loudly
demand vigourous measures against China,
naturally causing deep resentment and pro-
voking angry retorts from the Chinese press.
Eventually the matter is settled by the Chi-
nese Government paying a heavy indemnity
to the relatives of the murdered man, the
fact that he met his fate by disregarding inter-
national agreements stipulating which parts
of the country are open to foreign trade
and residence not being considered. In the
civil disturbances which take place periodi-
cally in China between rival bodies of troops,
Japanese frequently disregard warnings that
they should keep out of danger, and get hurt.
Invariably a grave international "incident"
is precipitated, and just as invariably, after
a long and tedious series of conferences
between Chinese and Japanese officials, an
indemnity is paid by the Chinese Govern-
ment. Clashes in South Manchuria between
Japanese police and military and Chinese
authority are common; hot-heads on both
sides lose their tempers, triggers are touched,
and men get killed. Another international
and most regrettable "incident," and an-
other series of conferences to decide what
China shall pay in cash or grant in concession
as indemnity for the insult to Japan's national
honour. This sort of thing has been going
on in China for years, and every incident of
the kind loosens the friendly bonds between
the two countries which Japan is constantly
declaring it is her great ambition to tighten.
The climax came in 19 15, when the Japa-
nese Government, of which Marquis Okuma
was then Premier, presented a series of de-
mands to the Chinese Government which,
had they been conceded, would have made
China nothing more than a dependency of
Japan. These demands, of which there were
twenty-one, divided into five groups, were
presented to China by Japan with injunc-
tions that complete secrecy was to be observed
in regard to the demands and the negotiations
arising therefrom. Special privileges were
demanded for Japanese subjects, Japanese
were to be engaged to "advise" China in
administrative, financial, and military affairs;
a Sino- Japanese police force was to be estab-
lished ; Japan was to be first approached when
a foreign loan was required; China was to be
bound to obtain a certain quantity of arms
from Japan or a joint Sino-Japanese arsenal
was to be established; — in short, the pro-
posals submitted for China's acceptance (not
for her consideration, be it noted) were such
as threatened the sovereignty and independ-
nece of the Chinese Republic. The usual
one-sidedness of Japan's diplomacy was
demonstrated, Japan giving nothing in return
for what she asked. China, weakened by
the constant struggles between rival factions
of monarchist and republican leanings,
partly as a result of the war, lacking a power-
ful friend in the comity of nations to support
her in flatly refusing to consider the Japanese
demands, struggled through negotiations with
her avowed friend and well-wisher. Even-
tually the most objectionable demands in
Group V were withdrawn by Japan for future
consideration, and, stimulated by Japan's
declaration of martial law in South Man-
churia and by an ultimatum from Tokyo,
the Chinese Government finally conceded the
rest of the demands, with some modifications
made by Japan in deference to the signs of
irritation and annoyance shown in other
parts of the world at Japan having chosen
such a moment to force upon a helpless neigh-
bour demands which no country could have
conceded without loss of prestige. All this
happened two years ago, but such an incident
is not easily forgotten by the Chinese people.
And when they read of yet another agreement
guaranteeing the integrity and independence
of their country — even though America is
one party to the compact — they have sus-
picions as to what may be behind the open
move. The constant friction where Chinese
and Japanese officials meet, the open defiance
of Chinese laws and regulations by Japanese
in Manchuria and elsewhere, the moral and
material support given by Japanese indi-
viduals and business firms to Chinese who are
seeking to hamper the progress and weaken
the power of the Central Government in
Peking — all these things prevent that tight-
ening and strengthening of the bonds of friend-
ship between China and Japan that Japanese
politicians and publicists are constantly
preaching about, but do nothing to accomplish.
Enough has been said to show how Japanese
diplomacy has failed in China, in spite of all
the advantages of territorial propinquity.
Even the young Chinese sent to Japan to
study, return to their own country with anti-
Japanese ideas. Prominent Japanese have
repeatedly complained of this, and demanded
that something should be done to check such
an unfortunate tendency. The only remedy
for this, as for other indications of lack of
Chinese sympathy for Japanese ideas, is to
indicate by practical measures and policy,
the reality of those friendly feelings for China
which are so often proclaimed. When men
like Lindsay Russell talk about the "bank-
ruptcy" of China, and the necessity of Japan
taking over the receivership, while Viscount
Ishii declares that the ideals of Japan and
America are the same, Chinese must be ex-
cused if they fall into error in assuming that
all international agreements affecting their
vast territory are designed for China's undoing.
82
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
japan's southward expansion
A FEW words in conclusion regarding Ja-
pan's diplomatic policy in other directions
than the Far East. Some years ago there
was a rather heated dispute regarding Japa-
nese immigration to the United States. There
was much wild talk in the press on both
sides of the Pacific, but the two governments
declined to be carried off their feet, and the
Gentlemen's Agreement put matters on a
mutually agreeable footing. Early this year
(1917) there was some little commotion
caused by Japan's protest against alleged
anti- Japanese land legislation in certain
States of the Union. This was another in-
stance of that peculiar "one-sided reciproc-
ity" of which mention has been made previ-
ously. Japan has most illiberal ideas herself
regarding foreign land ownership, but prompt-
ly interferes when other States propose to
enact laws for preventing aliens holding land.
There were hints of "drastic action" being
demanded by the Japanese people if the pro-
posed land legislation in Oregon and Idaho
was carried into effect, and on the friendly
suggestion of the President to the Governors
of the States concerned, further action on
these measures was suspended. Japan's
line of action at this time was unfortunate;
America was on the eve of declaring war on
Germany, and at such a moment was not dis-
posed to argue with Japan about reciprocity
in framing land-ownership laws. As a
demonstration of what is fondly called
"strong foreign policy" the protest was gen-
erally approved in Japan, but there is reason
to believe that in America the action taken
by the Japanese Government through its
ambassador at Washington was deeply re-
sented, though Uttle was said about it by
those most concerned out of a loyal desire
not to embarrass the President, whose atten-
tion was being directed to important matters
on the other side of the world. One or two
facts in regard to the immigration question
are worth special attention. First, the in-
troduction of Chinese labour into Japan is
resented by Japanese just as much as the
introduction of Japanese laboiu: is in Cali-
fornia. Second, eminent Japanese sociolo-
gists, who have gone into the subject care-
fully, have frankly declared that Japanese
immigrants in America have not tried to
become assimilated and therefore cannot be
regarded by American citizens as desirable
additions to the community. When ne.xt
the question of Japanese emigration to
America is brought up, these points may be
argued more fully. There is a tendency just
now (November, 1917) for American and
Japanese public men to denounce all criti-
cism of Japanese policies, opinions, and
actions as the work of hired slanderers bought
with German gold. Men who write and talk
in this strain either do not know, or deliber-
ately suppress their knowledge, that in their
daily newspapers and the periodical maga-
zines views are expressed by eminent Japa-
nese entirely different from those served up
in foreign languages for foreign consumption.
There can be no suspicion of German influ-
ence behind such writings: they are written
by Japanese for Japanese, and it is only by
the occasional publication of translations of
such articles that the outside world can
get to know the real opinions of Japanese on
important questions of international interest.
For example, while Viscount Ishii was hand-
ing bouquets to the American people in his
speeches at San Francisco, Washington, and
New York, the Japanese press was expressing
views of America, her people and her policy
which were as uncomplimentary as they were
undeserved. It is difficult to write of Japan's
' ' policy ' ' when such contradictions and incon-
sistencies are constantly encountered.
This brief and therefore incomplete review
of sixty years would be inexcusably deficient
without some reference to the political school
in Japan which strongly advocates expansion
southward. The fact that Japanese are
investing largely in land in the Philippines,
Java, and the Straits Settlements, gives rise
occasionally to rumours of Japan's intentions
in that direction, while whispers as to the
ultimate fate of the Dutch Indies are fre-
quently heard. The pioneer of this southern
expansion school is Mr. Takekoshi, who has
actually urged the annexation of Java by
Japan, while Captain Hosaka, of the Japa-
nese Navy, recently published a book on the
Dutch East Indies in which the same idea
was scarcely less plainly expressed. The
Captain is of opinion that Japan finds herself
compelled to develop southward, and it is of
imperative necessity for her to do so. "If
stable capitalists undertake proper enterprises
in the South Seas with the interests of the
nation as a whole at heart, Japan's economic
development in that region will come by
itself. This may at first appear (to Mr.
Takekoshi and the annexationists?] a round-
about way, but it will in practice prove the
shortest cut to the goal." This Captain in
the Japanese Navy also expresses regret that
Japan's financial resources are inadequate to
a scheme of annexation, and — mirabile dic-
tu! — expresses surprise and annoyance that
the Dutch officials in Java regard Japanese
visitors, whatever their real or assumed sta-
tion in life, with considerable suspicion. The
Dutch authorities are doubtless kept in-
formed of the activities of the "southward
expansionists" in Japan, and if they regard
every ragged Japanese pedlar landing in Java
as a possible spy, they can scarcely be blamed,
even if their suspicions are unfounded. Men
in similar humble guise have been found in
out-of-the-way parts of China, and sometimes
the suspicions held regarding their mission
have been confirmed — or at least the Chinese
think so.
All this, of course, is not really Japan's
foreign policy. The Foreign Office in Tokj'o
is not to be held responsible for the move-
ments and actions of every Japanese huckster
who ventures into Manchuria, Mongolia, the
Philippines, or Java with a tew packets of
matches and strings of coloured glass beads.
Japan's foreign policy can be summed up in
eight words — the maintenance of peace in the
Far East. She has fought two wars to uphold
that policy, — and a third, if ''he siege of
Tsingtau can be regarded as a war.
The number of prominent Japanese pub-
licists who urge a more disinterested method
of regarding foreign affairs is unfortunately
few. Even Mr. Ozaki, the representative of
democracy, not long ago declared in the Diet
that if Japan and Japan's agents did wrong
abroad, a patriotic Japanese would conceal
the fact, not publish it, even to his own coun-
trymen.
In estimating Japan's foreign policy, it
must be remembered that the country has
made tremendous commercial and indus-
trial progress within a few decades, and this,
together with her military successes, have led
to the creation of a feeling of national self-
sufficiency. There are signs, however, of a
very healthy counter-movement in the shape
of sincere self-criticism, and the development
of this faculty will gradually come to have
considerable influence on home and foreign
policy. Other nations have gone through the
same evolutionary process as Japan is going
through, and as they have recognised faults
and remedied them, so vill she.
t^V^-
'^
PANORAMIC HISTORY OF THE PRIEST HONEN. A PORTION OF THE TENTH OF FORTY-EIGHT ROLLS, COLOURED. IJY YOSHIMITSU TOSA,
THIRTEENTH CENTURY. OWNED BY THE TEMPLE TAIMADERA, YAMATO
VIII. The Future of Japan
By The HON. Y. TAKEGOSHI, Ex-Member of the House of Representatives
The Alliance of Races — Self.Government— Expansion beyond the Seas — The Japan-China
Wak — The Japan-Russian War — Lessons of History
WHAT will be the future of Japan?
In dealing with this question,
there is a twofold argument.
How shall we shape the future of Japan,
and what will be the future of Japan?
Some six or seven years ago, when Vis-
count Motono was Japanese Ambassador in
Paris, M. Lebon, the celebrated authority on
evolution, discussed Japan's future with him.
The trend of M. Lebon's argument was to
the effect that Japan's appearance on the
world's stage startled the world, like the
sudden appearance of a brilliant comet in
the sky, and that when we consider that no
country in the world has ever before made
such a sudden appearance, there is room for
doubt whether Japan is not, like a comet,
destined to disappear utterly below the
horizon. By way of reply. Viscount Motono
affirmed that Japan's appearance on the
world's stage was not a sudden one, like that
of a comet. Behind it there is a reason, a
cause, and a history. M. Lebon then said
that with regard to the future of Japan not
a few people entertained the same view as
he, and that though the Viscount had a
certain amount of right on his side, yet to
men like himself it was almost impossible to
comprehend the real state of affairs. There-
fore he suggested that Viscount Motono
should write a book explaining why the
appearance of Japan on the world's stage was
not of such an abrupt and sudden nature.
The Viscount was highly interested in this
suggestion, and asked me if I would not
cooperate with him in writing a book with a
view to the explanation of this problem. I
was also keenly interested in this suggestion,
and thought of making an attempt, but have
been hitherto prevented by pressure of other
work. M. Lebon is not the only one to hold
such a view concerning the future of Japan.
It is quite possible that many statesmen in
European countries regard the matter in the
same light.
THE ALLIANCE OF RACES
There is another class of men who form
their ideas of the customs and manners of
the Japanese from the sketches drawn for
them by men of letters, poets, and travellers,
and who imagine, as though they saw her in
general pictures, that Japan is a poetical
nation full of classical beauty and charm,
and who are desirous of preserving unchanged
this nation well worthy of the fame of ancient
Greece. When these people are brought to
the knowledge of naked facts, and learn that
this picturesque, poetical nation of their
dream runs electric cars, builds guns, drives
motor-cars, and uses electric light, they
regard the nation as rapidly changing into
one unbearably vulgar and prosaic. Among
our own people, there are some who do not
rightly interpret the history of their own
country, and who do not take their national
strength into proper consideration and who,
being prompted by certain fanatical ideas,
advocate the alliance of the yellow races
against the white, an alliance of which Japan
should be the leader, and with that object in
view, they favour the partition of China.
Those who argue in this strain have evidently
lost their mental balance. Although they
form an infinitesimally small portion of the
Japanese people, they talk loud, and because
they talk loud, Europeans and Americans who
hear them are led to imagine that in future
Japan will lead the combined force of the
yellow races just as Genghis Khan at the head
of the Orientals invaded Europe, and that the
Japanese are a bellicose nation. Several
years ago, the Kaiser drew a caricature show-
ing Japan riding a yellow dragon (carrying
on an invasion, too!) and invading Europe.
The insinuation was that European countries
should form an alliance against this invasion.
This was no doubt a political move on the
part of the Kaiser, but it was not without
some foundation. In those days he watched
Japan and must have been expressing what
he really felt. Thus we see that diverse
views are held about the future of Japan
84
P R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A RECENT IMPERIAL JAPANESE CABINET
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Baron Kenjiro Den, Minister of Communications — Admiral Tomosabiro Kato, Minister of Marine —
Dr. Rentaro Mizuno, Minister of Home Affairs. (Middle Row) Ren Nakashoji, Esq., Minister of Agriculture and Commerce —
Field-Marshal Count Masakata Terauchi, Prime Alinister — Baron Shimpei Goto, Minister of Foreign Affairs. (Lower Row) Dr.
Itasu Matsumi-ro, Minister of Justice — Lieut. -Gen. Kenichi Oshima, Minister of War — Dr. Ryohei Okada, Minister of Education
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
85
In my opinion, however, these views are wide
of the mark. The reason is that most of
these thinkers are ignorant of the history of
Japan.
A nation can not be manufactured as things
are made in American factories. The state
is not made, but is subject to organic growth.
Biology teaches us that heredity and environ-
ment govern all things, and nothing can
escape their control. Then, what will be the
future of Japan considered from the biological
standpoint? Geology tells us that the earth
consists of fixed strata, which are thin in some
places and thick in others. Owing to earth-
quakes and volcanic action, there may be
more or less irregularity in these layers, but
the construction of the strata is in the main
the same in all places. Such strata are not
confined to geology only, but are also found
in the history of mankind. In every country,
the transition is made from the nomadic life
to that of agriculture and from agriculture
to commerce and industry. The history of
every nation shows the transition from feudal-
ism to commercialism and industrialism.
The reason why Europeans regard Japan as
a peculiar nation arises from their failure to
grasp the fact that Japanese historj' has had
the same strata as that of Europe. Some of
our fanatical statesmen have a blind belief
in Japan's position — a belief which must be
attributed to their ignorance of the fact that
the history of Japan has passed through the
same strata as those of European history.
SELF-GOVERNMENT
For instance, some European statesmen
are inclined to believe that the Japanese
were practically devoid of the idea of self-
government and that they have only come
to possess it because they have learned the
self-government system by coming into con-
tact with Europeans. This could hardly be
the case. However clever a gardener may
be, he can not graft a bamboo branch on the
root of a tree. Had there not been the idea
of self-government already in existence in
this country, the imported and acquired
European ideas would surely have perished.
Therefore, self-government such as we have
at present is none other than what has come
down to us from our own history. It is only
the form that has been taken from Europe
and America. In Europe, there is a free city
of Hamburg, which is a city built by mer-
chants opposed to military government, and
which has grown up to be a State in full
possession of military and legal powers. The
Belledame waterworks which are the oldest
in Hamburg were constructed in 1531 which
corresponds to the eleventh year of Tenbun
according to the Japanese chronology, just
one year before the Portuguese knocked at
Japan's door. The city of Sakae whose
prosperity has now shifted to Osaka, then
existed strictly as a free city, being several
times more prosperous than at present. At
that time most of the daimyo exercised the
feudal system and governed the people by
strength. Although at one time taxed by
these powerful lords, Sakae itself as a free
city enjoyed self-government. The city was
surrounded by a moat, being provided with
its own soldiers who were placed under the
command of the merchants themselves to
resist outside invasion. When General No-
bunaga, armed with tremendous power,
made himself generalissimo, he proposed to
levy heavy taxes upon the city. But its
self-governing citizens not accepting Nobun-
aga as the legitimate generalissimo, or
shogun, repudiated the order for taxation,
and made an attempt to resist Nobunaga's
forces. The military strength of the general
was so great that the city was ultimately
compelled to pay taxes, but for the time being
it made such a stubborn resistance thit
Nobunaga was obliged for a while to abandon
his scheme of taxation. Amagasaki which
lies between Kob^ and Osaka was a free city
which rejected the authority of the feudal
lords, and the elders governed the city. We
could cite a number of such instances.
European history shows us that when the
large cities of Europe assumed self-govern-
ment, the market originally occupied a posi-
tion like that of the kernel in fruit. In order
to protect this market, the right of self-
government was bestowed upon it, and for
the purpose of ensuring the safety and
development of the market, it became neces-
sary to extend the same right beyond the
market limits, whence it spread out in all
directions until the entire city became
self-governing.
The development of our market has been
similar to that of European cities. Feudal
lords as large landowners found it insufficient
merely to collect rice from their lands and
sell it in order to support their troops. They
found it expedient to protect and develop
the city with a view to increasing their
revenue, and they naturally gave it the right
of self-government. Finding that the grant-
ing of such right alone was not sufficient, they
decreed that merchants in debt should be
left unmolested by creditors while they were
doing business in the market. Originally
the object of these lords was to bring about
the prosperity of the city by extending neces-
sary protection, and to make it grow by
allowing self-government, and thus to facili-
tate the collection of taxes. Later on, how-
ever, a law was made to exempt the market
from taxation, and thus the growth of the
market was encouraged. This policy doubt-
less arose from the consideration that the
increased prosperity of the neighbouring
districts would be more advantageous than
the collection of heavy taxes. It was in
this wise that the market grew to be a city,
which in its turn became a large city enjoying
self-government. In these respects, the
growth of these cities does not differ from the
development of large cities in Europe: just
as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions cause
variations in the strata of the earth, the
historic strata of our country, according to
the conditions of the time, show some varia-
tions from those of Europe — ours being some-
times a century ahead and sometimes a cen-
tury behind — but all the Japanese historic
strata are the same as those of Europe.
EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEAS
Of European nations the Spaniards and
Portuguese expanded overseas, being actu-
ated by the desire to seek wealth abroad.
From 1400 to 1600, maritime expeditions
formed the thickest stratum in Europe, and
this stratum extended to Japan. During
this period, the Japanese despatched priva-
teers to Manchuria, Korea, Shantung, Kiang-
Su, Chekiang, Canton, Macao, Siam, Annam,
Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula, where
thousands of adventurers sought power and
advantages beyond the seas. Hideyoshi's
project of invading Korea, fighting with
China, and attacking the Philippines was
conceived because among the people there
arose a keen desire to expand beyond the
seas. Our hero who breathed this atmos-
phere entered into a gigantic expedition. In
fact, Hideyoshi was none other than the
personification of the spirit of the people.
When we take into consideration the fact
that this about synchronises with the rise of
the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English,
and the Dutch East Indian Companies, it
will become plain that the historic strata
both East and West are practically the same.
In spite of this, Japan fell behind Europe
in commercialism, industrialism, democracy,
constitutional development, and scientific
investigation — things which have been the
creators of modem Europe. This back-
wardness is nothing more nor less than the
result of the policy adopted by the Tokuga-
was, who cut off the East from the West
by shutting the door of Japan for three hun-
dred years, a policy calculated to preserve
the safety and inglorious ease of the Toku-
gawa family. It was some sixty years ago
that Japan opened the flood gate to inter-
course with Europe which resulted in the
creation of New Japan.
The goal after which mankind strives is
one and the same. As all roads lead to Rome,
so the road of all mankind is, generally speak-
86
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ELDER STATESMEN
(Left) Marquis Masayoshi Matsukata — (Upper Portrait) Marquis Kimmochi Saio.nji — (Lower Portrait) Marquis Shigenobu Okcma,
Director General of Waseda University — (Right) Field-Marshal Prince Aritomo Yamagata, President of the Pri\^' Council
ing, the same. "What will become of Japan
in the future?" is not a distinct and separate
question. It is the same question as "What
will become of European countries in the
future?" There may be differences of shade
but not of colour.
THE JAPAN-CHINA WAR
Fanatics and bigots are found in Japan
just as in any other country. There are
some thinkers who believe and contend that
Japan is the foremost country of the world;
that her customs and manners are the finest
in the world, and that Japan could unify the
countries of the Orient. Europeans who
have heard such fanatical arguments, seeing
Japan's wars with China and Russia, jump
to the conclusion that Japan is a bellicose
nation because they couple these arguments
with what they have actually witnessed.
But Japan did not challenge China to fight.
The neutrality of Korea was essential to the
existence of Japan. Therefore if China
recognised the independence of Korea, re-
garding her as belonging neither to Japan nor
to China, Japan never meant to fight against
China. However, China in those days
treated Japan with contempt, and tried to
annex Korea at one stroke.
In 1894, the Chinese Minister to Japan
despatched a most laughable report to the
Chinese Government concerning the home
administration of Japan. China in those
days sent many Chinese scholars to Tokyo
who formed literary friendships over the
wine cup with Japanese students of the
Chinese classics. Japanese (scholars of Chi-
nese classics) Sinologues in general were
haters of European civilisation, and naturally
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
87
criticised the government policy of following
European ways and ideas. Some of these
malcontents thought a great deal of the reign
of the departed Tokugawas. The Chinese
scholars at once came to the conclusion that
Japan was filled with the atmosphere of reac-
tionary revolution. The fact of this whole
trouble in a nutshell is this: Prince Ito, the
then Prime Minister, for all his desire to
adopt European political forms, could not
see his way to give consent to more demo-
cratic reforms as advocated by a certain
pohtical party among the people, and this
brought about a discussion in Parliament.
Chinese politicians observed the fact that in
Japan there existed on the one hand those
who opposed European civilisation and that
a struggle was going on between political
parties and the Government and, they formed
an idea that Japan was already being divided
into two factions, so that even if China
annexed Korea, taking advantage of the
situation, Japan would have no courage to
fight. Actuated by these convictions, China
suddenly sent troops to Korea with a view
to annexing it. Should Korea become a
possession of China and Ma-Shan-P'u and
Fu-Shan-P'u be well fortified, Japan's safety
would be jeopardised. Japan was forced to
resort to warlike measures, and the result
was the Japan-China War. Japan had not
the least aggressive intention.
THE JAPAN-RUSSIAN WAR
In the twenty-eighth year of Meiji, the
Russian minister locked up the King of
Korea in the Russian Legation, which became
in fact the Korean Government, all orders
emanating from this quarter. Count Mutsu
was then the Minister for Foreign Affairs
and Prince Ito was Prime Minister. The
wounds Japan had received in the war against
China were not then -completely healed, and
it was next to impossible to cope with Russia.
Japan approached England comijlaiuing of
the outrageous attitude of Russia in Korea,
and asked England if she were prepared to
take any steps. Lord Salisbury, the Premier
of England, instructed the British Foreign
Minister to inform our government to the
effect that England could not stand aside
and watch the forcible absorption of Korea
by Russia. These words sounded strong
enough, but when carefully analysed, the
expression that England could not stand aside
and watch the forcible absorption of Korea
by Russia is merely a form of words intended
to maintain the prestige of a great nation.
It implied that should Korea of her own ac-
cord become a dependency of Russia nothing
could be done. The Japanese Government
was simply powerless, and several years had
to be passed in complaisance and indecision.
\^:j-"r :-:'?^c-~.^"5?ss«^?^
^^TattcaKzTw
LEADING POLITICIANS
(From Left to Right) Mr. Ikuzo Ooka, President of the House of Representatives since 1911 — Prince Iyes.\to Tokugawa, Head of
the Tokugawa Family and Descendant of the Last Famous Shogun — Mr. Takeshi Inukai, M. P., Leader of the Kokuminto, or
National Party, in the House of Representatives — Viscount Takaaki K.\to, Formerly Japanese Ambassador to London, now a
Prominent Political Leader — Baron K. Takahashi, Member of the House of Peers, and One of the Most Powerful Leaders of the
Seiyukwai Party — Mr. Takashi Har.\, Present Prime Minister; Leader of the Seiyukwai Party in the House of Representatives.
88
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
But Russian avarice and outrages knew no
bounds. After occupying Manchuria, she
was prepared to swallow up Korea. Japan
was compelled to open negotiations with
Russia. But even at that time Japan had
still no intention of fighting against her.
Japan would have consented to Russian occu-
pation of Manchuria had Russia allowed
Japan to hold Korea, making the Yalu River
the boundary line, but Russian diplomats
who had resided many years in Tokyo had
reason to believe that Japan would be satis-
fied if Korea could be divided, with the Tai-
Tung-Kiang as the boundary line, and if
matters could be delayed Japan would surely
give her consent to the latter arrangement.
The situation in both countries became so
pressing that Japan had to wage war against
Russia. In the midst of the Japan-Russian
War, the Katsura cabinet published for the
benefit of the Imperial Diet all the documents
and correspondence that had passed between
Japan and Russia. These documents were
partly true and partly false. They were
false in that they did not contain that part
of the documents concerning the demand
made by Japan to the effect that Japan would
be satisfied if Russia took Manchuria, with
the Yalu River as the boundary, leaving
Korea to Japan's control. Thus it will be
seen that Japan had very little notion of
invasion and aggression in fighting against
Russia. In order to maintain the safety of
the country, it was necessary for Japan to
bring about either the occupation of Korea
or the preservation of Korean independence.
Japan even went so far as to give her consent
to Russia's control of Manchuria, but Russia
would not listen to either of these proposi-
tions, and Japan was obliged to fight. The
most powerful reason for EiU"opeans' estimate
of Japan as a bellicose nation is found in
connection with Japan's wars against China
and Russia, but the real causes of these wars
are exactly as I have stated here. In these
wars, Japan's attitude was one of passivity
and not aggressiveness.
LESSONS OF HISTORY
Such being the past history of Japan, her
future may easily be known. In the minds
of most people, the future of Japan is at once
associated with the future of China. Japan
has not the least ambition in the direction of
the territorial disintegration of China. The
partition of China is only possible as far as
Japan is concerned when China destroys
herself, leaving none to be the heir to her
inheritance. To take the initiative in these
affairs is certainly not the national policy
of Japan. This view of mind is shared by all
the sagacious statesmen of Japan. To be
sure, there are some fanatical thinkers who
clamour for the division of China. These
men a'-e small in number, but extremely
boisterous, and therefore Europeans mis-
understand Japan's policy. This, I say, is
absolutely not in accordance with the na-
tional policy of Japan. This is a problem
about which Europeans are particularly
sensitive, and any number of mere words, it
is to be feared, wiU not mitigate their feelings.
A few facts, however, will suffice by way of
explanation. In order to maintain her
existence, it is necessary for Japan that
China should keep up her prestige, being
neither destroyed nor divided, but developing
adequately so as to preserve the power and
honour of an independent nation. I do not
deceive myself in making this statement,
but rather, it is the expression of a selfish
love for my own country. Why is this?
Japan needs rice in order to live. In 191 5
Japan's output of rice was 55,920,000 kokii*
while the population in Japan proper num-
bered 53,350,000. Even with this enormous
amount of rice, the nation could not be prop-
erly fed. Let us see how it is. The amount
of rice required by the Japanese for a year is
1 koku 8 lo per head. Now the amount of
rice consumed by the population of 53,350,-
000 is 96,000,000 koku, but, as I said before,
Japan's output of rice is only 55,920,000 koku.
This fact gives rise to the necessity of import-
ing food from foreign countries. Foodstuffs
thus imported from abroad in 1912 amounted
in value to 48,470,000 yen of rice, 12,350,000
yen of wheat, 7,130,000 5'en of beans, 1,780,-
000 yen of wheat flour, and 2,410,000 yen of
vegetables, making a total of 72,140,000 yen.
In addition to these, Japan imports from
Korea 40,000,000 yen of agricultural prod-
ucts and 40,000,000 yen of the same from
Formosa. The principal place where these
imported foodstuffs are produced is China,
Annam, and Tonking. It is quite natural
for us to wish that China, the supplier of
such an enormous amount of foodstuffs to
Japan, should enjoy peace so that her agri-
cultural products may be increased and thus
the price of rice be naturally lowered to the
great benefit of our countrymen.
We need iron. Japan is very poorly sup-
plied with iron. No iron is available in this
country excepting the materials for pans,
kettles, knives, and kitchen utensils. In
1914, our output of iron ores was 4,550,000
kanme of manganese iron, 30,820,000 kaiime
of sulphuric iron, 564,000 kanme of chrome
iron, and 24,000,000 kanme of iron. It is
true that more than one-half of the iron
mines are idle, but even if all these were put
into operation, the output could not be
doubled. The demand for iron in this coun-
try is something enormous. Large, active
* 1 koku = 4.9629 Imperial or 5. i American bushels.
factories in Kyushu alone require more than
one million tons of iron per year. We are
therefore importers of a large amount of iron
at present. We import from Europe, Amer-
ica, and China 1,810,000 yen of pig-iron,
7,940,000 yen of iron, 5,600,000 yen of iron
rods, 77,790,000 of sheet iron, 1,220,000 yen
of electro-plated sheet iron, 4,790,000 yen
of leaf iron, 380,000 yen of iron wires, 1,170,-
000 yen of electro-plated iron wires, and
1 ,340,000 yen of iron tubes and pipes, making
a total of 102,040,000 yen. The iron thus
obtained is used for the purpose of building
electric rails; it builds railroads throughout
this country, and it builds machinery. This
is the amount of iron for normal times.
Should war break out, there wiU arise a
greater demand both for iron and rice.
When the Russo-Japanese War began,
shells for our guns were provided at the rate
of two shots and a half per gun, per day.
These preparations were made after strict
consideration of the history of war in Europe,
and were thought to be more than sufficient.
When the actual battle was fought in Nan-
shan against Russia, Japan found to her
great surprise that she had to fire fifty shots
a day. The provision for our shells was at
once exhausted. Japan was then obliged to
put into operation small iron works through-
out the country. The result was that Japan
fired some one million shells in the war
against Russia which lasted one year and a
half. This was, indeed, a wonder in the his-
tory of warfare. But what is the state of
affairs in the present European war? It is
no uncommon event for some seven or eight
hundred thousand shots to be fired in a day.
We can easily surmise the nature of future
warfare. The lack of iron is keenly felt even
in ordinary times, nay, when America put a
ban on the export of steel to Japan, the latter
was left in a state of complete dismay. We
are pressed with the need of iron not only in
normal times, but in time of war the lack of
iron must be severely felt. Should our
neighbour China entertain kindly feelings
toward us, and we, on our part, help her, thus
bringing the two nations nearer in economic
relations, and mutual friendly intercourse;
should China become a friendly nation able
to supply us with iron even in war, then our
joy and happiness would be infinite.
Suppose that some day Japan were unfor-
tunately placed in a position of ha\-ing to
fight against a foreign enemy. She would
put in the field some one million and a half
soldiers, all of them able-bodied men be-
tween twenty and forty years of age. Should
these able-bodied men be collected from
farms, and sent to a foreign country, the
production of rice must be greatly reduced.
On these occasions, should China's agricul-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
89
tural condition prove itself healthy and pros-
perous, and if this should be combined with
safety of communications and friendly senti-
ment on the part of China to supply us with
rice even during the war, and should China
be a strong country, then Japan would indeed
be blessed. The advantages to be derived
by Japan from preserving the integrity of
China, intact, — not causing her to be dis-
membered or destroyed, but keeping her as
a safe and friendly nation, and encouraging
her growth, — are plain enough from these
figures. It is needless for me to employ clever
language and sophistry to prove the fact that
Japan has no ambition against China. The
bare statistics will amply prove this fact.
Thus it will be seen that to Japan the inde-
pendence of China is indispensable. If so,
we must study the way to maintain her inde-
pendence. In the matter of national inde-
pendence, Japan is ahead of China, and she
is prepared to give her advice, warning, and
assistance so as to enable her to be inde-
pendent. The assertion of the Oriental
Monroe Doctrine made by our special envoy,
Viscount Ishii, in America, was favourably
received by the public in America and Eng-
land. I believe that this fact shows that they
fully appreciate the real sentiments of Japan.
I have already made it plain that the
strata of Japanese history in the past are the
same as those of European history. I have
also made it evident in connection with
Japan's wars against China and Russia, that
Japan is not a bellicose nation, and that she
has no sinister designs on the future of China.
In this, Japan is simply considering herself:
it is not that she is moved by any love of
China. These facts are demonstrated not
only by the history of our country. That it
is not to the advantage of Japan to conceive
ambitious designs against continental coun-
tries, is also proved by the history of Europe.
The history of any country shows that the
peninsula is very weak, because on the one
hand it is in contact with the continent so
that it must maintain an army, while on the
other hand it must devote its strength to
coast defence, since it faces the sea. That
is to say, its productive capacity is squan-
dered on national defence. History proves
that it is fatal to the interests of the penin-
sular or island empire to entertain any ambi-
tious designs against the continent. England
once held territory in what is now Normandy,
but for years and years, war dragged on there,
causing thereby the decline and weakness of
England. When, however, England with-
drew herself from Normandy and became
purely an island empire, her greatness then
began. Again, the history of mankind proves
that it is fatal for the South to march against
the North. The history of the twenty-four
dynasties of China shows that invariably
the people of the dark lands and gloomy
skies of the north invaded the sunny south,
where grapes ripen and the apricot blossoms.
There are a few exceptional instances of the
Southern people driving back the Northern-
ers, but they are merely instances of lost
ground being regained by remustered forces.
We find the same in the history of Europe.
It is simply the history of the oppression of
the influence of heredity and environment.
The blood that we inherited tells us that we
are a maritime people; the history we read
teaches us that we are a nation of the sea.
It also teaches us that our destiny is to ad-
vance South. The future of Japan lies not
on the continent, but on the sea; not in the
North, but in the South. The period of our
forefathers' greatest activity was when they
sought gain in the China Sea and the Indian
THE HOME OFFICE
the South by the North. Any ambition
entertained by Japan, an island empire,
against the continent, would be in defiance
of the primary lesson of history. Japan has
already assumed responsibility in Manchuria,
and in order to shoulder this responsibility,
she has had to maintain an enormous
army.
The comparatively slow progress that Japan
has unfortunately made in productive indus-
try within the last few years must be attri-
buted to this military preparation, but her
need for maintaining a navy has not in the
least been lessened thereby. Thus, Japan is
now obliged to keep both a strong navy and
a strong army. Now, Japan keenly feels the
actual lesson taught by history. No one
but a madman could conceive the idea that
Japan would assume the further responsi-
bility of stationing troops in a dismembered
China.
What will be the future of Japan? The
questions, What will be the future of Japan?
and How shall we shape her future? resolve
themselves into one. However hard we may
struggle, it is impossible for us to get rid of
Ocean. Many a thrilling tale of romance
and bravery which fires the blood of our youth
was handed down to us by our forefathers
whose activities were on the sea.
At present, among oiu- countrymen, there
is an outburst of enthusiasm for the South.
The conviction has arisen among us that
those who control the tropics will rule over
half the world. Our trade has begun to
advance towards the South. The goal of our
travellers has become the South; we find this
aspiration toward the South revealed in the
textile fabrics exhibited in the Mitsukoshi
Department Store; we find it revealed in the
pictures exhibited in our art exhibitions; we
discover it in the fancy goods shown in the
windows of our bazaars; it appears in the
carvings which decorate the drawing rooms
of the rich. Our future lies on the Sea: our
hope is in the South. How shall we work in
the South and on the Sea? Our ambition is
to digest and harmonise the civilisations of
both East and West, and convert them into
a civilisation shedding a new light which
shall be the glory of Asia and a beacon-light
guiding us to the South and to the Sea.
rn
THE BANK OF JAPAN
IX. Banking, Finance, and Insurance
(Yokohama and Tokyo Section*)
Economics of Old Japan — Financial Policy of the Tokugawa Shoguns— Early Meui
Finance — The First Banks — Improvement of Monetary Organs — Currency Reform —
Taxation and Revenue— The National Debt— Banks and Banking — Foreign
Banks— Loan Associations — National Wealth of Japan— Exchanges-
Foreign Banks — Insurance Companies— A Short
History of Coinage in Japan
Hew revenue and expenditure were
adjusted in ancient Japan we have
now no means of knowing. It is
clear, however, that coins were early used
as media of exchange, the custom probably
coming from China, though exchange was
chiefly in the form of barter. But there were
no devices for accumulating precious metal or
combining capital for enterprise, except the
treasuries of the feudal lords in later times,
each clan having a separate system of
finance. Taxes were collected in kind, the
gatherers being individuals or families that
had displayed some talent for finance. And
there is reason to believe that the tax-
gatherer of ancient Japan was no less stern
and unscrupulous than his proverbial con-
temporary in Europe. As a system of
finance developed the taxes collected in kind
were converted into money and paid to the
feudatories or to the Central Government,
as the case might be. These financial
families, some of whom were great rice mer-
chants, often made loans to officials, did
some exchange business, and occasionally
'See Page 517,
extended accommodation
viduals.
to private indi-
ECONOMICS OF OLD JAPAN
Before the opening of Japan to Western
civilisation there were no banks in any Occi-
dental sense of the term; for the financial
concerns already mentioned neither col-
lected funds by receiving deposits nor dis-
tributed capital in loans to the public. The
various fiefs were so isolated from one
another that neither social nor financial inter-
course was possible. In any case all who
engaged in mercantile or manufacturing pur-
suits were despised as " mone3'-grubbers "
by the upper classes. And this condition
continued until the first Europeans visited
the country in the middle of the sixteenth
century. The foreigners found gold plentiful
in some places, and the coinage more than
eighty per cent pure; but the Japanese did
not appear to realise the full value of their
coinage and allowed it to be exported by the
Portuguese and Spanish and later by the
Dutch in ever-increasing quantities. Gradu-
ally, however, the Japanese became conscious
of their mistake; for Hideyoshi learned from
the visitors that the financial policy of Spain
and other European countries was to hoard
gold, and he made up his mind to do like-
wise. But the supply became depleted and
he was obliged to take over the gold mines
of Sado to replenish his treasury. At the
time of his death enormous quantities of gold
were found stored in Osaka Castle; and
lyeyasu, the first of the Tokugawa shoguns,
was obliged to weaken the wealth and conse-
quent power of Hideyori, the son of Hide-
yoshi, by imposing upon him highly expensive
undertakings.
FINANCIAL POLICY OF THE TOKUG.\AVA
SHOGUNS
The financial policy of the bakiifu, like that
of its successors in modem Japan, was one
of temporisation. The underh-ing financial
policy of all Japanese governments has been
that inaugurated by Hidej'oshi and carried
into effect by the Tokugawa authorities;
namely, to increase at all costs the specie
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
91
holdings of the nation. Modern govern-
ments have tried to do this by discouraging
imports and encouraging exports, as well as
by raising foreign loans to cover deficits. To
the Tokugawa Government, isolated as it
was, foreign loans were impossible; and con-
sequently the frequently recurring deficits
had to be made up by resorting to habitual
debasement of the national coinage, causing
an abnormal increase of currency, a corre-
crucial financial situations, until at last the
currency was so inflated and imports so in-
creased that the Finance Minister, Aral
Hakuseki, had to limit commercial imports
to the value of the copper held by the nation,
in order to prevent outflow of specie. Sucli
was the financial situation in Japan at the
beginning of the eighteenth century. By
the efi'orts of Aral the coinage was finally
restored to the purity and value of the
EARLY MEIJI FIN.\NCE
The story of Japan's financial rehabili-
tation in the Meiji era is one of the most
sensational in the history of national econ-
omy. It is chiefly a tale of remarkable indi-
vidualities dealing with striking incidents and
vicissitudes in economic situations. Every-
where on its pages stand out conspicuously
the names of Ito, Inouye, Matsukata, Okuma,
and Shibusawa, the fathers of modern Japa-
(LEFT to right) viscount Y. MISHIMA, governor of the NIPPON GINKO (BANK OF JAPAN) MR. J. INOUYE, PRESIDENT OF THE
YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK — MARQUIS MASAYOSHI M.^TSUKATA, KNOWN AS "THE FATHER OF JAPANESE FIN.A.NCE "
spending rise in prices, and a serious insta-
bility of national finance.
At the beginning of the Tokugawa era in
1603 the standard gold coin, the Keicho
koban, was just over 80 per cent pure, the
rest being silver, while the subsidiary silver
and copper coinage w'ere proportionately
good. Thus the currency of the Keicho
period enjoyed the confidence of both for-
eigners and Japanese alike. So much did the
foreign merchants seek exportation of the
national specie that the authorities had to
place a limit on the sum annually taken out
of the country. Even this could not maintain
the necessary supply for the shogun's treas-
ury, and reminting had to be done again and
again, the new coinage being only 56.4 per
cent pure gold, and the subsidiary coinage
only 63 per cent pure silver. To ensure a
sufficient amount of metal for reminting, the
bakufu ordered all taxes to be paid in gold.
As has been suggested, methods of debase-
ment were resorted to repeatedly to tide over
Keicho era; but by the middle of the eight-
eenth centur\' an abnormal depreciation in
prices and a consequent fall in rice, which
created dangerous speculation, obliged a
reversion to the policy of debased coinage to
restore equilibrium. Various new and oner-
ous taxes were also now imposed, and rice
merchants became bankers to the impov-
erished feudal lords. To meet the expenses
of preparing defences against intruding for-
eign nations, the coinage was once more re-
minted at the beginning of the nineteenth
century ; and revenue was further increased by
finding wealthy husbands among the feudal
lords for daughters of the shogun, as well as
b)' selling permission to wear the shogun's
crest and other marks of privilege or rank.
Thus by a remarkable system of temporisa-
tion the bakufu was enabled to meet its
financial obligations and put off the evil day,
until its downfall in 1868, when an empty
treasury was the only inheritance of the
new regime.
nese finance. When the financial affairs of
the nation fell into the hands of these men,
after the abolition of the shogunate, the
country was not only without money, but
had no means of obtaining any, as the fiefs
and their taxes were still in the hands of the
feudal barons; and in the absence of anything
like organised commerce or finance no access
to funds presented itself. Samurai as these
men were, and without any training in
finance, it is remarkable indeed how they were
able successfully to extricate their country
from its impossible situation with compara-
tive rapidity, reforming the hopelessly chaotic
monetary system and placing it on a sound
basis. The shogunate, in its slough of finan-
cial embarrassment, had, as we have said,
reminted and debased the coinage until
coins were of little more value than tokens,
while the country was flooded with the sur-
reptitious paper money issued by feudal
lords; and as these numbered 270 the confu-
sion caused by their issues of script of 1,600
92
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
>KYO CHAMBER OF COMMF-RCE
different types may be imagined. The economic progress. After some easy natural
story of the evolution of Japanese currency mistakes arising from inexperience, the work
from this tangled situation is one of the of regeneration was commenced in 187 1 when
most extraordinary in the history of national gold was adopted as the national currency;
in 1878 it became a system of gold and silver
bimetallism; in 1879 it was equal only to a
system of inconvertible paper money; in 1886
the paper had been redeemed by silver coins,
and at the end of 1897 a gold standard was
adopted to replace the silver system.
To avoid the bankruptcy threatened by
the expenses of the wars and rebellions of
the Restoration period, the new Imperial
Government was obliged to issue as an emer-
gency measure in 1868 a large amount of
paper money, at first convertible into specie,
but in 1 87 1 declared inconvertible. This
action failed to command public confidence,
and in 1873 the Government was forced to
make this paper exchangeable for gold notes
(kinsatsu), or inconvertible exchange bonds
bearing six per cent interest, with the hope
of destroying the paper money thus brought
in and promoting the establishment of banks
which should issue convertible notes on
security of these government bonds.
THE FIRST BANKS
Although special organs, such as exchange
companies, had been appointed to take
charge of national revenue, encourage indus-
try, and promote trade by lending money at
low rates, no such organs as banks yet existed
TOKYO STOCK EXCH.^NGE. (THE BUILUlNo W.\b KEcENlLV P.YRTIALLY DESTROYED BY FIRE)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
93
PROMINENT TOKYO BANKERS
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. Kenzo Ikeda, President, One Hundredth Bank, Ltd. — Mr. R. Mizukoshi, President, Hokkaido
Colonization Bank, Ltd. — Baron I. Morimura, Senior Partner, Morimura Bank, Unltd. (Middle Row) Mr. G. Shimura, President,
The Hypothec Bank of Japan Dr. Y. Ono, Vice-President, The Industrial Bank of Japan — Mr. T. Shid.'^chi, President, The Industrial
Bank of Japan — Mr. Y. vSasaki, President, Dai-Ichi Ginko — -Mr. K. Koike, President, Koike Ginko (Lower Row) Mr. Z. Yasuda,
President, Imperial Hemp Weaving Co., the Dai-!3an Ginko, the Yasuda Ginko, and Other Banks and Industrial Enterprises — Mr.
Shigetake Saito, President, Tokyo Prefectural Bank, Ltd. — Mr. K. Mori, Managing Director, Yokohama Seventy-fourth Bank, Ltd.
in Japan. First there was a Business Bureau,
then a Trade Bureau, and afterward these
Commercial Companies and finally Exchange
Companies in the principal cities, their per-
sonnel consisting chiefly of great families
like the Mitsui, the Shimada, and the Ono,
of ancient repute in the world of Japanese
finance. These companies were partnerships
of a strictly joint-stock kind, but they could
receive deposits or lend money to merchants
and manufacturers as well as issue notes,
and therefore they constituted the nucleus of
banks. Neither the notes of these concerns
nor of the Government were secured by any
fi.xed specie holdings, and consequently they
had soon to give way to the establishment
of regular banks after a modern system.
An American model was adopted on advice
of Ito, afterward Prince Ito, who had been
sent to the United States to study banking
institutions and returned to submit to the
Government the results of his investigations.
He made three cardinal proposals: The
adoption of the gold standard, the granting
of interest-bearing bonds for the treasury
notes in circulation, and the establishment of
banks as the media for issuing paper money.
These proposals were adopted in 1873, and
soon national banks were established on a
system that combined some of the features
of English banking with the general bases of
American practice. Each bank had to pay
into the treasiuy sixty per cent of its capital
in government notes, and was credited in
turn with interest-bearing bonds to be re-
tained in the treasury as security for the
issue of bank notes to an equal amount,
the banks being required to keep in gold the
remaining forty per cent of their capital as a
fund for converting the notes, which conver-
sion must always be effected on application.
To prevent the rise of mushroom financial
institutions the capital of each bank had to
bear a fixed ratio to the population of the
place where it was established. The Govern-
ment's desire to replace the paper money it
had issued by convertible notes was not
realised, however; and with an increasing
unfavourable balance of trade, gold flowed
out of the country until a sharp depreciation
ensued in government paper, giving rise to
the financial panic of 1874. Various circum-
stances had combined to deepen the sense of
insecurity. It will be remembered that for
years the Dutch had been depleting the
country of its gold, and the process continued
until the opening of Japan to foreign trade.
94
PRESENT-DAY lAfPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
During the centuries of seclusion gold had
come to bear to silver in Japanese coinage a
ratio of I to 8 ; so that the yellow metal cost,
in terms of the white, only one-half of what
it cost in_ the West. Moreover, the new
treaties had given foreigners the right to
exchange their own silver coins against Japa-
nese coins, weight for weight, so that a for-
eigner going to Japan with a quantity of
Mexican dollars could buy with them twice
as much gold as they had cost in Mexico.
Thus Japan lost heavily; and between 1872
and 1874 the balance of trade swayed heavily
in the wrong direction, creating consternation
in financial circles, and the bank notes were
speedily returned for conversion. No de-
posits came to the aid of the banks and the
circulation of money almost ceased.
The Imperial Government was, therefore,
obliged to issue a revised code of banking
regulations which dispensed altogether with
hard money and substituted treasury notes
m its place. Each bank was required to
invest 80 per cent of its capital in 6 per cent
state bonds; and these being lodged with the
treasury, the bank became competent to
issue an equal quantity of its own notes,
forming, with the remainder of its capital, a
reserve of treasury notes for purposes of
redemption. It was a complete subversion
of the Government's original scheme; but
there was nothing else to be done, and it
worked well at a time when the Government
had to commute the hereditary pensions of
the feudatories by issuing bonds aggregating
174,000,000 yen, which, if placed all at once
on the market, would sufler depreciation;
while the holders, unaccustomed to business,
might easily be led to dispose of their securi-
ties and invest the proceeds in hazardous
ventures. Therefore the new regulations
offered an excellent opportunity for these
bond-holders to combine and form banks,
continuing to draw from the treasury 6 per
cent on their bonds, while at the same time
acquiring competence to issue a corresponding
amount of notes which could be lent out at
profitable rates. The scheme was a success.
The number of banking institutions soon
grew to 153; the aggregate capital of the
banks in three years increased from 2,000,000
yen to 40,000,000 yen, and their note issue
from :, 000,000 yen to 34,000,000 yen. It
was a great and rapidly growing system based
wholly on state credit, without special
reference to specie. The rage for estab-
lishing banks finally became a mania; and
the Government had to put a limit on the
number of banks and the aggregate of
their note issues, which was placed at
34,000,000 yen.
IMPROVEMENT OF MONETARY
ORGANS
It has already been shown that owing to
the social and political disaffection of the
first few years of the Meiji era, which cost
many millions to suppress, and also the diffi-
culty of quickly reforming the complicated
taxation systems of the 270 daimyo, the
expenses of the Imperial Government in-
crea.sed so enormously that further note
issues were necessary; so that in 1878 the
paper currency rose from 120,000,000 yen
to 164,000,000, with a corresponding rise in
prices and depreciation in the value of paper.
By practising the utmost economy the Gov-
ernment managed to produce a surplus which
was added to the fund for redeeming the
paper money and to swell the specie reserve,
the latter being especially imperative in face
of the demand for resumption of specie pay-
ments. It was clear, however, even to the
most inexperienced economist, that to amass
notes for the redemption of notes could never
prove a successful expedient. Consequently
the great financiers of the day, Ito, Inouye,
DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE
P R IC S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
95
and Matsukata, hit upon the plan of accu-
mulating metal by buying up exporters' bills
with notes and receiving the proceeds in
specie; which, together with the imposition of
new taxes and the increase of old ones, helped
over the crisis. The outcome of this official
incursion into export trade brokerage was the
establishment of the Yokohama Specie Bank,
which from a struggling organ of exporter's
finance, has grown to be one of the greatest
financial institutions of the nation. Further,
in its efforts to accumulate specie and resume
payments in gold, the Government organised
a central bank, the Bank of Japan, in 1882,
with a capital of 4,000,000 yen, while the
numerous national banks were dissolved and
turned into joint-stock concerns for the
redemption of their notes in circulation.
Each of these banks was required to deposit
with the treasury the government paper kept
in its strong-room as securit}^ for its own
notes, and from its annual profits to hand to
the treasury a sum equal to two and one-half
per cent of its notes in circulation. With
these funds the state bank was to purchase
state bonds, devoting the interest accrued
from them to redeeming the notes of the
national banks. The result was a rise in the
price of bonds, which were soon in demand
at a premium ; and since the Government
began converting its six per cent bonds to
fives, they no longer produced sufficient
interest to redeem the notes of the national
banks, in accordance with the scheme agreed
upon, causing a tremendous outcry from
these banks against the Government. The
dispute lasted until 1896 when a bill was
passed providing for the dissolution of the
national banks at the end of their charter
terms and their conversion into joint-stock
companies without note-issuing competence.
Out of a total of 153 banks only 132 continued
under the new regulations, the rest being
absorbed or liquidated, the notes being legal
tender until 1899. In 1890 and 1893 minute
regulations were issued for bringing all banks,
except certain special ones, within one sys-
tem of official accounting and auditing;
while savings banks had to lodge security
with the treasury for the protection of their
depositors.
CURRENCY REFORM
According to the monometallic system
prevailing at the beginning of the Meiji era
the one-yen gold piece was the unit. To
facilitate foreign trade one-yen silver pieces
were issued for circulation in treaty ports,
equal in weight and fineness to the Mexican
dollar, then the universal medium of ex-
change in the Far East. The relative value
of the gold and silver ven oieces was fixed
at the rate of 16. 174 silver to i of gold. In
INTERIOR OF HALL OF THE TOKYO RICE AND PRODUCE EXCHANGE CO., LTD.
(TOKYO BEIKOKU TORIHIKISHO)
1873, when Germany adopted the gold stand-
ard and began to dump her silver, the price
of the white metal fell, in 1876 reaching as
low as 20 of silver to i of gold, and the value
of Japan's gold coins was seriously affected.
To encourage circulation of silver, the use of
the silver yen was extended to silver-standard
countries and became legal tender side by
side with gold, thereby creating a gold and
silver bimetallic system. The Government's
scheme for preventing the outflow of specie,
meanwhile, had been more or less successful,
and sufficient was accumulating to resume
specie payments. In 1885 the Government
announced that from the beginning of the
following year it would be in a position to
exchange silver for notes, thus placing silver
on a par with gold and changing from a
bimetallic standard to a silver standard.
The result was an immense amount of dan-
gerous speculation in the financial and com-
mercial world, and the Government began to
see the need of establishing a gold standard.
The opportunity came after the war with
China when Marquis Matsukata, then Minis-
ter of Finance, asked that the indemnity,
amounting to 360,000,000 yen, be paid in
British money, thereby making a big addition
to Japan's specie. Thus in 1896 Japan was
ready for the adoption of the gold standard,
and 76,000,000 in coin was immediately
minted, the i-yen silver coins being discon-
tinued, and ceasing to be legal tender after
1908. The 75,000,000 in silver yen collected
was disposed of partly by recoinage into
subsidiary money; but 41,000,000 yen were
sold to Shanghai, Hongkong, and elsewhere,
while 6,750,000 was placed in circulation in
Formosa, Korea, and other colonies. The
new gold standard made the unit of coinage
• 75 gramme of pure gold, the standard for
subsidiary coins being as follows:
Approximate
Denomination
Fineness
Weight
Value in
British Money
Gold 5 yen
900 gold, 100 copper
4. 1666 grammes
£o:ios:6d
10 "
" "
8-3333
i: 0 :6
" 20 "
11 It
16.6665
2: 0 :ll.5
Silver 10 sen
720 silver, 280 copper
2.25
0: 0 : 2.5
" 20 "
800 " 200
405
0: 0 : 5
" 50 "
**
10.125
0: I : 0.25
Nickel 5 "
250 nickel, 750 copper
4.66
0: 0 : 1.25
Bronze i
950 copper, 40 tin
3.56
0: 0 : 0.3^8
" 5 rin
and 10 zinc
96
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The total arnount of coins and bank notes
in circulation at the end of 191 5 was as
follows:
Gold Yen 37,112,103
Silver 114,232,513
Nickel 9,084,710
Bronze 9,011,398
Tola! 169,440,724
Bank notes 430,138,010
Grand lota! 599.5/8,734
According to a statement issued by the
Department of Finance, the total volume of
money in circulation at the end of November,
1917, was 956,859,998 yen, including coin and
notes. These figures are further evidence of
the striking improvement in the economic
situation in the past two years.
TAXATION AND REVENUE
Naturally the confusion that had so long
existed in the national banking system and
in the circulating medium reacted unfavour-
ably on finance generally, interfering with the
collection of revenue. Under the feudal sys-
tem the 270 daimyo had some 2,000 different
kinds of taxes which the new Meiji Govern-
ment had to straighten out and place on a
modem basis. The principal revenues of the
feudal barons had been land tax paid in rice,
while the shogunate had a small revenue from
the nation's trifling foreign trade with China
and Holland, besides that from monopolies
and imposts and from private estates. The
aim of the new regime was a uniform system
of taxation covering the whole Empire,
reducing the burdensome land tax and making
up the deficiency by indirect taxation, so as
to encourage agricultiu"e. By 1872 a com-
plete survey of the country had been made
and titles to land ownership decided, the
lands being assessed on a basis of the money
value of their produce for the previous five
years. The new land tax was levied at the
rate of three per cent on this assessment and
payable in coin, while the hitherto onerous
duties and imposts were abolished. As the
demand for more revenue increased with the
nation's naval and military expansion new
taxes were levied, especially an income tax,
as well as imposts on soy, tobacco, confec-
tionery, and stamps, the results being so
satisfactory that in 1886 the Government
was able to reduce the land tax again. After
the war with China the demand for revenue
became still more pressing, and it was found
necessary to establish occupation and regis-
tration taxes as well as to increase the taxes
on sake and tobacco, those on vehicles and
confectionery being at the same time abol-
ished as thev had added little to the nation's
income. By this means some 35,000,000 yen
was added to the treasury. But taxation was
further increased in 1896, and again in 1900,
after the Boxer uprising in China which
entailed an outlay in Japan of some 22,000,-
000 yen. Further increase was found neces-
sary in 1906 after the war with Russia, when
taxes and loans greatly increased, the latter
alone amounting to over 1,700,000,000 yen.
The new taxes were raised by virtue of what
is called the Extraordinary Special Tax Law,
and at the same time tobacco was made a
government monopoly. The new taxes were
an additional burden of 145,000,000 yen on
the people and were considered by no means
light; but the country had been so far devel-
oped that the tax-bearing capacity of the
people had improved commensurately. There
was considerable complaint, however, and
some taxes had to be readjusted to allay
disaffection. The following table will show
Japan's revenue and expenditure at inter-
vals of ten years for the last forty years:
prevent deficit. The burden of taxation thus
became markedly more onerous and the
incidence of taxes was in some cases uneven.
Moreover, economic changes necessitated the
abolition of some taxes and the revision of
others. And so in 1910 all taxes save that
on income underwent readjustment, resulting
in a decrease of revenue to the extent of
15,000,000 yen; while in 1913 a further revi-
sion resulted in a deduction of taxation by
7,000,000 yen more, with special relief to
persons of small incomes. As the burden
was still more than land-holders could well
carry a more radical revision came in 1914,
relieving agriculturists of some 1 1 ,000,000
yen in taxation. The Land Tax was thence-
forth assessed upon a basis of ten times the
annual rental value of the land. On this
assessment residential land pays 2.5 per cent;
rice and other fields, 4.5 per cent, but 3.2 per
cent in Hokkaido; and the other fields,
4 per cent. Income Tax is payable by persons
domiciled or who have resided one year in
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus
Yen
Yen
Yen
1876
1886
1896
69,482,677
62,156,835
118,432,721
535,256,392
608,269,267
69,203,242
61,115,313
85,317,179
420,741,205
602,610,719
279,434
1,041,522
33,115,541
1906
114,515,187
1916
5,658,548
A return of the national finances for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1917, gave the
receipts as 813,293,836 yen, and the expen-
diture as 603,714,531 yen, leaving a hand-
some surplus of 209,579,305 yen. Revenue
exceeded the budget estimate by 212,355,439
yen, and expenditure was less than the esti-
mate by 12,919,178 yen. Figures issued
later in the year showed that this buoyant
condition of the national finances was being
more than maintained, revenue increasing
by substantial sums, though the figures on
expenditure were not available at the time
this article was written.
In any study of Japanese revenue and
expenditure the question of surplus requires
more consideration than space here permits,
since deficits seem usually turned into sur-
plus by means of loans and the transposition
of funds, so that a table such as the above
can not be taken fully at its face value.
As to sources of revenue in detail, it may
be remarked that in the course of these
observations it has been shown that during
the war with Russia taxation reached a higher
ratio than at any time before; and after the
war was over taxation was practically kept
at a war level, as the debts and post-bellum
responsibilities demanded extra income to
places where the income tax law is in force,
and by those who, though not thus liable,
derive income from sources within the Empire
which come under the said law. There are
three kinds of income tax: (1) That for
joint-stock companies and other juridical
persons; (2) That for interest on public bonds
or company debentures; (3) That on incomes
not derived as in i and 2. In Class 2 the rate
is 2 per cent, but in other classes an addi-
tional rate of I per cent is paid on incomes
of not less than 300 yen, the rate increasing
proportionately to 22 per cent on incomes of
100,000 yen or more, in accordance with the
Extraordinary Special Tax Law; and also
there is the ordinary rate of 2.5 per cent for
Class I , while Class 2 ranges on a sliding scale
from I per cent on incomes of not less than
300 yen, to 5.5 per cent on those of not less
than 100,000 yen. In 1915 the statement
from this source was as shown in table at
top of next page.
There is no tax on incomes of army and
navy officers and privates while engaged in
war, while income derived from charity,
pensions, or as legal support, or for school
expenses or from government loan bonds, is
also exempted. The Business Tax, which
was first imposed in 1896, falls upon all
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
97
Class
Phrsons
Incomk
Tax
I .
16,605
979,020
202,627,878
20,874,384
622,589,302
13,168,299
410,933
23.933.296
2
3
'raid!
945.625
846,091,564
37,512,528
descriptions of industry and commerce,
assessment being based on capital, sales, com-
missions, contract values, rentals of buildings,
and 2 yen for each employee other than
labourers, the rate for the latter being 50 sen
each. The rate for wholesale houses is
12/10,000 on sales, and for retail houses
36/10,000 on sales, plus 90/1,000 of the
rental value of the buildings. The rate for
banking and insurance companies is 5/1,000
of the capital and 90/ 1 ,000 of the rental,
while for manufacturing, printing, publishing,
and photography, the rate is 3.7/ 1,000 of the
capital and 90/1,000 of the rental value.
Liquor Tax is levied on various classes of
brewers, such as sake brewers of different
kinds, beer brewers, distillers of wine and
alcoholic liquors and so on, the rate vary-
ing with the percentage of alcohol, from 20
yen per 40 gallons for 20 degrees of alcohol
to I yen for each degree per 40 gallons, in
the case of sake brewers; while beer brewers
pay 10 yen per 40 gallons, or about sixpence
a gallon; and distillers pay l yen for each
I per cent of pure alcohol per 40 gallons,
though in no case less than 21 yen per 40
gallons. The Soy Tax is levied at the rate of
1.75 yen for each 40 gallons. Those making
soy for their own use must pay a tax of
from 50 sen to 4 yen per 40 gallons. The
Mining Tax is at the rate of 30 sen for each
4 square yards of land still prospecting, and
double that rate for mines in operation. The
rate on output is i per cent on the value, gold,
silver, and iron ores being exempt. There
is also a tax of 30 sen on placer mining for
two and one-half acres in the case of alluvial
and 4,000 square yards in non-alluvial soil.
A Travel Tax was imposed in 1905 and applies
to all passengers on trains, electric cars, and
steamers, the rate being go sen first class,
25 sen second class, and 4 sen third class for
200 miles and upwards, 40 sen, 20 sen, and
3 sen respectively for the various classes on
distances between 100 and 200 miles, while
passengers travelling less than 100 miles but
more than 50 miles, pay 20, 10, and 2 sen
respectively according to class, and those
travelling less than 50 miles pay 5 sen for
first class, 3 sen for second, and i sen for
third class. The Succession Tax came into
force in 1905, the rate varying according to
the degree of relationship and other circum-
stances connected with the successor to the
headship of a house and the value of the
heritable property, ranging from i to 5 per
cent. A Tax on Bourses is levied, in respect
of time bargains, upon exchanges, the rates
being 5/10,000 of the amount of the transac-
tion in the case of local loan bonds, and
12/10,000 in the case of other securities and
negotiable papers, exempting national loan
bonds. The Consumption Tax is on textiles
to the amount of 10 per cent ad valorem,
and on kerosene to the amount of I yen per
40 gallons. Sugar Excise applies to sugar,
syrup, and molasses delivered at manufac-
tories, or customs or bonded warehouses,
MITSUI BANK AND MINING DEPARTMENT
98
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the rate being from 2 j-en to 10 yen per
picul, according to quality and methods of
manufacture. Tonnage Dues were introduced
in 189C), and are imposed on all ships enter-
ing port from foreign countries, the rate
l)eing 5 sen ]')er registered ton of the actual
capacity, but the payment at a port of 15
sen per ton exempts a vessel from all further
tonnage dues at that port. Stamp Receipts
are those other than business tax and fees
from stamps generally, and are over eighty
in number, the most important bping the
stamps on patent medicines and legal
documents, the registration tax, shooting
license tax, civil suit stamps, examination
fees, and certain custom house charges.
Government monopolies, which are treated in
a separate article in this volume, comprise
tobacco, salt, and camphor, as well as opium
in Formosa, the tobacco monopoly being the
most important. The revenue from Imperial
Government Railways is treated as a special
account, divided into Capital, Reserve, and
Revenue Accounts, the excess of revenue over
expenditure in the Revenue Account consti-
tuting profit, and the balance remaining after
deducting for the Reserve Account a sum
not exceeding 10 per cent of the profit, is
transferred to the Capital Account, the
revenue of which is further constituted l^y
any public or temporary loans which the
Government may issue in the case of a deficit
in railway' profit; by proceeds of sale of rail-
way property and by other receipts. Expen-
diture of Capital Account consists of disburse-
ments for construction, improvements, up-
keep and repair of railways, the redemption
of debts and other charges. The expenditure
of Reserve Account consists of disbursements
to meet deficits in the revenues of the other
accounts caused by accidents, natural catas-
trophes, and the like. The Custom Duties
which came into force in 1859 and were re-
vised in 1866 and 1899, with the imposition
of a special super-tax on imports in 1906,
specify 538 articles in 19 different groups.
The tariff was fiu-ther revised in 19 u, enu-
merating 647 articles classified in 17 groups,
the duties being specific as far as possible,
raw materials mostly free and light duties
on semi-manufactured articles. The duties
on imports range from 15 to 40 per cent, the
higher rates applying chiefly to articles of
limited importation; while articles of luxury,
also imported in small quantities, pay a duty
of 50 per cent. A treaty with Great Britain
provides for a reciprocal tariff on linen yams,
cotton and woollen tissues, iron, and paints.
As time goes on the question of revenue be-
comes one of increasing importance, and
every possible resource has to be called into
service. The Japanese army is now three
times what it was before the war with Russia,
with corresponding naval increment, to say
nothing of the millions involved by partici-
pation in the European war. The national
specie holdings which amounted to some
353,000,000 yen before the war, however,
have, on account of the enormous favourable
balance of trade, risen to nearly 900,000,000
yen in 1917, and in this sense Japan has been
financially benefited by the war. The follow-
ing table indicates sources of revenue for the
last fifteen years, at intervals of five years for
the sake of comparison:
The table on the following page gives the
expenditure for the same periods.
THE NATIONAL DEBT
In Old Japan the people were under obli-
gation to lend money to feudal lords who
usually entered into contracts without speci-
fying any security. The rights of creditors
being thus unrecognised, it was frequently
the case that the lenders were forced to pro-
vide further contributions or lose what they
had already loaned. When the Meiji Gov-
ernment assumed responsibility for the
estates of the daimyo investigations were
made as to debts so contracted, and the
amounts due creditors were settled by public
loan bonds, the people at the same time
Sources: ORnixARY T.wes
Land tax
Income tax
Business tax
Succession tax
Travelling tax
Mining tax
Tax on bank note issues
Liquor tax
Soy tax
Sugar excise
Consumption tax (textiles)
" ,, (kerosene)
Bourse tax
Custom duties
Tonnage dues
Other taxes
Stamp receipts
Public undertakings, etc
Posts, telegraphs, and telephones. . .
Forests
Government Monopolies: salt
" " camphor.
" " tobacco..
Railway profits
State property
Interest on transferred deposits. ...
Transferred from Korean account . .
" " Formosan "
Other miscellaneous receipts
Total.
E.\TR-\ORDINARY REVENUE
Sales of state property
Chinese indemnity
Issue of public loans
Forestry funds transferred
Transferred from naval funds
Riparian funds transferred
Local contributions by prefectures . . .
Temporary' loans
Surplus of preceding year transferred .
Other miscellaneous receipts
1907
\\-n
84,637,498
26,348,739
19,770.159
1,409,425
2,463,801
1,928,152
1,692,285
71,100,004
5,601,458
16,156,704
5.037.515
4,679,831
41.853,533
580,581
2I3,I7-1
34,260,448
1 liS,090,42l
34,904,163
5,468,786
23,232,385
1,163,826
32,574,484
l6,6iS7,452
4,059,325
3,268,885
2,039,293
:i. 7 70,346
562,992,673
Total .
Total revenue.
3,886,527
2,200,201
15,508,259
1,771,830
1,330,298
57,160,585
4,691,856
■"^'',549,556
649,542,229
191:
Yen
74,936,085
34,755,746
24,598,612
4,061,596
3,918,334
2,238,072
1,388,160
86,032,832
4,828,316
17,255.548
18,916,151
1,925,503
4,799,625
48,518,614
6.53,817
244,309
29,073,697
132,252,365
51,963,732
11,047,947
I I,.S.)0,312
179.903
51,315.884
5,904,587
8,799,826
1,348,065
4,918,264
3,095,146
640,811,048
3,704,396
1,073,401
11,200,730
2,426,633
12,000,000
10,066,190
101,247,795
6,914.362
148,633,507
789,444,555
I9I7
Yen
72,592,350
33,438,186
20,090,877
2,853,302
4.869,954
2,958,781
1,060,138
91,719,091
4,908,432
25.3.39,357
15,144,115
1,457,021
3.716,483
32,024,415
572,919
247,739
28.991,699
165,702,494
63,775,300
10,659,246
8,951,336
49,248
58,802,746
23,464,618
11,926,859
5,011,606
4,071,399
3,095.935
697.495.646
3,740,201
2,633,177
1,550,000
2,692,113
2,346,390
8,000,000
24.437,759
23,745,605
69.145.245
766,640,891
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
99
I )KI)1N.\KV ExPiiNDITi:RH
Imperial househokl
Foreign affairs
Home affairs
Finance
Army
Navy
Justice
Public instruction
Agriculture and commerce
Communications
Tola!
Extraordinary Expenditure
Foreign affairs
Home affairs
Finance
Army
Navy
Justice
Public instruction
Agriculture and commerce
Communications
Total
Total Expenditure
1907
Yen
;, ,000,000
^.672,573
9.792,372
2i6,894,,^37
,V„S24.«95
27.991.35"
10,051,150
5,004,547
3.671.837
23,051,172
339,454.233
2,308,141
6.212,594
1 6.039.521
30,044,677
33.885.320
621,296
1.935,862
8,184,815
25,089,124
124,321,350
463,775,583
1912
Yen
4,500,000
-1,558,942
1 1,874,612
185,1 1 1,582
77.421,744
40,208,251
12,612,354
9,025,399
7.255.859
57,320,301
409,889,044
1.097,531
21,742,927
37.842,241
27.578,162
60,255,366
926,294
1,422,928
5,498,022
19,122,096
175,485,567
585,374,611
191;
Yen
4,500,000
4,551,542
12,788,981
154.548.414
78.855,757
46,496,165
11,588,000
9,774,432
7,130,440
67,521,878
397,755,609
2,253,600
34,641.248
65,282,302
15.457.357
55.747.761
992,664
823.777
13,418,081
15.900,573
204,507,363
602,262,972
being relieved of all further obligation to
lend money, except voluntarily under a pub-
lic loan system such as prevails in Occidental
countries.
The first loan raised by the new Govern-
ment was one of 500,000 yen in silver from
the British Oriental Bank in 1868, a tempor-
ary accommodation hardly in the nature of
a loan. In 1878 a loan was raised in London
to the amount of £1,000,000 at 9 per cent for
the construction of a railway between Tokyo
and Yokohama. In 1876 and the following
year pension bonds were issued, increasing
the national debt to 250,000,000 yen. The
first real domestic loan was issued in 1877 for
the extension of public works, soon followed
by certain other loans. In 1886, however,
all loans at more than 5 per cent interest were
called in and replaced by 5 per cent bonds.
A second foreign loan of £2,400,000 was
floated in London a few years later at 7 per
cent; and in 1897, after the close of the war
with China, a loan of 43,000,000 yen in war
bonds was floated at 5 per cent in London,
followed by another in 1899 in the London
market to the amount of £10,000,000 at
4 per cent for railway purposes. In 1902 a
5 per cent loan for 50,000,000 yen was raised
in the same market, and in 1905 a loan of
£10,000,000 in New York and London. The
war of 1904-5 increased the indel^tedness of
Japan by the sum of 1,100,000,000 yen.
The table below gives the general features
of the Japanese national debt up to the end
of March, 1916; since which time a further
Japan's National Debt
Intern.\l Loans
Old Public Loan
Five per cent Loans
Five per cent Loan (Ko)
Five per cent Loan (Special) . .
Five per cent Loan (Onshi) . . .
Four per cent Loan
Korean Excheciuer Bonds, $%
Railway Notes, 5%
Total.
Interest
Paid
None
Mar., Sept.
June, Dec.
Mar., Sept.
Mar., Sept.
June, Dec.
Mar., Sept.
When
Issued
1872
1906-16
1 908-9
1906
1910-13
1910-12
1913
1915
Redemp-
tion
Period
192 1
1970
1963
1935
1967
1969
1917
1920
Amount
Issued
Yen
10,972,725
59,151.800
476,318,800
310,407,000
30,000,000
276,220,000
30,000,000
30,000,000
1,223,070,325
Amount
Redeemed
Yen
9,678,972
422,750
16,073,200
162,275,800
6,527,950
194,978,672
Amount
Out-standing
Yen
1.293.753
58,729,050
460,245,600
148,131,200
30,000,000
269,692,050
30,000,000
30,000,000
1,028,091,653
Foreign Loans
Sterling Loan, 4J^2%, 1st issue .
Sterling Loan, 4^-2 ?-c, 2nd issue
Sterling Loan, 4%, 2nd issue . . .
Sterling Loan, 5%
Sterling Loan, 4%, 3rd issue .
Exchequer Bonds (Paris), 5';f,i
Hokkaido Railwaj' Bonds, 5''o
Kwansai " " 4' 2'/
Total.
June, Dec.
Feb., Aug.
Jan., July
Jan., July
Mar., Sept.
May, Nov.
June, Dec.
May, Nov.
Jan., July
June, Dec.
1899
1905
1905
1905
1907
1910
1910
1913
1906
1906
1953
1925
1925
1931
1947
1970
1970
1923
1921
1926
97,630,000
292,890,000
292,890,000
244,075,000
224,549,000
174,150,000
107,393,000
77,400,000
3,905,200
9,763,000
4,881,500
29.311.455
29,297,006
4,100
4,686
3.290
195
194
92,748,500
263,578,545
263,592,994
244,070,900
224.544.314
174,146,711
107,392.805
77.399,807
3,905,200
9,763.000
1.524.645.200
63,502,426
1,461,142,776
Grand Total.
2,747,715.525
258,481,098
2,489,234,429
^:-^^^^^>-^'as^:-^e^^^»^g^^^i!i5^^^
SCENES IN TOKYO: JIUNISO, SHIMJIKU SACRED PIGEONS IN ASAKUSA PARK — PINES ON THE IMPERIAL PALACE MOAT-
CHERRY BLOSSOMS IN UYENO PARK —CHILDREN AT PLAY IN THE PARK
CHERRY BLOSSOMS OVERHANGING THE YEDO RIVER
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
lOI
domestic 5 per cent loan has been contracted
to the amount of 40,000,000 yen for railway
purposes, such funds during the previous few
years having been appropriated from the
national sinking fund created for the reduc-
tion of the national debt.
In comparison with the above, the following
table giving Japan's debts, raised, redeemed,
or outstanding, for the past fifteen years will
be found interesting:
of the Katsura ministry the provision was
not wholly respected, large sums being taken
from the sinking fund for railway purposes;
but the Terauchi cabinet promised to restore
the annual appropriation of 50,000,000 yen
to the sinking fund. Owing to the abnormal
increase of specie holdings during the Euro-
pean war further reductions have been made
in the national debt; but there is a general
conviction in financial circles that it is better
Year
Internal Loans
Foreign Loans
Total
Debt per Head
Yon
Yen
Yen
Yen
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
IQ07
388,834,195
404,596,140
432,550,811
441,332,521
661,231,837
899,975,947
1,049,546,503
1,088,645,228
1,062,605,599
1,417,128,864
1,203,139,900
1,116,216,270
1,066,247,341
1,054,633,854
991,531,578
97,630,000
97,630,000
97,630,000
97,630,000
605,306,000
970,410,310
1,146,160,579
1,165,701,224
1,165,701,224
1,165,675,449
1,447,215,716
1,437,449,203
1,427,682,905
1,490,436,651
1,485,550,664
486,464,195
502,226,140
530,180,811
538,962,521
1,266,537,837
1,870,386,257
2,195,707,082
2,254,346,452
2,228,306,822
2,582,804,313
2,650,355,615
2,553,665,473
2,492,930,245
2,545,070,505
2,477,082,242
10.412
10.843
10.865
25.262
36.922
42.912
43-486
42.141
48.438
39-356
38.001
35-780
34-198
34- 155
32.525
1908
1909
1910
IQI I
I9I2
I9I3
I9I4
I9I5
I9I6
During the buoyant times that have pre-
vailed since the outbreak of the war the
Government has taken every opportunity of
redeeming portions of the national debt.
At the close of September, 19 17, the total
stood at 2,485,913,311 yen, of which 1,353,-
470,089 yen was foreign obligations and
the balance was owed internally. If these
figures are compared with those for 1916
in the table above it will be seen how
Japan, while her debt has increased by only
about nine millions, has reduced her foreign
obligations by over 130,000,000 yen, while
she has become a greater debtor to her own
people — in other words, more self-contained
financially.
Japan took advantage of the low rate of
interest prevailing in 1910 to raise 4 per cent
loans for the purpose of converting her 5
per cents, so far as the period for not redeem-
ing which had expired, thus saving the
treasury an annual outlay of £368,739 in
interest. The total amount of loans so
redeemed or converted was 523,300,000 yen.
The National Debt Consolidation Fund Bill
provides that not less than 110,000,000 yen
shall be set apart annually from the general
account for the purpose of redeeming the
war bonds issued in connection with the
Russo-Japanese War; and later a sinking
fund was established to receive an annual
allotment of 50,000,000 yen toward reduc-
tion of the national debt; but after the fall
to hold the debt at present than have to bor-
row at higher interest after the war.
BANKS AND BANKING
It has already been shown that the Gov-
ernment, finding itself without proper mone-
tary organs at the beginning of the Meiji
era, induced wealthy companies to undertake
banking business under special control of a
Board of Trade; but the privilege of issuing
gold and silver certificates, which they
possessed, led to their undoing and the whole
banking system of the Empire had to be
reorganised in 1872, the Government pro-
mulgating National Bank Regulations mod-
elled on the National Bank Act of the L^nited
States. The new regulations provided for
the conversion of national bank notes into
specie. Further regulations were issued in
1883 depriving national banks of the right
to issue notes; and other regulations in 1884
provided for the establishment of savings
banks. Meanwhile the producing power of
the people was growing, capital was accum-
ulating, foreign trade was fast developing,
and bank desposits experiencing unprece-
dented increases. By 1893 the number of
banks had grown to 763, with 94,000,000 yen
of capital, 45,000,000 yen of deposits, with
loans amounting to 178,000,000 yen, and
bills discounted aggregating 211,000,000 yen.
In 1903 the number of banks was 2,307; total
capital, 377,000,000 yen; deposits, 755,000,-
000 yen; loans, 579,000,000 yen; bills dis-
counted, 3,587,000,000 yen. Thus rapid
development continued until, in 1913, the
number of Japanese banks was 2,165; capital,
704,000,000 yen : deposits, 1 1 ,048,000,000 yen ;
loans, 3,050,000,000 yen; and bills discounted,
3,059,000,000 yen annually.
The banks of Japan are divided into two
classes, ordinary and special banks, the
former for the general circulation of capital
and the latter for specific functions. The
ordinary banks are under control of the
Minister of Finance whose license is required
for their establishment or for the amalga-
mation of existing institutions. He is em-
powered to investigate the condition of a
bank at any time; and all banks must submit
to him semi-annually a balance sheet and
publish the same in the press. The special
banks are, as has been said, for special pur-
poses, on which account they have certain
restrictions which are compensated for by
certain privileges, enabling them to make
more profit, while at the same time they are
under government protection and control.
FOREIGN BANKS
Among the foreign banks doing business in
Japan are the Hongkong & Shanghai Banking
Corporation, the Chartered Bank of India,
Australia, and China, The International
Banking Corporation of the United States,
and the Russo-Asiatic Bank, for further
details m connection with which the reader
is referred to the Foreign Banking Section
(see page 129), following the detailed descrip-
tion of the Japanese banks.
LOAN ASSOCI.\TIONS
Besides the banks there are in Japan
Loan Associations for the purpose of affording
financial facilities to the poorer classes. The
Mutual Loan Society Act, passed in 19 15,
restricts promoters of loan associations to
persons with a capital of at least 30,000 yen.
At present these societies throughout the
country number 831, with a capital of
20,336,750 yen of which only 6,946,884 yen
is paid up, and having liabilities of 137,000,-
000 yen. In Japan much use is made of
pawnbrokers, of whom there are some
30,000, whose interest on loans amounts to
from 20 to 48 per cent per annum. There
is great need for enlarging the scope of the
Credit Associations to provide still greater
accommodation to those now exposed to the
rapacity of usurers.
A difficulty which foreigners experience in
connection with investments in Japanese
securities should here be mentioned. It is
very difficult for those not able to read the
Japanese language to ascertain just when
securities are redeemed; and it often occurs
102
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
that the holder of bonds does not find this
out until the coupons for the next half-year
are presented, when he discovers that the
bonds were redeemed six months before and
he must lose half a year's interest. This is
especially the case with municipal bonds,
notice of the redemption of which may be
published in some obscure journal, and even
banks sometimes are unaware that the secur-
ities they have in safe-custody have been
redeemed.
NATION.^L WEALTH OF JAPAN
Outside the realm of government finance
and banking, statistics are not so easily
available, but the finances of the larger towns,
villages, and municipaUties are known. The
revenue of prefectiu-es consists of taxes,
rates, and also of grants from the national
treasury. A sur-tax is levied on the five
national taxes: on business, land, income,
mining, and placer mining tax. The total
amount granted from the national treasury
to prefectures in 1915 was 43,000,000 yen;
and special subventions are made in' cases of
epidemic, flood, for riparian work or indus-
trial encouragement. The revenue of towns
and municipalities comes from property,
rents and taxes, school fees and treasury
grants, with the same sur-taxes as prefectures
levy. The total revenue for Japanese pre-
fectures, towns, villages, and ■ municipaUties
during the year 1915 ^^'as 286,755,540 yen,
and the total expenditure 283,746,924 yen,
while the total indebtedness of the towns,
villages, and municipalities of the Empire
was 334,892,234 yen. Of this indebtedness
the amount of 191,359.000 yen rests on the
cities of Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, Yokohama,
and Nagoya, as foreign loans.
The present national wealth of Japan as a
whole is estimated as follows:
Yen
Land 17,052,000,000
Buildings 6,771,000,000
Furniture and valuables 3,428,000,000
Domestic animals, poultry, etc. 205,000,000
Minerals 1,059,000,000
Marine products 1,476,000,000
Forestry products 776,000,000
Electric, gas and water works . . 337,000,000
Ships, warships, and rolling
stock 772,000,000
Gold and silver coins and
bullion 401,000,000
Banks and companies 1,060,000,000
Merchandise 1,511,000,000
Railways, telegraphs, and tele-
phones 1,338,000,000
Libraries 27,000,000
Harbours, rivers, and canals. . 1,303,000,000
Total 37,516,000,000
Wealth per capita 725,000
THE BANK OF JAPAN
The Bank of Japan was created in 1882
as a necessary part of the Government's
scheme for replacing the paper currency by
metal and for bringing private banks and
banking companies into uniformity, and
soon it became the only institution authorised
to issue notes. The bank started with a
capital of 10,000,000 yen, which has been
three times increased, and now stands at
60,000,000 yen, of which 37,500,000 yen is
paid up. This bank is privileged to issue
notes against gold and silver coins and bullion
and, further, to issue notes on security of
government bonds or treasury bills and
other bonds or bills of a rehable nature, the
maximum of notes in the latter case being
120,000,000 yen. In case of necessity the
maximum may be exceeded, provided the
bank pays a tax of at least 5 per cent per
annum. The business of the Bank of Japan
is principally to discount or purchase govern-
ment bills, bills of exchange, or commercial
bills; to buy or sell gold or silver bullion; to
make loans on security of gold or silver coins
or bullion; to collect bills for banks, com-
panies, or merchants, who are regular cus-
tomers; to receive deposits and accept cus-
tody of articles of value in precious metals
or documents; to make advances for fixed
periods on security of government paper or
documents guaranteed by the Government.
The Bank of Japan is also entrusted with the
management of the treasury receipts and
disbursements.
The expansion of business transacted by
the bank is illustrated by a comparison of the
figures shown in the following tables:
The Amount of Note Issues and Specie
Reserve on Hand at the Close of
Five-Year Periods
Year
Note
Issues
1885
1 890
1895
1900
1905
1910
IQ15
1916
191 7 (June 30)
Yen
Specie
Reserve
3,956,161
102,931,766
180,336,815
228,520,032
312,790,819
401,624.928
430,138,010
601,224,410
605,918,047
Yen
44,622,413
60,370,797
67.349,129
115.59,5,026
222,382,465
248,417,800
410,519,000
486,520,060
Tot.^l Transactions of the Bank
Year
1882 (for S3 days from Oct
10 to Dec. 31)
1885
1890
Yen
roTAL Transactions of the Bank
(Continued)
Year
1895
1900
1905
1910
1915
1916
Yen
3,013,921,253
9.748,987,192
29.156,254,123
38,702,112,955
34,674,112,431
40,610,210,097
5,762,270
882,315,837
,213,369,812
The administration of the Bank of Japan
is in the hands of the Administrative Board
consisting of one Governor, one Vice-Govem-
or, and four Directors. The Governor
presides over the Administrative Board and
executes the resolutions passed at the
meetings of the board. The present Govern-
or is Viscount Yataro Mishima, and the
Vice-Govemor is Kesaroku Mizumachi,
Hogakuhakushi.
The business at the head office of the bank
is actually conducted through the following
divisions, under the management of a chief
officer for each division: (i) Inspector's
Bureau; (2) Business Department; (3) Cash
Department; (4) Treasury Department;
(5) Secretary's Department; (6) Securities
Department; (7) Accountant Department;
(8) Economic Research Department; (9) Pri-
vate Secretary's Bureau The bank has
eleven branches which are located at Osaka,
Saibu (Moji), Kyoto, Xagoya, Otaru, Hako-
date, Fukushima, Hiroshima, Kanazawa,
Niigata, and Matsumoto.
The Bank of Japan publishes a half-yearly
balance sheet in February and August of
each year, when the general meetings of
shareholders are to be held, and at the
general meeting in February also publishes
a business report for the preceding year. In
addition to these reports the bank publishes
on each Wednesday a weekly balance sheet.
The half-yeariy report to June 30, 1917,
showed a surplus, or net profit for the term,
of 4,691,961.54 yen which was distributed as
follows: Ordinary dividends at 6 per cent
per annum, 1,125,000 yen; secondary divi-
dends at 6 per cent, 1,125,000 yen; depre-
ciation in properties, 10,000 yen; bonuses
and social expenses for officers, 182,000 yen;
carried forward, 1,749,961-54 yen.
THE VOKOHAIIA SPECIE BANK, LIMITED
The Yokohama Specie Bank, Limited,
officially known in Japan as the Yokohama
Shokin Ginko, is perhaps the most prosperous
and popular of all the banking institutions
of the Empire, being second to none save the
Bank of Japan, Founded in 1880 with a
capital of 3,000,000 yen, for the purpose of
affording financial facilities to the nation's
foreign trade, the institution passed trium-
phantly through the economic vicissitudes
THE HEAD OFFICE OF THE YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK, LIMITED, YOKOHAMA
I04
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
of early Meiji finance and became inde-
pendent of state aid as early as 1S89. Since
that time, owing to steady expansion and
augmentation of business, the bank has been
obliged to double its capital four times, until
now it stands at 48,000,000 yen, of which
36,000,000 yen is paid up, with a substantial
reserve fund amounting to 22,100,000 yen,
and paying an annual dividend of 12 per
cent since 1902.
The Yokohama Specie Bank was originally
conducted under the provisions of the
National Banking Law; but a special Imperial
Ordinance, entitled " The Yokohama Specie
Bank Regulations," promulgated in 1887,
provides strict government supervision, under
which all the business of the bank is now
carried on. The accounts of the bank are
always open to the government auditor, and
a half-yearly balance sheet approved by him
has to be presented to the Government and
published in the press. The term of the
bank's business operations was originally
fixed at a period of twenty years from the
foundation of the institution; but at an
Extraordinary General Meeting of the share-
holders convened on September 10, 1897, it
was decided, with the approval of the Minis-
ter of Finance, to prolong the term for
another twenty years, commencing from
February 28, 1900; after which there is no
doubt that the term will again be extended.
Among the great financial institutions of
Japan the Yokohama Specie Bank, Limited,
occupies a position of yearly increasing
importance. It is often entrusted with
matters relating to foreign loans and with
the management of public money for inter-
national account. As the chief monetary
organ of the nation's foreign commerce, the
Yokohama Specie Bank pays particular
attention to foreign exchange and the finan-
cial adjustment of trade. During the war
in Europe this bank took an important part
in floating the British, French, Russian, and
other loans in Japan for the promotion of
the interests of the Allies. The bank is
authorised to issue in the Province of Kwan-
tung and in China bank notes convertible
into silver.
The ordinary business of the Yokohama
Specie Bank consists of foreign and inland
exchange, loans, deposits of money and safe-
custody of articles of value, discount and
collection of bills of exchange, promissory
notes and other securities, as well as exchange
of coins. The bank may also buy and sell
public bonds, gold and silver bulUon, or for-
eign specie, as circumstances may dictate.
The enormous extent of the bank's business
may be inferred from its increasing extension
in every part of the world. In Japan the
bank has branches in Tokyo, Osaka, Kob^,
THE PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR OF KANAG.^AVA PREFECTURE AT YOKOHAMA
and Nagasaki, while abroad it has branches
at London, England, and Lyons, France.
In the United States branches of the Yoko-
hama Specie Bank, Limited, are found at
New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles,
as well as at Honolulu. Further branches
are at Sydney, Australia, Bombay and Cal-
cutta, India, and Hongkong and Singapore.
In China branches are estal^lished at Shang-
hai, Tsingtau, Sinanfu, Hankow, Tientsin,
Pekin, Newchwang, Dairen, Port Arthur,
Mukden, Tiehling, Changchun, Antung-
Hsien, Harbin, and Liaoyang. The bank
also has correspondents in all the chief
cities of the world, numbering in all some
three hundred and fifty.
The superb structure which forms the head
office of the Yokohama Specie Bank, Limited,
at Yokohama adapts the best features of
modern bank buildings of the most advanced
type to the requirements of customs and con-
ditions peculiar to Japan, architectural beauty
being skillfully modified both externally and
internally to secure solidity in a land of
earthquakes, as well as to ensure utility
of service.
The Yokohama Specie Bank, Limited, has
always been fortunate in the character and
capacity of its personnel. The present presi-
dent of the institution, J. Inouye, Esq., is
one of the most distinguished of the nation's
3-ounger financiers, as well as a master of
foreign economic knowledge; while the vice-
president, Mr. Y. Yamakawa, and all the
directors are no less prominent among the
financial circles of the Empire.
The table below, giving the balance at the
end of each year, will indicate the progress of
the bank's business during ten ordinary
years.
Year
Authorised
Capit.^l
Reserve
Fund
Deposits
Loans
Earnings
Net
Profit
Divi-
dend
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yun
Yen
Yen
Per
Cent
1906
24,000,000
13.934.861
120,004,921
82,981,221
22,125,099
4,903,032
12
1907
24,000,000
14,591,707
120,747,331
99.379.166
24,105,828
4,030,405
12
1908
24,000,000
15,490,928
116,526,482
63,958.138
22,238,051
3,830,125
12
1909
24,000,000
16,483,130
144,864,900
54,740,180
21,024,000
3.655.731
12
1910
24,000,000
17,064,101
120,864,978
68,339,947
21.415,574
3,500,382
J 2
1911
48,000,000
17.514.833
140,435,183
83,461,469
20,859,329
3,837,346
12
1912
48,000,000
18,210,252
166,191,379
105,017,699
28,166,562
4.323,925
12
1913
48,000,000
19,819,232
187,851,101
107,274,127
43,325,951
4,348.427
12
1914
48,000,000
20,085,268
180,890,765
104,012,185
43,229,419
4.367,7,59
12
1915
48,000,000
21,350,172
174.573.759
94,320,381
38,108,817
4,401,468
12
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
105
Liabilities
Assets
Yen
Yen Yen
Capital (paid up) 36,000,000 . 00
Reserve fund 22,100,000.00
Reserve for doubtful debts. . . 2,828,504.21
Notes in circulation 20,023,208 95
Cash account :
In hand.... 39.915,479-39
At bankers. 133,320,613. 13 173,236,092.52
In\'estments in public securi-
ties 25,780,5 II . 68
Bills discounted, loans, advan-
ces, etc 225,531,618.83
Bills receivable and other sums
due to the bank 551,767,497.66
Bullion and foreign money.. 3,476,836.33
Bank's premises, properties,
furniture, etc 2,963,397 . 00
Deposits (current, fixed, etc.) 527,004,429.91
Bills payable, bills rediscount-
ed, acceptances and other
sums due by the bank. . . .368,909,057.45
Dividends unclaimed 10,304.77
Balance of profit and loss
brought forward from last
account 2,226,757 .81
Net profit for the past half-
year 3,653,690.92
Yen 982,755,954.02
Y'en 982,755,954.02
Pkofit and Loss Account
1)K.
Cr.
^■n
Yen
To interests, taxes, current ex-
penses, rebate on bills cur-
rent, bad and doubtful debts,
bonus for officers and clerks,
etc 46,084,294 . 89
To reserve fund 1,000,000.00
To dividend:
6.00 yen per old share for)
240,000 shares ( .
, , ) 2,160,000.00
3.00 yen per new share fori
240,000 shares \
To balance carried forward to
next account 2 720 448 73
By balance brought forward
June 30, 1917 2,226,757.81
By amount of gross profits for
the half-year ending Decem-
ber 31, 1917 49.737.985-81
Y'en 51,964,743.62
Yen 51,964,743.62
PHCENIX PAVILION, SHOWING ARCHITECTURE OF 1,200 YEARS AGO
The figures in the tables on this page
show the position of the Yokohama Specie
Bank as at December 31, 1917.
Following are the Directors of this impor-
tant institution: Messrs. Junnosuke Inouye,
President; Yuki Yamakawa, Vice-President;
Nagatane Soma, Kokichi Sonoda, Riyemon
Kimura, Rokuro Hara, Masnoske Odagiri,
Tchunosuke Kawashima, Baron Koyata
Iwasaki, and Konojo Tatsumi.
THE DAI-ICHI GINKO, LIMITED
This important institution, which deserv-
edly ranks very high in banking circles in
Japan, was formerly the First National Bank,
and was established in 1873. Several changes
took place in the early history of the bank,
and its capital was at different stages in-
creased to enable it to extend its operations.
The Dai-Ichi Ginko was formally incor-
porated under the present Banking Act of
Japan in 1896, and its development has been
such that now it is one of the richest and most
sound of the first group of important banks
in the country. The capital is 22,700,000
yen, of which 16,250,000 yen has been fully
paid up, and its reserves amount to the sub-
stantial total of 11,200,000 yen. A general
banking business is conducted on a wide scale
both locally and abroad. The bank's head
office is at No. i Kabutocho, Nihonbashi-ku,
Tokyo. Branches are maintained in Yoko-
hama, Kyoto, Hakodate, Kob^, Osaka,
Nagoya, Otaru, and Shimonoseki, as well as
sub-branches in each of the most important
centres, the total in Japan being twenty-four.
In Korea the Dai-Ichi Ginko has branches
at Seoul and Fusan, while in foreign countries
it is represented by correspondents among
the leading banks of the world. The Board
of Directors consists of the following:
Chairman, Mr. Y^. Sasaki; Directors, Baron
H. Mitsui, Prince Y. Tokugawa, and Messrs.
T. Kumagai, Y. Kusaka, S. Sasaki, and
G. Tanaka. The Auditors are Messrs. T.
Doki and J. Odaka. In the forty-second half-
yearly report for the period ending June 30,
191 7, the Directors were able to show a very
satisfactory state of affairs for this famous
bank. The gross profit was 5,676,277.55
yen, from which had to be deducted the
general expenditure of 3,963,614.10 yen,
lea\'ing a net profit of 1,712,663.45 yen, to
which was added the balance brought for-
ward from the last account, viz., 819,535.93
yen, making a total divisible profit of 2,532,-
199.38 yen. Of this sum 700,000.00 yen was
added to the reserve (thus raising that
account to 11,200,000.00 yen). Dividends
were declared totalling 864,187.50 yen;
85,630.00 yen was allotted as bonus to direc-
tors, auditors, and chief officers; 34,250.00
yen was added to the pension fund and a
io6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
i
TOKYO PREMISES OF DAI-ICHI GINKO, LIMITED
Liabilities
Assets
Yen
Yen
Capital 22,700,000 . 00
Reserve fund 10,500,000 . 00
Redemption fund for the bank
notes 5,122,000.00
Current accounts 95,526,764.47
Deposit receipts 83,855,274.08
Other liabilities 14,886,374.03
Due to correspondents 3,802,545 . 59
Acceptances for customers . . . 1,843,586.38
Balance brought forward 819,535 . 93
Net profits for the half-year. . 1,712,663 .45
Unpaid capital 6,450,000.00
Cash in hand and with the
Bank of Japan 18,666,938.25
Investments 32,251,864.35
Bills discounted 58,211,560.63
Loans and advances 118,073,420.42
Due from correspondents. . . . 3,162,882.07
Liability of customers for
acceptances per contra. . . . 1,843,586.38
Rank premises, etc 2,108,491 .83
Yen 240,768,743.93
Yen 240,768,743.93
balance of 848,131.88 yen was carried for-
ward to the next half-year. The balance
sheet for the period to June 30, 1917, is
given above.
THE JUGO GINKO, LIMITED
This institution is also known as the
Fifteenth National Bank, or Nobles' Bank.
It was founded under the old National Bank-
ing Act in May, 1877, and on the termination
of the original charter it was reorganised in
all respects as a joint-stock concern with a
capital of 18,000,000 yen. In the following
year Mr. K. Sonoda was elected President.
By October, 1913, the capital of the Jugo
Bank, Ltd., was increased to 40,000,000 yen,
of which 23,500,000 yen is now paid up.
The reserves now total 5,800,000 yen. The
Governing Board comprises the Hon. Iwao
Matsukata, President; Mr. Masayasu Na-
ruse, Vice-President, and the following
Directors: Mr. Kokichi Sonoda, Viscount
Hisayoshi Kano, Viscount YukiyoshiAoyama,
Mr. Yoshitero Shimizu, Marquis Yorimichi
Tokugawa, and the Hon. Nayayuki Asano.
The Auditors are Messrs. Mazakazu Hisano,
Naoyoshi Yamamoto, and Tomaki Hano.
Mr. Yutsuha Sato is the Manager and Mr.
Kazusuke Kumai is the Sub-Manager. The
head office is at Xo. 6 Kobiki-cho, Shichi-
chome, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo, and there is
one branch at Nihonbashi-ku in the metro-
politan area. The Jugo Bank, Ltd., has the
following London branches and agencies:
Parr's Bank, Ltd., Lazard Bros. & Co., and
the Union Discount Co., of London, Ltd.
The Jugo Bank, Ltd., does a general bank-
ing business and its record is one of continued
and pronounced success. The last balance
sheet, to June 30, 1917, showed the state of
affairs for the six months' operations (see
next page).
THE INDUSTRI.\L B.\XK OF J.\P.\N,
LIMITED (NIPPON KOGYO GINKO)
The Industrial Bank of Japan is one of
the special banks under direct charter from
the Imperial Government, and was estab-
lished in 1902, under the provisions of a
special act of the Imperial Diet which
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
107
Dr. Yen
Capital 40,000,000 . 00
Reserve funds 5,540,000.00
Deposits, current accounts, etc. 44, 750, 246. 10
Due to other banks and agents 388,913.68
Dividends unpaid 579-39
Rebate on bills discounted and
interest unpaid 536,681 .96
Profit 2,364,203.40
93,580,624.5;,
Cr. Yen
Capital unpaid 16,500,000.00
Loans on securities and bills
discounted 39,700,684 . 85
Account with Bank of Japan
and other banks 5,659,263.40
Government bonds (face value
33,726,300.00 yen) 22,232,980.25
Foreign government bonds. . . . 998,000.00
Other securities 3,459,600.00
Due from other banks and
agents 340,176.84
Bank premises, etc 462,961 .06
Cash 4,226,958. 13
93,580,624.53
Profit akd Loss Account for the Sik Months Ending Junf 30, 191
To reserve fund 260,000 . 00
" bonus for the officers 68,000.00
" dividends for the half-year
at the rate of 9 per cent
per annum 1,057,500.00
" balance carried forwarii to
next account 978,703 , 40
2,364,203 40
By net profit for the half-year. . 1,394,894. 13
" Ijalance brought forward
from Dec. 31, 1916 9^9,309 27
2,364,203.40
promulgated laws for the organisation and
control of industrial banks. The object of the
bank's existence is to deal in negotiable
instruments, supply capital for various
industrial operations, act as a medium for
the importation of foreign capital, and deal
with trust business. In detail, the special
operations of the Industrial Bank may be
described as follows: (i) making loans on
the security of national loan bonds, pre-
fectural or municipal loan bonds, or deben-
tures and shares; (2) subscribing for, or
underwriting, national loan bonds, etc.;
(3) receiving money on deposit and valuables
for safe custody; (4) undertaking trust busi-
ness; (5) discounting bills; (6) buying and
selling of exchange; (7) making loans on the
security of estates (zaidan) created by virtue
of special laws; (8) making loans on the
security of lands and buildings belonging to
factory companies; (9) making loans on the
security of land and buildings in cities and
towns designated by Imperial Ordinance, and
(10) carrying on other banking business sanc-
tioned by the Minister of Finance in accord-
ance with laws or ordinances. As indicated
by these items the Industrial Bank of Japan
is under direct Government control. The
PREMISES OF JUGO GINKO, LIMITED
PREMISES OF THE NIPPON KOGYO GINKO (INDUSTRIAL BANK OF JAPAN, LIMITED), TOKYO, AND A CORNER OF
THE BANKING CHAMBER
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
109
President, Vice-President, and Directors are
all nominated by the Government, and the
auditors are selected among the shareholders.
Since the organisation of the bank some of
the most prominent business men of Japan
have been on the directorate, and the whole
history of the institution, together with its
sound and conservative control and its pres-
tige, well warrant the very high reputation
in which it is held, not only in Japan, but in
foreign countries. The original capital of
the Industrial Bank was Yen 10,000,000, but
with the rapid expansion which took place
an increase of capital was imperative. In
April, 1906, this was raised to Yen 17,500,000,
the additional amount being easily secured
in the foreign money market. A further
increase took place in August, 191 7, when
new shares were issued of a face value of
Yen 12,500,000, 75,000 being offered for pub-
lic subscription, and the rest being assigned
to the original shareholders at the rate of one
new share against every two old ones. With
this new capital a broad scheme of extension
is now being carried out by the bank, includ-
ing the financing of industrial workers at
home, and the capitalisation of cooperative
enterprises in China. The Vice-President,
Dr. Ono, paid a visit to the United States
in 1917, and consulted with the leading
financiers of that country on questions of an
industrial and financial nature on which the
two groups of banking institutions are
mutually interested in the development of
public works in China.
The general expansion of the business of
the Industrial Bank has been remarkable in
the last few years. Not only has it invested
money in all parts of Japan proper and
Korea, but as suggested above, it is heavily
involved in China and has decided to expand
its influence in that field to a much greater
extent. On the other hand, the bank has
been the medium for the importation of
several hundred millions of foreign money
from the French, British, and American mar-
kets. Again, the Industrial Bank has in-
vested a large sum of money in the Franco-
Japanese Bank, which was established with
the cooperation of Japanese and French
capitalists. That the President of the
Industrial Bank is at the same time Vice-
President of the Franco-Japanese Bank, and
the directors of the former are on the board
of the latter institution, shows how substan-
tial is the backing of the Franco-Japanese
Bank. Since the opening of the foreign ex-
change business the Industrial Bank has been
dealing not only with the sale and purchase
of foreign bills of exchange, but has exerted
all its influence to make the Western and
Eastern monetar>' circulation more and more
smooth.
The officers of the Industrial Bank of Japan
are: President, Mr. T. Shidachi; Vice-
President, Dr. Y. Ono; Directors, Messrs. T.
Aoki, T. Iwasa, and M. Ninomiya; Auditors,
Messrs. N. Soma, F. Uriu, and K. Kawakami.
The head office of the bank is at No. r Zeni-
game-cho, Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo. Below is
given the statement of assets and liabilities
as at June 30, 1917.
THE BANK OF CHOSEN
Vitally important to the development of
the Japanese territory of Chosen (Korea) is
the existence of a strong financial institution,
under government auspices, and such a need
is fulfilled by the Bank of Chosen which
operates under special charter from the
Imperial Japanese Government. This bank
was formerly known as the Bank of Korea,
and was established in October, 1909, as the
central bank of Chosen with a capital of
Yen 10,000,000. In the following year
Korea was annexed by Japan, and in conse-
quence the bank was reorganised under its
present title, with a charter from the Govern-
ment.
During the first few years of the bank's
existence, its energies were devoted exclu-
sively to Chosen, there being a great deal to
be done there, just as the Bank of Taiwan had
found much to do in Formosa when com-
mercial and industrial order and system had
to be established in the place of chaos. In
Chosen the work of coinage reform, which had
been set afoot by the Imperial authorities,
was still going on, and the Bank of Chosen
was required to complete it. The Govern-
ment and the municipalities were greatly in
need of funds to prosecute various public
works and the bank was called upon to supply
the money; new enterprises were springing
up in all directions, and those that were at all
worthy of encouragement had to be accom-
modated financially. Generally Chosen was
in its commercial and financial birth, and all
needs had to be met by the bank, as far as
possible. By the time the institution began
to turn its attention to the market outside
the peninsula, the country was in a fair way
to prosperity, a fact readily admitted to be
largely attributable to the work of this
institution.
In the year 1913 the Bank of Chosen was
ready to extend its operations abroad, and a
ready field was found in Manchuria, not
only because it lies so close by, but because
Dk.
Cr.
Yen
Yen
Capital (350,000 shares of
50 yen) ly.soo.ooo.oo
Cash on hand and at bankers' 1,485,188.62
Debentures issued 76,853,400.00
Deposits 38,071.703.73
Advances current account .... 213 ,044 . 40
Fixed loans 34 495 608 40
Reserves 2,116,800.00
Dividend unclaimed 71,490.25
Correspondents' accounts 26,885 • 34
Net profit for half-year 675, 1 38 . 00
Funds in trust and other sums
Loans on lands and buildings 767,323.50
Bills discounted 32,123,061 .43
Internal national loan bonds . . 10,195,220.03
Foreign national loan bonds. . 21,016,873.72
Local loan bonds. . . 8 474,778 58
due by the bank 16,981,665.82
Shares and debentures 4,078,525.28
Funds in agencies 15,447,326.50
Difference on subscription of
debentures 1.753>i47 02
Correspondents' accounts. ... 112,142. 15
Bank premises, etc 235,800.99
Properties acquired through
liquidation of debts 235,062 . 86
Yen 152,297,173.14
Yen 152,297,173.14
Profit and Loss Account
DR.
Cr.
Yen
Yen
Current expenses, interests 3,592,481 . 10
Reserve fund 68,000 . 00
Dividend 525,000.00
Remuneration to officers 20,000 . 00
Balance carried forward 62, 138 . 00
Gross profits for the half-year
including 60,138 yen. Balance
of Profit and Loss Account,
Dec. 31, 1916 4,267,619. 10
Yen 4,267,619. 10
Yen 4,267,619.10
no
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
HliAD OFFICE OI- THE BANK i U iH'iSEN, SEOUL
MAP SHOWING THE SPHERE OF ACTIVITY OF THE BANK OF CHOSEN
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
III
MR. SHlNKlCHr MINOBE, L.OVERNC1K i IF THE
HANK OF CHOSEN
the economic relations between the two
countries, which were steadily growing,
necessitated some banking facilities being
established between the two. This initial
step was fvirther justified by the fact that the
Bank of Chosen had had a foothold in Man-
churia for some time through its branch at
Antung, from which centre its bank notes
had widely circulated. The establishmetit of
branches in Mukden, Changchun, and
Dairen was the next step in the northward
movement. To-day the Bank of Chosen has
twelve branches in Manchuria including,
besides those above mentioned, Newchwang,
Harbin, Kirin, Szupingchieh, Kaiyuan, Fuch-
iatien, Yongchungchon, and Tsingtao. Mean-
while the bank's relations with eastern
Siberia had been constantly growing, but as
no branch of a foieign bank can be estab-
lished on Russian territory, the Bank of
Chosen took over the business and premises
of the Matsuda Bank of Vladivostock, which
had been doing business there for some years.
The activity of the bank in Japan proper,
where it has three branches, namely, Tokyo,
Osaka, and Kob6, has naturally been less
conspicuous, though it has been no less
significant. Its bitsiness there could not but
grow along with the increase in the trade of
the country with Chosen and Manchuria.
Besides, as a member of the syndicate of large
banks in Japan, not a single loan of national
importance has been floated there of recent
years but that the Bank of Chosen has taken
a part in the operations. With the expansion
of its network of branches and the resultant
inclusion in its sphere of activity of such
important ports as Dairen, Harbin, Vladi-
vostock, and Kob^, the relations of the bank
with the world at large became closer. The
foreign business of the bank has in conse-
fiuence assumed an importance never before
known, and the recent establishment at its
head office of a foreign department was
necessitated by these circumstances. This
enlargement of business in all directions
necessarily entailed a greater need of funds.
Thus it naturally followed that an augmen-
tation of the capital of the institution had to
be considered and the proposal to double its
capital from Yen 10,000,000 to Yen 20,000,000
was submitted to the general meeting in
February, 191 7, and was unanimously car-
ried. At the same time 30,000 shares were
offered for public subscription, the rest
being allotted to old shareholders. The
shares were over-subscribed three times, and
only those applications offering a premium
of Yen 29 or over were considered, those of
Yen 29 i^rcmium being accepted in part only.
THK BANK OF TAIWAN, LIMITED
The rapid economic development of the
newly acquired territories of Formosa (Tai-
wan) and Chosen, is largely attributable to
excellent banking facilities which have been
provided for those dependencies under a wise
system of state-aided institutions such as the
Bank of Taiwan, Limited. This bank was
founded under Government auspices, at a
time when there existed great need for some
substantial financial organisation to sta-
bilise credit, normalise interest, maintain a
uniform monetary system, and generally
restore order out of the chaos which had
existed in the island under the old regime.
It was also necessary, if the economic state of
Taiwan was to be in any sense equal that of
Japan, or the island to become a valuable
trade acquisition to the Empire, that a bank,
backed by the Government, and to that
extent a state-controlled institutior^, should
be established. This was accordingly done
by a law passed in March, 1897, which em-
powered the Imperial Government to estab-
lish the Kabushiki-Kaisha Taiwan Ginko, and
to finance it in certain directions. The organ-
isation of the institution was immediatelj'
entered upon, and a charter was granted for
twenty years to a group of promoters, ap-
jjroved by the Government. The Govern-
ment took up stock in the bank to the extent
of Yen 1 ,000,000.00, out of the original capital
of Yen 5,000,000.00, and in July, 1899, loaned
to the bank the sum of Yen 2,000,000.00 in
one-yen silver coins for fi\-e years without
interest. Under the charter the bank was
authorised to conduct a general banking
business; to issue currency notes; to act as
the Imperial Government's bankers; to regu-
late the monetary system, and generally to
fulfil the broad objects which had led to its
foundation. With the Government and
members of the Imperial Household as share-
holders, and under the most influential offi-
cial and commercial support, the Bank of
Taiwan formally opened for business on
September 26, 1897, its head office being at
Taipeh, and with branches in Tokyo and the
other principal cities of Japan, China, Hong-
kong, Singapore, Soerabaya and other East-
ern centres and in London and New York.
That the Bank of Taiwan in its eighteen
years of existence has fulfilled the hopes of
its promoters, and has rendered an immensely
valuable service to Taiwan and the Japanese
Empire generally, there is no doubt. Fur-
thermore, it has proved a big financial suc-
cess, and it is to-day one of the most powerful
and substantial financial institutions in the
Orient. In fulfilment of the object of its
establishment, the Bank of Taiwan has
lessened the difficulties of the monetary cir-
culation, reduced the general rate of interest,
and has helped in the development of various
enterprises by supplying ready funds at low-
rates of interest. The directors have brought
the natives to understand the nature of
credit and to appreciate the services rendered
by the bank; also to induce the Japanese
colonists to engage in various industrial enter-
prises by giving them financial facilities.
The bank has carried out the great work of
reforming the monetary system of the Island
of Formosa, by establishing the gold stand-
ard, and adjusting local and foreign currencies
in their confused circulation. As agent of
the Hypothec Bank of Japan, the institution
under review has granted loans on long terms
to induce the development of agriculture and
other industries, and as a government bank,
in charge of the treasury funds and loans, it
has aided the construction of railways, har-
bour conveniences, water and electric works
and so on. The Bank of Taiwan's beneficial
influence has also extended into South
China and the South Sea Islands, and has
helped materially to stabilise financial trans-
actions involved with trade in that large
territory.
In international finance the Bank of Taiwan
holds a very prominent position, transacting
business direct through its London branch at
58 Old Broad Street with large financial
institutions interested in Far Eastern affairs,
and operating also in the LTnited States,
Russia, Manila, and other foreign countries.
Some idea of the growth of the bank may
be gathered from its increases in capital.
The first took place in April, 1910, when the
amount was raised to Yen 10,000,000.00,
which sum was doubled in October, 1915, at a
special meeting of shareholders. Of this
large capital Yen 17,500,000.00 is fully paid
BANK OF TAIWAN, LIMITED; MR. TETSUTARO SAKURAI, PRESIDENT MR. KVOROKU YAMANARI, GENER.\L MANAGER -
TOKYO PREMISES OF THE BANK, EIRAKU-CHO, KOJIM.ACHI-KU
iri>-.^^i^^^>r^^<:^?^^5^^^^gr^I^^^'^^ "M5@:-'>f
TOKYO PREMISES OF THE HOKKAIDO COLONIZATION BANK, LIMITED
114
PRESENT-DAY I^FPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Balance Sheet, June 30, 1917, Hank oi' Taiwan
Liabilities
Assets
Yen
^•L-n
Capital subscribed 20,000,000 . 00
Reserve funds 5,080,000 . 00
Notes in circulation 26,841,120.00
Current accounts, fixed de-
posits, etc 127,756,124, 17
Deposits in trust 17,252,711 .06
Bills payable, accejitaiices and
other sums due by the bank ,107,911 ,040 . 09
Balance brought forward from
last account 273,563 .09
Net profit for the past half-
year 1,180,729.56
Total Yen 306,295,287.97
Cash account:
In hand 8,770,433 . 03
At bankers 4,231,221.26
Loans to Government 5,696,507 . 00
Bills discounted, loans, ad-
vances and other sums due
to the bank 252,802,591 .65
Government bonds, etc 16,312,404.07
BiiUion and foreign money. . . 13,424,710.72
Capital uncalled 2,519,550.00
Bank's premises, properties,
furniture, etc 2,537,870 24
Total Yen 306,295,287 .97
Profit and Loss Account
Dr.
Yen
Current expenses, interests, etc. 12, 164,7 1 5. 24
Reserve funds 300,000 . 00
Bonus 60,000.00
Dividend (iot; per an.) 768,000.00
Balance carried forward to next
account 326,292 . 65
Total Yen 13,619,007.89
Cr.
Yen
Balance brought forward from
last account 273,563 09
Amount of gross profits for the
half-year ending June 30,
1917 13.345.444^"
Total.
.Yen 13,619,007.89
since then its scope of operations has been
considerably enlarged and it is now doing a
general business throughout Japan and
abroad. There are seven branches in Hok-
kaido, three in Karafuto, and one in Tokj'O.
Business is transacted with clients in all
parts of the world, especially in London,
where the Hokkaido Bank has an agency
established at the time of the issue of coloni-
zation debentures amounting to Yen 5,000,-
000, which were placed in London. Alto-
gether colonization debentures of a total of
Yen 21,000,000 have been issued. The
reserve funds of the bank aggregate Yen
1,768,700. Mr. R. Mizukoshi is the Presi-
dent of the Hokkaido Colonization Bank and
the other directors are Messrs. U. Akabana,
\V. Majima, and M. Seki. The Auditors are
Baron K. Okura and Messrs. T. Matsumoto
and I. Nagata. The head office is at No. 7
Nishi e-chome, Odori, Sapporo.
In the thirty-fifth half-yearly statement for
the period ending June 30, 1917, it was shown
that the net profit for the half-year were
Yen 325,481.35, which with Yen 98,567.26,
made the gross sum available for distribution
Yen 424,048.62. This was disposed of as
follows: To general reserves Yen 34,000;
to reserve for equalisation of dividends. Yen
8,500; to special reserve Yen 22,000; dividend
at 9 per cent per annum. Yen 239,000; bonus
to directors and auditors. Yen 21,000; carried
forward. Yen 99,548.62. The balance sheet
for the term ending June 30, 1917, was as
follows:
up, and the reserves amount to Yen 5,380,-
000.00. The principal officers of the Bank of
Taiw^an, Ltd., are: President, Mr. Tetsutaro
Sakurai; Vice-President, Mr. Kojuro Naka-
gawa; and Directors, Messrs. lyetoshi Sada,
Kyoroku Yamanari, and Shingo Minami.
Above are the financial statements pre-
sented at the thirty-sixth half-yearly meeting
of shareholders held at Tok>'0 on September
I, 1917, for the period ending June 30, 1917.
THE HOKKAIDO COLONIZATION BANK,
LIMITED
This bank, known as the Hokkaido Taku-
shoku Ginko, is one of the special banks of
Japan founded under Government direction
for the specific purpose of promoting the
development and colonization of Hokkaido
by supplying the necessary capital to enter-
prise and immigration. Its operations began
in April, 1900, at Sapporo, Hokkaido, with a
capital of Yen 3,000,000 which has since been
increased and now stands at Yen 10,000,000
of which Yen 6,250,000 is paid up. At its
inception the bank devoted its energy only
to transacting local banking business, but
Assets
Yen
Unpaid capital 3.7.S0.937 ■ 50
Loans on immovable properties 21,566,063.77
1,484,481 .66
Loans on movable properties . . . 36,936 . 43
Bills discounted 9,754,060. 14
Documentary draft 1.035,637 , 51
Overdrafts 513,167.64
Deposits at call 5,300,980.45
National loan bonds 3,487,384.40
Shares and debentures 302,000.00
Difference on subscription price
of debentures 746,000 . 00
Fund for payments at agencies 63,724.08
Balances due by other banks . . 476,476 . 1 5
Bank premises and furnitures . . 699,780 . 86
Loans in account with the
Hypothec Bank of Japan . . 151 ,964 . 54
Loans in Saghalien branches. . 208,191 .65
Immovable properties in posses-
sion 236,643 . 62
Provisionary payments 2,837. 12
Reserve fund for new building 11,258.25
Cash on hand 1,262,891 .29
Total Yen 51,091,417.06
LIABILITIES
Yen
Capital 1 0,000,000 . 00
Reserve against losses 1,154,000.00
Reserve for dividend equali-
sation 325.200 . 00
Special reserve 289,500.00
Unclaimed dividend 15,410.44
Amount of debentures issued. .20,728,090.00
Deposits 16,090,679.01
Drafts payable 3IO.779-50
Balances due to other banks. . 695,776.03
Guarantee for loans in account
with the Hypothec Bank of
Japan 151 .964 • 54
Balance with the Hypothec
Bank of Japan 2,820.92
Balance with the Industrial
Bank of Japan 61 1 . 76
Provisionary receipt 900,720.85
Trust deposits 1,815.40
Brought forward 98,567 . 26
Net profit for the half-year. . . 325.481-35
Total Yen 51,091,417.06
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
115
HEAD OFFICE, TOKYO, OF NIPPON KWAMAO GINKO (HYPOTHEC BANK OF JAPAN, LIMITED)
NIPPON KWANGYO GINKO
(the hypothec BANK OF JAPAN,
limited)
(l, Itchome, Uchiyamashita-cho, Koji-
machi-ku, Tokyo. ^
The Hypothec Bank of Japan is a joint-
stock company with a capital of Yen 40,000,-
000 (£4,000,000), divided into 200,000 shares
of Yen 200 (£20) each. This amount may,
subject to the approval of the Government,
be increased by the decision of a general
meeting of shareholders. The bank is incor-
porated for a period of one hundred years
from the date of its establishment, 1897: but
the said term may, subject to the sanction
of the Minister of Finance, be extended by
the decision of a general meeting of share-
holders. The Governor and the Vice-Gov-
ernor are appointed by the Government for
a term of five years from among share-
holders owning at least one hundred shares.
The Directors are appointed by the Govern-
ment for a term of five years from among
shareholders owning at least fifty shares,
who have been elected as candidates at a
general meeting of shareholders. The Audi-
tors are elected at a general meeting of share-
holders for a term of three years from among
shareholders owning at least thirty shares.
The Governor, the Vice-Governor, and the
Directors are not allowed to engage in any
other business or trade under any circum-
stances whatsoever, although exceptions to
this rule may be made by the special permis-
sion of the Minister of Finance.
The business of the bank is as follows:
(i) To make loans, on the security of im-
movable property, redeemable in annual
installments within a period of fifty years;
(2) To make loans, on the security of immov-
able property, or fishery right, redeemable at
a fixed time within a period of five years;
(3) To make loans, redeemable in annual
installments, on the security of loans redeem-
able in annual installments made by Agri-
cultural and Industrial Bank, together with
the mortgages connected therewith; (4) To
make loans without security to prefectures,
countries, cities, towns, villages, and other
public bodies organised by law; (5) To take
up agricultural and industrial debentures;
(6) To make loans without security to Arable
Land Readjustment Associations conforming
with the Law for the Readjustment of Arable
Lands, or to persons carrying out such read-
justment on their joint responsibility, indus-
trial associations, fishery associations, for-
estry associations, livestock associations or
unions thereof; (7) To receive deposits and
to accept for safe deposit gold and silver
Vnillion and negotiable instruments, provided,
however, that the total amount of the former
deposits may not exceed the paid up capital;
(8) To make loans, on the security of "the
mass of property" belonging to factories or
Hght railways, redeemable in annual install-
ments within a period of fifty years, or
redeemable at a fixed time within a period of
five years; (9) To engage in other kinds of
business prescribed for this bank by law.
In order to meet the demand, the bank is
authorised by the said law to issue special
debentures (Kwangyo-Saiken), with or with-
out premiums, up to an amount not exceeding
ten times its paid-up capital, and they are
redeemed by means of semi-annual drawings
within a period of fifty years. The debentures
Liabilities
Assets
Yen
Yen
Capital 40,000,000.00
Loss, equalisation and special
reserve 6,444,400 . 00
Dividends unclaimed 9.885 28
Total issue of debentures. . . .210,837,680.00
Total issue of savings deben-
tures 16,782,38.5.00
Deposits and current accounts 6,602,852.01
Due to other banks 6,010.70
Unclaimed interest and pre-
miums of debentures 3,797,228.60
Unclaimed interest and pre-
miums of savings debentures 67 1 ,582 66
Fund for the payment of pre-
miums of debentures 988,269 . 55
Fund for the redemption of
savings debentures 125,189.00
Provisional receipts 282,989.74
Amount brought forward from
the last account 145.555 ■ I3
Profits 1,940.143 29
7^0/(1/ Yen 288,634,170 97
Capital unpaid 1 5,000,000 . 00
Loans redeemable in annual
installments 74.035,378.95
Loans guaranteed by agricul-
tural and industrial banks
redeemable in annual install-
ments or at a fixed time .... 143,046,093 . 78
Loans redeemable at a fixed
time 4,715,331.32
Agricultural and industrial
bank debentures 468,383 . 50
Bills discounted 5,343,105 .00
Deposits at the Deposit Bu-
reau of the Department of
Finance 20,028,595.00
Deposits at other banks and
postal savings oflfices 1 1,057,983. II
National bonds 5,092,020.00
Shares and debentures 94,860.00
Foreign bonds 6,726,799.69
Difference between face and
issue value of debentures. . 507,111.00
Agencies accounts 1,263,777. 81
Bank buildings and fixtures. . 50,151 .00
Immovable properties 150,770.02
Provisional payments 935,044 53
Cashonhand 118,766.24
Total Yen 288,634,170.97
!•
pgg;^^?r^rjr3vnii^^ ^^n:^^^^^-^-'^^^^^^:^^-^^^^:-^
PREMISES OF THE TOKYO PREFECTURAL HYPOTHEC BANK, LIMITED
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
117
with premiums, this being the exclusive
privilege of the bank, are at present of the
value of Yen 10 (£1) each, and carry five per
cent interest, while those without premiums
are issued in denominations of Yen 50 (£5),
Yen 100 (£10), Yen 500 (£50), Yen 1,000
(£100), Yen 5,000 (£500), Yen 10,000
(£1,000) each, carrying interest at the
rate of from five to seven per cent per
annum.
The Minister of Finance exercises a general
control over the business operations of the
bank, and may suspend such operations as
he deems contrary to laws or ordinances, or
to the articles of association of the bank, or
injurious to the public interest. The bank
must obtain the sanction of the Minister of
Finance in making alterations in its articles
of association, and in fixing the rate of divi-
dend to be distributed among its share-
holders. The Minister of Finance appoints
special government officials to supervise the
business operations of the bank.
The financial statement of the bank, as at
December 31, 1916, appears on the second
preceding page (115).
The following are the officers of the Nippon
Kwangyo Ginko:
Governor, Mr. Gentaro Shimura; X'ice-
Governor, Mr. Usaburo Yanagiya; Directors,
Messrs. Naonosuke Kawakami, Junzo Kawa-
mura, and Keisaburo Kato; Auditors,
Messrs. Kwanzo Matsuo, Kahei Otani, and
Katsuoki Mizuno.
THE TOKYO PREFECTURAL HYPOTHEC
B.\NK, LIMITED
This bank came into existence in 1888 in
accordance with the Law Relating to the
Agricultural and Industrial Banks. As its
name suggests it was established to meet the
requirements of Tokyo Prefecture, and it
may well claim to have done a great deal in
the direction of promoting agriculture and
industry generally in this district. The
Tokyo Prefectural Hypothec Bank, Ltd.,
deals principally in advances to farmers and
industrial people, supplying funds at low
interest and on long credit, on the security of
farms, home lots, buildings, and so forth.
The bank is also authorised to provide fitnds
for the self-governing authorities of counties,
cities, towns, or villages, to enable them to
carry out necessary works and improvements
that will lead to a greater expansion of indus-
try. Loans are repaid under the system in
operation in yearly installments, comprising
a portion of the principal and interest, so that
the liquidation of liabilities presses very
lightly on those who derive so much benefit
from the system.
The capital provided for the loans made by
the bank is raised by debentures, the bank
being authorised to raise up to five times the
amount of its paid-up capital. Some idea of
the development of this institution may be
gathered from the facts that at its inception
the authorised capital was only Yen 350,000,
while to-day it is Yen 4,000,000; the amount
of debentures issued totals Yen 9,300,000,
and loans of Yen 15,000,000 in the aggregate
have been made. Since the original charter
was issued the Tokyo Prefectural Hypothec
Bank has been authorised to receive deposits,
give short-date loans, and conduct general
discount and banking business. The assets
of the Tokyo Prefectural Hypothec Bank
total Yen 21,715,000, and its reserves amount
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PREMISES OF THE YOKllU.\M.\ SEVENTY-FUl k 111 l;ANK, LIMITED
Ii8
PRESENT-DAY I M P R E S S I O X S OF JAPAN
to Yen 1,543,000. Mr. S. Saito is the
President, and the managing director is
Mr. T. Hoshikavva. The bank is located at
No. I. Vurakucho, Nichome, Kojimachi-ku,
Tok-yo.
THE YOKOHAMA SEVEXTY-FOURTH
BANK, LIMITED
The Yokohama Seventy-fourth Bank,
Limited, or the Yokohama Shichi-Ju-Shi
Ginko, is a popular institution in the port,
and has won a full measure of public confi-
dence and support by its record as a sound
and conservatively managed concern. This
bank operates almost exclusively in the
Y'okohama district, conducting a general
business, and facilitating in a marked degree
the large volume of trade which annually
passes through Yokohama. The Board of
Directors comprises a nimiber of well known
business men and consists of the following:
Mr. K. Otani, President; Mr. K. Mori, Man-
aging Director; Mr. S. Mogi, Mr. C. Minoda,
and Mr. R. Nagai, Directors. The Auditors
are Messrs. R. Okano, J. Takahashi, and
S. Minoda. Branches of the bank are main-
tained at Moto-machi, Noge Ishegakicho and
Kanagawa, Yokohama, and at Honcho,
Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. The capital of the
Y'okohama Seventy-fourth Bank, Ltd., is
Yen 2,000,000 of which Yen 1,400,000 has
been paid up. Out of profits a handsome
reserve fund of Yen 810,000 has been estab-
Ushed. The financial returns of the bank
showed the following position on June 30,
1917:
DRUM BRIDGE, KAMEIDO, TOKYO
THE YASVDA BAXK
The Yasuda Bank is one of the oldest in
Japan, and it is one of the few that sur\-ived
the early and troublous times of banking in
the Empire. To-daj' it commands con-
siderable influence, and the substantial
nature of its business and the soundness of
its methods are known and appreciated not
only in Japan but abroad. That this is so is
due to the business acumen of Mr. Zenjiro
Yasuda, the founder of the bank. He was
bom at Toyama, Tetchu Province, in Octo-
LlABILlTIES
Yen
Capital 2,000,000.00
Reserve fund 810,000.00
Amounts due on deposits 7,454,194.64
Due to other banks 1,305,819.23
Acceptances for customers .... 41,897 . 75
Rebate of interest on bills not
due 55.772 07
Balance brought forward from
previous period and net prof-
it for half-year 104,415 . 77
Total Yen 11,772,099.46
Assets
Yen
Uncalled capital 600,000 . 00
Bills discounted, loans and ad-
vances 6,589,385 . 89
Due from other banks 96,724
Liabilities of customers for
acceptances per contra 41,897
Deposit receipts 1 ,479,343
Stock, bonds, and securities. . . 2,370,096
Sundry accounts 8,171
Bank premises and furniture. . 157,991
Cash in hand 428,488
Total .
.Yen 11,772,099.46
03
75
98
21
.37
33
90
The Profit and Loss Account showed the
following items: Transferred to reserve
fund, 15,000 yen; bonus to staff, 6,412 yen;
dividend for the half-year at the rate of
seven per cent per annum, 49,000 yen;
amoimt carried forward, 34,003.77 j-en.
The head office of the Yokohama Seventy-
fourth Bank, Ltd., is at Minami, Naka-dori,
Yokohama.
ber, his father being Zenyetsu Yasuda, one
of the warriors of the Mayeda family. At the
age of eighteen Mr. Yasuda went to Tokj-o,
then known as Y'edo, in the first year of
Ansei (1854). He studied in the capital for
some years, and saved some money, always
with the idea of investment in a suitable
business. He realised, with the influx of
foreigners and the spread of Japan's com-
mercial relations with the outer world, that
there would be a vast development in money
exchange. He organised the Yasuda Shoten
in March, 1864, to carrj' on the exchange
lousiness, and this was in fact the beginning
of the Yasuda Bank. The Yasuda Shoten,
under the direction of its young manager,
was at once successful, and its development
was such as to warrant its reorganisation
under the company laws in January, 1880,
when it became the Yasuda Ginko with a
capital of Yen 200,000. In July, 1887, the
capital was further increased to Yen 1,000,-
000. When the Commercial Law and Bank
Act came into force in July, 1893. the Y'asuda
Bank was registered as a joint-stock company,
and increased its capital yet again in July,
1900, to Yen 2,000,000. There were several
subsequent changes in organisation and
status, and finally the bank became a regular
limited liability company in January, 1912,
with a capital of Yen 10,000,000.
The second vital factor in the groi;\'th of
the Yasuda Bank has been the service ren-
dered to the institution by Mr. Zenzaburo
Yasuda. This gentleman is now the head of
the family. He was bom in October, 1870.
Upon graduation in 1892 from Tokj'o Im-
perial Universit}^, he entered the Yasuda
Bank to succeed Mr. Zenjiro Yasuda, and
soon demonstrated his capacity for carr\-ing
on the work so ably started. Mr. Zenzaburo
Y'asuda brought new and vigourous ideas of
business into the management of the bank.
In the years 1901 and 1902 he journeyed
through America and Europe, making a
close study of the various financial systems,
and applying to his own institution the best
results of his investigations. In 1909 Mr.
Y'asuda succeeded to the headship of his
family, which includes many strikingly suc-
cessful and briUiant business men such as the
Messrs. Zennosuke, Zengoro, Y'oshio, Zen-
shiro, Y'oshiye, Zenzuke, Zenya, Zenbei, and
Zenzo Yasuda, all of whom are distinguished
alike for their business success and their
probity, tact, and enterprise.
The Yasuda Bank is situated at Kofuna-
cho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokj'O. Branches are
being opened ever>' year. Thej' now extend
to Fukushima, Utsonomiya, Akita, Aomori,
Sendai, Wakamatsu Morioka, Nakamura,
Kori}-ama, Y'okohira, Y'onezawa, Honjo, and
Sakata. With such a mde spread of activi-
ties it is not surprising that the Yasuda Bank
is in a most flourishing condition. The offi-
cers of the bank are as follows: President,
Mr. Zennosuke Yasuda; Directors, Messrs.
Zenshiro and Zengoro Yasuda; Auditor, Mr.
Y'oshio Yasuda; Chief of Business Depart-
ment, Mr. Yasutaro Sudzuki; Chief of Gen-
eral Business Department, Mr. J. Kondo.
Besides these officers Mr. Zenzaburo Yasuda
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THE HEAD OFFK IC dl- IHK \A>II1A HANK, TOKYO PREMISES OF DAISAN GINKO (THIRD BANK, LIMITED), TOKYO
120
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
is Superintendent, and Mr. Zenjiro Yasuda
is general business adviser. Such close
relationship between members of the one
family in the common interests of all, which
are involved in the Yasuda Bank, is one of
the secrets of its great success. According
to the report and balance sheet submitted
up to June 30, 1917, the net profit of the
Yasuda Bank was Yen 670,000, and the
amount carried forward after the dividend
had been paid was the large sum of Yen
340,000 which showed an increase of Yen
140,000 over the amount carried forward the
previous year. The balance sheet to June 30,
1917, is shown in the accompanying table.
THE DAISAN GINKO (tHE THIRD BANK,
limited)
Prior to the passing of the National Bank
Act in 1872, none of the financial houses
applied the name of "Ginko" to their insti-
tutions. The act was revised in 1876 and it
was at this time that Mr. Zenjiro Yasuda
organised the Daisan Ginko, or Third Bank,
with a capital of Yen 200,000. Two years
later the capital was increased to Yen 300,000,
and upon the amalgamation with the Forty-
fourth Bank in 1882, the amount of capital
was raised to Yen 1,000,000. On the expira-
tion of the national bank business in 1896
the status of the Third Bank was changed
to that of a joint-stock company and the
capital was doubled. Further increases in
capital followed upon the amalgamation with
the Eighty-second Bank in 1898; again in
July, 1910, when it was raised to Yen 5,000,-
000 and finally in May, 1917, to Yen 10,-
000,000. The Third Bank has foiu" branches
in the city of Osaka, and thirteen other
branches scattered throughout Japan in such
cities as Yokohama, Hakodate, Tottori,
Matsuye, Yonago, Sakai, Imaichi, Kurayi-
shi, and Nishiwaki. It was also recently
decided to install a further branch at Osaka.
The Third Bank has had a remarkable history
of expansion and of continued success. For
many years it has paid an annual dividend
of twelve per cent. The last balance sheet
presented up to the end of April, 19 17,
showed the total deposits to be Yen 74,058,-
505. The capital is as stated above. Yen
10,000,000, of which half is paid up, and the
reserve fund amounts to Yen 3,450,000.
THE TEIYU BA.\K, LIMITED
L\ 1897 the Fifteenth National Bank at
the expiration of its business term distributed
amongst the shareholders a large amount of
profit and reserves as the result of a very
successful term. Prince Iwakura, Prince
Shimazu, Prince Mori, Marquis Mayeda,
Marquis Asano, Count Tsugaru, Count li,
and some others, who were amongst the prin-
cipal shareholders of the Fifteenth Bank,
pooled their dividends from that institution,
and with the fund thus raised they started
the Teiyu Bank under the joint-stock com-
pany laws, with a capital of Yen 2,000,000.
As the founders were nearly all peers, it
naturally followed that the new bank had a
strong position in public confidence, and its
business became very brisk. For fourteen
years the Teiyu Bank, Limited, was con-
ducted as an entirely separate institution,
although it was commonly accepted as a
Assets
Liabilities
Yen
Yen
Loan and temporary overdrafts 41, 847, 252 . 70
Call loans. . . . 5,900,000 00
Capital 10,000,000.00
Reserve funds 'k 020 000 00
Discount bills, etc 8,365,960 . 00
Loans to other institutions 1,022,450.13
Land, building, etc 196,375 . 43
Real estate 30,443 1 8
Deposits 72,794,842.38
Loans from other institutions . . 2,637,635 . 13
Interests unclaimed and dis-
count rate unexpired 716,763.23
Bids and bullion 27,057,604.20
Cash in hand 6,342,808.04
Profit for fiscal term 674,877. 17
Balance brought forward 211,584.82
Total 90,762.893 . 68
Total 90,762,893.68
i *-« ■
THE HANDSOME NEW PREMISES OF THE TEIYU BANK, LIMITED, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
121
branch of the Fifteenth Bank. In 191 1 its
stocks were purchased by the Fifteenth
Bank, and the capital was increased to
Yen 5,000,000, while Mr. M. Naruse, Vice-
President of the Fifteenth Bank, became the
President of the Teiyu, and Mr. S. Ogawa,
from the same institution, was appointed
Managing Director of the new company.
The solid foundation of the Teiyu Bank has
resulted in a highly successful career, and it
is to-day at the height of its prosperity. The
Directorates of the Fifteenth and the Teiyu
Banks are practically the same, the board of
the latter being: President, Mr. M. Naruse;
Directors, Messrs. K. Sonoda, Viscount Kano,
Viscount Aoyama, and Managing Director,
S. Ogawa. The Auditors are Messrs. S
Mayeda, Y. Sato, and T. Imai. The head
office of the Teiyu Bank, Ltd., is at No. 13
Sojurocho, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo, and there
are branches at Gofukucho, Nihonbashi-ku
and Tomiyoshicho, Fukagawa-ku. Tokyo.
THE ONE HUNDREDTH BANK, LIMITED
The Dai Hyaku Ginko, or One Hundredth
Bank, Ltd., of Tokyo, was originally founded
under government charter in 1878, in con-
formance with the laws governing national
banks. In those days the pensions of the
old daimyo and samurai were granted in
bonds and it was their custom to mortgage
these bonds and get special rights to issue
paper money. For this purpose therefore
numerous banks of this class were established,
not only in the principal cities, but also in
every principal town or port. About 150
such banks were formed, and the One Hun-
dredth Bank was one of them, being organised
under the auspices of Marquis Ikeda, the
Chief of the Tottori Prefecture and the samu-
rai of that prefecture. The capital was
Yen 200,000 and the bank was known as Dai
Hyaku Kokuritsu Ginko, or the One Hun-
dredth National Bank. At the same time
the Dai Hachiju-ni Kokuritsu Ginko (the
Eighty-second National Bank) was opened
in Tottori Prefecture with a capital of Yen
200,000. The rate of special privilege
granted for the issue of paper currency was
eight-tenths of a l:)ank's capital, and the
amount of paper money issued by mort-
gaging public loan bonds to the Government
was Yen 160,000. The founders of the One
Hundredth Bank were Messrs. Rokuro Hara,
Saneatsu Kawasaki, Tadami Yoshida, Zen-
jiro Yasuda, Kageyoshi Kawada, Hisashi
Miyabe, Chohei Takasaki, and Yoshizo
Enjoji.
In May, 1 883, when the revision of the laws
of the national banks took place, and their
old functions were suspended, the One
Hundredth Bank continued in operation as
an ordinary bank, and has ever since held a
prominent place in public esteem, giving
facilities to merchants and in every way
endeavouring to hasten the development of
the resources of Japan and to promote
exports. The old paper money issued by the
bank was all paid off at the expiration of the
business term in August, iS()8. The One
Hundredth Bank conducts a general business
throughout Japan and her dependencies, as
well as abroad. In addition, it handles trust
company business and maintains a safe
deposit department at the Yokohama branch.
The head office of the bank is at Awomono-
cho, Tokyo. Branches are maintained at
Resources
Yen
Cash and bullion in hand 6,374,697 . 70
Cash in Bank of Japan 447,869 . 85
Total 6,822,567.55
Money at call 410,000.00
Investments:
Securities of Japanese Gov-
ernment 4,880,905.00
Foreign governments treas-
ury bills 2,406,744.47
Japanese corporation bonds . 54,6oo . 00
Japanese corporation stocks, 12,500.00
Total 7,764,749.47
Bills discounted 25,472,989.26
Loans and overdrafts 35i7i7i455- 13
Foreign bills purchased 3i992i797.8o
Liabilities of customers on ac-
ceptances and guarantees as
per contra 7,458,502.93
Due from other banks 1,976,326.39
Bank premises and real estates 890,859.57
Suspense accounts 11,835.01
To'al 91,108,083. II
Liabilities
Yen
Yen
Capital :
Subscribed. . 10,000,000.00
Paid up 6,000,000 . 00 6,000 .
Reserve fund 4,090,
Demand deposits 30,687,
Time deposits, certificates 37,379,
Acceptances and guarantees . . . 7,458
Liabilities on foreign bills sold . . 329,
Due to Bank of Japan i ,900,
Due to other banks 1,885,
Transit account 357,
Unclaimed dividends, interest
due, rebates, etc 524,
Profit and loss :
Balance brought
forward 46,798.74
Net profit for the
half-year ....447,786.55 494,
000 . 00
000 . 00
923.98
.507-83
502.93
,630.99
000 . 00
877.81
610.97
443 31
585 . 29
Total 91,108,083. II
PREMISES OF THE TOKYO BANK, LIMITED
122
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A COMMON TYPE OF RIVER BOAT
No. I Torihatogocho, Nihonbashi, and No. lo
Ginza, Tokyo, as well as at Yokohama,
Osaka, Kyoto, and Tottori. The London
correspondents are Messrs. Brown, Shipley &
Company, and in New York, Messrs. Brown
Brothers & Company. Mr. K. Ikeda is the
President of the One Hundredth Bank, Ltd.,
and Mr. S. Choh, the Managing Director.
Some idea of the growth of this institution
may be gathered from the fact that its capital
to-day is Yen 10,000,000, of which Yen
6,000,000 is paid up, and the reserves
amount to Yen 4,120,000. The balance sheet
as at June 30, 191 7, is given on the preced-
ing page.
THE TOKYO BANK, LIMITED
The Kabushiki Kaisha Tokyo Ginko, or
Tolcyo Bank, Ltd., is one of the special trade
banks of Japan, having been established to
give facilities to the cotton and dry-goods
merchants, who have derived a great deal of
benefit from its operations. This bank was
founded in 1896 by the late Mr. Ginjiro
Kobayashi, with a capital of Yen 1,000,000,
and it has been highly successful, its financial
position to-day being a particularly strong
one, which has warranted the directors in
extending the operations in other directions
than those in which the institution has exclu-
sively worked in the past. The Tokyo Bank
is now working as a deposit bank, transacting
a general business, and meeting with all
success. There are branches at Hongo,
Kanda, Fukagawa, and Koishikawa in the
metropolitan area of Tokj'o. The head office
is at No. 10 Tadokorocho, Nihonbashi-ku,
Tokyo. A staff of about one hundred is
employed in the head office and branches.
Following are the officers of the Tokyo Bank :
President, Mr. Tabei Mayekawa; Vice-
Presidents, Messrs. M. Aizawa and S. Mine-
mura; General Manager, Mr. Yujiro Anraku;
Manager of Hongo Branch, Mr. M. Kato;
Manager of Kanda Branch, Mr. M. Kawabe;
Manager of Fukagawa Branch, Mr. Y.
Watanabe; Manager of Koishikawa Branch,
Mr. K. Sugimoto. (See illustration on pre-
ceding page.)
THE MORIMURA BANK
This well known institution in financial
and banking circles of Japan was founded in
1897 l)y Baron L Morimura, a millionaire
famous throughout the Empire for his
important business interests which he directs
with conspicuous ability. Baron Morimura
is the Senior Partner of the bank. The
President is Mr. S. Hirose, and the Manager,
Mr. K. Morokudzu. A general banking
business is done from the headquarters at
No. 3 Tori-Itchome, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo.
The capital of the Morimura Bank is Yen
500,000, the legal reserve fund, Yen 580,000,
and the deposits total Yen 10,000,000.
THE NISHIWAKI BANK, LIMITED
The Nishiwaki Bank, Ltd., is doing a
steadily increasing general business, and
stands high in public estimation. It was
established eight years ago with a capital of
Yen 1,000,000 which is fully paid up, the
shares being mainly in the hands of the
Nishiwaki family, who are well known in
financial circles throughout the Japanese
Empire, and are closely identified with several
large undertakings. The Board of Directors
of the bank is as follows: President, Mr.
Seizaburo Nishiwaki; Kenji Nishiwaki, and
Otoya Tomono; Auditors, Messrs. Shimbei
Nishiwaki and Shimjiro Nishiwaki. On the
following page is the fifteenth half-yearly
balance sheet for the period ending June
30, 1917-
The operations of the Nishiwaki Bank
for the half-year under review resulted in a
premises of MORIMURA BANK, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
123
Assets
Ll.\BII,ITIES
Yen
Yen
Securities against loans 269,482.24
Bills against loans 5,000,925.41
Current account overdrafts 27,106.22
Bills discounted 1,532,002.53
Capital 1 ,000,000 . 00
Current deposits 2,380,854.21
Special current deposits 77,504.86
Fixed deposits 1,758,104.06
Various other deposits 180,155 . 12
Loans from other firms 61,950.88
Loans 1,590,000.00
Deposit monev 18,301 .38
Public bonds 225,000.00
Shares 2 1 ,088 . 00
Discounts not overdue 12,598.22
Net profit for half-year including
Yen 331,368.98 brought for-
ward 361 ,722 . 86
Properties, furniture, etc 96,939 . 78
Cash on hand 205,183.09
Total Yen 7,423,290.21
Tolal Yen 7,423,290.21
profit of Yen 30,353.88, which together with
the amount brought forward from the pre-
vious half-year, viz., Yen 331,368.98, was
carried forward.
THE TAIYO LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY,
LIMITED
This is one of the vigourous concerns
founded under the auspices of the Nishiwaki
family, proprietors of the Nishiwaki Bank,
Ltd. Although of comparatively recent
origin the Taiyo Life Insurance Co., Ltd.,
has already won a permanent position in life
insurance circles in Japan, and the report
for the year 1916 disclosed a healthy state of
affairs and the growing popularity of the
company. Early in the year general business
conditions became active owing to the
influences of the war, but as it is well known
that life insurance does not respond imme-
diately to improved business conditions, it
was some time later in the year before the
insurance companies began to feel the benefit
of the change. In the case of the Taiyo Life
Insurance Co., Ltd., the latter half of 1916
was particularly brisk. Before the close of
the period, the new contracts for 1916
exceeded in total those of the previous year,
and the number of policies surrendered de-
creased substantially, showing that the
policy-holders were in a much better position
to meet their premiums. New insurance
written during 1916 totalled in value Yen
3,420,000, or an increase of eight per cent.
Contracts surrendered or cancelled totalled
in value Yen 2,360,000, a decrease of 57 per
cent. The total amount insured with the
Taiyo at the end of the year was Yen 14,-
200,000, or 17 per cent increase over the
previous year. Premiums to the total value
of Yen 729,000 were received, representing an
increase of twelve per cent. During the
year insurances totalling Yen 135,000 were
paid (increase d^ / 10 per cent); money re-
turned on surrendered policies wasYen 39,000,
or a decrease of 41 per cent, and business
expenses totalled Yen 248,000, being an in-
crease of 2''/ J II per cent over the previous
year. The reserves of the company were in-
creased by 29 per cent, and now stand at Yen
1,989,000, and the total assets are Yen
2,228,000, or an increase of 21 per cent.
The Taiyo Insurance Co., Ltd., has its
head oflRce at No. 12, 2 Chome, Minami-
Demmacho, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo. There
are eight branch offices, which are located in
Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Sendai, Fukuoha,
Kanagawa, Hiroshima, and Kyoto. At the
end of 1916 the company had 1,503 agencies
spread all over the Japanese Empire. Fol-
lowing are the officers of the Taiyo Life
Insurance Co., Ltd.; President, Mr. Seiza-
buro Nishiwaki; Managing Director, Mr. B.
Shimidzu; Directors, Messrs. Kenji Nishiwaki
and O. Tomono; Auditors, Messrs. Shinjiro
Nishiwaki and K. Shibata.
THE KOIKE BANK, LIMITED, TOKYO
This institution is directed and controlled
by Mr. Kunizo Koike, a prominent financier,
industrial organiser, and general business
man of wide repute. The bank was originally
founded in 1888 as an institution for the
financing of the wooKdealing interests in
Tokyo. It was then known as the Shoyei
Ginko. Business was transacted along sound
lines among a restricted clientele of solid busi-
ness men, and the bank developed very
strongly. In May, 191 1, Mr. Koike pur-
chased the bank, and in 1917 its title was
altered to the Koike Bank.
Mr. Koike's record as a business man is an
interesting one. He was born in Kofu,
Yamanashi Prefecture, in 1866. When
young he was in the employment of Mr.
Ippei Wakao and engaged in raw silk, mining,
and banking businesses. After seventeen
years of all-round commercial experience he
left the service of Mr. Wakao and proceeded
to Tokyo. There, in April, 1897, he com-
menced his business as a broker on the Yokyo
Stock Exchange, and was soon appointed a
member of the Committee of the Brokers'
Association.
Later on he was elected chairman of that
body and also a member of the Tokyo Cham-
ber of Commerce. In April, 1907, he estab-
lished the Koike Joint Stock Company, and
was engaged solely in the sale and purchase
of stocks, bonds, and in general investments.
His effort in the introduction to Japan of
foreign capital by cooperating with British,
American, and French financiers soon made
his name well known throughout Japan and
abroad. In August, 1909, Mr. Koike was
among the body of prominent Japanese busi-
ness men which was organised to visit the
United States for the purpose of promoting
business relations between the two countries.
In 1910, when the Katsura Government had
issued the four per cent public loan, he took
a prominent part in its flotation, and raised
a large amount of money, demonstrating
once more his financial influence. Since
then his investment business has been on
a very large scale, and he has long been
recognised as a leader in the field of high
finance.
On April 15, 1917, which date is recorded
as twenty years after his first connection with
the stock business, he retired from the
membership of the Tokyo Stock Exchange,
and at the same time the Koike Joint Stock
Company was dissolved. Since that time
he has devoted his energy entirely to the
business of the Koike Bank which business
is solely to underwrite national loans, float
local bonds, and issue debentures on behalf
of municipalities, public corporations, etc.
Thus, among his recent operations, for in-
stance, are a large loan for the city of Tolvyo,
and the flotations of several industrial issues,
amounting in the aggregate to some tens of
millions of yen, and for further extension in
this line of business Mr. Koike will exert all
his force.
Apart from his financial business, Mr.
Koike's career in industry is also a prominent
one. In November, 1915, he estabhshed the
Japan Chemical Pulp Co., Ltd., in Saghalien,
northern extreme of Japan, the exploitation
of which island has been so long neglected.
The company's goods made their first appear-
ance in the market in Maj', 1917, and at once
acquired a reputation for the excellence of
their quality. The product is largely sold
on the local market and is also exported to
India and elsewhere. The field of the com-
pany's activity covers forestry, mining, and
agriculture, and it is largely contributing to
the colonisation of that island.
EDITOR'S NOTE: — Details of other important
Banking and Financial Institutions will be found in
connection with the cities in which they are located.
^
— ^ • T^ .V^-T. "iZi TS!- — ^j-—^ '.'\ - ^ '^ . Jv>-
PREMISES OF TAIVO LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY, LlxMITED — BVILDING OCCUPIED BY THE NISHIWAKI BANK. LIMITED
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
125
TOKYO STOCK EXCHANGE
EXCHANGES
THE TOKYO STOCK EXCHANGE
The Tokyo Stock Exchange, which was
founded on May 15, 1878, came into existence
practically under the auspices of the Imperial
Government, and to-day still retains its
official status, though, of course, it is not in
any way a government-controlled institution.
Early in the Rleiji era it was recognised that
such an institution was a necessity. Japan
was then just developing its resources, and
entering upon foreign trade. Government
loans were being issued, companies of various
kinds were being floated, and the absence of
a central clearing house to regulate the trade
in securities was badly felt. Accordingly in
October, 1874, the Government issued an
Ordinance No. 107 providing for the estab-
lishment of stock exchanges, and induce-
ments were offered for the starting of such
institutions in Tok\-o and Osaka. In the
previous year a large number of national
bonds had been issued and it was particularly
desired that there should be a medium
through which these could be smoothly cir-
culated, under the rules and conditions which
obtain on the London Stock Exchange. The
project of a stock exchange for Tokyo was
taken up by a number of prominent business
men, and their ideas were submitted to the
Government for approval under the law re-
ferred to. It is interesting to recall the names
of the men who originally promoted the
Tokyo Stock Exchange, the first to be estab-
lished in Japan. They were, Messrs. Riozo
Fukagawa, Eiichi Shibusawa, Yonosuke
Mitsui, Takenosuke Mitsui, Takashi Masuda,
Risuke Minomura, Shinobu Komuro, Akira
Komatsu, Genichiro Fukuchi, and Kisaku
Shibusawa. The Government approved to
the plan submitted by these gentlemen,
whose names are famous in Japan's com-
mercial history, and on June 3, 1878, the
Tokyo Stock Exchange began operations.
Meanwhile it will be of interest to show the
development of official ideas regarding the
control of stock exchanges in Japan.
In December, 1892, regulations governing
exchanges were introduced in the Imperial
Diet, and were passed. It was provided that
stock exchanges could be of two kinds —
those formed of private members, and those
constituting a joint-stock company. In the
former case no deposit was called for, but
in the case of a joint-stock company exchange
the Government decreed that one-third of
the capital should be lodged as security
for the proper conduct of business. In the
private membership exchanges both brokers
and members were allowed to transact busi-
ness, but a joint-stock company exchange
must confine its transactions solely to regis-
tered brokers, and these latter, though they
could make sales and purchases on their
own account, were to be held responsible to
the Stock Exchange for all business done for
their own, or customers' accounts. And to
protect itself the Stock Exchange was given
a preference right over other creditors with
respect to deposit money. It was also pro-
vided that the capital of a joint-stock ex-
change should be not less than 30,000 yen.
Private members exchanges were not subject
to any restriction as to capital. These
regulations were somewhat altered in IQ02
when Imperial Ordinance No, 158 prescribed
that the capital of a stock exchange should
be not less than Yen 100,000, and that unless
half of the capital, or in the minimum, Yen
100,000, be paid up, no business could be
done. Furthermore the personal securities of
brokers and members must be deposited.
Such regulations, of course, were drafted to
check the tendency of small and irresponsible
concerns from springing up and trading on
])ublic confidence as regular stock exchanges.
126
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
(Left) Mr. K. Sl'GINO, President of the Yamaichi Goshi Kaisha. (Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. YosHio S.\shid.^, Chairman of
Board of Directors (Tokyo Rice and Produce Exchange)— Mr. T. N.\kane, Director. (Lower Row, Left to Right) Mr. E. Shink.\i,
Director — Mr. C. Hirose, Director. (Right) Mr. R.\izo K.\nd.\, President of the Momijiya Bank
As a matter of fact the Tokv'o Stock Exchange
from the date of its inception was a joint-
stock concern, and its initial capital was
Yen 200,000, far exceeding the legal require-
ments.
Apart from all government regulation the
Tokyo Stock Exchange has its own laws,
embraced in the Articles of Association, for
the conduct of its business. These have been
altered and varied from time to time, as
experience required, and to-day it is generally
recognised that the institution is exceedingly
well governed, and undoubtedly it has the
implicit confidence of the Government and of
the investing public. Abroad the Tokj'o
Stock Exchange is rated as on an equality
with all the great bourses. Its capital is
now Yen 20,000,000. None but Ucensed
brokers can be members of the exchange, and
their dealings are subject to rigid control.
Before being allowed to operate on the ex-
change they must lodge Yen 50,000 as secur-
ity. They have also to pay the license fee
of Yen 100, and in addition must contribute
Yen 1,000 to the guild, or partnership of
brokers. Any man may become a member
under certain conditions contained in the
Articles of Association. All transactions on
the exchange are in the name of the broker.
Private operations by outside speculators are
not recognised, and the broker is held strictlj'
responsible, financially and otherwise, for
anj' trading done in his name on the exchange.
In 191 7 there were about eighty licensed
brokers operating on the Tokyo Stock
Exchange.
The Tokyo Stock Exchange is open from
9 to 1 1 .30 A. M. and from I to 4 P. m. The
margin money to be collected for time bar-
gains is of three kinds: (l) principal margin
money, (2) supplementary margin money,
and (3) extra margin money. The margin
money is bought and sold on the following
basis: in the first category the amount to
be paid is not more than one-half of the value
of the shares booked; in the second category,
one-half of the amount paid for the first.
Of the third class not more than three times
the amount of the first is paid, and this is
to be collected when emergency arises or
business is suspended, or when it is con-
sidered that there may be serious fluctuations
of quotations. This margin money is to be
both for buyer's and seller's account. Time
bargains are made for Present Month
Delivery, Second Month Delivery, and
Third Month Delivery.
Some idea of the growth of the transactions
on the Tokyo Stock Exchange will be gath-
ered from the following: In the seven
months of operations in 1878, the total value
of national bonds changing hands was Yen
26,565,400. Sales and purchases of shares
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
127
only reached a total of Yen 9,600,000, and
there were only 253 transactions. In the
following year the operations in national
bonds in the first six months exceeded in
value the operations of the previous period by
over Yen 30,000,000, and there were 2,400
transactions. In the last half-year of 1879
national bonds transactions decreased in
value by Yen 23,000,000, but the trading in
shares increased tenfold. These figures look
small compared with those of to-day, but they
indicate how quickly the Tokyo Stock Ex-
change grew in popular favour when its func-
tions were understood. There have been
periods of depression and stagnation in the
market, but generally speaking the history
of the exchange is one of rapid development
and ever increasing share operations. After
the Russo-Japanese War, and when the first
period of depression following that struggle
had passed, a strong revival in the market
was witnessed. In 1906 shares began to
rise and in the following year the 50-yen
shares of the Tokyo Stock Exchange rose to
780 yen, a figure which has never been ex-
ceeded. A strong tone has prevailed since
1914, and some very heavy operations have
taken place, over a quarter of a million shares
sometimes changing hands in one day. In
1 91 6 the number of shares bought and sold
in the time bargains on the exchange totalled
31.707.580, valued at Yen 4,066,861,382 and
in the first half of 19 17 the number handled
was 10,801,610, valued at Yen 1,575,276,733.
The officers of the Tokyo Stock Exchange
are: President, Baron Seinosuke Goh; Vice-
President, Mr. Shimpei Tsunoda; Directors,
Messrs. K. Eguchi, U. Yamaguchi, T. Maye-
kawa, and R. Fujiyama.
The Tolcyo Stock Exchange is housed in
a handsome and substantial building of three
stories at Nos. 4 and 6 Kabuto-cho, Nihon-
bashi-ku. The exchange floor is a capacious
mart, covering an area of 1,026 tsuho. In
addition there is office space of 1,000 tsubo.
A staff of 221 is employed for the conduct of
the building and the control of share-dealing
operations. The building is ventilated and
kept supplied with purified air by mechanical
apparatus electrically driven.
TOKYO RICE AND PRODUCE EXCH.\NGE
The rice industry of Japan is of such
importance that it would be indeed surpris-
ing did there not exist well regulated organi-
sations for the control of the marketing and
sale of the product. As a matter of fact
such institutions are to be found in all the
big centres, and they carry on a very useful
work in fixing samples, controlling deliveries,
and generally handling a large volume of
trade at one central house. .Such an insti-
tution is the Tokyo Rice and Produce Ex-
change, which is located at No. 2 Kakigaracho
Itchome, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. This ex-
change was originally established in 1876
under the name of the Beisho Kaisho, or
meeting place of rice merchants. It was
organised by Mr. Ippei Yonekura, and other
merchants prominent in the industry. The
capital at that time was only Yen 100,000,
but this has since been increased to Yen
3,000,000. Furthermore the functions of the
exchange have been widely extended, and it
now handles the business of the sale and pur-
chase of rice, other grain, salt, fertilisers,
cotton and silk thread, cotton cloth and so
on. So important has the Tokyo Rice and
Produce Exchange become that a branch
has had to be established at No. 20 Shinzai-
mokucho, Nihonbashi-ku. The two build-
ings are handsome modern structures, admir-
ably adapted for the transaction of a large
flow of trade, and convenient in all respects
as meeting places for the many hundreds of
merchants interested in the different indus-
tries. The head office consists of a three-
storied brick building with a basement and
large vestibule. The first floor where the
open market takes place covers 233 tsubo.
The second floor is of 185 Isubo, and with
the third floor of 45 Isubo is largely occupied
by offices. The basement and sample room
is 238 tsubo in area. The branch buiding
is three-storied and the total floor space is
75 tsubo. In the Tokyo Rice and Prodiice
Exchange the bulk of the transactions are
for forward deliveries. There is a staff of
sixty-three employees, and the salary bill
runs over Yen 60,000 per annum. Following
are the principal officers of this important
institution: President, Mr. Yoshio Sashida;
Directors, Messrs. C. Hirose, E. Shinkai, and
T. Nakane; Auditors, Messrs. N. Ikegami,
E. Sugihara, and Y. Unyeda. Mr. Shichizo
Date is the General Manager of the Ex-
change. (See illustration, page 95.)
PREMISES OF THE MOMIJIYA n.\XK
128
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE MOMIJIYA BANK
The Momijiya Bank of Tokyo is an off-
shoot of the famous Momijiya & Co., Ltd.,
and fulfils an important and special function
in financial circles of the capital. To describe
the operations of this bank requires that the
history of the Momijiya business should be
related to some extent. The establishment
of the Momijiya dates back to February-,
1900. At that time the sale and purchase
of public loan bonds was in a rudimentarj'
stage, and even the official quotations of
public bonds were in a state of uncertainty.
The Momijiya was opened exclusively for
cash transactions in\"olving the purchase or
sale of public securities, and it began the
publication of daily bulletins reporting the
actual quotations of public bonds and stocks,
as well as financial conditions generally. In
this way, the Momijiya became noted as a
specialist in this class of business, and there
is no doubt its operations were viewed with
great public favour, the institution being
far ahead of any other concern in keeping
the public well advised regarding the mar-
kets. It is also equally certain that the
Momijiya did a great deal to stabilise and
systematise transactions in public bonds.
Some of the transactions of the Momijiya
have reached very large figures. One such
was the handling of Yen 7,000,000 worth of
public bonds in 1903. The Momijiya also
carried out the flotation of a national loan to
the extent of Yen 50,000,000 during the
Russo-Japanese War; a wholesale export of
the Railway Nationalization Loan Bonds,
and the Government Loan Bonds Mark
"Ko-go" in 1908-9, and similar huge under-
takings involving millions of yen and calling
for careful and expert handling of negotia-
tions. The Momijiya was transformed into
a joint-stock corporation, with a capital of
Yen 1,000,000 in December, 1910, a -d in
the following year the Momijiya Bank was
inaugurated with a moderate capital of
Yen 1,000,000.
The Momijiya Bank conducts a general
banking business, but it has several special
features; underwriting and issuing loans for
municipalities and industrial companies;
conducting financial operations in foreign
markets, etc., these special features being
the natural result of its association with
Momijiya & Co., Ltd. The bank is under
the direct control of Mr. Raizo Kanda, but
a clear distinction is maintained in respect
of the capital and business management of
the two institutions, though they operate
together along certain lines. Both may well
be regarded as indispensable for the benefit
of the public at large.
With the object of promoting intimate
relations with the capitalists and financiers
of Europe and America, Mr. Kanda, Presi-
dent of the two institutions, made a tour of
inspection in 1912, covering England, France,
Belgium, and Germany, returning via the
United States. The result of this visit and
association with the leading bankers and
capitalists abroad has been to give an im-
petus to international transactions in bonds
and other securities in which Japan is inter-
ested. The Momijiya Bank occupies hand-
some headquarters at 26 Sakamatocho,
Xihonbashi-ku, Tokyo, and special corre-
spondents are maintained in London,
Paris, Amsterdam, Xew York, and San
Francisco. The General Manager of the
bank is Mr. Yoshimi Yokota. Following are
the financial statements of the bank for the
half-year ended June 30, 191 7:
capital. On April 15, 1917, the Koike Goshi
Kaisha was formally dissolved on Mr. Koike
retiring from brokerage business to take up
the active control of the bank which bears
his name. The succeeding day the Yamaichi
Goshi Kaisha was formed, and by arrange-
ment which had been made at a conference
of the principals and staflE of the former
concern, the new organisation at once took
over the business which had been directed by
Mr. Koike. On the latter's retirement the
organisation was changed somev.'hat, but all
the principal directors and the heads of
staffs continued with the new firm. Conse-
quently the Yamaichi Goshi Kaisha may be
said to be a continuation of the long estab-
lished business, and has at its disposal all the
experience of the staff which Mr. Koike
DR.
Cr.
Yen
Yen
Capital 1 ,000,000 . 00
Reserve 400,000.00
Deposits 566,132, 17
Money at call 1,970,000.00
Loans 900,000 . 00
Unpaid interests, etc 8,503 . 80
Loan bonds 201,374.00
Advances current account 2,097,457 • 83
Bills discounted 1.374.364. 35
Loans to other banks ... . 1 1 1 48
Negotiable instruments 323,961 . 44
Loan bonds 221,440 00
Loans on lands and buildings. . . 100,000.00
Funds in agencies 1,140,407.30
Cash on hand 10,93 ' • 87
5,268,674.27
Bonds in trust 121,207.00
Net profit for half-year 101,457.30
5,268,674.27
Profit and Loss Account
Dr.
CR.
Yen
Yen
Reserve fund 30,000 . 00
Balance carried forward to next
term 71.457-30
Net profits for half-year ending
Tune "^o IQ17 ^i ..102 . ^0
Balance brought forward 70,055 .00
101,457.30
101,457.30
YA.MAICHI GOSHI K.\ISH.\
In a separate article reference is made to
the operations of Mr. Kunizo Koike, Presi-
dent of the Koike Bank, and to the important
work which that gentleman has done in
financial circles in Japan. Over twenty
years ago Mr. Koike engaged in brokerage
business in Tokj-o, and held a very prominent
position in the Tokj-o Stock Exchange. He
established the Koike Goshi Kaisha, about
ten years ago, and made it one of the leading
stock and share brokerage businesses in the
gathered around him. Business is conducted
in a steady and progressive manner. The
firm are licensed brokers of the Tokj'O Stock
Exchange, and deal in domestic and foreign
securities, and undertake the underwriting
of government and municipal bonds and
debentures, the flotation of share stock, and
so forth. The capital of the Yamaichi
Goshi Kaisha is Yen 1,000,000 fully paid up,
and it is interesting to note that the original
founder of the business still retains a large
interest in it, and is one of its partners. The
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
129
INTERIOR VIEW OK THE COUNTING HOUSE OF YAMAICHI GOSHI KAISHA — THE HEAD OFFICE, KABUTO-CHO, NIHONBASHI-KU, TOKYO
head office of the Yamaichi Goshi Kaisha is
at No. 3 Kabuto-cho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo,
in the building formerly occupied by the
Sumitomo Bank. A staff of about sixty is
employed to transact the large volume of
business which passes through the hands of
the firm. The Managing Director is Mr.
Kisei Sugino. Partners and Directors are
Messrs. H. Arita, N. Hasegawa, S. Miyo,
K. Kusunoki, and Partners and Auditors,
Messrs. S. Asakawa and D. Hiraoka. There
are fifteen other partners, among whom are
Mr. K. Koike, who holds stock to the value
of Yen 387,000, and Mr. J. Watanabe. The
cable address of Yamaichi & Company is
"Montoneco," Tokyo.
FOREIGN BANKS
HONGKONG & SHANGHAI BANKING
CORPORATION
A GENERAL history of this well known
institution though more than warranted from
the point of interest represents altogether too
lengthy a document to be contained in a work
of this character. A glance at the balance
sheet of the bank will serve to show the
present enviable position it holds; indeed,
absolutely second to none in the Eastern
Hemisphere, in addition to which the follow-
ing details are important. The bank was
established at Hongkong in 1865 and at
Yokohama in 1867. The original capital of
$2,500,000 was increased in 1872 to $5,000,-
000, further additions brought it up to the ten
million mark in 1 891, and in 1907 it was
raised again to $15,000,000, where it stands
to-day. Of even greater significance is the
fact that so successful were the bank's opera-
tions up to the end of 1916 that the accumu-
lated reserves aggregated $33,000,000, or
more than double the capital. The sum of
$15,000,000 has been set aside to form a
sterling reserve (at Ex 2/- = £1,500,000)
which is invested in British War Loan
Bonds.
A further indication of the phenomenal rise
of the institution as well as the extraordinary
degree of public confidence enjoyed, is
illustrated by the expansion of the deposit
account which shows an increase during the
last thirty-six years from $24,198,572, in 1880,
to $303,067,800, at the end of 1916.
In addition to its commercial operations the
bank has rendered valuable assistance in the
promotion of Japanese, Chinese, and Siamese
Government Loans, its flotations either alone
or in connection with other institutions
amounting to about $200,000,000. The
savings bank department for the small
depositor was initiated some years ago and is
much appreciated, indeed regarded as a boon.
The Yokohama premises of the bank are
located in No. 2 Water Street (Midzu Machi-
dori) on property covering about 2,000 tsiibo
which runs right through from the street to
the water front. The staff employed consists
of ten British besides sixteen Portuguese and
eight Japanese assistants, also a Chinese
department of sixteen. Other branches of
the bank in Japan are located at Kobe and
Nagasaki, representatives in Tokyo, Osaka,
and Shimonoseki being, respectively, the
Mitsu Bishi Goshi Kaisha, the Thirty-
fourth Bank, and Messrs. Jardine, Matheson
&Co.
The Yokohama branch is under the man-
agement of Mr. R. T. Wright who was
appointed in 1911. Mr. Wright has been
K-5^s
'i
>Jr^
1
1
1
/in
Sw '
1
HONGKONG & SHANGHAI BANKING CORPORATION: THE BANKING CHAMBER, YOKOHAMA — THE BANKS PREMISES
ENTRANCE TO THE BANK AT YOKOHAMA
AT KOBE-
THE CHARTERED BANK OF INDIA, AUSTRALIA, AND CHINA: THE BANk's BUILDING AT YOKOHAMA AND ITS KOBE BUILDING
132
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
associated with the bank in the East since 1886
of which period eight years represents service
in Japan. The Sub-Manager at Yokohama
is Mr. J. K. Hutton. The Kob^ branch of the
Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation
was opened as far back as July, 1867, or
coincidentally with the opening of the port to
foreign trade. A large business has always
been done there, and in course of time the
branch far outgrew the original quarters.
The present magnificent new premises, which
unquestionably are a feature of Kobe archi-
tecture, were formally opened in March, 1903.
The foundation stone had been laid two and a
half years earlier on September 25, 1900, by
the late Sir Thomas Jackson, Bart.
The Acting Agent at Kobe is Mr. J.
McArthur. The British staff consists of
seven. There are eighteen local clerks, a
Chinese stafi of seventeen, and a number
of office boys, coolies, and other employees.
The ground is 527 tsubo, and the building
itself covers 24452 tsubo.
CHARTERED BANK OF INDIA, AUSTRALIA,
AND CHINA
This very well known British institution
whose activities extend throughout the Far
East, has tw-o important branches in Japan,
at Yokohama and Kob6, respectively, where
it enjoys a large volume of the banking and
financial business transacted in the handling
of foreign and local trade. The Chartered
Bank is one of the remaining five that were in
existence at the time it secured its Royal
Charter in 1853, the others being the Bank of
Australasia, the Bank of British North
America, the Colonial Bank, and the British
Linen Bank. The charter has been renewed
on various occasions, the last date being in
1909, when it was extended for another thirty
years. In the prospectus upon which the
Chartered Bank was originally formed it was
stated that it was to be "established chiefly in
order to extend the legitimate facilities of
banking to the fast and rapidly expanding
trade between the Australian colonies, British
East India, China, and other parts of the
Eastern Archipelago — a field at present
wholly unoccupied by any similar institution.
The objects of the company will, however, also
embrace in connection therewith the extension
of banking accommodation to the direct trade
of British India, China, and Australia with
this country (the United Kingdom) at present
so inadequately provided for." In all respects
but one these objects have been carried out,
the exception being that the bank has not so
far opened any office in Australia, though,
indeed, the project has been mooted on more
occasions than one. The bank has faithfully
kept in view the purposes which originally
attracted the capital to bring it into existence,
and it has extended its influence to a much
greater degree than was originally intended,
business being carried on in addition to India
and China, in the Straits Settlements, Siam,
the Dutch East Indies, the United States of
America, and Japan. Although chartered in
1853 the bank did not commence business till
1857, offices being opened at Bombay, Cal-
cutta, and Shanghai. Thenceforward the
influence of the bank extended rapidly
throughout the Far East, until to-day its
name is a household word. The paid-up cap-
ital, which had been raised to £800,000 in 1864,
remained at this figure till 1907, when the
steady and continued expansion of business
called for an increase. Accordingly the paid-
up amount was raised to £1,200,000, consist-
ing of 60,000 shares of £20 each, fully paid.
Another evidence of the prosperity of the
bank is the state of the reserve fund which
amounted in 19 1 7 to £1,900,000 or 50 per cent
more than the paid-up capital, and moreover
this was built up entirely from profits, with
one exception. In 1907 the increase of capital
L.ENERAL VIEW OF BUSINESS STREET IN TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
133
was arranged to allow of a premium of £400,-
000 and this was thrown into the reserve fund.
The Yokohama branch of the Chartered
Bank of India, Australia, and China was
opened as far back as 1878, when the port was
still in the process of merging from a fishing
village to a commercial entrepot of world
importance. The Kob6 branch was opened
in 1895. The high record established and
maintained for over sixty years throughout
the Far East, and the early start made in
Yokohama forty years ago, have combined to
give the bank the highest prestige in Japan as
a financial institution. The bank has fine
premises in both Yokohama and Kobe, the
Yokohama premises being as handsome and
imposing as those of any similar institution in
the Far East, and its towering dome is one of
the landmarks of the port. Mr. J. Alston
has been manager in Yokohama since 191 3.
He came to the Far East in 1890 and served
the interests of the Chartered Bank in Java,
Singapore, Hongkong, Saigon, Madras, and
Hankow, before being transferred to the Kob6
branch in 1907. Mr. Stewart, the present
agent in Kobe, has been there for only a year
and a half, having been stationed previously
in India and Java.
Following is the balance sheet to De-
cember 31, 1916:
Liabilities
To capital, 60,000 shares of £20 each, paid up. . . . 1,200,000 o
To reserve fund i ,800,000 o
To notes in circulation 1,019,068 15
To current and other accounts, including provision
for bad and doubtful debts and contingencies. 14,463,317 9
To fixed deposits 8,240,778 16
To bills payable: —
Drafts on demand and at
short sight on head office and
branches £3,216,782 i 7
Drafts on London and for-
eign bankers against secur-
ity, per contra 205,879 4
To acceptances on account of customers
To loans payable, against security, per contra. .
To due to agents and correspondents
To sundry liabilities, including rebates
To profit and loss
3,422,661 6 3
Total.
930,138 12
953,333 6
12,116 10
921,961 7
427,465 10
9
8
3
I
2
£33.390.841 14
1 1
Assets
£ s.
By cash in hand and at bankers 5,640,891 19
By buUion on hand and in transit 278,815 o
By government and other securities 3, 184,307 4
By security lodged against note issue and govern-
ment deposits 864,000 o
By bills of exchange, including treasury bills
£1,269,000 12,069,092 12
By bills discounted and loans 9,601,277 5
By liability of customers for acceptances, per
contra 930,138 12
By due by agents and correspondents 132,329 18
By sundry assets including exchange adjustments . . 1 39,725 i
By bank premises and furniture at the head office
and branches 550,263 19
Toial £33,390,841 14
d.
8
10
Profit kym Loss Account — For the year ending December 31, 1916
Dr. £ s. d.
To interim dividend at June 30, 1916 84,000 o o
To balance proposed to be dealt w'th as follows: —
Dividend, at the rate of 14 per cent
per annum, for the half-year to
date £ 84,000 o o
Bonus of I2s. per share 36,000 o o
Reserve fund 100,000 o o
Officers' superannuation fund 20,000 o o
Bank premises 30,000 o o
Carried forward to profit and loss
new account 157,465 10 2
427,465 10 2
Total £511,465 10 2
Cr.
s. d
By balance at December 31, 1915 399,205 12 4
Less dividend for half-year to
December 31, 191 5 £ 84,000 o o
Appropriation on account of fur-
ther depreciation on securities. . . 160,000 00
Bank premises 25,000 o o
269,000 o o
130,205 12 4
By gross profits for the year, after
providing for bad and doubtful
debts, excess profits tax and
bonus to the staff £828,674 17 8
Less: —
Expenses of Management and gen-
eral charges at head office and
branches 447,414 19 10
381,259 17 10
Total £511,465 10 2
10
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INTERNATIONAL BANKING CORPORATION: KOBE BRANCH INTERIOR OF HEAD OFFICE FOR JAPAN AT YOKOHAMA — BUILDING OCCUPIED
BY HEAD OFFICE FOR JAPAN, YOKOHAMA — INTERIOR OF KOBE BRANCH
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
135
THE INTERNATIONAL BANKING
CORPORATION
The International Banking Corporation,
of which Mr. J. D. Longmire is Manager, was
opened in Yokohama in 1902, for the purpose
of assisting American commerce in Japan and
the Far East. From its earliest days it has
shown that such an institution was urgently-
required, and it has steadily developed a
large business which has been of benefit to
American interests as well as those of Japa-
nese and other nationalities.
The International Banking Corporation
has a capital of G. $3,230,000, with re-
serves of G. 54,598,576. It has established
branches at the following cities:
New York (head office), Bombay, Cal-
cutta, Canton, Cebu, Colon (Isthmus Pana-
ma), Hankow, Hongkong, Kob^, Manila,
Medellin (Rep. of Colombia), Santiago
de los Caballeros (Dominican Rep.),
London, Panama, Peking, Puerta Plata
(Dominican Rep.), San Francisco, Santo
Domingo, San Pedro de Macoris (Domini-
can Rep.), Shanghai, Singapore, Tientsin,
Batavia.
It is also closely allied with the National
City Bank of New York and through this
is in a position to assist trade with the many
points at which they are represented.
INSURANCE
THE TOKYO MARINE INSURANCE
COMPANY, LIMITED
The doyen of the marine insurance com-
panies of Japan is the Tokyo Marine Insurance
Company, Limited, founded August i, 1879,
at a time when insurance was in its infancy in
Japan, and nobody could have conceived that
such great corporations would ever exist.
Some idea of the manner in which this
PROMINENT TOKYO AND YOKOHAMA INSURANXE MEN
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. H.ajime Kawasaki, President, Nippon Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. Sunao Kono, General
Manager, Kyosai Life Insurance Co., Ltd., Tokyo — Mr. Zengoro Yasuda, President, Imperial Marine Transportation and Fire Insurance
Co., Ltd. (In Oval) Mr. T. Isaka, Maiiaging Director, Yokohama Fire, Marine, Transit & Fidelity Insurance Co., Ltd.
(Middle Row) Mr. H. Shimidzi', Managing Director, Aikoku Life Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. M. Ono, President, Yokohama
Fire, Marine, Transit & Fidelity Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. A. Fukuhara, President, Imperial Life Insurance Co., Ltd., President of
the Association of Life Insurance Companies and Special Member of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce — Mi. A. R. Harris, Manager
for Japan, Sun Insurance Office of London, Chairman of the Foreign Offices Fire Insurance Association and Vice-President of the Joint
Fire Insurance Association — Mr. Masao Kurachi, Managing Director, Kyodo Fire Insurance Co., Ltd.
(Lower Row) Mr. Seizaburo Nishiwaki, President, Nishiwaki Bank, Ltd., and of the Taiyo Life Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr.
C. E. Maligny, General Manager for Japan, New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., Vice-President of Foreign Offices Fire Insurance
Association — Dr. Haruo Mourasse, Vice-President, Imperial Marine Transportation and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. T. Yano,
President, First Mutual Life Insurance Co., Tokyo
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TOKYO PREMISES OF THE IMPERIAL MARINE TRANSPORTATION AND FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED
138
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
institution has grown may be gathered from
the fact that its initial capital was only
Yen 600,000 and to-day it is Yen 15,000,000.
At its inception the Tokyo Marine Insurance
Co., Ltd., did a small business in the coastal
shipping trade of Japan, but with the expan-
sion of Japan's commercial interests, and the
tremendous development of the mercantile
marine, and the growth of exports, the company
is to-day covering risks all over the world, and
taking its place with the greatest corporations
of its kind.
Branches and agencies exist all over
Japan, and there is scarcely a business
centre of any importance in the world where
the company is not represented. The Gen-
eral Agents for Europe are Messrs. Willis,
Faber & Co., Ltd., si.Comhill, London; and
for the United States and Canada, Messrs.
Appleton & Cox, 3 South William Street,
New York. General marine insurance is
transacted, and developments in the business
dimng recent years include fire, transporta-
tion, and motor car insurance.
Follow-ing are the principal officers of the
Tokyo Marine Insurance Co., Ltd.: Chairman
of Directors, Mr. M. Suyenobu (Director of
the Meiji Life and Meiji Fire Insurance Cos.) ;
Directors, Messrs. T. Abe, S. Komuro
(Director Mitsui Bussan Kaisha); Baron
R. Kondo (President Nippon Yusen Kaisha) ,
K. Mimura (Director Meiji Fire Insurance
Co.), S. Sasaki (Director First Bank), H.
Shoda (of the Mitsubishi Co.), and K. Sonoda
(Director of the Fifteenth Bank and Y'oko-
hama Specie Bank). A board of more
influential commercial men could scarcely be
found on any corporation in Japan. The
Auditors are Messrs. F. Wuriu and S. Ogawa.
The Managing Directors are Mr, K. Kagami
and Mr. H. Hirao.
The financial standing of the Tokyo Marine
Insurance Co., Ltd., may be gathered from
the following facts: The paid-up capital is
Yen 3,750,000, and the reser^'e funds total Yen
1 7 ,000,000. For the year ending December 3 1 ,
1916, the net premiums totalled Yen 11,419,-
784. After provision for additions to reserves
and suspense accounts a divisible surplus of
Yen 2,421,228 was distributed as follows:
Dividend at Yen 4 per share. Yen 1,200,000;
added to Legal Reserve Fund, Yen 500,000;
carried forward, Y''en 721,228. The profit
and loss account for the year appears in the
table at the top of this page.
The company has assets totalling Yen 42,-
069,081. Recently a magnificent new building
(a photograph of which appears on page
136 of this volume) has been completed for
the Tok->'o Marine Insurance Co., Ltd., in
Tokyo, on the most commanding site of the
business and commercial centre of the capital.
DR.
Cr.
Yen
Yen
To balance from last account. . 204,901 . 63
Underwriting fund from last
account 15,500,223 . 79
Net premia (less returns, rein-
surance, commission, etc 11,419,784.34
Interest, etc 2,216,327.01
Net payments account 19 16
and previous years 5. 561. 198. 35
Charges, head office, branches
and agencies 369,269.26
Directors' and auditors' fees.. 17,625.00
Underwriting fund at the end of
the year 20,971,915.51
Balance 2,421,228.65
Total Yen 29,341,236.77
Tola! Yen 29,341,236.77
THE IMPERIAL .MARINE TRANSPORTA-
TION AND FIRE INSURANCE
CO.MPANY, LIMITED
This company, which is one of the oldest
established of the marine insurance institu-
tions in Japan, was founded in 1893, and is
another of the remarkable enterprises of the
wealthy Y'asuda family. To-day the com-
pany's sphere of influence is very wide, and
its business is conducted on the most modern
lines applicable to Japan, and based on a
sound experience of local conditions. Although
originally formed for marine insurance the
Imperial has always marched with the
times, and when railway transportation in
Japan became properly developed the company
added that department of insurance. This
was in November, 1899. The business of
insurance against fire risks was started in
August, 1902. Mr. Zengoro Yasuda is Presi-.
dent of the company. Dr. Haruo Mourasse,
the distinguished authority on insurance in
Japan, is Vice-President, and in that capacity
he takes a very large share in the control of the
company, making every efi'ort to select the
most sound risks, and devising an extension of
the bvisiness. Dr. Mourasse's efforts, and the
prestige attaching to his name, have made
the Imperial one of the greatest institutions
of its kind in Japan. Its credit is particularly
liigh in insurance circles. The Managing
Director is Mr. Rintaro Komon, an experi-
enced and highly respected figure in the
insurance world. Branches of the Imperial
Company are established at Osaka and Kobe,
and agents are to be found in all the ports of
Japan as w'ell as abroad. It is no exaggeration
to say that for promptness and exactness in
adjusting claims and paying indemnities the
Imperial ranks among the first of its kind in
Japan. The last balance sheet appears at
foot of this page.
In addition to the officers mentioned above
the following are Directors: Baron Morimasa
Takei, Messrs. Shinkichi Miyajima, Zenno-
suke Yasuda, Zenzaburo Yasuda and Yeiichi
Chichiiwa. The Auditors are Messrs. Kahei
Otani, Seizo Nakamura, and Masaoki Hikida.
THE SUN INSURANCE OFFICE
OF LONDON
The Sun Insurance Office of London holds
the unique distinction of being the oldest fire
insurance company in the world, ha\ang been
founded in 1710. At that distant date the
principles of fire insurance were little known,
and such business as was done was confined to
a few mutual societies who insured buildings
only. Marine insurance had been in opera-
tion for many years previously, but it was not
Assets
Liabilities
Yen
Yen
Shares unpaid 2,250,000.00
Cash 207 . 75
Postal savings account 12,987.09
Bank deposits 635,824.51
Loans 237,500.00
Investments 2,790,780.96
Real estate 153,902.61
Capital 3,000,000.00
Legal reserve fund 305,000 . 00
Special reserve fund 1,420,000.00
Emergency reserve 200,000.00
Responsibility reserve fund .... 660, 1 27 . 33
Payment reserve 218,000.00
Account due by the company. . 11,704.07
Reinsurance account 14,251 .04
Sundrv creditors 12,810. 16
Furniture . . 6,712.93
Outstanding premiums 87,7'^3.49
Branch account 45,687 . 1 1
Unpaid dividends 75 -OO
Profit 528,877.31
Agents 70,369.34
Provisionally paid claims 20,647 .02
Outstanding account reinsured 58,492.10
Total Yen 6,370,844.91
Total Yen 6,370,844.91
140
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
O F
J A PAN
imtil the Great Kire of London in 1666, ami
tlie consequent enormous damage to proixTty
tliat resulted, tliat mercliants began to realise
the need for protection against such loss.
It was recognised that properties on land were
subject to equal chances of entire destruction
as w-ere ships and cargoes at sea, and the first
principle of fire insurance was impressed upon
the business mind, that is, the wisdom and
necessity for indemnifying the individual loser
by fire out of a fund provided by contributions
from the rest of his associates in the insurance
organisation to which he subscribed. During
the first twenty to thirty years following the
Great Fire of London, numerous attempts
were made to establish fire offices on a mutual
plan, but most of them ended in failure. The
Sun Fire Office was the first to insure movables
as well as buildings, and it was also first to
extend its operations to other parts of Eng-
land. The scope of its activities being wider
than those of any of the preceding companies
it soon became the leading fire office and one
of the wealthiest institutions in England.
The Sun was thus the pioneer of the fire insur-
ance business, and the conditions under which
fire insurance could be undertaken, and which
this institution found necessary in its practice
have, with only slight modifications, become
the basis of the present-day fire-insurance
contract.
Among the first of the companies to extend
its operations to countries outside of the
United Kingdom, the Sun Insurance Office of
London now has branches and agencies in
practically every comer of the world. As
regards Japan, the company has been operat-
ing in the Empire for over fifty years, and its
activities in this field now cover not only the
islands of Japan proper, but extend to the
very outposts of the Japanese Empire such as
Formosa, Korea, the Loochoos and even to
that inhospitable island of Karafuto, more
commonly known as Japanese Saghalien.
The Japanese business of the Sun Insurance
Office was formerly conducted through
agencies, but in May, 191 1, a head office for
Japan was established at Yokohama by Mr.
A. R. Harris, who came over from Shanghai
to take charge of the company's affairs.
Branch offices are maintained in Tokyo and
Osaka Mr. Harris is Chairman of the foreign
offices Fire Instu-ance Association, and Vice-
Chairman of theijoint Fire Insurance Associa-
tion of Japan.
The present position of the Sun Insurance
Office is shown in the Directors' report and
statement of accounts for the year ending
December 31, 1916, from which the following
facts and figures are taken : The capital of the
Company is £2,400,000 divided into 240,000
shares of £10 each, on which £2 per share has
been paid, thus giving a paid-up capital of
£480,000. During 19 1 6 fire premia, less re-in-
surance, totalled £1,532,349; losses paid dur-
ing the same period aggregated £739,884, being
at the rate of 48.28 per cent of the premiums
received; expenses of management (including
commission to agents and working charges of
all kinds) totalled £577,384; interest reaHsed
£68,187. After reserving as unearned 40 per
cent of the premiums to cover liabilities under
current policies, a credit balance of £253,526
was transferred to profit and loss account.
There was standing at credit of profit and
loss account at the beginning of the year
£335,271, which was increased by the oper-
ations of 1916 to £652,174. The pension fund
was augmented by £20,000; £5,000 was
placed to the war contingenc}' fund, whilst
sundry investments were written down £70,-
000, thus leaving at credit of profit and loss
the sum of £557,174. Two dividends of 7/-
per share each were paid in January and July
of 1917, thus absorbing £130,200, the sum of
£426,974 being unappropriated. At the end
of the year the total funds of the Sun Office
stood as shown below.
The Sun's assets as set forth in the balance
sheet attached to the 1916 report totalled
£4,057,632 at the end of the year, its invest-
ments being as shown below.
NEW ZEALAND INSURANCE COMPANY^
LIMITED
EsT.\BLisHED in 1 859 the Xew Zealand
Insurance Company, Limited, has extended
its operations all over the world, and it is
to-day an institution of which the Dominion
and the Empire may justly be proud, occupy-
ing as it does a position of wealth and impor-
tance never before reached by any company
founded in a remote part of Britain's Colonial
Empire. The New Zealand Insurance
Company, Ltd., has not only extended its
operations in a manner not frequently wit-
nessed in the case of much older companies
which originated in the United Kingdom
itself, but it also has earned the reputation in
insurance circles of being most progressive
and adaptable, and insurance practice gen-
erally owes not a little to ideas put into force
by this vigourous Colonial concern. In the
Argentine, for instance, this company was
the first to transact insurance under the
new workers' compensation laws of that
country, and the tariff framed and put into
force was made the basis of a joint tariff
when other companies took up the busi-
ness. The company's representatives in all
parts of the world are generally to be found
prominently associated with whatever in-
surance organisations may exist, stabilising
and regulating the business for the general
good of insurance companies and the in-
sured.
The New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., has
been transacting business in Japan for over
thirty years. It was represented by Messrs.
Sale & Frazar, Ltd., as general agents up to
May, 1908, when the first branch office was
opened at Yokohama. The head office for
Japan was transferred to Tokyo on July i,
19 14, the address being No. I Yuraku-cho,
Capital, paid up £ 480,000 o
Fire fund 2,112,939 13
Accident fund
Employers' liability fund
Burglary and general fund
Dividend reserve
War contingency fund
Investment suspense fund
Pension fund
Balance at credit of profit and loss account after payment of dividends ...
Total
o
o
7.914 18 5
138,723 17 6
25.979 16 10
150,000 o o
25,000 o
75,000 o
76,559 2
426,974 19
^^3. 519.092 7 8
British Government Securities £
Municipal Securities, United Kingdom
Colonial Government Securities
Colonial Provincial Securities
Colonial Municipal Securities
Foreign Government Securities
Foreign Provincial Securities
Foreign Municipal Securities
Railway and other debentures — Home, Colonial, and Foreign 1
Railway and other preference and guaranteed stocks and shares
Railway and other ordinary stocks and shares
House property, including premises occupied by the Office ....
Salvage Corps Premises
Deposits with Colonial banks
313.748
14
2
9,000
0
0
31.803
13
6
13,668
8
0
73.566
13
10
229,216
12
8
5^.223
0
8
113,722
14
8
,063,869
17
5
175,023
5
3
141.552
19
2
949.655
5
7
22,038
16
9
3.500
0
0
SUN INSURANCE OFFICE OF LONDON: THE MANAGER AND HIS ASSISTANTS, TOKYO OFFICE
THE HEAD OFFICE AND STAFF, YOKOHAMA
142
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
O F
JAPAN
l->-
^
!8
ft-^"
-<3
THE STAFF AND EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE HEAD OFFICE OF THE NEW ZE.U.AND INSURANCE CO., LIMITED, TOKYO
Itchome, Kojimachi-ku. From this branch,
which is under the direction of the Manager
for Japan, Mr. C. E. Maligny, the whole of
Japan proper, including Hokkaido and Kara-
futo, as well as Formosa, Chosen, and Man-
churia, are controlled, the company being
represented in these territories by ten British
and American firms, and 145 Japanese banks,
corporations, and firms. Although the New
Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., transacts fire,
marine, and accident insurance, and also acts
as trustee, executor, attorney, and agent, its
business in Japan is restricted to fire and
marine insurance, of which it enjoys a large
share. Under the Japanese insurance law a
substantial deposit is required by the Impe-
rial Government from foreign insurance com-
panies. This represents in the case of the
New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., Yen 290,-
000, which is 50 per cent of the premium
account for 191 6. Some idea of the financial
strength of the New Zealand Insurance Co.,
Ltd., may be gathered from the fact that
though its paid-up capital is £450,000, out of
a subscribed capital of £1,500,000, its reserves
amount to over £720,000. It had a premium
income for the year 1916 of £924,790, and
the available surplus at the end of the period
was £1 16,379. The total assets of the com-
pany are £1,594,387. It has paid losses to
date totalling £10,540,329.
The principal agents of the New Zealand
Insurance Co., Ltd., in Japan are as follows:
Yokohama, Messrs. Sale & Frazar, Ltd., and
Mr F. Schoene, 167 Yamashita-cho; Kobe,
Messrs. Shewan, Tomes & Co. and J. R. Black;
Moji, Messrs. Horace Nutter & Co.; Hako-
date, Messrs. E. J. King & Co.; Seoul, Messrs.
L. Rondon & Co.; Dairen, Fujiwara Shokwai;
Chemulpo, the Eighteenth Bank; Nagasaki,
Mr. F. Fuse; Nagoya, Unso Kai Shoten;
TolcN-o, Kai Shoten; Fukuoka, Meidi-ya
Kaisha, and Osaka, Tokiwa Shokwai. The
staff of the Japan branch comprises Messrs.
C. E. Maligny, Manager; R. Graham,
Accountant; R. Leopold and N. B. Forrest,
Assistants; S. Normura, Chief Japanese Clerk;
S. Ishiguro, Assistant Chief Japanese Clerk;
K. Kataoka, Chief Clerk, Osaka sub-branch ;
O. W. Luke, Chief Clerk, Yokohama office.
and C. W. Cheng, Compradore, Yokohama
office. In addition forty-fi^•e Japanese clerks
are employed.
THE YOKOHAMA FIRE, MARINE, TRANSIT
AND FIDELITY INSUR-^XCE COM-
PANY, LIMITED
L'p to the close of the last century, all
the silk merchants of Yokohama as well as the
silk manufacturers in the remoter parts of
the country had to rely upon chance as to the
safety of millions of yens' worth of their
expensive stocks and outputs, piled up in
warehouses or godowns. They were without
any protection whatever in the way of
insurance over their fortunes, as the few fire
offices then existing in the Empire were
neither prepared nor willing to accord them
this much-needed protection. It was mainly
to supply this great desideratum to the silk
trade of the country that the company
under review was first established in 1897
by millionaire dealers in silk and prominent
captains of the trade and industrj' of Yoke-
=:=TL
YOKOHAMA PREMISES OF THE YOKOHAMA FIRE, MARINE, TRANSIT AND FIDELITY INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED
144
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
hama, followed by others of the important
silk centres, with an authorised capital of
5,000,000 yen, one-quarter of which has been
paid up.
The first directorate consisted of the late
Mr. T. Tomita, ex-President of the Bank of
Japan, President; Mr. K. Tsuchiko, Vice-
President and Managing Director, Mr. M.
Ono, Mr. I. Wakao, Mr. Y. Mogi, and Mr.
S. Shibusawa; while the late Mr. T. Anzai,
Mr. M. Kaneko,and the late Mr. J. Kakiage
were vested with the first auditorship.
Ever since its inception, the most character-
istic feature of the company has been its very
cautious and almost conservative way of
underwriting and to this very policy is due its
incessant progress and steady development in
the face of divers difficulties lying in the way
of a Japanese fire office, such as the general
fiimsy construction of nine-tenths of its risks,
highly combustible nature of the building
materials commonly used, inefRcient and
primitive methods and equipments for fire-
fighting, with no waterworks or utterly inade-
quate ones, if any, in most cities and towns.
Some companies have been very seriously
and in a few instances almost fatally affected
by the great conflagrations of Tokyo, Osaka,
Hakodate, and Aomori, and more recently by
those that devastated the larger parts of
Yonezawa and Fukui, but the contributions
of this company to these holocausts have
been very moderate and rather slight com-
pared to its incomes and resources, showing
that the conflagration hazard has been care-
fully observed and prudently guarded against.
Finding itself on a firm footing and with a
good reputation, the Yokohama Fire, Marine,
Transit, & Fidelity Insurance Co. began to
write the marine business in 1908^ and coming
out of its trial period of the first few years and
taking full advantage of the most favourable
conditions obtaining in the Japanese marine
market since the breaking-out of the present
great war, it is now making its way in this new
field by leaps and bounds, each new year
seeing its incomes from this source more than
doubled compared with the preceding year.
While the company has never been slack in
its endeavour to increase its reserve funds and
to set itself on a firmer and firmer basis every
year, it has been paying pretty good and stead-
ily increasing dividends to its shareholders,
the rate for the last fiscal year, ended May 3 1 ,
1917, being 13 per cent ordinary, and 7 per
cent special, though the year has been the
worst year in a long time for the fire offices
doing business in the country, owing to the
disastrous fires in the Yokohama, Kobe,
Osaka, and Hangkow warehouses and the
terrible conflagrations in Yonezawa and
Fukui. In fact, the average loss ratio of this
company has been very good, being only 42
per cent of the premium incomes for its first
nineteen years, and the enormous warehouse
and conflagration losses during the last fiscal
year making it an average of 49.7 per cent for
the whole twenty years of its operation. Its
expense ratio is slightly over 28 per cent for
the same period, including taxes and duties.
Its loss-paying record is excellent not only
under ordinarj^ conditions but also in settling
claims arising through conflagrations.
Besides its authorised capital of 5,000,000
yen, the company now has some 3,000,000
yen of reserves, all to meet its liabilities.
As is implied by its title, the company also
w-rites transport and fidelity business, though
minor in its importance compared to the fire
and marine business, yet very successful.
Incidentally, this is the only company in
Japan that is issuing fidelity bonds.
The present management still consists
mostly of notables of Yokohama, with Mr.
M. Ono, M. P., as President, Mr. T. Isaka as
Managing Director, and Mr. C. Ohama,
Chairman of the Municipal Council of Yoko-
hama, Mr. I. Wakao, M. P., Mr. T. Hara,
Mr. G. Shibusawa, and Mr. S. Mogi, as
Directors; while Mr. T. Ishikawa and Mr.
B. Watanabe are Auditors and Mr. U.
Nishikido, General Manager.
An examination of the financial state-
ments of the company for the year ending
May 31, 191 7, shows the following facts:
and stable in the control of such an important
enterprise. The company has had a very
prosperous career and in 1916 its total revenue
was Yen 2,347,439.30 The staff employed
numbers 203. Branches of the company exist
at Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Yokohama, Kob6,
Nagoya, Sendai, Fukuoka, Kanazawa, Dai-
hoku, and Keijo. There are also agencies
scattered throughout Japan proper and the
dependencies of the Empire, and also Man-
churia, China, Hongkong, and India. The
head office of the Kyodo Company is at Nos.
4 and 5 Honkawaya-cho, Xihonbashi-ku,
Tokyo
THE CHIN.\ iMUTU.'i.L LIFE INSUR.^NCE
COMPANY, LIMITED, TOKYO
The China Mutual Life Insurance Com-
pany was founded early in 1898, and was
incorporated under the Hongkong Companies
Ordinances. In 1908 the company was regis-
tered in Great Britain, under the Companies
(Consolidation) Act, and under the Assurance
Companies Acts, and annually makes the
returns required under those Acts The com-
pany is also registered in India, the Straits
Settlements, the Philippines, and Japan.
The head office of the company is in
Shanghai, China, the building being a very
beautiful piece of architecture, probably
unsurpassed anj'where by any edifice of the
same size. The outstanding features of the
Revenue Account
Yen
Revenue account brought for-
ward 191,467.56
Premium reserves 1,860,000.00
Reserve for unpaid losses 65,000.00
Premiums received during year . 2,726,914. 59
Claims recovered or indemnified . 1,170,971 .08
Interest, dividends, etc 432,411 .46
Income from investments 47,909 . 60
Total Yen 6,494,674. 29
Yen
Losses paid 1,791,231 .42
Premiumsfor reinsurances 1,283,594.05
Commission, taxes, and ex-
penses 461,831 .60
Depreciation 7,006 . 49
Premium reserve fund 2,1 10,000 . 00
Unpaid losses 273,200.00
Surplus 567,810.73
Total Yen 6,494,674 . 29
THE KYODO FIRE INSURANCE
CO.MPANY, LIMITED
This company was founded on June 30,
1906, with a capital of Yen 5,000,000.00, and
is to-day in a very strong position, handling a
large volume of insurance received over a wide
range of territory. The Managing Directors
are Messrs. S. Morimoto and M. Kurachi, and
the Directors and Auditors are Messrs. T. Ta-
nabe, T. Murai, C. Watanabe, M. Matsukata,
N. Hiroumi, U. Suzuki, G. Yamaguchi,
K. Ukita, K. Sugiyama, and K. Banno.
These gentlemen are very well known in
insurance and commercial circles generally,
and their names stand for all that is sound
building are the vestibule done in marble,
the roof being inlaid with Salviati gold
mosaic; the principal stairway of marble;
and the dome of the main office, lined inter-
nally with sixteen stained glass panels repre-
senting the Virtues.
While the head office of the company is in
Shanghai, China, the company is a British
company, and all the directors and officials
are British. The aim of the management and
of each official has been, and is, to give to
both Asiatic and European residents in Asia
the benefits of life insurance in a company
whose aflfairs are conducted according to the
best traditions of the great British companies
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KYODO FIRE INSURANCE COMP.
ANY, limited: scenes in the company's offices— the TOKYO PREMISES
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THE CHINA MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED: HEAD OFFICE (NO. ID CANTON ROAD, SHANGHAI) VIEW
OF THE STAIRCASE FROM THE VESTIBULE — GLIMPSE OF THE MAIN OFFICE FROM THE
VESTIBULE — VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF THE HEAD OFFICE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
147
in England and Scotland, with the conven-
iences oflfered by the location of the head office
in the East. Founded originally with the
primary object of insuring residents in China,
the company quickly grew, so that it now has
policy-holders of every race both in Asia
and in Europe, agencies in every part of the
Far East, and has arranged facilities for the
collection of premiums and the payment of
claims in any part of the world. The policy
adopted by the company in regard to the lives
to be assured has also been followed when
dealing with investments. The company's
investments have been carefully made and
judiciously spread over the world. In conse-
quence of this geographical distribution of
investments, this company has not suffered
to nearly the same extent as many of its
competitors from depreciation of securities.
The Japan Agency, which is under the
management of Mr. Charles Neill, was estab-
lished in 191 1. Since the promulgation of
the New Insurance Laws in December, 1912,
the company has been licensed by the
Imperial Japanese Government to transact
the following plans of insurance in the Em-
pire of Japan: Whole Life Assurances, En-
dowment Assurances, Children's Endow-
ments, Educational Endowments, Annuities.
That the system of management of the
company has been fully appreciated by the
Japanese is evidenced by the promptitude
with which approval has been granted to
transact the plans of assurance referred to,
and the remarkable success which has at-
tended the company's operations in Japan.
The chief office of the company in Japan
is in Tokyo, at No. 3 Uchisaiwaicho, Itch-
ome, Kojimachi-ku (opposite the Hypothec
Bank), where a staff of twenty-five clerks
is employed. Branch ofSces are estab-
lished at Yokohama, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osa-
ka, Kobe, Shimonoseki, Fukuoka, Sasebo,
Nagasaki, Tokushima, Tottori, Saga, Kum-
amoto, Kagoshima, Utsunomiya, Sendai,
Hokkaido, etc.
NIPPON FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY,
LIMITED
Established in 1892, the Nippon Fire
Insurance Company, Limited, ranks amongst
the oldest concerns of its kind in Japan. The
head office of the company is at 12 Ginza
Itchome, Tokyo, with branches and agencies
throughout Japan and the Far East. The
fact that the Kawasaki family, that runs the
Kawasaki Bank, a leading private bank in
Japan, are the largest shareholders in the
Nippon Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., speaks
volumes for the stability and financial stand-
ing of the organisation.
The company engages in all classes of fire,
marine, accident, and burglary insurance, the
last three named having been added to the
company's activities at a comparatively
recent date. As pioneer movements of a
fire company and also as undertakings that
satisfy the growing demand of the Japanese
economic world, these latest enterprises are
developing in a satisfactory manner. In the
HEAD OFFICE OF THE NIPPON FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED, TOKYO
148
1' R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
report for the year ended March 31, 191", tht'
volume of fire insurance showed an increase in
value of Yen 137,317,000 over that of the
previous year, and the premium receipts
increased by Yen 123,660, the lower rate of
increase in the latter being attributable to the
downward tendency of rates ruling in Japan
for some time past. The year was fortunateh'
free from any serious conflagrations, and the
company paid claims of Yen 589,523, being an
increase of Yen 158,500 over the previous year
In the Accident Insurance Department highly
satisfactory results were recorded, thanks to
the active development of industry recently,
and the enforcement of the Factory Law on
March 31, 1917. The Marine Insurance
Department of the Nippon Company had been
in existence only nine months, but, favoured
by the marked activity' in the shipping trade,
the volume of business totalled Yen 11,815,-
784,yieldingapremiumincomeof Yen 1 13,640,
as against an outgoing of Yen 28,115.00. It is
fully expected that this phase of the com-
pany's business will show a marked increase.
The financial statements show the follow-
ing balance for the year ending March 31,
1917:
.AIKOKU LIFE INSIR.^NXE COMP.\XY's BUILDING, TOKYO
Assets
Ll.^BILITIES
Yen
Yen
Capital unpaid 2,250,000.00
Cash in hand 689 . 49
Deposits with banks 1,863,941 . 15
Postal cheque and Giro account 7,222.18
Bonds and stocks 1,258,453.00
Real estate '?Q2,s68.83
Capital subscribed 3,000,000.00
Legal reserve fund 310,000.00
Reserve fund (including premi-
um reserve) i ,903,500 . 00
Reserve for outstanding loss. . . 42,367.94
Employees' pension fund 36,500 . 00
Office furniture 4 944 96
Dividend unclaimed 1,668.93
Agencies' balances 71,097.82
Sundry securities 472 . 60
Bills receivable 57,688 . 04
Accounts due to the company. . 83,242. 18
Employees' guarantee fund 37,096 . 85
Balance of re-insurance account 235,200.72
Bills payable 30,629 . 44
Profit 393.356 . 38
Tola! Yen 5,990,320.26
Total Yen 5,990,320.26
The capital of the company is Yen 3,000,-
000, of which Yen 750,000 is paid up, and the
reserves amount to Yen 2,422,724.32
The Board of Directors is as follows:
Chairman, Mr. Hajime Kawasaki; Messrs.
Jozaburo limura, Hachihemon Kawasaki,
Raita Fujiyama, Seishichi Shikata, and Sin-
ichiro Sakuma. The Auditors are: Messrs.
Yoshihisa Usui, Tanejiro Kanazawa, Sakugoro
Kobayashi, and Hiroshi Ando.
THE AIKOKU LIFE INSURANCE
COMPANY, LIMITED
This rich and strong insurance enterprise,
which ranks very high in Japan, was estab-
lished in Tokyo in July, 1896, by a group of
prominent business men included among
whom were the present President, Mr. ^L
Suzuki, Messrs. M. Kumakawa, T. Fujita,
and G. Kishida of Tokyo; K. Hattori and
H. Taniguchi of Kyoto; M. Takayasu,
M. Nakano, and R. Kobayashi of Osaka, and
K. Kato of the Aichi Prefecture, and many
others equally well known in Japanese
commercial and financial circles. The organ-
isation was that of a joint-stock company
with a capital of Yen 300,000.00, divided into
6,000 shares of Yen 50.00 per share. Business
was opened in February, 1897, the head office
being situated at Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo,
branch offices being established at Osaka,
Kyoto, and Nagoya. The first Board of
Directors comprised the following gentlemen :
President, Mr. B. Totsuka; Managing
Director, Mr. I\I. Suzuki (now President);
and Directors, Messrs. K. Hattori, K. Osumi,
M. Nakano, M. Kumakawa, T. Fujita,
R. Kobayashi, G. Kishida, T. Miura, and
K. Sudo. Messrs. K. Kato, M. Takayasu,
S. Tamamidzu, and Y. Kusaka were the
Auditors. The Aikoku Company entered
upon the following classes of insurance:
Ordinary life, limited payment life policies,
endowment policies, short-time installments
for endowment insurance, endowment pol-
icies with dividend, insurance for business
capital, insurance for education and marriage
expenses, insurance against infectious dis-
eases. This latter class of insurance was
discontinued in 1908 when the government
introduced the preventive system against
disease. A vigourous and broad poUcy of
management was followed from the inception
of the company's operations, and this re-
sulted in a rapid extension of the business.
Branches were opened throughout Japan in
the following order: Osaka (April, 1897);
Kyoto (March, 1897); Nagoya (January,
1905 ); Sendai (Tohoku), November, 1903;
Kagoshima (February, 1904); Kanazawa
(August, 1904); Shizuoka (March, 1905);
Yokohama (April, 1905); Kofu (Hokushin),
June, 1905; Okayama (April, 1905); Keijo,
Korea (June, 1908); and Kyushu (September,
1909) . Besides these branches the company'
has 954 agencies throughout Japan and its
possessions. In 1903 the Aikoku extended its
business to Seoul, Chemulpo, and Fusan, in
Korea, and met with great success. Now
the directors have under consideration a
further extension to Taiwan (Formosa), Sag-
halien, and China.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
149
The first dividend of the company was
eight per cent, in 1898. This rate was con
tinned until 1906 when the dividend in-
creased to ten per cent per share and was
maintained at this figure until 1914. In 1915,
15 yjer cent was paid, and the dividend for
19 1 6 rose to 25 per cent. The principal
funds of the company at the end of 19 16 stood
as follows: Liability Reserve Fund, Yen
9,664,675; Fixed Dividend Fund, Yen 384,-
995; Profit Dividend Fund, Yen 21,499;
other reserve funds, Yen 158,534. At the
end of the same period there were in force
117,206 policies for a total insurance of Yen
47,234,832. The company has received dur-
ing its twenty years of existence premiums
totalling Yen 18,299,866, and interest, Yen
3,041,389. The total insurance paid for
the same period was Yen 4,592,862. The
gross expenditure for the twenty years was
Yen 5,555.191-
The present Board of Directors of the
Aikoku Life Insurance Co., Ltd., consists of.
President, Mr. M. Suzuki; Managing Direc-
tors, Messrs. H. Shimidzu and M. Nakano;
Directors, Messrs. G. Asayama, N. Miya-
moto, R. Koedzuka, and S. Tamamidzu;
Auditors, Messrs. Y. Hyodo and S. Shi-
mada.
The handsome new premises in which the
company has its headquarters at 3 Yuraku-
cho, Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo, were completed
in December, 191 2, when the old quarters
in Nihonbashi-ku were vacated.
THE KYOSAI LIFE INSURANCE CO.MPANY,
LIMITED, TOKYO
The Kyosai Life Insurance Co., Ltd., is
one of the enterprises of the famous Yasuda
family, and its organisation and management
conform in every respect to the solid and
conservative methods which have become
associated with the name of Yasuda. The
company was originally established in 1880,
when it became the pioneer of life insurance
companies in Japan. At the time of its
establishment the company limited its oper-
ations to accepting only five hundred in-
surers and it became known as the Kyosai
(Mutual Life) 500 Insurers Society. The
organisation was changed to a limited lia-
bility company in 1 894, and the business was
enlarged to accept insurance subscriptions
from the general public. Again the organi-
sation was changed in April, 1900, and the
company's name became the present one.
Thus the Kyosai has thirty-eight years of
experience, and it is generally recognised to
be on 'a solid foundation and among the
leaders of insurance in the Orient. The
polic)' of the Kyosai Company is a wide and
sound one. All speculation is avoided, and
an earnest effort is continually being made to
promote the interests of the policy-holder,
for though the company is a joint-stock
concern, it is really conducted as a mutual
society. For instance, the company does
not allow more than six per cent to be paid
58,000,000.00, and the limited reserve fund
against this was Yen 11,720,000.00. The
Kyosai Company accepts only two kinds of
life insurance business, namely, the ordinary
and the special endowment policies with
participation in profits.
PREMISES OF THE KYOSAI LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED
to shareholders and from five to fifteen per
cent of profit has been deducted every year
and deposited to the ordinary reserve fund.
The greater part of all profits is distributed
among the policy-holders according to the
amount of the insurance policy. With such
a system in force it is not surprising to learn
that the company's business is growing
annually, new contracts to the value of over
Yen 10,000,000.00 being written and more
then Yen 2,000,000.00 of premiums being
earned every year. The amount of insurance
in force at the end of 1916 was over Yen
The head office of the Kyosai Company
is at Kobuna-cho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokj'O.
Branches are maintained in Tokyo, Osaka,
Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Nagoya, Sendai, To-
yama, Kyoto, Kob6, Otaru, Kagoshima,
Dairen, Seoul, and Taihoku (Formosa). The
Board of Directors comprises the following
gentlemen: Messrs. Zenzaburo Yasuda
(President), Zennosuke Yasuda, Zenshiro
Yasuda, Yoshio Yasuda (Auditor), and
Sunao Kono (General Manager). The fol-
lowing is a sketch of the business progress
of the Kyosai Co., 1894- 19 16:
11
ISO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Years
New
Contracts
Actual Con-
tr.-\cts at the
End of Year
Revenue OF
Premium
Reserve
Funds
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1894
1,016,000.00
1,400,600.00
36,540.00
56,090 . 00
1895
2,43,1.300.00
3,792,700.00
95,461.00
83.330 00
1896
3,048,700.00
6,471,800.00
214,262.00
178,015.00
1897
2,586,900.00
^,709,500 . 00
293.307 00
311,653.00
1898
2,290,700.00
10,434,200.00
400,343 . 00
552,923.00
1899
1,962,300.00
11,254,200.00
396,265.00
757,911.00
1900
2,501,000.00
12,044,700.00
423,644.00
964,330.00
1901
1,887,600.00
11,634,200.00
424,729.00
1,157,686.00
igo2
2,345,000.00
11,914,300.00
490,926.00
1,385,600.00
1903
3,343,700.00
13,680,300.00
573,391 00
1,670,042.00
1904
2,419,600.00
14,167,000.00
596,616.00
1,958.243 00
1905
3,372,000.00
1 5,940,400 . 00
659,460.00
2,284,851.00
1906
6,520,000.00
20,652,300.00
828,432.00
2,765,162.00
1907
8,302,900.00
26,456,500.00
1,091,381 .00
3.3''7.'''37-00
1908
8,078,900.00
30,828,000.00
1,343,022.00
4,169,944.00
1909
6,704,500.00
33,300,100.00
1,495,870.00
5,063,331 .00
1910
7,149,400.00
36,479,400.00
1,631,257.00
6,077,298.00
1911
8,312,900.00
41,102,200.00
1,803,698.00
7. 1 77.553 00
1912
10,985,300.00
47,868,600.00
2,071,888.00
8,435,551 00
1913
10,929,300.00
53,651,200.00
2,243,982.00
9,766,645.00
1914
9,686,100.00
57,357,400.00
2,278,239.00
10,965,208.00
1915
8,317,400.00
57,086,400.00
2,278,375 00
12,152,983.00
1916
8,726,500 , 00
58,422,500.00
2,391,146.00
13,643,180.00
THE FIRST MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE
COMPANY, TOKYO, JAPAN
This company is the first mutual life assur-
ance concern ever established in Japan. It
was projected by Mr. Tsuneta Yano, Ex-
President I. A. J., F. A. S. A. and M. Cor.
I. A. P., who is now its president. Mr. Yano
was a professional physician and first con-
nected himself with the life insurance business
in 1889, as a competent physician of The
Nippon Life Assurance Co., Ltd. At that
time, almost aU life insurance companies of
Japan were organised and conducted with
the sole idea of making profits for the stock-
holders, and as such a principle was con-
trary to his own, Mr. Yano published a
pamphlet in 1893, earnestly advocating the
establishment of a life insurance company of
a non-mercenary nature.
To investigate the life insurance business
abroad, Mr. Yano made a tour through
Europe and America in 1895, returning home
in 1897. In the year following, he entered
the government serv-ice, and in the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Commerce, and the
Investigation Committee of Legislation, he
devoted himself to the task of drafting the
Assurance Law, containing various regula-
tions for superv-ising insurance business and
also private contracts governing mutual life
insurance companies.
In 1899, when the project of law had passed
the Imperial Diet and had become law, a
special section was first created in the depart-
ment for its execution, and Mr. Yano was
appointed the first Chief. At the close of
1 901, Mr. Yano resigned his government
position on his own account and took the lead
in the movement for establishing in Japan an
ideal mutual life insurance company', which
inaugurated its business in October, 1902, and
he is now its President.
The business plan was drawn up princi-
pally in accordance with Mr. Yano's idea.
The chief features are briefly as follows:
(a) The company does not entertain any
life insurance contract below 1, 000 yen.
The object is to curtail canvassing
expenses, which are apt to grow too
much, if smaller contracts are to be
entertained, as was the case with some
other companies when this company
was established, entertaining such
small contracts as 50 yen or 100 yen.
(6) The company does not propose to have
agencies or branches established, for
the same reason as stated above,
(c) As it is the original nature of a mutual
life insurance institution, the company
gives the policy-holders or members
the right to participate in the manage-
ment and entitles them to due share of
its profits. It may be obser\-ed also
that untU the First Mutual Company
was established, few of the other com-
panies had declared their dividends
sufficiently to their poHcy-holders.
There are now no less than thirty-seven life
insurance companies, of which six are of
mutual character. Even in the case of limited
companies, they have now raised their stand-
ard of the minimum contract to 300 or 500
yen and there is none now that does not
declare certain di\-idends to its contractors.
The company is, however, the only concern
that has neither agencies nor branches estab-
lished anywhere.
TOKYO premises OF FIRST MUTU.\L LIFE INSURANCE COMP.^NY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
151
As it will be very clearly seen from the fore-
going statement, the company is an idea!
mutual life insurance establishment, striving
to do its utmost to give its members the light-
est possible pecuniary burdens. The rate,
both of expenditure and of surrenders of
contract, is smaller than that of any other
company. On the other hand, the new con-
tracts do not increase as much as other
companies. From a mercenary point of view,
therefore, the company must be considered a
very poor institution. This is because the
company exerts itself to the utmost to become
the best company, but not the largest one.
All possible efforts have been made to curtail
the expenses to a limit of ten per cent of the
total revenue.
The premium of the company is based upon
the national mortality table and the assumed
interest of 3.5 per cent. The premium reserve
is of the net premium method and the premium
for unexpired risk or simple unexpired premium
is laid by gross in proportion to unexpired
time. The dividend is paid out to each member
every year on the basis of the total amount of
premiums he has already paid up, while many
companies declare their dividends according
to the Tontin system, and such payment of
dividend commences only when the polic\'-
holder has paid in his fifth premium. The
company undertakes to pay the dividend to
the members continually for four years even
after their death, so each member receives
his dividend exactly as many times as he pays
in his premium. The company has been pay-
ing the dividend at the rate of three per cent
per annum and consequently one's premium
decreases year after year in arithmetical
progression, ot the sum insured increases year
by year in considerable amount according as
the policy-holder applies the dividend to
reduce his premium or to purchase an addi-
tional insurance.
The business record for the fourteenth
fiscal year, from September I to August 31,
191 6, and the financial condition at the end of
the same fiscal year will be seen from the
figures in the table below.
Of these various items, the negotiable
instruments and immovable property, if
valued at the current prices, would no doubt
amount to i ,400,000 yen more than the figures
given in the Balance Sheet, and moreover the
liability reserve, if calculated in accordance
with the Zillmer's method, as in the case of
many other companies, would make the
liabilities decrease to the extent of some 500,-
000 yen. The above stated surplus is chiefly
paid off to the members of the company in the
form of dividends.
Insurance Issued and
Revived
Deaths
Lai'sed
Insurance in Force
Number of Policies . 3,503
Amount Yen 5,221,400
224
Yen 354.343
1,179
Yen 1,726,622
22,455
Yen 35,276,041
Premiums Received
Interest of Various Kinds
Received
Business Expense
Yen 1,469.715
Yen 436,729
Yen 185,775
Assets
Liabilities
Yen
Yen
Unpaid fund 75 000.00
Fund . . 100,000.00
Cash 6,627.25
Post office book transfer savings
account 14,621.23
Bank deposits 1,677,984.12
Loans 497,410.39
Securities 3,275,827.10
Real estate A8o,';7q.'?J.
Reser\-e fund 100,764.74
Liability reserve 4,877,228.72
Reserve for dividend surplus
from insurance 376,163.63
Current reserve . . . 32,407.26
Amount brought over from pre-
ceding term of fund for divi-
dend 0.76
Outstanding account 20,693.83
Building account 66,514.30
Total Yen 6,115,057.56
Caution 15,205.55
Surplus 505,57544
Total Yen 6,1 15,057.56
TEIKOKU SEIMEI HOKEN KAISHA (tHE
IMPERIAL LIFE INSURANCE COM-
PANY, limited)
This company was established on March i
1888, under the auspices of the present
President, Mr. A. Fukuhara, with the coopera-
tion of Messrs. J. Koaze, I. Matsumoto, K.
Ito, and T. Kakara. It is indeed the oldest
institution of its kind in Japan, and dates back
to the time when insurance was almost un-
known in the Empire. The original capital
was Yen 300,000. Headquarters were estab-
lished at Horidome-cho, Nichome, Nihonbashi-
ku, Tokyo. When the Imperial came into
existence the general conception of insurance
among the Japanese was of the most primitive
nature and not only did the promoters of the
new enterprise find great difficulty in securing
shareholders in the company for such a com-
paratively small amount of capital, but when
once they had started business they found the
task of securing policy-holders to be almost
insurmountable. Canvassing was a very
tough proposition in those days. However,
with the passage of time and the education of
the people to the benefits of insurance the
initial difficulties disappeared, and since then
the company has steadily increased its busi-
ness. Early in its career the old offices were
found to be too small for the volume of busi-
ness transacted and the company removed to
Himono-cho, Nihonbashi-ku.
At the outset Mr. Koaze occupied the office
of President of the company, but three years
later Mr. A. Fukuhara took his place, and
under his personal and painstaking efforts the
business was rapidly developed, many branch
offices being opened, not only in Japan but in
Korea and Manchuria. By the end of 1893
the total of insurance had reached to over Yen
10,000,000. In November, 1897, after the
close of the Chino- Japanese War, the economic
condition of Japan showed unusual activity,
and business was so good that the Imperial
increased its capital- to Yen 1,000,000. The
buoyant condition of affairs showed itself in
the greater demand for insurance and the
company's policies amounted in total to Yen
20,953,200 by the end of 1898. It was after
Mr. Fukuhara's return, in June, 1900, from an
extensive tour of Europe and America, during
which he made a comprehensive investigation
into insurance matters in three countries, that
important reforms took place in the Imperial's
system of doing business. The participation
in profits idea was introduced, and was an
entirely new thing in Japanese insurance
circles. Other improvements were also
effected and proved highly acceptable to the
poUcy-holders and the general pubUc, so that
a strong demand arose for the Imperial's
policies. The business had by now expanded
so vigourously that the offices had to be
»g^^^^^ty^:^i^^S^>«r^|:^^
'^
PLANT OF THE TAKASAGO INDUSTRY COMPANY, LIMITED, TOKYO — OFFICES AND WORKS OF THE NIPPON YUSI KABISHIKI
KAISHA, YOKOHAMA PREMISES OF THE TAKASAGO LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
153
removed to the present large building at No.
16 Oofuku-eho, Nihonbashi-ku, on October i,
1902. During the Russo-Japanese War of
1904-5 the Imperial, in common with all other
companies, received an inevitable setback
through the death of so many policy-holders,
but after the restoration of peace a reaction
set in. Trade was good and prosperity general
throughout the country. The Imperial made
special efforts to strengthen its position and
succeeded, its business expanding by leaps
and bounds, as may be judged from the fact
that there was a sudden increase in the
amount insured, reaching a total of Yen
53,997,100. Since 1909 the company's busi-
ness has been steadily developed along the
best lines, its financial stability becoming
more and more marked each year. Branches
were opened on a wide scale to take care of the
exterior development of the business. The
branches are in Tokyo, Osaka, Sendai,
Fukuoka, Sapporo, Kanazawa, Nagoya,
Hiroshima, Seoul, Taipeh and other impor-
tant cities, together with 26 sub-branches and
over 1, 1 00 agencies throughout Japan and her
dependencies. The company has also ex-
tended its influence to China.
According to the balance sheet of December
31, 19 1 6, the total contracted insurance was
Yen 113,991,650, with the reserve fund
amounting to Yen 21,297,292. Since the
inauguration of the business Yen 15,904,817
has been paid to beneficiaries under policies.
Such unrivalled prosperity as has attended
the operations of the Imperial Insurance
Company must very largely be attributed to
the rare character and ability of the President,
Mr. Fukuhara, who has laboured for over
thirty years to promote the welfare of the
organisation, no less than to the sound
system on which the company operates.
This system aims at conferring the largest
possible benefits on the policy-holders, and
they, in their turn, have shown that they
heartily appreciate the company in which
they have placed such confidence.
THE TAKASAGO LIFE INSURANCE COM-
PANY, LIMITED
This is one of the three companies under
the Presidency of Mr. K. Hara, who is also
the head of the Takasago Industry Co., Ltd.,
and of the Nippon Yusi Kabushiki Kaisha.
When the Takasago Insurance Co., Ltd., was
formed it was decided to give it a policy widely
different from those of most life insurance
companies, and the principles of a joint-stock
organisation and those of mutual life com-
panies were cleverly blended. Whatever big
profit there might be, the dividend to the
shareholders is limited to six per cent of the
capital, and the rest is credited to the policy-
holders, while on the other hand, in the event
of losses lieing sustained they would be borne
by the shareholders, and would not fall on
the insured. With a view to maintaining the
company's financial stability, and to insure a
steady business policy, over half of the paid-
up capital is deposited with the Imperial
Government, and the Directors have also
under consideration a scheme to deposit with
the Treasury, the responsibility fund, which
is to be set aside for the benefit of the policy-
holders.
The Takasago Life Insurance Co., Ltd.,
handles insurance of two kinds, namely,
whole life insurance, and endowment maturity
insurance with participation in the profits.
Under the latter class of policy, an endowment
for twenty years, taken out at the age of 30,
would mature for a gross sum of Yen 1,501.53,
profits representing Yen 301 .53 and bonus on
maturity Yen 200. The premium for such a
policy would be Yen 52.90. Similar profits
and bonus accrue to the insured under the
whole life policies when the insured is alive at
certain ages. The capital of the Takasago
Life Insurance Co., Ltd., is Yen 500,000. The
head office is at No. i Sojurocho, Kyobashi-ku,
Tokyo, and there are branches at Osaka,
Fukuoka, Hokkaido, Fukushima, Nagoya,
Kyoto, Kob^, Hiroshima, and Kanazawa.
This company is particularly fortunate in its
Board of Directors, which includes some of
the best known men in business and financial
circles in Japan. Mr. Hara is President and
active Manager, assisted by Mr. K. Ikeda.
The Directors are Viscount J. Ito, and Messrs.
S. Sato, K. Kita, D. Sayegusa, and N.Tatsu-
zawa; Auditors, Count M. Okudaira and
Messrs. Y. Toshida and T. Kimura. In
addition there is an advisory council com-
prising Viscount M. Kurushima, Baron T.
Ozawa, Dr. T. Okamura, Dr. K. Keto, and
Messrs. H. Kawase and K. Yegawa.
TAKASAGO KOGYO KABUSHIKI KAISHA
The rapid industrial development of Japan
has given rise to many subsidiary commercial
enterprises, many of which are no doubt
destined to reach great importance, especially
as their activities are being availed of for
production of materials for which there is not
only a permanent local market, but a strong
demand in foreign countries owing to the war.
Among such enterprises is the Takasago
Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha (The Takasago
Industry Co., Ltd.), which in a very short
space of time has developed an extensive and
valuable business in the manufacture of chem-
ical products. The company was formed on
July 1, 19 16, its founders being such well
known commercial men as Messrs. K. Hara,
N. Hasegawa, and others. The nominal
capital is Yen i ,000,000.00, of which Yen 360,-
000.00 has now been paid up. Prior to its
organisation as a limited liability company
the concern had been in operation as a partner-
ship under the style of the Dainihon Denka-
kogyosho, with Mr. Hara at its head and
Mr. Hasegawa managing its operations.
Before long it became the Takasago Kogyo-
sho, and finally was reorganised as a kabushiki
kaisha. The Takasago Company is princi-
pally engaged in the manufacture of potas-
sium chloride, the capacity at the time of
writing being over 500 tons per annum, though
this output is continually being increased.
Other chemicals, drugs, and dyestuffs are
being turned out in rapidly growing quantities.
The head office and works of the Takasago
Industry Company, Ltd., are at Osaki-machi,
Ebara-gun, Tokyo-fu, and a branch is
established at Azuma-machi, Minamikat-
sushika-gun, Tokyo-fu. The offices and works
of the company cover an area of 4,242 tsubo.
About ninety hands are employed. The
principal local consumers of the products of
the different works are the match manufactur-
ing companies, and an export trade is being
done with England, America, Russia, China
and other countries. This trade will be
enlarged as the company's operations extend
and the capacity of the plants is increased to
embrace the manufacture of gelatine, and
other chemical products. The officers of the
Takasago Industry Co., Ltd., are: President,
Mr. K. Hara; Managing Director, Mr. N.
Hasegawa; Directors, Messrs. K. Ohashi,
D. Saegusa, and S. Yamaguchi.
THE JINJU LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY,
LIMITED
The origin of this company dates back to
September 28, 1894, when a limited partner-
ship was formed by Count N. Matsudaira,
Viscount Y. Toda, Messrs. T. Nishimura,
R. Minomura, S. Imamura, I. Tojo, K. Fukiji,
Baron S. Tsuji and others. Business was
opened on October 5,imder the presidency of
Baron S. Tsuji. After some years of opera-
tion the company was taken over by Mr. D.
Shimogou, a wealthy merchant, and in
December of 19 15 it was reorganised as a
joint-stock company with a capital of Yen
1,000,000. By a sound and conservative
policy the business has shown a steady
improvement, and the credit and reputation
of the Jinju Life Insurance Co., Ltd., have
spread throughout the country. At the con-
clusion of 1916 the insurance in force was over
Yen 40,000,000, and the various reserve funds
stood at some Yen 7,500,000. The minimum
amount of a policy issued by the company is
Yen 300, and the maximum Yen 30,000.
The premium in any class of insurance is
the lowest that can possibly be charged. In
1909 the company inaugurated the system of
participation in profits for policy-holders to
154
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the amount of Yen 500, provided they have
maintained their insurance fora period of five
years. The bonus for profits is allotted every
five years. In many directions this company
has shown itself progressive, adopting new
and sound ideas to give the policy-holders
the fullest benefits.
The principal officials of the Jinju Life
Insurance Co., Ltd., are: President, Mr.
Denbei Shimogou; Directors, Messrs. H.
Yoshizawa, H. Okawa, Toratoro Shimogou;
Auditors, Messrs. M. Hirose and Y. Kadono;
Medical Adviser, Professor Shu Miyake;
Councillors, Viscount N. Matsudaira and
Mr. E. Tanaka, and Manager, Mr. T.Tamaki
The head office of the company is at No.
3, l-chome, Uchisaiwaicho, Kojimachi-ku,
Tokyo. There are branches and agencies
throughout the Empire of Japan.
A SHORT HISTORY OF
COINAGE IN JAPAN
By DR. VOSHIMASA KOGA, F. C. S.,
Chief Assayer at the Imperial Japanese
Mint, Osaka
IN the most ancient times, ornamental
stone beads, silk, linen, and grain appear
to have served the purpose of money in Ja
pan. Later, Chinese cash or coins were used
as currency. In the reign of Temmu Tenno
(673 A. D.) silver coins are said to have been
current. The first authentic imperial coins,
or cash, were, however, cast about 708.
These are highly prized and called by numis-
matists the Twelve Ancient Cash. They are
the following:
1. Wa-do-kai-chin 708 a. d.
2. Man-nen-tsu-ho 760
3. Jin-ko-kai-ho 765
4. Ryu-heici-ho 796
5. Fu-ji-shin-ho 818
6. Jo-wa-sho-ho S35
7. Chone-tai-ho 848 "
8. Nyo-yeki-shin-ho 859 "
9. Jo-kwan-ri-ho 870
10. Kwan-pyo-tai-ho 890
11. En-gi-tsu-ho 907 "
12. Ken-gen-tai-ho 958
A gap of six centuries separates the period
at which the imperial coinage ceased and the
period when national coinage was resumed.
In the early part of this long interval grain,
linen, and silk formed the bulk of the currency.
Gradually, however, Chinese cash was
imported and became the chief standard of
value. Gold and silver in the form of small
ingots or grains were also in use.
MR. H. IKEBUKLRO, DIRECTOR OK THE
I.MPERI.^L MINT, TOKYO
The coins of Taiko (about 1588) were of
gold and silver and became the nuclei
aroimd which the Tokugawa system of
coinage was elaborated. In this latter
system as it was first instituted in 1601, gold
alloyed with silver in the form of thin oblong
plates, and also of thicker rectangular plates,
was struck with mint dies and made the
currency by tale, while silver alloyed with
copper was cast into small ingots of varying
weights and stamped with mint marks.
These were current by weight, instead of by
tale as in the case of gold. It was, in fact, a
peculiar case of bimetallism, if it may be so
called.
In cotirse of time it came to pass that the
extravagance of the court or the exigencies of
the state more than once placed the finances
of the government on the brink of bankruptcy,
and each time the temptation to replenish the
coflfers of the state by the debasement of
coinage was too great to be resisted by the
officials. In such a system of bimetallism the
ratio of value assigned to the precious metals
was not apparent to the iminitiated, and it
was comparatively easy for the officials of a
despotic government to multiply the number
of coins at the expense of their intrinsic value,
without danger of exposure. Accordingly,
we find coinage ordered on no less than eight
occasions in the course of 270 years of Toku-
gawa power. Each time standard coins
dwindled in weight and fineness. The silver
currency, which passed by weight, shared a
similar fate, having the proportion of base
metal increased, until finally the old stand-
ard of Keicho silver, which was 800 in i ,000,
found itself debased in Ansei silver to but
130 in 1,000. The coining of silver into
pieces of definite weight began in 1765, and
thenceforward a number of silver coins were
issued, each issue witnessing a gradual
diminution in weight.
The system of coinage in the last days of
tlie Tokugawa government comprised the
following coins:
Gold
Form
V.\I.UE
Koban Oblong i ryo
Oban Oblong 10 and 25 ryo
Nibu-kin Rectangular K ryo
Ichibu-kin Rectangular )4 ryo
Nishu-kin
Rectangular
M ryo
Silver
Form
V.\LUE
Ichibu-kin
Nishu-kin
Ishu-kin
Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular
'i ryo
H ryo
' I'fi ryo
In this system silver in ingots, or shots, was
valued at I ryo per 60 momme.
There is another set of gold coins, interest-
ing in their having a general resemblance to
the coins of Western nations. These are the
so-called Koshyu-kin, round struck pieces,
forming by themselves a series quite distinct
from the standard coins of Tokugawa. They
were current in the Province of Koshyu, or
Kai, in the early period of the Tokugawa
government, and were not the state coinage
of the latter. Some of them were of an older
date than the rise of Tokugawa.
We now turn for a moment to the later
history of cash, which was the money par
excellence of the people. The Tokugawa
government put a stop to the use of Chinese
or other cash, and in 1636 ordered the casting
on a large scale of a new cash called Kwan-ei-
tsu-ho This cash was manufactured in
various places and at diflferent times down
to about 1826. Iron cash of the same type
as of copper was also cast and circulated in
the declining days of Tokugawa. An oblong
brass cash called Ten-po-sen, as well as
round cash called Bunkj'u-sen, were also
current at the latter period.
As already described, the currency of the
country at the time of the Restoration of the
Imperial Government was in a state of chaos,
and measures were taken without delay to
establish a perfect system of imperial coinage.
A single gold standard was adopted in the first
coinage system, promulgated in June, 1 871.
In this system i-J^ gram of fine gold was
made the unit of value called yen.
The coins were of foiu"teen denominations,
namely: Standard gold coins, 900 fine: 20-yen,
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
^00
lo-yen, 5-yen, 2-yen, l-yen; silver coins, 800
fine: 50-sen, 20-sen, lo-sen, 5-sen; silver coin,
900 fine: l-yen for trade use; copper coins:
2-sen, J'^-sen, l-rin.
In the course of a few years the Govern-
ment found it quite difficult to maintain the
single gold standard, when the law was so
modified as to have the appearance of a
double standard, although as a matter of fact,
silver became eventually the only standard.
This state of things was continued until after
the war with China, when the receipt of the
war indemnity in gold made it possible for
Count (now Marquis) Matsukata, then
Minister of Finance, to successfully adopt the
single gold standard in the new Coinage Law
of March, 1897. By this change, the old
gold coins were valued at double their face
value, and a new series of gold coins nominally
the same as the old, but weighing only one-
half, was issued as the standard coins. No
change was made in silver coins except that
the I -yen silver coin was demonetised. By
this alteration, the old mint ratio of gold to
silver was doubled, so that when in 1905 the
market price of silver rose so far as to overreach
the mint ratio, the Government was induced to
reduce the weights of silver coins. This was
effected by the amendments of the Coinage
Law in April, 1906, in the case of 50 and 20
sen, and in March, 1907, in the case of the
lo-sen coin.
A nickel coinage of 5 sen had been intro-
duced into the coinage system in 1888. In
1897, bronze was substituted for copper coin-
age. Further, in 1916, a perforated nickel
coinage was adopted by the Law of February
ENTRANCE TO THE IMPERIAL PAL.\CE, SHOWING THE MOAT
20th, which also reduced the weights of
bronze coins.
The weights, fineness, and diameters of the
coins as at present issued are shown below.
COINAGE AND REFINING
Any person may take his gold to the
Imperial Mint for coinage, provided the
weight of the bullion is over 100 niomme
(12,956 ozs. troy). The coinage is free for
any amount. Usually on the third day after
Metal
Denomination
Weight
GRAM
Fineness
per mil
Diameter
MM.
Gold
Silver
Nickel
Bronze
20-yen
lo-yen
5-yen
50-sen
20-sen
10-sen
5-sen
(perforated)
I -sen
5-rin
16.6666
8-3333
4.1666
10.125
4-05
2.25
4-275
3 ■ 75
2 . 10
900
900
900
800
800
720
Nickel, 250
Copper, 750
Copper, 950
Tin, 40
Zinc, 10
28.8
21 .2
17.0
27-3
20.3
17-6
20.6
23.0
18.8
the deposit at the mint, the depositor receives
from the mint a memorandum on the out-
turn of his gold, which is calculated according
to the mint assay on the basis of one yen per
0.2 momme or 0.75 gram of fine gold. The
depositor signs the deposit receipt and returns
it to the mint, when he will receive in turn a
coin certificate for the entire amount, which
is payable at once at the Osaka branch of
the Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan).
Silver is coined into subsidiary coins only
on government account.
When the bulUon has to be parted and
refined, it is subject to parting and refining
charges for the silver content only, at the
rate of from 0.20 yen to 0.74 yen per 100
momme of fine silver contained, the rate
varying according to the proportion of base
metal in the bullion. No bullion contain-
ing more than 50 per cent of base metal
is received for parting. At the end of
fifteen or twenty days, according to the
amount, the silver parted is returned to the de-
positor, who disposes of this ingot as he
may choose. The gold content in refinable
bullion is paid for in coin certificate as in the
case of gold deposit.
HOLSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
X. The City of Tokyo
Origin, History, and Development — The New Tokyo — Municipal Administration— Tokyo
Finance— Future of Tokyo— Commercial Notices
TOKYO, the capital of the Empire, is
not remarkable for antiquit}- as that
word is understood in Japan; for,
down to mediaeval times, Yedo, as the city was
originally called, had not arisen above the
level of a seaside hamlet, the ground whereon
the city now stands being then a wilderness
washed by the sea or occupied largely by
marshes and lagoons. That the site in early
times was frequented by primitive tribes is
clear from the sheU mounds and evidences of
ancient sepulchre that have been imearthed in
various wards of the city, but to what race
or races these early inhabitants belonged it
is now impossible to determine. All that is
known of the origin of the settlement is that in
the fifteenth centurj' a tiny fishing village
named Yedo, meaning estuary gate, was found
standing on the shore near the mouth of the
Sumida River. The headman of the hamlet
was one Shigetsugu, a descendant of one of the
eight great famiUes of the Heik^ clan, whose
father was a henchman of the great Yoritomo
at Kamakura, who then dominated the entire
plain of Musashi. With the rise of the Hojo
regency the military power began to shift from
Kamakura to Odawara, and .then Yedo was
left to its own resources. Thereupon Ota
Dokwan, a vassal of the Uyesugi family,
seized the advantage to establish a fortress
there, the forerunner of the shogun's palace,
and of the Imperial Palace of to-day.
ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND DEVELOPMENT
Doubtless so expert a tactician and mas-
ter at arms as Ota Dokwan selected the site
for its strategic advantages, since it lay be-
tween the embouchures of three rivers drain-
ing the hinterland and having their sources in
mountains which constitute natural battle-
ments. A centiuy and a half later the eagle
eye of Hideyoshi easily perceived this and en-
trusted the place to the care of leyasu, head
of the Tokugawa clan, who, when he became
shogun in 1603, made Yedo the administrative
capital of the Empire. The new government
inaugiirated important improvement sin every
direction, rapid development followed, and
soon a great and flourishing city began to
rise, absorbing the site of the former hamlet.
The extensive swamps and marshes were
drained by canals w'hich still do valuable
service in the city's system of drainage and
communications; and large sections of the
sea front were reclaimed, imtil the sea, which
originally had its boundary at the present
Hibiya Park, had receded to the limits now-
known as Tsukiki, half a mile away. No
change, however, was more remarkable than
that which was wrought in the palace of the
shogun and its en\'irons. Few sites would
have seemed less favourable for the erection
of a fortress than Yedo, for no stone suitable
for the construction of battlements was within
many miles, while the subsoil presented great
difficulties for foundations. Y'et in a verj' few
years, using forced labour and enlisting the
competitive aid of feudatories, the shogun
succeeded in constructing a castle surrounded
by a double line of moats, the inner measuring
4,800 yards and the outer 8,700, and both
ha\'ing scarps and coimterscarps composed of
huge blocks of chiselled granite transported
oversea from quarries some sixty miles
distant. The scarps were crowned with lofty
banks of greensward, over which drooped
graceful pine trees, mirrored in the waters of
the moat beneath. The water for these
moats, as well as for the city itself, was carried
by an aqueduct, a triumph of engineering
skill, from the upper reaches of a river thirty
miles away. The mansion of the shogun him-
self stood in a fair park within the inner moat,
revealing, as the place still does, one of the
most beautiful landscape gardens in the
world ; while all around the western boundary
of the castle precincts the shogun had his
feudal lords build their yashiki, or town \illas,
where they had to reside with their families
one out of every two years, and always leave
their wives there, as a guarantee of their
loyalty to the shogun. This regulation
bringing all the great barons to the shogun's
capital was in itself sufficient to change
greatly the appearance of the city; for they
soon began to vie with one another in the
erection of stately mansions and the keeping
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
157
VISCOUNT INAJIKO TAJIRI, MAYOR OF TOKYO
of large retinues of servants, living in imposing
state. In Yedo now centred all the admin-
istrative and financial interests of the nation,
and the prosperity of the city was assured.
The floodtide of immigration to the shogun's
capital became so great that it had to be
strictly prohibited, and thousands were
repatriated at the expense of the goveniment
to prevent congestion of population. In the
centre of the city, surrounding the palace of
the shogun, there was nothing but the beauti-
ful landscape gardens of the barons; while all
around them were the miserable hovels of the
common people, with gorgeous Buddhist
temples and mortuary shrines rising here and
there to relieve the dead monotony of the
insignificant and contemptible wooden huts
of the lowly, whose unrequited toil had raised
the endless walls of the shogun's fortress.
Frequent conflagrations decimated the city,
licking up the flimsy shanties of the poor as so
much tinder; but the capital was always
rebuilt on a more improved scale. Thus
matters continued until the downfall of the
shogunate, when the feudal barons were free
to return to their estates, to which their
retainers began to follow them, the two million
inhabitants of Yedo dwindling almost to one-
half that number. The beautiful mansions
were demolished and the fair gardens turned
to desolation, making blots to break the
continuity of the once populous city.
THE NEW TOKYO
With the decision of the Emperor to make
Yedo his new capital and the removal thither
of the imperial residence came about a com-
plete reversal of fortune to the city. The
departing population began to return and
newer and more wholesome prosperity to
prevail everywhere. Before the fall of the
shogunate and the abolition of feudalism it
had long been recognised that Yedo was a
better site than Kyoto for the capital of the
Empire, as being more centrally situated and
less open to attack. The new government,
therefore, had no hesitation in deciding to
remove the capital from Kyoto; and when the
>-oung Em[)eror made his first visit to Yedo,
in 1 868, it had already been ordered that the
name should be changed from Yedo to Tokyo,
or Eastern Capital, in contrast with Kyoto,
the old Western Capital. The following year
His Majesty removed permanently to the new
capital, and from that time rapid changes and
improvements went on in all directions.
Mansions, schools, official buildings, and
great banks and shops began to rise all over
the capital. A new municipal administration
was established in 1872 and city boundaries
were delimited, wards laid ofl, and a postal
system inaugurated. Soon the dark streets
of the capital began to be lighted with gas,
and railways to run north and south, connect-
ing with distant places. It was not long until
all the ajjpointments and conveniences of
Occidental cities appeared in the new capital
of Japan.
In the year 1917 Tokyo celebrated its
jubilee as the capital of the Empire. One can
not look back over those fifty years without
being impressed by the remarkable changes
that have taken place. There has been
phenomenal advancement politically, com-
mercially, socially, educationally and in
almost every other way. A system of street
widening has been carried out that could
hardly have been possible outside of Japan,
some of the main thoroughfares having been
widened thirty feet for a distance of several
miles, which has greatly facilitated communi-
cation and improved the appearance of the
metropolis. Dredging and riparian works ot
various kinds have been carried out on rivers
and canals, and large sections of the sea front
reclaimed; while the street railways have been
taken over by the municipality, and the
general administration of the city placed on a
thoroughly modern basis. The two greatest
needs, namely, a modern system of sewage
and a good harbour, though under contempla-
tion, have not yet been fully realised. Indeed,
Tokyo for the most part has still the appear-
ance of a city in transition from old to new.
Its one hundred square miles of area are now
occupied by some two and a half millions of
people, filling the busy streets with scenes that
present the old life and the new in vivid
juxtaposition. On one street the eye falls on
lines of houses in ancient style, lowly, sombre,
and unattractive, with annexes of unshapely
fireproof rooms for the safeguarding of valu-
ables; while in the next street one sees hand-
some, lofty edifices of brick or stone, as
imposing as are to be found anywhere. The
patter and rattle of wooden clogs is drowned
by the sweep of the electric tram or the rush of
the overhead train, while the eye gazes at rows
of old-fashioned, open-fronted shops with
their unalluring array of strange goods, only
to turn a corner and come upon great plate
glass windows resplendent with foreign wares
and exquisite examples of native art. In the
distance looms the factory chimney, belching
forth its black mass to stain the crystalline
purity of the atmosphere that bathed old
Yedo, — if at that time the city was less dusty
than to-day. Without any proper system ot
watering the streets, when the wind is high
the dust amounts to a veritalile sandstorm
TOKYO MUNICIPAL OFFICE
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III
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
159
MOAT iW THE IMPERIAL PALACE, SHO\VIN(, THE SUPREME CdlKI HITLDINCS IN THE DISTANCE
while the inhabitants, in desperation, with
wooden ladles dip up putrid slime from the
surface sewers and try to allay the dust, thus
covering the streets with filth that soon in
turn becomes dust to be again breathed before
it can be allayed.
The following figures will show the growtli
of Tokyo during the last thirty years:
Year
Population
1887.
1897.
1907.
1917.
. 1,200,000
1,365,06s
.2,063,828
.2,500,126
If, however, the population of the suburbs,
not included in the city limits, be taken into
consideration, the number of inhabitants
would be well over 3,000,000.
MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION
During the three hundred years of its
history the city has passed through various
stages of development, each of which may
fortunately be regarded as an improvement
on the last; but it was not until within the
last one hundred years that the municipality
began to show any general disposition toward
autonomy. In the days of the shogunate the
headquarters of the TOKYO METROPOLITAN POLICE
city was partly under the authority of the
bakufu, as the adminstration of the shogun
was called, and partly under what was known
as the machikaisho, a body representing the
property holders of each ward. This system
was replaced by the yeizenkaisho, a sort of
Board of Works, in 1873, which had the
general supcr\'ision of the city's interests.
After the city assumed the name of Tokyo in
1868 and became the Imperial capital, a
municipal government was appointed, obtain-
ing the governor's sanction for the election of
city councillors and other officials. At this
time the administration was divided into two
branches: one for the discussing and planning
of city improvements, and the other for
executing such plans, as well as attending to
the various departments involved in city
government. Herein lay the germ of the
modern municipal administration that later
came into existence. Subsequently, when
the city was placed under the management of
the prefectural authorities, the development
of autonomy received a decided check, but
happily there soon took place a complete
reorganisation of cities, towns, and villages
throughout the Empire, when Tokyo again
experienced further reforms insuring a greater
degree of self-government. The citizens of
Tokyo, however, were not yet satisfied with
the degree of local autonomy conceded, and
began to agitate for complete independence of
municipal government, finally gaining the day,
when a mayor was appointed and city alder-
men and officials elected as in Western
countries. The first mayor was the late
jMr. Hideo Matsuda, who was succeeded by
the Hon. Yukio Ozaki, followed by Baron
Sakatani, Dr. Okuda, and the present mayor.
With modernisation of city government the
modernisation of the city itself went on more
rapidly and efficiently. A new City Assembly
came into office, consisting of seventy-five
members, who represented the will of the
citizens, presided over by the mayor, and in
addition there is the Municipal Council,
which consists of the mayor, the deputy
mayors, and members elected from the City
Assembly. Each city ward has its own
council as well, which decides all the business
pertaining to the ward. The mayor has the
general supervision and control of the whole
city administration, and all subordinate
powers do duty under him. The three
deputy mayors have each several departments
to supervise, as follows: (i) General affairs,
education, finance, and street improvements;
(2) Sanitation, water works, commerce,
industry, and statistics; (3) Public highways,
bridges, rivers, harbours, and construction and
repairs. Other and independent departments
are the Electric Bureau for the management
of lighting and rapid transit, improvement of
i6o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
water supply, tree planting, asylums, hospi-
tals, charities, and libraries; while various
additional committees take into consideration
such problems as appointment of inspectors of
hygiene and sanitation, investigation of
harbour and other improvements, education,
commerce and industrial interests.
TOKYO FINANCE
In recent years the finances of the city of
Tokj'O have shown remarkable expansion,
especially since the war with Russia, thus
keeping pace with the rapid development of
the city; and although the outlay has more
than doubled, especially since the acquire-
ment of the city tramway system, the revenue
has also greatly increased, and by curtail-
ment of expenses it is usually possible to meet
the requirements. The fiscal statement last
published shows a revenue of 34,607,143 yen,
with an expenditure of 33,901,833 yen, which
is quite a change from some years ago, as
mav be seen from the following figures:
Ye.\k
Revenue
Expenditure
1899
6,254,246
3.355.340
1906
7.998,224
4,428,034
1912
91,671,016
83.'7«.,34«
1 9 1 6
34,607, 14s
33.901,833
Though the finances of Tokyo show so great
an expansion, owing to the municipalisation
of the tramways and the extensive improve-
ments undertaken, the burden of taxation has
not correspondingly increased, due chiefly to
rapid increase in the wealth of the city,
especially in property-value and population.
Taxation has been further relieved by resort-
ing to loans. In addition to the domestic
loan of 1 88 1 amounting to 10,000,000 yen
for street improvements and the putting in
of a modern water system, there is the foreign
loan of 1907 amounting to 14,580,000 yen
at five per cent, raised for riparian and street
work; and a further foreign loan of 91 ,750,000
yen at five per cent for the purchase of the
city tramways. Thus the present foreign
indebtedness of the city is something over
100,000,000 yen, and a domestic loan of
10,000,000 was added in 1917. The bonds
for city improvements are to be redeemed
1
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theatre. AS.\KUS.\, TOKYO — MIDWAY TO ASAKUSA TEMPLE, TOKYO
J
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
i6i
within the next ten years by annual payments
of 729,000 yen; while the tramway bonds will
be all redeemed within thirty-six years by
annual redemptions to the value of 5,405,000
yen. For other much needed improvements,
such as the extension of the water system
and the tramway lines, the putting in of a
modern sew'age system, improvement of
streets, dredging of rivers and reclaiming of
lands, the erection of school buildings and
numerous other essentials of modem progress,
the city authorities are forming a reserve
fund, to which will be added each year's
surplus revenue. The citizens of Tokyo
have, nevertheless, to bear a weight of taxa-
tion at least two and one-half times greater
than it was ten years ago, as may be seen
from the following table, which includes city
tax only and not prefectural tax, equal to
about as much more:
of the whole city; (2) a Modern Sewage
System in accordance with the laws of sani-
tation; (3) a General Improvement of city
streets, putting down proper jjavements and
sidewalks, with facilities for allaying dust;
(4) Harbour Construction; (5) Electric Tram
Extensions and Lighting Services, and lastly,
(6) Improvement in Facilities for Relief and
Moral Reform of the Defective.
The present water system of Tokyo, based
on an old one constructed three hundred
years ago, which brings water from the Tama
River over a course of some thirty miles
through an old canal, is quite inadequate to
the needs of modem Tokyo. The total
length of distribution piping in the city is
about five hundred miles, supplying about
1,500,000 people. The amount spent in
construction of the system so far is about
10,000,000 yen; bvit to carry out the extcn-
Year
Additional
Taxes
Special
Taxes
Taxes for
Streets
Total
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1898
1905
1910
1915
760,000
856,000
2,1 13,000
1 ,605,000
116,000
588,000
520,000
347.000
345.000
671,000
691,000
1,108,000
1,318,000
3.373,000
2,817,000
The figures in the following table will
indicate the items in revenue and expenditure
for Tokyo in 1916:
sions contemplated a further outlay of
20,000,000 yen will be required, as nearly
two hundred miles of streets have still to
Item
City general account
Employment agencies
Workliouses
Labour industries
Reclaimed land
Street improvements
Sewage system improvements
Sewage and riparian improvement fun'
Waterworks
Public works loan
School buildings
Special fund
Fire relief fund
Electric railways
Electric Ughting
Electric works property
Total
Revenue
Yen
5.619.703
8,150
209,259
38,360
347,331
1,151,819
1,007,067
1,500,358
4,688,617
1,206,753
827,339
16,725
64,760
11,511,001
2,545,851
3.863,950
34,607,043
Expenditure
Yen
5,619,703
8,000
209,259
31,860
Ii8„338
1,151,819
1 ,007,067
1,500,358
4,688,617
748,784
827,339
4.927
64,760
11.357.463
2,699,389
3.863,950
33.901,833
FUTURE OF TOKYO
The development of Japan's capital into
a completely modern city depends largely
on how effectively the six great enterprises
which the authorities have in view can be
carried to completion. These consist of
(1) a Water System adequate to the needs
be laid with submains. The work is to be
completed within the next seven years.
Perhaps Tokyo's most crying need is a
modem sewage system. At present most of
the city is drained by surface sewers, though
underground mains have been laid in certain
important sections of the city. The new sys-
tem is estimated to cost about 40,000,000 yen
and will take ten years to complete, the
expense to be met by loans, government
subsidy, and taxes.
Though much has been done on the way of
street improvement the majority of the
city's streets are still narrow and without
sidewalks. There are some six hundred
miles of streets, ranging from fifty feet to a
few yards, the average width being about nine
yards. Some three hundred miles of these
streets have been singled out for widening,
but the process goes on very slowly. The
work is hampered by lack of funds and the
high price of land. Most of the streets so far
broadened have been for the purpose of
affording facilities for electric tram exten-
sions. In the course of the last twenty years
Tokyo streets have been embellished with
miles and miles of cherry trees, and now such
streets are not only shady in the hot months
of summer but bathed in an atmosphere of
pink and white bloom in April. A marked
feature is that all the houses visible to
the eye are the small dwellings of merchants
and the office buildings that dominate them,
the more beautiful residences being all
packed away behind walls where no one but
the owners can ever get a glimpse of them.
Nowhere are to be found public parks sur-
rounded by the mansions of the great; no-
where are to be seen the residences of gentle-
men forming any integral portion of the city.
The higher classes of Japan segregate them-
selves from the common people as much as
possible.
Nothing, perhaps, haS' produced a greater
change socially and in many other ways in
Tokyo, than the electric tram system, taken
over by the city from the private companies
in 191 1. The car lines, traversing as they
do the main thoroughfares of the capital,
necessitated the pulling down of many old
l>uildings, the erection of new ones, as well as
the straightening and widening of the
streets; while the enormous increase in traffic
and population, brought about by improved
facilities of locomotion and cheap fares, has
resulted in a great extension of labour, trade,
and social intercourse. In the old days the
inhabitants of one section of the vastly
spread-out city knew little or nothing of the
people of other parts of the city. Travel,
being expensive, was not much practiced.
Now for the small fare of five sen the poor
can be carried to any part of the city, and the
labourer's residence is independent of his
place of work; and the consequence is a
rapid extension of the city toward the
suburbs, the present rate being over 114 per
cent annually. The present mileage of
tramway is about 160, and in the near
future some 200 miles in all will have been
1 62
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OI' JAPAN
(Left) Mr. S. Takata, President of the Well Known House of Takata & Co. — (Upper, Centre) Baron K. Okura, President of the
Important Firm of Okura & Co., Ltd., Tokyo — (Lower, Centre) Mr. K. MuRAi, Director of the Meiji Trading Co., Ltd., and President
of the Murai Bank, Ltd. — (Right) Mr. BuEi Nakano, Late President of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce, an Enterprising and
Progressive Business Man
laid down. The number of passengers car-
ried per day is about 674,000, the average
daily income from passengers is about
24,000 yen, and the average rides per unit of
the city population annually are no. In
further extension of ways and lighting the
sum of 18,000,000 yen is to be expended.
Elaborate plans are under way for the
construction of a harbour for Tokyo, but for
lack of funds these have so far been post-
poned. The scheme involves an outlay of
36,700,000 yen; and in 1914 the Harbour
Works Committee passed a resolution to
spend the sum of 6,580,000 yen as an initial
outlay spread over four years, the limit of
outlay to be 20,000,000 yen in all. There
is to be an inner and an outer harbour with
cormecting canal, the inner to have an area
of over 4,000,000 square feet and a depth of
from 15 to 25 feet.
In the matter of charity and poor relief
Tokyo is not very well off, there being but
one almshouse, a city infirmary, a municipal
labour exchange, and no hospital for the
insane. In Japan, as a rule, the poor and
the insane have to be cared for by their
friends, and sometimes dangerous lunatics
are left to commit appalling outrages. In
connection with the almshouse there is a
reformatory for incorrigibles, and the city
also has a home for orphan children, which
has about 2,000 inmates. The reformatory
receives some 150 children annually. The
city further maintains a sanitorium at Awa
for sick homeless children, which takes care
of over 120 little ones in a year. The Tokyo
Charity Hospital affords treatment to some
14,000 patients annually. At the Municipal
Labour Exchange those out of work or lodg-
ings can be taken care of over night and be
provided with something to do. It shelters
about 100 lodgers a night and receives about
13,000 applicants for work every year. The
city has no lunatic asylum, but entrusts its
insane to private institutions if they are
dangerous enough to need restraining, the
average number in care of the city being
about 500 out of a total of over 800 in the
municipality.
Tokyo has a great many places of historic
and scenic interest, but it would require a
volume to recount all that could be said about
them. Its palaces, mansions, embassies,
schools, government buildings, and theatres
can be no more than mentioned. The great
banks, commercial and manufacturing com-
panies of the capital will be found duly
noticed elsewhere in this volume. Tokyo
clubs, hotels, and restaurants are a feature
of some interest, too. There are three foreign
hotels at present; and there is to be a new
Imperial Hotel which will be the finest in
the Far East. The shrines, temples, parks,
and bridges form another unique feature of
Tok>'o. The city has some sixty canals
crossed by hundreds of bridges; and the
famous Nihonbashi, or Bridge of Japan, is in
the heart of the metropolis, all points in the
Empire being measured from there. The
^t^
fe^l
iallll"
SHANGHAI BRANXH OPP.CE OF THE MITSU BISHI COMPA^•Y- MITSU BISHI 2ISt BmLmN;G - KOBE BRA>XH O^^^^^ BISH.
COMPANY — MITSU BISHI BANK BUILDING AND GENERAL AFFAIRS DEPARTMENT, TOK\0 (SEE DESCRIPTUE ARTICLEb IN
SHIPPING SECTIONS, XI AND XLXl)
164
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
three great lungs of the city are Shiba Park
where stand the tombs of the Tokugawa
shoguns, Uyeno Park which was formerly a
temple enclosure, and Hibiya Park which is
the only one laid out after Western fashion.
There are eighteen other parks of smaller
extent, and the authorities frequently pro-
mote the extension of open spaces in the city.
As the Imperial Capital, Tokj'o is the gayest
spot in all Nippon, with every form of enter-
tainment and -pleasure that the human mind
can desire or devise. Geisha and other
pleasure houses abound; and the night is
turned into day with feasts and jeles of every
description. The night side of the capital
is a theme in itself, though more of interest
than edification. As the Japanese do not
entertain in their homes, the city restaurants
do a thriving business, and professional
entertainers usually are in great demand.
There is a huge wrestling theatre in the centre
of the city, built of stone and ribbed steel,
capable of accommodating thousands of
spectators to see the semi-annual exhibitions
and contests of the great national game. In
Tokyo, ever>- month has its round of feasts
and festivals, — religious, floral, or having
patriotic associations.
THE MITSUI BUSSAN KAISHA
As a great commercial and financial house,
the Mitsui Bussan Kabushiki Kaisha, or
Mitsui & Co., Ltd., the English equivalent
of the Japanese name, can certainly take rank
with the largest and most influential enter-
prises in any part of the world, and in point
of age it antedates most of the best known of
old family merchant houses. The founda-
tions of the enormous business now controlled
by this company were laid over two centuries
ago by Takatoshi Mitsui, who founded the
Mitsui Exchange House at Osaka, Kyoto,
and Yedo (now Tokj'o), and really estab-
lished the first banking system of Japan.
The Mitsui Bank is to-day one of the leading
financial institutions of the Empire, with a
capital of Yen 20,000,000 and deposits of well
over Yen 124,000,000.
In a general review of Mitsui cS: Co., Ltd.,
it is not possible to go into every detail of
the operations of the old established house,
unless the writer is to take much more space
than is at his disposal. The Mitsui Bank,
great institution though it is, is only one phase
of the company's enterprises. There is also
the Mitsui Kozan Kaisha, with a capital of
Yen 20,000,000, engaged in mining on a huge
scale, and there is the better known Mitsui
Bussan Kaisha, or trading department. This
latter is run as a distinctly separate under-
taking from the Bank and the Mining Com-
pany, though of course, the guidance of all
three is in the hands of the Mitsui family.
which has maintained control of the entire
business through the two centuries that have
elapsed since the foundation of the old
Mitsui Exchange House, or Bank.
The Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, or trading
company, is in itself a huge and widely
ramified merchant undertaking, the business
comprising practically every line of trade
conducted either in Japan or between Japan
and foreign countries. This separate branch
of the Mitsui interests was formally organised
in 1876, the firm putting its power and
resources into the new concern to make it
one of the most powerful and influential
commercial organisations in the Empire.
Thaf- the effort has been extraordinarily
successful, nobod}' who knows the commerce
and industry of Japan can deny. What this
success really signifies may be seen from
the statement that close upon 25 per cent of
the entire foreign trade of Japan is handled
through the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, and
although the company has its own fleet of
over twenty modem steamers, it is still one
of the biggest buyers of freight space in the
world, the list of chartered vessels, alone
running into scores.
The company is the leader in the raw silk
trade of Japan, shipping nearly 100,000
bales in the course of the year. In the coal
trade, also, the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha is pre-
eminent The company controls half a dozen
of the best collieries in Japan, and in 1916
handled 8,500,000 tons of bunker and cargo
NIHONBASHI STREET, TOKYO. OFFICES OF THE MITSUI GINKO, THE MITSUI GOMEI K.USUA.
AND THE MITSUI BUSSAN KAISHA ARE SEEN ON THE LEFT. THE PALATIAL
MITSUKOSHI STORE RISES ON THE RIGHT
PRESENT-DAY I M I' R IC S S 1 O N S OF JAPAN
165
PRESIDENT AND DIRECTORS OF THE TOKY<l STOCK EXCHANGE
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. Shimpei Tsunoda, Vice-President — Baron Seinosuke Goh, President — Mr. Raita Fujiyama,
Director, and President of Tokyo Chamber of Commerce.
(Lower Row, Left to Right) Mr. Unosuke Yamaguchi, Director — Mr. Tahee Mayekavva, Director, and President of the Bank of
Tokyo — Mr. Komanosuke Eguchi, Director.
coal, or approximately 40 per cent of the
entire output of the country. It is to be
expected that such a huge and well organised
concern would have been the pioneer of
many branches of Japan's foreign trade.
This is so, for the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha was
the first to export the highest class of Japanese
rice, in which thej- do an international busi-
ness. They were the first exporters of Man-
churian beans to Europe, and also introduced
Hokkaido lumbers to America and the Con-
tinent. The company also claims to have
been the first house to bring American and
Indian cotton into the Japanese market, and
they are now recognised as the largest buyers
of this staple.
The import business is conducted on the
same huge scale as the export of Japanese
natural and manufactured products. In the
list of imports one finds steamers, ordnance,
locomotives, steel bridges, rails, electric and
other machinery, metals of all kinds, wheat,
flour, foreign rice, and in fact every line of
merchandise that is required in Japan. The
many subsidiary enterprises conducted by the
company include the operation of a cotton
mill at Shanghai, in conjunction with influ-
ential Chinese capitalists, various vegetable
oil factories and so on. Throughout Japan
proper and Chosen and vSouth Manchuria,
the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha is very strongly
represented, the branch houses in each impor-
tant commercial centre practically controlling
commerce and industry' in their respective
territories. Abroad, the Mitsui Bussan
Kaisha maintains its own offices in such cities
as London, New York, Lyons, Petrograd,
Vancouver, Singapore, Bombay, Calcutta,
Shanghai, Sydney, and San Francisco. The
head office is in Tokyo.
The Directorate of the Mitsui Bussan
Kaisha comprises Messrs. Genyemon Mitsui,
President; Y'onosuke Mitsui, Managing Di-
rector; Dr. Takuma Dan, Messrs. Senkichiro
Kayakawa, Kikusaburo Fukui, Masajiro
Fujise, and Sutejiro Odagaki. The Auditors
are Messrs. Takakiyo Mitsui, Sankichi
Komuro, and Tomoyoshi Mashima.
MITSUKOSHI
Mitsukoshi, the greatest amd most
famous Department Store in the Far East,
where everybody goes for everything and
gets it, was started as an enterprise of the
noted Mitsui family, whose commercial his-
tory goes back some three hundred j-ears. A
family whose business integrity and efficiency
has commanded the respect and confidence of
a nation for so long is naturally successful
in its enterprises, and none of its ventures
has been more so than this vast emporium of
retail trade known as the Mitsukoshi. Xo
one visiting Tok>-o thinks the city has been
12
[66
PRESENT-DAY I M 1> R 1<; S S I O M S OK J A P A M
NIHONBASHI BRIDGE, OF INTEREST AS THE CENTRE OF TOKYO AND THE POINT FROM WHICH ALL DISTANCES IN JAPAN ARE MEASURED
fully explored without spending half a day
at the Mitsukoshi, where everything needed
in the ordinary course of life can be pur-
chased. Constructed of beautiful white
brick, the Mitsukoshi has an imposing
exterior in Renaissance style, with two great
bronze lions guarding the main entrance,
modelled after those at the base of Nelson's
pillar, London; while the interior, finished
and furnished in the most palatial manner,
for convenience and general accommodation
combines the best features of such great stores
as Selfridge's in London and Wanamaker's in
Philadelphia, together with some unique
Japanese adaptations that make for native
efficiency and comfort. On entering the
emporium Japanese footgear is removed and
slippers put on, while foreign boots are cov-
ered with overshoes supplied at the door
and easily slipped on; for the floors of this
commercial palace are covered with soft,
clean native matting, which must never be
soiled. Indeed, one of the most remarkable
features of a visit there is to see hundreds of
gay ladies and gentlemen moving noiselessly
about the spacious departments engaged in
the most interesting of all occupations, that
of purchasing the best for the most reasonable
price and getting just what is wanted. The
grand court leading from the main entrance
at once gives an impression of expansiveness
and refinement, with its lofty pillars, deco-
rated balconies, and great central dome in
richly colored glass, the general tone being
cream and white, while in the distance the
eye rests, charmed, on the magnificent flights
of marble steps leading up to the various
floors. All about are waiting floor-walkers
and clerks to afford every courtesy in giving
information, the guest being at once person-
ally conducted to any department desired.
The appointments of the Mitsukoshi Depart-
ment Store are among the latest that science
and invention have produced, including fire-
proof structure, a mail chute and lifts for the
convenience of customers, pneumatic cash
and parcel tubes, modem ventilation, auto-
matic sprinklers, smoking room, tea room and
up-to-date restaurant. The main floor of
the building is chiefly occupied with travel-
lers' requisites, such as toilet articles, per-
fumes, gentlemen's furnishings, boots and
shoes, trunks and bags and provisions of all
kinds, domestic and foreign. Here also is an
office for the purchase of wedding presents,
for which there is always an immense demand
on Mitsukoshi; and if one fails to make a
choice, a commercial money order can be
purchased and sent to the bride so that she
may make her own choice. The second floor
is given over to dress materials of everj'
texture and pattern. Here the exquisite
silk and other fabrics from Japanese looms
may be seen to better advantage than possi-
bly anywhere else in the world; and from the
time the store opens until closing time the
elite of Tokyo, in their matchless native
gowns or ^!mo?;o, maybe seen moving silently
about like fair>' beings, to the intense interest
of the foreigner. There is perhaps no better
place in Japan to see the wealth and beauty
of the land. The third floor is devoted to
things foreign, especially tailoring, jewelry
and so on, while the fourth floor has a fine
selection of foreign and native furniture, all
made in Japan, and as select and artistic as
can be seen in New York, London, or Paris.
On this floor also is situated the children's
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
167
VIEW OF NIHONBASHI-DOKI, FROM THE TOP OF THE MITSUKOSHI DEPARTMENT STORE
department with every kind of toy imagi-
nable. After doing three floors of this
immense space one feels inclined toward
refreshments, and a fine room for this pur-
pose is near at hand, with every viand that
the appetite can crave. The fifth floor is
taken up with objects of fine art, where one
can examine and purchase such national
masterpieces in sculpture, painting, lacquer,
porcelain, pottery and metal work as can
seldom be found elsewhere. Here art exhi-
bitions are frequently held and lectures given
by authorities on their various subjects.
Above all is the famous Mitsukoshi roof gar-
den, in beautiful native landscape style,
where from June to September tea is served
and a band plays daily to 'the delight of the
happy, talking crowds that frequent it.
From the roof garden one may have a match-
less view of the great city, in the centre of
which the Mitsukoshi store stands. To
witness the numbers of gay Japanese ladies
at the Mitsukoshi restaurant or in the roof
garden, and hear the band rendering its
classical or native airs, is to realise that in
Japan shopping is not the solemn, anxious
thing that it appears to be in some countries.
All goods purchased are delivered promptly
anywhere the customer desires. Thus the
great store, founded in 1673 by the greatest
of Japan's merchant princes, has gone on
prospering, enjoying the patronage of princes
and nobles and even of the Imperial Family,
as well as people of all ranks and countries,
until to-day, with its thousands of employees
and its vast array of the best that Japan and
all other countries can produce, it has become
the greatest single public supplier in East
Asia, with branches in various parts of the
Empire and its colonies. It is difficult to
calculate the influence of one such great
institution as this.
TRANS-PACIFIC LINERS MOORED AT THE YOKOHAMA DOCKS
XL Shipping
(Yokohama and Tokyo Section*)
History of Japanese Shipping— The Modern Era— The Position before the War-
Leaders OF the Industry— Capital Invested— Government Subsidies —
The Shipbuilding Industry— Harbours-
Commercial Notices
IF sea power is a necessary corollary of
national greatness, then in no other
respect has Japan made such tremendous
strides toward national grandeur as in her
attainment of sea power. It is indeed ques-
tionable whether any nation in history has
ever developed such marine strength so
rapidly as Japan has done, and this is true
both of her war fleets and her merchant
marine. Her navy ranks in fighting strength
amongst the first five of the world, and her
merchant fleet must be the third strongest.
On this latter point, however, no conclusive
statistics are available during the war. We
can only approximate Japan's position from
figures given by world authorities up to the
end of 191 5, and from general facts disclosed
since then regarding the shipbuilding pro-
grammes of the various nations. When these
facts are related, and reasonable conclusions
are derived from them, it will be recognised
that Japan's position among the maritime
powers, considering the brief time that has
elapsed since she set out to have a merchant
fleet, is quite as wonderful as any other
*See page 717.
feature of her evolution from Oriental isola-
tion and obscurity, to her present status
as a modem nation.
HISTORY OF JAPANESE SHIPPING
It is hardly necessary to state reasons why
Japan should naturally be a great maritime
power once she elected to march with Other
nations along the path of progress. We
have only to realise that the people are
islanders, and to take cognisance of certain
other historical and ethnological and geogra-
phical facts, to understand that every element
of maritime greatness was at least latent in
the case of Japan.
The origin of the Japanese people has not
yet been clearly defined, but that they were
a seafaring race as far back as the time
when they became a distinct people, apart
from the mass of human beings, there is no
reason to doubt. Whether, as some scien-
tists suggest, they came from the islands of
the Southern Pacific, or whether they mi-
grated from nearer lands, the spirit of adven-
ture was in them, and they must have
possessed as sound a knowledge of the art of
navigation of those times as any other
Oriental race possessed. We may, at least,
imagine the great armada of rude junks, or
sampans, in which they set out to conquer
the islands, then inhabited by the Ainu or
more savage tribes, and at once our imagi-
nation suggests a hardy Viking spirit, that
must in the fuUness of time disclose itself in
a fondness for the sea, and the capacity to
do and dare on the trackless ocean.
Two thousand years ago the Japanese were
sea-rovers. That indisputable fact is trace-
able in Oriental history. They were quite
as capable navigators as the Chinese, and
they fared forth as far as the Chinese ever
did either in search of trade, or as bold sea
robbers. The Japanese na\'igators of those
times penetrated as far south as the Malay
Archipelago, and it is more than probable
that they also voyaged to India. Later the
nation carried on organised sea war, and in
the early history of Japan there are records
of more than one expedition to Korea, and
other parts of the mainland, to make war,
PRESENT-DAY IMI'RI<:sSIONS OF JAPAN
169
or to sustain Japan's national interests in
other ways. In the sixteenth century, the
Dutch and Portuguese found the Japanese
to be a sea-faring people, their coasts being
thronged with junks, and some degree of
trade being maintained between the islands
and the mainland. The arrival of the Euro-
pean ships aroused great interest amongst
the Japanese, who were not slow to recognise
the superiority of the three-masted, high-
decked and castled galleons of the Dutch and
Portuguese. The Japanese were also im-
pressed with the skill of the foreigners in the
management of their ships. There is in the
Tokyo Imperial Museum an old painting by
a Japanese artist depicting a scene which can
only be representative of the arrival of a
Portuguese or Dutch ship, and the landing
of goods for trade. The artist has with fair
accuracy portrayed the general appearance
of the vessel, and her rigging, but has allowed
free rein to his imagination of the agility of
the crew. Sailors are shown among the
ropes and up the shrouds in all manner of
extraordinary acrobatic feats. One man is
hanging by his toes, another is proceeding
hand over hand from the mizzen to the main,
and a third, rivalling any modern rope
walker, is airily waltzing along a stay at a
dizzy height.
The first lessons received by the Japanese
in shipbuilding according to European ideas
were given by the Dutch, some of whom
settled at Nagasaki, in the service of the
Japanese authorities of the time, and taught
the art of ship construction. There are even
now one or two Japanese yards which were
originally established at that time, and
received state aid or influential patronage
in order that they might build modern ships.
But this foreign influence upon Japan was
only passing. Reaction against European
civilisation set in, and Japan lapsed once
more into seclusion, all intercourse with
foreigners being forbidden, and the benefits
of the brief period of acquaintance with
Western civilisation being nullified by official
insistence upon an entire reversion to native
ideas. Thenceforward, until the arrival of
Commodore Perry's fleet in 1854, the Japa-
nese, except those of the northern, or other
far distant fishing villages, never saw a
modern ship. Whaling vessels sometimes
touched at Hakodate, but their reception
SHIPPINO M.\GNATES
(Upper Row) Mr. Ryoso Asano, Director, Toyo Kisen Kaisha — Mr. K. Hori, President, Osaka Shosen Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. J.
Ya.maoka, President of Osaka Chamber of Commerce and President of Osaka Iron Works.
(Middle Row) Mr. J. Itami, Co-Managing Director, Nippon Yusen Kaisha — Mr. Soichiro Asano, President, Toyo Kisen Kaisha,
Asano Shipbuilding Yard, Ltd., and Asano Portland Cement Co., Ltd. — Baron R. Kondo, Japan's Foremost Shipping Magnate,
President, Nippon Yusen Kaisha and the Nisshin Kisen Kaisha — Mr. K. Matsukata, President, Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd. — •
Mr. Y. Ito, Managing Director, Nippon Yusen Kaisha.
(Lower Row) Mr. K. Nakashima, Director, Toyo Kisen Kaisha — Dr. T. SuDA, Vice-President, Nippon Yusen Kaisha — Mr. Y.
Kawasaki, Vice-President, Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd.
lyo
PRESENT-DAY I .M P R H S S 1 C) N S O F J A P A N
was so unfavourable as to compel the United
States to despatch Perry to try to negotiate
for better treatment on the pari of the
Japanese.
THE MODERN ERA
After the opening of the treaty ports to
foreign trade in the late fifties, the Japanese
soon began to aspire to the possession of
modem sailing vessels and steamships.
schools were opened, and students were sent
abroad to learn engineering and navigation.
Still for the first twenty years of Japan's
modern history as a maritime nation, it was
a rare thing to find Japanese in command of
even the smallest vessels, most of the ship-
masters being British, Scandina%-ian, or
American.
The growth of the Japanese mercantile
marine kept pace with the development of
A SCREEN UPON WHICH ARE DEPICTED THE EIRST IMPRESSIONS OF A JAP.\NESE PAINTER
OF THE ARRIV.\L OF A FOREIGN TRADING VESSEL IN THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY. IN THE IMPERI.\L MUSEUM, TOKYO
companies were rapidly drifting toward bank-
ruptcy. An amalgamation of most of these
coastal shipping concerns was effected in 1884
when the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, one of the
three largest Japanese shipping companies
to-day, came into existence. It was also
about this time that the Nippon Yusen
Kaisha w-as formed to open up foreign serv-
ices, the inducement offered by the Imperial
Government being the granting of subsidies
under conditions that insured the enterprise
being entirely Japanese.
To trace every step in the development of
the splendid merchant service which Japan
has is not possible within the scope of this
article, nor is it necessary to deal with the
various legislative enactments by which the
Government has directed the shipping policy
of the countrj'. It is sufficient to say that the
Government has always maintained the
closest control over and direction of the ship-
ping industrj', and has pursued a simple
policy of creating a merchant marine entirely
Japanese in every detail. Navigation schools
are maintained, both ashore and afloat, and
there are engineering colleges and similar
institutions in w'hich the highest technical
training is afforded. Perhaps more in Japan
than in any other maritime country is this
matter of training for the sea a state business.
By means of subsidies and special considera-
tions of other kinds a big oversea traffic was
built up before the w-ar. One of the first
legislative steps taken for the protection of
Japanese shipping firms was, of course, the
shutting out of foreign vessels from all coastal
irafhc, as is the case in the United States and
some other countries.
The era of enlightenment began with the
reign of the late Emperor Meiji in 1868, and
one of the first things decided upon was that
Japan must possess a merchant marine.
Already there were in existence a number of
firms, or private owners of ships, the vessels
being acquired from foreigners and being
manned by them. Some of the Japanese
merchants who had a keen eye to the future
developments of the shipping trade, entered
upon rather extensive purchases for those
times. The more ambitious of them tried
the experiment of officering their ships with
Japanese, but the results were frequently
disastrous, and it was soon recognised that
there was a vast difference between owning
a ship and successfully running it. It was
then that the Japanese Government took up
the problem of fitting its own people for the
ownership and management of modem ships.
Foreign shipmasters were engaged for the
dual purpose of commanding Japanese-owned
steamers, and for training young Japanese
to become officers. Government nautical
the foreign trade of the country. With
their natural quickness to assimilate new-
ideas the Japanese were apt pupils of their
foreign teachers. The Government and the
merchants sensed the great possibilities
before the shipping industry, and there was
also a strong urge of pride toward the building
up of a merchant marine that should be solely
and wholly Japanese in all respects. Up to
about 1880 Japan's merchant service con-
sisted almost entirely of small vessels, more
or less antequated, and practically little or
no overseas trade w-as done in Japanese
bottoms. The shipping industry flourished
in coastal waters, particvdarly in the Inland
Sea, and from 1875 on many new companies
came ifito existence, to compete for the water-
borne traffic from port to port. The com-
petition became so keen, and freights were
cut so low, that presently the Government
had to demand the cessation of the rate war.
Ships were under-manned, so badly out of
repair and so recklessly run that serious
accidents were common, and the various
THE POSITION BEFORE THE WAR
This brief and hurried survey of the grow-th
of Japan's merchant marine has brought us
down to the period just before the outbreak of
the European War. Some idea of the develop-
ment of Japan's shipping interests is obtain-
able from the following table, showing the
leading maritime nations in 1900 and 1915:
I.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.
/•
8.
9-
10.
Nation
Great Britain
United States
Germany. .
Norway. , .
France. . . .
Japan
Italy
Holland...
Austria. . .
Sweden . . .
14,261,254
2,750.271
2,650,033
1,640,812
1,350,562
574.557
983.655
530,277
416,084
637,272
Tonnage
1915
! 1, 274,068
5,892,639
4,706,027
2,529,188
2,285,728
1,826,068
1.736,545
1.522,547
1,018,210
1,122,833
49
114
78
54
69
2l8
77
187
145
76
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
171
ISittmmmtt^m
■iNiMillWIfMMI
In this list Japan stood sixth, and showed
the greatest percentage of increase in the
fifteen years. What her position is to-day
can only be roughly estimated. She has been
Ijuilding and buying ships as fast as she could
throughout the war, and her losses by sub-
marine warfare have been very slight, so that
she must be in a much better position in the
scale of ship-owning nations than she was two
years ago. At the end of September, 19 17,
the Department of Communications, which
is responsible for the control of shipping,
reported that there were 308 tramp steamers
aggregating 805,405 tons. To that figure
must be added all the tonnage of such great
passenger and mail lines as the Nippon Yusen
Kaisha and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha, as well as
the tonnage engaged in the coastal and
general passenger and freight trade, the
Department's figures applying solely to those
vessels which shipping men know as"tramps,"
or ships with a kind of roving commission,
/. e., not plying regularly on any particular
ocean service. If Germany's merchant ma-
rine be eliminated from calculations, Japan
must to-day stand third amongst the mari-
time powers, and her tonnage would be little
short of 2,500,000.
LEADERS OF THE INDUSTRY '
The three leading shipping firms of Japan
are the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha, and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha.
The two former are the oldest of the well
organised companies, and each has a history of
close upon forty years. The Nippon Yusen
Kaisha has always stood in the position of a
semi-national concern, shares being held by
the imperial family, and the company through
its directors being in some respects govern-
ment controlled, while of course, as the recip-
ient of large subsidies its services have been
regulated to some extent by the imperial
authorities. This company has developed
fast mail and passenger services w-ith all parts
of the world. Its vessels are as large and as
well equipped as those of any similar company
in any part of the globe, and its fleet of 100
steamers aggregates 480,000 tons, which total
represents a fairly high individual ship ton-
nage. The most modem of the fleet are the
Fushimi Mam and the Siiwa Maru, each of
which has a cargo capacity of 10,000 tons in
addition to elaborately furnished passenger
accommodation. Throughout the war the
N. Y. K. has maintained a service with
England. The capital of the company is Yen
100,000,000, and its annual profits of late
years have exceeded Yen 20,000,000.
KELIC OF XVi EARLY FOREIGN VISIT TO
JAPAN. A DUTCH CHART SHOWING JAPAN, OF
THE EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. IN THE
IMPERIAL MUSEUM. — A CHART OF THE WORLD,
A RELIC OF THE FIRST DUTCH VISIT TO JAPAN
172
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The Osaka Shoscn Kaisha, to which
reference is made in another chapter, is
largely a cargo-carrying concern, though on
certain of its ser\'iccs it provides passenger
accommodation of the very best class. It was
established in 1884 to operate from Osaka,
the commercial metropolis of Japan. This
company, popularly known as the "O. S. K.,"
has a fleet of 154 steamers of a total of 416,000
tons. Its capital is Yen 50,000,000, and the
profits during the war have exceeded 40 per
cent per annum. The most progressive and
strikingly successful of the great trio of
Japanese lines is the Toyo Kisen Kaisha, or
the Oriental Steamship Company, which has
a capital of Yen 32,000,000, and owns the
largest and fastest ships of the Japanese
merchant service. This company is the
creation of Mr. Soijiro Asano, one of the most
remarkable of Japan's brilliant captains of
industrj', whose activities in many great
enterprises are described in other sections of
this work. The Toyo Kisen Kaisha does not
possess a large fleet, but its vessels are, taken
as a whole, the largest and best in Japan, ten
of them alone aggregating 89,81 1 tons. This
line has concentrated on a fast Trans- Pacific
service, and upon the trade with the West
Coast of South America, via San Francisco,
which is destined to grow to large propor-
tions. The net profit of the T. K. K. for the
six months to June 30, 191 7, was Yen 7,474,-
241.
Next in rank of ownership of vessels of over
1,000 tons each come the Mitsui Bussan
Kaisha with eleven ships of a total of 35,083
tons; the Sino- Japan S. S. Co. with twelve
ships of 29,663 tons, and the Yamashita
Kisen Kaisha with ten ships aggregating
24^161 tons. Comparatively recent figures
gave a total of 446 steamers in the Japanese
mercantile marine, each of over 1 ,000 tons, the
grand total being 1,425,689 tons for vessels of
this class. This fact alone will indicate that
Japan's merchant fleet is not built up merely
of coastal and fishing vessels of small size. '
Perhaps the following table, which discloses
an official estimate on July 31, 1917, will best
display the real strength of the Japanese
merchant service, so far as steamers are
concerned :
of people employed in ships, not including
those engaged in the shore operations of ship-
ping companies:
Year
Japanese
Foreigners
Total
1881
1,901
325
2,226
1897
7,<'44
938
7,982
1905
20,750
352
21,102
1912
26,140
.^51
26,492
1914
30,083
351
30,434
1915
.V./fif^
350
32,116
1917
,1^.97f'
351
34.329
CAPITAL INVESTED
It is almost impossible to ascertain, in the
absence of late official figures, precisely what
amount of capital is invested in the shipping
industry of Japan. With the three leading
companies possessing a combined capital of
Yen 182,000,000, it may be imagined what a
huge sum has been launched in the business
prior to, and since the outbreak of war. A
reliable nevv'spaper estimate gave the number
of new shipping companies started since the
war, as thirteen, with a total capital of Yen
57,200,000. Therf are also to be reckoned
the many concerns which were vigourously
and profitably operating before the war, apart
from the N. Y. K., O. S. K., and the T. K. K.
Taking all things into consideration it would
probably not be an exaggeration to say that
over Yen 500,000,000 is invested in ships, and
this sum is quite apart from the huge amount
of capital involved in the shipbuilding in-
dustry, which for the moment is being con-
sidered apart from the business of operating
ships.
GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES
The Japanese Government has for nearly
forty years pitfsued a steady policy of encour-
agement of the shipping industry. Subsidies
were granted in the very early days, when
all the capital invested had to be provided
by other industries, and the business was,
for the Japanese, a precarious one. Unques-
tionably the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, as a
specific instance, could not have built up a
big business before the war, without state aid,
in the face of keen foreign competition. Since
Under
1,000
Tons
Between
1,000
AND 2,000
Tons
Between
2,000
AND 3,000
Tons
3,000
TO
4,000
Tons
4,000
TO
5,000
Tons
Over
5,000
Tons
No. OF Steamers . . .
1,674
133
128
84
32
71
Another interesting little table which will
show the growth of the shipping industry' of
Japan is the following, relative to the number
shipping became so profitable, there has been
some talk of doing away with the subsidies,
but, strangely enough, the Government
has not shown any inclination to be relieved of
a considerable tax on the Treasury, the
explanation being that it desires to maintain a
rigid control over certain of the older estab-
lished companies at least. As a matter of
fact one or two of the companies have endeav-
oured to get free of this control by declining
the subsidies, but the Government has
insisted on paying them. The principal
subsidies granted as follows:
European Service. A semi-monthly
service of eleven ships, each of more than
5,500 tons, and a minimum of 14 knots speed;
26 round trips in the year; subsidy to the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha for 1917, Yen 1,689,-
850; for 1918, Yen 1,569,672.
PuGET Sound Service. A bi-monthly
service with six ships each of more than 5,500
tons, 14 knots speed, 26 round trips yearly;
subsidy to the Osaka Shosen Kaisha for 191 7,
Yen 2,669,925; for 1918, Yen 2,509,187.
San Francisco Service. A monthly
service of three steamers, each of 12,500 tons
and 18 knots, 14 round trips in the year. The
amount of the subsidy paid to the Toyo Kisen
Kaisha is not officially disclosed owing to the
fact that these ships compete with more than
one foreign line.
Pacific-South American Service. A
bi-monthly service with three ships each of
more than 6,000 tons; 13 knots speed; six
round trips in the year; subsidy to the Toyo
Kisen Kaisha, Yen 284,863 for 1917, and Yen
269,350 for 1918.
AusTR.\LiAN Service. Three ships of more
than 5,000 tons, 15 knots speed, 12 round
trips in the year; subsidy to the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha for 191 7, Yen 169,470; for
1918, Yen 188,497.
It is needless to say that with such liberal
subsidies paid in these times when freights
are higher than they have ever been, and
passenger rates are in keeping, the Japanese
ship-owners are making fortunes. Approxi-
mately sixty cargo vessels are under charter
to foreign firms or governments, and it is
estimated that for 19 1 7 charter fees totalling
Yen 60,000,000 were received by the fortu-
nate owners. Huge fortunes have been
made since the war broke out.
THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY
In keeping with the growth of the shipping
industry, shipbuilding has made equallj-
remarkable strides. It is not so many years
ago that there was not a dozen ships in the
Japanese merchant fleet which were built
in the country, and even those considered as
being of Japanese construction, were put
together in local yards under foreign super-
vision from foreign material which was
shipped to Japan all ready for assembling.
To-day at least 60 per cent of the Japanese
^.N^VvW-^J^ Vn^>^'-^X: ^ -^: yH^^^'J^^^^J^^^^.^^^'
YOKOHAMA DOCK CO., LTD.: THREE VIEWS OF THE LAUNCHING OF THE "SHINTEN MARU"
SEE PAGE 1821
174
P R E S E N T - I) A V IMPRESSIONS
O F J A P A N
ships arc the product of local yards. As a
matter of fact, since the war, the Japanese
ship-owners have been selling off the old
foreign-built ships at good prices, and rein-
vesting the money in modem types of cargo
and passenger vessels built in the local yards.
Thirty years ago the shi])yards of Japan could
have been counted on the fingers of one hand.
and even then only the Kawa.saki and tlie
Mitsubishi yards were constructing small
steamers, their attention and that of the other
yards being devoted to assembling vessels,
designed and built abroad. To-day, how-
ever, the situation is completely changed, and
the Japanese yards are not only building all
the ships locally required, but are constructing
for such old shipbuilding countries as Britain,
.America, Italy, and France.
The oldest yard in the countrj' is the Fuji-
.Xagata Shipyard of Osaka, which was estab-
lished two centuries or more ago, and proba-
bly received some influence of the Dutch
invasion of the country. The oldest modem
yards are those of the Osaka Ironworks, which
were established on a small scale in 1880, or
thereabouts, by Mr. E. H. Hunter, an
Englishman. The Mitsubishi yards at
Nagasaki have also been working nearly forty
years, and the Kawasaki Dockyard at Kobe,
a little less. If we except the Government
Navy Dockyards, there are something like
twenty yards in Japan capable of turning out
ships from 1,000 up to 20,000 tons. The big
liners of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and the
Toyo Kisen Kaisha (the latter's two vessels
Tenyo Maru and Shinyo Maru being each of
22,000 tons) have all been built in Japan.
The following statement will give some idea
of the shipbuilding capacity of Japanese
yards:
SHIPS (over 1,000 TONS) LAUNXHED IN" I917
Shipv.\rd
Ships
ToNN.\CiE
Kawasaki Dockyard
Osaka Iron Works
21
17
112,250
6 1 ,000
Uraga Dock
Mitsubishi, Nagasaki
Mitsubishi, Kobe
7
5
4
32,200
33.J«4
19,811
Ishikawajima Dock.
Asano Dock
Ono Iron Works. . -
4
3
3
8,400
24.759
5,250
Fuji-Nagata
Harima Dock
2
I
4,200
3.750
Matsuo Dock
I
3.030
AN ANCIENT DUTCH MAP ON PARCHMENT, IN THE IMPERI.AL MUSEUM, TOKYO — RELIC OF THE
EARLIEST VISIT OF FOREIGNERS TO JAPAN, AN ANCIENT NAVIGATOR'S CHART, PROB.\-
BLY PORTUGUESE, FOUND IN JAPAN AND PLACED IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM
In all there were constructed in 1917, 69
vessels, each of over 1,000 tons, and in the
aggregate 299,684 tons, not -counting the
number of smaller vessels turned out for the
coastal services, or for special purposes.
The future of the industry promises much
greater results, especially when Japan solves
the problem of finding her own supplies of raw
material, and does not depend so much as in
the past upon the United States and Great
Britain for steel plates. Many of the larger
yards have berths for five and six vessels, each
of 10,000 tons or over, for simultaneous con-
struction. A return furnished by the Depart-
ment of Communications at the end of
December, 1917, showed that there were then
in hand orders for 105 merchant vessels of an
aggregate tonnage of over 500,000 for launch-
ing in 1918. The Osaka Iron Works alone has
prepared for 36 ships of a total of 170,000 tons.
The Asano Yard, which did not exist in June,
191 6, was constructed and turned out its first
ship of 7,000 tons within twelve months.
This company is also providing its own steel
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
175
works at Yokohama, and no doubt will turn
out a large number of vessels in the near
future.
It is estimated that Japan can build 250
ships a year, each over 1,000 tons, there being
113 sliijs and 24 under construction at the end
of October, 1917. If wc may assume an
average of 3,000 tons per ship, this means that
Japan can build at the rate of 750,000 tons per
ON THE (IISO ROCK-BDLND COAST
annum, instead of the 500,000 stated above to
be planned for 191 8. Of the quality of the
ships turned out of the Japanese yards, only
an expert can speak. It is asserted that the
Japanese ships can not be compared with
foreign-built vessels, though this statement is
open to grave doubt, because it must not be
forgotten that the Japanese are not self-
taught in the art of ship construction, neither
do they employ materials of their own make.
The big yards like the Mitsubishi and Kawa-
saki have had the benefit of the best foreign
supervision, and their present technical
experts are all highly trained and experienced
men. The yards are admittedly equipped
with the very best plant, and the designing is
done by men who have, as a rule, spent years
abroad in the study of marine architecture.
Even if the ships at present being launched
are not so well constructed, under the pressure
of time and demand, there is no reason to
believe that the Japanese can not build
splendid vessels, and will readily build better
still.
The idea that the ships are not quite up to
European or American standard of construc-
tion most probably arises from the fact that
the Japanese build so quickly. The Kawa-
saki Dockyard holds the world's record for
launching a io,ooo-ton freight steamer, one
month and 29 days after the first keel plate
was laid. These records are not made by
skimping the work, but are possible under
peculiarly favourable conditions which proba-
bly do not obtain elsewhere in the world.
There is no scarcitv of skilled and unskilled
labour, and work goes on day and night with-
out a stop in the big yards. The new Asano
works employ 6,000 men, and such a force,
under skilled direction, using the very latest
plant and appliances, with a plenitude of
material all ready at hand, should be able to
make good time on ship construction when the
demand for tonnage is so imperative.
A lengthy article could be written on ship-
building, but enough has been said, in con-
junction with the shipping industry, to show
what wonderful iirogress has been made in
this department of Japan's industrial life.
HARBOURS
AL T HOUGH there are over one
thousand harbours now visited by
merchantmen, before the opening of the
country to foreign trade the number of har-
bours able to accommodate ships was neg-
ligible, as they remained in their natural
state. It was not until 1878 that any
serious attempt was made at reclamation and
improvement of harbours, since when many
roadsteads capable of accommodating ships of
considerable size have been completed. The
following table gives the leading harbours of
Japan with improvements carried out :
yen to open connection with the Trans-
Siberian railway. Osaka harbour, which was
started by the city in 1897, has already cost
24,200,000 yen in improvements, but owing to
defective plans the results are not yet satis-
factory. Kob^ harbour is also under con-
struction and when completed will be one of
the best in the Empire. Some fourteen other
harbours have been nominated for improve-
ment by the Government Harbour Commis-
sion at a cost of 100,000,000 yen, one of the
most important of which is Yokkaichi at an
outlay of 7,500,000 yen; but the success of
this venture is doubtful owing to sandy
bottom. The harbour at Funakawa is to be
completed at a cost of 3,000,000 yen, Shio-
gama at 4,000,000 yen, Kagoshima a further
2,500,000 yen, and Aomori 3,000,000 yen.
The relative importance of the more prosper-
ous ports of Japan may be seen from the
table (191 5) on the followins page.
It will thus be seen that of the 36 open ports
in Japan, Yokohama and Koh6 are by far the
most important commercially, as through
these the bulk of the nation's foreign trade
passes, and consequently in both ports har-
bour improvements and extensions are
constantly under way. Yokohama harbour,
with its more than two miles of breakwater,
enclosing a space of nearly 1,300 acres, and
Place
Works
Begun
Completed
CosT,Yi;\
Nagasaki
Dredging, walls, etc.
July, 1897
September, 1904
3,100,000
Miike
Breakwater, etc.
November, 1902
November, 1907
3,000,000
Nagoya
Piers, dredging, etc.
August, 1896
August, 1907
2,383,000
Yokohama ....
Piers, walls, etc.
September, 1889
May, 1896
2,353.000
Otaru
Breakwater, etc.
May, 1897
May, 1908
2,189,000
Kagoshima. . .
Dredging, breakwater
April, 1900
March, 1909
843,000
Hakodate
Breakwater, dredging
June, 1896
April, 1899
820,000
Takamatsu . . .
Breakwater, dredging
July, 1897
September, 1904
328,000
Ujina
Dredging, walls, etc.
September, 1884
April, 1890
300,000
Sakai
Piers, etc.
May, 1878
June, 1882
228,000
Misumi
Piers, etc.
May, 1883
June, 1892
107,000
The harbour works completed, however, are
as nothing compared to those still under way,
and now to be mentioned in due course. In
Japan there are altogether some 530 ports
regularly visited by steamers, most of which
are coasting vessels. These include 36 open
ports, 4 naval ports, and 3 fortified ports.
The greater portion of the funds for harbour
improvements have been drawn from local
taxation or public works funds; but in excep-
tional cases of national importance, like Kobe
and Yokohama, the expenses have been met by
the National Treasury. The harbour works
at Miike were constructed at the expense of
the Mitsui Company whose great coal mines
are in the vicinity. But the harbour at
Tsuruga was completed at a cost of 800,000
its magnificent new quay walls and ware-
houses, provides accommodation second to
none in the East for ships of all sizes; and a
canal between that port and Tokyo is under
contemplation. The question of a new har-
bour for Tokyo, capable of receiving large
ships, has long been advocated, but the scheme
has not yet been commenced, although the
surveys have been made and plans are being
perfected. The harbour improvements at
Kobe, when completed, will leave that port
with three miles of breakwater, enclosing an
area of nearly 1,800 acres, to protect shipping
from south and east winds; while sheds and
landing facilities are of the best. The subject
will be found more fully treated in the chap-
ters devoted to these cities.
176
P R E S K N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Y0KOH.\MA H.\RBOUR AND DOCKS, AS SEEN FROM THE MEMORIAL TOWER
Port
Exports
Yen
Imports
Yen
TOT.\L
Yen
Yokohama
Kobe
Osaka
Nagasaki
305,953.588
197,597.830
93,822,636
4,639,673
18,604,378
4.791.279
82,897,613
140,350,624
269,216,398
50,610,954
7.829.518
23,200,974
399.318
40,842,152
446,304,212
466,814,228
144,433,590
12,469,191
Moji.
41,805,352
5,190,597
Hakodate . .
Other ports
123.739,765
Total
708,306,997
532,449,938
1,240,756,935
SHIPBUILDING
THE MITSU BISHI COMPANY
Amonc the greatest and most powerful
financial and industrial corporations of Japan
is the Mitsu Bishi Company, known in legal
terminology as The Mitsu Bishi Goshi Kaisha,
whose enormous wealth and influence are
vitally felt in every department of national
activity and progress. Though not so old as
the Mitsui firm, the Mitsu Bishi is none the
less a family concern, having been founded by
the Iwasaki family in the early years of the
Meiji era, and in the short space of fifty years
it has come to be a worthy rival of its great
competitor in every direction. Through the
founder of the company, the late Mr. Yataro
Iwasaki, and his successor, the late Baron
Yanosuk^ Iwasaki, Japan established her first
steamship company, which in time recovered
the nation's shipping from foreign control and
made the Japanese flag supreme in Oriental
waters. After the Mitsu Bishi Steamship
Company amalgamated with the Union
Transport Company in 1885 to form the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha, or Japan Mail Steam-
ship Company, the Iwasaki family formed
themselves into the Mitsu Bishi Company,
which, however, still remains one of the
largest shareholders in Japan's greatest ship-
ping company, whence its influence extends
widely into commerce and communications,
augmenting its fortunes and promoting at the
same time the interests of the Empire.
The remarkable prosperity of the Mitsu
Bishi Company is due largely to the character,
energy, and foresight of the late Baron Yano-
suke Iwasaki, and his nephew. Baron Hisaya
Iwasaki, who in 1916 resigned the presidency
of the company in favour of Baron Koyata
Iwasaki. The present head of the house was
educated in England and is a man of excep-
tional brilliancy in financial circles. In 1916
the Mitsu Bishi Company was reorganised
with the following departments, for greater
facilitation of its increasing enterprises:
(1) General Affairs Department, with Mr.
K. Aoki as General Manager; (2) Metal
MITSU BISHI company: the 12,000-ton MITSU BISHI floating dock A1 KOBE WITH THE S. S. "EMPRESS OF CHINA IN DOCK — -GIANT
CRANE AT NAGASAKI SHIPYARD — S. S. "MANILA MARU," BUILT BY THE COMPANY, LEAVING THE STOCKS — THE PROCESS OF
COALING THE S. S. "MANCHCRIA" BY THE COMPANY IN RECORD TIME — THE MACHINE SHOP, NAGASAKI DOCKYARD
178
P R E S E N T - I) A \ IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN'
Mining Department, Mr. Shinji Harada being
General Manager; (3) Coal Mining Depart-
ment, with Mr. Kusuyata Kimura as General
Manager; (4) Trading Department, General
Manager, Mr. Sadaye Eguchi; (5) Real Estate
Department, Mr. Shoichi Kirishima, General
Manager; (6) Banking Department, of which
Mr. Manzo Kushida is General Manager;
(7) Shipbuilding and Engineering Depart-
ment, Mr. Taisuke Shiota being General
Manager; (8) Iron Works Department, with
two General Managers, Mr. Teizaburo Hori
and Mr. Shinji Harada; (9) the Oriental
Department, managed by Mr. Hyakutaro
Miyagawa. The private secretary of the
President is Mr. Goro Oyama.
In its Banking Department, which was
opened as far back as 1885, the Mitsu Bishi
has been remarkably successful, and it is now-
one of the largest private banking houses in fund of .some 10,142,000 yen, deposits of over
the Empire, enjoying the confidence of the 1 18,930,000 and loans of aboutoi, 61 i,oooyen.
public and wielding an increasing influence on In coal, gold, and copper mining the Mitsu
national finance, as may be seen from its Bishi Company is one of the largest owners
large number of foreign clients and depositors, and operators in the world, having ten metal
the latter being often from Europe and mines and eight coal mines whose total
America. Following a policy sufficiently annual output for some years has averaged as
conservative to be consistent with sound follows:
finance, the Mitsu Bishi Bank has passed
safely through the various economic crises the Gold i,t.4.?2 lbs.
nation has experienced. The Banking De- Silver 65,273 lbs.
partment carries on all the transactions of a Copper 13.000 tons
first-class banking house, including loans on Coal 3,100,000 tons
approved securities, discounting bills, receiv-
ing deposits and opening current accounts, Each of the metal mines has its own refining
making collections and remittances, dealing i.'i plant, but as the capacity is limited, most of
negotiable paper; and all on the' best terms the refining takes place at the company's
possible. The Mitsu Bishi Bank is working great metallurgical works in Osaka, where the
on a capital of 1,000,000 yen, has a reserve process of electrolysis has been brought to
DIRECTORS OF THE MITSU BISHI COMP.WV
(i) Mr. Sadaye Eguchi, General Manager, Trading Department — (2) Mr. Shinji Harada, General Manager, Metal Mining Depart-
ment— (3) Mr. T. Shiota, General Manager, Shipbuilding and Engineering Department — (4) Baron Hls.^YA Ivvasaki, Partner — (5)
Baron Koyata Iwasaki, President — (6) Mr. Seijiro Sho, Late General Manager, General Affairs Department — (7) Mr. K. AoKi, General
Manager, General Aflairs Department — (8) Mr. T. Uyematsu, Newly Appointed Managing Director of Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Co.,
Ltd. — (9) Mr. Kusuy.\TA Kimura, General Manager, Coal Mining Department — (10) Mr. Manzo Kushida, General Manager, Banking
Department — (11) Mr. Shoichi Kirishima, General Manager, Estate Department
■^
.;
^
ASANO SHIPBUILDING COMPANY: GENKRAI. VIKW OK YARD AJ*D MACHINE SHOP — VIEW OF THE DOCKYARD — BIG FREIGHT SHIPS
NEARING the' LAUNCHING STAGE
i8o
PRESENT- I) A Y I M P R ]i S S 1 O N S
() V
I A P A .\
such perfection that the electrolytic ingots
and plates of copper turned out are renowned
for a purity that brings them into constant
demand throughout the world. No less
conspicuous is the company's enterprise in
coal mining, the quality of the output being
such that it is in constant demand by all the
great steamship lines as well as the Imperial
Na\'y, to whom the company are contractors,
while large and increasing exports are sent out
in the company's own colliers.
The phenomenal progress made in ship-
building in Japan is in a great measure due to
the enterprise and ability of the Mitsu Bishi
Company, with its great dockyards at Naga-
saki and Kobe, which have supplied the
nation's shipping companies with most of
their vessels and the Imperial Navy with
some of its finest battleships and destroyers.
For descriptions of these docks the reader is
referred to the Osaka and Kobe section on
Shi|)ping in this volume. Further extensive
undertakings of the Mitsu Bishi Company
are: paper-making, its mills having a capac-
ity of some 70,000 pounds a day; warehous-
ing, with great sheds at Kobe and Osaka and
the best equipment in landing facilities; real
estate, and iron and steel works. The total
capital of the Mitsu Bishi Company is
15,000,000 yen, and it gives employment to
nearly 100,000 men. The company's head
ofTce is at Marunouchi, Tokyo, where its fine
array of buildings, with latest appointments,
occupy several city blocks and form an
enormous asset. The company has branches
in the various important cities and ports of
Japan, and is well represented in the Far
East as well as in London and New \'<)rk,
where its foreign trade is showing remarkable
development.
.\S.\NO SHIPBUILDING COMP.\NV,
LIMITED
One of the most remarkable men in
Japanese industrial circles is Mr. Soichiro
Asano. He has developed enormous interests
of all kinds, in which millions of capital are
invested, and it is hard to say where his
interests begin and end. He is the president
and moving spirit of the Toyo K!isen Kaisha,
one of the three greatest shipping companies
in Japan, besides being the leading man in the
cement industry, which he controls as presi-
dent of the Asano Cement Co., Ltd. In
addition he is one of the founders of the Tokyo
Ropeworks, is on the boards of half a dozen
other commercial concerns, and is now lead-
ing the movement for the proper development
of the steel industry.
It was only to be expected that a man of
Mr. Asano's energy should realise the great
opportunity the war has presented for ship-
builders, and that he should strive to outdo
the biggest concerns in the country, when
once he decided to embark in the enterprise
Mr. Asano formed the Asano Shipbuilding
Co., Ltd., in the middle of 1916, and before
his new venture had been in existence twelve
months it had established several records.
Application was first made for a dock and
shipbuilding site at Yokohama. When this
was refused Mr. Asano set out to reclaim
land at Tsurumi, a place in Tokyo Bay, about
six or seven miles from Yokohama. Up to
this stage Tsurumi was nothing but a small
hamlet, having no houses to speak of, and
certainly no industries. To-day it is the
centre of an enterprise that bids fair to rival
any in the world. A record was established in
the construction of the dockyard and building
berths, which were completed in about five
months from the day reclamation was started.
The first ship was launched on the anniver-
sary of the commencement on the site. She
was the Hakushika Maru, a vessel of 11,000
tons, built for the Tatsuma Steamship Com-
pany, and to date is the largest ship turned
out on Tokyo Ba\-. A month later the second
ship was launched.
This was a fair beginning for a company
that had been in existence only a year, but
it is an indication of the speed and energy
which Mr. Asano has injected into his en-
terprise, in which he originally invested Yen
3,750,000. Before the end of the year 1917 he
had increased the capital of the Asano Ship-
building Co., Ltd., to Yen 15,000,000, and had
laid down plans which stagger belief. The
Toyo Kisen Kaisha, or Asano interest, already
have eight building berths which can turn
out vessels of the Tenyo Maru class (22,000
tons). With some alteration two of these
berths can be made to accommodate ships of
30,000 tons. In addition, it is planned to lay
down eight more berths, including six for
ships of 8,000 tons and two for freighters of
3,000 tons deadweight. Any of these ships
can be built inside of six months, and when all
the berths are completed the Asano Shipbuild-
ing Company will have a capacity for turning
out 500,000 tons of ships annually, which is
^■''^''•'•''^^j^'^yBTnkwwaarv''''^^ \
OYEBASHI (bridge) NEAR THE SAKURAGICHO ELECTRIC RAILW.W ST.\TION, YOKOHAMA
•i
m
m
til
YOKOHAMA ENGINE AMI IKON WciKK-., LIU.; \IK\\ OF THE MAIN WORKS AT CHIWAKA-CHO, YOKOHAMA — INTERIOR OF THE
MACHINE SHOP — THE NEW SHIPBUILDING BERTH AT CHIWAKA-CHO, YOKOHAMA
13
IS2
P R E S E N T - I) A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
almost twice as great as the capacity- of all the
yards of Japan before the war. The company
is said to be better stocked with steel and
other materials than any concern in Japan,
but Mr. Asano's plans include the erection of
two steel plants, one in Yokohama and the
other in Chinnampo, Korea, the scheme call-
ing for an investment of Yen 15,000,000. The
Yokohama plant is expected to be producing
steel in Januarj', 1918, and the mill in Korea
will be a producer in April or May. The
Asano 3'ards require about 250,000 tons of
steel annually. Over 6,000 w'orkmen are
engaged, the yards working to full capacity
day and night to fulfil orders w'hich have
poured in from all parts of the world.
Mr. M. Hara is the Managing Director of
the Asano Shipbuilding Co., Ltd., and Mr.
Rio Kato is the Technical Managing Director.
YOKOHAMA ENGINE AND IRON WORKS
LIMITED
This company has the distinction of own-
ing one of the oldest iron and engine works in
Japan, and of being the successor of the first
business of its kind, conducted under the
European system, ever established in the
countr}'. The history of the business goes
back to the earliest days of the arrival of the
foreigner, for the first small plant and repair
shop was erected in 1861, when Mr. Whitfield,
an Englishman, started in the trade, and
located his shop at No. 69 in the foreign
settlement. Later on Mr. Edward Kildoyle,
an American, opened a similar business, close
to the works of Mr. Whitfield and for some
years the two engineers and iron-founders
were in competition. Between them the two
firms engaged in shipbuilding and repairing,
and the manufacture and repair of machinery
of all kinds, for marine and land use. Finally
Mr. Kildoyle bought the business of his rival,
and later on formed a joint-stock company
under the name of the Yokohama Engine and
Iron Works, Ltd.
The development of Yokohama led to a
considerable expansion of the company's
business, and the works extended over newly
acqvured ground. A high reputation for
accuracy and finished workmanship and
general reliability was gained, and the busi-
ness became very prosperous. The company
purchased the interests of the Peterson
Engineering Works, which were established
at No. 113 Yamashita-eho. This step led to
an increase in the capital, the rebuilding of the
works, and the introduction of many improve-
ments. At this time the Yokohama Engine and
Iron Works, Ltd., owned 2,000 tsubo of ground
and on this area was erected the machine con-
struction shops, moulding shop, iron foundry,
wrought-iron works, boiler-making plant,
finishing and erecting shops, etc., the whole
plant being modem and complete in every
sense.
In December, 1916, Dr. Tsuneta Shin
(Doctor of Technology) purchased the com-
pany's interest in the entire plant and works,
and changed the name to the Yokohama
Iron Works. The rapid development of
industry in all directions, and particularly
the expansion of the shipping industry, dic-
tated an early expansion of the operations of
the concern, and in April, 191 7, Dr. Shin
formed a partnership with Mr. Nobuya
Uchida, President of the Uchida Steamship
Company, of Kob^. The capital was raised
to Yen 1,000,000, the partnership being
transformed straightway into a joint-stock
concern, and many improvements being
eflfected in the general conduct of the busi-
ness. One immediate efTect of this important
change was that the new company was able
to enter upon shipbuilding on a much larger
scale than before. A shipbuilding site was
purchased at Chiwakamachi, Kanagawa,
comprising 12,000 tsubo of land. Three
building berths were laid down, and the
necessary machine shops, etc., were erected.
At the time of writing the first steamer is
under construction, and when the plant is
complete the company- will be able to build
three ships, each of 10,000 tons, simulta-
neously. In the near future docks will be
constructed, so that the company will be in
a position to carry on work through all
stages of shipbuilding and repairing, on an
extensive scale. As it is, the Yokohama
Engine and Iron Works, Ltd., is undertaking
engineering work of practically every descrip-
tion. Apart from the building and repair
of ships, the works are turning out engines
and boilers for land and marine purposes,
mining machinery, spinning machines, tur-
bines and other plant for water power, elec-
trical machinery, locomotive and other rail-
w'ay machinery and material, metal work
generallj^ and tools, as well as doing a large
business in the repair and overhaul of machin-
ery of all kinds. There is a large stafT of the
most skilled technical specialists, and the
company also has the advantage of a numer-
ous and well trained body of mechanics and
workmen. The principal officials of the
Yokohama Engine and Iron Works, Ltd., are:
Mr. Nobuya Uchida, President; Dr. Tsuneta
Shin, Mr. Seitaro Uchida and Mr. Teiji
Yagi, Managing Directors; Messrs. Sanjiro
Yamamoto and Yoji Kasuya, Auditors. The
head office of the company is at No. 161
Yamashita-cho, Yokohama.
YOKOHAMA DOCK COMPANY, LI.MITED
Evidence of the importance of this com-
pany is found in the fact that it has the
support of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, and
has lately been awarded a contract for the
construction of twenty vessels, amounting
in value to 84,000,000 yen. The Yokohama
Dock Company, Ltd., has been in existence
for some years, and has developed a large
industry which is of great value to Yokohama.
Its yards and plant are situated close to the
town, and comprise modern slips and all
necessary equipment. The greatest progress
has been made in the last two or three years,
and though at the time of writing there
are only tw'o berths, one for 1,500-ton and
the other for 2,500-ton vessels, the capital
has lately been increased to Yen 10,000,000
to enable the company to carry out an exten-
sive programme which will put it right in
the forefront of the shipbuilding concerns of
Japan. The plans now in course of com-
pletion include an entirely new dockyard
within the breakwater at Yokohama. Per-
mission has been granted for this new yard,
and the site has been secured. It covers an
area of 6,676 tsubo. Part of the work will
include reclamation of the foreshore at
Kanagawa, and when this is carried out five
shipbuilding berths will be laid down. One
of these will be large enough to accommodate
a vessel up to 30,000 tons, and the others will
be for steamers, such as those ordered by the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha, each about 6,000 tons.
The capital for this purpose has been raised
partly by the Nippon Yusen Kaisha which
took up 30,000 of the new issue of 50,000
shares, and partly by the general public.
The Yokohama Dock Company, Limited,
not only builds ships, but does an extensive
business in the repairing and overhaul of
vessels. The illustrations of the company,
shown in this volume, were taken on the
occasion of the launching of the Shinten
Maru, which was constructed for Tatsuma
S. S. Co. Though the day was spoiled by
the hea\^ rain that fell, the ceremony never-
theless was attended by thousands of per-
sons, all interested in the success of the local
company. The launching was a perfect
success, and the officials of the company
were heartily congratulated. Mr. S. Ya-
mada, the Managing Director of the Yoko-
hama Dock Company, Limited, is a man of
considerable experience in modem ship-
building, and there is little doubt his com-
pany will develop into a mammoth under-
taking. The head office and yards of the
company are at Irifune-cho, Yokohama.
ISHIKAWAJIMA SHIPBUILDING AND
ENGINEERING COMPANY,
LIMITED
This company, known under its Japanese
title as the Tokyo Ishikawajima Zosenjo,
was founded in 1876 by the late Mr. Tomiji
Hirano, at a time when it was not expected
ff:,
NIPPON YUSEN KAISHA: INTERIOR VIEWS OF S. S. "SVWA MARU"; THE UINING SALOON — THE SOCIAL HALL -
THE LOINGE — THE SMOKING ROOM — THE CHILDREN'S PLAY ROOM
J
P R i: S K N T - D A Y I At I' R E ft S I O N S OF JAP A N
183
that the engineering and ironworking trades
would ever reach the huge dimensions to
which they have now attained. After carry-
ing on for thirteen years as a private concern,
these old established works were turned over
to the present company, which was incor-
porated in 1889 with a capital of Yen 175,000.
To-day the capital of the company is Yen
5,000,000. From their inception the dock-
yards and machine shops at Ishikawajima
were mainly devoted to repair work, but with
the development of the iron and steel indus-
tries, and the growth of shipping in Japan, the
plant was gradually enlarged and the com-
pany took on heavier and more important
work, including the building of ships and the
manufacture of boilers, cranes, girders,
bridges, pumps, etc., besides undertaking
contracts for structural steel work, the instal-
lation of hydraulic machines, and general
engineering. As an example of the develop-
ment and present-day capacity of the Ishika-
wajima Company it may be mentioned that
in the last half of 1917 six vessels, of a total
of 13,600 tons, constructed for such important
Japanese shijiping companies as the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha, the Kishimoto S. S. Co. and
others, were launched from the yards. The
company is the licensee of Woodeson's
patent watertube boilers and of Clarke,
Chapman & Co.'s patent pumps. In addi-
tion to the main dockyard and big machine
shops at Ishikawajima, the company owns a
branch works at Wakamatsu, Kyushu. The
area of land covered by the main yard and
shops is 22,500 tsubo, or about 18.38 acres.
The shops and other buildings cover 6,800
Isubo. They comprise machine shops,
smithy, foundry, plate and girder works,
boiler shops, pattern shop, copper smithy,
saw mill, etc. There are four shipbuilding
berths and one dry dock. The yards are
fitted with the latest plant and machinery,
giving the company every advantage in
turning out work expeditiously and at a
minimum cost. Electrical power is used.
Altogether 3,600 hands are engaged at the
works and the annual wages bill runs to over
Yen 720,000. The value of the output
of the comjiany is about Yen 5,000,000 per
annum. As with most other shipbuilding
and engineering concerns in the Far East,
the steel and iron required are obtained from
the United States and Great Britain. The
Ishikawajima Company has no dearth of
orders from the local market and from
China.
The principal officers of this important
company are: President, Ur. Kaichi Wata-
nabe, M. E. (Eng.); Managing Director,
Mr. Tokuro Uchida, M. E.; and Directors,
Messrs. Teikichi Shimizu, M. E., Kadzuo Sato,
Shigeru Tanaka, and Tokujiro Yokoyama.
X ■'!!•- ser ;-S';-**v;;»JS96«E!iSK»2iS.-,T^3^^
CARGO JUNKS ON THE SUMIDA RIVER, TOKYO
1 84
P R !•: S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS O I-" J A PAN
GENERAL VIEW OF THE URAGA
THE URAGA DOCK COMPANY
To no industry has the European ^A'ar
given greater impetus than to shipbuilding;
and among the Japanese yards that have
come in for a large share of this prosperity is
the Uraga Dock Company. Established in
1894 under the auspices of the famous Japa-
nese naval officer and statesman, Viscount
Enomoto, backed up by such capitalists as
Messrs. I. Arai and G. Watanabe, the concern
did not experience much activity until the
completion of its plant in 1S97. Five
years later the company pm-chased the prop-
erty of the Ishikawa Shipbuilding Company
in the neighbourhood, which greatly extended
its capacity. The progress of the Uraga
Dock Company, however, was slow until
taken in hand by its present president, Mr.
T. Machida, with the skilled assistance of
Mr. Tomizo I to, the present manager. Ac-
cepting office in 191 1, Mr. Machida at once
set about overcoming the various difficulties
in the way of further activity, when the situ-
ation soon improved. The scarcity of bot-
toms caused by the war in Europe reacted
enormously in favour of the Uraga Dock
Companj', as many orders were received for
the construction of new steamers, and the
business of the company began to forge
ahead with remarkable rapidity. An exten-
sion of works and enlargement of capacity
for construction at once became necessary,
and at present the company is one of the most
successfvd and prosperous shipbuilding con-
cerns in the Empire.
In 1916 the Uraga Dock Company built
five vessels of 3,500 tons each, and two of
6,500 tons each ; and the yards now have
under waj- the construction of ten vessels,
of which five are to be of over 10,000 tons
each, and one of over 8,000 tons; and there
appears everj' prospect of further orders.
The two magnificent drv- docks and five
building slips of the company provide every
facility for the latmching and repairing of
vessels of considerable size, the largest
graving dock being able to accommodate
ships of 8,000 tons and 500 feet in length,
while the smaller dock receives vessels up to
450 feet in length. There is every provision
for the repairing of over 200 ships a year,
and the average for some time has been over
100 ships a year. Two of the construction
slips have a capacity for vessels of over
10,000 tons, and three slips can launch hulls
of over 6,500 tons. The company at present
has a building capacity of about ten steamers
annually.
To go fully into the details of the Uraga
Dock Company's fine equipment for turning
out ships of the best class would fill more
space than is at the disposal of this notice,
but it may be mentioned that the main plant
covers some eight acres of ground and the
branch plant considerably more. Number i
graving dock is 70 feet wide at the top and
60 at the bottom, with a length over all of
500 feet and on blocks of 485 feet. Number 2
dock has a width at the top of 66 feet and
54 below, the total length above being 459
feet; and on the blocks, 413 feet. Both
docks are built of brick and stone, and have
a depth of 27 feet of water at high tide in
Number i dock, and over 15 feet in Number 2
dock. The time required for displacement
of water in Number i dock is 3 hours; for
Number 2 dock, 2 hours. As to slips.
Number i has a total length of 700 feet, and a
width of over 50; while. Number 2 slip has a
length of 500 feet and a width of over 40.
The slips in the branch works have a length
of 500 feet in both cases, and a width of 40
feet. The various shops for fitting and
repairing, as well as the iron works and
machine shops, are provided with the most
up-to-date equipment; and the company is
alwaj's prepared to accept and efficient^ and
expeditiously execute orders for either con-
struction or repairs.
The outlook of the Uraga Dock Company
being so bright and the demands upon its
capacity so constantly increasing, the man-
agement has decided on an expansion of
capital, issuing 84,000 new shares represent-
ing a value of 4,200,000 yen, which brings
the total capital of the companj- up to
5,000,000 yen. Thus provided with more
ample financial resources, the company will
easily redeem its old obligations and be able
to enlarge its plant sufficiently to build
larger ships and with greater expedition.
SHIPPING
THE NIPPON YUSEN KAISH.\
The Nippon Yusen Kaisha, or Japan Mail
Steamship Company, is one of the great
enterprises of which the Japanese are justly
proud, because it represents all that is best
and grandest in their fine mercantile marine.
Indeed, the Nippon Yusen Kaisha must rank
among the greatest of the world's merchant
shipping concerns, possessing as it does a
fleet of over a hundred ships with a total
gross tonnage of 470,000, which has carried
its flag into every port of importance now
open to foreign traffic.
This great organisation, like most others in
Japan, had a humble beginning. It was es-
tabhshed in 1885 as a result of the amal-
gamation of two concerns, namely, the Kyodo
Unyu Kaisha (the Union Transport Co.) and
the Mitsu-bishi Kaisha (the Three Diamonds
Co.). The capital of the company was then
P R K S E N T - n A V I M I' R !•; S S I O N S OF JAPAN
185
DOCK company's SHIPHIII.DING VAKI)
Yen 1 1 ,000,000 and the combined fleet com-
prised fifty-eight steamers representing a
total of 68,700 tons, most of them being
small craft, in no way comparable to the
magnificent ocean steamers now included in
the fleet of a hundred ships. The Nippon
Yusen Kaisha at first confined itself to the
Japanese coastal trade, but gradually extend-
ed its operations to Korea, North China, and
Vladivostock. Its regular first ocean service
was inaugurated in 1893 when ships were
despatched to and from Bombay, a move-
ment which has since materially helped the
growth of the cotton manufacturing industry
in Japan. The China- Japan War in 1894-
1896, and the Government's promulgation
of the Navigation Encouragement Law in
1896, gave a marked impetus to maritime
enterprise in Japan. The N. Y. K. was
among the first of the companies to claim the
support of the Government under the new
law, and at once extended its activities in
foreign waters. Ten new steamers were
ordered to be built abroad and in Japan, and
for this purpose the capital of the company
was increased to Yen 22,000,000. Three
main lines of passenger and freight service
were opened, namely, a European, an
American, and an Australian line, all the
steamers on these services running under
mail contract with the Japanese Govern-
ment.
During the decade following the China-
Japan War, the business of the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha steadily increased, keeping
pace with the general expansion of the coun-
try's foreign trade. After the close of the
Russo-Japanese War in 1906, the N. Y. K.
went in for a further wide expansion of its
ocean services, and the management concen-
trated its energies on giving its passengers
and treight customers the best that could
possibly be given in the way of accommo-
dation, comfort, and fast passages. The
line to Calcutta was opened in 1 9 1 1 , and the
service thus provided has done much to
promote Indo-Japanese trade. The out-
break of the great war placed enormous
difficulties in the way of all shipping com-
panies, but notwithstanding these difficulties
and the dangers with which traffic in certain
waters was beset, the Nippon Yusen Kaisha
has not only maintained its regular services
but has reinforced its fleet with many new
steamers, and has opened up additional
freight lines. Thus the company's extra
freight steamers on the European line, now
cross the Atlantic to New York, and return
to Japan via the Panama Canal, completing
the round-the-world voyage. In 1915 the
N. Y. K. doubled its capital to Yen 44,000,-
000, and in June, 19 16, opened a regular
four-weekly freight service between the Far
East and New York via the Panama Canal,
establishing a direct waterway communi-
cation between Oriental ports and the eastern
shores of the United .States. A few months
later a further development took place when
the freight service with New Zealand was
initiated, opening up new trade relations
between that country and Japan. To-day
the company's operations cover almost all
parts of the world, including South America,
to which ships with cargo and immigrants
are often despatched.
During the past thirty years or so the
N. Y. K. has on several occasions been able
to render signal services to the Japanese
Empire through the agency of its organi-
sation and its magnificent fleet. During the
two wars of 1894 and 1904, and again in 19 14
at Tsingtao, it sacrificed its commercial
interests to the needs of the nation, and well
deserved the thanks tendered to it by the
Government. In the campaign against
Tsingtao the N. Y. K. successfully performed
the task of transporting the major portion
of the armies, with all their stores and equip-
ment, to and from the front. .Since the year
1905 the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, in addition
to numerous steamers for its coastal services,
has had the following vessels designed and
built for its various foreign services:
6 ships Kama Maru type, of 8,000 tons
each.
2 ships Katori Maru type, of 10,000 tons
each.
3 ships Fusliiini Mani type, of 12,000 tons
each.
14 ships Toyama Maru type, of 7,000 tons
each.
These ships, and others now in course of
construction, give the company an entirely
modern fleet of one hundred vessels of over
470,000 gross tonnage — a remarkable stride
since the establishment of the company.
Such an achievement has only been possible
under the most capable management and
direction. In this respect the N. Y. K. is to
be congratulated on its officers and staflf.
It has had three able presidents. First, the
late Baron M. Morioka, who was elected as
President on the company's formation, and
who held office until 1894 when he retired;
second, the late Mr. T. Yoshikawa, who suc-
ceeded Baron Morioka, and died in 1893
while holding office, and thirdly, the present
President, Baron R. Kondo, who was at once
elected to the chair on the death of Mr.
Yoshikawa, and was reelected in 1907 when
his first term had expired.
'«?"^^r--r-'^;r^^'"~c -^. ^ «»^^.^«.v. ^. ^
iii
" 1
J
.•: _ _
ISEE PAGE 182]
ISHIKAWAJIMA SHIPBUILDING AND ENGINEERING CO., LTD.: THE M.^CHINE SHOPS AND DOCKYARD
NISSHIN KISliN KAISHA (JAPAN-CHINA STEAMSHIP CO.): S. S. "SIANGYUANG MARU" — SCENE ON THE POOTUNG WHARF,
SHANGHAI GODOWN AT HANKOW
1 88
P R E S I- N T - I) A \
I M P R !•; S S I () N S
O F
J A P A N
THK JAPAN-CHINA STEAMSHIP
COMPANY
The Nisshin Kisen Kaisha, or Jajjan-
China Steamship Company, as the name
signifies, confines its operations to the waters
of Japan and China, in contrast to the other
national companies which run Hnes to Europe,
America, and Australia. The Nisshin Kisen
Kaislia was formed ten years ago by amal-
gamating the Yangtsze-Kian lines of the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha and Osaka Shosen
Kaisha, the Hunan and the Daito S. S. Com-
panies, in order to meet the increasing demand
for improved facilities in freight and passen-
ger traffic between Japan, China, and the
upper reaches of the great Yangtsze River.
The Nisshin Kisen Kaisha has a paid-up
capital of 8,100,000 yen, a reser\-e fund of
2i993,ooo yen and a fleet of fifteen fine
steamers aggregating a tonnage of 45,000,
the business at present jdelding an annual
dividend of twelve per cent. The head
office of the company is at Yuraka-cho,
Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo, with branch offices at
Shanghai, Hankow, Chinkiang, Wuhu, Kiu-
kiang, Changsha, Ichang, and Chunking.
Regular agencies have been established at
Nanking, Yochow, Siangtan, Changteh, and
vShasi.
The Nisshin Kisen Kaisha maintains five
lines of steamers plj'ing in the waters of
China. Some of the finest and most com-
modious boats are on the Shanghai-Hankow
line, navigating the vast reaches of the lower
Yangtsze. The nine vessels on this line
maintain a regular service five times a week
with terminus at Hankow, where close con-
nections are made with the lines branching
off to other great centres of Chinese trade
and industry. Descending the Whanpoo
River from the port of embarkation, the
vessels of this line soon join the main stream
of the Yangtsze on the way to Hankow by
way of Chinkiang and intermediate ports. A
further service is maintained on the Shanghai-
Ichang line, the Hankow-Ichang line, the
Hankow-Siantang line, the Hankow-Chanteh
line, and the Poyang Lake line. Under
special arrangements with the Nippon Yusen
Kaisha and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha passen-
gers may transfer from the steamers of the
Nisshin Kisen Kaisha and proceed to ports
served by these lines.
In Shanghai three vessels of the Nisshin
Kisen Kaisha moor at the same pier as those
of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, while the rest of
the fleet for Hankow may be found at the
company's own wharf across the river at
Pootung. As the boats of the Nisshin Kisen
Kaisha always sail at midnight passengers
have to go on board the previous evening.
A launch runs every hour from the Shanghai
pier for the convenience of those embarking at
Pootung. Those desiring to see the most
interesting portions of old China with con-
venience and up-to-date comforts can not do
better than take the boats of the Nisshin
Kisen Kaisha from Shanghai and proceed up
the Yangtsze, connecting with the various
other lines at Hankow and reaching by the
way such ancient cities as Chinkiang, with its
densely crowded streets and picturesque
civilisation, situated on the southern bank of
the river about 165 miles above the port of
departure. Here the grand canal constructed
during the Sui dynasty joins the river,
at one time the main waterway between
Chinkiang, Tientsin, Soochow, and Hang-
chow. Chinkiang is not only one of the
principal emporiums of trade on China's
greatest river, but possesses many ancient
temples and other structures of more than
ordinary historic interest. Next the com-
pany's boats arrive at Nanking, the ancient
capital of China, some 212 miles from Shang-
hai. Nanking was long the seat of govern-
ment under the Ming emperors, and the
colossal walls they constructed, 40 to 90 feet
high and 22 miles in circumference, still stand
to attract the keen attention of every traveller.
Having been the national capital for so many
centuries Nanking has many interesting
places and buildings, while the celebrated
Ming tombs are not far away. Some fifty
miles farther up the river one comes to Wuhu,
with its pretty environs of undulating hills,
its quaint street scenes, and its famous rice
market. Here connections may be made
with Luchow and other important centres.
The boat next calls at Kiukiang, 444 miles
above Shanghai, one of the chief tea markets
of China, and also a famous centre of the
porcelain market, the latter being the finest
made in China. From here the traveller
may take a trip to Kuling, one of the most
attractive summer resorts in China, with
bracing atmosphere and splendid natural
scenery. Finally the steamer moors at the
Hankow pier, after a trip of 600 miles from
Shanghai, the fine city of Wuchang being
directly opposite. Hankow is the great
metropolis of central China whence trade
branches out into all the famous nine pro-
vinces, and is destined one day to become
the Chicago of the Far East, the population
being already nearly one million. The foreign
settlement at Hankow is pleasantly situated
on an expansive area a little to the south of
the native city, running some five miles along
the river front.
From Hankow the traveller may take any
of the other Nisshin Kisen Kaisha lines to the
many important centres of trade and popula-
tion that lie along the higher regions of the
Yangtsze. Starting for Ichang the boat calls
at Yochow at the entrance to Lake Tunting,
one of the finest and most picturesque inland
sheets of water in China, sixty miles long
and thirty wide. The home of numerous
mandarins and the Commissioner of Maritime
Customs, Yochow is a pleasant place to stop
over, having enough places of antiquarian
interest to occupy all the time at one's dis-
posal. Some seventy miles farther on the
boat arrives at Shasi, another interesting
place; and then, after a voyage of 387 miles
from Hankow, the city of Ichang is reached,
with its commodious w'harves and great walls
and well-placed foreign settlement. The
scenery around Ichang is ver\' beautiful,
with magnificent green hills rising in every
direction; and some five miles away is the
noted gorge where the river narrows between
precipitous clififs to about four hundred yards,
and affords one of the most picturesque,boat
trips imaginable. It is really equal to any-
thing on the Rhine or the Hudson. Proceed-
ing up the Siangkiang River from Lake
Tunting the boat arrives at the fine old city of
Changsha, said to be one of the cleanest cities
of China, with many interesting sights and a
population of over half a million. About 18
miles farther the steamer reaches Siangtan, a
great distributing centre for rice, tea, and coal.
To reach the interesting old city of Chang,
teh one must take the boat from Hankow-
proceeding up the Yuen River, the place
being a centre of vegetable oil industry.
Soochow, the Venice of the Orient, is also a
place of noted scenes, and famous for its
exquisite silks and brocades. One may also
visit Hangchow, said to be the prettiest city
in China, and the provincial capital of Cheki-
ang. It is a trip of not more than 113 miles
from Shanghai and should not be omitted by
any one who desires to see the best part of
the country. Not very far from Hangchow
the famous tidal bore is to be seen, considered
one of the wonders of the world. The best
time to witness it is at the time of the
autumn equinox, two days after full moon.
It will thus be seen that the steamers of the
Nisshin Kjsen Kaisha afford every accom-
modation for seeing the most accessible and
interesting portions of ancient China at
reasonable expense. The entire voyage from
Shanghai to Hankow on the main line of the
Yangtsze costs no more than 40 Mexican
dollars, first class, and 25, second class, and
other trips in proportion. All information
will be gladly supplied and tickets arranged by
application to any of the company's offices.
THE TOYO KISEN KAISHA
Though among the youngest of Japan's
great steamship companies, having been
founded only in 1896, the Toyo Kisen Kaisha,
or Oriental Steamship Company, has made a
remarkable record of progress and efficiency.
Li#-
'JJJJJJJJ^.
^
TOVO KISEN KAISHA, LTD.; S. S. "TENYO MARU" LEAVING WHARF AT YOKOHAMA — HEAD OFFICE AT TOKYO — "S1DERL\ MARU," 20,000
TONS — "KOREA MARU," 20,000 TONS — "SHINYO MARU," 22,000 TONS, SISTER SHIP OF "XENYO MARU"
I90
P R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
(Jn a capital of 32,500,000 yen the Toyo
Kisen Kaisha runs two trans-Pacific lines:
one to the United States and the other
to South America. The North American
line maintains a fortnightly service between
Japanese ports, Honolulu, and San Fran-
cisco on the one hand, and Shanghai, Manila,
and Hongkong on the other. The eight
magnificent boats on this service have
earned a well-de.served reputation for com-
fort, speed, and punctuality, forming one of
the most popular lines between America and
the Orient. Indeed, on any of the com-
pany's ships passages usually have to be
engaged long beforehand if passengers are
to avoid inconvenience as to dates of sailing.
The larger ships of the Toyo Kisen Kaisha,
such as the Tenyo Maru and the Shinyo
Maru, were built in the Mitsu Bishi yards
at Nagasaki, have a displacement of 22,000
tons, a speed of over 21 knots an hour, and
are among the finest boats crossing the
Pacific, being fitted with turbine engines,
consuming liquid fuel, and possessing all the
up-to-date appointments of the famous
Atlantic liners. The vessels are 570 feet
long, 63 feet beam, and can carry 261 first
class and 73 second class, as well as 742
steerage passengers. Three spacious decks
afford 4,000 feet of promenade area, while
the cabins are of liberal dimensions, the
dining saloon and ladies' parlour being
beautifully decorated and of ample propor-
tions. The lounge, library, and smoking
rooms are also artistically finished and well
adapted to their purposes. Indeed, every
modem device for the comfort and safety of
passengers has been employed in the con-
struction of these palatial steamers, repre-
senting, as they do, not only the highest
expression of the shipbuilder's art in material,
construction, and stability, but providing
that splendour, ease, and space that travellers
nearly always appreciate. These vessels
have been built in conformity with Lloyd's
exacting requirements and the equally
stringent regulations of the Japanese Govern-
ment. The other four vessels of the com-
pany's American line are all over 8,800 and
up to 20,000 tons displacement, and make
speedy voyages with every convenience that
the most fastidious traveller can require.
Of all the steamers leaving the Golden Gate
bearing the tourist westward over the vast
Pacific, none are more palatial, safer, or
more fleet than those of the Toyo Kisen
Kaisha.
The enterprise of the Oriental Steamship
Company', however, is not limited to pro-
viding fast and luxurious ser\dce between
the United States and the Far East, as the
company has also a fine line of steamers
plying between Japan, Hongkong, and South
America, a venture that began when the
Toyo Kisen Kaisha was a pioneer in this
direction, but which has been attended by
signal success. The vessels of the South
American line, three in number, are from
14,000 to 18,000 tons displacement, and run
regularly between points in Japan and Hong-
kong, via Honolulu, Hilo, San Franci.sco, Los
Angeles, Salinas Cruz, Panama, Callao, Iqui-
que, and Valparaiso. This line affords the
only direct service between the Orient and
South America via San Francisco. The
company has in addition a fine service of
tank steamers, carrying oil from California
to Japan and the Far East.
The president of the Toyo Kisen Kaisha
is Mr. Soichiro Asano, a gentleman of great
personality, originality, and achievement, to
whom the company owes much of its remark-
able success. Though associated with sev-
eral other important national enterprises,
Mr. Asano seems never too busy to take a
keen and personal interest in the passengers
travelling by the Toyo Kisen Kaisha, often
inviting them in parties to his magnificent
residence in Tokyo and making their first
visit to Japan one of warm welcome. Two
of his able assistants are Mr. R. Asano, a
graduate of Harvard University, and Mr.
Nakashima, at the head office of the company
in Yokohama. The Toyo Kisen Kaisha has
reaped a great harvest during the war and
is now promoting hotel enterprises, having
purchased and reconstructed the Oriental
Hotel at Kobe, for the comfort and accom-
modation of travellers to the Far East.
THE YAMASHITA KISEN KABUSHIKI
KAISHA (yAMASHITA STEAMSHIP
COMPANY, limited)
This company, whose history is one of
rapid expansion, covers a wide range of
activities. Beside the shipping business it is
conducting a general brokerage and mer-
cantile agency, trading in fuel, directing
mining and dock operations, and in other
ways stimulating and developing the indus-
trial and business energies of the Empire.
The capital of the company amounts to Yen
10,000,000 and the Board of Directors com-
prises the following: President, Mr. K.
Yamashita; Vice-President, Mr. K. Matsuki
(late President of the Tokyo Municipal Elec-
tric Bureau and Director of the Imperial
Board of Railways); Managing Directors,
Messrs. M. Itani and S. Hata; Director,
Mr. B. Hayayashi, and Auditor, Mr. T.
Machida, President of the Uraga Dock
Company.
The Yamashita Company originated with
Mr. K. Yamashita, who founded the business
in 1 894 at which time he was Manager of the
Yokohama Coal Company. Mr. Yamashita
was conspicuously successful, and his business
having developed to embrace other lines of
trade, he rapidly added one department after
another to his activities. He opened a
shipping and forwarding business in 1903
with the S. S. Kisagata Maru. Eight years
later he formed a partnership and instituted
the Yamashita Steamship Company, which
in the following year (1912) took over the
Nippon Shosen Kwaisha, a steamship com-
pany with several vessels. This step gave
the Yamashita Company a foremost place in
the shipping industry, and started it on its
real career of prosperity, the concern being
noted already before the present world war
as one of the leaders in Japan's mercantile
marine. In May, 191 7, the company was
reorganised as the Yamashita Kisen Kabus-
hiki Kaisha, a limited liability corporation
controlling enormous interests.
The company's regular fleet is as follows:
Teikoku Maru, Itsukushima Maru, Biiyo
Maru, Bushu Maru, Asahi Maru, Otaru
Maru 2nd, Otaru Maru 3rd, Echigo Maru,
Togo Maru, Akebono Maru, Toyotomi Maru,
Doyo Maru, Sodegaura Maru, Yoshida Maru
1st, and Yoshida Maru 2nd. These vessels,
with three others which are nearing com-
pletion, give the company a gross tonnage of
60,276, and a deadweight carrying capac-
ity of 82,729 tons. In addition to this fleet
the Yamashita Company has chartered rights
over the following vessels: Uraga Maru,
Rokuko Maru, Shokwa Maru, Miyo Maru,
Fuzan Maru, Kinko Maru, Katori Maru,
Toto Maru, Chiyoda Maru, Hirado Maru,
Toshima Maru, Chichibu Maru, Etsuyo Maru,
and the Masaki Maru.
The company's business includes that of
shipping, forwarding, chartering, and brok-
erage, and among its agencies is that of the
London Marine Insurance Co., handling
ordinary and war-risk insurance. A big
trade is done by the Yamashita organisation
in domestic and foreign fuels. Among the
subsidiary companies directed by the Yama-
shita combine are the Yamashita Sekitan
Kabushiki Kaisha (Yamashita Coal Co., Ltd.),
capital Yen 1,000,000; Fukushima Tanko
Kabushiki Kaisha (Fukushima Coal Mining
Co., Ltd.); capital Yen 2,000,000, and the
Honbetsu Tanko Kabushiki Kaisha (Hon-
betsu Coal Mining Co., Ltd.), capital
Yen 1,000,000. The two coal mines re-
ferred to are now set in working order and
they are expected within a year or two to
have an annual total output of 600,000 tons
of coal. In order to govern these various
enterprises Mr. Yamashita formed the
Yamashita Gomei Kaisha, an investing
organisation.
Mr. Yamashita intends to take a big step
in the marine insurance business by accepting
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YAMASHITA KISEN KABUSHIKI KAISHA: THE NEW BRANCH OFFICES AT TOKYO — S. S. "YOSHIDA MARU'
192
I' K R S E N T - 1) A \' IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
one-quartor of the shares in the Fuso Marine
Insurance Company, which is expected any
moment to be estabhshed under his auspices
with a capital of Yen 10,000,000. The great
Yamashita Company is also deeply inter-
ested in shipbuilding, having bought up a
large number of shares in the Uraga Dock
Company. It is fiu"ther intended to open
up iron and steel works, so it may be seen to
what an important and varied extent the
Yamashita concern is interested in general
affairs, and how rapid and substantial has
been its development. The head office of
the company is at 47 Nichome, Sakae-michi,
Kob^. Branches are maintained at 37 It-
chome, Kitajimacho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo,
and at 31 14 Yo-chome, Higashi Honmachi,
Moji. Agencies of the Yamashita Kisen
Kabushiki Kaisha exist at London, New
York, Seattle, San Francisco, Honolulu,
Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, Penang,
Colombo, Bombay, Port Said, and Sydney
(Australia).
(See also page 732.)
KABUSHIKI KAISHA SHOSHO-YOKO
This concern is one of those remarkable
developments of the past two decades in
Japanese commerce and industr)', and
already large and important though it is,
it is certain to play an even yet more impor-
tant part in the economic life of Japan in
the not distant future. The Shosho-Yoko
has far outgrown many similar businesses,
and its operations are widespread and varied,
covering a whole range of industrial and com-
mercial activity, not only in Japan, but in
China, and farther afield.
The Shosho-Yoko was originally estab-
lished in 1889 by the late Mr. H. Shimomura,
the founder of the Hokkaido Colliery and
Railway Company, who was renowned as
one of the most enterprising business men of
his day in Japan. Mr. Shimomura was the
pioneer of the export of Japanese hardwood
sleepers from Hokkaido to North China at the
time when that territory was being developed
by railways. In fact this was the first pur-
pose of the concern, and as an experiment it
was watched with great interest, and its suc-
cess directed attention to the enterprise of the
Shosho-Yoko. It was in 1894 that Mr. T.
Yamamoto, the present principal of the com-
pany, entered the service of the Shosho-Yoko
as manager of the office at Tientsin. Mr.
Yamamoto was only twenty-two years of age
at the time, and was fresh from the Agri-
cultural College at Sapporo, Hokkaido, when
he entered upon a business career which has
been conspicuously brilliant. He showed
himself to be a man of extraordinary business
capacity and energy, and under his manage-
ment the Shosho-Yoko grew from a compara-
tively small firm into a great enterprise. Mr.
Shimomura retired, and Mr. Yamamoto took
entire charge of the business, expanding it in
all directions. At present it is registered as a
limited company with a capital of 5,000,000
yen, l)Ut its annual business transactions
embrace a sum of nearly fifty million yen.
The oijerations of the Shosho-Yoko are con-
ducted under four departments, viz.. Timber,
Coal, Shipping, and Shipbuilding. The Ship-
ping Department has, since the outbreak of
the war, been enormously enlarged.
The Shosho-Yoko has the distinction of
having introduced the Kaiping coal to Japan.
This operaition resulted from a trial shipment
some eight years ago when one of the com-
pany's steamers carrying timber from Hok-
kaido to China, returned with a trial ship-
ment of coal, and demonstrated its true value
for steam and general purposes, particularly
for gas making and for smelting coke, for
which latter purpose it exceeds in value the
best Japanese coal. The Shosho-Yoko is now
sole sales agent in Japan for the Kailan
Mining Administration which operates the
enormous coal fields of Kaiping territory.
This enterprise of the Shosho-Yoko, like the
original experiment of shipping Japanese
hardwood to China, was regarded as a foolish
move, in view of Japan's own great coal-pro-
ducing capacity, and the result of the trial
shipments was watched with much interest.
When its success was seen, the energy and
foresight of Mr. Yamamoto and his company
received another great advertisement. The
success of the move may be gathered from the
fact that now over 600,000 tons of Kaiping
coal are annually imported to Japan. Con-
tinuing a progressive policy the Shosho-Yoko
purchased its own collieries in Japan, taking
over the Koyanose Colliery Company at the
end of 191 6 and purchasing the Fukuoka
coal mines at Kyushu early in 1917. A vig-
ourous development policy was put in force
and these collieries are now turning out 20,000
tons of the best quality coal per month. New
shafts are being sunk and it is expected that
the output from the Fukuoka mines alone
will be raised to 700,000 tons per annum.
To handle this output the Shosho-Yoko has
not hesitated to spend its money on new
wharves and shipping plant. The company
is also interested in the Kanko Mining Com-
pany at Kankonando, Chosen, which pro-
duces the only bituminous coal in the depen-
dency. Another enterprise associated with
the coal-mining interests of the Shosho-Yoko
is the establishment of a coke works at
Higashi-Kanagawa, near Yokohama. This
factory is now producing 100 tons daily of the
best quality of smelting and industrial coke,
for which the demand in Japan has increased
enormously owing to the rapid expansion of
engineering and other manufacturing works
of all classes.
Of the original operations of the Shosho-
Yoko, the shipment of Japanese hardwood
for railway and similar purposes, it need only
be said that this industry has steadily pro-
gressed. The leading buyers are the Kailan
Mining Administration which use the com-
pany's mining props exclusively, and the
railways of North China, as well" as the prin-
cipal Chinese contractors. Although this
department of the Shosho-Yoko business does
not enjoy the same degree of prosperity as
other departments, owing to high freights, it
is nevertheless one of which the concern is
justly proud because it was the pioneer of an
important industry. The cutting and prep-
aration of timber is going on on a large scale
at Saghalien, Hokkaido, and Hoki, and the
annual sales of such products as mining props,
sleepers, round poles, square logs, etc., in
China and Japan aggregate about 2,000,000
cubic feet.
The Shipping Department of the Shosho-
Yoko was originally established for the
sole pvupose of handling the timber and coal
shipments, but upon the outbreak of the war
Mr. Yamamoto, who is especially quick to
seize an opportunity, realised the impending
shortage of tonnage, bought several ships,
and chartered as many more as his success
allowed. Again it was considered in general
business circles that this step was an auda-
cious one, but it was a decision not based on
a desire for speculation, but upon the soundest
judgment and foresight. Once more the
success of the Shosho-Yoko policy had to be
admitted. To-day the firm's house-flag with
the character "Matsu" (pine) is to be seen
not only in every port of Japan and China,
but also in British and American ports. The
investment in ships can not fail to remain a
successful one, because even if after the war
freights fall, the Shosho-Yoko will have hun-
dreds of thousands of tons of its own products
to transport, and thus derive the benefit of
reduced freights and its own management of
the vessels. Of the Shosho-Yoko fleet five
large vessels are engaged in trading overseas
in Europe, America, the South Sea Islands,
and the Pacific. The remaining vessels,
mostly on time charter, are engaged in the
Chinese and coastwise traffic. Following
are the ships owned by the Shosho-Yoko:
Daiten Marti (5,800 tons), Daisai Maru
(4,800), Tansan Maru (3,800), Miyo Maru
(3,350), No. 6 Fukusan Maru (1,420). Total,
5 vessels, 19,170 tons. Chartered steamers:
Rokko Maru (3,600 tons), Omuro Maru
(3,400), Yesan Maru (4,600), Shokwa Maru
(3.300), Paling Maru (3,100), Nichihoku
Maru (2,800), Kinko Maru (2,700), Takeshi-
ma Maru (2,100), Kfllohuki Maru (1,850),
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S. S. "dAITEN MARU" — TIMBER DEPOT, SAGHALIEN, SHOWING STOCKS OF MINING PROPS AND SLEEPERS ON THE PRIVATE RAILWAY OF
THE SHOSHO YOKO, CONNECTING THE TIMBER DEPOT WITH THE SEAPORT OF ODOMARI — NISHISHIN SHAFT, FUKUOKA
MINES, OWNED BY SHOSHO YOKO— HEAD OFFICES OF THE GOSHI KAISHA SHOSHO YOKO, TOKYO
J.
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TOKYO SHIPPING CO., LTD.: TYPE OF STE.^MER OWNED BY THE COMP.\NY THE GENER.\L OFFICE — THE M.\N.^GER'S PRIV.ATE OFFICE
1' R !•; S E N T - I) AY I M P R IC S S I O N S OF J A I' A N
195
Taishu Maru (1,800), Fuyo Maru (1,600),
Yahiko Maru (4,000), Miyoshino Maru (3,900),
Yechigo Maru (3,600), Karafuto Maru (3,150),
Heiitia Maru (3,000), Fudo Maru (2,600),
Choko Maru (2,100), Yeikn Maru (1,900),
Dainichisan Maru (900), Sanpeisan Maru
(900). Total 21 vessels, 56,900 tons.
The Shosho-Yoko has now organised a
dockyard company with a capital of Yen
1,000,000, to construct dry-docks in the
harbour of Yoshiura, and the work is being
advanced at such a rate as to warrant the hope
that in the course of a few months the yards
will l>e able to turn out five steamers of from
2,000 to 3,000 tons, and two vessels of 5,000
tons each. There is no doubt that for such an
undertaking the outlook is very bright.
From this recital of the activities of the
Shosho-Yoko it may readily be seen what a
vigourous and enterprising concern it is, and
how wide-spread are its activities. The suc-
cess attained by Mr. Yamamoto has been
most pronounced, and all the more con-
spicuous because his efforts have been di-
rected generally in new Unes of enterprise.
The head office of the Shosho-Y'oko is at
3-chome, Ginza, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo. The
Shipping Department is at No. 5 B, Kaigan-
dori, Kobe. It also has branches at Tientsin,
North China, Nagoya, Osaka, Wakamatsu,
Imajuku, Hakata Bay, Yonago, Hoki, Odo-
mari, Saghalien, Chinwangtao, and Yoko-
hama. Mr. Yamamoto is Managing Director.
Mr. T. Ogawa is chief of the Shipping Depart-
ment. Other officers of the Shosho-Yoko are
Mr. N. Inoh, Manager of the head office, and
Mr. I. Mori, General Secretary.
THE TOKYO SHIPPING COMPANY,
LIMITED
A STRIKING instance of the vigour with
which Japanese business men have entered
into the shipping industry is fiu-nished in the
case of the Tokyo Kaiun Kabushiki Kaisha,
or the Tokyo Shipping Company, Ltd. This
company came into existence on June 3, 1917,
under the auspices of Messrs. Kiyomatsu
Tokushima, Nobujiro Iguchi, Makoto Ogawa,
and Hanroku Ota. The inital capital was
Yen 2,000,000 which was quickly subscribed.
At once the new company chartered vessels,
and entered upon the lucrative business of
marine transport, at the same time placing
orders for the construction of steamers of
modem design for deep sea freight carrying,
and also for the coastal trade. On October i ,
19 1 7, an amalgamation was effected with the
Hokkai Shipping Company, Ltd., and the
capital of the joint concern was raised to Yen
2,750,000. What a rapid development has
taken place may be seen from the state-
ment of the fleet, on the ne.xt page, now
under the control of the company.
The Tokyo Shipping Company, Ltd., has
also purchased the Kirishimasan Maru, of
7,300 tons D. W., for delivery on December
31, 1917, and has under construction the
vessels shown in the second table on the
next page.
It can easily be seen what energy has been
displayed by the new company during the few
short months it has been in existence, to
enable it to command such a volume of ship-
ping. The policy of the directors is an
ambitious one, though well justified by the
healthy tone which prevails in Japanese ship-
ping circles, and by the strong demand that
will obtain, even when the war is over, for
THE HEAD OFFICE OF MESSRS. TANIMICHI & CO., TOKYO
196
P R E S K N T - I) A \
IMPRESSIONS
O F
.1 A P A X
shipping space. Mr. Tokushima is the
Managing Director of the Tokyo Shipping Co.,
Ltd., and his co-directors arc Messrs. Iguchi,
Ogawa, and Ota. The head office of the
company is at No. 7 Hiramatsu Cho, Nihon-
bashi-ku, Tokyo.
T.\NIMICHI AND COMP.\NY,
INCORPORATED
Messrs. Tanimichi & Co., Inc., transact
a large volume of business as steamship agents
and ship and freight brokers, their business
having expanded considerably since the great
development in the shipping interests of
Japan. The firm is one of the oldest estab-
lished concerns in this line of activity, having
been founded in 1 889 by the late Mr. Eikitsu
Tanimichi. It was originally a private con-
cern, but in February, 1908, the business was
incorporated as the Goshi Kaisha Tanimichi
Shoten with a capital of Yen 10,000. The
partners are Messrs. Seinosuke Tanimichi,
Manager, Kotaro Tanimichi and Masao
Nakai, the liability of the latter two being
limited, in accordance with the law under
which the firm was incorporated. Messrs
Vessels owned :
Vessels under ch,
Takeno Maru 1,800 tons D. W.
Tenun Maru 910 "
rtcr: Taislio Maru 4>50Q "
Taman Maru 4,500 "
Tsuru Maru 4,250 "
Kaga Maru 3,450 "
Ularu Maru I 3,200 "
Kissho Maru 3,200 "
Kabajuto Maru 3A50 "
Toryo Maru 2,850 "
Fukuju Maru 2,350 "
Cliisan Maru 2,300 "
Mansei Maru II 2,250 "
Jun Maru 1,585 "
Kashin Maru 1,450 "
Shunyo Marti 500 "
Kinko Maru V 480 "
Tama Maru 4,900 tons D. W.
Sumida Maru 2,000 " "
Ayase Maru 1,600 " "
Onuma Maru 870 " "
Saru Maru 230 " "
Tanimichi & Co., Inc., have their head office
at No. 12 Nishigashi, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo,
and a branch has been established at Kobe,
where the bulk of the shipping business is now
being done. The cable address of the firm is
"Tanimichi," Tokyo.
THE BENTEN-DORI, A FAMOUS SHOPPING CENTRE FOR FOREIGNERS
XII. The Port of Yokohama
History and Progress— Government, Finance, Commerce, and
Industry— Commercial Notice
YOKOHAMA is the gateway through
which most travellers find their w'ay
to Japan. Its name seems familiar
even to the untravelled, while to everj' tourist
it recalls first impressions of the Far Eastern
wonderland. Approaching the city from the
sea it seems a vast aggregation of houses
covering the extensive reclaimed foreshore,
with well inhabited hills rising like sentinels in
the background. The harbour is filled with
shipping of every sort and nationality ; and on
shore everywhere are signs of active indus-
try and trade. This is the ocean gateway
through which Japan pours a great part of her
silk and other merchandise into the markets
of the world. The premier port of Japan in
volume of trade, Yokohama claims over 40 per
cent of the nation's total foreign commerce,
and has a larger foreign population than any
other city in Japan.
Yet sixty years ago Yokohama was but a
tiny fishing village on a marshy beach near the
town of Kanagawa. When the Tokugaw-a
authorities concluded the first treaties with
Western powers, opening up Japan to foreign
trade and intercourse, Hakodate, Kanagawa,
and Nagasaki were designated as open ports.
Soon afterward the French Minister estab-
lished his residence there, and the British and
American consuls were lodged in temples. A
few foreign merchants had by this time settled
in Kanagawa; but, as the tow-n was on the
main highway of the Empire, the Tokaido
as the Japanese called it, the authorities
thought the proximity of foreigners to the
route taken by the great daimyo processions
on their way to the shogun's capital might
engender foreign complications. This actu-
ally did happen in one notable case w-hen the
Englishman, Richardson, was attacked and
killed by the men of Satsuma because he
failed to dismount as their daimyo was passing.
Consequently the Government deemed it
safer to have the foreign settlement at Yoko-
hama, although the treaties definitely desig-
nated Kanagawa as the site of the open port.
The foreigners, in the person of their consuls,
protested against the change, on the ground
that Kanagawa was the place named in the
treaties, and that it was an unfriendly act to
banish the foreigners to the insignificant fish-
ing village of Yokohama. The authorities of
the shogun were inclined to heed the protest
as reasonable, but Midzuno, lord of Chikugo,
interfered and insisted on the decision of the
Government being acted upon. So the
foreign consuls were duly informed that,
although the site selected for the foreign
settlement was not exactly in Kanagawa, it
was at the northern boundary of the district;
that if foreigners were allowed to frequent the
main highway of the Empire collisions
between them and obstinate samurai were
likely to arise; that although Yokohama had
no harboiu- it was a better site for the con-
struction of one than Kanagawa, where the
foreshore was precipitous, and as Yoko-
hama was in the vicinity of watering
places like Kamakura and Enoshima, it was
14
iqS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE LAW COURTS, YOKOHAMA
certain to become an important town and well
suited to the residence of foreigners. The
foreigners at first were not disposed to fall in
with the decision of the authorities, for, being
not verj" familiar with Japanese customs, they
supposed that if they were cut off from the
daimyo routes they would be deprived of
valuable opportunities of trade with the
wealthy feudal chieftains. However, at the
order of the Government, many foreign
merchants opened offices in Yokohama, and
the place soon proved to be a much better site
for trade than Kanagawa.
Those visiting the large and flourishing city
that is now known as Yokohama can hardly
realise the vast changes that have taken
place since foreigners first began to settle
there. From the spacious and imposing
waterfront of to-day, with its magnificent
buildings, onward to the end of the settle-
ment at Honmoku, there stretched in the old
days nothing but a reedy marsh with heaps of
shells here and there, together w4th a few-
scattered huts, hardly more than a hundred in
all. With the transfer of the foreign con-
cession to Yokohama a great transformation
at once began, of which the present city is the
proud achievement.
Originally there were three villages, Yoko-
hama, Ota, and Tobe, swamps and streams
separating them; but when the merchants
began to flock into the newly opened port,
all those doing business with the Govern-
ment were ordered to engage in reclaiming
the land as far as possible, until finally the
three tiny villages became one large town.
Soon the people in Kanagawa found that if
they wanted to deal in the best shops they had
to go over to Yokohama, and it was not long
until they decided that Yokohama was also
the best place to live. Foreign merchants
coming to Yokohama took land on perpetual
lease for a nominal ground rent and exempt
from further taxation. Many of these lots
are still held by foreign firms, and as the
value has in the meantime enormously in-
creased the authorities have sought to le\-y
taxes over and above the original agreement.
The attempt, however, was frustrated by an
appeal to The Hague Tribunal, which resulted
in a decision in favour of the contention of
the foreigners. There are some 650 of these
perpetual leases still valid in Yokohama,
representing about 1,353,628 square feet of
land, paying an annual rental of 60,406 yen.
The first foreign building in Yokohama was
owned by a British firm, as was also the
second, while the third one was owned by an
American firm; and this proportion has con-
tinued pretty well ever since. These pio-
neers in the foreign settlement, following the
instincts of their civilisation, at once set about
making a model city, and by 1869 the whole
waterfront was improved. Ten years later
Yokohama had been completely transformed
from a village to a great and growing city.
In i860 there were only 100 houses, which by
1867 had grown to a population of 21,000,
and in 1897 to 187,400. To-day the popula-
tion of the port is over 450,000, with some
90,000 households. Nowhere in Japan are
the benefits of Western influence more appar-
ent than in Yokohama, which, so far as the
foreign settlement goes, is more like a pro-
gressive Western city than an Oriental port.
It is only fair to state, however, that since
the revision of treaties and the abolition of
extraterritoriality, the Japanese authorities in
Yokohama have utiUsed their assumption of
autonomy to preserve as far as possible the
policy initiated by the foreigners in the settle-
ment, though they have not always been as
successful as they might desire. Foreigners in
Yokohama, of whom there are at present
about 8,000, reside for the most part on the
beautiful eminence known as the Bluff at
Honcho, with the exception of the Chinese,
who occupy numbers 120 to 160 in Ihe settle-
ment. The influence of foreigners has been
rendered still more conspicuous by the erec-
tion of a magnificent City Hall in commem-
oration of the opening of Yokohama to foreign
trade, the cost of which was borne by the
Japanese, with liberal subscriptions from the
leading foreign firms of the port. Yokohama
has the most modem streets and gardens
and the finest hotels in Japan. The Japanese
city is something apart, most of the best shops
being in the foreign settlement. The centre
of native life is Isegaki-cho, where kinemato-
graph halls, theatres, and restaurants present
a gay scene, especially at night. The princi-
pal streets are in the lower town near the
harbour, where are also located the Govern-
ment and pubhc offices as well as the foreign
consulates and great banks.
GOVERNMENT, FINANCE, COMMERCE,
AND INDUSTRY
From an administrative point of view
Yokohama may be regarded as a provincial
capital, as it is the seat of the Prefectural
Office, as well as ha\-ing its own municipal
government, with mayor, municipal council
and all the latest methods of management
adopted in Western cities. There is a well
organised poHce force, modelled in some
measure after English methods, British offi-
cers having been employed in the early days
of its organisation. Owing to constant
danger from devastating conflagrations the
Yokohama fire brigade is one of the best in
the Empire, having over a thousand men.
The municipal council, which administers the
affairs of the city, has under its control the
gas works, waterworks and other undertak-
ings, including the tramways, which, never-
theless, are owned by a private company.
Special attention has been paid by the city
authorities to the development of education,
the municipality maintaining a good com-
mercial school and an adequate number of
secondary- and primary schools, and in addi-
tion there are several good mission schools.
The total number of school children in the
city is over 50,000.
Being one of the greatest financial centres
of the Empire, Yokohama has branches of all
the great banks, and the head office of the
Yokohama Specie Bank, which is second only
to the Bank of Japan, but first in the promo-
tion of foreign trade. In addition to the
numerous Japanese banks there are branches
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
199
VIEW OF YOKOHAMA, TAKEN FROM THE MEMORIAL TOWER, LOOKING WEST ALONG MAIN STREET,
THE YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK BUILDING IN THE LEFT BACKGROUND
of the Hongkong & .Shanghai Banking Cor-
poration, the Chartered Bank of India,
Australia, and China, the International Bank-
ing Corporation, the Russo-Asiatic Bank and
others. The annual revenue of Yokohama
City is about 3,000,000 yen and the expendi-
ture usually a trifle less. For gas, water-
works, hospitals, and cemeteries there is a
separate and larger account. The city has
some 250 miles of gas mains connected with
16,991 houses, representing 70,000 lamps.
Gas is used for the greater part as motive
power and for street lighting, as most of the
houses are lighted by electricity. The gas
works consume only 22,125 tons of coal
annually, and the revenue from the service
is about 900,000 yen a year, on an investment
of 1,041,364 yen. Yokohama was one of
the first cities in the Empire to put in a
modern system of waterworks, from which
the annual revenue is 572,684 yen and ex-
penses 444,258 yen. The total foreign
indebtedness of the municipality is 14,000,000
yen, involving an annual interest of 780,000
yen, most of the debt having been incurred
THE MEMORIAL H.\LL, ERECTED BY' JAPANESE
AND FOREIGN RESIDENTS TO COMMEMO-
R.\TE THE OPENING OF THE PORT
in putting in the gas works and the water
system. The drainage system of Yokohama,
which is superior to that of most Japanese
cities, was carried out on the advice of an
English engineer.
Commercially, of course, Yokohama has
witnessed its greatest development. So
remarkable has been the growth in this direc-
tion in recent years that a new harbour works
was found absolutely necessary to meet the
situation; and already at great outlay, borne
largely by the Government but shared by the
municipality, fine new customs piers with
adequate warehouses have been constructed.
The harbour is spacious and well protected
by breakwaters and can accommodate vessels
up to 20,000 tons. In the early days the
Government did not encourage expansion of
foreign trade, even taking special steps to
check it; but the inauguration of a modem
government and the introduction of European
methods proved that the policy was a mis-
taken one, and a revolution was soon brought
about in commercial practice and progress.
Imports continued to exceed exports almost
200
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE WEST END OF MAIN STREET, YOKOHAMA, LOOKING TOWARD THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY STATION
even^ year between 1868 and 1876. The
decade beginning with 1882 saw a great
increase in the demand for Japanese silk
abroad, and then exports commenced to
show a favourable balance of trade. The
table at the foot of this page will indicate
the rate of growth in Yokohama's foreign
trade at intervals of some years. It is
apparent that Yokohama's ascendency to a
paramount position in the foreign com-
merce of the nation is assured, and when the
Panama route is fully taken advantage of it
will lend further impetus to Yokohama trade.
It is not too much to say that similar
progress is being made by Yokohama along
industrial lines, though this is a new phase
of the city's ambition. By decreeing that
water for industrial purposes should be fur-
nished free for the first five years of a fac-
tory's establishment, and the exemption of
new industries from taxation for the same
period, great inducements were offered by
the Yokohama municipality for the promo-
tion of new enterprises, and capitalists from
Tokyo, Kob^ and other industrial centres
began to secure lots and build factories in
Y'okohama. In 191 1 there were practically
no industries of any size or significance in
Yokohama, except, of course, those asso-
ciated with the business of exporting. By
191 7, however, there were no less than 125
new factories, representing some 500 com-
panies and a capital of nearly 200,000,000
yen. Among the new undertakings must be
mentioned several important shipyards cap-
able of turning out large vessels.
The interests of merchants and manufac-
turers in Yokohama are watched over by an
efficient native Chamber of Commerce, while
the Foreign Chamber of Commerce has done
and is doing excellent work in suggestion and
leadership, to promote the extension of for-
eign trade. Nowhere in Japan is there
keener rivalrj' between the native and the
foreign merchant than in Yokohama; but the
foreigner seems to be holding his own exceed-
ingly well, as may be seen by reference to the
article on Exports and Imports in this
volume, thus proving that the best e\adence
of a port's prosperity is its power to attract
and hold the foreign merchant. The great
Silk and Rice Exchanges of the nation are
at Yokohama, as well as the Government
.Silk Conditioning Office, while native indus-
trial guilds to the number of over sixty are
another interesting feature of the city's
commercial methods. There is but one
Year
Exports
I.\l PORTS
'I'oTAL
Yen
Yin
Ytn
i860
1906
1911
1916
578,907
200,847,000
225,174,470
497,6.13,158
343,005
149,070,000
■54,284,552
209,737,683
1,121,912
349,917,000
379,459,022
707,390,841
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
20I
foreign newspaper at present, the Japan
Gazelle, printed in English. The Yokohama
race course, situated near Negishi, is one of
the finest in Japan, and race-mcctings regu-
larly are held. Though Yokohama is too
new to possess the historical relics and
associations of other Japanese cities, it is a
pretty and a pleasant place either to visit or
to reside in. while its commercial importance
renders it a, centre of vital activity to the
Empire.
Brett's ph.vkm.vcy
The development of Yokohama as the
oldest centre of foreign commercial influence
in Japan has brought in its train most of the
conveniences and services which are usualK-
associated with a modem town or city. In
Brett's Pharmacy Yokohama possesses what
has come to be regarded as a public institu-
tion, as well organised and as large as any
similar concern in the Orient. And as a
matter of fact Brett's Pharmacy has been
established so long, and has grown so en-
tirely in keeping with the development of
Yokohama itself, that it can properly be
regarded as one of the landmarks of the
foreign settlement. The business was
founded considerably over thirty years ago.
There are very few people who can give the
history of the Pharmacy, but all know that
it has been in existence, never failing in its
ser\'ices to the general community, a fact
which doubtless explains what seems Hke a
lack of interest in the names associated at
different times with the business. The
original Brett has passed out of present-day
knowledge. Through various stages of con-
BRETT S PHARMACY, YOKOHAMA
trol and direction the business has come down
to the present time, when it is conducted as
a proprietary concern under the management
of Mr. H. V. Hawley, M. P. S.
Situated in Main Street, at No. 60, Brett's
Pharmacy occupies a singularly central and
convenient position for all the foreign resi-
dents, or visitors at the leading hotels. The
store itself is a large and commodious two-
story modem building, with a well arranged
interior, and ample accommodation for the
dispensary and other departments of a
THE YOKOHAMA UNITED CLUB, Ox\ THE BUND
modern pharmacy. Progressive ideas have
kept the business well abreast of the times,
and Brett's Pharmacy presents all the con-
veniences which are looked for in such an
institution. Large and complete stocks of
all standard British and American drugs,
medicines, toilet requisites, etc., are main-
tained, and with the numerous transient and
permanent community continually making
their purchases, a busy air prevails. There
is a large staff of foreign qualified dispensers,
trained in the best colleges. Practically all
foreign languages are spoken by the staff,
and prescriptions are dispensed in accordance
with the pharmacopceias of the country in
whose language the prescription is written.
This is a consideration and convenience
which is greatly appreciated in a community
like that of Yokohama, which is very cos-
mopolitan. It also means much to passing
travellers from foreign countries. The at-
tendance at the Pharmacy is all that could
be desired, a day and night service being
maintained, a qualified foreign chemist being
always in attendance.
Brett's Pharmacy has a number of exclu-
sive agencies, amongst which may be men-
tioned Gerhard Mennen's products; Kolynos
Co.'s tooth pastes and other lines; Nyal's
toilet requisites and proprietary preparations ;
and the "B. K." disinfectants, prepared by
the General Laboratories, Inc., Wisconsin,
U. S. A. This latter agency represents the
most recent products in antiseptic research,
"B. K." disinfectants having not so long ago
been adopted for army medical purposes
on the Western Front. Another important
202
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A PRETTY SPOT IN THE PUBLIC PARK AT YOKOHAMA
agency is that which has recently been
acquired for the tabloid products of the
famous Burroughs & Welcome, Ltd. A num-
ber of travelling salesmen are now distrib-
uting these various special lines throughout
Japan on account of Brett's Pharmacy.
Laboratory work has also become quite a
feature of Brett's Pharmacy's business, as
many as four hundred to five hundred anal-
yses of a clinical and commercial nature
being carried out monthly. For some time
an American soda fountain was maintained
in the store, but with the expansion of
business, this department had to be trans-
ferred to adjacent premises, together with
the department handling the agency for the
Columbia Gramaphones.
Lender the same management is a modem
aerated mineral water and cordial factory,
Brett's being the manufacturers of all classes
of soda water and other distilled waters,
which are such a boon in a country where
the water supply is not always above sus-
picion. In the summer season the plant is
worked at full capacity, a staff of fourteen
or fifteen being employed. L'nder the direc-
tion of the proprietary of Brett's Pharmacy
are branches at Tokj'o, Karuizawa (the sum-
mer resort), Osaka, and Harbin, Manchuria.
THE BUND, OR WATERFRONT, YOKOHAMA
CHERRY BLOSSOMS
XIII. Imports and Exports
(Yokohama and Tokyo Section*)
Trade in Old Japan — Be(;innings of Trade with Europe— Unlimited Trade — Causes of
Trade Expansion — General Survey of Markets — Proportion of Raw Materials
to Finished Articles — Principal Exports and Imports — Japan's Trade Policy
-Commercial Institutions— Japan's Button Trade— Commercial Notices
THE story of Japan's abnormal develop-
ment and appearance as a rival of
more advanced nations in the great
trade fields of the world is one of the
most interesting and remarkable in the
records of modem enterprise. As Japanese
history mns back till lost in the mythic ages,
it is impossible to say just when the nation's
foreign trade began; but in all probability the
immigrants from the continent who colonised
the coast of Idzumo tried to keep up some
measure of communication with the ancestral
mainland, and to bring over as far as possible
the available necessities of civilisation. There
is mention of iron for spears and of earthen-
ware utensils, as well as of silk and hemp, all of
which must at first have been imported from
Korea. In ancient Yamato imports must
have formed a more practical commodity than
exports. With the dawn of recorded history,
* See Page 661.
in the sixth century, we read of horses, cotton
cloth, musical instruments, and jewels, as well
as of bronze mirrors, coming from the conti-
nent. It is safe to assume that with increas-
ing intercourse between Yamato and China in
the seventh and eighth centuries went on a
corresponding development of trade, though
the year's turnover was probably insufficient
seriously to affect much one way or the other
the finances of the infant empire, since the
nation apparently was much more concerned
with extracting tribute from Korea than in
pushing commercial enterprise. At any rate,
trade was sufficient to enable the superior
intelligence and ciNnlisation of the early
settlers to overcome the savage aborigines,
who were left to defend themselves unequally
with their prehistoric weapons and implements
of war. The ver>' remarkable development of
ci\'ilisation and culture that characterised the
Heian era (800-1 100 A. D.) implied an unusual
measiu-e of commercial intercourse with Korea
and China, if not with India, promoted, as
commerce not infrequently is, by religion.
BEGINNINGS OF TRADE WITH EUROPE
With the advent of Europeans in the
sixteenth centur>- Japanese commerce entered
on a new phase. The long period of civil
strife which the Tokugawa regime had ended,
must have given prominence to trade in
weapons and munitions of war. But just
when the land was seething with blood and
anarchy a Chinese junk was blown ashore on
the coast of Japan with a Portuguese mer-
chant adventurer aboard, who was on the
lookout for new fields of trade. He and his
two companions quickly saw that Japan was a
country well worthy of exploitation, and they
returned to their colony with a tale that
204
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
brought more Portuguese traders, eager to
enter the new market. The foreign merchants
were welcomed by the dainiyo of Japan, the
great feudatories competing with one another
in their offers of facilities of trade. For half a
century or so the Portuguese merchants had
things all their own way, but, having taken
into their service and confidence a Dutchman
named Linschoten, they gave away their
secret. In consequence, when the Dutch
shook oflf the domination of Spain, which at
the time held Portugal, they resolved to send
ships of their own to the East, since they were
no longer allowed to deal in Oriental goods at
Lisbon. On finding their hated rivals in
possession of the field in Japan, the Dutch
naturally did all in their power to drive them
out by fair means or by foul. When they had
finally succeeded in doing this by arousing the
suspicions of the authorities against the
poUtical motives of the Spanish and Portu-
guese, English arrived, whom the Dutch in
turn hated and tried to hinder in trade. From
these bickerings and animosities between
peoples of the same religion the Japanese
derived a very poor idea of Western mer-
chants, who were so willing to betray one
another for the sake of gold; and consequently,
in time they obliged all merchants to reside in
Nagasaki, the Dutch at Deshima and the
English at Hirado, the latter finally abandon-
ing the field.
But the foreigners did a roaring trade while
it lasted, amounting to over £660,000 a
year; and during the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries they carried out of Japan
no less than Yen 100,000,000 in gold, until
the shogun had at last to place restric-
tions on exports of the precious metal. The
Dutch made a clear gain of 100 per cent on
each voyage, while the English gave up after
a loss of some £40,000. The foreigners at
any rate succeeded in opening up trade
between Japan and the Occident, bringing in
firearms, powder, woollens, and various
utensils, while taking away silk, lacquer and,
above all, gold. There are indications ' that
the Japanese did not fully understand or
failed to appreciate foreign methods of
barter and trade. The predominance of the
military spirit, which always takes instead
of gives, and despises the mere bargainer,
placed the merchant at some disadvantage;
and it is, therefore, all the more remarkable
that the foreign merchants did so well.
Trade in Japan was carried on by the
lowest classes only, who won a reputation as
tricksters and barter-mongers. The seclusion
policy of the Tokugawa Government proved
a serious set-back to foreign trade, which
did not revive until the reopening of
the country to foreign commerce in the
year 1854.
B.^ROX EIIUCHI SHIBUS.^WA, ONE OF J.^P.^N S
GRE.\TEST BUSINESS MEN
UNLIMITED TRADE
After Commodore Perry's treaty of
commerce in 1854, followed by similar agree-
ments with Prussia, France, and England in
1859, the foreign merchant soon appeared in
all open ports and began to lay the founda-
tions on which Japan's foreign trade has since
been built up. From that time Japan's
commercial history has been one of unbroken
progress. The first essays at trade were over-
cast by the gloom of civil war, and some of the
earliest imports were in munitions for the
respective belligerents of the Restoration
period. Foreigners and Japanese were alike
ignorant of each other's ways and customs,
and consequently of the proper values of what
each had to sell. During the early years of
the Meiji era trade had to struggle against a
depreciated irredeemable paper currency,
liable to fiuctuations of value from day to day,
while a total w-ant of credit and a low produc-
tive capacity on the part of the people added
further complications to commerce. The
nation had practically no manufacturing
industries. Exports were confined for the
most part to agricultural products such as
silk, tea, and rice, the only manufactures
being such objects as fans, porcelain, and
lacquer. Other difficulties of trade arose
from the fact that although Japan was a
bimetallic country, silver had practically
displaced gold; and as the silver market
depreciated throughout the world the reaction
on Japanese credit and foreign trade was
unfavourable. With the revision of the
monetary system in 1871, introducing a uni-
form currency, and the establishment of a
legal system of weights and measures in 1875,
together with needed improvements in com-
munications and media of exchange, commerce
entered on a new and more progressive phase
wherein modem methods became possible.
The general commercial awakening of the
nation must in a large measure be ascribed to
the efficient assistance of the Government in
aiming definitely at improvement of commer-
cial institutions, the establishment of banks
and educational facilities and means of
communication based on Western systems.
The result was a phenomenal growth in the
progress of trade, together with greatly
improved methods in commercial intercourse
By the year 1878 the total trade of the coun-
try had arisen to twice what it was at the
beginning of the Restoration in 1 868 ; and ten
years later it was nearly three times that of
the previous decade. Capital invested in
Japanese commercial companies in 1908 was
twice that of the ten years before, amounting
to over 120,000,000 yen, a sum that jumped to
2,700,000,000 in 1916, and to 10,047,000,000
yen in 1917. In 1908 the total amount of bills
exchanged at the national clearing houses was
6,370,000,000 yen, while to-day it is over
20,1 12,640,000 yen. Thus almost at a bound
Japan has passed from the land of romance
and cherry blossoms to a country of trade and
energetic materialism.
CAUSES OF TR.\DE EXPANSION
The two great landmarks in the history of
Japan's foreign trade are the war with China
in 1895 and that with Russia in 1905. The
indemnity of 350,000,000 yen which Japan
received from China was largely applied to
reform of national currency; and in 1897 the
gold standard was adopted, when trade, freed
from speculative risks inseparable to fluctuat-
ing exchanges in silver currency, rapidly
advanced, and lent impetus to manufacturing
industries as well. A tide of commercial
prosperity seemed to flow over Japan after the
war with China. In 1899 the new customs
tariff increased import duties from 5 per
cent to over 15 per cent; so that from
that period the value of goods imported
must be taken to represent the cost of goods
as landed in Japan, instead of, as before,
the cost at the place of production. Men-
tion of a few figures is sufficient to show the
remarkable expansion of Japanese trade in
recent years, especially, as already suggested,
since the wars with China and Russia. At the
beginning of the Meiji period in 1868 the total
trade of Japan amounted to 26,000,000 yen.
Ten years later it had more than doubled,
amounting to 56,000,000 yen; while in the
succeeding decade it increased fivefold to
over 130,000,000 yen. In 1887, about ten
years before the war with China, the total
value of foreign trade was 96,710,000 yen; but
two years after the war with China it jumped
to 382,440,000 yen, nearly four times more
than the total of ten years earlier. The suc-
cessful termination of the war with China gave
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
205
a tremfiiiloiis impetus to industrial expansion
on account of influx of capital for indemnity ;
and this rate of increase was steadily main-
tained up to the time of the war with Russia,
one year after which the nation's foreign
trade arose to 926,880,000 yen, or more than
nine and one-half times the total of 1887.
Indeed, it may be questioned whether any
other country has shown in its foreign trade
such a ratio of progress in a similar period.
With the outbreak of the great war in Europe
Japanese trade grew to figures still more
unprecedented, totalling over 1,833,000,000
for 1916, and in 1917, an abnormal year, the
total trade of Japan reached the amount of
2,583,290,000 yen. The causes of this enor-
mous development must be ascribed to an
increasing demand for Japanese goods abroad,
to rapid increase of industrial enterprise
within the country, and especially to the
exigencies of the war in Europe.
The following table gives the totals of
Japan's foreign trade since 1868;
fore, had it not been for the war the exports
for 1916 ought to have totalled about 735,-
247,541 yen, which is some 392,220,577 yen
below the actual figures, or an increase of 62
per cent in exports due to the war alone. At
the same time it should be borne in mind that
such calculations deal with values only and
not with (juantities; and since the prices of
almost all commodities have advanced con-
siderably in the war years, the actual quan-
tities of imports and exports should be
examined in order to arrive at an accurate
estimate of the ratio of increase in Japan's
trade. If this be done the results will show a
decrease in volume of imports for the year
1 9 16 of about 26 per cent, while exports will
show an increase in Quantitv of about 29 per
cent.
GENERAL SURVEY OF MARKETS
A SURVEY of the general position shows that
the United States of America stands foremost
in Japan's export trade, China coming next,
Year
Exports (Yen)
Imports (Yen)
Total (Yen)
Population
1868
15.533,473
23,349,000
10,693,072
27,421,000
26,246,545
50,770,000
1877
35.768,547
1882
37,722,000
29,447,000
67,168,000
37.451,727
1887
52,408,000
44,304,000
96,712,000
39,607,234
1892
91,103,000
71,326,000
162,429,000
41.388,313
1897
163.135.000
219,301,000
382,436,000
43.763.855
1902
258,303.000
371,731,000
530,034,000
46.732.876
1907
432,414,000
494,467,000
926,880,000
48,825,234
1908
378,246,000
436,257,000
814,503,000
49,588,804
1909
413,113,000
394,199,000
807,311,000
50,295,279
1910
458,429,000
464,234,000
922,663,000
50,939.137
1911
447,434,000
513,806,000
961,240,000
5 1,. 59 1. 342
1912
526,982,000
618,992,000
1,145,974,000
53,362,682
1913
632,460,000
729,432,000
1,361,892,000
55.467,530
1914
591,101,000
595.736,000
1,186,837,000
57.442.177
1915
1916
1917
708,307,000
1,116,744,465
1.596,830,000
532,450,000
754.933.723
983,230,000
1,120,757,000
1,833,896,028
2,583,290,000
Of course the increase of over 40 per cent in
imports and 57 per cent in exports, a total
increase of over 112 per cent, represented by
the war years, can not be taken as normal. To
ascertain the actual growth of Japanese trade
during the war years the normal ratio of
increase must be deducted from the actual.
If, for example, the figures for the ten years
preceding the war be examined, they will
show an increase in the value of imports
amounting to 41,229,612 yen, which, had the
war not broken out and the average of imports
been maintained, would have brought the
imports of 1916 up to about 853,120,480 yen,
or 96,692,570 yen less than the actual imports
for that year, or a fall of over 13 per cent.
Comparing exports in the same way for a
similar normal period we find an average
increase of 34,295,776 yen per annum. There-
followed by England, France, Russia, British
India, and Italy, Germany and Austria having
been eliminated by the war. Asia continues
to be Japan's best customer, America coming
second and Europe third, though the whole of
Europe does not take as much from Japan as
the United States or China. The war years
saw an extraordinary increase in Japan's trade
with Russia, the Dutch East Indies, the
South Sea regions, and South Africa, which
may or may not continue. There was also a
considerable extension of Japanese trade
toward Egypt and Australia. In regard to
imports Japan still draws most of her stock
from British India, England, and the United
States, after which come China, the Dutch
East Indies, and French India.
The main volume of Japanese exports to
Europe consists of foodstuffs, raw materials.
AN AGREEABLE OCCUPATION -
COCOONS
-SORTING SILK
and indigenous manufactures in the way of
luxuries, while to America go chiefly raw silk
and tea, India and China taking mostly cotton
yarns and textiles, which commodities also
had extended sales recently in the South Seas
on account of the war. With, perhaps, the
exception of cotton hosiery, Japan's latest
application of mechanical science plays, as yet,
an exceedingly small part in Western markets,
where her exports would recently have show'n
but slight increase had it not been for the war.
Most of Japan's manufactures go to Eastern
markets, in which direction the ratio of
increase is much more pronounced. In the
THE SE.\L-CARVER
206
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
matter of imports, however, Japan gets from
Europe chiefly manufactured goods, while
deriving her provisions for the most part from
Oriental countries. With the increasing and
rapid development of domestic industry
Japan will probably import less manufactures
from the West, and will continue to depend on
Asia
China
Kwantung
Korea
Hongkong
British India
Straits Settlements.
Dutch India
French India
Russian Asia
Philippines
Siam
Total .
Europe
England
France
Germany
Belgium
Italy
Switzerland
Austria-Hungaiy
Holland
Sweden
Norway
Russia
Spain
Denmark
Turkey
Portugal
Total.
America
United States.
Canada
Mexico
Peru
Chile
Argentine. . . .
Total .
Australasia . . .
Hawaii
Egypt
South Africa .
Total .
Other Countries .
Ambiguous
1905
Yen
98,681,998
26,618,870
20,215,081
7,997.594
4,424,068
1,233,011
406,933
1,709,787
1,363,673
I03,.H2
162,754,357
13,039,401
27,227,473
4,360,402
665,520
8,095,467
ii.5,S4
414,106
161,834
193
11,689
10,584
77,742
70,045
50,516
604
54,197,130
94,009,072
3,240,036
60,935
10,407
97,320,450
E.\ PORTS
I9IO
Yen
90,037,354
17,450,330
23,459.911
18,712,918
6,549,661
3,133,598
341,083
2,503,476
4,410,505
533,098
167,131,934
Grand Total .
Eastern countries for her raw materials. The in a remarkably brief period has developed
following table gives Japan's relations with for- from a purely agricultural to an important
cigncountriosinrespecttoimportsandexports. industrial and commercial nation. During
the enforcement of her policy of isolation
PROPORTION OF RAW MATERIALS TO ^^ade depended almost wholly on agriculture,
FINISHED ARTICLES ^^^ ^,^^^ ^■^^ country was again opened to
Enough has been said to show that Japan foreign trade there was an immediate influx of
— Western manufactures and a return trade was
at once established. In 1868 trade consisted
chiefly of imports of cotton and woollen cloth,
'915 and exports of tea and raw silk, the latter
covering at least two-thirds of the total value
of exports. As time went on, however,
141,123,000 Western manufacturing processes were intro-
22,201,000 duced and soon developed to a point where the
49,492,000 home demand was being supplied and a sur-
27,401,000 pj^jg jgff g^.gj. foj. exportation. This was
42,202,000 particularly the case with such items as cotton
'' "'.' goods, sheetings, watches, beer, and groceries,
'';" ' which had changed from being the largest
637,000 *=■ . .
-8 200 000 figures among imports to bemg important
- 771 000 exports. This tendency is emphasised by the
778,000 fact that while the total value of Japanese
imports to-day is some forty times greater
390,982,000 jj^^n tj^g figures of 1868, the importation of
cotton is only about five times as great, and of
other textiles and manufactured clothing only
68 SQA. 000 about thirteen times as great.
.j'^Q^jooo The nature of a country's imports and
exports is always a good test of its industrial
and tradal conditions; for no matter how
3,012,000 great its increase of foreign trade may be, the
44,000 circumstances can not be taken as a sign of
permanent progress if imports are chiefly
42,000 manufactures, and exports mostly raw mate-
'"' rials. It has aU ready been shown that up to
1877 most of Japan's exports were raw mate-
11,239,000 '' ■' '^
rials, while her machine-made products were
45'? 000 ^^1 imported, a condition that during the last
2,000 decade or so has been completely reversed.
13,000 Thus it has come about that the class of
commodities formerly supplied to Japan from
126,081,000 abroad has now, in turn, become the chief
item in Japan's exports, which accounts for
the remarkable development already shown
204 142 000 i" '^he country's foreign trade. This steady
7,024,000 decline in the importation of manufactured
13,000 articles simultaneously with an increasing
135,000 domestic demand for such goods, proves the
170,000 reality of Japan's industrial progress, fostered
1,129,000 largely by her protective tariff. As time goes
, on Japan will become more and more indepen-
212,613,000 -' '
dent of foreign nations in regard to all manu-
18,098,000 factured articles, except, perhaps, machinery,
6,095,000 pursuing a policy of importing mostly raw
985,000 materials and exporting finished articles.
1,000,000 'j-jjg table on the next page gives the pro-
, „ portion of raw materials to manufactured
26,178,000 '^
articles in imports and exports during thirty
722,000 years of the nation's development
381,000 How far Japan will be able to maintain
this policy successfully in competition with
75 ,957i jjjg usually superior manufactures of Western
25,781,364
44,925,229
11,167,773
3,464,839
16,834,878
1,943,040
1,159,587
725,952
256,115
5.107
1,811,283
269,911
138,021
81,166
5,640
108,569,905
143,702,249
4,261,792
318,350
200,378
71,411
4,072,936
1,876,454
283,801
6,233,191
10,281,482
330,786,610
148,554.180
6,552,457
3,964,066
806,821
11,323.344
2,728,837
972,333
439,280,533
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
207
countries is an interesting question. Com-
plaints from importers of Japanese manu-
factures arc numerous in respect to lack of
uniformity in quality and regularity in output,
due chiefly to the fact that so often large
orders are sublet to various smaller concerns,
each making the goods according to his own
lights. Doubtless with closer official super-
vision and increase of efficiency, Japanese
goods will eventually attain a reputation for
standard quality and hold their own in the
trade markets of the world.
Notwithstanding the remarkable extension
of trade experienced by Japan in recent years
the value of her trade per head of the popula-
tion is still found to be only something over 30
Asia
China
Kwantung
Korea
Hongkong
British India
Straits Settlements
Dutch India
French India
Russian Asia
Philippines
Siam
Total
El'ROPE
England
France
Germany
Belgium
Italy
Switzerland
Austria-Hungary
HoUand
Sweden
Norway
Russia
Spain
Denmark
Turkey
Portugal
Total
Amkrica
United States
Canada
Mexico
Peru
Chile
Argentine
Tola!
Australasia
Hawaii
Egypt
Total
Other Countries
Ambiguous
Grand Total
1905
Yen
52,618,408
6,150,541
90,226,830
,S.397,886
14,830,004
10,147,957
2,276,564
1,367,612
4,5«6,555
186,730,954
ii5,3''<o,ioi
5,129,208
42.579,960
11,002,185
502,091
2,974.305
2,256,196
873,528
1,002,574
1,268,615
29,049
249,083
24,'95
36,964
15,720
183.323.774
104,286,528
732,022
166,873
3,608
105,189,031
Imports
6,001,197
13.692
2,999,133
9,014,022
3,336,867
493,369
1910
Yen
68,569,541
9,740,160
8„S9I,835
674,651
106,361,497
4,615,981
18,879,501
4,438,133
762,610
788,206
2,635,575
!26,()57,6go
94,700,911
5,404,849
43,946,478
9,409,075
591,502
1,694,199
2,782,032
919,207
3,059,596
371,350
208,015
536,490
97,840
20,417
21,371
163,763,332
54,699,166
850,126
12,775
456,059
1,469,517
57,487,643
7,601,681
11,526
4,192,196
11,805,403
488,088,017
4,689,800
429,940
1915
Yen
85,848,000
27,819,000
1,594,000
147,585,000
5,356,000
16,312,000
3,687,000
3,564,000
7,309,000
2,808,000
301,882,000
58,084,000
3,891,000
5,919,000
372,000
299,000
1,513,000
70,000
278,000
6,299,000
1 ,225,000
607,000
194,000
165,000
94,000
5.000
79,015,000
102,534,000
1,053,000
7,000
22,000
2,999,000
106,615,000
28,571,000
43.000
6,136,000
34,750,000
3,657,000
6,344,000
464,233,808
532,263,000
yen, as compared with 260 yen per head in
Great Britain, a contrast which is very strik-
ing, especially as the per capita ratio of
Japanese trade is even lower than that of
Spain and Italy. Moreover, in such articles
as first-class woollens, iron, machinery, dyes,
and paper Japan will be more or less depend-
ent on foreign countries for some time to
come, though in chemical dyes and cheap
paper she has made rapid development since
the war. But it may safely be said that in all
the highest classes of goods, except silks,
Japan still depends on other countries, more
especially on England. In 1913 Japan
imported iron, machinery, woollen stuffs,
cotton fabrics, and paper to the value of
29,000,000 yen; but in 1916, notwithstanding
a decline in imports on account of the war,
she yet managed to import these goods to the
value of about 1 10,000,000 yen, and in 1917 to
the value of 150,000,000 yen.
PRINCIPAL EXPORTS AND I.MPORTS
Japan's principal exports at present are
raw silk, cotton yams and fabrics, silk goods,
copper, coal, sugar, matches, knitted goods,
waste silk, tea, hemp plaits, timber, fish (both
salt and dried), earthenwares, straw plait,
chip plait, hats, handkerchiefs, rice, figured
matting, camphor, menthol crystal, pepper-
mint oil, fish oil, whale oil, canned and bottled
foods, glass and glassware, buttons, paper,
towels, machinery and accessories, toys,
pulse, brushes, fruits, sak^, edible seaweed,
sulphur, bamboo ware, umbrellas, isinglass,
ships, boats, patent medicines, soaps, vegeta-
bles, etc., of which silk, copper, camphor,
braids, and fish oil go chiefly to America
and Europe, while cottons, knitted goods,
and marine products as well as sugar go for
the most part to Oriental countries. Porce-
lain and timber go to America, Austraha,
and Mexico.
The principal imports are raw cotton,
ginned cotton, rice, fertilizers, sugar, machin-
ery, wool, crude sulphtuic acid, ammonia,
woollen goods, wheat, petroleum, woollen
yams, finer cottons, mineral phosphates, flax,
hemp, vegetable fibers, paper, pulp, aniline
dyes, railroad equipment, coal, ships, boats,
India rubber, gutta percha, zinc, artificial
indigo, bicycles and accessories, iron goods,
drugs and chemicals. Of these, most of the
iron, machinery, and woollens come from
Great Britain; raw cotton from the United
States, India, Egypt, and China; wool from
Australia and Germany; sugar and cereals from
India and Oriental lands; paper from England,
Germany, and Austria; petroleum from
America; and fertilizers from South America.
The table on the next page shows the prin-
cipal items of Japanese exports and imports
during intervals of five years for the fifteen
years up to the European war.
208
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Raw M
VTERIALS
Manifactirks
Used as Raw Materials
Finished
Articles
Year
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1877
i.794.24f'
1 .205,507
10,923,091
6,659,352
749,430
14,833,175
1893
9.579.377
IS,S17,674
36,616,197
17.725,982
22,260,622
29,550,820
1903
30.399.596
89.303,711
138,948,851
42,918,267
79,207,104
78,286,198
1913
4i.7'0.399
292,792,054
335,132,884
141,812,555
183.748,683
191,608,329
1917
65,000,000
455,000,000
£89,000,000
250,000,000
473,000,000
83,000,000
japan's trade policy
It is not too much to say that the entire
population of Japan is now, and will be for
many years to come, absorbed in the ambi-
tion to become supreme in the commercial
as well as the political world of East Asia.
With their enormous expansion of industry
and shipping as a result of the war, and their
close and accurate investigation of trade con-
ditions everywhere, the commerce of the
country may be expected to find permanent
extension in fields formerly held by Western
countries, more especially in India, South
America, South Africa, the South Sea Islands,
Australia, and China; while the nation's high
tariff protects its nascent industries from
competition through foreign imports at home.
But, as has already been suggested, Japan
has still to show that she can hold her own
against the superior manufactures of Great
Britain and the United States on even
terms. Owing to her cheap labour and
better knowledge of conditions, Japan has
already practically driven her American
rivals from the cotton and tobacco markets
of China, and is running Great Britain a
close second. She is making a big bid for
similar achievements in India, the chances
there being so far problematical. What
Japan has to remember is that her phe-
nomenal expansion thus far has been in no
small measure due to the satisfactory rela-
tions she has been able to maintain with the
nations she now hopes to rival and outdis-
tance in the great trade fields of East Asia.
The question of direct trade is one of
increasing interest to foreigners and Japanese
alike. The foundations of Japan's foreign
trade were laid by the merchants of Europe
and America who established branches and
agencies in the open ports at a time when
Japan had practically no commercial inter-
course with the outside world. For the
first years of Japan's foreign trade these
intermediaries were essential to the proper
facilitation of trade, but with the increasing
expansion of commerce in recent years efforts
arc being made to get rid of the foreign mid-
dleman and bring the trade of the Empire
as far as possible into native hands. The
policy is regarded by foreigners as a mistaken
one, since foreign merchants resident in
Japan know the needs of the foreign market
best, and are more trusted by Western buyers
in promoting transactions with Japan. That
the policy of eliminating the foreign middle-
man has not yet been wholly successful
may be seen from the large number of foreign
firms still prospering in the great commercial
centres of the Empire, as well as from the
fact that about 60 per cent of the country's
foreign export trade is still transacted by
foreign middlemen, the ratio according to
nationality being about 40 per cent British
and American (17 per cent of which was in
German hands before the war), China 16 per
cent, and other nations the rest. In imports,
the Japanese control about 58 per cent,
British and Americans 30 per cent (of which
10 per cent was in German hands before the
war), and China 7 per cent.
It has already been shown that by the
introduction of a high protective tariff and
the promotion of rapid development in indus-
trial output, Japan has succeeded in reducing
her imports and bringing about a favourable
main street. YOKOHAMA, IN THE FOREIGN BUSINESS SECTION
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
209
Comparative Value of Classes of Commodities Exported and Imported
Articles
Exports
Grains, flours, starches, and seeds. . . . .
Tea
Marine products
Sugar, confections, sweetmeats, etc. . . .
Beverages and comestibles
Tobacco
Animal products (skins, horns, bones) .
Drugs, chemicals, medicines, pigments.
Oils, fats, waxes, etc
Tissues, yarns, and materials thereof:
Silk
Cotton
All others
Clothing and accessories
Paper and manufactures thereof
Minerals and manufactures thereof. . . .
Ores and metals
Metal manufactures
Earthenware, porcelain, glass, etc
Machinery
Miscellaneous
Tolul .
Imports
Grains, flours, starches, and seeds. . .
Sugars, confections, and sweetmeats.
Beverages and comestibles
Animal products (skins, bones, etc.) .
Drugs, chemicals, and medicines ....
Dyes, pigments, and paints
Oils and waxes
Tissues, yarns, and materials thereof:
Cotton
Wool
Silk
Flax, hemp, etc
All others
Clothing and accessories
Paper and stationery
Minerals and manufactures thereof. .
Ores and metals:
Iron
All other metals
Metal manufactures
Earthenware, procelain, glass, etc.. . .
Machines and machinery
Miscellaneous
Total .
Total of Exports and Imports.
1905
Yen
4,168,60,^
1 0,584, ,^22
8,044,480
4,440,863
12,460,633
2,209,089
18,058,186
2,661,596
1I3,7I,?,.WI
47,818,865
2,142,893
5.&,S7.,S36
4.043.469
14,816,190
17,181,108
2,245,661
7,563.,S,3,S
3.<'97.i«3
37,102,923
321..S33.610
1910
Yen
7,5S<).384
14.342,334
9.107,39"
6,259,807
12,488,799
1,256,659
3,811,268
I9,.S«9,I9l
6,"C>9.37.=i
>79,3«7,322
68,927,518
6,652,169
14,009,389
5,025,218
18,004,547
24,617,004
3,53".6^<'i
7,64^,737
3,357,054
46,564,145
458,428,996
66,573,005
14,018,277
16,489,805
18,661,482
15,404,274
8,254,532
i5-«30,7''<2
i3i.3«6,909
35.249.740
2,237,290
6,869,698
6,620,995
I .^56.303
7.509,556
9.736,767
36,688,029
15,090,221
10,390,769
2,302,298
38,160,773
29,206,512
488,538,017
810,071,627
27,172,655
13,293,191
6,772,327
7.432,712
26,012,802
10,082,802
21,359,661
173,474,600
31,969,967
2,202,175
4,582,709
4,503,016
i,3«6,757
12,042,291
«, 1 29,243
33.644,467
9,609,041
1 1,102,417
3,173.941
23,611,774
32,675,260
464,233,808
922,662,804
1915
Yen
24,466,898
15,402,023
11.934.355
12,092,461
1 4,308,542
372,203
6,021,548
32,825,053
10,146,513
207,414,456
108,968,247
29,277.630
36,532,349
6,351,436
22,191,233
64,719,377
7,760,036
12,857,089
10,031,193
74,634,255
708,306,897
24,802,559
14,912,886
5,204,255
12,622,144
30,596,1 16
7,373,468
'7,276,236
222,369,433
34,764,123
4,476,245
9,148,398
2,530,888
368,285
9,786,359
9,321,564
36,232,296
22,437,421
4,118,158
1,252,006
14,707,887
48,148,111
532,448,838
1,240,755,735
Years
ToT.\L Imports
Yen
Goods Dutiable
Yen
Customs Revenue
Yen
Average
Percent.\ge
1912
618,992,000
312,689,000
58,242,000
18.63
1913
729,431,000
368,256,000
73,580,000
19.78
1914
595,735,000
255,667,000
50,512,000
19.76
1915
532,449,000
174,783,000
30,195,000
17.28
1916
756,427,000
294,876,000
33.832,000
11.47
balance of trade. Her ability to maintain
this position depends somewhat on whether
she can retain command of the Oriental mar-
kets in the necessities of life. In her efforts
in this direction she can never afford to be
defiant toward her competitors, with whom
in any tariff war she must inevitably
suffer.
Now that Japan has chosen to become a
mercantile and commercial nation her pros-
perity must largely depend on foreign trade.
Apart from silk, tea, copper, and coal she
has no staple commodities for which the
Western world might have to depend on her.
She is always, therefore, more beholden to
her friends than they to her. Her home
markets can not be compared for a moment
to those of the countries she most desires to
rival in industry and trade. In both England
and the United States the consuming power
of the individual is ten times what it is in
Japan, to say nothing of his greater purchas-
ing power. Ignoring these facts Japan has,
nevertheless, gone on increasing her tariff
until in some items it is now almost pro-
hibitive. Not over 5 per cent in 1896, it
jumped to 8}^ in 1900; and now for some
years it has been steadily over 15 per cent,
and recently above 17 per cent. The table at
the foot of this page will indicate the upward
movement of Japan's tariff.
COMMERCI.\L INSTITUTIONS
In old Japan commercial institutions per-
tained to the local daimiates, but after the
opening of the country to foreign trade
chambers of commerce began to appear, of
which there are now sixty in the Empire,
with over 1,800 members and spending about
350,000 yen a year. The chambers are con-
ducted entirely on European lines and are
self-governing bodies, whose chief functions
are the investigation of industrial and com-
mercial affairs, arbitration, commercial con-
sultative bodies for the Government and the
carrying on of commercial propaganda.
Japan has also numerous Trade Guilds
which exercise an important influence on
commerce.
These guilds represent the various indus-
tries and manufactures, and their main pur-
pose is to promote the benefit of the mem-
bers generally, the rectifying of bad business
customs, as well as improvement of produc-
tion and the opening of new markets. The
guilds act in conjunction with one another
toward the attainment of common ends and
the exchange of mutual information helpful
to trade and industry. The various local
guilds are united under one central authority
W'hose officers are appointed by the Govern-
ment. The total number of these guilds
210
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
is now over 1,000, with some 46 allied asso-
ciations, having a membership of 1,100,000
and an annual expenditure of some 3,000,000
yen.
The total capital now represented by
the industrial guilds of Japan is estimated at
about 720,000,000 yen. The Central Asso-
ciation of Trade Guilds, as well as the Govern-
ment, is devoting careful attention to the
regulation of quantity and quality of output
in the more important lines of industry,
especially as to goods intended for export,
all manufactures being subject to inspection.
By this careful conditioning of exports it is
hoped to prevent the sending abroad of
inferior or unsatisfactory goods such as
might prejudice the reputation of Japanese
manufactures.
JAPAN'S BUTTON
TRADE
By MK. K.MILE OTT, of Messrs. Israel &
Oppenheimer, Ltd., Kobe
THE manufacture of buttons from sea
shells is, in Japan, a comparatively
young industry, and it is interesting to
trace the development of the button trade
from the first small and primitive factory
to the present up-to-date installations and
enormous export capacity.
It is a difficult matter to decide who was
the first button maker as there are several
men, each of whom claims to be the founder
of one of Japan's most important modern
industries. However, there is no doubt
but that a Japanese can claim this distinction.
In 1 87 1, only forty-seven years ago, Mr.
Uwo, who still lives in Osaka, obtained a
foreign made button from a foreign mer-
chant, and immediately began to manu-
facture buttons, though on a very small
scale. He made use of the Shinju shell,
which he obtained from the Inland Sea of
Japan, the same shell which is being used
to-day. Mr. Uwo's only tools to cut the
shell were scissors, and the holes were bored
through the unfinished buttons, one by one,
w'ith a primitive borer, therefore one can
easily imagine how small his output of poor
quality buttons was. His first essay at
button- making was certainly not a very
profitable proposition but it did not dis-
courage him, though he soon realised that
without better tools it could not possibly
LEADING FOREIGN MERCHANTS OF YOKOHAMA
(Upper Row, Left to Right) H. M. Arnould, of Varnum Amould & Co. — E. C. Davis, Partner of Davis, Summers & Co. — J. Alston,
Manager for Japan of the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China — F. W. R. Ward, Managing Partner, Cooper & Co.— S. IsA.\cs,
of S. Isaacs & Co. (Middle Row) J. D. Longmire, Manager, International Banking Corporation— R. T. Wright, Manager for Japan,
Hongkong & Shanghai Bank, Yokohama— The Hon. A. M. Chalmers, British Consul-General at Yokohama— F. H. Bugbird, Repre-
sentative for Japan, Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd. — A. H. CoLE Watson, Yokohama Representative of Findlay, Richardson & Co., Ltd.
(Lower Row) R. E. Kohzevar, Yokohama Agent for Peninsular & Oriental S. N. Co. — O. M. Poole, Manager, Dodwell & Co.,
Ltd. — A. P. Scott, Managing Director, The Rising Sun Petroleum Co., Ltd., and Author of Article on "Petroleum" in this Volume
— H. A. Ensworth, General Manager for Japan of Standard Oil Co. of New York, and President of the American Association of
Japan — H. S. Hume, Managing Director, Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd. — R. M. Varnum, of Amould Varnum & Co.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
211
turn out a success. He made experiments
with a view to devising a machine, and
succeeded in improving to a considerable
extent, at least, on the scissors, and produced
a certain quality of very cheap Shinju
buttons, quite good enough for home use.
Mr. Uwo's activity attracted the attention
of other persons to the industry, and the
Okayama and Osaka penitentiaries soon
began turning out similar buttons. A few
years later about a dozen small factories
were at work.
In 1880 the first South Sea Island and
Indian shell was imported to Japan, and the
makers of the cheap Shinju buttons imme-
diately started to copy the foreign good
quality buttons. The bleaching, however,
was very bad, as none of the manufacturers
seemed able to get hold of the chemical
process formulas which were in use in Europe.
Some nine years later, in 1889, a German by
the name of Winkler established a button
factory in Kobe, starting on quite an e.xten-
sive scale, with two hundred up-to-date
machines, forty-eight of which he imported.
He began at once to use other shells from
Japan's Inland Sea, such as Yanko and
Awabi, beside those of Macassar and South
Sea Island Takase. Winkler brought out
experts from Germany thoroughly ac-
quainted with the manufacture of buttons,
and he thus established himself from the
beginning as the leading manufacturer,
keeping, moreover, all his machines and
manufacturing processes as secret as possible.
After a few years he began the importation of
the necessary bleaching material and started
his own bleaching department, along the
same Unes as the Austrian and German
manufacturers in Europe. In 1895 a Japa-
nese named Masagaki experimented success-
fully in the bleaching of buttons with chemi-
cals, and much of the tremendous develop-
ment of the export business in the following
years is due to the early adoption of this
bleaching process and the consequent expor-
tation of the completely finished buttons.
FIRST EXPORT
According to statistics of the Department
of Finance, early in 1872 the first buttons
were exported from Koh6 to Austria, amount-
ing to 3,880 pieces of buttons of a value of
Yen 40.00. It is very doubtful, however,
whether these buttons were made in Japan,
as Austria then produced a very good button
and could not possibly use Japan's first trial
in cheap Shinju. In fact, Japan's statistics
do not mention buttons as an export during
the seventeen years following 1872. During
the first years Winkler exported the unfin-
ished buttons (simple holed button forms,
unbleached) to Germany, where they were
bleached and finished. There is no further
record though it is possible that Japan-made
buttons may have been exported together
with manufactured articles such as under-
wear, clothing, etc. The first export, accord-
ing to official statistics, was made in 1893, of
a total value of Yen 174,000.
The war has naturally had a great influence
on Japan's button trade, and the following
facts will be of interest. Despite the fact
that labour in Japan has gone up since the
beginning of the war from forty to fifty per
cent; that prices of bleaching materials have
doubled, and that foreign raw material has
raised from twenty to forty per cent owing
to the scarcity of, and increase in, shipping
space, the prices of buttons have remained
not only the same, but dropped in certain
instances twenty per cent. This is princi-
pally due to the fact that Japan lost in
Germany one of its largest buyers, and,
further, to the import restrictions of England
in 19 16 (fifty per cent of previous years'
import only). On the other hand, however,
the exports to the United States nearly
doubled. In America, the buttons known
as the Mississippi fresh water buttons are
used in tremendous quantities, but the cost
of labour in the United States has risen
during the war to such an extent that
Japan is able to sell buttons at favourable
prices, despite the high customs tariff of
the United States. The American consumer
did not want, however, to part with his
white fresh water button, so large quantities
of Taimin Dobu, a white shell of similar
appearance to the Mississippi shell, are im-
ported into Japan especially for the American
and Canadian markets. This tremendous
export of Dobu buttons in Taimin and Japa-
nese Dobu shell did not influence the other
quality buttons to the betterment of the
trade, and prices are still low. They will
presumably rise as soon as the war is over.
WORK OF THE EXPORTER
To-day Japan with her modern machinery
and perfect bleaching and shaping plants can
produce buttons which compete with the
foreign product, and the labour, which in
comparison with other button-producing
countries is still cheap, enables her to lead
all foreign producers. France, of course,
manufactures a very good, or even better,
quality button, but the prices are propor-
tionately higher. The fancy shaped buttons
are not, of coiu-se, to be forgotten, and the
dyeing of buttons, which has improved of
late, enables Japan to compete also with the
French manufacturers in the fancy and
coloured lines. There are actually only a
limited number of exporters who are oper-
ating successfully in the button trade, for
only years of experience in the different
markets, a perfect knowledge of the raw
material and the manufacturing process,
will enable an exporter to handle buttons
successfully and satisfy customers abroad.
Winkler was the only man who exported his
own buttons, whereas to-day all manufac-
turers deal through exporters, though it is
easily understood that most of the leading
exporters are financially interested on the
manufacturing side. The very greatest care
has to be exercised because so many points
require consideration. The diflferent quali-
ties of shell of almost identical appearance
but difference in price, the various thick-
nesses of the shell and consequently varying
thickness of the buttons, the size of the holing,
which differs according to the market, the
thorough bleaching and polishing, and the
various different grades (first, second, third,
and fourth quality), all make it essential that
the up-to-date exporter shall keep an experi-
enced staff of inspectors with a thorough
knowledge of the raw materials and the
requirements of the different markets. The
careful inspection of every single button is
the only way to satisfy the foreign consumer.
Some of the leading exporters are actually
importing their own raw and bleaching mate-
rials, beside giving to the manufacturers
financial assistance. Some exporters, with
world-wide connections, control the whole
outjjut capacity of several factories and their
export to various countries enables them to
dispose of every grade the factories produce,
while it is of great importance that the
makers be induced to turn out new shapes
and designs. The great improvements in the
fancy buttons within the last few years is
mostly due to the assiduous work of some of
the leading exporters and foreign experts in
buttons.
The Japanese button manufacturers are
preparing for foreign competition after the
war, and are confident, not only of being
able to hold their position, but of being able
to improve the same, and their expectations
appear in many ways to be justified.
TOKYO BUSINESS
HOUSES
OKURA AND COMPANY
The firm of Okura and Company was
founded by the present Baron Okura, a man
of fine personality, unusual genius for organi-
sation, unflinching faith in industry and of
resistless enterprise. Baron Okura stands a
peer among the great merchant princes of
Japan, and his concern is one of the leading
import and export houses of the Empire.
Commencing business in 1869 to supply
equipment for Japan's nascent army, the
TOKYO PREMISES OF OKURA & COMPANY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
213
firm made large profits on Government con-
tracts, and has ever since enjoyed the confi-
dence and patronage of the Imperial au-
thorities. Messrs. Okura and Company arc
doing business on a capital of 10,000,000 yen,
and are engaged chiefly in the importing of
mining and other engineering machinery, as
well as in the export of leather goods, army
cloths, arms, ammunition, explosives, muni-
tions, pig iron, smokeless coal, engineering
equipment, and manufacturing machinery.
The company has branch offices in Shanghai,
Hankow, Tientsin, Darien, Mukden, Tsing-
tau, Tsainanfu and other places in China,
with offices in Sydney, New York, and Lon-
don, as well, the Okura house being the first
Japanese company to open an office in Lon-
don. The company is especially popular in
China, where Baron Okura has himself gone
to interview Government officials and close
contracts, frequently accommodating China
with private loans. The head and founder
of Okura and Company takes a keen and
liberal interest in national aflfairs. He
established the Okura Commercial College in
Tok>'0 for the educating of men of business
so much in demand everywhere in Japan,
and in iSyS he endowed the institution with
half a million yen. Baron Okura has estab-
lished similar schools at Osaka and in Seoul.
Recently he presented the nation with a
valuable museum. Beside the head of the
firm. Baron Okura, there are Mr. C. Kadono,
Mr. Kumema Okura, Mr. Hatsumi Okura,
Mr. K. S. Okura, and Mr. Yamada, as
Directors.
TAKATA AND COMPANY
Mr. Shinzo Takata, who established the
business which bears his name, was one of
the very earliest importers and exporters in
Japan, having entered upon trade with for-
eign countries as far back as 1869. After
many difficulties which attended the effort
to do foreign business in those early days,
Mr. Takata built up a world-wide connec-
tion, and the firm to-day is undoubtedly
among the most important concerns in Japan.
Messrs. Takata & Co. are general mer-
chants, mine owners, and industrial manu-
facturers and Government contractors, their
interests being widely varied. They direct
and manage the Takata Ship Paint Factorj'
at Ohsakimura, Tokj'O-fu; the Yanagishima
Iron Works, Tokyo; the Ohdera Zinc Refin-
ing Works at Fukushima-ken, and are inter-
ested in the following mining properties:
Takata Mine (zinc and lead), Miyagi-ken;
Hiroo Zinc Mine, Hokkaido; Takakoshi
Copper Mine, Tokushima-ken; Hiyoshi Cop-
per Mine, Okayama-ken, and the Katsuura
Mine, Hyogo-ken. In the Sino- Japanese
and Russo-Japanese Wars Mr. Takata ren-
dered great service to the Imperial Govern-
ment and he was awarded the third Order
of the Rising Sun. In 1909, owing to the
great expansion which had taken place, the
business was transformed into a semi-
partnership, the principals of which are
Mr. Shinzo Takata and his two sons, Messrs.
Kamakichi and Nobujiro Takata. The head
office of Messrs. Takata & Co. is at Eiraku-
PALATIAL TOKYO OFFICES OF TAKATA & CO.
15
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
215
cho, Nichome, Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo, and
there arc branches at Osaka, London,
New York, Shanghai, Hankow, Dalny,
Keijo, Taihoku, Yokosuka, Yokohama, Kob6,
Maizuru, Kurc, Moji, and Sascbo.
SALE AND FIi,\ZAR, LIMITED
Among the names of the pioneers of foreign
trade in the Orient, none are better known
than those of Sale and Frazar, and in Japan,
the names in combination in the big enter-
prise known as Sale & Frazar, Limited, stand
for all that is enterprising, substantial, and
stable in commerce. The origin of the con-
cern goes back into the remote stages of trade
development in China and Japan, and in the
early and romantic history of the pioneer
days the two names of George Frazar and
George Sale frequently recur, as do those of
their respective descendants. The late Mr.
George Frazar, who founded the firm of
Frazar and Company, started in business in
Canton as far back as 1834. He was captain
of one of the famous clippers which used to
carry raw silk and tea from China to Boston.
Mr. Frazar was among the earliest settlers in
Hongkong when that port was ceded to the
British and opened for foreign trade in the
forties. His son, Everett Frazar, proceeded
to Shanghai in 1856 and there established a
branch of Frazar and Company, engaging in a
general import and export business, which is
still actively operated under the proprietor-
ship of Mr. MacMichael, who purchased the
firm's interest in 1890. Everett Frazar made
his first visit to Japan with Commodore
Perry's second expedition in 1858, but as at
that time the future of foreign trade with
Japan was a closed book, owing to the
extremely hostile attitude of the Japanese,
Mr. Frazar considered the prospect too unin-
viting, and retlu^led to Shanghai. In 1878
his partner, Mr. John Lindsley, started the
firm in business in Yokohama, and remained
with it until his retirement in 1901. Mr.
Everett Frazar died in the same year, and his
son, Mr. E. W. Frazar, the present Managing
Director of Sale & Frazar, Ltd., succeeded his
father in the business, and in 1902 bought out
Mr. Lindsley. In the same year the combina-
tion of Messrs. Frazar and Company and
Messrs. Sale and Company took place, Mr.
C. V. Sale becoming a partner of Frazar and
Company and Mr. Frazar a director of Sale
and Company.
Meanwhile the Sale family had been estab-
lishing their great interests in Japan. The
pioneer was the late Mr. George Sale who
came to Japan from England in 1879, and
opened up business. He was succeeded by
his son, Mr. Charles V. Sale, and the business
was developed to a large extent, ultimately
being incorporated under the laws of Japan in
1895 ^s Sale and Company. In 1907 Mr.
WOOD CARVERS AT WORK
Sale retired and took over the London branch
of the firm. This branch was subsequently
made a separate concern, and is controlled by
Mr. Charles V. Sale. His brother, Mr. Fred
G. Sale, continued with the business in Japan
until 191 •?, when he retired to England.
The linking of the interests of these two old
firms, which took place in 1902, was entirely
successful, and two years later it was decided
to make the amalgamation complete, the two
concerns being merged in the present corpora-
tion of Sale & Frazar, Ltd. During the many
years of the activity of the old partnerships
and the present company almost every
branch of business has been carried on in
import and export, shipping and finance.
Sale & Frazar, Ltd., have the distinction of
having brought the first electric dynamo to
Japan, and they installed the first electric
plant in the Emperor's Palace. They also
put in the first plant for the Tokyo Electric
Light Company. They introduced the first
phonograph and the first American locomo-
tive. They were pioneers of American cotton
and flour, and also inaugurated the Canadian
Pacific Railway Company's ocean service,
beginning with sailing ships, next with
chartered steamers, and finally the magnifi-
cent Empress" liners.
From this history it will be seen what an
important part the company and its predeces-
sors have played in the development of foreign
interests in Japan. The foundations laid by
the founders of the great concern have been
steadily built upon and to-day the business
must be numbered among the very first in the
Far East. It is conducted with vigour and
along the soundest lines, making for the
maintenance of British and American com-
mercial prestige in Japan. The business is
organised into eight departments, each under
expert direction, and well staffed with foreign
and Japanese servants fitted by experience to
handle the intricate and multitudinous under-
takings which the companyalwayshasin hand.
To attempt to describe the work of each
department is not within the scope of this
brief description of Sale & Frazar, Ltd.
There is hardly a l^ranch of trade with Japan,
no matter over what wide range of activity
we glance, that is not dealt with. In imports
such agencies as those of Armour & Co., of
Chicago, "Carnation Milk," Morgan Crucible
Co., and Ford cars may be mentioned.
Imports include rubber, metals, chemicals,
fertilizers, textiles, dyes, paper pulp and
scores of other lines. Exports embrace
practically every exportable line produced in
Japan. The company is agent for half a
dozen insurance companies, and several of the
big shipping organisations, and it is hard to
say where its ramifications end, the business
extending through several branches in Japan
and to such important commercial centres as
London, New York, Sydney, Shanghai,
Peking, Tientsin, Dairen, and Thursday
Island.
Sale & Frazar, Ltd., is capitalized at Yen
400,000.00 fully paid up. The legal reserve is
Yen 100,000.00. The Board of Directors
consists of Messrs. E. W. Frazar (Managing
Director), V. R. Bowden, F. S. Booth,
H. Carew, E. J. Libeaud, J. N. Strong, A. L.J.
Dewette, and C. E. Kirby (Auditor). The
head office is at No. i Yaesu-cho, Itchome,
Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo.
2l6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE MEI.TI TRADING COMPANY, LIMITED
The officers of this company arc Mr. S. H.
Matsubara, President; Mr. K. Ishikawa, Mr.
Tad. Ayai, and Mr. S. Soycjima, Managing
Directors; Mr. T. Funiya, Mr. S. Xishimura,
Mr. T. Murai, and Mr. Yakichi Murai,
Directors; and Mr. G. Murai, Mr. Yaichiro
Murai, and Mr. Y. Uyeno, Auditors. Mr.
K. Murai, a well known millionaire and the
paterfamilias of the Murai family, is the
largest stockholder of the company. He is
the President of the Murai Bank, with paid up
capital of Yen 2,000,000, a reserve of over Yen
1,000,000, and deposits of about Yen 30,000,-
000. Mr. K. Murai, as President, and Mr.
S. H. Matsubara, as Secretary, had both been
Directors of the American-Japanese Tobacco
Syndicate, known as Murai Bros. Company,
Ltd. Mr. T. Murai had also been on the
Board of Directors of the Syndicate, and at
present is one of the Managing Directors of
the Murai Bank. Mr. K. Ishikawa had been
head of the supply department of the Syndi-
cate which was bought up by the Government
in the year 1904, when tobacco was monopo-
lised in Japan. Mr. Tad. Ayai, who had also
been connected with the Syndicate as Assis-
tant Treasurer and, at one time. Manager of
the Murai Bank, and until lately one of
The Meiji Trading Company's Auditors,
succeeded, in December, 1916, Mr. Ter. M.
Uyeno, who, on account of illness, had retired
from the directorship. Mr. S. Soyejima has
until recently been Assistant Manager of one
of the local branches of Mitsui & Company.
Mr. T. Furuya and Mr. S. Nishimura were
formerly proprietors of the firm of Furuya &
Nishimura, prominent tea exporters, and
these two gentlemen are now in charge of the
Shizuoka and New York offices. Mr. G.
Murai is the General Manager of the Murai
Bank, and Mr. Y. Uyeno is the Superintend-
ent of the general business of the Murai
Honten. Mr. Yakishi Murai is the President
of the Murai Colliery Company, while Mr.
Yaichiro Murai is the President of the Murai
Warehouse Company at Kyoto.
The British references of The Meiji Trading
Co., Ltd., are the Yokohama Specie Bank,
London, the British American Tobacco Co.,
PREMISES OF MEIJI TRADING CO., LTD., LOCATED IN MUR.M BUILDING
Ltd., Messrs. George Kent, Ltd., London,
Messrs. Robert Legg, Ltd., London, and
Messrs. Betts & Co., London. American
references are: The American Tobacco Co.,
New York, Messrs. J. P. Taylor Company,
Richmond, Va., the Yokohama Specie Bank,
Ltd., New York, The United States Steel
Products Company, New York, California
Ink Company, San Francisco, and Messrs.
Felton & Son, Inc., Boston.
The business was first established under the
title of Ishikawa & Company, with a capital of
Yen 100,000, in 1904, when the Tobacco
Syndicate was liquidated. In December,
1911, Messrs. Murai joined the firm as part-
ners, the capital was doubled, and the name
was changed to Meiji Trading Company.
In January, 1915, it was reorganised into a
limited joint-stock company. As the sphere
of work was widened from time to time, and
the business rapidly expanded, the capital
was again increased, in Januarj', 1917, to Yen
1,000,000 — five times the amount previously
invested. Furthermore the company has the
financial support of the Murai Bank, as well
as that of Mr. K Murai, personally, and is
enabled to carry out almost any large under-
taking. The principal lines are, in the
Import Branch, leaf tobacco and tobacco
manufacturing supplies, cork, pig iron, steel,
tin plates, galvanized sheets and wire and
other metals, hardware in general, machinery,
pulp, paper, rubber (crude and manufactured)
tops, textiles of all kinds, printing inks and
supplies, building materials, paints, tea lead,
water metres, hemp, flax, etc. The chief
exports are cigarette mouthpieces, menthol
crj'stal, peppermint oil, lily bulbs, peanuts,
vegetable oil, fish oil, sulphur, hemp braids,
matches, copper, cathodes and sheets, Japa-
nese paper, rice, tea, coal, textiles of silk and
cotton, etc. The Osaka branch, with the
Kob^ branch under the new organisation,
looks after the business in the western part of
Japan, under the supervision of Mr. S. Soye-
jima, one of the Managing Directors, assisted
by Mr. T. Kaneko, who has had long experi-
ence in foreign trade. The oversea branches
are as follows: Shanghai, Dairen, Tsingtao,
New York (attending to all imports from and
exports to America), Chicago, Montreal,
and Sydney. The London branch is now
being opened. The head office of the Meiji
Trading Co., Ltd., is Murai Bank, Xihon-
bashi-ku, Tokyo.
GOMEIKAISHA .MURAI BANK
This bank, the partners of which are Mr.
Kichibei Murai (who is popularly known, and
has contributed much to the finance and
economy of the country, as the pioneer of
cigarette manufacture in Japan) and his
relatives, was first established in Ohdemma-
SANKYO & CO., LTD.: GENERAL VIEW OF LABORATORIES, SHINAGAWA — INTERIOR OF OFFICE — PART OF RESEARCH ROOM -
SECTION OF RETAIL SHOP, TOKYO — SHOW ROOM OF SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, TOKYO OFFICE
2l8
PRESENT-DAY I M P R I<: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
cho Street, Nihonbashi district, Tokyo, in
January, 1904, a year after the liquidation of
Murai Brothers Company owing to the
Government monopolising the tobacco busi-
ness in 1903. The next year, the Kyoto
Branch was established in Shijo and Tomino-
koji streets, Kyoto, and the Shichijo Ware-
house came into the bank's possession and
under its management, and then the Shichijo
Branch was opened. In 191 1, Kabushiki
of Jajian's leading scientists and discoverers,
and it occupies a foremost jjlace in the chem-
ical and drug industry, which has attained
such importance in Japan since the outbreak
of war. The origin of the company dates
back to 1899, when Mr. Matasaku Shiohara,
the present Managing Director, opened in
Yokohama an agency for the importation and
sale of the digestive preparation, "Taka-
Diastase," invented by Dr. Takamine, who
MAKING DRAWNWORK FOR EXPORT
Kaisha Murai Chokin Ginko (Murai Savings
Bank, Ltd.) was established in addition.
Then several branch offices were opened in
Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka. In Sejjtember,
1913, the magnificent new five-story building
at the south comer of the Nihonbashi Bridge,
which is situated at the very centre of the
metropolis, was completed, and the bank
moved there in October of that year. The
rigid way of conducting business has more
and more enhanced the bank's good reputa-
tion, and with the expansion of its business an
increase of capital became inevitable, and it is
now under contemplation to reform the
organisation into a joint-stock company with
a capital amounting to Yen 10,000,000.00.
SANKYO AND COMPANY, LIMITED
Messrs. Sankyo & Co., Ltd., are manufac-
turers, importers of, and dealers in, chemicals,
drugs, hardened oils, surgical instruments,
chemical apparatus, electric insulating mate-
rials and various patented articles appertain-
ing to the trade in which the company is
active. This organisation is associated with
the great name of Dr. Jokichi Takamine, one
had been a resident of New York for over
thirty years, establishing there the Takamine
Laboratory, Inc., where scientific research
work under his direction had given to the
world "Taka- Diastase," "Adrenalin," and
many other preparations, manufactured by
Messrs. Parke, Davis & Co. of Detroit,
Michigan.
In 1912 Mr. vShiohara removed to Tokyo
and established a factory at Hakozaki (the
works being still in use under the direction of
the present company), and begun the manu-
facture of pharmaceutical preparations, at the
same time exerting his energies toward
importing and selling various drugs and
chemicals, both medicinal and industrial.
All kinds of chemical and industrial machin-
ery were also handled, Mr. Shiohara always
keeping in touch with the most influential
companies in his own line of business in the
LTnited States, and thus building up and
extending the influence and prestige of his
business. In 1913 Mr. Shiohara transformed
his private interests into a limited liability
company, known under the present title of
Sankyo and Company, Ltd. This operation
gave the business further impetus, because
the formation of the company attracted the
support of many influential business men who
realised the value to the country of the
industry which Mr. Shiohara had put on such
a prosperous footing. The outbreak of the
great war and the cutting ofT of commercial
relations with warring nations, drew serious
attention on the jiart of the Japanese to the
uncertain supply of drugs and chemicals,
seeing that the principal articles used by
physicians in Japan were mainly imported
from foreign countries. Sankyo & Co., Ltd.,
were the first to take in the situation and
begin the manufacture of drugs and chemicals,
and their efforts have been rewarded with
success. In a year they were able to supply
the market with their products, all of the
highest quality, as enumerated hereafter:
Salicylic acid and salicylates, acetyl salicylic
acid (Aspirin), dimethylamidoantipyrin
(Pyramidon), phenacetin, lactic acid
and lactates, hexaraethylenetetramine (Uro-
tropin), carbolic acid, Arsaminol (606), Salol,
Theobromine sodio salicylate (Diuretin),
Antifebrin, citric acid, benzoic acid, caffeine
sodio benzoate, etc. Thus the company
which had hitherto been chiefly engaged in
the manufacture of galenic preparations and
other specialties, has added to its list of
manufactured articles the leading general
products of world demand, as mentioned
above. Sankyo & Co., besides being the
largest pharmaceutical manufacturing con-
cern in Japan, is also making investments in
chemical industries in all directions, and thus
endeavouring to extend its lines of business.
As an example we may mention that the
future of the Satowlite Company, which was
recently organised at the initiative and under
special auspices of Sankyo & Co. for the pur-
pose of manufacturing non-inflammable cellu-
loid-like articles, is attracting special interest in
the scientific world. The Satowlite articles
are the products resulting from the scientific
investigations and researches made by the
Science Institute of the North Eastern Imperial
University, the Institute being kept going by
funds contributed by Sankyo & Co. Several
of the professors of the University, of most
advanced knowledge and progressive spirit,
are energetically and enthusiastically pur-
suing their investigations, the results of which
will be forthcoming to brighten the future of
Sankyo & Co. more and more.
Messrs. Sankyo & Co., Ltd., have a capital
of Yen 2,300,000.00, with various reserve
funds aggregating Yen 1,700,000.00. The
shareholders number 167, most of whom are
men of prominent position in the financial
circles of Japan. The company owns seven
factories, three at Shinagawa, one each at
Hakozaki, Onagigawa, and Mukojima, Tokyo,
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
219
and another at Noda-machi, Osaka. A staff
of 300 experts and clerks is engajjed and
employment is found for over 2,000 factory
hands of both sexes, actively engaged in the
manufacture of chemicals and pharmaceutical
preparations, hardened oils, insulating mate-
rials, surgical instruments, etc. The factory
at Shinagawa, which is the subject of an
illustration in this volume, is the largest of
its kind in Japan. The concerns in the United
States for which Sankyo & Co., Ltd., are the
sole exclusive agents for Japan are : Hooker
Electrochemical Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.;
Arthur Colton & Co., Detroit, Mich. ; General
Bakelite Co., New York City; Gall and
Henning P. M. D. Manufacturing Co.,
Milwaukee, Wis. ; Parke, Davis & Co., Detroit,
Mich.; Chesebrough Manfg. Co., New York;
J. P. Devine Co., Buffalo, N. Y.; Radium
Chemical Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Spencer Lens
Co., Buffalo, N. Y., and Johnson & Johnson,
New Brunswick, N. J.
The officers of Messrs. Sankyo & Co., Ltd.,
are as follows: President and Director, Dr.
Jokichi Takamine; Managing Director, Mr.
Matasaku Shiohara; Directors, Messrs. Shin-
taro Ohashi, Chosaburo Uyemura, Sojiro
Furuta, and Oenjiro Fukui; Inspectors,
Messrs. Yoshibumi Murota and Konosuke
Otani. The head office of the company is
at Muromachi Sanchome, Nihonbashi-ku,
Tokyo.
TANAKA AND COMPANY
The business of the Tanaka Gomei Kaisha
was established about thirty years ago by
Mr. Mokujiro Tanaka, who has spent a
lifetime in scientific research, and who
undoubtedly has contributed a great deal to
Japan's store of higher technical knowledge.
Messrs. Tanaka & Co. devote themselves to
the importation and manufacture of all
classes of surgical and scientific instruments
and appliances, test tubes, microscopes, etc.,
as well as to the manufacture of chemicals
for laboratory use and commercial purposes
generally. Mr. Tanaka himself has been
responsible for a large number of inventions
of a scientific nature, and he is the one man
in Japan who has really succeeded in a sub-
stantial way in producing glass of the
chemically hard quality and fineness requisite
for laboratory use. For this purpose the
company started a factory in 191 1, at Tama-
himccho, Asakusa, and produced and sold
its product under the name of "Japan Jena
Glass." The success thus obtained prac-
tically stopped the importation of this kind
of glass from abroad, and directed attention
again to the fact that Japan was rapidly
becoming more and more self-reliant in the
higher branches of manufactures. Mr. Tan-
aka soon found that his patent rights were
being infringed by rival concerns, who were
imitating his products but were unable to
produce the right quality. Taking advan-
tage of the Imperial Coronation ceremony in
1915, he obtained another special trade
mark, "Yata Glass," and put on the market
a glass of such superior quality as to chal-
lenge all rivalry. It was at once recognised
that the Tanaka "Yata Glass" was better
than the imported Jena glass of Germany,
and the reputation of the firm was estab-
lished. In the report of the Industrial
Experimental Laboratory for August 20,
1916, it was shown that in the case of the
German glass the degree of oxygen test was
0.13, and the heat resistance 155 to 160
degrees, whereas in the case of the Tanaka
"Yata Glass" the o.xygen test was o.io, and
SAMPLE ROOM OF TANAK.\ GOMEI KAISH.\, TOKYO
220
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS () I" JAPAN
the heat resistance from 230 to 235. The
gauge glasses manufactured by the Tanaka
Gomei Kaisha are exckisively used in the
Imperial Japanese Na\'y. Mr. Tanaka has
also invented what is known as the "Tanaka
Style Microscope." For more than twenty
years he was experimenting with this in-
strument. Other persons also tried to turn
out a satisfactorj' instrument, but they
failed, and to Mr. Tanaka belongs the
of Tokyo. The factories are of brick, and
are quite modern in design and construction.
They cov^er a total area of about 1,000
tsubo, and about 500 men are employed.
The annual output of the factories is valued
at half a million yen, and in addition to
supplying the requirements of the local
markets, the firm is exporting to England,
America, Russia, Australia, India and else-
where.
K. OGURA AND COMPANY
This is one of the oldest commercial
houses in Japan, having been established
over one hundred and ten years, and having
been controlled by five generations of the
Ogura family. Messrs. K. Ogura & Com-
pany are manufacturers and importers and
exporters, and their business extends through-
out Japan, and also far abroad, the firm
having connections with all the commercial
II
^11!
- -'SI
Sammemaa
<-T<--i:.K7!i<g&-E--Tt«:^-iicT-.v. -v.?i?iXS«a£aB«r
SAKAI-CHO-DORI, YOKOH.\MA, LOOKING TOWARD THE CUSTOM HOUSE
credit of having produced the first micro-
scope in Japan. The Tanaka microscope
may be compared with Wright's microscope.
A factory for its manufacture was estab-
lished at Minamimachi, and to-day the firm
is turning out the lenses and complete instru-
ments in large quantities. The Tanaka
Gomei Kaisha has also erected a chemical
factory at Tozukamura, in the suburbs of
Tokyo, where such chemicals as carbonate
of potassium, chloride of potassium, molyb-
den acid, ammonia, etc., are made in large
quantities for general commercial purposes.
The laboratory is also energetically engaged
in the production of other chemicals, and
general research and experimental work is
continually being carried on. To recapitu-
late the activities of the Tanaka Gomei
Kaisha it should be said that the head office
and salesroom is at No. I Yaesucho, Itchome,
Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo. The glass factory is
at Tamashimecho, Asakusa, the metal fac-
tory at Takecho, Shitaya, and the experi-
mental laboratory at Tozukamachi, outside
Since October, 1 909, Mr. Tanaka has
been publishing a monthly magazine called
" Kagaku-no-Tomo " (The Chemist's Friend).
He has also circulated a large catalogue of
five hundred pages over the country where
chemical laboratories are established, and
to Saghalien, Formosa, China, and Man-
churia. The high position which Mr.
Tanaka has reached among the manufac-
turers of Japan was recognised in 1910, when
he was appointed a member of the Tokyo
Committee to select exhibits for the Anglo-
Japanese Exhibition held in London that
year. Mr. Tanaka was deputed to visit
London, and he made an extensive tour of
Europe, enquiring into conditions of manu-
facturing in various countries. In July,
1917, the Bureau of Decorations conferred
on Mr. Tanaka a special silver cup in recog-
nition of his services to the manufacturing
industries of Japan. The Tanaka Gomei
Kaisha is capitalised at Yen 50,000. Mr.
Mokubei Tanaka is the Managing Director
of the Tanaka Gomei Kaisha.
centres in foreign countries. Principal
among the Unes handled are all sorts of flax,
hemp, and cotton goods, fishing tackle, pro-
visions, chemicals, and sundries. The firm
imports hemp, jute and flax, cotton, wool,
all sorts of vegetable fibres, Hessian cloth,
metals, such as steel, tin, etc., dyestuffs,
copra, cocoanut oil, cedar, black lead, chemi-
cals and agricultural stuffs. The bulk of
these imports are either sold direct to the
local trade, or are worked up into manu-
factured goods in the factories of Ogura
& Company. Exports comprise the finished
articles in hemp, flax, cotton and woollen
goods, chemicals, agricultural produce,
caimed provisions, stationery and paper,
lacquer ware, glass manufactures, filter cloth
and all kinds of sundries. These articles
go to Great Britain, the United States,
Australia, India, China, the Straits Settle-
ments, and Asiatic and European Russia.
The factories and godowns are at Nishima-
rucho, Koishikawa, Tokj^o, and there are
branch establishments at Yokohama, Osaka,
GURA & company: the YOKOHAMA OFFICES— THE MAIN GODOWN. TOKYO — THE HEAD OFFICE, TOKYO
222
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Kob(5, Ilankow, Chiu-chiant;, Wu-chung,
Singapore, and Manila. Tlic firm's godowns
and factories are mainly of stone and brick,
though some portions are of wood. They
cover an area of over i,ooo tsiibo, and com-
prise two- and three-storj- buildings. About
200 clerks and other assistants arc employed
in the different offices, and 300 hands are
engaged in the works and godowns. The
annual wages bill is about Yen 50,000.
What the original capital of this firm was is
unknown, but to-day it is about Yen 200,000,
and the annual turnover is approximately
Yen 2,000,000.
Messrs. Ogura & Company are agents for
the Teikoku Seima Kaisha, the Taiwan
Seima Kaisha, and the Nihon Seima Kaisha,
as well as for other industrial concerns.
They are represented abroad as follows:
New York, American Import and Export
Corporation; Belfast, Ireland, Mr. D. K.
Duncan; Singapore, Arisaka Riichi; Vladi-
vostock, Hara Shoten; and Sydney, Austra-
lia, Messrs. E. Bentley & Sons. The head
office of the firm is at No. 3 Koamicho,
Itchome, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. Mr.
Kyubei Ogura is the proprietor of the busi-
ness. Mr. T. Hiraga is manager of the head
office at Tokyo, and Mr. Takahashi is in
charge of the imi)ortant branch at Yokohama.
SUZUKI .\ND COMI>.\NY
The name of Suzuki & Co. is familiar to
all those who are in any way connected with
the commerce and industry of Japan. The
firm was established in 1887, and is now one
of the most influential houses in the domestic
and foreign trade of the country, there being
branches and agencies throughout Japan,
and in every important commercial centre
abroad, since the business is world-wide in
its extent. Not only are Messrs. Suzuki &
Co. one of the largest importing and export-
ing concerns, but they are managing agents
for several dockyards and industrial com-
panies, as well as being proprietors of large
factories which produce many lines for
export.
The Tokyo branch of Messrs. Suzuki & Co.
transacts a large volume of business of a
general nature, each department being busily
engaged in attention to the various diflerent
activities of the concern. Among the
imports are such lines as sugar, rice, wheat.
fiour, cotton, fertilizers, iron, steel, ship-
building materials and railway reciuirements,
machiner)', metals, ores, timber, chemicals,
etc. Exports comprise practically every
Japanese natural or manufactured product,
and merchandise of various kinds, shipment
being made to Europe, the United States,
India, China, the South Seas, Australia and
elsewhere. The Industrial Department deals
with the firm's interests in camphor and
methol refineries, fish and vegetable oil,
chemical works, rice mills, alcohol distillery,
and coal mines. Our illustration in con-
nection with the Tokyo branch shows the
bean-oil factory which is located at Shim-
idzu, Shizuoka Prefecture.
The Tokyo office is situated at Nos. 52
and 53 Koamicho, Nichome, Nihonbashi-ku,
Tokyo. This branch was opened on May 5,
1915, and is now under the management of
Mr. K. Kubota. The number of employees at
the Tokyo office is one hundred and twenty.
HOBO, KONDO AND COMPANY
Messrs. Hobo, Kondo & Co., or as they
are styled in Japanese, the Hobo Kondo
Gomei Kaisha, are importers and exporters,
BEAN OIL MILL OF SUZUKI & CO., SHIMIDZU, SHIZUOK.\ PREFECTURE
HOBO, KONDO & CO.: THE TOKYO OFFICE — ^ SCENE IN ONE OF THE GODOWNS — ENTRANCE TO YOKOHAMA PREMISES -
THE TOKYO PREMISES
224
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ENTERPRISING MERCHANTS OF TOKYO AND YOKOHAMA
(Left to Right, Upper Row) Mr. M. Ogawa, Managing Director, Nippon Shoji Kaisha, Ltd. — Mr. S. Matsuyama, of Matsuyaraa
Jimusho — Mr. Seisuke Koro, President, Southern Pacific Trading Co., Ltd. — Mr. G. Kumazawa, Proprietor, G. Kumazawa & Co. —
Mr. T. Shimidzu, Proprietor, Shimidzu Trading Co. — Mr. Seizo OhsAWA, Proprietor, Ohsawa Seizo Shoten
(Middle Row) Mr. Konosuke Abe, of Abe Kobei — Mr. K. Sugiyama, Managing Director, International Trading Corporation, Ltd. — Mr.
S. MoGi, Managing Partner, Mogi & Co. — Mr. Kobei Abe, Proprietor, Abe Kobei — Dr. Jokichi Takamine, President, Sankyo & Co. —
Mr. M. Shiohara, Managing Director, Sankyo & Co. — Mr. K. Yamamoto, Managing Director, Imperial Theatre, Tokyo
(Lower Row) Mr. M. Yamaguchi, Proprietor, Yamatake & Co., President, Japan Precision Works Co., Ltd., President, Japan Oxygen
Co., Ltd. — Mr. M. Tanaka, Proprietor, Tanaka Gomei Kaisha — Mr. S. Nak.ai, President, Nakai & Co., Ltd. — Mr. Kyubei Ogura,
Proprietor, K. Ogura & Co. — Mr. Tokutaro Hir.\ga, General Manager, K. Ogura & Co. — Mr. G. Moritani, Principal, Moritani & Co.
and manufacturers' agents, and are very
widely known throughout Japan and the
Far East, an extensive business having been
built up over a long period, during which
the firm has established a high reputation.
The business was formerly carried on under
the name and style of Shigekichi Kondo,
from 1907 to 1915, when the organisation
was changed into the present joint partner-
ship which comprises Messrs. Sankuro Hobo
and Shigekichi Kondo, Managing Directors,
and Messrs. Yeinosuke Totsuka and Teisuke
Kondo. Messrs. Hobo, Kondo & Co. carry-
on a general business as exporters of Japanese
articles, chiefly' dealing in curios and toys,
and numerous other lines. They are also
importers of several particular lines, and as
exclusive agents for Roneo, Limited, London,
for Japan, Chosen, and Manchuria, they
possess a valuable connection. In the Roneo
products Messrs. Hobo and Kondo do a large
business which is steadily expanding. Their
well equipped showrooms in Tokyo and
Yokohama display the Roneo appliances to
the best advantage, and it is not surprising
to learn that through such active agents,
the Japanese business houses, eager on their
part to avail themselves of all modem busi-
ness methods, are rapidly learning the value
of the Roneo lines.
Both Messrs. Hobo and Kondo, and their
partners, have had considerable experience
of foreign trade, and possess a thorough
knowledge of the English and other foreign
languages. This also applies to the majority
of their different staffs, and greatly facilitates
the transaction of business with foreign firms
locally and abroad. All business and corre-
spondence are treated exclusively through
the head office, No. 2 Nichome, Honza-
imokucho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokj'O, except
transactions relating to Hongkong, India,
and the Straits Settlements, which are dealt
with in the Asiatic Department of the Yoko-
hama 1:)ranch under the management
of Messrs. M. A. Sofaer and D. Darab, who
are both British subjects. The Roneo busi-
ness is handled in Tokvo and Yokohama.
y^
C. TSUUOVA i. CO.: SCENE IN THE CENERAL OFEI. E - CUKRIUUK LEADING TO OFFICES, TAKEN FROM THE CENTRE FLOOR -
THE manager's office — THE STAFF
226
PRESENT- DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Branches of Messrs. Hobo, Kondo & Co. are
also established at No. 3 Sanchomc, San-
nomiya-machi, Kob6, and at No. 27 San-
chomc, Nakanocho, Nakaku, Nagoya. The
firm has factories in Tokyo, Yokohama, and
Nagoya, and warehouses and shipping
departments at each branch. The head
office in Tokyo consists of the main building
(brick, two storj-s), and in addition there are
two fire-proof two-stor}- warehouses, one
one-story wooden building, and the ser-
vants' quarters, the whole, together with
ample ground space for the arrival and
departure of goods, covering an area of 257
tsubo, forming a very valuable and com-
modious property for general business pur-
poses. The Kobe and Y'okohama premises
are of brick. The Nagoya branch and the
branch establishment in Tokyo are wooden,
but the warehouses attached are fire-proof,
being constructed according to the Japanese
system to secure this result. Messrs. Hobo,
Kondo & Co. give employment to thirtj^
persons in their head office and stores, and
about ten persons are engaged at each of the
several branches. Some idea of the impor-
tance of the business transacted by this
well-organised concern may be gathered
from the fact that the annual turnover is
approximately Yen 3,000,000.
In Yokohama as well as in other ports and
cities throughout the world, the business
man will find that all his requirements for
putting his office in order can be obtained
from the agents of that enterprising London
firm, Roneo, Ltd. The offices and show-
rooms are situated at 77 Main Street, where
all kinds of up-to-date appliances for pro-
moting business efficiency are attractively
displayed. At the time of the compilation
of this publication the war is still going on,
and business men are certainly very fortu-
nate in that they have no difficulty in obtain-
ing Roneo specialities, and share in the same
ser\'ice rendered the London business men.
who have the benefit of being so much nearer
the factory. To the majority of commercial
men "Roneo," and all it stands for, is too
well known to need detailing at length here,
but one should remember that a visit peri-
odically is necessary in order to keep pace
with new ideas and improvements. In addi-
tion to the Roneo Duplicator, Roneo Letter
Copier, Roneo Steel FiUng Cabinets and
Systems, many innovations may be seen
which are an absolute necessity in the accel-
eration of business.
C. TSUBOYA AND COMPANY
This firm, which was established in
Januarj', 1913, has developed a valuable
business, comprising many new lines of
activities which were not very well known
at the time Mr. Chuzo Tsuboya directed his
attention to them. These lines arc largely
connected with the exploitation of Japan's
resources in rare metals, such as tungsten,
and similar products utilised so largely since
the outbreak of the war for hardening steel.
Messrs. Tsuboya & Co. have built up an
extensive trade in metals, as well as handling
other more general lines such as curios,
cereals and so forth. The firm has its own
factories which are situated at No. 82 Higashi
Ogibashi-machi, Fukagawa-ku, Tokyo, and
at No. I Hanabusa-cho, Kanda-ku, Tokyo.
These factories are known respectively as
the Omura and Kanda factories. The first
covers an area of 1,050 Isubo, and the Kanda
factory extends over 450 Isubo, the buildings
being constructed of stone, brick, and wood,
three storys high. The motive power used
is electricity, and about a hundred work
people are employed.
The firm imports minerals, shipbuilding
and railway materials, and general machinery,
and exports tungsten ore, molybdenite ore,
metallic tungsten, tungsten trioxide, every
description of ferro-alloys, sulphur, cereals,
oils, and curios. The bulk of the shipments
go to Europe and America, but an extensive
trade is also done with China in certain lines.
Agents of the firm are located at Shanghai,
London, New York, and San Francisco.
It is estimated that the yearly output, or
turnover, is about Yen 3,500,000, but the
trade is constantly expanding, the firm's
operations being governed by a progressive
policy, which is responsible for the pros-
perous condition of the business. The head
office of Messrs. Tsuboya & Co. is at No. 7
Hiramatsucho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo, and
there are branch offices at Osaka and Kure.
FUTABAY'A AND COMPANY
The Japanese are great lovers of Nature,
and their conceptions of the beautiful in
Nature's works are frequently to be found
expressed even in business undertakings. It
is not uncommon to find names of business
houses, trade marks, etc., which suggest
something of Nature. Such, for instance, is
expressed in the name Futabaya. This
name had its origin in the idea of Mr. K.
Inomata, founder of the business of Futabaya
& Co., that his enterprise should suggest by
its name the twin leaves of a bud in which
lay all promise of the development of the
large and strong tree. The literal meaning
oi jutaba is "the twin leaves of a bud."
Convinced of the success of his enterprise
which was to develop from a small beginning
into a great and powerful undertaking, the
late Mr. K. Inomata founded the business
as a personal venture many years ago, the
original capital being 50,000 yen. The trade
name was then Futabaya. In 1903 the
business became a goshi kaisha, or partner-
ship, members of the late Mr. K. Inomata's
family being admitted to the firm. Through
the energy and sound business policy of the
founder, supported particularly by the vigour-
ous work of his son-in-law, Mr. Taisaku
Inomata, Futabaya & Co. realised the earliest
expectations of its founder, and has developed
in a manner comparable to the growth of the
strong tree from the bud.
Messrs. Futabaya & Co. are general im-
porters and exporters and manufacturers,
their special lines being cycles, motor cycles,
motor cars and their accessories, rubber
goods, chemicals, hardware, etc. The firm
does a splendid and increasing business in all
these lines, and has the great advantage of
being in close touch, through family connec-
tions, with the two factories for the output
of cycle parts, rubber goods, etc., owned by
Mr. Kichihei Inomata, though conducted by
that gentleman as his private undertaking.
Futabaya & Co. are among the leaders in the
cycle and atitomobile trade. They import a
wide variety of lines, and have the agency for
the famous Indian motor cycle. Their
manufactured lines are exported to China,
India, the Malay States, and Dutch Indies.
Attention is not, however, confined solely to
this trade, for the firm is importing all classes
of hardware and manufactured goods for the
Japanese market, and its operations will be
very widely extended in the near future, the
Directors being determined to develop the
business in everj' direction. They will
import large quantities of raw materials to
be made up into manufactured goods,
Messrs. Futabaya & Co. being convinced
that there is a wide scope for the exportation
of Japanese-made goods.
Messrs. Futabaya & Co. have their head
office and handsome showrooms at No. 7
Tatami-cho, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo. Their
main warehouse is located at Shinanomachi,
Yotsuya-ku, Tokyo. There is a branch at
No. 7 Utsubo Shimo-dori, Nishi-ku, Osaka,
and an American branch has been tempo-
rarily established at No. 30 Church Street,
New York. The firm employs about thirty
clerks, mechanics, etc. The co-Managing
Directors of the firm are Messrs. Kichihei
Inomata and Taisaku Inomata, though the
latter gentleman chiefly attends to the direc-
tion of affairs.
OHSAWA SEIZO SHOTEN
The Ohsawa Scizo Shoten are general
importers and exporters, established in 191 1.
The general office and showroom is at No. 4
Shichome, Koamicho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo;
the sawmills and timber yards are at No. 18
Kibamachi, Fukagawa-ku, Tokyo, and the
FUTABAYA & CO.: IHK MANA..ER'S PRIVATE OFFICE — THE MOTORCYCLE SHOWROOM — TOKYO HEAD OFFICE -
THE CHARMING RESIDENCE OF MR. T. INOMATA, CO-MANAGING DIRECTOR OF FUTABAYA & CO.
228
PRESENT-DAY I M I' R K S S I O N S OF JAPAN
oak furniture factory is at No. 19. The
telegraphic address is "Easterning," Tokyo.
The main line of business of this firm formerly
was and is at present the exportation of hard-
woods from Hokkaido, especially oak, for
Europe, North America, Africa, Australia,
and India. The company has made the
most strenuous efforts to advance the trade
in which it is interested, and has made endless
improvements in business, to give the very
finest results, and accordingly has made a
rapid development and enjoys the highest
confidence of its customers in the countries
above mentioned. Its reputation is one of
entire trustworthiness and this is reflected
in the increasing volume of orders received
day after day from the important centres
of Australia and Africa.
Owing to the growth of its relations with
foreign firms, the Ohsawa Seizo Shoten has
started as general importers and exporters
of Japanese goods, for which there is such a
strong demand. Under present war condi-
tions, what with restrictive government
regulations and lack of cargo space, the
Ohsawa Seizo Shoten, like many other con-
cerns, has been seriously handicapped in
filling orders, but it nevertheless invites early
inquiries, especially for Japanese agricvd-
tural products and any other manufactures,
as well as the materials for manufacture, etc.,
from present and prospective customers in
Europe, North America, Australia and else-
where. There is every reason to foresee that,
immediately the war terminates, the com-
pany will be in a most favourable position
to supply all foreign requirements and give
that faithful and prompt attention to orders
which is its characteristic.
In the oak-working factorj' the company
utilises the short lengths of wood, working
them up in furniture and interior decora-
tions and for other general purposes, with
careful attention and endless improvements
in machinery and methods of manufacture
and treatment of timber.
MATSUYAMA AND COMPANY
The business of the Matsuyama Jimusho,
or Matsuyama & Co., comprises, apart from
the ordinary lines of the import and export
trade, a number of activities which are of
first rate importance to the secondary indus-
tries of Japan. To the principal of the house,
Mr. Shigeru Matsuyama, is due the credit
for a great deal of enterprise, and the develop-
ment of new lines which were practically
unknown until he devoted his attention to
them. Mr. Matsuyama's business career
is an instance of the good use to which the
best trained commercial men of Japan put
the knowledge gained by them in foreign
fields.
Mr. Matsuyama went to the United States
in 1895 to study the science of mechanical
engineering. He was graduated from Michi-
gan University in 1900 with the degree of
B.Sc. (M. E.), and after another year devoted
to the practice of the theories he had learned,
he returned to Japan in 1901 and entered the
service of the Mitsui Mining Company, by
which he was engaged to superintend the
plaiming and construction of mining plants.
Mr. Matsuyama joined the Mitsui Bussan
Kaisha in 1904 and was appointed chief of
the Machinery Department at the company's
New York Branch in 1906. He devoted a
great deal of attention to the development
of the machinery trade with Japan and in
1909 returned to Japan to take charge of
the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha's machinery and
metal department at Moji. In 1912 Mr.
Matsuyama resigned from the company and
entered upon his present business. It may
be seen, therefore, that the principal of
Matsuyama & Co. is well qualified by
training and experience to carry on a brisk
trade in machinery and hardware generally,
and, as a matter of fact, Mr. Matsuyama has
achieved a success which is enviable. Since
the war the development of his interests has
been extensive. In 19 16 the volume of
imports and exports was Yen 800,000, but
this sum was doubled in 191", such a remark-
able growth necessitating an extension of
premises and the planning of an expansion
of activities.
Mr. Matsuyama principally imports from
England and the United States and exports
to those two countries, as well as to France,
China, India and the South Seas. The fol-
lowing are the principal articles in which the
firm deals: Machines and tools for machine
shops, mining machinery and equipment,
electric machinery and equipment, motive
power machinery and equipment, Ikeda's
patent water tube boilers, locomotives and
railway supphes, steel rails and accessories,
steel pipes, gas pipes and fittings, electric
insulating materials, electric sheets, mining
steels, wire ropes, chains, ship-weights mate-
rials, marine auxiliary machines, steel wires,
copper wires, bright nuts, black nuts, rivets,
steel plates, steel bars, channels, angles,
beams, pig iron, spiegel-isen, silico-spiegel,
ferro-manganese, ferro-silicon, ferro-chrome,
ferro-vanadium, ferro-tungoten, ferro-molyb-
den, ferro-titanum, metallic tungsten, tung-
sten trioxide, nickel, spelter, antimony,
aluminum, lead, tin, copper, sulphate copper,
sulphur, manganese, ores, tungsten ores,
molybden ores, graphite, zinc, chrome ores,
asbestos, micas, talcs, barites, silica, clays,
boiler compound, mineral oils, fire bricks,
rosin, cyanides, caustic sodas, and many
other chemical products, buttons and other
sundries too numerous to mention. In
all these lines a large import and export
trade is done, but, in addition, Matsuyama
& Co. have other interests.
The firm has a silica-crushing factory at
Kamcido, a suburb of Tokyo, and an asbestos
factory at Ohsaki. At these factories large
quantities of material are produced to meet
the strong local demands from steel makers,
glass makers, brick makers, and manufac-
turers of asbestos articles and products.
The factories are equipped with the latest
machinery, comprising rock crushers, asbestos
beaters, etc. For manganese and other
ferro-alloys the firm has close connections
with mines in Akita and Aomori Prefectures,
and is exporting alloys of excellent quality.
An extensive warehouse is maintained at
Zaimokugashi, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo, where
there is always in stock, rails, steel manu-
factures, ferro-alloys, etc., in large quantities
to meet the demand of the market at any
time. A staff of technical experts is employed
whose services are at the disposal of local
customers, and through them new products
are continually being introduced to the
market, while Japanese-made goods are
placed before foreign buyers. The whole
business is conducted on the most progressive
lines and is a good example of the thorough
organisation which has been introduced in the
great modem Japanese houses.
The head office of the Matsuyama Jimusho
is at No. 7 Hiramatsucho, Nihonbashi-ku,
Tokyo.
NAKAI AND COMPANY, LI.MITED
This company claims the distinction of
being the oldest paper-trading concern in
Japan, the business having been founded in
1867 by the late Mr. Saburobei Nakai. At
that time there was, of course, very little
paper made in Japan, and the business was
almost entirely confined to the handling of
foreign-made products, but with the expan-
sion of the paper-making industrj^ within
recent years, the company has realised an
enormous trade, both in import and export
lines. For many years the business was
conducted as the private enterprise of Mr.
Nakai and his family, then it was turned into
a limited partnership, and in 191 7 it was
reorganised as a limited liability company
with a capital of Yen 2,000,000.
Messrs. Nakai & Co., Limited, operate
as wholesale paper merchants, deaUng in
imported and locally made products of
every description. They handle practically
all classes of newsprint paper in reels and
sheets, general printing and writing papers,
straw and card board, packing paper, and so
on. Furthermore, they do a large trade in
paper pulp, which is obtained from Karafuto
11' -I ill
fiPiPiPWipr
MATSUYAMA & CO.! GENERAL VIEW OF SILICA lACTORY, SHOWING SILICIOUS ROCK FOR THE CRUSHERS — GROLP COMPRISED OF THE
PROPRIETOR, THE PRINCIPAL OFFICERS, AND THE HEAD OFFICE STAFF SCENE IN THE GENERAL
OFFICE — POWDERED SILICA BEING WEIGHED AND BAGGED
16
230
P K E S E N T - 1) A V IMPRESSIONS OF J A 1' A X
NAKAI &- company: THE HEAD OFFICE AND GODOWNS — THE OSAKA BRANCH
and brought to Hokkaido, or is shipped
abroad to foreign paper manufacturers in
China, India, Siam, Australia, the United
States and elsewhere. The company is the
selling agent for such important paper
manufacturers as the Fuji Paper Mills Co.,
Ltd., the Oji Paper Mills, the Kyushu Paper
Mills, and the Chuo Paper Mills, and they
hold altogether seven difTerent agencies for
mills. Nakai & Co., Ltd., number among their
clients the Imperial Government Monopolies
Bureau and the Government Printing Office,
beside other important Government depart-
ments. Some idea of the extent of the trade
which passes through the company's hands
may be gathered from the fact that the
annual turnover is about Yen 20,000,000.
The head office is at No. 7 Jukkendana-
cho Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo, and there are
branches at Osaka, Nagoya, and Kyoto.
In addition, the company is represented at
Shanghai by the Daishin Shokai. The main
warehouse of the company is a four-story
stone building of modem construction.
Mr. Sannosuke Nakai is President of the
company. The other Directors are Messrs.
Yakichi Tanino (Manager of the Osaka
branch), Mijiro Nakai, and Shigeru Inui.
TOKIWA & COMPANY, LIMITED
Messrs. Tokiwa & Co., Ltd., is a company
that has developed to a remarkable extent in
the last year or two, having expanded from
almost purely an insurance broking business,
into that of insurance, and import and export
and commission merchants and ship brokers,
the activities of the company covering a
wide range of commercial enterprises. Origi-
nally the establishment was known as the
Nitto Shokai, then working only for the
Liverpool & London & Globe Insurance Co.,
Ltd., as their agents for Japan. It was in
1910 that Mr. Goro Matsukata bought the
business from the Nitto Shokai and it was,
indeed, at this time that the trade name of
"Tokiwa" was adopted. This means literally
in Japanese, "everlastingly green," or more
appropriately for such an enterprise, "con-
stant" or "permanent." Since Mr. Matsu-
kata took over the business there has been a
most marked expansion. He formed a
limited liability company with a capital of
500,000 yen of which 160,000 yen is paid up.
At the same time the South British, the New
Zealand, and the Scottish Union Insurance
Companies appointed the Tokiwa & Co., Ltd.,
their agent, testifying to the high respect in
which the company is held by foreign corpora-
tions. Beside the above named agencies,
which in themseh-es mean a vast volume of
business for Tokiwa & Co., Ltd., the company
opened a department for the transaction of
general commerce in 1916, the activities of
this new department embracing general
brokerage, and the import and export of
merchandise, machinery, and products.
The principal lines of import are: Steel, pig
iron, galvanized iron, sheet iron, tin plate,
nickel and other metals: boiler, electric
machine, and other machinen,', parts and
accessories, and machine tools of every
description, shafting, etc. ; piano wire, spring
wire, galvanized wire, wire rope, and nails of
every description; boiler tube, gas pipe, etc.;
materials for railway construction, materials
for construction of buildings, bridges, ships,
docks, mines, etc.; quicksilver, drugs and
chemicals, paints and colours, etc.; eye-
glasses, telescopes, microscopes, surveying
instruments, etc.
The main lines of export are: Electric and
alloy, heating apparatus, crucible or gas
apparatus and parts thereof, enamelled ware,
glass ware, buttons, surgical instruments,
pressure and vacuum gauges, every kind of
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
O F
J A P A N
231
gauges, clinical thermometers, other kinds of
metres, and all kinds of goods for surgical use;
copper, zinc, lead, sulphur, and other kinds of
mine produce; fish oil, whale oil, soja bean oil,
colza oil, peppermint oil, etc.; ammunition
and sundry goods.
The company has two branches, one at
Kitadori, Edobori, Ni.shi-ku, Osaka, and the
other at Meiji-machi, Keijo, Chosen, and,
moreover, three hundred agencies throughout
the Empire of Japan, Formosa, and Chosen.
Unquestionably the development of this
Inisiness is due to Mr. Matsukata's influence,
energy, and business experience. This gentle-
man has, in fact, had a sound commercial
experience extending over many years, with
some of the largest enterprises in Japan,
notably the Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd.,
Kobe, Japan Steel Works at Muroran, Hok-
kaido (Armstrong & Vickers, Associate in
England), and he is now the proprieter and
President of Tokiwa & Co., Ltd., the Presi-
dent of the Tokyo Gas & Electric Co., Ltd.
(Agencies for the Studebaker Motor Car Co.,
National Motor Car and Vehicle Corporation,
Empire Automobile Co., Interstate Motor Co.,
NashMotorCo.,and Republic Motor Tr'k Co.)
President of the Tokai Mutual Life Ins. Co.,
Ltd., Managing Director of the Toyo Sugar
Mfg. Co., Ltd., Director of the Toyo Marine
Ins. Co., Ltd., Director of the Toa Cement
Co., Ltd., and Inspector of the Ujigawa
Hydroelectric Co., Ltd. Beside these busi-
ness experiences Mr. Matsukata's family
influence has also been a contributing factor
to his success. He is a son of Marquis
Masayoshi Matsukata, one of the Elder
Statesmen of Japan, the present "Naidaijin"
(the Keeper of the Privy Seal) and many
times Premier of the country, who made his
fame by his administration and his financial
reforms.
YAMATAKE & CO.\ll'.\NV
Among the successful business men of
Japan who have put their technical knowl-
edge and experience to good use and have
launched out on new lines, is Mr. Takehiko
Yamaguchi, jjroprietor of the Yamatake
Shokwai of No. i, Yuraku-cho, Kojimachi-ku,
Tokyo. This business covers a wide range of
activity, but its main purpose is the importa-
tion and sale of high-grade machinery and
machine tools, etc., principally for use in
arsenals, dockyards, and railway shops.
And as may be seen from the biography of its
proprietor, no one is better fitted for handling
such a trade than Mr. Yamaguchi himself.
This gentleman is a native of Kagoshima, and
was born in 1865. After his preliminary
education, he took a long course in the techni-
cal school of the Tokyo Higher Industrial
College, from which he was graduated in 1 89 1 .
For a few years Mr. Yamaguchi was an
inspector of machinery- in the Patents Bureau,
engaged in the examination of models and
plans submitted to that Bureau. In 1896
when Mr. Zenjiro Yasuda projected the for-
mation of a nail factory he selected Mr.
Yamaguchi as his Chief Engineer, and des-
patched him to Europe and America with in-
structions to examine closely the industry in
those countries and to purchase the necessary
operations, and to-day the firm of Yamatake
& Co. are sole agents for over forty of the best
known American tool and machinery manu-
facturers. Mr. Yamaguchi's intimate knowl-
edge of the requirements of the various
construction concerns, and his thorough
technical training have stood him in good
stead, and his firm is doing what is prob-
ably oni' of the largest businesses in
Japan to-day. Another factor making for
BUILDIN(i l-\ WHICH .\RE LOCATED THE OFFICES OF TOKIWA SHOKAI, LTD.
plant and machinery for the factory. On his
return Mr. Yamaguchi took up the position of
General Manager of the Yasuda nail factory,
but it was found impossible to compete with
the cheap imports from Germany, and
the works were closed. On Mr. Yasuda's
recommendation Mr. Yamaguchi was then
appointed to a highly responsible post with
the Hokkaido Railway Company, and became
one of the managers. From this position he
was selected as Manager of the Hokodate
Dockyard Company, and so further extended
his already wide knowledge of mechanical
engineering, and the requirements of the
industries of Japan. Mr. Yamaguchi's skill
and capacity for organisation and control
were prominently displayed during the Russo-
Japanese War, when he rendered signal
.service to the nation by handling traffic and
facilitating the building and repair of ships.
At the conclusion of the war Mr. Yamaguchi
came to Tokv'O and established himself in
his present business in 1906. At first he was
merely local agent for one or two manu-
facturers, but gradually he extended his
the success of the business is that Mr.
Yamaguchi has all along gauged the effects of
the war accurately, and has anticipated the
conditions which must arise in Japan. For
instance, he was one of the first to realise
that the great war would seriously interrupt
supplies of various kinds of machinery and
requisites from Europe, and he lost no time
in strengthening and widening his connections
with the manufacturing companies in the
United States.
Arising from the business of the Yamatake
Shokwai, and organised by Mr. Yamaguchi,
are two other important enterprises, both
highly successful adjuncts, or developments,
of the phenomenal growth of the dockyard,
machine shop, and arsenal undertakings in
Japan. The first is the Japan Oxygen Com-
pany, to carry on oxy-welding and cutting
operations. Mr. Yamaguchi was the first
to introduce this system to the naval and
other Government departments. As the
oxygen had to be made in Japan after the
cessation of imports, two factories were
established under Mr. Yamaguchi's direction,
®:
0^:
YAMATAKE & CO.: INTERIOR OF TOKYO OFFICE — MR. M. YA.MAGUCHI, I'KOPRIETOR, IN HIS OFFICE -
SCENE IN THE TOKYO GODOWN
P R E S E N T - n A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
233
one in 'I'okyo and llie otlu-r in Hiroshima.
The second industry is that conducted by
the Japan Precision Works. Considerable
difficulty has always been experienced in
gauging small parts, such as gun sights, etc.,
and it was to fulfil this requirement that the
Ja])an Precision Works entered on the manu-
facture of special tools and gauges for the
arsenals, dockyards, spinning mills, etc.
The company has saved Government ofificials
all the trouble of sending to Europe for tests
of accuracy to be made, as the work can now
lie done by the Japan Precision Works. The
Imperial Government has given its hearty
support to the works, and the company has
been appointed makers of many different
classes of deUcatc mechanisms. Last year
the Japan Precision Works were taken over
by a limited liability company, having a
capital of Yen 350,000.
Mr. Yamaguchi's services to mechanical
engineering in Japan have been freely recog-
nised. In February, 1917, he was appointed a
member of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce,
to w'hich he is now giving valuable assistance
regarding all industrial and manufacturing
interests.
NIPPON HIIOJI KAISHA, LIMITED (tHE
JAPAN TRADING CO., LTD.)
This is a company that is bound to become
an important factor in the general commerce
and trade of Japan. It is an organisation
under the auspices of the well known Kawa-
saki family, Mr. Hajime Kawasaki, principal
of the Kawasaki Bank, the Japan Fire
Insurance Co., and other concerns, being its
President. The company was established on
February 29, 1916, as a branch enterprise of
the Kawasaki interests, and though the
capital placed at its disposal was only Yen
500,000, this was merely by way of an initial
investment, and it is now planned to increase
the capital to Yen 5,000,000. As a matter of
fact that sum has already been placed in
circulation for Nippon Shoji Kaisha, Ltd.
(The Japan Trading Co., Ltd.), the business
having proved so successful. That is to say,
the Kawasaki group have furnished the
money to finance several industries and
investments conducted by the company.
The Managing Director is Mr. INIakoto
Ogawa, who w-as long in the service of the
Mitsui Bussan Kaisha. Mr. Ogawa is one
of the few licensed firearms and explosives
merchants, so that his company can deal in
these lines, in which it occupies an excellent
position among trading companies. The
business of Nippon Shoji Kai.sha, Ltd., is
jirincipally exporting and importing, but it
is also investing in any promising manufac-
turing industry that comes under its notice.
In this connection it is interested in mining
affairs, in shipping and transport generally,
and is also engaged in the selling, buying,
and chartering of ships.
The main lines dealt in b^' Nippon Shoji
Kaisha, Ltd., as import and export merchants
are: Machinery and materials for the manu-
facture of same, cotton, cotton piece goods,
hemp cloth, silk thread, silk cloth, woollen
piece goods, etc., coal, coke and other fuels,
cement, timber, stone, brick and other building
materials, electrical and gas plants and
appliances, material for railways, waterworks,
and ships, metallic ores of every description,
minerals, metal goods, materials, and wares,
leather and skins and their manufactures,
surgical, medical, and industrial chemicals,
dye stuffs, etc. Among the other lines,
mainly domestic products, handled by the,
company are, rice, cereals and fertilizers.
THE TOKYO PREMISES OF NIPPON SHOJI KAISHA
234
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
sugar, clothing, ornamental articles, paper and
pulp, glass and glassware, lacc|uer and por-
celain, oils and tallow, chemical and indus-
trial articles and materials, toys and station-
ery, curios, cinematograph instruments and
films, automobiles, aeroplanes, firearms, ex-
plosives, and military goods.
The head office of Nippon Shoji Kaisha,
Ltd. (The Japan Trading Co.), is at No. 5
Kabutocho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo (P. O. Box
No. 39), and the Automobile Garage is
at Uchisaiwaicho Kohjimachi-ku, Tokyo.
There are branch and despatch offices at
Osaka, Moji, Yokohama, Kobe, London,
New York, and other commercial centres
of importance. The company's banks and
references are, for Japan, the Kawasaki
Bank, and for abroad, the Yokohama Specie
Bank. The principal officials of the company
are: President, Mr. Hajime Kawasaki;
Managing Director, Mr. Makoto Ogawa; Di-
rector, Mr. K. Sugiura; and Auditors, Messrs.
M. Yoshii, S. Suzuki, and Kaneo Kawasaki.
THE B. F. GOODRICH RUBBER COMPANY
The Japan offices of the B. F. Goodrich
Rubber Company are under direct manage-
ment and control of the B. F. Goodrich
Company, the well-known New York cor-
poration with its head offices located at Nos.
1 780-82 Broadway, New York City.
This corporation has a paid up capital of
gold §90,000,000.00 and during the year 1916
its sales figure reached the tremendous
volume of gold §71,000,000.00. The com-
pany dates its inception from the year 1869,
when Dr. B. F. Goodrich settled in the city
of Akron, where he started the nucleus of
this wonderful industry and began building
up the world-wide reputation that Goodrich
rubber products now enjoy.
To-day the Goodrich plant has the proud
distinction of being universally recognised
as the "Largest Rubber Factory in the
World," comprising a group of fifty-seven
buildings, covering in excess of 4,000,000
square feet, where a staff of 18,000 employees
are regularly engaged in the manufacture and
handling of the many hundreds of different rub-
ber articles the company produces. It is diffi-
cult to grasp the magnitude of the company's
operations, but some conception of its scope
and standing may be realised from the follow-
ing facts, representing a part of the daily
volume shipped out from these factories:
5 miles of belting; 14 miles of hose; 70 miles
of insulated wire; 17,000 pairs of boots and
shoes; and 200,000 automobile tires and
tubes.
To arrive at the stage outlined above, it
will be apparent that something more than
the mere ability to manufacture was required.
Throughout the whole period of forty-eight
years the company's interests have been in
the hands of capable, far-seeing, and shrewd
business men, who have handled its aflfairs
along the lines of soundest business principles.
It has always been their aim to maintain the
highest standard of quality, till to-day the
Goodrich trade mark stamped upon any
rubber article is. universally recognised and
accepted as similar to the hall-mark on
silver.
Along these same progressive lines new
fields have been opened after a careful and
first-hand study of existing conditions and
possibilities. The company was until the
year 191 3 represented in Japan bj- agents.
It then decided to open up a main branch in
KOnE PREMISES OF B. DIEDEN & CO.
PRESENT-DAY I ^[ P R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
235
Tokyo, and a little later subsidiary branches
were started in the cities of Osaka and
Kokura, the former to take care of the
demand in the Kwansai district, the latter
to take care of the demand in Kyushu. In
addition to this, representative houses act as
agents in the larger cities such as Sapporo,
Nagoya, Nagasaki, etc. Japan's depen-
dencies such as Korea, South Manchuria, and
Tsingtau (North China) are handled from the
main Tokj-o branch, also by means of direct
agents.
The principal demand in Japan for rubber
goods is for those articles comprised in the
mechanical line, and to take care of all ordi-
nary requirements stocks to the value of
Yen 150,000.00 to Yen 200,000.00 are
regularly carried at the Tokyo and Osaka
branches. Goodrich conveyor, elevator and
transmission belting; water, fire, steam, and
acid hoses, spiral, superheat, square duck,
brass wire and cloth insertion packings;
rotary drillers' hose, printers' blankets,
pneumatic and air drill hoses, pimip valves,
etc., represent part of the goods regularly
supplied to the Imperial Government Rail-
ways, Government dockyards, steel works,
and arsenals; all the largest copper, coal,
iron, silver, gold, and zinc mines; the many
cotton, woollen, muslin, linen and other
textile mills; sugar, beer, coke, and cement
plants; shipbuilding and car manufacturing
yards; paper and pasteboard mills; also all
factories of importance throughout the
Empire.
In addition there are carried large stocks
of automobile, solid, and motorcycle tires
and tubes, to look after a demand which
is as yet small but steadily increasing.
Goodrich druggist and surgical goods, sport-
ing goods such as tennis and golf balls, base-
ball body protectors, etc., are in regular
demand amongst the better class retail
stores. Last but not least are the numerous
sundrjr articles such as boots and shoes,
rubber bands, rubber thread, raincoat mate-
rial, stamp gum, dental rubber, dental dam,
dental bulbs, plaster bowls, rubber matting,
interlocking tiling, etc., for which there is an
ever-increasing demand, and throughout the
countrj' the fact is recognised that, whilst
Goodrich products are usually considerably
dearer than the locally manufactured articles
and those from other foreign countries, they
are at all times to be depended upon and the
service given is such as to render them
"Cheapest and Best in the I>ong Run."
SOUTH SEA TR.\DING CO., LI.MITED
The trade possibilities of the South Sea
Islands have been evident to the Japanese
business man for some time past; a fact
obvious from the number of companies
springing u]> for the .sok; purpose of trading
with the islands.
The South Sea Trading Co., Ltd., com-
menced operations in 1893, as a private
enterprise, and became a limited company
with a capital of Yen 100,000 in 1899. No
great degree of progress was made until the
appointment of Mr. Tanakamaru as presi-
dent of the company in 191 5. The capital
was then immediately increased from Yen
150,000 to Yen 500,000; to twice that sum
within one year, and in 191 7 to the present
figure of Yen 3,000,000.
The sphere of operations was greatly
increased to embrace shipping, shipbuilding,
imports and exports, agriculture, and marine
products. The head office of the company
is at Kamiyanagiwarcho, Kyobashi-ku,
Tokyo, with branches at Yokohama, Toba,
Singapore, and forty other points throughout
the South Sea Islands.
Naturally, the business of the company,
especially in imports and exports, has in-
creased pro rata with the capital, thus, in
the three years 1912, 1913, and 1914, the
total business was about Yen 800,000, as
compared with imports Yen 3,500,000 and
exports Yen 2,000,000 for 1917. Practically
all lines for which there is a market are
handled, but special mention may be made
of copra, shell, tortoise-shell, manila hemp,
rice, ivory nuts, etc., imported, and curios,
provisions, clothing, cement, kerosene oil,
beer, building materials, tinned provisions,
biscuits, sugar, tobacco, cotton cloth, general
necessities, etc., exported. Copra may be
said to be the company's special line. Des-
patch offices are continually Ijeing opened
throughout the islands wherever the pro-
duction warrants it. Moreover, the com-
pany has actually 3,000 acres of their own
property under cocoanuts.
The company enjoys the great advantage,
especially in these times, of owning a fleet
of well equipped steamers and auxiliary
sailing vessels, representing more than
20,000 tons, in addition to which 10,000 tons
is chartered. The fleet is being continually
added to, as the company's shipbuilding
yard at Toba works solely for this purpose.
At present three auxiliary sailing vessels
of 1,000 tons each are nearing completion.
The following gentlemen are the principal
officers of the company: E. Tanakamaru,
Esq., President; R. Fujiyama, Esq., Adviser;
Messrs. M. Ishikawa, S. Iwasaki, T. Sato,
Directors, and Messrs. H. Kawasaki and S.
Tanakamaru, Auditors.
SHIBAK.WVA & CO., LI.MITED
Founded in 1866 by the late Mr. Shinsuke
Shibakawa, father of Mr. Shinjiro Shibakawa,
this enterprise operated privately until 1903
when it was turned into an unlimited com-
pany with a paid-up capital of Yen 500,000.
The expansion of the business has pro-
ceeded since the Meiji Restoration, pro
rata with that of the import and export
trade of Japan. Indeed, by the adoption
of a most progressive policy, the formation,
and, be it noted, retention of important
international connections, and by setting
an example of unquestionable business
integrity, the company may be regarded
as having done signal service in fostering
the same. Thus, from the most humble
FEEDING SILKWORMS
TOKYO PREMISES OF THE SOUTH SEA TRADINX. C'OMrANV, LIMITED (NANYO nOYEKI KAISHA)
PK]':SK NT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
237
THE TOKYO OFFICES OF SHIBAKAWA & COMPANY, LIMITF.D
beginnings the Shiliakawa Shoten, at present
Shibakawa & Co., Ltd., has become one of
the foremost houses in the country, operat-
ing with a capital of Yen 3,000,000, of which
Yen 2,400,000 is paid up.
The head office is located in well con-
structed and spacious premises at No. 10
Koraibashi, 3-chome, Higashiku, Osaka, and
branches equally up-to-date are maintained
at No. 8 Sanaicho, Nihonbashiku, Tokyo.
No. 91 Kitamachi, Kobe, No. 202 Yamashita-
cho, Yokohama, No. 18 6-chome, Demmacho
Nishiku, Nagoya, No. 6 Lloyds Avenue
London E. C, 120 Broadway, New York,
No. 5 Hankow Road (British Concession),
Shanghai, and No. 17 Wha-cheong Road
(British Concession), Hankow.
The goods handled include practically all
important lines listed in the Japanese Trade
returns. Chief among the staple imports
maybe mentioned woollen and worsted goods,
raw cotton and cotton goods, yams, wools,
tops, metals, machinery, paper, pulp, rosin,
chemicals, drugs, dyestuffs, etc. The princi-
pal exports are woollen and worsted goods.
cotton goods, linen goods, raw silks, habutai
and other silk products, hosiery, cotton and
woollen yams, hemp braids, rubber goods,
matches, tinned foods, cereals, beans, oils,
chemicals, minerals, etc.
As may be surmised from the above list,
very close connections are maintained with
the principal cotton and woollen mills of the
country, such as the Osaka Woollen Manu-
factyring Company, the Nippon Woollen
Manufacturing Company, the Tok^'o Woollen
Manufacturing Company, the Tokyo Woollen
Cloth Manufacturing Company, the Tokyo
Weaving Company, the Teikoku Hemp
Manufacturing Company, the Nippon Wor-
sted Spinning Company, and others, both
for the supply of the raw material and the
marketing of the finished products.
The business-like methods of the house
attract special attention, and are explained
by the length of time the company, has been
engaged in foreign trade, and the further
fact that, like Mr. Shinjiro Shibakawa, the
able Managing Director, many of the heads
of departments have a fluent knowledge of
English and other languages, and have
gained valuable experience in the London
and New York branches, and elsewhere
abroad.
The officers of the company are: Mr.
Yeisuke Shibakawa, President; Mr. Shinjiro
Shibakawa, Managing Director; Mr. Ein-
shin Yuasa, Director; Mr. Terukichi Shiba-
kawa, Auditor; Mr. Gitaro Hirata, Auditor.
YOKOHAMA
BUSINESS HOUSES
JARDINE, MATHESON & CO., LIMITED
In previous numbers of this series of pub-
lications the complete history of the famous
house of Jardine, Alatheson & Co., Ltd., has
been given, but in dealing with its operations
in Japan it will not be out of place to refer
again to the origin and early development of
the gigantic concern whose name has been
associated with the commerce and progress
of the Orient for the best part of a century.
Among the officials of the old East India
Company in the days when that politico-
jm^m
^■-"■iP
T^
4"
4 ^.
I
OLD STYLE FOREIGN PREMISES OF JARDINE, MATHESON & CO., LTD., OCCUPIED BY THE FIRM FOR OVER SIXTY YEARS.
THE JAPANESE GATEWAY WAS ORIGINALLY BlILT FOR DEFENSIVE PURPOSES
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
239
commercial organisation was in the zenith of
its power, was the late Dr. WilHam Jardine.
This was the time when Macao was at the
height of its prosperity, and when the East
India Company had practically a monopoly
of the China trade. That monopoly came
to an end in 1832, and Dr. Jardine started the
premier mercantile house in the Far East,
associated with him being Mr. James Mathe-
son, afterwards Sir James Matheson, Bart.,
and Mr. Hollingw^orth Magniac. Offices
were opened at Macao and Canton, and at
once Jardine, Matheson & Co. set out to
earn and justify, by their energy, enterprise,
and honourable dealing, the name of the
"Princely House," which was early applied
to them, and has remained ever since. In
1835 Mr. Alexander Matheson, afterwards a
baronet, came from India where he had
received his business training, and was taken
into the partnership by his uncle. As a
result of the first "Opium War" with China,
Hong Kong was ceded to the British in 1 84 1 .
The iilace was then only a barren island and
military post, with nothing to suggest its
subsequent rise to great commercial pros-
perity and importance. The young firm of
Jardine, Matheson & Co. found its business
interests in Macao threatened by the short-
sighted policy of the Portuguese Govern-
ment, and turned its attention to Hong Kong,
opening offices there in 1842, a year after the
island had been opened. From that day to
the present Hong Kong has been the head-
quarters of the great business, and history
records how much the progress of the colony
owes to the enterprise of Jardine, Matheson
& Co. The enterprise and pioneer spirit
which the old firm displayed at Hong Kong
has actuated the operations of the house
ever since, and there is not a commercial
centre in the Orient that does not claim them
amongst its earliest traders and benefactors.
Jardine, Matheson & Co. were pioneers in
Shanghai, after that jiort was opened to
foreign trade by the signing of the treaty of
October 24, 1842, and later on they were
among the first British business houses to
turn to Japan.
For the ten years from 1842 on, the firm
grew in strength and prosperity, pursuing a
simple policy of enterprise and fair dealing,
ever expanding along new lines, and asso-
ciating its fortunes with those of commercial
centres the future of which only the greatest
foresight could have imagined. The founder
of the firm passed away, and with him went
his early associates. Sir Alexander Matheson
retired from business in 1852, and the suc-
cessive heads of the business were Andrew',
Oaviil, Joseph, and Sir Robert Jardine,
Bart., whose death took place in 1905.
These gentlemen were all nephews of the
founder of the house, and all were men of
K7m Mi'
WINDING SILK ONTO B.XMBOO STICKS FOR CROSS-WE.WING PREPARING
HEMP BR.\ID FOR EXPORT HEMP BR.\ID MIl-L
240
I' R K S K N T - D A ^• I M P li IC S S I O N S OF J A P A N
business in the best sense of tlic word, types
of the merchant princes who in the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries did so much
to Iniild up British trade and prestige in all
parts of the world. After the death of Sir
Robert Jardine in 1905 the firm, for family
reasons, was turned into a private limited
liability company with the following direc-
torate: Sir R. A\'. Buchanan- Jardine, Gov-
erning-director; Messrs. William Keswick,
M. P., W. J. Gresson, and Henry Keswick
(who succeeded his father, Mr. William Kes-
wick, on the latter's decease). Managing-
directors. During the most prosperous part
of its career the old firm was under the con-
trol of Mr. William Keswick, M. P., who for
forty years was its guiding hand, and under
him it spread its branches in all the leading
centres of trade in the Far East. Mr. Kes-
wick it was who opened the Yokohama
branch in 1859, almost as soon as the port
was thrown open to foreign trade.
As to the activities of the company dtuing
its long existence, it would be almost like
writing the history of the Far East to attempt
to give in sequence the story of Jardine, Ma-
theson & Co., Ltd., and to write of its oper-
ations is to write of the whole trade of the
Orient in its varied phases. The enterprise
of the company has been witnessed in prac-
tically every direction in which trade and
commerce have expanded, and has been
associated with every great movement tend-
ing to open up and develop new avenues of
business. Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.,
has done much in this latter direction, and
the name is to-day inseparably linked with
the progress of the East. The company is
looked upon to take the lead in every new
development, because its history has demon-
strated its keen interest in all that pertains
to the welfare of British trade generally,
and the good of the centres in which its
energies are in force. In Hong Kong and
elsewhere Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.,
has covered every field of enterprise, asso-
ciating itself with the opening of harbours,
construction of docks and wharves, railways,
new industries, and many another movement
tending to increase the general prosperity
and make progress possible for all.
As stated above, the Japanese business
was opened in 1859 W'hen the outlook for the
foreigner at Yokohama was not a very
encouraging one in view- of the attitude of the
Japanese toward the newcomers. With
customary foresight Mr. Keswick selected a
business site that in after years was to be
the threshold and centre of foreign commerce
in the port. Appropriately enough the
address is No. i, the site of one and a half
acres being situated close to the landing
stage, on the Bund, and demarking the main
business artery of Yokoham;i. This site is
held on perjietual lease, and in point of value
there is none to exceed it. Here are estab-
lished the offices, counting-house, and the
raw silk inspecting rooms and godow^ns.
The waste silk department is on Lot 21 and
the shipping and insurance offices on Lot 22.
The Kobe branch is at Xos. 83-85 Kyo-
machi, and from this centre is handled the
export of hemp braid, Panama hats, copper,
and many other lines comprised under the
heading of general merchandise. At Shi-
monoseki the export of Japanese coal is
principally dealt with. There are also
branches at Tokyo, Shizuoka, and Nagasaki.
Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd., act as
General Managers and General Agents for
the following, among others: Indo-China
Steam Navigation Co., Ltd.; the Glen Line,
trading between British and Continental
ports and Japan; the Indra Line, between
New York and the Philippine Islands and
Japan; the Waterhouse Steamship Line; the
China Sugar Refining Co., Ltd.; the Hong
Kong Cotton Spinning, Weaving and Dyeing
Co., Ltd.; the Ewo Cotton Spinning and
Weaving Co., Ltd.; the Shanghai and Hong-
kew Wharf Co., Ltd.; the Canton Insurance
Office, Ltd.; and the Hong Kong Fire Insur-
ance Co., Ltd. The following British insur-
ance companies are also represented in Japan
by the company: Alliance Assurance Co.,
Ltd., Royal Insurance Co., Ltd., and the
London Insurance Co., Ltd. Jardine, Ma-
theson & Co., Ltd., are selling agents for the
New York Lubricating Oil Co., the Bombay-
Burmah Trading Corporation, exporters of
teak and hard woods, and the Mercantile
Bank of India is another of their general
agencies. Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.,
are importers to Japan of machinery, metals,
chemicals, drugs, raw- cotton, wool and other
requirements for the mills and factories of the
country. They are exporters of raw and
waste silk, braids and general produce of all
kinds.
Apart from the London house, and the
head offices for the Orient at Hong Kong,
branches in addition to those mentioned for
Japan are maintained at New York, Canton,
Wuchow, Samshui, Swatow, Amoy, Foochow,
Shanghai, Chinkiang, Nanking, Wuhu, Kiu-
kiang, Hankow, Ichang, Changsha, Peking,
Tientsin, Neuchuang, Vladivostock, Harbin,
Tsingtau, and Taipeh.
The Manager for Japan is Mr. F. H. Bug-
bird, who in addition to the extensive inter-
ests which he has to control, still finds time
to associate himself in many ways with the
general welfare of the British trading and
social interests of Yokohama. He is Vice-
Chairman of the Foreign Board of Trade and
Chairman of the Yokohama United Club
MASfDA AND CO.MPANY
The foundations of the enormous business
controlled by Messrs. Masuda & Co., of
Yokohama, were laid as far back as 1862,
by Mr. Kahei Masuda, shortly after the port
had been opened to foreign trade, but the
firm as it is to-day was actually started in
1884 when Mr. Masuzo Masuda, jointly
with Mr. Fusajiro Nakamura, succeeded his
father, and commenced trading in sugar,
petroleum, and flour. Since that time the
business has grown to control vast enter-
prises, and the operations of the firm now
cover a very wide range, branches being
established all over the world (directly by the
Masuda Trading Company, Limited). Ori-
ginally a merchant house, dealing only in
certain lines of imports and exports, Messrs.
Masuda & Co. are to-day general exporters
and importers, shipping brokers and ship
ow-ners, factory owners and manufacturers,
proprietors of a sugar refinery, and interested
widely in a variety of industrial and trading
enterprises. They control the Masuda Saw
Mill at Yokohama, the Masuda Flour Mill,
Kobe, the Masuda Sugar Refinery, Yoko-
hama, the Matsuo Sulphur Mine at Iwate,
the Kobe Drier Co., Ltd., Kob^, the Yoko-
hama Beancake Mill, and the Otori Tungsten
Mine.
The principal imports of the firm are:
Raw sugar, wheat and other grains, wheat
flour, beancake, beans and other cereals,
lead ore, zinc ore and concentrates, copper and
nickel ores, iron and steel, tin and tin solder,
sulphate of ammonia and other chemicals
and fertilizers, wood pulp, hides and skins,
wool-yarn and tops, raw cotton dye-stuffs,
timber, rubber, all kinds of machinery and
many other lines. Masuda & Co. export
principally timber, sulphur, raw and refined
sugar, rice, barley, oats, and other grains and
cereals, fish oils, menthol, tinned salmon and
crab, coal, various ores and metals and their
alloys, electrical machinery, porcelain, Port-
land cement, toys, silk and cotton goods,
glassware, chemicals and practically every
ine of Japanese manufactures or products.
The development of this huge business, the
annual transactions of which cover a value
of over Yen 50,000,000, has been due to the
energy of Mr. Masuda and his original part-
ner, Mr. Fusajiro Nakamura, both rated as
among the most substantial and progressive
of Japanese business men. From the incep-
tion of the firm Mr. Masuda has been extend-
ing its operations year by year. The Masuda
Flour Mill was established in 1905, and the
following year Mr. Masuda and his colleagues
organised the Yokohama Sugar Refining
Company, which w'as amalgamated in 19 12
with the Meiji Sugar Company, chiefly
through the efforts of Mr. Masuda, who saw
242
P R E S K X T - D A Y I M I' R !•: S S I O X S OF J A I' A \
the advisability of uniting the interests of the
two companies, one manufacturing refined
sugar and the other dealing in the crude
product. At the same time Mr. Masuda
directed his attention to trading with foreign
countries, and established the Masuda Gomei
Kaisha (Masuda & Co.), a partnership con-
cern with a capital of Yen 500,000 and
having for its members Messrs. Fusajiro
Nakamura, Masutaro Masuda, Genjiro Ma-
Icum in Japan, being the sole selling agent
for the Meiji Sugar Company and the Masuda
Flour Mill. It is one of the largest business
establishments interested in the lines enum-
erated in Japan. The Masuda Gomei
Kaisha, which originally took over the foreign
trade branch of the Masuda Shoten, has its
branches throughout Japan and abroad, and
its rejiresentatives are stationed in or travel
throughout Europe, Asia, Australia, and
ifr
n
REELING R.WV SILK
suda, and Yoichi Masuda, Mr. Masuzo
Masuda himself acting as general super-
visor. This new concern took over the
foreign business of Masuda & Co., which it
has since developed widely, particularly
after the outbreak of the war. The Masuda
Gomei Kaisha has its branches and agencies
at all important centres in Japan and abroad,
principal of which are the following: Tokyo,
Kob6, Osaka, Nagoya, Otaru, Shimoiioseki,
Naba, Tainan, Fusan, Dairen, Shanghai,
Tientsin, Hankow, Tsingtau, Singajjore,
Calcutta, Bombay, Vladivostock, Sydney.
Melbourne, Seattle, San Francisco, New
York, and London. In February, 1917,
another development took place when the
Masuda Gomei Kaisha and their higher
employees established the Masuda Boeki
Kabushiki Kaisha (Masuda Trading Co.,
Ltd.), a limited liability company with a
capital of Yen 1,000,000 to further extend
the foreign trade operations of the group.
The three businesses, though engaged in
different lines of trade, are closely allied in
order to ensure their respective and mutual
success. Mr. Masuda's private firm, the
Masuzo Masuda Shoten, is chiefly concerned
with the sale of sugar, wheat flour, and petro-
North and South America. Its shipping
department, brought into being by the
extraordinary condition of the freight market
after the beginning of the war, is doing active
business in charterage, and has recently
come to own a number of steamers and sailing
ships. The Masuda Boeki Kabushiki Kai-
sha, trading in conjunction with the two
concerns above mentioned, is carrying on
an extensive trade abroad, and promises to
be one of the greatest commercial organi-
sations of the country. Its officers are as
follows: President, Mr. Fusajiro Nakamura;
Vice-President, Mr. Masutaro Masuda; Di-
rectors, Messrs. Yoichi Masuda, Inesaburo
Masuda, Eijiro Shiokawa, Tadasu Okabe,
and Michisuke Kakinuma; Auditors, Messrs.
Genjiro Masuda, Eijiro Masuda, Yasutaro
Hasegawa, Eigoro Nagai, and Hachirotaro
Nakamura. Mr. Masuzo Masuda is the
Superintendent.
The three business concerns under the
direction of the Masuda family are located at
the same premises at Nos. 68 and 6g Shi-
chome, Honcho, Yokohama. There are also
extensive warehouses. A large staff is em-
ployed in the administration of the wide-
spread interests which Mr. Masuda controls.
W. .M. STR.\CH.\N & CO., LI.MITEU
A DL'siNEss house with over fifty years of
trading, along the most sound and progressive
lines, to its credit, is W. M. Strachan & Co.,
Ltd., of No. 71 Main Street, Yokohama.
This business was established by the earliest
pioneers in the foreign trade of Japan, and
with the house, at one time or another, have
been associated some of the best known names
in Yokohama's business history.
The inception of the business dates back to
January i, 1864, when Mr. Tom Thomas
founded the house, which became known after
July of tliat year as Strachan & Thomas,
Mr. W. M. Strachan having arrived from
Hankow to join Mr. Thomas m partnership.
It is interesting to note that both the founders
of the house are still alive and active in trade
with Japan, though Mr. Thomas is no longer
connected with the business. For the first
few years an export business was done in
uncoloured Japan tea, but the principal line
was raw silk in the handling of which Messrs.
Strachan & Thomas were among the largest
houses, as they were among the first. The
silk export trade was specialised in until about
1900 or a little later. In imports the old firm
was early noted for Manchester cottons and
cotton yarns, and Bradford goods, in which
lines they have always held a premier position.
It was about 1880 that the firm became
W. M. Strachan & Co., and in 1894, when the
business had grown far beyond the original
conceptions of its founders, it was turned into
a limited liability company with a registered
capital of £50,000. A full measure of success
has attended the widening of the concern and
the increase in its scope of operations, and
to-day the company has reserve funds con-
siderably exceeding the amount of its capital.
Messrs. W. M. Strachan & Co., Ltd., are
the only people among British traders in
Japan dealing to any extent in wool, a line
they have handled for many years. Prior to
the war a large import business in this com-
modity was done with Australia, but to-day
the main source of supply is South Africa.
The other principal imports, apart from wool
and Manchester cottons, are machinery,
metals, and general lines. The exports
comprise chiefly silk piece goods, tungsten
and copper ores, and practically all lines of
general merchandise and Japanese produce.
An important branch of the business is that
of machinery. W. M. Strachan & Co., Ltd.,
are the agents for the Crossley oil and gas
engines, and in this capacity they equipped
the Tokyo Seiju Kaisha, probably the first
mill in Japan to be installed with such modern
plant. Though Japan is to-day producing a
great deal of locally made machinery and the
demand for the British plant is not so pro-
nounced, W. M. Strachan & Co., Ltd., still
S K N r - I) A V 1 M 1' 1< E S S I O N S O F JAPAN
243
haniilc a large volume of trade in machinery.
The comijany is agent for the following
concerns: The Guardian Assurance Co., Ltd.;
London & Lancashire Fire Insurance Co. ;
Northern Assurance Co., Ltd.; Phoenix
Assurance Co., Ltd.; Queen Insurance Co.;
London & Provincial Marine & General
Insurance Co., Ltd.; Royal Exchange Assur-
ance Corporation; Sea Insurance Co., Ltd.;
Federal Insurance Co.; The Mutual Life
Insurance Co. of New York ; The General
Life Insurance Co. ; The Provident Clerks' &
Mutual Life Assurance Association; Cros-
sley's Gas and Oil Engines; Sparkbrook
Bicycles; Earl of Dudley's Round Oak Iron
& Steel Works, Ltd.
In the early days the old firm was agent
for the Equitable Life Assurance Society of
the United States, until that Society, tempted
by the promising field which the country
offered, opened its own branch in Japan.
They were also agents for the China Mutual
Steam Ship Company until the sale of that
line to Messrs. Alfred Holt & Co. The firm
was connected with the establishment of
several of the large manufacturing enterprises
in Japan and acted as supplier of machinery
and raw material. Among the men who
have been connected with the house in its
various stages — some for many years and
others for a comparatively short period —
the following may be mentioned as those
whose names are well known throughout
China and Japan: Messrs. Tom Thomas,
W. M. Strachan, James Downie, James
Bissett, Frederick Pollard, W. Sutter, David
McCulloch, Alfred Dare, G. H. Allcock,
J. D. Hutchison, J. P. Reid, J. W. Crowe,
J. T. Esdale, A. L. Robinson, Ducan McLaren,
George Philip, F. H. Bull, E. T. Nicholas,
W. Ross, and F. J. Lias. The Directors of
the company in London are Messrs. W. M.
Strachan, C. H. Pearson, J. D. Hutchison,
and G. C. Bolton. Mr. F. O. Stuart is
Manager at Yokohama. Here the company
has its main godowns and oflSces in which
employment is found for about 70 persons.
The Kobe branch, from which the principal
exports are hemp and straw braids, etc., is
under the management of Mr. E. B. S.
Edwards.
(See also page 664.)
DODWELL & CO., LIMITED
Among the many great concerns whose
business ramifications extend throughout the
Far East and Japan, is Dodwell & Co., Ltd.
It is difficult to say where the activities of
this company begin and where they end, for
they embrace practically every branch of
trade and commerce, the name being well
known in every commercial centre of any
importance. The history of the company is
one of rapid growth and wide development.
Mr. George B. Dodwell, founder of the Ijusi-
ness, and now Chairman of the Board of
Directors in London, was for many years in
Hong Kong and Shanghai with the firm of
Messrs. Adamson, Bell & Co. When that
concern went out of business in 1891 Mr.
Dodwell, with Mr. Carlill, formed a partner-
ship styled Dodwell, Carlill & Co., taking
over the business interests of Messrs. Adam-
son, Bell & Co. and securing the services of
many of that firm's employees. The new
organisation was immediately successful,
and in 1899 it became Dodwell & Co., Ltd.
The capital to-day is £200,000. With its
head office at Exchange Chambers, St. Mary
HEAD OFFICE OF W. M. STK.\CH.\N & CO., LTD., YOKOH.\M.^
DODWELL & CO., LTD., YOKOHAMA: A CORNER OF THE OFFICES — THE STAFF AND HEAD OFFICE
— SCENE IN ONE OF THE GODOWNS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
245
Axe, London, the company extended from
its original branches, taken over from
Adamson, Bell & Co., until it is now directly
represented at Hong Kong, Shanghai, Foo-
chow, Hankow, Canton, Yokohama, Kob^,
Colombo, New York, Seattle, San Francisco,
Tacoma, Victoria, Vancouver, and Antwerp,
and in many other commercial centres the
company is served by agents. To attempt
to describe in a few words, such as would
exactly and completely explain, the business
activities of Dodwcll & Co., Ltd., is an
impossibility. They are not only merchants
and importers and exporters, but are actively
engaged in shipping, chartering, the coal busi-
ness, in all branches of insurance, in general
agency business, as well as in engineering
and contracting, and a score of other depart-
ments of commerce, industry, and trade.
THE JAPANESE BUSINESS
The Yokohama branch was actually estab-
lished in 1877 by Messrs. Adamson, Bell &
Co., and was taken over by Dodwell, Carlill
& Co. when that firm came into being in
1891. To-day Dodwell & Co., Ltd., are
foremost among the great British interests in
Japan. They are shipping, chartering, and
coaling contractors, fire and marine insurance
agents, manufacturers' representatives, and
agents for many well known British and
American products, such as the British Anti-
fouling Composition and Paint, Underwood
typewriters, and Overland motor cars. They
export coals, 'oils, straw envelopes, straw-
braid, matches, rugs, underwear, towels,
flour, electric fittings, produce, chemicals,
bronze powder, fertilizers, gunny tares and
bagging, earthenware, tea and rubber chests,
bottles, general glassware, and Japanese
merchandise of all kinds. Among the prin-
cipal imports handled by the company are
piece goods, typewriters, paints, varnishes
and oils, metals, chemicals, aqua ammonia,
machinery, leather, shells, resin, and the
famous Overland car. The Japanese busi-
ness, under the general management of Mr.
J. P. Warren at Kobe and Mr. O. M. Poole at
Yokohama, is divided necessarily into many
departments. In shipping Dodwell & Co.,
Ltd., are the agents for the Dodwell Line of
Steamers for New York, and the following
other lines: Mogul, Warrack, Saint and
Barber Lines, New York and Oriental S. S.
Co., American and Oriental S. S. Co., and the
Natal Line. They are the secretaries of the
New York Conference for Freights. In
earlier times the company ran its own line
of sailing ships, but to-day it is not directly
interested as owners.
In the Insurance Department Dodwell &
Co., Ltd., have the agencies for the Standard
Life Assurance Co., the Yorkshire Insurance
Co., Ltd., the Alliance Assurance Co., the
Ocean Marine Insurance Co., the Providence
(Washington) Insurance Co. Regarding the
very important representation of the Under-
wood Typewriter Company, which is in the
hands of Dodwell & Co., Ltd., it is interesting
to note that this typewriter finds exceptional
favour amongst the Japanese and large num-
bers are being imported annually.
Dodwell & Co., Ltd., through its world-
wide activities has done very valuable work-
in developing Japanese native industries.
It was the' pioneer foreign concern in the
straw braid industry in Japan, and Mr. T.
Niwa, who is in the company's service at
Kobe, is a recognised authority on this
important business. He is President of the
Straw Braid Guild. The Yokohama oflSce
of Dodwell & Co., Ltd., employs forty-six
persons, and the Kobe office, seventy-five.
The company is also well represented in
Tokj'o by sub -agents for the especial purpose
of pushing sales in that quarter.
Mr. Poole, the company's manager in
Yokohama since January, 1916, has been
with Dodwell & Co., Ltd., for twenty-one
years, having served in the London, Hong
Kong, and Kobe branches. He succeeded
Mr. George Syme Thomson, upon the death
of that very well know-n figure in the Far
Eastern trade. Mr. Poole is an American
by birth, and apart from his business activ-
ities, he is like many another principal of
great foreign interests, deeply concerned in
public and semi-public organisations. He is
on the Executive Committee of the American
Association, and Hon. Secretary of the Naigai
Club. This latter institution fulfils a valu-
able function in bringing Japanese and for-
eigners into close contact in a friendly w'ay.
It consists of the heads of most of the impor-
tant Japanese and foreign houses, and Mr.
Ryozo Asano is Joint-Secretary with Mr.
Poole. Among several other honourary posi-
tions w-hich he fills in the commercial and
social life of the community may be men-
tioned the secretarj'ship of the Nippon Race
Club Golfing Association.
SAMUEL SAMUEL & CO., LIMITED
Messrs. S.\muel Samuel & Co. were
first estabhshed in Japan some thirty years
ago and continued trading as a pri\-ate com-
pany until 1908, w-hen owing to the great
expansion of the business, it was decided to
incorporate the firm as a limited liability
company. From the inception of its busi-
ness in Japan the firm took a conspicuous
part in the development of the country, and
came into closer relationship with the
Japanese Government than perhaps any other
foreign house has ever been. Through their
London agents, Messrs. M. Samuel & Co., of
whom Sir Marcus Samuel, Bart., is the well-
known head, Messrs. Samuel & Co. were
enabled to float loans for the Japanese
Government, and to supply, under special
arrangements, the material for the construc-
tion of the railways and other public works.
In more recent years they handled the cam-
phor monopoly for the Government. With
the grow-th of the economic and commercial
independence of Japan the opportunity for
such activities has necessarily become lim-
ited, and the nature of Messrs. Samuel
Samuel & Co.'s business has changed in
accordance with circumstances and the
requirements of the times. Thus, while a
decade ago their principal business was with
imports, now it lies with the export of Japa-
nese goods. The company has branch offices
at Kob^, Tokyo, Shimonoseki, and at Taipeh,
Keelung, and Takao in Formosa, while
abroad it is directly represented by its own
staffs at San Francisco and New York. In
1914 the immense possibilities of trade with
India became apparent to Messrs. Samuel
Samuel & Co., Ltd., and with the idea of
extending their activities in the Indian mar-
ket, they inaugurated a special Indian
department in Koh6 for the sole purpose of
attending to this branch of their business.
Their policy w-as successful from the outset
and to-day they do a larger business with
India than any other foreign firm or company
in Japan.
At both the larger branches, Yokohama and
Kobe, Messrs. Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd.,
have an Engineering Department, each of
which does a large business in the maou-
factures of the various well-known firms they
represent, such as Messrs. Cammell, Laird &
Co., the Fairfield Shipbuilding Co., D. & H.
Haggie & Co., Asa Lees & Co., Petter & Co.,
Ltd., the Blackman Export Co., and many
others. The company also has extensive
shipping interests and is continuously en-
gaged in the purchase, sale, and chartering of
steamers. Messrs. Samuel Samuel & Co. are
agents for the Shell Transport & Trading
Co., the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co., Ltd.,
the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., the East
Asiatic Co., Ltd., the Swedish East Asiatic
Co., Ltd., the Compania Transatlantic de
Barcelona, and others. They also represent
the Zocus Paint Co. for their well-known
anti-fouling compositions for ships' bottoms.
Messrs. Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd., are the
general agents for the Commercial Union
Assurance Co., Ltd., the London & Liverpool
and Globe Insurance Co., Ltd., the Union
Insurance Society of Canton, Ltd., and the
Alliance Assurance Co., Ltd.
The business premises and godow-ns of the
company are at No. 27, Yokohama, and
cover a considerable area. The Managing
17
[fe=
HEAD OFFICE AND GODOWNS OF SAMUEL SAMUEL & CO., YOKOHAMA
SAMUEL SAMUEL & CO., LTD., KOBE: A SECTION OF THE KOBE OFFICES— A SCENE IN THE
SAMPLE ROOM — PACKING DEPARTMENT IN ONE OF THE GODOWNS
248
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Director at Yokohama is Mr. H. T. Ilume,
who came to Japan over ten years ago, after
seven years in Rangoon, and succeeded to
the management in iyi3- Mr. Hume is
Vice-Chairman of the Foreign Board of
Trade, a member of the Naigai Club, and
Vice-President of the Yokohama Countn,-
and Athletic Club, among other public or
semi-public positions whieli he holds.
plied by Messrs. Cooper & Co. They are
also agents for Japan for the famous distilling
company, John Walker & Sons, Ltd.
Messrs. Cooper & Co. have an embroidery-
factory at Mishima-machi, Idzu, which
employs from fifteen to twenty girls. The
godowns in Yokohama are three in number,
l^uilt of stone, two of two and one of three
stories, giving a large storage capacity for the
and export trade of Japan, are Singleton,
Benda & Co., Ltd., whose offices and godowns
are at No. 96 Yamashita-cho, Yokohama.
The foundations of this great concern were
laid nearly fifty years ago when the business
was originally that of M. Levy & Co., sub-
sequently passing into the hands of Messrs.
Singleton and Benda. This firm was incor-
porated in London as a limited liability
M
IMPERI.'VL PALACE, TOKYO
COOPER & CO.
The growth, development, and extent of
the present-day business interests of Messrs.
Cooper & Co., No. 47, Yokohama, are
remarkable in view of the comparatively
short time the concern has been in existence.
The business was founded in April, 1909, by
Mr. A. E. Cooper, who is now principal
partner resident in London. In 1912, when
the present managing partner, Mr. F. W. R.
Ward, joined the firm, it was incorporated
under the laws of Japan as a Goshi Kaisha.
Messrs. Cooper & Co. are general importers
and exporters, specialising in the export of
silk, drawn work, and general Japanese
manufactures, and importing sundry Unes
to meet local requirements. The firm is
particularly well known in London and New
York markets and undoubtedly handles a
very large proportion of the silk trade with
those two centres. They are associated with
Messrs. J. A. Finn & Co. of New York, im-
porters of fancy silks, whose needs are sup-
heavy stocks carried. Among the lines
exported are silk piece goods, plain and fancy
silk, handkerchiefs (plain and fancy), hemp
braid, drawn work and embroideries, lace
goods, kimonos (silk and cotton), cotton
piece goods, boot laces, press studs, elec-
trical fittings, incandescent gas lamps, gas
fittings, and glassware. About seventy hands
are employed in the various departments.
Messrs. Cooper & Co. maintain a branch in
New York, at 33 Union Square, where they
are represented by Mr. W. L. Croker.
Mr. Ward, the Managing Partner, joined
the firm in 191 2, and succeeded to the man-
agement of the business upon the departure
of Mr. Cooper for London the following year.
He is an Englishman with sixteen years of
business experience in Japan.
SINGLETON, BENDA & CO., LLMITED
Prominent among the leading houses of
Yokohama, carrying on the extraordinarily
varied business which constitutes the import
company about twenty years ago with a
capital of £140,000. The London office is
at 27 London Wall, and the directors of the
company are Mr. C. Williamson MUne,
Chairman, Messrs. C. Benda and J. F. Fitz-
patrick. Managing Directors, and Mr. W.
Bromley Taylor, Director.
Singleton, Benda & Co., Ltd., handle
practically every line known to the Japanese
trade, either in imports or exports. The
range of their exports is too wide to be more
than briefly mentioned in this article. They
ship general fancy goods, antimony, lacquer,
and porcelain ware of all kinds including
articles of the most famous Japanese crafts-
manship, such as Kutani tea sets, vases,
figures; Bishiu sets, vases, figures, etc.;
Aidzu tea pots, coflfee and other services,
Ishiguro and Riosai vases, match stands, and
bowls; Banko ash trays, teapots, and figures,
and all classes of Satsuma ware. Basket
ware of all kinds is another line, as also are
paper goods, toys, umbrellas, etc. Carved
il^l
COOPER & CO. YOKOHAMA: THE FANCY SILKS DEPARTMENT - THE HEMP BRAID DEPARTMENT - SORTING AND
PACKING IN THE HANDKERCHIEF DEPARTMENT — EXTERIOR VIEW OF OFFICES AND GODOWNS
250
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
wood work, including furniture, screens,
panels, painted and plain, and knickknacks
of all descriptions form another department,
and in sundries ranging from leather suit
cases down to pocket knives, the list is excep-
tionally long. Singleton, Benda & Co.,
Ltd., also buy for export, bronzes, ivor>- and
walnis car\-ings, ivory and gold vases, lacquer
ware, antiques, and curios. In the more
regular trade lines they cover straw, chip, and
hemp braids, silk piece goods, cotton piece
goods and made-up articles of apparel, cotton
crepes, linens, embroideries, and drawn. thread
work. The field of export is as wide as the
lines are varied. An extensive business is done
with the United Kingdom, the Continent
of Europe, Austraha, Canada, the United
States, and South Africa, and Singleton,
Benda & Co., Ltd., are represented by agents
in practically ever>' important centre where
they transact business. The company does a
large trade in Panama hats, and also has its
own factories for the manufacture of shirts,
collars, kimonos and such goods. Further-
more, practically all kinds of produce, such
as peas, beans, fish oil, menthol crystals and
other commodities, are exported.
Singleton, Benda & Co., Ltd., are the
Japanese agents for Peter Dawson & Co., the
distillers. They were the first house in
Japan to open up the bicycle trade and the
importing of accessories and parts, and still
do a considerable business in this direction,
though to-day no bicycles are imported, the
finished article being put together locally from
parts and accessories brought in from other
countries. In the representation of Turner
Brothers belting the company has another
important agency. Attached to the Yoko-
hama offices of Singleton, Benda & Co., Ltd.,
are two spacious three-storj- godowns built
of brick, and giving storage capacity for an
enormous and highly valuable stock of goods.
One godown is 123 by 72 feet and the second
is 68 by 38 feet. In the various departments,
such as silk piece goods, cottons, Panama
hats, fancy goods, and gloves and hosiery,
and in the offices, employment is found for a
staff numbering over thirty. At Kob^,
where the company has an important branch.
there are also two godowns. From that
centre a large business is done in the export
of cotton waste, carpets and rugs, matting
and mats, bamboo and willow work, glass-
ware, straw envelopes, brushes, etc.
The Manager for Japan is Mr. George W.
Brockhurst, who has had twenty-six years of
experience in the trade.
VARXU.M ARXOULD & CO.
A.v extensive industry has been built up
by the firm of Messrs. Vamum Amould &
Co., who are the pioneers and the leaders
to-day in the box-making trade of Japan, in
so far as high class, machine-made tea and
rubber boxes are concerned. The origin
of this industry goes back many years before
the establishment of the present partnership.
It was Mr. R. M. Vamum who first com-
menced this industrj' in Yokohama and
opened up what to-day constitutes a large ex-
port in the trade of Japan. He was himself
a practical tea taster and while a member of
the firm of Fraser, Farley & Vamum, finding
that the cost of cooperage for the large
SINGLETON, BENDA & CO., LTD.: THE YOKOHA.M.\ PREMISES — THE KOBE OFFICE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
?5I
quantity of tea they were then handling was
enormous, owing to the use of hand-made
boxes, Mr. Varnum on going into the ques-
tion decided that the boxes could be better
and more economically made with modern
machinery than by the then prevailing
methods. Consequently machinery was im-
ported from America and Messrs. Fraser,
Farley & Varnum then started the original
manufacture of machine-made boxes for their
own use about 1883. The plant installed
was at first only sufficient to supply the
firm's own requirements, but later a trial
shipment was made to Colombo. The result
was entirely satisfactory and orders from
Ceylon increased to such an extent that the
firm extended the capacity of their mill.
As the export trade expanded Messrs. Fraser,
Farley & Varnum arranged to supply milling
plants to the Japanese timber companies,
and imported from Chicago the first modern
saw mill that ever came to Japan. By
an arrangement with the timber companies
the firm sold the machinerj' on the hire-
purchase system, having also the first call
on the output of the different mills. These
arrangements continued after the old firm
ceased to exist, owing to the deaths of two
of the original partners. With Mr. H. M.
Amould, who had come to Japan at the end
of the eighties, Mr. Varnum then formed the
partnership of Varnum Arnould & Co., about
sixteen years ago, and the energies of the new
firm were concentrated entirely on the box-
making business. Their factory, situated
in the Settlement of Yokohama, was burnt
down in October, 1909, and was not replaced,
as the locality was unsuitable, but the firm
arranged for the entire output of a factory
in the outskirts of Y'okohama. A similar
arrangement exists with ten or a dozen
factories throughout the country, situated in
proximity to the timber districts, on the out-
put of which Messrs. Varnum Amould & Co.
have first call. Boxes are made both for
tea and rubber, the timber employed being
" / J g inch or ' ■> inch and of various sizes,
according to requirements. The output
handled by the firm is now 1,000,000 per
annum, the bo.xes being exported to Ceylon,
India, the Straits Settlements and elsewhere,
and for the jjurpose of export are packed in
shocks.
Owing to the wise administration of the
forestry laws of Japan there is no dearth of
excellent timber, and no shortage seems
possible with re-afforestation going on as
fast as the forests are cut. The wood used
in the manufacture of tea and rubber boxes
is know'n locally as momi, though other
suitable woods are available.
Messrs. Varnum Amould & Co. are con-
tinually extending their export trade and are
also in a position to ship all kinds of three-
ply planking and three-ply boxes, with the
usual fittings, to all parts of the world. The
firm's address is No. 247-249, Yamashita-
cho, Yokohama.
IWAI & CO., LIMITED
The history of this important import and
export company is given in full in the Osaka
section of this volume. The business was
foimded in 1898 by Mr. Katsujiro Iwai, one
of the originators of direct foreign trade from
VARNUM ARNOtTLD & CO., YOKOHAMA: MESSRS.
THE PACKING GODOWN-
VARNUM AND ARNOVLD IN THEIR OFFICE —
-THE BOX FACTORY
252
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
YOKOHAMA HK\M II lil- IWAI & CO., LTD.
Osaka. A comparatively small capital was
employed at the initiation of operations, but
the business proved immediately successful,
and from the head office at Osaka, it was
extended in many directions, a large branch
being opened at Yokohama, among other
important trading centres.- Conducted as a
private enterprise for some years, the business
was later on transformed into a limited lia-
bility company and its present capital is
Yen 2,000,000 with reserves of Yen 925,000.
The Yokohama branch of Iwai & Co., Ltd.,
is under the management of Mr. Y. Araki,
who is particularly well known throughout
the Japanese and foreign business community
of the port. An excellent business site at No.
180 Yamashita-cho contains the commodious
four-story brick Ijuilding and godowns. The
business at the Yokohama branch naturally
specialises in those lines which are best
handled at this centre. They comprise
mainly the export of silk goods of various
descriptions, cotton goods, silk and cotton
manufactures, hat braids, natural produce,
and other merchandise. These shipments go
to Europe, America, Australia, India, the
South Sea Islands, China and elsewhere.
The Yokohama branch also handles a large
import trade in hemp and similar raw mate-
rials required for manufacture in Japan.
This branch was established in 1907, and has
developed into a very valuable section of the
businessof Iwai& Co., Ltd. (.Seealso page 680.)
KEANE & STROME, LIMITED
Messrs. Keane & Strome, Ltd., No. 12,
Water Street, Yokohama, are export and
import merchants doing a very extensive
business in all Japanese produce and merchan-
dise, besides importing and distributing to a
large extent. The business was originally
established by the late Mr. C. J. Strome, in
1880, under- the trade name of Strome & Co.
In 1912 the business had grown to such an
extent that a limited liability comjjany was
formed and carried on as Strome & Co., Ltd.,
for two years, when it went into liquidation
owing to the death of the founder, Mr.
Strome. This liquidation, it may be stated,
was merely to adjust family interests and the
present managing director, Mr. O. Strome,
became, and still is liquidator in that direction .
The firm of Keane & Strome, a partnership,
was formed by Messrs. W. L. Keane and
Strome, and from January I, 1915, carried on
the business till the following year, when Mr.
Keane retired and Mr. Strome incorporated
the present company under Japanese law
with a capital of Yen 50,000.00 fully paid up.
Mr. Strome was appointed managing director,
Messrs. Land & Cox of New York and Kobe
as agents.
Keane & Strome, Ltd., specialise in silk
manufactures of all kinds and hemp braids
and produce, doing also an extensive business
in all lines of export, such as pressed studs,
boot laces, curios, and fancy goods. The
company is a licensed exporter of tobacco
from Japan, this commodity being a Govern-
ment monopoly. Messrs. Keane & Strome,
Ltd., are in an enviable position in this
respect and they are able to sample and quote
upon request. At the present time, largely
due to the war, all markets are bare of
tobacco stocks and the demand is general for
the Japanese leaf, which has been favourably
reported upon as suitable mostly for cigarettes
and is being used largely for that purpose in
Egypt, as also in London and New York.
The company exports tobacco leaf baled.
The main centres to which Keane & Strome,
Ltd-, export are England, Australia, the
United States, and South America. In the
hemp braid industry the company was one of
the first exporters, beginning operations in
1906, and to-day it is one of the leading
dealers in this product. The company
maintains a factory which is particularly
useful for experimenting on -new ideas and for
ascertaining costs. The godowns of the
company have a floor space of 526 Isiibos (or
3,156 square feet) in which employment is
given to about fifty hands. The normal staff
of the company is three Europeans and thirty-
live Japanese. The firm are also agents for
the well-known "Bon Ami" products.
Mr Strome, the Managing Director, has
been in Japan since 1 899. He was manager of
the business in his father's time and having
secured during this long experience a thorough
knowledge of commercial conditions gener-
ally, he has been able to develop the interests
of the company to a wide extent especially
since he has had the responsible direction
of its energies. Mr. Strome is connected with
several public organisations, the firm being
a member of the Foreign Board of Trade.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
253
KEANE & STROME, LTD.: SILK PIECE GOODS DEPARTMENT — -STRAWBRAID GODOWN — THE TOBACCO GODOWN
J. WITKOWSKI & CO., LI.NtlTED
In the first rank of the foreign import and
export houses in Japan is that of J. Witkowski
& Co., Ltd., a business that was started over
forty-five years ago. Originally the business
was known as Marcus & Co., but later on it
became J. Witkowski & Co., the partners
being Messrs. Witkowski and Henri Blum.
On the death of Mr. Witkowski, Mr. Blum
took Messrs. Lee Meyer and L. Lazarus into
partnership, and seven years ago the concern
was turned into a private limited liability
company under its present designation.
From the earliest days a large trade has
l>cen done by the house, and of recent years
the expansion of business has been most
marked. The company has a large number of
first-class agencies, such as those of F. J. Fry
& Son, Ltd., A. & F. Pears, Ltd., Peak, Frean,
Ltd., the Crown Perfumery Co., "D. O. M."
Benedictine, Schwob Freres & Cie (watches),
Borden's Condensed Milk Co., and the
California Fruit Canners' Association. The
Yokohama branch of J. Witkowski & Co.,
Ltd., handles the products of these well-
known concerns, as well as others, and also
imports large quantities of diamonds from
Amsterdam for the local jewellery trade.
Other imported lines are chemicals and drugs,
California and French wines, etc., as well as
general merchandise. Exports from Yoko-
hama comprise principally silk goods, drawn
work and embroidery, gloves, produce,
including mineral oils, metal manufactures,
toys, fancy goods and general lines of all
descriptions. The company does a partic-
ularly large export business in knitted and
fabric gloves, taking the entire output of two
or three factories. There are six godowns,
spread over a wide area of the most central
portion of the foreign business section of
Yokohama, and these are under the control of
the different departments into which the
business of J. Witkowski & Co., Ltd., has
been organised.
Mr. Blum, who is of French nationality,
has charge of the New York office of the
company. Mr. Lazarus (British) manages
the Kob^ branch, and Mr. Meyer, who is an
American citizen, is the Manager of the
Yokohama branch. Both Mess.-s. Meyer and
Lazarus have been with the house for over
twenty years, and have an intimate knowl-
edge of the trade in Japan, and of the
requirements of foreign markets. The Yoko-
hama branch office is located at No. 93
Yamashita-cho. (See page 670.)
S. IS.A.ACS & COMPANY
Prominent among the import and export
firms of Yokohama is that of S. Isaacs & Co.,
controlled and managed by Mr. S. Isaacs.
The firm's offices and godowns are at No. 200.
Originally the business was that of R. Isaacs
and Brother, having been founded in 1868 by
the father and uncle of the present proprietor.
Mr. S. Isaacs joined his father in the business
in 1 89 1, and when the former retired, Mr.
Issacs started under the present trade name
on his own account in 1903. To-day the
business is in a highly flourishing condition,
and gives every evidence of rapid expansion
at no distant date. It is directed with energy
and sound judgment based on an experience
of over thirty years of trading in Japan. A
general import and export business is done in
practically all lines, with special attention
paid to silk and other products in the raw or
254
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE STAFF AND WORK PEOPLE OF J. WITKOVVSKI & CO., LTD., YOKOHAMA BRANCH
manufactured stages. S. Isaacs & Co. are
probably among the largest shippers of
Japanese produce such as peas, beans, and
similar agricultural crops, and their activities
also embrace the operation of factories for
the manufacture of hosiery of all kinds, and
gloves. The hosiery factory is one of the
largest of its kind, and its goods are well
known in New York and London. Among
the imports by the firm are iron, piece goods,
large quantities of leather, chemicals, and
general merchandise. Exports comprise the
products of the factories under the direction
of the firm, agricultural products, silk of all
kinds, silk manufactures such as ties, hand-
kerchiefs, etc., drugs and chemicals, curios,
and general lines. Several large godowns
are maintained for the storage or finishing of
products for export. Every department of
the varied business of the firm is in charge of
a European expert. Messrs. S. Isaacs c& Co.
are the general agents in Japan for the Pala-
tine Insurance Company.
Mr. Isaacs is one of the best known sports-
men in Japan. He is a keen follower of the
turf, and undoubtedly the interest he has
shown in the King of Sports has done a
great deal to bring it to the position it now
occupies. He was for some years Chairman
of the Nippon Race Club, and is still a com-
mitteeman of that body. As an owner he
has had a full measiu-e of success. His mare
Virginia holds the very fine record of 23
starts, 15 wins, and 6 seconds. She raced
through three seasons, including the Spring
of 191 5, and in addition to winning the
Emperor's Cup, scored five championships,
and three Australian championships. St.
Augustine, another of Mr. Isaacs's string, by
Ebor from Smart, holds the mile record for
Japan in i m. 42?^ sees. Mr. Isaacs was
the first President of the Yokohama Country
and Athletic Club, a position he has held
for several years. He is Chairman of the
Council of the Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals, and President of the
Columbia Society.
THE HOUSE OF iMOGI, BENTEN-DORI,
YOKOHAMA
A STUDY of the commerce and industry of
Japan reveals few more substantial and well
credited concerns than the House of Mogi
of Yokohama, which is an important factor
in the commerce of Japan, and also has
ver>' wide-spread foreign connections. The
business goes back originally to the first
days of the opening of Yokohama, when Mr.
Sobei Mogi, grandfather of the present
principal of the house, started in trade, and
numbered the original pioneers of the port
among his customers and friends. In those
times the business was mainly confined to
transactions in raw silk, in the name of
Nozawaya. However, with the development
of trade generally, the operations of this
house were extended to include many other
lines, and a large import and export business
was built up. In 1 88 1 the old name was
changed to Mogi. Several other changes
took place as the business grew, and in 1913
the title of Mogi & Company was adopted.
Recently, the business of the house became
so extensive that the name of Mogi & Co.
was no longer adequate to cover the sphere
of operations, and in June, 191 7, the whole
system was reorganized and the business was
divided up among various departments.
The House of Mogi now is composed of Mogi
Gomel Kaisha (with the old title of Mogi &
Co. abroad), Mogi Bank, Mogi Mining
Department, Mogi Raw Silk Department,
Mogi Real Estate Department, Mogi Dry-
Goods Department, and Mogi Commercial
and Industrial Department.
Mogi & Co. has never publicly announced
its financial condition, but when it is con-
sidered that the annual turnover is in excess
of Yen 150,000,000, it may be realised what
a vast concern it is, and how large is its
share in the trade and commerce of the
country.
Mogi & Co. carries on raw silk, which is
its old original business, as well as general
import and export. As importers and ex-
porters, Mogi & Co. are among the most
influential people in Japan. There is hardly
a line of goods that they do not handle, and
they import from, or export to, practically
every country in the world. Among the
principal imports are cotton, wool and
woollen goods, iron and steel, chemicals,
paper, shipbuilding materials, timber, cer-
eals, machinery, etc. Exports comprise
principally raw silk, habutai, cotton and
silk goods, ores and minerals, various prod-
uce, chemicals, etc. They have already
established their own branches in Shanghai,
Tientsin, Hankow, London, Lyons, New
York, Bombay, and Sydney, besides their
offices in Tokyo and Osaka.
The Mogi Bank does a general banking
business. It has a separate capital of Yen
1,000,000 and deposits of Yen 22,000,000.
The bank is the joint property of Messrs.
Sobei Mogi and Taijiro Mogi. In addition
to the head office, it has branches at Tokyo
and Takasaki. and two new branches are
now being contemplated, to be opened at
Kyoto and Osaka.
The Mogi Mining Department controls
various mines in which the house is interested,
and also two refineries where crude copper
and zinc ores are treated. It employs a
technical and clerical staff of 150, not count-
ing the workmen. The department has its
own offices at No. 13 Akashi-cho, Tsukiji,
Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo.
The Mogi Raw Silk Department directs
the operations of several factories which have
an annual output of 14,000 bales. The
factories are the Sanrj-usha, in Okazaki,
Mikawa Province, the Asahisha, Gumma
iMi
:: l^'!
S ISAACS & CO., YOKOHAMA: VIEW IN SILK GODOWN — INTERIOR OF CURIOS GODOWN
— EXTERIOR VIEW OF PREMISES
i
1
!#^" ■
r
(r^i_.
j^
j '
-^
rJq
' — ^
t
^inrlfll'ii'll'il'llilhl
tniiiliiii'llir''
ll'ji'i.
MOGI & COMPANY, YOKOHAMA: VIEW OF THE HANDSOME NEW PREMISES — INTERIOR OF THE MOGI BANK
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
257
Prefecture, and the Shinshosha, in Gifu
Prefecture. These factories employ a staff
of 200 and about 7,000 women workers. The
([uality of the raw silk is of the highest grade
in Japan and the system and equipment are
the most modem.
The Mogi Dry-Goods Department is an old
"Nozawaya," well known among tourists
visiting Yokohama. There are two stores in
Yokohama, and the employees number 120.
Small as it may appear, yet this is the cradle
business out of which Mr. Mogi's forefather
started.
The Mogi Commercial and Industrial
Department controls a vast number of inter-
ests in which the house has direct or indirect
investments.
Naturally to control such a widely diversi-
fied business, there must be a central direct-
orate and it is known as the Mogi Somubu,
or the Mogi General Control Department,
which undertakes the whole superintendence
and financial control of the various interests.
The head oflfice is situated at No. 30
Benten-dori, Yokohama City. The principal
officers are: Mr. S. Mogi, President; Messrs.
J. Takahashi, T. Nagayo, and S. Yamaguchi,
Directors. The various departments of the
Mogi business employ all together staffs of
about one thousand.
DAVIS, SUMMERS & CO., YOKOHAMA
The business of this well known firm was
originall}' founded in Kob6 in igi2, under the
name of Summers & Co., and became known
under its present name in the following year,
when the head office was established in
Yokohama. From the point of view of
business experience on the part of its founders
and partners, it would have been indeed
surprising had not success been almost
immediately achieved by the firm. The
partners are Messrs. E. C. Davis, E. H.
Summers, and H. V. Summers. Mr. Davis
had been Managing Director of Samuel
Samuel & Co., Ltd., from 1902 to 1912, having
been with that company for seventeen years
from the time he first entered its service in
London. Mr. H. V. Summers had also been
with the same company for fifteen years as
Chief Shipping Clerk, working under the
direction of Mr. Davis. His brother, Mr.
E. H. Summers, had been manager for various
firms in Kob6 for eighteen years, up to the
time he left Messrs. A. Cameron & Co. to
enter business on his own account with the
firm of Summers & Co. Quite apart from the
lengthy experience and wide knowledge of
conditions in Japan which these records of
business suggest, the Messrs. Summers are
fluent speakers of Japanese, and have estab-
lished the most intimate relations with
Japanese business men, especially in shipping
circles.
The development of the operations of
Davis, Summers & Co. has been very rapid,
and in several directions the firm is to-day
doing a larger business than any other foreign
concern. This is particularly so in ship
chartering, which is imder the management
of Mr. H. V. Summers. Details of the firm's
operations in this department of commerce
will be found in the notice of Davis, Summers
& Co., Kobe Branch, which follows. The
Yokohama office is mainly concerned w-ith
the export trade. Davis, Summers & Co.
deal only in export lines. Apart from a wide
range of general merchandise, manufactured
&i
DAVIS, SUMMERS & CO., YOKOHAMA: INTERIOR OF ONE OF THE GODOWNS THE OFFICE PREMISES
258
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE MUNICIPAL OFFICES, YOKOHAMA
goods of all kinds, curios, silks, etc., the firm
has made a speciality of Japanese wallpaper,
of which they export possibly ninety per cent
of the entire shipments from Japan. They
also handle grass cloth, and are the only
exporters of Orientine," which is a highly
refined Fuller's earth used for cleansing edible
oils. This particular product of Japan has
experienced a phenomenal rise in values.
At one time it was sold at £ 5 per ton, but
recent quotations have gone over £ 30 per ton.
The firm manufactiu'es shirts, pyjamas,
underware, robes, garments, etc. These and
other lines mentioned are shipped mainly to
the United States, though some portion goes
to Canada and elsewhere. The Yokohama
head office and the extensive godowns of the
firm are situated at No. 208 Yamashita-cho.
Mr. Davis, who has charge of the firm's
interests at Yokohama, has spent twenty-one
years in Japan, and is a prominent rtiember of
the foreign community, being associated with
a number of foreign sporting and semi-public
bodies. He is Chairman of the Executive
Committee of the Nippon Race Clul^, and has
been associated with the sport of horse-racing
for twenty years or more. He was for six
years President of the Amateur Dramatic
Club, Chairman of the Foreign Board of
Trade for two years, and was also, for a time,
Consul for Peru.
DAVIS, SUMMERS & CO., KOBE
The Kob6 branch of Messrs. Davis,
Summers & Co. was first estabUshed in 1912
and was for some time the head office of the
firm, until the extension of the business to
Yokohama. Messrs. E. H. and H. V. Sum-
mers are the resident partners, and have
under their direction the shipping inter-
ests of the firm, and the handling of special
lines for which Kob6 is noted. The firm
does an extensive export business in all
classes of goods, their specialties being:
floor coverings, comprising cotton rugs and
carpets, grass mats and carpets, jute rugs,
mattings, woollen rugs and similar articles;
cotton and silk goods of all kinds; enamel
ware; glassware; chip, hemp, and straw
braids; glass bottles: shell, bone, and metal
buttons; all classes of agricultural pro-
ducts, cereals and manufactures, chemicals,
matches, etc.
The Shipping Department, under the direc-
tion of Mr. H. V. Summers, has been a
remarkably successful feature of the business,
largely owing to the close relations established
with Japanese concerns. The firm acts as
brokers for the sale and charter of steamers.
A large number of Japanese ships have been
sold to the Allied Governments and private
companies, and many charters have been
arranged, not only with foreigners, but
with the Japanese people. Messrs. Davis,
Summers & Co. represent the Kishimoto
Kisen Kaisha of Osaka as Foreign Agents.
They are also agents for the London &
Lancashire Fire Insurance Co. and the
Scottish Union and National Insurance Co.
of London and Edinburgh. The Kobe
office and godowns are at No. 62 Naniwa-
machi. Mr. H. V. Summers is the Consul
for Sweden at Kobe.
ABE KOBEI COMPANY
The enterprises in which Mr. Kobei Abe
and his family connections are interested are
so numerous, so varied, and so important.
that every justification exists for describing
Mr. Abe as the foremost business man in the
Yokohama district, and his firm as one of
the most influential in the whole of Japan.
Mr. Abe has been closely associated with
trade and commerce in Yokohama since he
started his business in 1873. In those early
days he established a reputation for progress
and enterprise, and with the lapse of time
the firm has grown out of all recognition.
It is not easy to describe the entire business
operations of the Abe Kobei Company,
because they embrace so many distinct
branches of trade, industry, and commerce.
From the head office at Yokohama the firm
handles a general import and export business,
covering practically every line. The princi-
pal items of trade are sugar, flour, wheat,
bran, rice, rice bran, beans, peas, hemp,
cotton, cotton yam, superphosphates, sulph-
ate of ammonia, sulphuric ash, jute, Hessian
cloth, gunny bags, tallow, bean cake, hemp
seed, rape seed and rape seed cake, ground
nuts cake and every kind of fertilizer, rubber
goods, wire rope, electric apparatus and
machinery. Branches of the business are
established at Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Kob^,
Shimonoseki, Nagasaki, Naha, Taichu, Takao,
Shanghai, Tientsin, Hankow, Tsingtau, Dai-
ren, Tsinan, Shashi, Manila, Calcutta, and
New York, with agencies and connections
all over the world. The trade mark of
"ABK" in a diamond is as well known
abroad as the firm's trade mark for Japan
is famous throughout the Empire.
Mr. Abe has adopted the happy idea of
making his most trusted employees co-
partners with him in the business. The
manager of each branch office is 'appointed
with his sons, adopted sons, or grandsons,
as partners, so that the business is being
carried on most faithfully and energetically
with family ties binding all the principals in
a common interest. The total number of
employees in the head office and all branches
is 760, so it may be seen how substantially
the firm's operations utilise labour. The
firm is the selling agent for many important
manufacturing companies, handling the entire
output of certain factories, and transacting
a volume of general business of an immense
annual value. The General Manager is
Mr. Y. Aotani.
What services Mr. Abe has rendered to
the development of the commerce of Japan
may be seen from the statement of his main
activities, outside the direction of his own
private business. His firm stands third
among the many great and famous houses
of Japan, as a supporter of other enterprises.
Abe Kobei Company are large shareholders
in different concerns, and in this respect
they rank first in Kanagawa Prefecture,
m
Ml
THE OSAKA BRANCH OF ABE KOBEI — THE HEAD OFFICE AT YOKOHAMA
260
P R E S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
which embraces the great trading centre of
Yokohama. Mr. Abe personally is con-
nected with the Second Bank, Ltd., the
Yokohama Fertilizer Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd., the Land and Sea Enterprise Co., Ltd.,
of Taiwan, the Iwaki Cement Co., Ltd., the
Yensuiko Sugar and Development Co., Ltd.,
Japan and China Spinning Co., Ltd., the
Japan Flour Milling Co., Ltd., Japan-Taiwan
Tea Co., Ltd., Japan Steel Pipe Co., Ltd.,
Tsurumi Land Co., Ltd., Daian Life Insur-
ance Co., Ltd., Tainan Sugar Manufacturing
Co., Ltd., Manchuria Flour Milling Co.,
Ltd., Omura-wan Pearl Co., Ltd., Oki-Dai
Development and Sugar Co., Ltd., Japan
Crystal Sugar Co., Ltd., Kagi Electric Light
Co., Ltd., Imperial Sugar Manufacturing
Co., Ltd., and the Japan Delicious Fermen-
tation Co., Ltd.
Naturally such a successful business
career as Mr. Abe has had has made him a
w-ealthy man, but it is claimed that he is a
liberal investor and is always ready to sup-
port any new enterprise that will add to the
wealth of Japan. He is the largest tax-
payer in Kanagawa Prefecture. Mr. Abe
has held a number of public and semi-public
positions. He is a member of the Standing
Committee of the Yokohama Chamber of
Commerce, and has been President of the
Sugar Trading Association since it was
established in 1874.
SUZUKI & CO.
One of the largest commercial houses in
Japan is Suzuki & Co., a firm that is known
all over the world, through its widely scat-
tered branch offices, and the great extent of
its foreign trade. The firm is a remarkably
well organised concern, and through its
different departments it transacts business
in practically every line of trade and com-
merce, imports and exports taking a foremost
place, while such enterprises as camphor and
menthol refineries, rice mills, chemical works,
coal mines, and distilleries are also conducted.
Messrs. Suzuki & Co. are the managers for
a number of industrial concerns, and also
act as selling agents for many others, the
full list of these agencies being given in the
Kob6 section of this publication. (See
page 661.) Branches are established through-
out Japan, and one of the most important
is at No. 73 Hon-cho, Gochorne, Yokohama.
At the Yokohama branch the firm handles
a large variety of imports and exports,
particularly those which are germane to the
port and district. Imports comprise such
lines as sugar, rice, wheat, flour, cotton,
wool, fertilizers, iron, steel and shipbuilding
materials, machinery, metals, ores, timber,
chemicals, etc. The principal exports are
brown and polished rice, beans, peas, and
other agricultural produce, potato starch,
vegetable wax, isinglass, rape and peanut oil,
bean oil, copper, antimony and other metals,
suljihur, superphosphates, cement and other
Jai)anese products and manufactures. An ex-
tensive business is transacted and the branch
worthily maintains the high reputation which
Messrs. Suzuki & Co. have established.
SIIIB.\K.\WA & CO.
This firm has been identified with the im-
port and export trade of Japan from the very
earliest days of the opening of the ports to
foreign trade, the business originally having
been established by the late Mr. Shibakawa
as far back as 1866. From its inception
the business was prosperous and many
important connections were formed in
foreign countries. A reorganisation took
place in 1903 when the business was turned
into a limited partnership, with the head
office at No. 10, Koraibashi, 3-chome, Osaka.
From that stage the development has been
very rapid, branch after branch being inaug-
urated to cope with the growing business.
In 1905 a branch office was opened at Tokyo,
and this was followed by branches at Kobe
and Yokohama. So far as foreign business
is concerned the firm opened a branch office
at Hamburg, Germany, in 191 1, but on the
outbreak of the war this was transferred to
London, the office there being located at
No. no, FenchuTch Street, from where all
the business in the United Kingdom and on
the Continent is transacted.
As exporters, Messrs. Shibakawa and Co.
are principally interested in woollen and
cotton goods, linen goods, habutai and other
silk goods, hosierj', yams, oils, buttons,
minerals, agricultural and marine products,
as well as all descriptions of manufactured
articles, curios, etc. The company has very
close connections with many of the leading
cotton and woollen factories in Japan, such
as the Osaka Woollen Manufacturing Co.,
the Nippon Woollen Manufacturing Co., the
Tokyo Woollen Manufacturing Co., Tokyo
Woollen Cloth Manufacturing Co., the
Tokyo Weaving Co., the Imperial Hemp
Manufacturing Co., the Nippon Worsted
Spinning Co. and many others. Imported
lines handled in large quantities by Shi-
bakawa & Co. comprise woollen and cotton
goods, yams, wool tops, metals, paper,
paper pulp, chemicals, drugs, and machinery.
The bulk of the export business is transacted
from the Yokohama and Kobe offices, while
the Osaka office looks after imports. The
Yokohama branch is located at No. 202
Yamashita-cho, and is under the manage-
ment of Mr. T. Tono. Mr. Eisuke Shi-
bakawa is the President of the company.
THE YOKOHAMA NURSERY COMPANY,
LI.MITED
A NEVER-F.\iLiNG souTCc of delight to the
visitor to Japan who is also a lover of Nature,
is the national passion for trees, shrubs, and
flowers, and the joy of cultivating them.
The Japanese are unquestionably wonder-
ful gardeners, and there is hardly a visitor
who does not wish to take away with him
some specimens of the flora of the country.
This desire has been recognised by the
YOKOHAMA BRANCH OFFICE OF SUZUKI & CO.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
261
Yokohama Nursery Company, Limited,
which has made it iiossiblc and practicable
for all classes of plants and shrubs and the
famous dwarf trees of Jajjan to be exported
to all parts of the world. It is almost unnec-
essary to say that the fame of this enterprise
has spread abroad wherever the products of
its gardens and nurseries have been exported,
and the fact that so many specimens of
Japanese floriculture and arboriculture are
to be found in Europe and America, as well
as in Australia, is largely due to the fact that
the export of such has been turned into almost
a science by the Yokohama Nursery Com-
pany, Limited. The company is the oldest
and largest organisation of its kind in the
East. The original founders were the late
Messrs. U. Suzuki, M. Yamaguchi, A. lijima,
and S. Suda, of the former Gardeners' Asso-
ciation, which was reorganised into a limited
liability company and incorporated in 1890
under the present title. The existing Board
of Directors comprises Messrs. H. Suzuki,
President: S. Tokuda, G. Tanabe, R.
Yamaguchi, and S. lida. Manager. All
these gentlemen are well known in flori-
cultural circles throughout Japan, and
their expert knowledge of conditions abroad,
and of the requirements for the export
of the choicest specimens of Japanese
plants, seeds, bulbs, etc., is recognised
by scientific gardeners all over the world.
The company has made a specialty of
the business. It is fully equipped for
collecting varied examples of horticultural
and agricultural products from extensive
territories of wide latitudinal range, and
topographical and climatic conditions. A
YOKOHAMA PREMISES OF SHIBAKAVVA & CO.
lengthy experience, and continued corre-
spondence with foreign customers, have made
the company fully acquainted with all the
intricacies of shipment and seasons when
acclimatisation can be expected to take
place with the best results. From its exten-
sive nurseries and beautiful gardens, to which
visitors to Japan are always cordially invited,
the company annually despatches huge
numbers of plants, seeds, and shrubs, the
packing and shipment being conducted
under the most approved methods. Apart
from the export of the items mentioned the
company carries on the business of land-
WINDING HEMP BRAID INTO BUNDLES FOR EXPORT
scape garden architects; florists and general
horticulturists; growers, exporters, and im-
porters of lily bulbs, garden, forest, and
agricultural seeds, nursery stocks, orchids,
porcelain pots, bamboo stakes, stone lanterns,
horticultural sundries, botanical drugs, grains,
etc. Since its foundation the company has
grown in a remarkable manner, and is well
represented abroad, having branch offices
in the Woolworth Building, New York, at
Craven House, Kingsway, London, and at
Vladivostock. The Yokohama address is
P. O. Box No. 72. The main nursery is
at Nakamura, Yokohama. Branches are
also maintained at Otaru and Tokyo. The
experimental nursery ground is at Nakayama,
near Kanagawa, and the iris and peony
garden is at Kamata, half-way between
Yokohama and Tokyo. It is interesting to
note that the company has done a great
service to Japan by advertising the products
of the land in foreign countries. It is always
well represented at international expositions
and has received, among other honours, a
diploma from the Japan-British Exposition
of London, 1910; silver cups from the
Royal Horticultural Society, London, 1912,
and grand prize, diploma of honour, six
gold medals, and five silver medals from the
Panama-Pacific Exposition, 191 5. A valu-
able and highly interesting catalogue is issued
every year, which contains a mass of useful
information regarding Japanese plants and
flowers, and also embodies a simple code
for telegraphic orders. This catalogue is
widely distributed abroad and may be had
on application. The whole enterprise is a
tribute to Japanese business methods, and
of intense interest to foreigners.
18
YOKOHAMA NURSERY COMPANY, LTD.: SCENE IN THE PACKING DEPARTMENT SHOWING THE GRADING OF LILY BULBS — PLANTATION
OF LILIUM SPECIOSUM RUBRAM — IRIS GARDEN AT KAMATA DWARF PINE TREE — P.EONIA MOUTAN SPECIMEN
DWARF WISTARIA TREE — AN ARBOUR IN THE GARDEN THE MAIN OFFICE IN YOKOHAMA
PRESENT-DAY IxMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
263
JAPAN IMPORT AND EXPORT COMMISSION
COMPANY
This business was established in Japan
some twenty-five years ago by Mr. B.
Guggenheim of New Yorlv. It comprises
a general import and export agency, business
being transacted directly, or for others on
commission. The (irm also manufactures
several lines, notably brushes, in Osaka, and
porcelains, at Nagoya. The works at the
latter city have a large output of the highest
class of porcelain ware. Main lines of export
arc manufactured silks, toys, brushes, porce-
lain and fancy goods, as well as general
produce and manufactures. The head office
is at No. 63, Yokohama, where there are also
godowns for the classification, packing, and
shipping of all classes of exports. The office
and works at Nagoya cover 2,000 Isttbo.
There is a branch at Koh6. The partners
of the firm are Messrs. B. Guggenheim of
New York, and F. P. Solomon, resident in
Japan, both of whom have had a lengthy
and valuable experience of the requirements
of trade between Japan and foreign countries.
INTERNATIONAL TRADING CORPORA-
TION, LIMITED
A VIGOUROUS development has been witness
of the business activities of the International
YOKOHAMA PREMISES OF THE JAPAN IMPORT ANO E.KPORT COMMISSION COMPANY
Trading Corporation, Ltd., although this
company only came into existence on July i ,
1917. From the outset of its operations the
company adopted the wise policy of being
strongly represented in every important
centre of foreign trade, and to this end
branches were established at KobiS, Yoko-
hama, and Tokyo, the head oflice being
located in Osaka. At each of these respec-
tive centres the International Trading Corpo-
ration, Ltd., has concentrated on the special
lines for which that district is noted. At
the Yokohama Branch, which is located at
No. 225 Yamashita-cho, the principal lines
of export are raw silk, silk piece goods,
drawn thread work, embroideries and similar
textile products, chemicals and drugs, hemp
braids, lumber, metal goods of all kinds,
paper, produce, sulphur, superphosphates,
tinned goods, wires and cables, a large trade
being done with the United States, Canada,
the South Seas, China, and India. In
imports the company handles such lines as
chemicals, drugs, dyes and colours, lumber,
machinery and tools, motor cars, metals and
metal goods of all descriptions, nitrate of
soda and other fertilizers, paper mill supplies,
paper and pulp, wool, cotton, and linen goods.
The capital of the company is Yen 2,000,-
000. Mr. Matsao Kita is the President and
Mr. Kintaro Sugiyama is the Managing
Director.
G. KUMAZAWA & CO.
From the priesthood to be proprietor of one
of the most successful businesses in Japan, is
the story of Mr. G. Kumazawa, principal of
the well-known firm which bears his name.
The history of Messrs. G. Kumazawa & Co. is
indeed interesting. The founder of the busi-
ness was originally a priest in the Zen sect of
Buddhism, a sect noted for the high degree of
culture and the virtues of its followers. Mr.
Kumazawa was not yet twenty years of age
when lie took a keen interest in the efforts
being made to establish Japan's trade with
foreign countries. This was then in its
infancy and Mr. Kumazawa, regretting the
slow development, decided to give up the
priesthood and devote himself to the task of
promoting foreign trade. He gave the matter
minute and thorough investigation. Then
getting together all the capital he could, which
was hardly Yen 1,000, he launched out in
business as an importer and exporter, making
Yokohama his headquarters. This was in
the year 1886. At that time trade with
Russia was very small, compared with the
trade between Japan and Great Britain and
the United States. Mr. Kumazawa saw an
opportunity in this direction, and established
close relations with merchants in Russia.
The business was developed very well, when
264
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
disaster came in the form of the Russo-
Jajjanesc War. A large number of merchants
then went bankrupt, anil included among them
was Mr. Kumazawa, who was rendered penni-
less. However, he started again and by
honesty and soimd methods in his business
management he soon had laid the foundations
of permanent prosperity. The opening of
the Kobe branch led to a strong trade with
China and the South Sea Islands, and the
Russian business was brought up to its
present vigour by the branches at Harbin
and Moscow. More recently, Mr. Kumazawa
despatched his representatives to Lima, Peru,
to open up trade with South America gener-
ally, and a partnership was entered into with
a large cotton cloth dealer in New York, a
movement that bids fair to make Mr. Kuma-
zawa a pioniinent figure in that trade.
The main business of Messrs. G. Kumazawa
& Co. is export and import of different lines
connected with the textile industries gener-
ally. The firm is engaged in the manufacture
and sale of silk and cotton piece goods,
several factories being controlled for this
purpose. In addition the firm handles a
large range of general manufactures and
]5roducts, the principal exports being silk
fabrics, cotton fabrics, silk and cotton manu-
factures, curios and other articles, which are
shipped to Russia, England, North and South
America, Australia, the South Sea Islands,
India, and China. Various kinds of raw
materials are imported from Russia and
America. Messrs. G. Kumazawa & Co. have
extensive offices and godowns at 273 Yama-
shita-cho, Yokohama. The offices occupy a
two-story brick building covering an area of
96 tsiibo, while the godowns are four-storied
brick premises of modern construction with
an area of 634 Isubo. Branches are estab-
lished at Kob6, Harbin, and Moscow. There
are 143 employees, and the salaries and wages
total about 175,000 yen per annum. Mr.
Kumazawa is the principal of the business,
and he is fortunate in having under his
direction a highly capable and loyal staff.
The relation between the proprietor and staff
is that of a father and sons, and a keen esprit
de corps prevails throughout the personnel.
From the original Yen i ,000, with which this
important business was founded, the capital
has now grown to Yen 1,000,000, and some
idea of the volume of business transacted may
be gained from the statement that the value
of the trade done reaches over Yen 10,000,000
per annum.
AMERIC.\N EXPRESS COMl'.XNV
I.N the course of the consistent development
and expansion of its foreign service, the
American Express Company has recently
established a branch in Yokohama at 75-A,
Yamashita-cho (Main Street). The average
American is familiar with this company in
connection with the express business which it
operates in the United States and Canada,
where its service extends over 57,000 miles of
railways, with over 10,000 agencies in the
United States and Canada. In the foreign
fields the company maintains some tw-enty-
three offices in Europe, and is established in
Buenos Ayres, Manila, and Hong Kong, and
will shortly be at Shanghai. These offices are
established with salaried employees engaged
exclusively in the company's service, trans-
acting its business under uniform and
systematic methods attained after many
INTERN ATION.\L TR.^DING CORPOR.\TION, LTD.: li.\LIXG GOODS IX THE SILK-SHIPPING GODOWX —
YOKOHAM.A OFFICES AND GODOWNS — INTERIOR OF SILK GODOWN
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
265
years of successful experience. They act as
General Forwarding Agents for both small
and heavy shipments, in connection with
express or freight service to and from various
parts of the world, and act as General Foreign
Agents of the Now York Central Lines and
Merchants Despatch for freight traffic.
In addition, the company carries on the
various operations connected with foreign
exchange, such as arranging for commercial
credits, sale and purchase of drafts, cheques,
T/Ts, etc. The well-known Trav'ellers'
Cheque, originated by the American Express
Co., is quite familiar to travellers as a safe
and convenient means of carrying funds in
negotiable form in all countries.
THE SHLMIDZU TRADING CO.
Mk. T. S. Shimidzu has built up an exten-
sive import and export trade within the
past ten or eleven years. He started in
business on his own account in 1906 with
a small capital of Yen 20,000, and by close
attention to the requirements of foreign
trade formed valuable connections abroad,
and increased his turnover very largely,
finally forming his business into the Shimidzu
Trading Co., with the present capital of
Yen 50,000. The firm has its head office
and godowns at No. 24-E, Yamashita-cho,
Yokohama, and there is a branch at Sakaye-
Machi, 3-chome, Kob^. The buildings are
of stone and are modern in construction.
Among the principal imports handled by
the Shimidzu Trading Co. are iron and
steel, wool tops, woollen cloth, machinery,
and chemicals. These lines are imported
mainly from Great Britain and the United
States. As exporters, the Shimidzu Trad-
ing Co. handles beans, peas, rice, dried pro-
visions, natural products, electrical goods,
stationery, woollen yarns and cloth, silk
and silk goods, toys, cotton yams, glassware,
rubber goods, hosiery, leather goods, shoe
laces, cotton goods, chemicals, and almost
all lines of merchandise and manufactured
articles and produce of Japan. An exten-
sive trade is now being done with the United
States, Great Britain, India, France, Russia,
Egypt, South Africa, Italy, Canada, and
elsewhere. Messrs. Hongo & Co., Nassau
Street, New York, are the agents in the
United States for the Shimidzu Trading Co.
SOUTHERN PACIFIC TRADING CO.,
LIMITED
A RAPID development has taken place in
the export trade between Japan and the
South Seas, particularly since the outbreak
of the war. Much of this expansion is due
to the activities of such companies as the
Southern Pacific Trading Co., Ltd., which
was founded some time ago by a number
of prominent Yokohama business men,
included among whom were Messrs. S. Koro,
H. Ogawa, W. Watanabe, R. Okano, N.
Yoshinaga, M. Mayeda, and A. Matsuoka.
The capital of this company is Yen 1,000,-
000, and the head office is at No. 22
Honcho, Nichome, Yokohama.
The Southern Pacific Trading Co., Ltd.,
has its own vessels, and is now importing
large quantities of various raw products,
principal among which is copra, from the
many islands in the Pacific. In return, the
company exports a full line of general mer-
chandise and Japanese specialties, the largest
trade being done in provisions, cloth, earthen-
ware, and beer. Another department is the
agency for shipping and freight between
Japan and the islands. Branches have been
established at Tokyo, Suva (Fiji Islands),
Menado (in the Celebes), and Petta, at
Sangir Island.
The President of the Southern Pacific
Trading Co., Ltd., is Mr. S. Koro. The
Managing Director is Mr. H. Ogawa, and
HEAD OFFICE AND GODOWNS OF C. KU.MAZAWA S: CO.
M. DM) & CO., LTD.: PREP.\RING GOODS FOR EXPORT — VIEW IN THE SILK DEPARTMENT — BALING GOODS FOR
EXPORT — THE PREMISES OCCUPIED BY THE GENERAL TRADING DEPARTMENT
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSI 0_N S OF JAPAN
267
the other Directors are Messrs. W. Watan-
abe, R. Okano, and N. Yoshinaga.
ADET, CAMPREDON & CO.
Thk development of the foreign wine and
spirit trade in Japan is not the least of the
changes which have taken place in this coun-
try which is so quick to adjust its life to out-
side influences. In other sections of this
work we have referred to the growth of the
great brewing interests, and the acquisition
of. a taste for the best foreign wines and
spirits is a further indication of the rapidity
with which the Japanese have assimilated
Western ideas and manners, even in their
private lives. Messrs. Adet, Campredon &
Co. are among the most widely known, and
oldest of the foreign wine and spirit mer-
chants, transacting an ever-increasing volume
of trade, and enjoying a high reputation in
the foreign communities, and among the
Japanese. This business was established in
1887 by the late Messrs. Gustave Adet and
Gustave Campredon, under the firm name
and style of Adet & Campredon. They were
probably the first to install proper wine
cellars, and to establish local facilities for
the maturing and bottling of liquors imported
in bulk. As the result of thirty years'
experience in the local market, and with the
advantages which their enterprise have
given them, the firm has established itself
very strongly. An extensive business is done
with Japanese dealers, whose confidence
Messrs. Adet, Campredon & Co. enjoy.
The various hotels are regularly visited, so
that tlic different brands controlled by the
firm are always to be found in every i)art of
Japan and Formosa, as well as on the Imperial
Government Railway dining cars. Adjoin-
ing the office, which is at No. g$, Yamashita-
cho, Yokohama, are the vast cellars and
godowns in which are stored many old and
rare vintages of wines, etc. The bottling
department is one of the best equipped and
regulated in Japan.
The name of the firm was changed in 1897
to Adet, Campredon & Co., when Mr. Emile
Adet was admitted to partnership. The
founders have died, but the business remains
in the hands of relatives, the present partners
being Messrs. Charles Henry Moss (Managing
Partner) and M. Campredon.
The firm represents for Japan the following
concerns: Adet, Seward & Co., Bordeaux
(claret); Associated Vineyard Cultivators'
Association (Beehive Brandy) ; John Dewar &
Sons, Ltd., Perth, Scotland (whisky); P. de
Marcilly Freres, Beaune (burgundy); Alfred
de Montebello et Cie, Chateau de Mareuil-
sur-Ay (champagne); Charles Day & Co.,
London (gins); Diez Hermanos, Jerez de la
Frontera (sherry) ; Guimaraens y Cia,
Oporto and Silva and Cosens Oporto (ports) ;
Rutherford, Brown and Miles, Madeira
(madeira); W. A. Ross & Brother, Ltd.,
Liverpool (stout). In addition to this
list of first-class agencies, Adet, Campredon
& Co. are export agents for the Imperial
Mineral Water Co., Ltd., of Tokyo and
Osaka, whose aerated waters have the largest
sale on the local market and an extensive
sale abroad. They are also representatives
for Yokohama of the Coniite des Asstireurs
TVl'E OF SM.^LL HOME TII.E FACTORY
Maritimes de Bordeaux (Board of Under-
writers). Telegrams should be addressed
"Mossycamp" or "Adet," Yokohama, the
codes used by the firm being A. B. C. 4th and
5th editions, Bentley's and Western Union.
M. ONO & CO., INCORPORATED
Although established since the War, M.
Ono & Co. can not be regarded as a new
enterprise, but rather as ranking with the
oldest in Yokohama, for there are few better
known or more highly respected business men
in Japan than the President and founder,
Mitsukage Ono, Esq., member of the House
of Peers, President of the Yokohama Fire,
Marine, Transit & Fidelity Insurance Co.,
Auditor of the First Fire, Marine & Re-Insur-
ance Co., member of the Board of Trustee of
Yokohama Commercial School, prominent
Yokohama silk merchant, former president
of the Yokohama Specie Bank, Ltd., former
president of Yokohama Chamber of Com-
merce, former president of Silk Association of
Yokohama, and former Mayor of Yokohama.
Mr. M. Ono is also responsible for the pro-
motion of the Yokohaina Harbour Scheme
recently completed, and many other improve-
ments which ha\'e benefited the port. The
principal business of the concern is the
exportation of silk and it is because Mr. M.
Ono is one of the oldest living silk merchants
in the country, commencing, as he actually
did, as a wholesale dealer in 1883, that the
concern may be considered in the light of an
old established house branching out into new
lines, and generally expanding.
Mr. Tetsuro Ono, son of the above gentle-
man, and Managing Director of this company,
has had all the advantages of a first-class
European and American commercial training
and holds a prominent position in Japan.
He is a director of the Tokyo Silk & Woollen
Milling Co., Ltd., the Japan Veneer Manu-
facturing Co., Ltd., and other enterprises.
Connections have been formed with the
United States of America, Dominion of
Canada, England, France and other countries
in Europe, South American republics, Austra-
lia, New Zealand, India, and China, etc. for
the importation of iron, steel, hardware, ma-
chinery, stationery, chemicals, cotton, rubber,
leather, hemp, wool, bristles, tallows, wax,
rosin, fertilizers and all kinds of raw materials.
In addition to raw silk, which they handle
to the extent of more than fifty thousand
bales annually, at the present market rates
valued approximately at Yen 75,000,000,
habutai, silk and cotton goods, hosiery,
notions, veneer manufactured goods, vege-
table oil, beans, seeds, peanuts, canned fish,
etc., and a long list of raw materials embrac-
ing practically everything produced in the
country, arc also exported.
268
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ADET, CAMPREDON & CO.,
YOKOHAMA: A CORNER OF THE BOTTLING AND PACKING DEPARTMENT -
VIEW OF WINE AND SPIRITS CELLAR
A large staff is employed, the heads of
departments, like Mr. T. One, for example,
speaking English and other languages with
fluency. It may be observed that such
modem and progressive organisations as M.
Ono & Co. will do much to maintain the
trade of the country in the competitive
struggle that it is probable will ensue with
the return of peace.
IWAKAMI & CO.
IWAKAMI & Co. is another firm which
enjoys an excellent and well earned reputa-
tion, and from the most modest beginning
has achieved a prominent place in the Import
and Export Trade of Japan. The firm was
first established in Yokohama in 1889, and
in 1893 opened its first branch at Sino.
Further branch offices are now maintained
at Osaka, Kobe, Ashikaga, Hawaii, San
Francisco, and New York, and agents have
been appointed at Seattle. Los Angeles,
Ogden, Salt Lake City, Vancouver, Manila,
in Korea and Formosa, and in Chili, Peru
and other points in South America.
Mr. Iwakami has very considerable inter-
ests in various industrial concerns for the
manufacture of cotton crepe and -silk goods,
which represent the principal lines of export.
In addition, textiles, hemp and straw braids,
and matches are exported. Tinned crab,
shrimps, and salmon, for the preparation
of which the company operates its private
packing plant, as well as rice and beans
from their own mills, are other important
export lines. Imports handled include iron,
tin plate, drugs, dyestuflfs, leather, machinery,
chemicals, and practically any other com-
modity for which there is a demand in the
market.
About one hundred and fiftj' clerks are
employed in all branches, and agents are
maintained in the manufacturing centres
to command buying facilities.
Mr. Iwakami, the founder and president
of the company, is greatly interested in the
encouragement of industry and is personally
connected with many ventures. The Ashahi
Textile Co. is under his direct management,
and he is also a director of the Nippon
Cotton Crepe Co., Ltd.
Editorial Note: — Interesting details in
connection with other import and export
houses located in Kobe, Osaka, Shizuoka,
Shimonoseki, Moji, Dairen, and Keijo are
given in the sections dealing ii\-ith these cities.
1^
[i^^^^ijljjjk^ntj^ijv\i>^^ii{jn^^^^^^ij^^uiu\i
IWAKAMI & CO.: GODOWNS AT OSAKA — KOB^ GODOWNS — YOKOHAMA PREMISES AND STAFF — SAN FRANCISCO BRANCH
m
m
BABCOCK & WILCOX, LIMITED: ELECTRIC COAL HOIST INSTALLED BY THE COMPANY FOR THE OSAKA ELECTRIC LIGHT CO., LTD. BOILER
INSTALLATION AT THE KANEGAFUCHI SPINNING COMPANY'S PLANT — AN EXAMPLE OF THE STOCK OF COMPLETE WORKING MODELS OF
THE company's VARIOUS IMPORTANT INSTALLATIONS — BOILER HOUSE EQUIPPED FOR THE OSAKA ELECTRIC LIGHT CO., LTD.
XIV. Machinery Importers and
Exporters
BABCOCK & WILCOX, LIMITED
WHEREVER the steam boiler is
known the name of Babcock &
Wilcox is famiUar, for it stands for
the greatest progress made in the science of
development of power from steam. The
boiler with which the name is inseparably as-
sociated is manufactured both in England and
America, but it is only with the British com-
pany that this present article deals. Babcock
& Wilcox, Limited, is an old established com-
pany, and quite apart from its great work for
the manufacture of boilers, it is to-day one of
the largest manufacturers of engineering
plants in the world, employing in peace time
upwards of 6,000 people, and having its fac-
tories, assembling shops, and repair plants es-
tablished in practically every centre of the
world. Some idea of the high appreciation
in which the Babcock & Wilcox boiler is held
by the engineering world may be gathered
from the fact that over 12,000,000 horsepower
land type and over 3,000,000 horsepower
marine type of boilers have been installed in
all classes of industries ashore and afloat. The
British and American, also a number of the
other navies of the world, have adopted the
system, and have installed Babcock & Wilcox
boilers, and in the mercantile marine these
are coming daily more into use. Where wa-
ter tube boilers of lighter make are required,
as for instance in torpedo boats, the
company make, under license, the White
Forster boiler.
It is interesting to note that in Japan alone
Babcock & Wilcox boilers generating 428,000
H. P. are in use. Among the large boiler
plants installed by the company in Japan
may be mentioned those at the Imperial Steel
Works, Yawata, the Japan Steel Works,
Muroran, the Kawasaki and Mitsubishi
Dockyards, the naval arsenals, and at the
Imperial Palace. A great number of the
largest power houses and electric light stations
use Babcock & Wilcox boilers, and generally,
the manufacturing and industrial concerns of
any magnitude in the Empire have installed
complete Babcock & Wilcox plants with their
component attachments such as superheaters,
automatic stokers, coal and ash conveyors,
pipework, etc.
It would be a mistake, however, to imagine
that the entire energies of the company are
devoted to boiler-making. That is the
original and principal business of the enter-
prise, but just as the operations of the com-
pany are widespread throughout the world,
so has their range of manufactures extended
until to-day it covers practically every line
incidental to the development of power, and
the manufacture of accessories. The Babcock
& Wilcox patent superheaters and mechan-
ical stokers and conveyors for coal, ashes, and
ores are as widely known and used as the
famous boilers. The company also manu-
factures steel buildings for the boiler and
engine houses of large plants, as well as
electric cranes, transporters, and practically
everything that is required for the equip-
ment of electricity-producing stations, except-
ing the steam engines and the electrical
machinery. Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd., have
carried out and have on order many con-
tracts which comprise steel buildings, boilers,
superheaters, mechanical stokers, all the
steam and water piping, pumps, water-
softening apparatus, circulating water pipes,
water filters, fuel and ash conveyors, and
ash ejectors. A department of the company's
business which has developed into a very well
organised and important one is that of the
manufacture of electric cranes of all descrip-
tions; for instance, overhead travelling
cranes for conveying goods or materials in
workshops or warehouses; cranes for charging
steel furnaces, or for conveying heated
billets of steel from furnaces to the rolling
machinery, and cranes for wharves and
docks for unloading goods from steamers.
Several important harbours have been
equipped with such cranes. They are
installed by the Admiralty, the Port of
London Authority, Hay's Wharf, London,
and on the South-Eastern and Chatham
Railway Company's docks at Dover, also in
numerous works, as well as abroad. A
number of these cranes are in use in Japan.
Babcock & Wilcox also make and install
coal-lifting and -conveying plants. They
manufacture oil engines, and hold patents
for boat davits which are rapidly coming
into general favour because of their advan-
tageous features.
The head offices of the British Com-
pany of Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd., are
at Farringdon Street, London, E. C, Eng-
land, and the main works are at Renfrew,
Scotland.
For well over a quarter of a century the
products of Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd., have
been used in Japan. The business with
that country was originally conducted
through agents, but about twelve years ago
the company opened its own branch in Yoko-
hama. Subsequent extensions were made
through branch offices at Osaka, Moji, and
Seoul. In 1912 Tokj'O was made the head-
quarters for Japan, offices being taken at
No. I, Yuraku-cho, Ichome, Kojimachi-ku.
Assembling and repair shops are maintained
at Yokohama, besides warehouses for the
stocks carried for the Japanese trade. The
Manager for Japan is Mr. H. E. Metcalf
and the Sub-Manager is Mr. J. Thompson.
L. J. HEALING & CO., LIMITED
The firm now known as L. J. Healing &
Co., Ltd., was originally founded by Mr.
L. J. Healing, who in a small way began
importing electrical material into Japan in
the latter part of 1891. For several years
Mr. Healing worked alone and it was not
until 1S97, when he took a trip back to Eng-
land, his native land, that he was joined by
Mr. Edwin Eddison, M. A., who looked
after the business in his absence and sub-
sequently joined him in partnership. The
business, which was confined entirely to
electrical, mechanical, and engineering work
gradually expanded, a branch being opened
in Kobe in 1903. It was not until 1907,
however, that the firm was registered in
London as a limited liability company with
a capital of £100,000, this being deemed a
necessary step in order to define the interests
of the partners.
Many important contracts have been
undertaken for the company, among which
may be mentioned the notable one of
erecting and equipping a complete Gas
Power Station for the Imperial Government
Railways of Japan. This plant is unique
in its waj', consisting of a 6,000 K. W. Mond
Gas Plant with Ammonia Recovery driving
four Nuremberg type gas engines of 2,500
H. P. each direct connected to a Dick-Kerr
Alternator of 1,500 K. W. This plant,
which was finished in 1914, has been a
complete success, running with the least
amount of trouble and generating elec-
tricity at a cost of under a farthing per
K. W. hour.
Tr^-
HEAD OFFICE OF MESSRS. L. J. HEALING & CO., LTD., TOKYO — ELECTRICAL POWER PLANT INST.\LLED AT KANAGAWA BY
MESSRS. L. J. HEALING & CO., LTD.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
^12^
PROMINENT FOREIGN ENGINEERS AND BUSINESS MEN OF TOKYO
(Left) L. Brl'sewitz, Managing Director, J. A. Kjellberg & Sons, Ltd. (Upper Row, Left to Right) H. E. Metcalf, Manager for Japan,
Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd. — W. Stanley Moss, Representative for Japan, Arthur Balfour & Co., Ltd. — Arthur Buckney, A. M. I. E. E.
(Middle Row) F. W. Horne, President, The F. W. Home Co. — E. W. Frazar, Managing Director, Sale & Frazar, Ltd. — L. J. Healing,
President, L. J. Healing & Co., Ltd. — W. Egbert Schenck, Treasurer and General Manager, The F. W. Horne Co. (Lower Row)
J. Thompson, Sub-Manager for Japan, Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd. — K. Gadelius, Proprietor of Gadelius & Co. — A. J. S. Lefroy, Representa-
tive of Thomas Firth & Sons, Ltd.
Besides this, a large producer plant has
been supplied to the South Manchuria
Railway, as well as a number of gas power
plants too numerous to mention here, all
of which have given the greatest satisfaction.
Besides gas power plants, a large number
of steam plants and water power plants
have been designed and su|:)p!ied by the
firm.
Another distinctive feature of the firm's
business has been the supply and erection
of town gas plants and among those may be
mentioned two retort houses to the Yoko-
hama Municipality, a large plant to the
Kobe Gas Company with two subsequent
extensions, a large plant to the Tokyo Gas
Company, and also a large number of
smaller ones in various other towns in
Japan.
Sugar mills have' been erected in Formosa,
and a number of all kinds of manufacturing
plants have also been supplied to the leading
business men in Japan.
It should also be mentioned that the impor-
tation of telegraphic apparatus has been par-
ticularly specialised in by the company, a
vast amount of apparatus having been fur-
nished to the Communication Department,
and nearly all the submarine cable imported
in recent years has passed through their hands,
the contracts running into millions of yen.
There is no branch of the engineering
business which the firm does not undertake,
and since Japan's development as a manufac-
turing company, an Export Department under
expert supervision, has been opened, confined
to engineering supplies and machinery.
The present Directors of the firm are
Messrs. L. J. Healing, J. I>. Graham, and
J. D. Collier in Japan, while Messrs. W.
Kemsley, G. E. Healing, and E. Tozer con-
stitute the London Board.
The London office is at 84, Fcnchurch
Street, while besides the head office at 24,
Unemecho, Tokyo, there are branch offices
at Osaka and Dairen.
JAMES MORRISON & CO., LIMITED
No better method can be found to give
an idea of the extent and importance of the
operations of Messrs. James Morrison &
Co., Ltd., the well-known firm of manu-
facturers' agents and representatives, than
to publish the following comprehensive list
of sole agencies held by them for Japan:
W. H. Allen, Son & Co., Ltd. Open and
Enclosed Engines (simple, compound, and
triple expansion types). Condensing Ma-
chinery (surface, barometric, and low-level
jet types), including "Allen-Edwards" recip-
rocating or "Kinetic" rotary air pumps.
"Conqueror" centrifugal low-lift and turbine
high-lift pumps. Fans for forced, induced
draught, and general ventilating purposes.
Vertical Enclosed Oil and Gas Engines.
Steam Turbines (radial flow and axial flow
types). Steam Driven Air Compressors.
Continuous current dynamos and motors and
control gear. Electrically driven coaling
winches, ash, ammunition, and boat hoists, etc.
JAMES MORRISON & CO., LTD. (jAP.\N BRANCH), .\GEXTS AND REPRESENT.\TIVES FOR W. H. .\LLEN SON & CO., LTD., BEDFORD, ENGLAND;
J. & E. HALL, LTD., DARTFORD, ENGLAND; P.\LMERS, LTD., JARROW-OX-TYNE; ROPEWAYS, LTD., LONDON; SAUTTER HARLE
& CIE, PARIS; RANSOMES & RAPIER, LTD., IPSWICH, ENGLAND; COCHRAN & CO., ANNAN, SCOTLAND;
MELDRUMS, LTD., MANCHESTER, ENGLAND; W. T. GLOVER & CO., LTD., MANCHESTER, ENGLAND
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
275
J. & E. Hull, Lid. Patent Carbonic
Anhydride (CO2) and Ammonia (NHn)
Ri-fri},'fralinj,' and Ice Making Machinery
for land and marine installations.
Palmers, Lid. Naval and Mercantile
Vessels of all descriptions. Blast Furnaces
and Rolling Mills, Galvanising Works. Pig
Iron Manufacture. Steel Manufacture.
Ropeways, Lid. "Roes" Patent System
of Aerial Rope Tramways and Transmission
Lines.
.Soulier Ilarle. Jean Rey's System of
Lighthouse Mirrors and Reflectors, Naval
and Military Searchlights, Makers of the
Patent Metallic Reflector, Military Auto-
mobiles, Submarine Mines.
Raiisomes & Rapier, Lid. The "Stoney"
Patent System of Water Control, Makers of
Water Sluice Gates for hydro-electric works,
river control irrigation and drainage work.
Cochran & Co., Lid. Patent Vertical
Multitubular Boilers for land and marine
use, adapted for coal or oil firing.
Meldrums, Lid. Mechanical Stokers for
all purposes of the coking and sprinkler types.
Dust Destructors.
W. T. Glover & Co., Lid. "Glovers"
Electric Cal^les for all purposes.
John Thornycraft & Co. Torpedo Boat
Destroyers, Mine Layers, Marine Motors
for all purposes.
Ilawlhorn, Leslie. Locomotives for all
purposes. Locomotive Cranes.
F. W. Scott. Steel Wire Ropes.
C. Isler & Co. Boring Plants for Pros-
pecting for Minerals, Oil and Water Supplies.
Hydraulic and Consulting Well Engineers.
Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies. Agricultural
Machinery for all purposes. Portable Engines.
Hick, Hargreaves. Horizontal Corliss Type
Engines.
It will be noted that the manufacturers
represented are of international reputation
since there are few parts of the globe where
their products, covering practically the whole
field of steam and electrical machinery, rail-
way and marine supplies, the latest mechan-
ical devices and installations of all descrip-
tions, are not in use.
The space at our disposal does not permit
of the inclusion of a complete list of the big
contracts handled in Japan, but it may be
observed that practically all departments of
the Japanese Government are continually
being supplied with important installations,
auxiliarj' machinery for the fleet, etc. Munic-
ipalities throughout the country are also num-
bered amongst the most important clients.
The head office of James Morrison & Co.,
Ltd., is at No. 5, Fenchurch Street, London,
and the Japan branch, under the manage-
ment of Mr .G. B. Slater, is at No. i, Yaye-
sucho Itchome, Kojimachiku, Tokyo.
To facilitate inquiries, which receive
immediate attention, it should bo noted
that the telegraphic address is Manifesto,
for both London and Tokj'O, and the follow-
ing codes are used: A. B. C. 4th & 5th
Editions, Bedford McNeil, Moreing & Neal's
New General and Mining Code, Western
Union and Private Code.
The Directors of the company are: Messrs.
S. C. Clarke, J. Ewart, C. B. Ewart, G. M.
Palmer, C. E. Wood, and E. C. Potter,
Secretary.
EDG.\R ALLEN & CO., LLMITED
WhilI'I it is recognised by those at all well
versed in the conditions of commerce and
industry in Japan that the Japanese have
made tremendous strides towards economic
self-reliance, it is equally well recognised that
there are still industries which present a wide
field of opportunity for the foreign manufac-
turer. One direction in which such an oppor-
tunity exists is that of the supply of special
steel castings, forgings, machine tools, tool steel
and so forth, for in this field the older
steel masters of England are without rival.
Their great experience, completely equipped
plants, and specialised processes maintain
their products against all competition, and
the Japanese themselves readily admit their
dependence upon such concerns for many
manufactures which Japan will not be in a
position to furnish for years to come.
These remarks apply to Edgar Allen & Co.,
Limited, who have held a prominent position
in the Japanese market for many years past.
This company and its special products are so
well known that it hardly seems necessary to
make more than passing reference to the
history of the business, or to those particular
features of its operations which have made it
world famous. The company's Imperial
Steel Works at Sheffield have acquired a
reputation that requires no discussion. The
business was founded in 1868 by the late Mr.
William Edgar Allen, LL.D., who manufac-
tured principally tool steel and files. Mr.
Allen sought his most important markets
abroad, and long ago established a reputation
for his special lines in Italy, Spain, Portugal
and other foreign coimtries. That this policy
of opening up and developing new fields of
enterprise has had a great deal to do with the
success of the Imperial Steel Works there can
be no doubt. Through careful study of
foreign requirements and conditions, and a
readiness to meet peculiar needs as ascer-
tained in other coimtries, Edgar Allen & Co.,
Limited, have always readily achieved
success wherever they have extended their
operations. Their experience in Japan has
proved no exception to this rule.
The late Mr. Allen developed the business
steadily, and lost no opportunity of acquiring
new and wider interests. He bought out the
very old established firm of Hoole, Staniforth
& Company, and in 1890 transformed the
business into the present limited liability
company. Three years later Edgar Allen &
Co., Limited, absorbed the interests of Ask-
ham Brothers & Wilson, Limited, who
specialised in points and crossings for railways
and tramways, and in the manufacture of
stone breakers, ore crushers, and grinding and
conveying machinery. Consistent with these
important additions to the manufacturing
capacity of the company, a progressive policy
of development has been followed right down
to the present day, and step by step Edgar
Allen & Co., Limited, have widened their
operations, and increased the number of
specialised lines of industry, thus assuring to
themselves a. strong position in the markets
of the world. From 1903 onward the prog-
ress of the company has been particularly
marked. The Imperial Steel Works covers
at present over 22 acres of ground and nor-
mally employs a technical staff of over 200,
with more than 2,000 workmen, though under
war conditions which have led to such
phenomenal expansion in the whole of Eng-
land's iron and steel industry, these figures
scarcely convey an idea of the activity which
prevails in the works. But we are not dealing
with the part which Edgar Allen & Co.,
Limited, have played and are playing in
support of the Allied cause. What is of
more vital interest in foreign fields is their
capacity to maintain British industrial pres-
tige under normal conditions in competition
with the world.
The company manufactures a wide range
of special steel castings and forgings, tool
steel, machine tools, crushing and grinding
machinery for many different industries,
motor car steels, railway and tramway
switches, and crossings, special railway
material, gears, saws, drills and so forth. It
is in these special lines that the company has
made its reputation, and associated its name
with all that is best. The foundry, which was
remodelled just before the war, is replete
with every system and appliance for turning
out special work by the crucible, Tropenas,
Siemens open hearth, and electrical processes.
It may be mentioned that the Tropenas
system produces steel castings which contain
the essential combination of high tensile
strength and high elongation, the process
having been adopted by the British and Japa-
nese and other foreign governments. All
classes of ordinary carbon tool steel are made,
as well as the famous "Stag Special" and
"Chikara" high-speed steels, "Imperial"
turning and finishing steel, and other special
steels. Mention should also be made of the
' t- '• ' ' 'I
->
toi:^j
EDGAR ALLEN & CO., LTD.: (LEFT TO RIGHT) PATTERN SHOP — TRAMWAY POINT SHOP — FOUNDRY, BAY 2 — PL.\TE SHOP— TOOL STEEL
WAREHOUSE FOUNDRY, B.\Y I
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
277
large output of miners' drill steels. Apart
from tool steels the eomi)any has specialised
in the manufacture of alloy steels for motor
cars and aircraft, and the "Imperial" manga-
nese steel is renowned for its remarkable
qualities. This product can be supplied as
eastings, rolled bars, sheets, forgings, or pat-
ent-rolled railway and tramway rails; cross-
ings, switches and so on. The chief purposes
to which it is applied are points and cross-
ings for railways and tramways, screening
bars, renewable jaws of crushers and other
hard-wearing parts of crushing and grinding
machinery', dredger pins, and bushes. It is
also interesting to note that it is utilised for
making shrapnel-proof helmets for soldiers.
"Imperial" manganese steel has been very
widely supplied by Edgar Allen & Co.,
Limited, who have carried out extensive con-
tracts for the supply of special track work,
points and crossings, etc., in connection with
some of the biggest traction undertakings in
the world. In this connection it may be
mentioned that the company supplied
requirements of this nature for the Tokyo,
Yokohama, and Osaka electric tramway
systems. Edgar' Allen & Co., Limited, manu-
facture a large variety of machinery for such
industries as mining, cement making, ore
treatment plants, dredging operations and
general contracting work. Among their lines
may be mentioned crushers, battery parts,
such as stamp shoes and dies, tube and ball
grinding mills, rotary kilns, conveyors,
elevators, and disintegrators.
The record and reputation of Edgar Allen
& Co., Limited, are too well known to
require further comment. The organisation
of the company is modern and perfect, giv-
ing the concern the capacity to handle any
new developments in foreign fields. Branch
oflfiees and stores are maintained in Johannes-
burg, Montreal, Chicago, New York, Petro-
grad, Tokyo, and Osaka, and there are
agencies spread throughout the world. The
Tok-yo oflfice, which is under the manage-
ment of Mr. R. H. Gordon, was estab-
lished in 1905, and it is needless to say
that in the remarkable expansion which has
taken place in Japan of recent years, the
company has found a rich market for its
products, the trend of industrial development
establishing a keen demand for high grade
special products such as Edgar Allen & Co.,
Limited, manufacture.
Mr. R. Woodward is chairman of the
Directors of the company, the Board com-
prising also the following: Messrs. A. E.
Wells, F. A. Warlow, W. Crosby, C. K.
Everitt, J. F. Moss, and J. C. Ward. The
authorised capital is £525,000, in Ordinary
and Preference shares, the amount paid up
being £490,000.
ARTHl'R BUCKNEY, A. M. I. E. E.
The rapid industrial development of Japan,
and the bold strides which the country has
made in all branches of manufacturing enter-
prise, while they have displaced many foreign
interests in the assiduously fostered effort to
make Japan entirely self-contained, have not
yet made the country- independent of the
thoroughly qualified foreign engineer, nor
have they lessened the demand for special
plant necessary to the greatest enterprises.
As a matter of fact the reverse is the case,
for with every new departure in the field of
electrical or mechanical engineering, the
services of the foreign engineer become more
valuable, and a call is made on the great
works of Britain or elsewhere to supjily the
machinery. In the introduction of modern
engineering methods to Japan, Mr. Arthur
Buckney, A. M. I. E. E., has taken a prom-
inent part, his own business giving him a
particularly close connection with every
development.
Mr. Buckney has had a lengthy experience
as an engineer in this country, and he knows
the conditions and requirements of Japan
perhaps more intimately than most of his
professional colleagues. He was engaged in
the capacity of Technical and Engineering
Manager for a formerly important German
firm, but naturally severed his connection
with the same immediately upon the decla-
ration of war with Germany. One of the
agencies of Carl Rhode was that of the
Lymn Chemical Engineering Co., Ltd., of
London, which had originally been obtained
through Mr. Buckney 's influence, and that
agency came into his hands when he estab-
lished himself in business on his own account.
What Mr. Buckney has to say with regard
to the introduction of the Lymn system of
gas-producer plant, and by-products from
lignite coal, peat, etc., and the extensive use
of this system throughout the important
and ever expanding chemical industry of
Japan, will be read with keen interest.
One of the most important installations
so far undertaken is of a 10,000-kilowatt
gas power plant at the famous Fushun
Collieries of the South Manchuria Railway
Co., Ltd. This plant was supplied through
the agency of Mr. Buckney and represents
only one of several units. The Fushun
Collieries require an aggregate of 80,000
kilowatts, and this enormous power is to
be furnished by the supply of one unit per
annum, the time limitation being enforced
by the difficulties of transportation and
other harassing war conditions. Should the
war terminate and conditions improve to
permit of a quicker installation, the work
will naturally be completed as fast as possible.
The power generated in this particular install-
ation is, of course, for the working of the
collieries, and also for the large chemical
works which are to be constructed.
Whilst the Lymn products are Mr. Buckney 's
special care, he is also active in the supply of
all kinds of heavy machinery. The contract
for several large floating cranes on account of
the Russian Government was .secured by this
gentleman and the way in which the contract
was handled, combined with the successful
working of the cranes, resulted in further
orders being placed with Mr. Buckney in the
face of keen competition. These particular
cranes, some of which were for the harbour
construction work while others were specially
designed for the handling of locomotives and
railway stock arriving from North America
for war purposes, have a lifting capacity of 45
tons with an 80-foot head and a span of 45 feet.
A number of tug boats were also supplied
through Mr. Buckney to the Russian Govern-
ment. In the field of mining enterprise, Mr.
Buckney supplies not only power plants, but
general machinery such as batteries, winding
engines, and, especially, various chemical
plants for the direct recovery of the by-
products from coal and the manufacture
of nitric acid, salicylic acid, trinitrotoluol
(TNT), and for ammonia oxidation, distil-
lation, and similar processes.
It is generally believed that anybody can
succeed in business to-day in Japan, so pro-
pitious are the times and so buoyant the
situation, but while there may be a good deal
of warranty for such a belief, in so far as
ordinary trade is concerned, it is obvious that
success in the skilled professions of electrical
and mechanical engineering is not casually
obtained. There are such things as initial
qualifications and practical and ripe experi-
ence which are essentials to success in such a
wide field as Mr. Buckney has trenched upon.
Mr. Buckney received his professional educa-
tion in England and Germany, and gained his
initial experience with the British Thomson-
Houston Co. Thereafter he went to Germany,
where his general knowledge and experience
were widened by visiting some of the greatest
engineering plants in that country. Mr.
Buckney was engaged for several years with
one of the largest gas engine building works in
Saarbnicken, the famous centre of the Ger-
man steel industry. Such a ripe experience
is invaluable, especially in a country like
Japan where electrical enterprises of every
description are likely to become very impor-
tant, and the products of which undoubtedly
will constitute a large section of future exports.
The sphere of Mr. Buckney's business is wide,
as a branch is maintained at Vladivostock in
charge of a European engineer, and a further
branch is now being established at Tomsk.
From these centres the Russian territory is
19
It
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i
ARTHUR BUCKNEY, A. M. I. E. E. : ERECTION Ol LVM.V-RILEY OAS PRODUCERS TYPE OF FLOATING CRANE SUPPLIED TO THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
— TYPE OF TUG BOAT SUPPLIED TO THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT ANOTHER PROCESS IN THE ERECTION OF LVMN-RILEV GAS PRODUCERS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
279
very thoroughly covered. Mr. Buckney's
Tokyo office is located in the Mitsubishi
Building, where there are commodious and
well installed business quarters. The per-
sona! staff comprises two qualified European
engineers, a European chief clerk, and a
number of Japanese assistants.
DICK, KERR & CO., LIMITED
The remarkable development which has
taken place in the industrial life of Japan
during the past few decades has afforded
opportunity to many great British enterprises
to expand their foreign business and establish
in the Japanese market the most valuable of
connections. Such is the case with Messrs.
Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., the well known
engineers and contractors. For a good many
years the company has been prominent in all
the important engineering developments in
Japan, and has carried out a number of con-
tracts for public services, apart from the
transaction of a volume of business in elec-
trical installations and electrical supplies
generally. To such an extent has the reputa-
tion of Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., become known
as manufacturers of electrical machinery and
appliances, that it is frequently forgotten that
the company was originally a contracting
concern. As a matter of fact it was only
about sixteen or seventeen years ago that the
company found it necessary to make electric
machinery and plant, so as to facilitate the
carrying out of large contracts which were
secured in the United Kingdom and abroad.
The company is still one of the largest con-
tracting concerns in the world, and its
operations embrace many countries, perma-
nent branches being maintained, apart from
the works in England, at Tokyo, Milan,
Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, and
Johannesburg. The activities of the firm
consist essentially of the two sections of
contracting and manufacturing, equal in
importance, though differing in character.
Dealing with the contracting operations of
Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., it may be said that
they cover practically every class of public
service. For instance, railways have been
constructed for the Government of Portuguese
East Africa, in Argentina, and in Canada;
a huge reser\'oir has been built for the Lon-
don Metropolitan Water Board; a pumping
station has been constructed at Walton, and
waterworks at Las Palmas. These are only
examples of the widespread operations of the
company, which is open to contract for
practically any work in any part of the world.
The manufacture and installation of electric
plant and machinery constitute as diversified
a set of undertakings as does the general
contracting. The electric works are in
Preston, Lancashire, and the General Iron
Works in Kilmarnock, N. B. At these works
Dick, Kerr & Co,. Ltd., manufacture electrical
machinery of all kinds, electric locomotives,
electrical apparatus and also steam turbines,
light railway rolling stock and permanent way
material, and metallic filament lamps known
as the "Britannia" Lamps. In addition to
their being manufacturers of electric and
railway apparatus Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd.,
have special facilities for the supply of engines,
boilers, pumps, condensers, water turbines,
rails, etc. The company is in the exceptional
position of being able to carry out the com-
plete equipment and installation of electric
power and lighting plants, whether driven by
steam or water power, electric railways and
tramways and all kinds of electrical installa-
tions for industrial purposes, and when
required the company would enter into a
contract for the supply of all apparatus and
materials, including the erection of same, and
would hand it over to the customers in perfect
working condition. For an example of this
kind of work in Japan, it should be mentioned
that Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., undertook in
1904 to supply, as well as to install, the whole
of the equipment and installation of the late
Tokyo Denki Tetsudo Kabushiki Kaisha
system of tramways. This line is known as
the "Sotobori-Sen," now a part of the lines of
the Tokyo Municipal Tramways. This
contract included the supply and erection of
the entire apparatus and material for the
Shibuya Power Station, two sub-stations,
equipments and trucks including car bodies,
overhead and feeder lines, permanent way,
and repair shop.
Up to this stage in their operations in Japan,
Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., had representatives
in the country, but in May. 1907, they opened
their own branch in Tokyo, at No. 3, Itchome,
Uchisaiwaicho, Kojimachi-ku. They were
one of the first of the large British manufac-
turers to adopt the policy of carrying on their
business in Japan with their own staff, instead
of following the more general custom of being
represented by some merchant house, and
much of the success which they have gained
has been due to this policy. The Japan
branch is not only engaged in the importation
and sale of machinery, but has a staff of
expert engineers for the erection of machinery
supplied by the company. Among the large
contracts which Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., have
carried out in Japan may be mentioned
the Inawashiro Hydro-Electric Power Co.'s
installation, which is said to be the largest in
the Far East. In this power station there are
installed six sets of 7,775 K. V'. A. generators,
all of which were manufactured by the com-
pany at their Preston Works. Another nota-
ble contract is that of four sets of slow speed
gas-driven 1,500 K. V'. A. alternators, supplied
to the Yaguchi Power Station of the Imperial
Government Railways of Japan. These
machines supply electrical energy for opera-
ting the trains running between Tokyo Station
and Yokohama, and the first section of the
main line of Japan to be operated electrically.
All these machines are giving very good
results, and are now operating in good
condition. Since the establishment of the
Japan branch Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd., have
supplied various electrical and other machin-
ery to the following: The Financial Depart-
ment of the Imperial Japanese Government;
Sasebo Naval Dockyard; Kure Naval Dock-
yard; Imperial Government Railways;
Formosan Government Railways; Tokyo
Municipal Tramways; Kyoto Municipal
Tramways; Osaka Municipal Tramways;
South Manchuria Railway Co.; Kawagoe
Railway Co.; lyo Railway Co.; Keisei Elec-
tric Railway Co.; Keio Electric Railway
Co. ; Tamagawa Electric Railway Co. ; Yoko-
hama Electric Railway Co. ; Odawara Electric
Railw-ay Co.; Nikko Electric Railway Co.;
Nagoya Electric Railway Co.; Seto Electric
Railway Co.; Mino Electric Railway Co.;
Kyoto Electric Railway Co.; Keihan Electric
Railway Co.; Kob^ Electric Railway Co.;
Tatsuno Electric Railway Co.; Kure Electric
Railway Co.; Tosan Electric Railway Co.;
Ina Electric Railway Co. ; Inawashiro Hydro-
Electric Power Co.; Soma Electric Co.;
Motomiya Electric Co. ; Tokiwa Electric Co. ;
Japanese Explosives Co. ; Nippon Celluloid &
Artificial Silk Co. ; Japan Steel Manufacturing
Co., and many others too numerous to
mention.
THE F. W. HORNE CO.
The F. W. Home Company, a leading
concern in the machinery and hardware
industries of Japan, was established about
twenty-six years ago, by Mr. F. W. Home,
as a private enterprise, to import American
machinery and tools. After some years of
successful trading Mr. Home converted the
enterprise into a stock company of which
he became the President. Holding the rep-
resentation for Japan of over fifty of the
best known manufacturers of machinery
and machine tools in the United States, the
F. W. Home Co. is in a position to handle a
very large trade, and cater in every con-
ceivable direction for the rapidly expanding
manufacturing industries of Japan. A
specialty is made of machine tools for arsenals,
dockyards, and railway shops, as well as
steels, fittings, and parts. The company
has agencies for practically every line that
may be called for, from locomotives, saw
mill and other machinery, boilers, etc., down
to the smallest fittings. From his lengthy
experience in the Far East Mr. Home has
W:
M^aassawMi
- . - - -u
— — —
DICK KERR S: CO., LTD.: ONE l,V FUl R I.SOO K. V. .\. II,000-VOLT ^-PH.XSE 25 CVCI.K ALIIkNAlnKS SUPPLIED TO THE IMPERIAL J.A.PANESE
' GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS IN CONNECTION WITH THE ELECTRIFICATION OF THEIR MAIN LINE — 50-TON ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
SUPPLIED TO THE BRITISH COLUMBIA ELECTRIC RAILWAY — POWER HOUSE AND PLANT ERECTED AND
INSTALLED AT KINLOCHLEVEN FOR THE BRITISH ALUMINUM COMPANY, LTD.
T^
THE F. W. HORNF. COMPANY: TWO VIEWS OF MACHINERY DISPLAYED AT A JAPANESE EXHIBITION
THE TOKYO PREMISES OF THE FIRM
282
PRESENT-DAY I M P R E S S T O X S OF JAPAN
always been ven- closely in touch with
Japanese requirements, and the trend of the
trades or cnteqirises for which his compan}-
caters, and it has always been the policy to
handle only the goods of the better class
manufacturers. Exceedingly valuable con-
nections have been formed in the United
States, as may be seen from the list of com-
panies represented, which is given below.
The head office of the F. W. Home Co. is
at Nos. 6 and 7, Takiyama-cho, Kyobashi-ku,
Tokyo. Here the company owns the prop-
erty on which its offices and godowns are
located. The building is one of three stories,
constructed of brick, on the most modem
lines. The showrooms are on the ground
floor, where a large sample stock is displayed,
the bulk storage being in the spacious go-
downs. Over 150 hands are employed.
On the stafT arc a number of qualified engin-
eers, lumber and other specialists, and experts
for demonstrating new ideas and educating
the local trade along modem lines. The
iron and steel purchasing department of the
Home Co. is at 2 Rector Street, New York,
through which the company is able to keep
in constant touch with all the important
manufacturing concerns in the United States.
In Japan the F. W. Home Co. has branches
at Osaka, Nagoya, and Otaru; also at Keijo,
Korea, and Dairen.
Mr. Home has been decorated by the
Japanese Government. He has other large
interests in Japan, including the Presidency
of the Nipponophone Manufacturing Com-
pany, which is noticed elsewhere, and has
retired from the active management of the
F. W. Home Co. He has one of the most
beautifid private residences at Nikko, the
scenic ideal of all Japanese and foreigners.
Mr. W. Egbert Schenck, Treasurer, is also
General Manager of the F. W. Home Co.,
with which he has been associated for
over ten years.
Following is a list of the principal agencies
held by the company in Japan: Brown &
Sharpe Mfg. Co., Providence, R. I.; Pratt &
Whitney Co., Hartford, Conn.; J. A. Fay &
Egan Co., Cincinnati, Ohio; Nicholson File
Co., Providence, R. I.; L. S. Starrett Co.,
Athol, Mass.; Yale & Towne Mfg. Co.,
New York City; Norton Co., Worcester,
Mass. ; Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co., Chicago,
111.; Standard Tool Co., Cleveland, Ohio;
Nordyke & Marmon Co., Indianapolis,
Ind.; Wells Bros. Co., Greenfield, Mass.;
Gould & Eberhardt, Newark, N. J.; E. W.
Bliss & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y.; E. C. Atkins
& Co., Indianapohs, Ind.; International
Curtis Marine Turbine Co., New York;
Heald Machine Co., Worcester, Mass.;
Phillips Pressed Steel Pulley Co., Philadel-
phia, Pa.; Albany Hardware & Specialty
Mfg. Co.. Albany, Wis.; Gandy Belting Co.,
Baltimore, Maryland; Fitchburg Machine
Works, Fitchburg, Mass.; Green Tweed &
Co., New York; Standard Pressed Steel Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa.; W. H. Bagshaw, Lowell,
Mass.; Espen Lucas Machine Works, Phila-
delphia, Pa.; Diamond Machine Co., Provi-
dence, R. 1.; Chalmers & Williams, Inc.,
Chicago Heights, 111.; Carratt-Callahan Co.,
.^0-32 Fremont Street, San Francisco; Noble
&• Westbrook Mfg. Co., Hartford, Conn.;
Davenport Locomotive Works, Davenport,
Iowa; Mosaic Tile Co., Zanesville, Ohio;
Rivett Lathe & Grinder Co., Brighton,
Boston, Mass.; N. O. Nelson Mfg. Co.,
loth & Chestnut Sts., St. Louis, Mo.; Arm-
strong-Blum Mfg. Co., 339-.S57 North
Francisco Ave., Chicago, 111.; The White &
Bagley Co., Worcester, Mass.; The Shaw
Blue Print Mach. Co., 9-1 1 Campbell St.,
Newark, N. J.; E. J. Long>-ear Co., 710-722
Security Bldg., Minneapolis, Minn.; Inland
Steel Co., First National Bank Bldg., Chicago,
111.; Gulf States Steel Co., Brown-Marx
Bldg., Birmingham, Ala.; Alan Wood Iron
& Steel Co., Widener Bldg., Philadelphia;
Athol Machine Co., Athol, Mass.; Pierce
Machine Tool Co., 617 W. Jackson Blvd.,
Chicago, 111.; National Roofing Co., Tona-
wanda.N.Y.; La Salle Machine and Tool Co.,
La Salle, 111.; Bilgram Machine Works, 1231
Spring Garden St., Philadelphia, Pa.; Bickett
Machine & Mfg. Co. ; Phoenix Mfg. Co. ; Falk
Co., Milwaukee; Clarke Bros., Olean, New
York; U. S. Graphite Co., Saginaw, Mich.
J. A. KJELLBERG & SONS, LI.MITED
The business now conducted in Japan by
Messrs. J. A. Kjellberg & Sons, Ltd., was
originally started by Mr. L. Brusewitz, who
came to the country in 1906 and established
himself in business as the first Swedish
merchant in Japan. Two years later he
opened the business in cooperation with the
old Swedish export firm of Messrs. J. A.
Kjellberg & Soner, of Gothenburg, and
became Managing Director of the entire
Japanese interests of the company. J. A.
Kjellberg & Soner was estabhshed in Sweden
in 1810, and thus it may be claimed that
J. A. Kjellberg & Sons, Ltd., which is an
amalgamation of their interests and those
founded in the country by Mr. Brasewitz,
is not only the oldest Swedish concern in
Japan, but also holds the leading position in
the Swedish-Japanese trade.
The company at present represents the
foremost of Swedish industrial concems, thus
continuing and developing its original aim
of introducing the products of Sweden to
the local market. However, the sphere of
activity of the company, which has consider-
able funds at its disposal, is by no means
limited to imports from Sweden, but includes
an extensive trade with Great Britain, the
United States, and other countries. Lately
an export department has been organised
which is doing successful business in Japanese
goods with Eastern Asia and Australia.
Among the important agencies held by J. A.
Kjellberg & Sons, Ltd., may be mentioned
that of the Swedish Ball Bearing Facton.-
("S. K. F. ") of Gothenburg, which has
developed during the last ten years into a
world-wide business, the company having
branch factories at several centres in the
United States and in England, and sales
offices all over the world. To give an idea
of the magnitude of this industry it may be
mentioned that in the United States alone,
the sale of "S. K. F." ball bearings amounts
to over 10,000 sets a day. For the sale of
this line in Japan Messrs. Kjellberg have
organised a special department employing
a number of foreign as well as Japanese
engineers and salesmen, throughout Japan,
Korea, and Manchuria. The singular suc-
cess of these ball bearings may be attributed
not only to the superior design, but also to
the good quality of the steel, which is supplied
from the S. K. F. Company's own steel works
at Hofors, Sweden, and last but not least, to
the accuracy in manufacturing which guaran-
tees a precision of o.oooi mm.
Messrs. Kjellberg also represent the
Bofors Ordnance and Gunpowder Works,
for which they are doing a considerable
business, chiefly in semi-finished steel pro-
ducts for war material. The Bofors Works
in Sweden are well known for their high
quality alloy steel forgings and castings.
The casting of big guns is carried out accord-
ing to the special Bofors process. Bofors
Nobel powder is manufactured in various
grades, including excellent qualities of smoke-
less and flameless powder. Another interest-
ing article brought on the market by Messrs.
Kjellberg is the Johansson Combination
Gauge Set. By the use of these gauges it
has been made possible to introduce into
the busiest workshops a system of control
which carries a precision hitherto unobtain-
able. One of our illustrations shows a set
of Johansson measuring blocks by which
an accuracy of i 10,000th of a millimetre
can be obtained. When the Johansson
system was first brought to the notice of
various authorities, including the experts of
different universities, they doubted the
possibility of such a degree of accuracy
being reaUsed. Now it has been submitted
to practical tests in the foremost control
offices in Europe and the United States,
such as the Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures, in Paris, the National Physical
Laboratory, London, and the Kaiserl.
I .\ KJELLBERG & SONS, LTD.: S. K. F. BALL BEARINX. FACTORY AT GOTHENBURG, SWEDEN — THE GUN FACTORY, BOFORS WORKS, SWEDEN -
THE HEAD OFFICE, TOKYO— SANDVIKEN STEEL WORKS, EMPLOYING OVER 3,000 WORKMEN, SANDVIKEN, SWEDEN — GUNS AND
MOUNTINGS IN THE ERECTING SHOPS OF THE BOFORS WORKS, SWEDEN — OFFICE BUILDING, GOTHENBURG, SWEDEN
' 1
X
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J. A. KJELLBERG & SONS, LTD.: BALL BEARING OF LOCOMOTIVE WHEELS — S. K. F. BALL BEARING IN BELT PULLEYS — DISPLAY OF BALL
BEARINGS IN THE TOKYO OFFICE — A. JOHANSSON MEASURING GAUGE SET — S. K. F. BALL BEARING MOTOR —
S. K. F. BALL BEARINGS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
28.S
Normal Aichungs Kommission, Berlin, etc.
These testing offices themselves have adopted
the Johansson system for their control work.
A more striking success for a Swedish inven-
tor could hardly be imagined. It may be
mentioned that the S. K. F. Ball Bearing
Co. has based its manufactures on the
Johansson Gauge System.
Besides the above-mentioned specialties,
Messrs. Kjellberg carry on an extensive
trade in iron and steel, representing leading
Swedish steel works, such as Sandviken,
Wikmanshyttan, Soderfors and others, and
also buying direct from Sheffield and the
United States. Messrs. Kjellberg have for
many years been suppliers to the Japanese
Army and Navy Departments, and are well
known throughout Government circles. The
senior partner, Mr. C. A. Kjellberg of
Gothenburg, Sweden, is President of the
Chamber of Commerce, and President of
the Gothcnijurg Bank, besides taking
an active part in promoting and financ-
ing railway companies and industrial
enterprises throughout Sweden. The Japan
head office of the company is at Mitsu-
bishi Building, Yiiraku-cho, Kojimachi-ku,
Tokyo.
ALFRED HERBERT, LIMITED
The firm of Alfred Herbert, Ltd., Yoko-
hama, Tokyo, and Osaka, is a branch of the
well-known firm of Alfred Herbert, Ltd.,
Coventry, England.
For many years this firm have had a world-
wide reputation as builders of high-class
machine tools and their accessories. From
a comparatively small beginning twenty-
eight years ago, they have built up one of
the largest machine tool building and sell-
ing organisations in the world. They now
have two works in the city of Coventry,
England, where nearly 3,000 persons are
engaged, and have branch offices in eight of
the principal cities in Great Britain. Abroad
they have offices in New York, France, Italy,
India, Japan, and Russia. In their own
works, they specialise in the manufacture of
turret lathes, horizontal and vertical mill-
ing machines, cutter grinders and dieheads
for bolt screwing. All these machines and
dieheads are built in large quantities on the
most modern manufacturing lines. Jigs
and fixtures are used as much as possible
for all machining process, all rotary parts
are ground to predetermined limits of accu-
racy, and all slides are planed and scraped
to true surface plates. Special attention is
paid to the material entering into the con-
struction of all their machines, and its
quality is kept strictly up to standard by
continual tests and inspection carried out
in their own chemical laboratory.
Messrs. Alfred Herbert, Ltd., take great
pleasure in showing their works, and explain-
ing their methods of manufacturing to any
one interested, and visitors from all parts of
the world are cordially invited. In addition
to being manufacturers of the machines
mentioned above, they are large dealers in
all other types of machine tools, being sell-
ing agents for many of the leading makers
in Great Britain and America.
The firm claim to be in a position to sup-
ply practically every type of metal-working
machine or accessory required in an engi-
neering workshop, and being makers and
actual users of machine tools in their own
factories, have an ever accumulating supply
of experience to guide them in their selec-
tion of the best machines to suit their
clients.
All the branch offices of Messrs. Alfred
Herbert, Limited, are under the manage-
ment of men who have been trained in their
own works and are fully capable of dealing
with all points connected with the selection,
installation, and output of metal-working
machinery. Their principal office in Japan
is situated at No. 4, Yamashita-cho, Yoko-
hama. Here they have a large showroom
and warehouse where many machines and
small tools are always carried in stock. A
picture of this office and showroom accom-
panies this article.
The office system of the firm is thoroughly
up to date. The many thousand small
tools in stock are carefully tabulated on
cards so that it is possible at any moment
to ascertain the exact quantities of any goods
in stock. Complete stock lists are sent to
their branch offices and representatives every
week, which enables their salesmen to
quickly advise customers of the goods avail-
able for immediate delivery. They are one
of the few foreign firms in Japan who arc
using the Japanese typewriter. Although a
slow and cumbersome machine compared
with the English typewriter, they claim that
the uniform style and neatness of the letters
produced gives a tone to their correspondence
which is difficult to obtain when letters are
written by hand. Another interesting ma-
chine used in the office is a dictaphone and
the necessary transcribing machines. By
the use of the dictaphone, the manager
finds that he can get his correspondence
off his mind any time of the day or night
regardless of whether his stenographer is
there or not.
One room is set apart for commercial pho-
tography. Here is installed a photostat,
which is a large camera specially made for com-
mercial work, the photograph being taken
direct onto the paper and developed and
fixed in the machine, the whole process being
completed in a very few minutes. Specifi-
cations, drawings, letters, catalogue illus-
trations, and documents of all kinds are
quickly and accurately copied on this machine
and consequently a great saving in time is
effected. The office in Tokyo is situated at
No. 18, Yamashita-cho, Kyobashiku. Here
a representative stock of small tools is
carried so that customers in Tokj'O can in-
spect samples of their goods without having
to visit Yokohama. A capable Japanese
salesman is in charge who, with a number of
assistants, thoroughly covers the Tokyo dis-
trict. Being in close proximity to Yoko-
hama, Messrs. Alfred Herbert, Ltd., can
quickly draw upon their head office for special
assistance or advice. In Osaka they have a
large office and showroom at 98-1 Kami
2-chome, Sonezaki-cho, Kitaku. It is con-
trolled by a British engineer who has a capa-
ble staff of salesmen under him. In addition
to carrying a representative stock of small
tools, a number of machines are exhibited
at this office, and as the men in charge are
kept fully posted regarding machines avail-
able and prices they are in a position to
dea' fidly with all business in the western
portion of Japan.
Owing to the rapid progress which is being
made in the Kyushu Island of Japan, Messrs.
Alfred Herbert, Ltd., have just opened a new
office in Kokura, in order to give better service
to their customers in that part of the country.
Machines supplied by the firm are to be found
in all the Government dockyards and arsenals
in Japan, in all the large engineering works,
and in a great number of the smaller ones.
Many Japanese engineers travelling in Eng-
land have visited their works and have been
given an opportunity of studying their
machines and their methods of manufactur-
ing them, and a cordial invitation is always
extended to those interested to do likewise.
In addition to representing their own works
in Japan Messrs. Alfred Herbert, Ltd., are
agents for the following British and American
concerns: Ajax Manufacturing Co., Cleve-
land, O., U. S. A., Forging Machinery;
AUdays & Onions Pneumatic Eng. Co., Ltd.,
Birmingham, England, Furnaces and Pneu-
matic Hammers; American Machine Tool
Co., Hackettstown, N. J., U. S. A., Machine
Tools; Arundel & Co., Stockport, England,
Thread Milling Machines and Cutters;
Atlas Press Co., Kalamazoo, U. S. A., Arbor
Presses; "Auto" Recorder Co., Leicester,
England, COj Recorders; Baush Machine
Tool Co., Springfield, Mass., U. S. A.,
Multiple Spindle Drilling Machines; Bilton
Machine Tool Co., Bridgeport, Conn.,
U. S. A., Machine Tools; Beauderj' & Co.,
Inc., Boston, Mass., U. S. A., Power Ham-
mers; Borden Company, Warner, O., L^. S. A.,
MESSRS. ALFRED HERBERT, LIMITED: A SECTION OF THE YOKOHAMA MACHINERY WAREHOUSE -THE OSAKA BRANCH OFFICE
THE TOKYO OFFICE THE YOKOHAMA HEAD OFFICE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
287
Stock and Dies; N. P. Bowsher Co., South
Bend, Indiana, U. S. A., Balancing Ways;
Henry Broadbcnt, Ltd., Sowerby Bridge,
England, Machine Tools; Broom Wade,
Ltd., High Wycombe, England, Air Com-
pressors; Davis, Brown & Sons, Ltd., Hidders-
field, England, Bevel Gear Generators;
Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls,
U. S. A., Grinding Wheels and All Kinds of
Abrasive Products; Champion Tool Works
Co., Cincinnati, 0., U. S. A., Lathes; James
Clarke, Jnr., Electric Co., Louisville, Ky.,
U. S. A., Portable Electric Tools; Cleveland
Planer Works, Cleveland, O., U. S. A.,
Open Side Planer; Cochrane-Bly Co.,
Rochester, N. Y., U. S. A., Sawing Machines
and Universal Shaping Machines; Com-
mercial Camera Co., Rochester, N. Y.,
U. S. A., Commercial Photographing Ma-
chines; Dill Machine Co., Philadelphia, Pa.,
U. S. A., Slotting Machines; Drummond
Bros., Ltd., Guildford, Machine Tools;
De Mooy Machine Co., Cleveland, O.,
U. S. A., Drilling Machines; Fellows Gear
Shaper Co., Springfield, Vermont, U. S. A.,
Gear Cutting Machines; L. Gardner & Sons,
Ltd., Patricroft, Manchester, Crank Pin
Turning Machines; Garvin Machine Co.,
New York, Machine Tools; John Hands &
Son, Ltd., Birmingham, England, Presses;
Hardinge Bros., Inc., Ravenswood, U. S. A.,
Precision Machines and Watchmen's Clocks;
Joshua Heap & Co., Ltd., Ashton-Under-
Lyne, Screwing Machines; Holbrook &
Sons, London, England, Machine Tools;
H. W. Kearns & Co., Ltd., Manchester,
England, Boring Machines; Lapointe Ma-
chine Tool Co., Hudson, Mass., U. S. A.,
Broaching Machines; Manlove, AUiott &
Co., Ltd., Nottingham, England, Oil Sepa-
rators; New Britain Machine Co., New
Britain, Conn., U. S. A., Chucking Machines;
Napier Saw Works, Springfield, Mass.,
U. S. A., Hack Saw Blades; Narragansett
Machine Co., Pawtucket, R. I., U. S. A.,
Drill Chucks; George Oldham Son & Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A., Pneumatic Tools;
Oliver Instrument Co., Detroit, Mich.,
U. S. A., Sawing, Filing and Lapping Ma-
chinery; Peerless Belt Lacing Machine Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A., Belt Lacing
Machines; Plank Flexible Shaft Machine
Co., Grand Rapids, Mich., U. S. A., Flexible
Shafting and Outputs; Racine Tool &
Machine Co., Racine, Wis., U. S. A., Hack
Sawing Machines; Reading Chain Block Co.,
Reading, Penn., U. S. A., Chain Blocks;
Rudge Whitworth, Ltd., Coventry, England,
"Etemite" Casehardening Mixture; W. J.
Savage & Co., Inc., Kno.wille.Tenn., U. S. A.,
Sheet Metal Cutting Machines; Sililey
Machine Tool Co., South Bend, Ind., U. S. A.,
Drilling Machines; J. T. Slocomb Co., Provi-
dence, R. I., U. S. A., Micrometers; Spring-
field Machine Tool Co., Springfu-ld, O.,
U. S. A., Machine Tools.
One of their most important agencies is
that of the Carborundum Co. of Niagara
Falls, U. S. A., comprising as it does a com-
plete line of abrasive material for all purposes.
Grinding wheels, abrasive cloth and paper,
abrasive grains and stone suitable for the
metal, woodworking, leather, glass, and stone
trades, etc., are made by the Carborundum
Co., and are stocked in Yokohama.
Another well known American firm who
have placed their Japanese business in the
hands of Alfred Herbert, Ltd., is the J. T.
Slocomb Co., of Providence, U. S. A. The
company manufacture precision measuring
tools of a very high order and their products
are known all o\-er the world.
GADELIUS & CO.
This firm is of Swedish nationality, the
proprietor being Mr. K. Gadelius of Stockholm,
who, however, is at present a resident of
Tokyo, Japan. Its activities are strictly
confined to Japan, where the office was opened
in January, 1907. Previous to this Mr.
Gadelius made several business visits to the
Far East, from 1895 onwards, to gain the
necessary experience of Eastern requirements,
so that when the firm formally opened its
operations, its principal was well acquainted
with market conditions.
The development of Swedish interests in
Japan, through the agency of Messrs. Gade-
lius & Co., is attributable to the tremendous
industrial expansion which has taken place in
Sweden since the latter part of the nineteenth
century. Sweden has natural resources,
principally of iron, timber, and cheap water
power, second to none in the world, and the
development of these resources, followed by
the rapid growth of all industries associated
with them, necessarily gave the impulse to
Swedish manufacturers to seek wider markets
for their trade and commerce. It was this
impulse, and Mr. Gadelius' recognition of the
wide field in Japan, that led to the establish-
ment of his business in Tokyo. During the
first few years the firm made steel and iron its _
specialties, but as the industrial and engineer-
ing sciences of Sweden, in various specialties,
were brought to the same level of excellence as
those of larger and more developed countries
of the world, the firm gradually brought its
engineering department to the front. To-day
Messrs. Gadelius & Co. represent some of the
largest manufacturers of Swedish specialties
which have gained their reputations in the
markets of the world.
The machinery business of Messrs.
Gadelius & Co. comprises three different
classes, namely:
Mining and Metallnrgy: Swedish diamond
Ijoring machines, Atlas pneumatic rock drills,
Ludwigsljergs pumps, Grondal's ore flotation
plants, concentrating and briquetting plants,
Raman's chloridising roasting plants, etc.
Power Supply: Stal Steam Turbo-Genera-
tors, Polar Diesel motors, Bolinders oil motors,
Penta motors, Nydqvist & Holms water
turbines, etc.
Miscellaneous: Arehns match-making ma-
chinery, Bolinders wood-working machines,
Ludwigsbergs high-pressure pumps, Mono
combustion gases controlling apparatus, etc.
Sweden is a very old mining country, and it
is only natural that the manufacturers of that
country should be producing superior machin-
ery for mining and kindred purposes. The
Swedish Diamond Boring Company have been
makers of boring machines for the past thirty
years, and their drills are recognised for their
efficiency in conjunction with simplicity in
design, making them easy for anybody to
handle. The good Swedish material of which
they are made gives them the advantage of
light weight. These drills have easily found
their way to the larger mining companies of
Japan, and the same distinct success in the
Japanese market has been gained by the Atlas
Rock Drills. The manufacturers of these
tools have a still older experience and their
product has gained a world-wide reputation.
Among metallurgical inventions in Sweden
those of Dr. Grondal and Engineer Ramen are
noteworthy. The former's eflorts extending
over many years, for the successful crushing,
concentrating, and briquetting of low-grade
and impure ores, have met with pronounced
success, as is shown by the many plants that
have been erected after his design and fitted
with his machines, not only in Sweden but
also in other countries. Mr. Ramen's
chloridising roasting process for sulphide
pyrite cinders is to be considered as a revolu-
tionary process in the field of extraction
processes of copper and other metals. The
invention not only diminishes the cost of such
a process, but makes it also possible to
successfully extract a larger precentage of
copper, as well as other valuable metals in the
ore, and, furthermore, the residue obtained con-
stitutes an iron ore of the very best quality.
In the line of power supply machinery
Sweden at an earlier stage did not bring out
anything of special value until the develop-
ment of the enormous water power existing in
that country gave her engineers a large field
for their energy and skill. Some of the largest
water turbines in existence are now- produced
in Sweden, and the Swedish manufacturer in
this line is known everywhere. The firm of
Nydqvist & Hohns of TroUhattan is one of the
best known water turbine makers, and one
represented in Japan by Messrs. Gadelius &
li:
/*
r !'■
-a
GADELIUS & CO.: MOTOR SCHOONER "ci 1 V OK PORTLAND," Fill tD WITH 64O B. H. P. I!ol-IM)KKb MOTORS — M. S. " HAMLET," FITTED WITH
3,300 B. H. P. DIESEL-POLAR MOTORS STAL TURBO GENERATOR, 1,500 K. W. — MOTOR ROOM OF M. S. "hAMLET"
GADEL.US & CO.: BOLINDERS WOOD-WORKING MACHINES, LOG FRAME-LUDVVIGSBERGS MOTOR FIRE ENGINE WORKHsG ™'*«^";»^^J^\^',fJ^^
HOSE-LUDWIGSBERGS AIR COMPRESSOR AGGREGATES FOR SUBMARINES-ATLAS ROCK DRILL (jj/^ "CLOP ROCK DR^^^ WITH
TRIPOD) -NYDQVI'ST & HOLMS WATER TURBINE (l2,500 H. P. TURBINE DELIVERED TO THE SWEDISH GO\ERNMENT)
290
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THOS. FIRTH & SONS, LTD.: STAMPS AND OTHER MINING BATTERY PARTS AND LOCOMOTIVE DRIVING WHEELS
MANUFACTURED BY THE FIRM
Co. An accompanying illustration shows a
12,500 H. P. aggregate, manufactured by
them for the Swedish Government. In
steam power the great cultured countries for
a long time were ahead as to cheapness and
efficiency of power, and although the steam
turbine invented by the Swedish engineer,
Mr. de Laval, was the very first commercially
successful steam tiu-bine, it was soon over-
ruled by English and American manufac-
turers. In the last ten years, however, a
Swedish engineer, Mr. Ljungstrom, has
succeeded in inventing a steam turbine which,
in efficiency and economy, has created a
record. The turbine called Stal, composed by
the first characters of the company, Svenska
Turbinfabriks Aktiebolaget Ljungstrom, is
already too well known to need further
comment. It has in Japan, as in other
countries, been received with great interest.
License rights, as well as engines for both
stationary use and for ship-driving purposes,
have been sold to large concerns here. The
oil-engine industry of Sweden has for many
years had a leading position. In this branch
Messrs. Gadelius & Co. represent such famous
factories as the Bolinders and the Polar Diesel
Companies, whose engines are used and
appreciated all over the world. Sweden has
also a unique position in regard to the match
industry, being a large manufacturer of
matches as well as of machines for the match
industry.
In Japan the blacksmith's and. carpenter's
toolmakers have for a long time been
familiar with the use of Swedish steel and iron.
The splendid ore of the Swedish iron mines,
and, furthermore, the piu-ifying of the same
by means of charcoal as practised in Sweden,
gave this country a unique standing in the
iron and steel market, one which, in certain
lines, has up to now been without competition.
In Japan the cutlery industry maintains very
high standards, and the high quality of
Swedish steel — its nature as charcoal steel
exceedingly well suits the Japanese black-
smith— has opened its way all over the
country. Besides, there is, of course, in a
countr)' like Japan, with its important
industries, a large demand for different
purposes, for a middle high class pioduct
like the Swedish charcoal steel, and the import
is therefore not small. Much the greater
part of this import is carried on by Messrs.
Gadelius & Co.
The offices of Messrs. Gadelius & Co. are at
No. 41, Tsukiji, Akashi-cho, Kyobashiku,
Tokyo, at No. 40, Uramachi, Kob^, and at
No. 44 Skeppsbron, Stockholm.
THOS. FIRTH & SONS, LI.MITED
This famous Sheffield house is prominent
in the markets of Japan, and through the
representation of Mr. A. J. Lefroy, it has
placed a large number of valuable orders
in a field where, if the demand, owing to the
rapid industrial expansion of Japan, is strong,
the competition is none the less keen. Thos.
Firth &■ Sons, Ltd., own the Norfolk Works at
Sheffield, from which are turned out all classes
of mining machinery, tools and tool steel,
manganese and other special steel castings,
aircraft steels, and the Firth "stainless cutlerj'
steels." To enumerate all the products of
these famous Norfolk Works is not within the
scope of this article. It is sufficient to say
that Thos. Firth & Sons, Ltd., have given the
most careful study to the varying conditions
ARTHUR HALFOUR CO., 1.TU.: IMKRIUK C)|. tULCIIILli hlliliL MELTING DEPARTMENT — SAWING A STEEL BAR TO LENGTH FOR TWIST
DRILLS — (centre) ELECTRIC FURNACE — INSPECTION DEPARTMENT IN TWIST DRILL AND CUTTER WORKS TWIST DRILL
AND CUTTER HARDENING SHOP — THE TURNING OF TWIST DRILLS — A FEW OF THE MILLING MACHINES IN ONE
OF THE BAYS ENGAGED IN PRODUCING MILL CUTTERS, ETC. — HAMMERING A BAR OF STEEL
292
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
of foreign markets, and turn out machinery,
steel, tools and parts that meet with general
favour. This is so in Japan, which has
become an exceedingly valuable market for
the careful manufacturer. The mining
industry is developing rapidly, and there is a
strong call for such high-grade products as
those from the Norfolk Works. The same is
tnie of the engineering trades, from which
there is a great demand for tool and
machine steel, machineni- and parts, and
special grades of steel.
Thos. Firth & Sons, Ltd., are noted for their
attention to the requirements of the trades
and industries which are showing the greatest
expansion in Japan, and their enterprise in
being directly represented in the market, in
conformity with a policy that has given them
branches and agencies in all parts of the
world, has met with all success. The "stain-
less" cutlery steel produced at the Norfolk
Works is the result of a. discovery made in
191 3, the development of which has given
Thos. Firth & Sons, Ltd., a foremost place in
the ranks of contributors to - metallm-gic
science, and they have also made valuable
improvements in aircraft steel manufac-
ture.
The company's Japan office is under the
direction of Mr. Lefroy, and is in the Mitsu-
bishi Building at Tokj'o.
ARTHUR BALFOUR & CO., LTD. (dANNE-
mor.\ steel works, sheffield,
England)
The city of Sheffield, England, is weil
known the world over for the excellence of
its products, chief amongst these being the
manufacture of High Speed and Crucible
Tool Steels.
One of the firms that have contributed
largely to the prestige of the famous city, by
this special industrj', is that of Arthur
Balfour & Co., Ltd.
This business was established in 1865, and
from the commencement was marked by an
almost uninterrupted growth, the works
being enlarged or reconstructed from time
to time to meet the increased demands made
upon them.
The firm became well known for the excel-
lent quality of its products in Great Britain
and on the Continent of Europe, but it was
not until the present Managing Director,
Mr. Arthur Balfour, joined the Directorate,
thirty j'ears ago, that the active policy of
extension on a large scale was inaugurated
in regard to the overseas markets, and that
the firm attained its world-wide renown as
manufacturers of high class Crucible Tool
Steels, etc. Mr. Arthur Balfour personally
visited the Far East, penetrating places well
off the beaten track, and accumulated
TOKYO BRANCH OFFICE OF KAWAKIPA ELECTRIC CO., LTD.
information valuable to the requirements of
tool steel users. This became manifest by
the continued extension of the works in
Sheffield, and to-day, not only do the firm
own their original plant, btit the increase
of business and the pressure on the then
existing resources, necessitated the erection
of a branch works in another portion of the
city, and more recently, an up-to-date works
in another manufacture of high speed engi-
neers' tools, including twist drills, milling
cutters, reamers and other small tools of
precision.
Arthiu- Balfour & Co., Ltd., have been
conspicuous in the advances made in tool
steel manufacture of recent years, notably
in connection with High Speed Steel. Their
"Capital" trademark used with their High
Speed Steels, is well known in the Far East,
as also their brands of steel, viz.: "New-
Capital," "Sento Capital," and "Ultra
Capital." The last named quality is the
steel which will give the maximum of
efficiency at high speeds, especially on cast
iron and hard materials.
The Crucible Cast Steels of this company
are known and appreciated in Government
workshops, railway workshops, shipyards,
engineering shops, mines, etc., in all the
principal markets, and they have held for
many years the British Admiralty contract
for ordinary crucible steel for engineers'
tools. The manufacture of special steels for
various purposes, such as mint dies, motor
car parts, electrical resistances, magnets, etc.,
claims the company's particular attention.
Circular saw's (both high speed and carbon
steel) for metal or wood, handsaws, websaws,
hacksaws, rubber knives, parangs, etc., are
extensively manufacttu"ed. Other special-
ties are woodworking tools and knives,
leather knives, hammers, picks, and files.
Several grades of files are made, including
their special "D. S. W." Brand, the file with
the sharp teeth and long life.
In these days of chemistry and science, it
is interesting to note that Arthur Balfour &
Co., Ltd., employ a staff of fully qualified
chemists. Their laboratorj' is one of the
finest of its type in Sheffield, equipped with
the latest appliances for analj^tical, micro-
scopical, and pyrometric research, and the
careful examination on a scientific basis, of
both raw materials and finished products
enables them to maintain their qualities to
their well known high standards.
The manufacturing and commercial sides
of this business have been highly organised,
and direct representation by resident officials
in all the important countries of the world,
enable Arthur Balfour & Co., Ltd., to meet
the special conditions prevailing in any of
their markets, or the special requirements of
individual customers.
They have their own staffs and offices in the
following countries:
Japan — Tokj'o and Osaka.
China — Shanghai.
Australia — Melbourne, Sydney, Kalgoorlie,
and Fremantle.
Canada — Montreal and Toronto.
South .Africa — Johannesburg.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
293
)RITANI & CO.: (left UPPER) one of the firm's GODOWNS — (left lower) head office, TOKYO — (right) KYUSHU BRANCH
G las-
France — Paris.
Great Britain — Sheffield, London,
gow, and Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Agencies and stocks are held also in Adel-
side, Brisbane, and Wellington in Australasia ;
Bombay and Calcutta in India; Winnipeg
and Vancouver in Canada; in the United
States of America, Mexico, and on the con-
tinent of Europe.
The offices of their Far Eastern branches
are as follows;
Japan — Tokyo, No. i
Kyobashi-ku. Osaka,
Nibanco, Nishi-ku.
China — Shanghai, No.
The trademarks of this
"Capital," "An Eagle on a Globe," and
"Griffin," are recognised in all parts of the
world as a standard of high quality, and the
unique experience gained during the half-
century of existence, together with close
supervision throughout every stage of manu-
facture of the products of this firm, ensures
the consistently high quality, the maximum
of life, and the efficiency of the steel or tools,
which give satisfaction to the practical user.
Minaini Saegi-cho,
No. 35 Honden,
8 Museum Road,
company, viz. :
THE KAWAKITA ELECTRIC CO., LIMITED
Prominent among the electrical engineer-
ing enterprises of Japan is the well known
Osaka company, the Kawakita Denki
Kabushiki Kaisha, or Kawakita Electric Co.,
Ltd. This large concern has invested
millions of yen in the development of hydro-
electric and other electricity-generating
schemes, and is also carrying on an extensive
manufacturing industry, embracing practi-
cally all lines of electrical machinery, appli-
ances, and accessories.
In the development of its manufacturing
enterprises and the distribution and sale of
its products, the company has established
branches in various important centres of
Japan. Offices and salesrooms on a large
scale are maintained at No. 19, Shinsakana-
cho, Kj'obashi-ku, Tokyo. Here a most
complete stock of dynamos, motors, trans-
formers, switch-boards, fan motors and
other ventilating appliances, meters, lamps,
etc., is on display. The company's reputa-
tion as a manufacturer has become known
not only throughout Japan, but abroad, and
already a substantial export trade is being
done in many lines that previously were
imported to Japan. Some idea of the extent
of the company's manufacturing capacity
may be gathered from the fact that the works
turn out goods to the value of close on Yen
4,000,000 per annum. An interesting de-
scription of this enterprise appears in the
Osaka Industrial Section of this volume, see
page 592.
MORITANI & CO.
This firm was established on September 1 1 ,
1901, by its present principal, Mr. Gohei
Moritani, who may justly claim to be one
of the most experienced men in Japan in
the iron and steel, and general machinery
business. Messrs. Moritani & Co. do an
enviable volume of trade, which runs to
about Yen 8,000,000 per annum, but this
figure is only indicative of present activities.
The history of the business is one of continual
and steady expansion, and there is no doubt
but that in the immediate future the annual
turnover will be much larger.
The success which has attended the firm
is mainly due to Mr. Moritani's sound
20
294
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
organisation and the experience which he
has had in all branches of the trade. Mori-
tani & Co. may be described as general
importers and exporters of machinery,
metals, and hardware. They are agents for
such well known concerns as the Tokyo
Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd., the Meiden-
sha Co. (Electric Works), Oriental Rubber
Co., Kawasaki Dock-j^ard Co., Japan Hide &
Leather Co., Asano Slate Co., Kobukuro
Iron Works, Imperial Fire-proof Briclv Co.,
the Oriental Paint Manufacturing Co., and
the Osaka Wire Netting Co. The manu-
factures of these different concerns, together
with other lines, including imported goods,
are distributed throughout Japan by Messrs.
Moritani & Co., who have a strong selling
organisation, working through the following
branches: Osaka, Kokura, Naokata, Fuku-
shima, Taira, Iwaki, Kanazawa, Sapporo, and
Taikoku. Furthermore, the firm exports
very largely to China, Europe, America,
and the South Sea and South Pacific
islands.
The business is divided into well organised
departments, as follows:
No. I, Mechanical DeparlmenI: Steam
engines, -boilers, -pumps, -hammers, -heaters,
-locomotive engines, -presses, -pipes, -wind-
ing engines, -endless winding engines, and
other steam machines; gas engines, gas
plants, -tanks, -pipes, etc. Oil engines, oil
tanks. Air compressors, -pumps, -vacuum
engines; wire ropes, cotton ropes, manila
ropes, fans for mines, tramway machines,
chilled castings, cast steel and cast iron
products, cars, wagons, iron bridges, copper
and gun metal cast products, malleable
castings, girder works, cranes, rails, steel or
iron pipes, steel or iron plates, steel or iron
rods, water turbines, mine selecting machines,
crushers, wire nettings, winches, special
cotton belts, etc.
No. 2. Electrical DeparlmenI: A. C. Gen-
erators — Single phase and 3-phase A. C.
Generators, engine type A. C. generator and
motor generator sets for frequency changer,
etc., high frequency generators for wireless
telegraph and telephone, synchronous motors,
all necessary equipments for A. C. generator
sets. D. C. Generators — Shunt or compound
series generators with or without interpoles,
dynamo motor and rotary converters, motor
generator sets with D. C. or A. C. motors,
engine type D. C. generators, heavy current
D. C. generators for electro-chemical pur-
poses, all necessary equipments for D. C.
generator sets. Induction Motors — Single
phase and 3-phase induction motors with
squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor, semi-
enclosed motors for drip proof and dust
proof, totally enclosed motor for water proof,
etc., variable speed induction motors with
special winding on starter or special resist-
ance in rotor circuit, speed regulators, starters,
controllers, compensators, all necessary equip-
ments for induction motors. D. C. Motors
— Shunt or compound series motors with or
without interpoles, semi-enclosed motors for
drip proof and- dust proof, ventilated en-
closed motors for dust proof, gas proof, and
rain proof, totally enclosed motor for water
proof, etc., starters, speed regulators, all
necessarj' equipments for D. C. motors sets.
Transformers — Single phase and 3-phase
transformers for lighting and power use,
high frequency transformers for wireless
telegraph, extra high tension transformers
for testing use, heavy current transformers
for electric furnaces, single phase and 3-
phase auto transformers for line voltage
controlling, single phase and 3-phase induc-
tion regulators for regulating voltages,
all necessary equipments for transformers.
Switch board, etc. — All kinds of switch
boards and switch gears, switch board motors
and instrument transformers, protecting
devices and indicating devices, etc. Mis-
cellaneous— Fan motors, repairing materials,
necessary tools for setting machines, electric
meters, copper and steel wires, insulated
wires, cables, cords, cars, locomotive engines,
pumps, cranes, winding engines, telephones,
telegraphs, fittings for electric lighting, line
materials for electric cars, electric heaters,
illumination works.
No. 3, Rubber DeparlmenI: Rubber belting,
valves, packings, sheets, hoses, tubing, mats,
gloves, pneumatic and solid rubber tyres for
automobiles, carriages, and bicycles; ebonite
products, and all other kinds of rubber
products.
No. 4, Lealher DeparlmenI: Leather belts
(single, double, and triple), link or chain
leather belts, round leather belts, water-
proof leather belts, leather pickers, buffalo
pickers, leather packings (hydraulic rams or
U packings, etc.), leather hoses, leather
laces, rawhide pinions, rawhide pins, rawhide
ropes, belt cements, adhesive greases, waxes,
buttons, button plates, ovals and oval plates,
alligator belt lacings, belt hooks, round belt
hooks, belt lacing needles, all kinds of machin-
ery leather.
No.j, DeparlmenI of Archileclural Materials:
Patented ornamental tiles, patented fire-
and acid-proof bricks, patented zinc and gas
retorts, patented Asano slates (cement asbestos
plates), patented Santoku paints (originally,
fire proof, water proof, and ship bottom
paints), common paints, icolailo (patented
by Japenese and English Governments) to
make cement water proof, patented quick
wotailo (when water gushes out at cement
or concrete works), patented safe tailo
(which makes wood fire proof), compressed
cork plates for covering floor, best diatom
earth which is produced in Akita, creosotes
and creosotum for wood, etc.
The capital employed by the firm is Yen
1,000,000. Mr. Gohei Moritani is the princi-
pal of the business and the General Manager
is Mr. Yosabuyo Inoue. A staff of nearly
100 experts and salesmen, etc., is em-
ployed. The head office of Moritani & Co.
is at No. I Sanjukkenbori, Xichome, Kyoba-
shi-ku, Tokyo, where the firm has extensive
godowns.
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-=J'.';i'**~'*JS
AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE DEPARTMENT BUILDING
XV. Agriculture
Genf.kal Considerations— Intensive Cultivation— The Farmers Lot— Agricultural
Productivity- Stock-Breeuinc;. The Rice Industry: Origin and Development
OF Rice Culture— Economic Importance of the Rice Industry During
Feudal Times — Rice in the Modern Market and in the National
Economy— Rice Culture, its Extent and Varieties— Production
and Consumption of Rice in Japan— Relation of the
Price to Other Commodities and to Wages— How
Rice is Grown in Japan— Conclusion. Chemic\l
Industries— Commercial Notices
DESPITE the mountainous nature of
the country and the consequently
limited area of arable land agri-
culture is and always has been Japan's most
important industry, occupying, as it does,
more than seventy per cent of the people.
The possession of a moderate and humid
climate enhances the natural productivity
of the alluvial, volcanic soil of the plains
and valleys to an extent that largely com-
pensates for restriction of agricultural area;
and although storms are expected in early
summer and autumn, of a severity fre-
quently destructive to the rice crops, the
remainder of the year is free from such
dangers and growth is ever>'where rapid
and luxuriant, accounting for rich har-
vests and the verdant appearance of the
country.
Agriculture has always played an impor-
tant part in the policies of successive rulers
and governments and been steadily promoted
as the foundation of national prosperity even
from the remotest times. In the past it has
proved as important a factor in the social
structure of the country as it has in the
economic situation ; for, in Japan, the country
parts show a much lower death rate than the
cities, and Japan's best physique has always
been recruited from the rural population.
The sons of sttu-dy farmers form the backbone
of the national army and navy, while the
ranks of commerce and industry constantly
depend on the agricultural districts for a
supply of muscle, health, steadiness, and
probity.
The remarkable extension of the Japanese
Empire north and south affords every variety
of climate and a resultant variety of crops,
the greater portion of the country easily
producing two harvests a year, with a large
average yield. The land produces enough to
meet nearly the whole demand for provisions
at home, as well as the needs of various
industries, thus contributing immensely to the
national welfare. In Japan, therefore, the
commercial prosperity of the country is
largely bound up with its agricultural prog-
ress, and the Government is always doing
what it can to promote a more intensive as
well as a more extensive cultivation of the
soil by introducing more scientific methods
and facilitating financial accommodation.
INTENSIVE CULTIVATION
The steady and enormous increase of
population in Japan and the small area of
296
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
RESERVOIR AT KOBE
Area Cultivated per Family
Under 2 acres
Over 2 acres
Over 2 and a half acres
Over 5 acres
Over 7 and a half acres
Over 1 5 acres
Total farming population in families
Number of Families
1,996,638
1,816,721
1,086,871
332,224
66,258
5,448,292
Percentage
36.65
33
34
19
95
6
09
2
75
I
22
100
00
Landed Farmers
Tenants
Both Owners and Tenants
Total Families
1,728,692 (34%)
1,517,520 (28%)
2,202,008 (4o'o)
5,448,220
holding is about half an acre for each person,
or two and one half acres per family: but in
the north where the population is less dense,
the average per family often rises even to
seven and a half acres. These statements
will he borne out by the first table on this
page, illustrating the area under cultivation
jicr family (1914).
The figures for 1915, 1916, and 1917 are
fractionally less. Thus it is seen that by far
the largest number, amounting to over
seventy per cent of the total number of
families, are cultivating less than two and a
half acres, while those cultivating more than
seven acres do not constitute four per cent of
the agricultural population. Therefore it is
only l)y double crops and subsidiary occupa-
tions that the average Japanese farmer
can hope to make ends meet. These side
industries chiefly comprise sericulture, tea,
poultry, fishing and various handicrafts in
straw and wood work, by which family
earnings are increased, rendering poverty and
destitution verj' rare among the farming
portion of the communit)'. Japanese farmers
may be divided in four groups: those who
are merely landowners; those who are land-
owners working a portion of their land
themselves and renting the rest; those who
cultivate all their own land and rent more;
and lastly, those who are simply tenant
farmers. The number thus occupied in
1 9 14 with percentage of the total was as
shown in the second table on this page
In the years 1915, 1916, and 1917 there was
only a fractional difference. From the above
it appears that the number of farmers who
own no land at all is about 28 per cent, while
the number of those owning land and yet
arable land available necessitate an intensive
system of cultivation. With the number of
inhabitants to the square mile ten times
greater than that of the United States, and
with a smaller cultivable area than Great
Britain together with a greater population,
and with no adequate outlet for her surplus
people, Japan is forced to till every foot of the
soil, even to terracing the steep hillsides; all of
which is done for the most part by manual
labour, using rude and simple implements.
Horses and oxen are coming into use to some
extent, over two million of these animals now-
being so employed, and a few farmers have
introduced foreign implements as far as
possible, but the country as a whole is not
suited to Western farming machinery. Out
of a total population of some 57,000,000 in
Japan proper, over 40,000,000 are living on
the land, cultivating some 15,000,000 acres.
Out of this total about 7,383,325 acres are
paddy fields and 7,155,893 acres of upland,
with some plains and pastiu-es. The average
WOODEN PLOW, OF THE STYLE MLCH USED TO-DAY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
297
having no conTU'Clion witli agriculture is
almost negligible. It is obvious, therefore,
that the land is fairly evenly distributed.
THK f.\rmi;k's lot
TiiK lot of the Japanese farmer is not
generally regarded as a desirable one, and
there is a constant drift from rural to urban
population. 'Phis tendency is especially
marked among the younger members of the
tenant farmers. _ The reason may lie in the
fact that from 45 to 60 per cent of their crops
has to go to the landlord for rent, and out of
the balance they must pay heavily for the
indispensable fertilizer. On what is left, even
with the proceeds of their subsidiary labours,
a life of privation is their only outlook. The
jieasant proprietors are usually better oR.
In addition to their own plots they may
cultivate portions of land for the larger pro-
prietors and make a fair living. The majority
of these peasant proprietors, however, own
only from two and a half to five acres, which
they till with the assistance of the entire
family. Taxes take about 16 per cent of their
proceeds, and expenses in connection with
cultivation, apart from labour, take about 2^
per cent more, leaving a balance of about 61
per cent for wages, interest on capital, and
profit. Then there are the landed proprietors
who act as capitalists, letting out their land to
tenants. These are a class that have sup-
planted the country gentry of the good old
days, neither commanding the respect of
their predecessors nor showing the same
kindly feeling for their tenants. When
feudalism came to an end in 1872 the feudal
lords anil the samurai were compelled to
relinquish their domains to the Imperial
Oovernment, hut no allotment of lands could
Ijc made as in former times. Consequently
the title to lands was given to the farmer w'ho
happened to be in possession. Thus while
the nobility and the samurai lost their lands,
the farmer retained his and became a pro-
prietor, and after a Government survey
certifieates or deeds of ownership were given
to the farmers in possession. But even the
most fortunate of these landowners was not
in possession of more than 75 acres and most
of them not more than 25 acres. The tenant
always pays the landlord in rice. The rate
for paddy fields is about 57 per cent of the
total yield, while the rate for upland fields is
44 per cent and paid generally in cash. The
taxes are paid by the landowners, and as these
amount to about 33 per cent of the rent, the
actual income to owners is not large. As the
holdings are small, however, the profit to
the tenant is not sufficient to maintain him
witliout other work. Japan has no special
legislation as to agricultural holdings as
England has. In the civil code a long lease of
agrarian land is defined as running from
twenty to fifty years, though most of the
tenants hold land from ten to twelve years on
verbal contract; but now that the agrarian
population is turning toward the city tenants
are more difficult to get and something will
have to be done to improve the lot of the
farmer. The present policy is to increase the
area of holdings without decreasing intensity
of cultivation and amount of average yield per
acre.
Another interesting feature of the agrarian
problem is the Japanese economy of human
waste in the cultivation of the soil, which
supplies the greater portion of the vast
amount of fertilizer required to keep the
.•\ J.^PANESE FARMER S IRRIC-VTION WHEEL
constantly depleted soil up to the utmost
possible limit of productivity. The annual
consumption of all kinds of fertilizer in Japan
is valued at about 220,000,000 yen. Besides
nightsoil the principal fertilizers are stable
manure, vegetable ash, fish guano, oilcake,
rice bran, with large imports of phosphate,
sulphate of ammonia, and Chilian nitrate.
The Japanese are also utilising nitrogen
derived by electrical process from the atmos-
phere.
An unfortunate aspect of the farmer's lot in
Japan is the way in which he is preyed upon
by usurers, who extract from i o to 20 per cent
interest on loans now totalling over 992,225,-
000 yen, which the Government is ofTering
accommodations to reduce.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
Of the total area of Japan only some 1 5 per
cent is under cultivation, and of this by far
the most valuable are the paddy fields which
take up one-half of the total. Paddy land,
being thus far more productive than that used
for dry crops, commands a proportionately
high rental, which is usually from two to three
times as great as for upland fields, but for
which the higher rate of production in a great
measure compensates. The average yield of
rice per acre is about thirty-three bushels,
which by intensive cultivation may be
increased to forty; and in the south where two
crops a year are possible, the yield may be
increased to sixty per acre. On dry land
barley may be grown at twenty bushels to the
acre. Though most of the arable land of the
Empire seems to be under cultivation it is
said that eight million acres more might easily
be reclaimed for agricultural purposes. This
process is already going on, while in many
Cere.\ls Yen
Rice 966,449,000
Barley 63,334,000
Rye 74,210,000
Wheat 52,538,000
Soy beans 35,948,000
Millet 15,839,000
Others 38,098,000
Total 1,246,416,000
Industri.\l Products Yen
Rape 12,481,000
Tea 14,498,000
Tobacco leaf 8,540,000
Sugar cane 4,633,000
Rushes 3.953.000
Others 21,521,000
Total 65,626,000
Horticultural Products Yen
Fruits 44,868,000
Vegetables, etc 151,946.000
Total 196,814,000
Cocoons and Silkworms Yen
Cocoons 147,614,000
Silkworm eggs i6,577.o"0
Total 164,191,000
Live-Stock Yen
Domestic animals, etc 22,461,000
Poultry and products 19,812.000
Total 42,273,000
Others Yen 89,229,000
Grand Total Approximately Yen 1,800,000,000
298
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
places single crops are fast giving way to two
a year by irrigation and additional fertilizer.
The system established by the Imperial
Government for the readjustment of land and
the granting of facilities to farmers has met
with deserved success under able administra-
tion, increasing harvests by about 20 per cent
and decreasing the necessity of labour to a
proportionate extent. Most of the adjust-
ments have consisted in bringing together
scattered plots by reshaping the paddies and
removing old boundaries, lessening the land
taken up by dykes and paths as well as
increasing the size of the average field.
Nearly one million acres have thus been
already improved, at a cost of 51,811,784 yen.
About 65 per cent of the irrigation for rice
fields comes from rivers, and the rest from
reservoirs.
The annual returns for agriculture at
present indicate a greatly increased produc-
tivity everj'where. The total annual value of
agricultural products is over 1,800,000,000
yen, represented by the accompanying table.
As will be seen from the table, rice forms
the chief agricultural product of Japan,
accounting for about half of the total, while
next are raw silk, rye, barley, vegetables,
wheat, and soy beans, all of which have
shown a remarkable increase during the
last twenty years, during which time rice
has increased 26 per cent, barley 28 per
cent, rye 39 per cent, and wheat about 70
per cent. In horticulture and live-stock the
development has also been quite marked.
The table on this page indicates the rapid
increase in agricultural products during the
last fifteen years.
Since 1915, while there has been an increase
of only 950,000 acres under rice, yielding
an additional 12,500,000 bushels, the acre-
age under barley and wheat has decreased.
The three great agricultural staples of
Japan, rice, tea, and silk, will be treated
separately, but a brief account may here be
given of the minor products and the uses
to which they are put. Barley, next to rice,
with which it is mixed, forms the staple
food of the people. As it is about half the
price of rice it is chiefly consumed among
the poor, and large quantities are used for
beer brewing, this grade of barley being
grown from imported seed in Hokkaido.
As much as 15 per cent of the barley crop
DIGGING B.^MBOO SHOOTS FOR FOOD
is used in feeding cattle. A species known
as "naked barley" is sown in paddy fields
for harvesting immediately before the rice-
planting season. Wheat is now becoming
a crop of increasing importance to Japan,
as it is fast getting to be a food of the people.
It is grown as a winter crop in paddies and
upland fields in the colder districts. About
80 per cent of the yield is made into flour
for bread and food pastes such as macaroni
and vermicelli. At least one-quarter of the
total of wheat consumed comes from the
United States and Canada, but the increas-
ing production at home promises to meet
Rice
Barley, Rye, and Wheat
Raw Silk
Ye.\r
Acres
.■\CRES
Yield, Bushels
Yield, Bushels
Pounds
1901
7,119,193
-M.57 2,170
33 Per Acre
4,54(1,502
U);,,2i)i,n>iS
2^^ Per Acre
14,308,274
1905
7-213,383
190,862,800
26 Per Acre
4.543,805
93.679.295
2 1 Per Acre
15.500,523
1910
7,373,600
233,166,880
31 Per Acre
4,429,060
103,964,845
24 Per Acre
36,751,130
1915
7.631,318
279,722,950
36 Per Acre
4,529,573
118,907,210
26 Per Acre
40,169,250
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
299
the demand of domestic flour mills in the
near future, imi)orts having largely declined
in the last ten years. With the rise in
standard of living the cultivation of such
unpalatable cereals as millet and sorghum
is decreasing. The soy bean, so much
prized abroad as a cattle food, is used in
Japan not only for human beings but in the
manufacture of soy, soup, and tnfu, or bean
curd, a cheap, highly nutritious, and very
popular article of diet. The residue is used
as cattle feed, or as fertilizer, and sometimes
oil is extracted from it. Soy beans form the
principal upland crop of the summer months,
and require less labour and fertilizer than
other crops. The supply, however, is never
equal to the demand, large importations
coming from China. There is a great
variety of beans grown in Japan, among
which the more popular are small red beans,
largely cultivated in Hokkaido, and used
for cakes and confectionery, and boiled with
rice on occasions of ceremony. There is
also a large growth and consumption of peas,
horse-beans, kidney beans and others, grown
between crops after the rice is har\-csted in
the paddies and before it in the upland
fields.
There are two varieties of buckwheat, one
sown in spring and the other in autumn.
The flour from this grain is made into what
is called soba, a kind of macaroni, one of the
favourites among the cheaper foodstuffs of
the country. The sweet potato is an im-
portant upland crop, cultivated chiefly in
the southwestern part of the country. It
is a popular food among the poorer classes,
and in every town may be seen sweet potato
ovens from which hungry passersby take a
sen's worth to carry them on to a better
meal. In some parts the children live on
this food. The ordinary potato is also exten-
sively cultivated, with increasing exports to
Siberia, China, and the Philippines, though
it is used for food at home almost as much
as the sweet potato. Among special crops,
rape seed covers the greatest area. Since
the introduction of Western methods of
house illumination the rape-seed oil is no
longer used for that purpose, now finding its
chief utiUsation in cookery and lubrication,
while oil cake of this seed is often used as
nitrogenous fertilizer. Rape-seed oil also
finds an increasing demand abroad. The
tea plant demands exclusive use of the
ground it occupies and requires careful culti-
vation, the chief districts being around
Shizuoka, Miye, and Saitama districts. A
very fine quality of indigo plant is cultivated
in Japan, but owing to the invention of
artificial indigo in Europe the crop declined,
though since the European war it has been
greatly revived, and the production is now
about 10,000 acres, yielding some 20,000,000
pounds a year. Cotton growing has made
no headway owing to cheaper and superior
imports from China, America, and India.
Cotton has supplanted hemp as a material
for cloth, and hemp is now used only
for fishing nets and for rope making.
Flax is grown for the most part in Hok-
kaido, where it now forms an important
industry.
Tobacco is cultivated in every part of
Japan except Hokkaido, the most impor-
tant districts being Ibaraki, Tochigi,
Fukushima, Okayama, and Hiroshima in
the main island, Kagawa and Tokushima
in Shikoku, and Kagoshima and Gita in
Kyushu. As the manufacture and sale
of tobacco is a Government monopoly
the growers have to sell all their crop
to the authorities of the Monopoly Bureau.
The authorities exercise extreme care as
to the cultivation and improvement of
the crop, and great progress has been
made in output and quality, the chief varie-
ties being a native plant and the yellow
American varieties. The following table
will indicate the progress of the industry
for the last fifteen years:
The tobacco consumed in Japan is cMefly
cigarettes, though a few cigars are made,
but most of the latter used in Japan
are imported. (See "Government Monop-
olies.")
Sugar cane is grown in the Luchu
Islands and Formosa, the latter producing
by far the greater quantity, though the
crop there per acre is not yet more
than half of what it is in Java. The
subject will be found more fully treated
under the heads of "Manufacturing Indus-
tries" and "The Sugar Industry." Rushes
for the making of matting are largely
cultivated in Japan, growing abundantly
in swamp and paddy land. Peppermint
is also an agricultural product of grow-
ing importance, the leaves being dried
and distilled to make menthol and pepper-
mint oil. Ginseng is a medical plant
grown to some extent in Japan,, but
chiefly in Korea. The paper mulberry
is grown for making paper, and can
be profitably cultivated on slopes and
river banks not suitable to other crops.
Osiers for basket-making are also a useful
crop, and braids are made from barley
straw.
Year
Acres
Yield, Pounds
110,077,510
95,000,000
91,847,081
106,000,000
128,175,000
P.\iD, Yen
AvER.\GE Price Per Lb.,
Yen
1901
1905
1910
1915
1916
91,800
83,000
71,966
90,000
76.944
7,720,610
8,166,922
10,617,607
14,116,612
13.31 1.386
0.07
0.71
0.93
1 .106
0.857
RICE FIELDS
300
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
STOCK-BREEDING
The demand for horses and oxen as draught
animals makes stock-breeding an industry' of
increasing importance in Japan, which the
Government has greatly assisted by the stock-
farms established in various parts of the
country, especially in Hokkaido. The grow-
ing demand for a meat diet is also lending
impetus to the breeding industry. Owing
to the absence of suitable pasture lands and
the ubiquity of rice fields, Japan has not
been a great liorse-breeding country. After
the Russo-Japanese War, however, it was
seen that the need of horses for army purposes
was paramount, and consequently a Horse-
breeding Bureau was established in 1906.
At present some 1,500 foreign-bred stallions
are kept for mating with native mares,
and the Army purchases about 5,000 of
the progeny annually. The breeds imported
are chiefly from Australia and England, and
the table below will show that they are
gradually replacing the native stock.
In much the same way horned cattle of
the native breed are fast disappearing before
imported or cross-breeds. In some respects
this is to be regretted, as the native ox of
Japan is a magnificent animal and as strong
and docile as his proverbial mate abroad.
The imported cattle first came from England,
for the most part Devon, Ayrshire, and
Shorthorn, but strains like the Holstein and
Simmenthal are now being introduced as
more suitable. Owing to the immense
increase in dairy industries cows are now
largely imported and bred for the sake of
Year
Native Horses
Cross
FOREIGN
Total
1905
1910
1915
1,284,840
1,242,921
987,188
103,120
281,199
529.948
2,047
27.036
14.927
1,390,017
1. 55 1. 1 56
1,579,454
Year
Xative Horned Cattle
Cross
Foreign
Total
Sheep
Goats
Swine
1905
1910
1915
1,167,610
1,043,568
987,188
189,520
450,828
529,948
20,219
14.534
14,927
1,286,116
1.581.743
1.579.454
3.590
3.357
2,771
72,121
91.730
95.323
228,204
279,101
332.465
milk, including some fine Jerseys. The
Government has eight large stock-farms in
Hokkaido, and there are many private ones
elsewhere. The Government in every possi-
ble way encourages the breeding of horses
and cattle, and when the difficulties to be
encountered in the way of pasturage are
considered, the progress made has been
nothing short of remarkable. This statement
will be borne out by the second table below
showing the number of cattle in Japan.
No government in the world gives so much
attention to the promotion of industry as
the Japanese, and it is worthy of note that
more is done for the encouragement of agri-
culture than for any other industry. The
Hypothec Bank facilitates supply of capital
for agricultural purposes, and the Coopera-
tive Society Law promotes the formation of
credit, purchase, sale, and productive asso-
ciations, of which some eight thousand are
already in operation. This assiduous care,
combined with the inherited aptitude of the
Japanese agriculturist, assures the position
of agriculture in Japan for many years to
come. The demand is always ahead of the
supply, and with prices steadily rising, in
spite of increasing outlay on land, the outlook
for Japan's most important industry is decid-
edly favourable.
RICE FIELD AT ARIMA, NEAR KOBE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
301
THE RICE INDUSTRY
liy PROFESSOR SHOSl'KF SATO of
Tohoku Imperial University,
Sapporo, Japan
RICE is the staple crop of Japanese
agriculture, the national food of
the people, and is widely cultivated
throughout the length and breadth of the
country. Without it Japanese agriculturi-
could hardly be said to exist. The croj)
returns are eagerly studied by the financiers
of the grain market, for its price regulates
the prices of all the other necessaries of life.
Tlie rice market is very sensitive to weather
conditions, especially at the ripening season,
when storms often upset the financial market,
while dry weather is the source of economic
disturbances in the rural communities.
The paddy fields are watered from rivers
and irrigation canals, and protected against
inundation and floods by means of embank-
ments and sluice gates. Hydraulic engineer-
ing also plays no small part in the success of
rice culture. Agronomists are making their
best efforts to increase the average yield of
the paddy fields, and experiments are con-
stantly being made from the agronomical
as well as chemical standpoint to determine
what varieties are best and give the largest
yield. The principles of the new genetic
science are being applied to rice culture,
experiments especially in the search for early
varieties suitable to northern Japan. The
increase of yield, however, has not kejjt
pace with the increase of population, and
imports from Indo-China and elsewhere
must make up the national deficiency. In
good years the price falls so low that the
country feels a kind of agricultural depres-
sion, such as is felt at times in England and
other countries, and in such seasons, adjust-
ing the price of rice becomes an important
agrarian question. Granaries are in demand
in the rural districts in which to store the
surjilus until the price goes up, while agri-
cultural banks advance money to the owners
of these granaries in order to aid the pro-
ducers. Rice culture, nevertheless, is always
on a small scale and farmers are never well
off. However, most of them find it difficult
to subsist on any other diet than their chei-
ished rice, hence, ever since the foundation
of the Empire, 2,600 years ago, rice culture
has been handed down from generation to
generation as the most important agricultural
occupation of the country. The future wel-
fare and strength of Japan, iiot to speak of
advancement in civilisation, depend much
upon how the question of rice culture is
solved, for if the present system continues
the rural population will never get beyond
the horizon of a small-scale rice culture and
a low standard of living.
SCENES DIKING THE PI..\NTING SE.ASON
ORIGIN .\ND DEVELOPMENT OF RICE
CULTURE
Rice was the chief agricultural product at
the beginning of authentic Japanese history,
no account coming down to us that the people
were engaged in any other occupation than
that of agriculture. The ancestors of the
Japanese people must have already passed
the nomadic stage of life before they settled
in their adopted island country, where their
economic life began with the cultivation of
rice. When the paddy fields yielded abun-
302
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
liantly, the founders of the Empire were
pleased to call the country "the land of full
crops," a land where their descendants
could multiply and dominate. From such
traditional facts it may be interred that the
original home of the Japanese people was
somewhere in the southern islands of Asia,
not in the highlands of the continent, where
the subsistence of the people was derived
from stock-raising as in the case of the
present Mongolian Tartars. Rice has thus
been the national food of the people of Japan
since time immemorial.
The periodical partition of land, and the
common cultivation of the royal domain seem
to have been practised in the early days of
Japanese history. The size of such allotted
areas was just sufficient to yield enough rice
to sustain the cultivator, each adult man
and woman being entitled to half an acre
of land, which averaged twenty bushels of
rice per acre even during the primitive
stages of agriculture. The rice of the
domain was stored in the Government
granaries, and made good use of during
odd years. It was the established policy
of the Government to provide reservoirs
and canals for the irrigation of the paddy
fields, and wherever water courses could
be secured rice culture has found its way,
the rural population accordingly increasing
and prospering.
Rice was originally a tropical plant and
gradually became acclimatised to the soil of
Japan. Even now, the late varieties, though
they are the largest producers, can not be
safely depended upon in the northeastern
sections of the country, while the early
varieties are the only kinds that can be grown
in the Island of Hokkaido. It was a slow
process of evolution — the work of centuries,
necessitated by the growth of population and
by the frequent occurrences of famines —
to acclimatise a tropical plant to even the
extreme north of Japan. The extension of
its culture is still going on, for to make the
nation self-supplying and independent in this
important national food, the paddy fields
must be extended. The following statistical
table shows the recent increase in area and
yield of paddy fields:
SCENES DURING THE RICE HARVEST
Year
Area 1,000 Cho
Production 1,000 Koku
Average Production Per Tan
1912
1913
1914
1915
3.003
3.029
3.033
3.056
50,222
50,255
57,006
,=.5.914
1.672 koku
1.659 koku
1.879 koku
1.830 koku
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE RICE paid in kind. Not only were taxes paid in
INDUSTRY DURING FEUDAL TIMES kind for the paddy fields and upland farms,
Japan began to coin money about 90 but all the industries, such as mining and
a. d., but for a long time all the taxes were fishing, paid their share in goods. Exchange
was mostly by barter, though money came
gradually to be used to some extent. Un-
hulled rice was kept in national granaries and
often formed a medium for deferred payments.
The paddy fields were granted to courtiers
and men of rank according to the scale and
importance of office. After feudalism be-
came established in the eleventh century,
till' basis of grants was changed gradually
from land to the product of the land. A
koku of rice (5 bushels) was the unit of meas-
ure for the income of feudal lords and their
vassals, though the koban of gold was minted
and until the Restoration in 1868 maintained
a ratio to subsidiar>' silver, at I to 5. The
'I'okugawa shogunate domain was estimated
to be 8,000,000 koku of rice. The wealthiest
feudal lord, represented at the present by
the family of the Marquis Maeda, who
stood at the head of all the other feudal lords,
was estimated to possess a territory yielding
1,000,000 koku.
All the great feudal lords as well as their
vassals were compelled to sell their rice
in the markets in order to maintain their
domestic finances, consequently rice was
transported to the nearest markets to find a
ready sale. Yedo (the present Tokyo) and
Osaka were the two great rice markets. At
Asakusa,in Tokyo, granaries maystill beseen,
remains of the feudal days, though they have
since been rebuilt. The present Rice Ex-
changes in Tokj'O and Osaka have thus a
historical basis.
RICE IN THE MODERN MARKET .\ND IX
THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
The market for rice is chiefly domestic.
Formerly it was transported by means of
river and coastwise na\'igation, but with
the construction of railroads for internal
traffic the course of transportation has under-
gone many changes. Besides the two cen-
tral markets, Tokyo and Osaka, there are
many imjiortant pro\-incial markets, such as
Nagoya and Kuwana, where produce ex-
changes have been established. In recent
years the quality of rice has been consider-
ably improved, hence provinces which former-
ly had only local markets for their rice can
now send it to Tokyo and sell it there. The
earliest varieties, grown in Nigo-Han, near
Tokyo, appear in the market even as early
as August, but the latest varieties are of the
best quality and command the highest
prices. It is the aim of agriculturists through-
out the country to improve the qualitj^ of
rice, as well as the manner of packing in
straw bags for transportation, considerable
improvement having been achieved in that
respect, especially in the provinces of Ku-
mamoto, Oida, and Yamaguchi. The result
is a saving in handling and transportation
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
303
TWO PROCESSES OF SEPARATING THE RICE GRAINS FROM THE HUSK
and a gain in commanding a good price in
the markets.
Rice growers usually use barley or naked
barley as a diet and sell their rice in the
markets. This is similar to the case of silk
raisers, who sell their silk and buy cotton for
their own use.
The annual production of rice is over 250,-
000,000 bushels and if we estimate it as
averaging three yen per bushel, the whole
value would be Yen 750,000,000. No other
industry can compare with this one in im-
portance in the national economy. When
such a vast quantity of rice begins to appear
in the markets in the fall, throughout the
country, it can be easily imagined that
business is very brisk, in which bankers and
merchants share. If, however, the crop is
short, business becomes dull, and every one
feels an agricultural depression. This single
crop seems to be the mainspring of the
national economic activity, — its importance
to the welfare of the people of Japan can not
be overestimated.
RICE culture: its extent and
VARIETIES
The cultivation of rice is not poetical nor
fancy work liut a work of real drudgery.
Japanese farmers are bom to rice growing, —
the paddy fields seem to them a paradise,
their homes are surrounded by them. The
farmer and his family look after the water,
morning and evening, during the growing
season, and do not mind the heat of the
summer sun when weeding. They are,
however, afraid of storms at the time of
flowering, and of the 2ioth day of the lunar
calendar. When crops are ripe and ready
to harvest, men and women are kept busy
with the sickles. The rice plants bend with
the heavy grain and the paddy fields look as
if loaded with precious gold. The rural folk
are then active in the fields, and as merry
as at the time of transplanting. Drying,
threshing, and hulling involve much hard
work, while no labour is spared in securing
a good yield. Vigilance is required in look-
ing after enemies, especially insects and
borers. Idlers can not succeed in the grow-
ing of rice, and it is inherited experience
which enables Japanese farmers to become
expert in its cultivation. They are more
pleased when working in paddy fields than
on the upland farms, which is one reason
why the culture of rice has been gradually
extended, even to the northern provinces.
The Island of Hokkaido is rapidly becoming
a rich rice-growing country, though but
thirty years ago, rice was grown only in
limited localities in the southern part, and
not a bushel was produced in the vicinity of
Sapporo at that time. Now about 4,000,000
bushels are grown annually in Hokkaido,
which within thirty years may be increased
fivefold — to 20,000,000 bushels — inasmuch
as the paddy fields can be increased without
much difficulty to about five times the present
area. If the experiments in scientific rice-
breeding succeed in producing earlier varie-
ties, then the culture may still be extended
to those provinces in Hokkaido where the
climate has hitherto been considered too
severe for its growth. The acclimatisation
of rice, though a slow process, is a possi-
bility; therefore, it will make possible the
replacing of the present earliest varieties by
still earlier and newer varieties. There are
three kinds of rice; ordinary, glutinous, and
upland. The most important of the three
is the ordinary rice, which may be divided
into three varieties, namely, early, medium,
and late. Each of these varieties has about
ten chief sub-varieties and are the most
commonly cultivated. One variety differs
from another in the length of the straw, the
number of shoots, the length of ears, the
number of grains in the ear, the size and form
of grains, the time of ripening, and other
peculiarities. So long as rice forms the
chief national food and plays an important
part in the economy of the nation, it is very
desirable to produce the best early varieties
and to extend rice culture to all parts of
Hokkaido and even to Saghalien.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF
RICE IN JAPAN
Rice culture may be said to form the
backbone of Japanese agriculture, the paddy
fields constituting more than one-half of the
arable land of the country. The mulberry
and tea farms produce two important articles
of export, but the value of tea and silk can
not be compared with the importance of rice.
If cotton merits the name of "King" in
America, rice is certainly entitled to be called
"Queen" in Japan. The following table
shows the increase of area of the paddy fields
during nearly forty years:
Average Area
Period
OF
Paddy Fields
From 1878 to 1887
2,579,060 cho
From 1888 to 1897
2,754,289 cho
From 1898 to 1907
2,861,158 cho
From 1908 to 1914
2,978,576 cho
These statistics show that the area increase of
paddy fields from 1878 to 1914 was 399,516
cho (i cho being equal to about 2K acres);
that is, the increase averaged 11,103 cho per
year. From this fact we infer that Japan,
being pressed by the growth of population, is
304
PRESENT-DAY
1 M I' R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
using the lands available for rice culture as
paddy fields. This increase in area is not at
the expense of the upland farms because the
total area of the latter also shows some
increase. Hence we conclude that arable
lands are constantly being reclaimed from
new lands and that the margin of cultivation
is extended to inferior soil. The result is an
increased production of rice, as may be seen
from the following statistics:
Period
From 1878 to 18S7
From 1888 to 1897
From 1898 to 1907
From 1908 to 1914
.\vER.\GE Yield
OF Rice
31,809,467 koku
38,236,831 koku
44,382,972 koku
51,457,321 koku
This shows that the increased production of
rice amounted to 19,647,854 koku (i koku
equals 5 bushels) in thirty-six years. The
average increase per year is 545,773 koku,
which is about the amount needed for the
increase of population. How long we can
continue to increase the production of rice at
such a ratio is a question of vital importance
to the welfare of the nation.
The consumption of rice per capita is
increasing constantly, as the following
statistics show. The statistics are based on
the assumption that the rice consumed is the
amount of production of the previous year
plus or minus the amount of rice imported
or exported, as the case may be.
Period
AVER-\GE
CONSLMPTIO.N
PER C.\PIT.\
From 1888 to 1897
From 1898 to 1907
From 1908 to 1912
.946 koku
. 984 koku
I . 042 koku
Besides being consumed as food in the form
of rice flour, rice is used for confectionery, for
distilling sake, and for starch. The standard
of living being constantly raised, the con-
sumption of rice in the future will far exceed
one koku per capita. It is, therefore, neces-
sary to increase the yield of rice per tan by
means of intensive culture. The following
statistics show that the yield of rice per tan
has been raised within the last twenty
vears.
Period
Aver.\ge Yikl.d
PER T.\N
From 1888 to 1897
From 1898 to 1907
From 1908 to 19 12
I .401 koku
1 . 57 1 koku
I 734 koku
If we take the three years 1912, 1913, and
1 9 14, the average comes up to 1.771 koku per
tan (I Ian equals yi acre), so that the yield
per acre is over 35 bushels. It will not take
many years to bring the average yield up to
40 bushels per acre. The four prefectures,
Kyoto, Osaka, Nara, and Wakayama,
returned, in the year 19 14, 49 bushels as the
average yield per acre.
RELATION OF THE PRICE OF RICE TO
OTHER COMMODITIES .\ND TO WAGES
The price of rice is, of course, regulated by
the law of supply and demand, but it con-
stantly fluctuates in the market, depending
chiefly on the condition of the crops. The
produce exchanges find it very difficult to fix
the normal price during the ripening season
when the facts of temperature and humidity
are still uncertain. The fluctuation of the
;7/ V-
t^?^.r
I
In
wooden mortar and pounder for polishing rice — THE RICE MERCHANT
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
305
HARVESTING SCENE
During the iieriod under consideration the
rice exported averaged 272,121 koku per year
at a value of 5,627,997 yen, showing that the
quantity of the export was about 7 per cent,
while the value of the import was about 10 per
cent. When the price rises it can be steadied
by the im|jortation of foreign rice, but when
it gets so low as to cause loss to the producers
it is very difficult to bring the price up again
to a normal standard, because there is not
sufficient mark-et abroad for Japanese rice.
Elasticity and adjustment of the price seem
to be one-sided. Hence, at the last meeting
of the AgricuUural Committee for the
Adjustment of the Price of Rice in Tokyo, the
establishment of rice granaries in different
prefectures was recommended as the only
ellective method of keeping up the price to a
normal standard. But the most natural and
the most economical way of adjusting the
price, whether high or low, must be to open
world markets to Japanese rice. The follow-
ing table shows the price per koku per decade
since the Restoration:
])rice often causes anxiety to the people inas-
much as rice is their main food, and also
because it also fixes the standard price of other
necessaries of life, as well as the wages of the
working classes. The rice imported from
British India, Siam, French Indo-China, and
other countries in Asia tends to moderate
prices as it is cheaper, being of an inferior
quality. Within three years, from 1912 to
19 1 4, the rice imported from these sources
averaged 2,631,450 koku per annum and
amounted to 34,996,573 yen. There is also a
supply from Formosa and Korea which helps
to steady the rice market. In Formosa there
are two crops per year, l>ut the quality is
rather poor. In Korea they depend chiefly
upon rainfall for irrigation, but the rice is of
better quality and commands a higher price
than that grown in Formosa. From 1912 to
191 4, inclusive, the rice imported from For-
mosa averaged 820,018 koku per annum,
valued at 10,953,215 yen, an average of 13.28
yen per koku. From Korea the Japanese
imported rice during the same period which
averaged 624,629 koku per year, valued at
9,582,674 yen, or 15.71 yen per koku. Thus
it will be seen that within three years, from
1912 to 1914, inclusive, the rice imported from
the Asiatic countries, Formosa, and Korea,
averaged over 4,000,000 koku, w'ith a value of
more than Yen 55,530,000 per annum. This
cheaper rice supplied food to the poorer
rlasses and supplemented the deficiency in
([uantity of the native rice. Without this
importation the prices of commodities other
than rice would have become higher. These
other commodities are barley, beans, and
other necessities made out of such grains, as,
for instance, miso and sauce, and would much
affect the domestic economy of the wage-
earning classes. If this imported rice (4,076,-
097 koku) be added to the average quantity of
rice produced, it would make a total of
56,570,758 koku. This amount would repre-
sent the average quantity of rice consumed
during the period under consideration,
provided none is exported. Though the
native rice commands a higher price, some of
it is exported to other countries, chiefly for
the consumption of Japanese living there.
Period
1868 to 1S77
1S78 to 1887
1888 to 1897
1898 to 1907
1908 to 191 2
Yen
6
,^6
7
40
8
09
'3
3.3
16
72
During these forty-five years the minimum
price was 3. 88 yen per koku, in 1872, and the
maximum price was 20.72 yen per koku, in
1912.
CHANGING THE ROOF. AN orUKATION NECESSARY BUT ONCE IN A GENERATION
3o6
P R K S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
HOW RICIv IS GROWN IN JAPAN
I HAVE hitherto treated some of the
economic features of the Rice Industry in
Japan, but its agronomical features may also
interest some readers. The rice grower has
pursued most unique methods of culture from
ancient times. The modern science of agri-
culture has introduced some new innovations,
but on the whole the culture remains the same,
and the farmers attend to the various phases
of the work in the paddy fields, deep in mud,
as in days of yore. A certain reverence is
accorded to rice culture because, as a time-
honoured industry, it has produced for the
people of Japan the necessities of life. We,
too, have our Thanksgiving Day, the 17th of
November, which is a national holiday, when
the ceremony of first-offerings of rice to the
Ancestors is observed by the Imperial House-
hold.
With regard to the technical points of rice
agronomy, the following may be noted ;
(1) The selection of the best rice for seed is
very essential in order to secure good crops.
The selection may be made by means of salt
water, as good seed always sinks to the bottom.
The seed beds are first thoroughly prepared,
from which the plants are transplanted into
the paddy fields. If the seeds are immersed
in cold water about a week, germination in the
seed beds is hastened. In the northern pro-
vinces, especially in Hokkaido seeds are
dribbled directly mto the paddy fields, thus
dispensing with the practice of transplanting.
(2) The preparation of paddy fields must
be thoroughly done before transplanting.
This involves the work,of plowing or spading,
pulverising, manuring, and irrigating. In
southern Japan the paddy fields are cropped
twice a year, that is, one crop of rice is followed
by barley or rape. Much work and care is
involved in preparing the soil for two such
different kinds of crops. Transplanting is
the most lively field work performed by the
country people, both men and women, old and
young. After transplanting, care must be
taken to have sufficient water in the paddy
fields, otherwise the plants will not grow well.
The manures used are of various kinds, such
as night soil, barnyard manures, fish guano,
bean cake, wood ashes, bone meal, artificial
fertilizers, and green manures. The time of
application depends upon the kinds used, as
well as the soil and climate, but it must be
remembered that the plant needs food mostly
during the growing season, especially just
before flowering. Weeding is done two or
three times during the plants' growing period.
This is a most tedious kind of work, as it
must be done by hand in the muddy rice fields,
since no adequate implements can be used.
After the weeding is attended to farmers can
rest and await the ripening of the grain.
A COUNTRY GIRL IN THE CHERRY SEASON
(3) A good crop of rice depends much upon
favourable weather, storms being the deadly
enemies of the plants, especially at the flower-
ing season. Not only the farmers, but also all
classes of people, who know that the pros-
perity of the year depends much upon climatic
conditions, anxiously watch the weather sig-
nals and reports during the summer
months. The most favorable weather for
the growth of the plants is — (a) high tempera-
ture, (i) rainfall, not too frequent, (c) no
storms during the flowering season. Extremes
of weather are, however, very frequent during
the growing period. At such times not only
no good grain, but even no good straw may be
expected. There is no other crop on the face
of the earth which climatic influences affect so
much as rice grown in Japan.
(4) Harvesting, threshing, and hulling are
all done by means of crude implements and
tools. As the paddy fields are dry at the
time of harvesting some harvesting machines
can be used, but the fields are so small that the
farmers stiU use th.e simple sickle. After
being dried in the fields the harvested crop is
subjected to hand threshing, and the grains
are hulled in a hand mill. Then the rice is
packed in straw bags and sent to the market.
where the polishing is usually attended to by
the rice dealers.
CONCLUSION
Ca.n the cultivation of paddy fields be
organised as a business? They are now
simply employment fields, that is, farmers
employ their time and get a wage-income
but nothing more. Can not culture on a
large scale be introduced? The extreme
small-scale culture, or spade farming, is still
the chief method of rice culture. How can
improvement be introduced into this national
industry so as to elevate it as a business?
Prosperous rural economy depends much
upon the solution of such a vital problem.
According to recent statistics the total num-
ber of farming families was 5,453,969 in the
year 191 5, while the total area of paddy
fields was given as 2,965,566 cho. The
average area per family is a little over 0.5 cho.
The total area of upland farms is given as
2,893,760 cho, so that the average area per
family is also a little over 0.5 cho. Both
being added together it will make a little
over one cho per family. One cho of arable
land, which is equivalent to about two acres
and a half, is not sufficient to make farming
a prosperous business. Consequently the
farmers are farm labourers who employ their
time on their own or tenanted land in order
to earn wages, but they obtain no profits on
other business undertakings. This wage-
income is not enough to support farmers'
families, therefore subsidiary occupations
are necessary in order to eke out an existence.
However, as in France, there being not many
profitable industries in rural districts where
they can employ their surplus time, the
farmers migrate from the rural communities
to the cities and industrial centres.
This is a vital national problem, which
must not be overlooked. This rural exodus
is, however, not a thing entirely to be regret-
ted in Japan. It may give a much needed
stimulus to the reorganisation of the rural
communities and the improvement of agri-
culture. It is hardly possible that this rural
exodus will be carried to such as extent as
to leave arable lands uncultivated or villages
deserted. On the contrary, we can main-
tain the productivity of the soil, or even
make it more productive, by reorganising
agriculture, even though there may be some
exodus of the rural population to the urban
districts. How we shall accomplish this
reorganisation is a grave question which the
people must seriously consider.
I have shown above that the average
area cultivated by one farmer family is a
little over one cho, but a great majority of
farmers cultivate considerably less than one
cho. In the year 19 15 the following sta-
PRESKNT-DAY
I M I' R E S S I O N S
OF JAPAN
307
tistics were gi\-cn by the C'lOvoniment author-
ities:
Area Cultivated
PER
Farmer Family
Families
Per
Cent
Under 0.5 cho
Over 0 . 5 cho
Over I 0 cho
',990,275
1,823,895
1,092,157
330,121
149,367
68,154
36.64
33 ■ 35
•9 95
Over 2.0 cho
Over 3.0 cho
Over 5 . 0 cho
6.10
2.74
1 ,22
Total
5,453,969
100.00
Thus 70 per cent of the farmers cultivate
an area less than one cho. No rice industry,
however intensively it may be carried on,
can flourish on such a small patch of ground.
Hence, the reorganisation of agriculture in
Japan so as to increase the area of arable
lands is most urgent. This can be done by
turning some portions of the forest lands into
arable lands, the extent of the former being
three times as great as of the latter. In
191 5 the total area of all kinds of forests,
namely. Crown, State, Communal, Temple,
and private forests, was given as 18,640,873
cho. Perhaps on account of the difficulty
of irrigation the newly reclaimed lands can
not be turned into paddy fields. If so, we
could here grow upland rice, or more profit-
ably still, raise stock, whether horned cattle,
sheep, or pigs. The income from these
sources would greatly supplement that from
the original paddy fields or upland farms.
Moreover, manures are a great asset to the
farmers as they enable them to keep up the
fertility of the soil. The introduction of
stock will naturally lead to the cultivation
of grasses and root crops, and hence more
work-horses, with plows, harrows, cultivators
and other tools will come into use. The
rice industry, accompanied by the raising
of a small amount of stock, will greatly
ameliorate the condition of the farmers.
Sericulture, hitherto known as the great
subsidiary occupation, and stock-raising,
the new subsidiary occupation, both being
united in an organisation, will make
the rice industry a profitable business,
and the farmer's life endurable and even
happy.
PROMINENT IN THE FERTILIZER AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
(Upper Row) Mr. B. Oi, Chairman of Directors, Tokj-o Sulphuric Acid Co., Ltd. — The late Mr. M. Yamada, founder of the Japan Sulphur
Co., Ltd. — Mr. A. Yamada, Managing Director, Japan Sulphur Co., Ltd. — Mr. S. K.ytow, Managing Director, Japan Acetic Acid Mfg. Co., Ltd.
(Middle Row) Mr. J. Kamiryo, Managing Director, Osaka Alkali Co., Ltd. — Mr. K. Anraku, President of Great Japan Artificial Fertilizer
Co., Ltd. — Mr. ToKUGORO Nakahashi, President, Nippon Chisso Hiryo Kabushiki Kaisha — Dr. N. Tsuneto, President, Rasa Island Phos-
phate Co., Ltd. — Mr. U. Ishikawa, Managing Director, Kanto Sanso Kabushiki Kaisha.
(Lower Row) Mr. Hidekichi Kojima, Managing Director, Japan Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd. — Mr. H. Hirata, of Great Japan Artificial
Fertilizer Co., Ltd. — Mr. S. Fujimoto, Chairman of Directors, Osaka AlkaH Co., Ltd. — Mr. Noguchi, Managing Director, Nippon ChissoHiryo
Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. Y. Tanaka, President, Kanto Sanso Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. Tetsutaro Hasegawa, Standing Director, Japan
Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd.
3o8
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE CHEMICAL
INDUSTRIES
JAPAN'S chemical industries received a
tremendous impetus during the war,
especially in coal-tar, alkaline, and electro-
chemical enterprises, as well as to some extent
in metal refining, particularly zinc. The Ja-
panese have taken up the industry of manu-
facturing saltpetre with nitrogen from the air
by electrical process. Red phosphorus is also
being produced in large quantities for matches.
If all the companies engaged in the produc-
tion of chlorate of potash go on at the present
rate, the output will greatly exceed the de-
mand. The Japanese are using a great deal
of glycerine now, which is being made from
fish oil, but the production is yet far below
the demand. Commercial oxygen, sulphate
of ammonia, and carbide works are doing
their best to meet domestic requirements.
Japan usually uses about 140,000 tons of
sulphate of ammonia atmually, of which the
local output supplies some 100,000 tons.
The Government is creating free laboratories
for the promotion of technical educat'on in
chemistry and research, and wealthy public-
spirited citizens are doing likewise.
THE JAPAN ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZER CO.,
LIMITED
One of the most flourishing industries in
Japan is that involving the production of
artificial manures, and chemicals for general
commercial use. Apart from the commercial
side of the industn,', it may be said that it
has been found absolutely essential for Japan
to produce her own artificial fertilizers, in
order to obtain the greatest possible yield
from the rice and other arable lands in the
country. These are limited in extent, and
the harvests fall far below the requirements
of the rapidly growing population. Without
the use of fertilizers, the disparity between
the supply and the demand for the staples
of life, such as rice, vegetables, etc., would
be a very serious one. Up to quite recent
times Japan's requirements in fertilizers were
largely met by import from foreign countries,
but once the problem of making the country
largely independent of foreign supply was
faced by the Japanese engineers and chemists,
the situation has been completely changed.
Not only does the chemical fertilizer industn,'
provide for all domestic requirements in
many leading lines, but a large export trade
has been developed.
In the forefront of the artificial fertilizer
industry is the Japan Artificial Fertilizer Co.,
Ltd., a strong organisation which has the
backing of the Furukawa interests. Baron
Toranosuke Furukawa being one of the
largest shareholders. The company was
originally established in 1899, a factory being
erected at Kinegawa, Tokyo Prefecture.
Several changes took place in the organisa-
tion during the first years of the existence of
the enterprise, but steady progress was
always maintained, the company increasing
its output year by year, developing new lines
of manufacture, and generally prospering
with the improvement in conditions through-
out Japan. In 1907 the Kyoyeki Artificial
Fertilizer Co., Ltd., at Ogu, Kitatoshima
County, Tokyo Prefecture, was purchased,
and its plant was made the Japan Artificial
Fertilizer Co.'s Ogu branch factory. In
19 1 5 Baron Furukawa, realising the great
future before the company, and the bright
prospects for the industry generally, jiur-
chased a large interest in the concern. At
TEA PICKERS
this time the market for fertilizers was extra-
ordinarily active, and a broad expansion
policy for the Japan Artificial Fertilizer Co.
was entered upon. Up to this time the
capital had been Yen 500,000, but now the
sum was raised to Yen 2,000,000. A des-
patch office was opened at No. 7 Komatsucho,
Fukagawa-ku, which is the centre of the ferti-
lizer market in Japan, and a chemical factory
was established at Nagoya, for the produc-
tion of sulphuric acid and superphosphates
of lime. A technical staff of 50, and 500
workmen, were engaged, and when in full
operation this factorj' began to turn out
80,000 tons of chemical products per annum.
Up to this time the company was princi-
pally engaged in the manufacture of super-
phosphate, but vvith the development of the
business, attention was given to the pro-
duction of all classes of artificial manures
for different purposes. Over a himdred
different fertilizers were invented in the
company's laboratories, and their values for
various branches of agriculture were demon-
strated by practical tests. These fertilizers
are now all on the local and foreign markets,
and their excellence is generally recognised to
be surj:)assed by no other products. Among
these special products may be mentioned an
ideal fertilizer for young rice plants, for rice
production generally, for wheat, for tobacco
plants, for sweet potatoes, for ordinarj'
potatoes, for mulberry trees (the food of
silkworms), and for fruit trees. The com-
pany's superphosphates are sold in various
degrees from 15 to 21 per cent of water
soluble phosphoric acid. The different prod-
ucts have been exhibited in competition
at many trade exhibitions, and have been
awarded medals and the highest honours.
Besides the lines mentioned, the Japan
Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd., manufactures
strong sulphuric acid, muriatic acid, and
muriates. The company also engages in the
sale and purchase of organic and inorganic
manures such as sulphate of ammonia,
Chilian saltpetre, bean cake, rape-seed cake,
etc. The name of "Japan Fertihzer" and
the company's brand in a diamond, are well
known throughout Japan and abroad, a
large export trade being done with India,
Java, Australia, the Philippines and else-
where.
The principal officials of the Japan Arti-
ficial Fertilizer Co., Ltd., are: Mr. K. Yoko-
gawa. President and Director: Mr. H. Ko-
jima. Managing Director; Mr. T. Hasegawa,
Standing Director; Messrs. N. Hasegawa and
R. Suga, Directors, and Messrs. K. Kita and
M. Ishii, Auditors. At the close of the half-
year, June 30, 1917, the company's balance
sheet showed assets of Yen 2,686,007.34.
The profit for the period was Yen 116,322.45,
which with Yen 20,805.35, brought forward,
was distributed as follows: Repayment of
fixed capital. Yen 20,000; bonus, Yen 7,500;
to legal reserve. Yen 5,500; to special reserve.
Yen 25,000; dividend at 12 per cent, Yen
57,000; leaving a balance to carrj' forward
of Yen 22,127.80
THE RASA ISLAND PHOSPHATE CO.,
LIMITED
Ax enterprise of considerable importance
to Japan is that which is being carried on by
the Rasa Island Phosphate Company,
Limited, a company engaged in developing
the immense ])hosphatic rock fields on Rasa
Island, a hitherto deserted and neglected
outpost of the Japanese Empire. This island
was not discovered till late in the last century,
and for some years it appeared on the British
Admiralty charts as Rasa, or Kendrick
Island. In August, 1892, a Japanese warship
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P R E S E N T - D A \' I M P R I^. S S I O N S O I' JAPAN
RASA ISLAND PHOSPHATE CO., LTD.
TRUCKING THE ROCK AWAY TRENCHING FOR PHOSPH.\TIC ROCK-
SHEDS — THE BIG QUARRY NEAR THE WATERFRONT
-THE STORING AND DESPATCHING
was despatched to survey the island which lies
in latitude 24°, 32 north, and longitude 131°,
19 east, about 850 miles south-south-west of
Yokohama. Rasa Island was entirely unin-
habited, and apparently had no commercial
value, but in September, 1 900, it was formally
declared by the Japanese Government to be a
Japanese possession under the name of
Okidaitojima, and annexed to Daitojima,
Okinawa Prefecture, in the Luchus. Later
on the existence of phosphatic rock was
discovered on the island, and Dr. N. Tsuneto
visited the place, and the result of a most
thorough investigation by this eminent
scientist disclosed the existence of extensive
deposits. The field offered every facility for
easy working, and the prospects of establish-
ing a successful industry seemed excellent to
Dr. Tsuneto, since Rasa Island is free of
noxious insects, malaria, or other conditions
militating against the importation of work-
men. On Dr. Tsuneto's recommendation it
was decided to establish a company to exploit
the phosphate deposits, and the Rasa Island
Phosphate Goshi Kaisha was formed in 191 1
with Dr. Tsuneto as its President. Excava-
tion work was soon commenced, and a
preliminary survey of the fields showed a
most encouraging state of affairs. Phosphatic
rock deposits were exposed over a surface of
35,612 tsitbo, but excavation showed that
the area available for working was some
280,000 tsuho, or roughly 2,450 acres, the
strata being from 9 to 30 feet deep. A careful
survey and calculation resulted in an estimate
being framed of 10,071,720 tons of available
rock. This estimate could hardly be credited
by those who had not visited the island, but it
was more than confirmed by a body of experts
who examined the field in 1912. Moreover,
independent analyses demonstrated the rock
to be exceedingly rich in phosphoric acid,
three different laboratories giving the percent-
age as 36.90, 36.52, and 35.99 respectively.
This percentage is greater than that of either
the Algerian or Florida phosphates, and the
Rasa Island rock is superior to the other two
in that there is an absence of obnoxious
fluorine matter, as well as a lesser admixture
of iron and alumina. Rasa Island rock is also
superior to the others because the phosphoric
acid yielded, taking 20 per cent as a basis, is
soluble to the extent of 18 per cent in water,
and 0.5 per cent in ammonium citrate. As
rock suitable for the fabrication of superphos-
phates, the Rasa Island material at once
attracted keen interest in Japan, when these
facts were made known. The demand for
superphosphates in Japan is calculated at
300,000 tons per annum, and naturally the
discovery of such a rich new field offered a
most attractive proposition for commercial
exploitation.
After some thousands of tons of rock had
been excavated, and trial shipments made, it
was seen that the Rasa Island Company was
not large enough to handle the enterprise,
and get out the rock fast enough to meet the
demand. Some 150 workmen had up to this
time been engaged in excavating by hand, but
the need for a more numerous force and an
up-to-date excavating plant was realised.
Accordingly, in 1913, a limited liability com-
pany was formed with a capital of Yen
3,000,000, and the thorough development of
the field was taken in hand. Since then, the
history of the Rasa Island Phosphate Com-
pany, Limited, has been one of rapid progress.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
,11
THE GREAT JAPAN ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZER CO., LTD.: THE YOKOHAMA, KAMAYABORI, AND KOMATSL'GAWA FACTORIES
The number of workmen on the island at
present has been increased to more than
2,000, excavating machines have been in-
stalled, railway lines laid, piers con-
structed, and four steamers of 2,500 to
3,000 tons, besides a number of sailing
ships, have been purchased or chartered
for the transportation of the rock to
Japan for treatment in the fertilizer fac-
tories. The operations of the company
have demonstrated beyond doulat that the
field is an exceedingly valuable one,
the rock having been found to extend
in places over seventy feet below the
surface. It is easily worked by open
quarrying, and the shipping facilities are
excellent, there being good anchorages
and plenty of water close in to the shore.
The output of rock has rapidly increased
under the improved system of working the
field, and everj'thing points to the company
realising good profits from its enterprise.
Dr. Tsuneto is the President of the Rasa
Island Phosphate Company, Limited, the
head office of which is at No. i, Yuraku-cho,
Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo.
GREAT JAPAN ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZER
CO., LIMITED
Perhaps the first steps taken in the
direction of establishing the artificial ferti-
lizer business of Japan were those which led
to the formation of the business at present
conducted by the Dai-Nippon Jinzo Hiryo
Kabushiki Kaisha, known by its English
title of the Great Japan Artificial Fertilizer
Co., Ltd. The genesis of the industry is
undoubtedly to be found in the enthusiastic
work of Dr. Jokichi Takamine, one of the
best known men of science in Japan, and a
chemist of world-wide reputation. Dr. Taka-
mine was at one time, as Professor of Tech-
nology and Professor of Pharmacy, in the
service of the Department of Agriculture and
Commerce, and in the years 1885-6 was
despatched to Europe on official business for
the Imperial Japanese Government. He
was deeply impressed with the extent to which
foreign agriculturists made use of artificial
fertilizers, and the importance of the manu-
facture of these aids to crop production.
Upon his return to Japan Dr. Takamine
strongly urged upon a number of influential
men in commerce and indnstry, the impera-
tive need for the establishment of fertilizer
manufacture in Japan, and the greater use
of artificial manures in all departments of
agriculture. Under his direction a company
was decided upon, the promoters including
the following influential Japanese men of
affairs: Baron Shibasawa, Baron Okura,
Messrs. Takenosuke Mitsui, Kisaku Shibu-
sawa, Zenjiro Yasuda, Takashi Masuda,
Soichiro Asano, and Kyohei Mikoshi. It
would be difficult even now to find a more
influential body of men in Japan to act as
the fathers of a new industry, for these gentle-
men are to-day the foremost leaders in
finance and commerce in the country, their
names being associated with the greatest
and most successful enterprises in Japan.
The company was formed in 1887 with a
capital of Yen 250,000, and the erection of a
factory at Kamayabori, Fukagawa, Tokyo,
was started, though it was not till 1888 that
the plant was actually in operation.
As a pioneer in a new industry' the way of
the Great Japan Artificial Fertilizer Co.,
Ltd., was at first beset with difficulties, and.
312
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
in fact, its progress may be said to date
only from after the Russo-Jai)ani'SC War.
The first years were occupied in developing
some degree of productive capacity, estab-
lishing factories, and learning the business,
while at the same time financial arrangements
had to be continually altered to meet increas-
ing demands and changing conditions. The
first increase in capital did not take place
till 1896 when the sum was raised to Yen
500,000. Thereafter increases in capital
followed very regularly, as new factories
were called for, and the company's interests
widened by the amalgamation of or purchase
of other proprietory concerns. The last
increase of capital took place in January,
1913, when the amount was raised to Yen
12,500,000, thus making the concern the
largest of its kind in Japan. In August,
1908, the companjr purchased the Hokkaido
Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd., and the Im-
perial Fertilizer Co., Ltd. The following
year the fertilizer department of the Settsu
Oil Manufacturing Co., Ltd., was purchased,
a special loan of Y n i ,000,000 being floated
for this purpose. In July, 1910, the Osaka
Sulphide Soda Co., Ltd., was bought out,
this step necessitating the raising of the
capital to Yen 6,250,000. The same year
the present title of the Great Japan Arti-
ficial Fertilizer Co., Ltd., was adopted. It
may be said that up to 19 10, despite the fact
that the business had then been in existence
over twenty years, the company's energies
had been devoted to building up the industry,
increasing the capital, amalgamating various
competing interests, and generally establish-
ing a powerful organisation to deal with a
most important and rapidly expanding
industry. When this work was complete
the company despatched its distinguished
specialist, Dr. Toranosuke Nishikawa, to
Europe and America to make a close exami-
nation of the conditions of, and methods
obtaining in, the industry in foreign coun-
tries. Upon Dr. Nishikawa's report, many
improvements in the factories and in the
methods of production and general business
conduct were effected by the Directorate.
If a bird's-eye view of the expansion of
the business be taken it will be seen what
great strides have been made in the thirty
years during which the business has been
operated. The production of all classes of
fertilizers was only 50,000 kwan the first
year. At the end of the first twenty years
the output reached 23,400,000 kwan, and
to-day the yearly production is approximately
100,000,000 kwan (i kwan equals 8% pounds).
One of the specialties of the Great Japan
Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd., is the manu-
factiu'e of sulphuric acid, about 187,000 tons
being produced annually, which is equivalent
to about one-third of the total production
from all factories in Japan. The company is
also producing nitric acid, muriatic acid,
precipitates of copper, iron precipitates,
sugar piu-ifying compounds, sulphur liquid,
superphosphate of hme, bisuperphate of
lime, and complete manures. Besides these
manufactures, the company imports and sells
Ocean Island, Christmas Island, Angaul,
Macatea, Naul, Florida, Gaftha, and Llasa
phosphates, as well as those from Noto, a
province of Japan. These phosphates are
used as raw materials for the production of
superphosphates of lime. There are eight
factories, located as follows: Kamayabori,
Tokyo; Komatsugawa, Tokyo; Yokohama;
West Osaka; North Osaka; Owada; Shinio-
noseki, and Hakodate. The headquarters
of the Great Japan Artificial Fertilizer Co.,
Ltd., are at No. 17, Kitashimbori-cho, Nihon-
bashi-ku, Tokyo, and there is a branch at
Xishino, Osaka.
Mr. Kanemichi Anraku is the President of
the company. The Managing Director is
Mr .Hatsukuma Hirata, and other Directors
are Messrs. Meizaburo Horinchi, Ichisaburo
Abe, Taro Masuda, Motosaburo Tanaka,
Teinosuke Murai, Toranosuke Nishikawa
(Professor of Technology and Chief of the
Technical Department), and Yoshibumi
Murota. The Auditors are Messrs. Shuzo
Matsuoka, Jinzaburo Yeto, and Chozaburo
Uyemura.
THE OSAKA CHEMICAL FERTILIZER CO.,
LIMITED
To realise a profit of 85 per cent on capital
in the first year of operations speaks well
for the soundness of management of the
Osaka Chemical Fertilizer Co., Ltd. This
concern came into existence in December,
1916, as a joint-stock company with a capital
of Yen 2,000,000, the President being Mr.
Konosuke Abe. The Abe Kobei Fertilizer
Company's interests were purchased by the
new organisation, and the methods of manu-
facture and handling of products were at
once revolutionised, to bring about economy
of production, the highest quality, and a
large output at the lowest prices. The
Osaka Chemical Fertilizer Co., Ltd., imports
its raw materials direct from abroad and
ships directly, its factories and plants being
so arranged as to permit of the cheapest
handling. There are three factories, namely,
at Osaka, Yokohama, and Kawanoishi in lyo
Province. Crude phosphates are imported
nrmn ■?
F
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L
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PREPARING THE DRIED INDIGO LEAVES FOR SHIPMENT — INDIGO LEAVES — SIFTING THE DRIED LEAVES
314
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
and transformed into superphosphates, and
other lines dealt in are sulphate of ammonia,
sulphate of potash, Chilian nitrates, fish
guano, seed cake (cotton and hemp), bone
meal, hoof meal, horn meal, bean cake, and
other fertilizers. By a most economical
process the company also produces large
quantities of sulphuric acid from the by-
products of zinc refining. As an indication
of the company's well designed plants, it
may be mentioned that steamers of 2,000
tons can be moored at the Kawanoishi
factor}-. In no other fertilizer business is
this the case, and it may be readily realised
what this advantage means in economy of
handling of imported raw materials and the
export of the manufactured products. The
Yokohama factory is entirely modem, and
also most advantageously placed. It faces
the sea, and is equipped with the most
effective labour-saving devices. Branch rail-
way lines are laid directly into the factory,
connecting with the entire Government
system, and the facility with which material
and products is handled is not excelled any-
where else. Apart from the local trade a
large export business, mainly w'ith South
Africa and Russia, is being done by the
Osaka Chemical Fertilizer Co., Ltd. The
managerial policy, based on the exceptional
advantages the company enjoys through the
convenient location of its factories and the
modern jilants employed, is to turn out a
maximum of high-grade products at the least
margin of profit. Nevertheless, as stated
before, the result of the first year's operations
has been a profit of 85 per cent on ca))ilal.
The head office is established at Nichomc,
Bingomachi, Higashiku, Osaka. The fac-
tories are located at Otakami, Hiyijima
Village; Nishinari, Osaka; Koyasumachi,
Yokohama; and Kawanoishi, \ishi-uwa, lyo.
The principal officers of the Osaka Chemi-
cal Fertilizer Co., Ltd., are: Mr. Abe, Presi-
dent; Mr. Xobuhara Abe, Managing Direct-
or; Mr. Toshiro Saito, Co-Managing Director,
and Mr. Juntaro Yamaoka, Adviser.
THE OSAKA ALKALI CO., LIMITED
An industry that has made remarkable
strides in Japan of late years is that invoh--
ing the manufacture of drugs and chemicals,
and artificial fertilizers. The shutting out of
all European products because of the war
has naturally compelled the Japanese to
provide their own requirements, and it may
be said at once that not only have they done
this, but they are now in a position to export
freely in almost unlimited quantities. There
are three or four large companies, which were
in existence before the war, and a number
have sprung up since. It is claimed for the
Osaka Alkali Company, Ltd., that it is the
real pioneer of the industry, and the fact that
this powerful concern came into existence in
1880, when manufacturing of any kind was
in its infancy in Japan, supports the claim.
The Osaka Alkali Co., Ltd., is certainly one
of the most important and enterprising
chemical manufacturers in the Far East,
and it is entitled to all credit for the work
done in the early days in developing an
industry that means so much to the
Empire.
This company owns several factories, which
are continuously engaged on the production
of the highest grade of chemicals, fertilizers,
and commercial drugs. The Azikawa Facto-
ry, at Minatoya-cho, Nishi-ku, Osaka, turns
out such items as double superphosphate,
calcium superphosphate, garden tablet ferti-
lizer, mixed fertilizer, ammonium sulphate,
potassium sulphate, bean cakes, oil cakes,
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
sodium sulphate, sodium hyposulphate, iron
vitriol, ehrumanite (clarifying agent for low
grade sugar syrup), and carbonizers which
are used in place of ammonium sulphate for
double safety machines. The Ono Factory
at Chifune-mura, Nishinari-gun, Osaka-fu,
has a similar range of production to that of
the Azikawa Factorj'.
GENER.\L VIEW OF F.\CTORV OF THE OS.AKA .\LKALI CO., LTD.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
315
BAMBOO SHOOTS, WHICH GROW ABOUT EIGHT INCHES IN A DAY
The Matsumoto Factory at Shiriata,
Matsumoto-shi, Nagano-ken, turns out caus-
tic soda, gelatine and glue, bone ash, bromine,
bleaching powder, hydrogenated oil, chry-
salis oil, degras, fatty acids, glycerine, bean
oil and other oils. At the Sakaide Factory,
which is situated at Hayashida-mura,
Ayauta-gun, Kagawaken, the main lines of
production are magnesium carbonate (pre-
cipitated), magnesium sulphate, potassium
chloride, potassium permanganate, sodium
sulphate, sodium silicofluoride, potassium
bromide, and sodium bromide.
In all these products the Osaka Alkali
Co., Ltd., has a large output, and so far as
the quality is concerned, comparison with
the world is invited. The company has had
nearly forty years' experience, and its direc-
tion is in the hands of such capable and
well qualified business men as Mr. S. Fuji-
moto, the Principal Director, and Mr. J.
Kamiryo, the Managing Director, who has
the reputation of being one of the most
experienced manufacturers in Japan, as well
as a sound, progressive, and energetic busi-
ness director. The capital of the company
is approximately £455,000, but so great has
been the demand for the company's products,
owing to the high quality, and the reputation
which they have won abroad, that it is now
proposed to increase this capital largely, to
permit of a wide extension of business, follow-
ing substantial additions to the factories
and plant. The Directors have already de-
cided on a new factory, designed by the
experts of the Osaka Alkali Co., Ltd., and
when this is completed it will, it is claimed,
be without a rival, in point of size and com-
plete e(|uipment, in Japan. The head office
of this rapidly growing and old-established
company is at No. 127, Minatoya-Machi,
Nishi-ku, Osaka, Japan. Correspondence
from abroad is freely invited.
JAPAN SULPHUR CO., LIMITED
To this enterprising corporation must be
given the credit for having placed the sulphur-
producing industry of Japan on a sound busi-
ness basis, applying proper mining methods
to the operation of getting out the crude ore,
and utilising the best machinery and appli-
ances for the transport of the product from
the mines to the refineries. To bring about
such results has not been an easy task, but
the Japan Sulphur Co., Ltd., has persevered
in the face of many difficulties, and its policy
has proved highly successful. It is the
largest concern of its kind in Japan, and is
engaged in very extensive operations, not
alone dealing with the production of sulphur,
but embracing the manufacture of various
commercial products, and also in transpor-
tation within the sphere of its influence
over a large area of country. In brief, the
history of the Japan Sulphur Co., Ltd.,
follows.
In 1904 Mr. Makoto Yamada, of Fukui
Prefecture, bought the sulphur-mining rights
of Messrs. Kisaku Shibusawa and Jiro Hoso-
no, which consisted of mines and other
property at Mount Numajiri, in Yama
County, Fukushima Prefecture. The prop-
erty was not developed to any great extent,
and furthermore, the entire sulphur industry
was in a backward state. Mr. Yamada
sought the financial assistance of Mr. Cho
Okabe, and the latter gentleman financed
the preliminary operations, and also the
purchase of the neighbouring district. It
was realised that further aipital would be
required, and to establish a joint-stock
company Baron Matsudaira of Fukui was
invited to become Chairman of the Com-
mittee of Organisation. Baron Matsudaira
secured the cooperation of several influential
friends, including some peers, and a com-
pany was formed with a capital of Yen
1,000,000. Even so, the extent of the
work to be done and the difficulties of
the economic situation at that time, made
the financial problem a serious one, and the
assistance of the Yokohama Specie Bank had
to be obtained, Mr. Suteroku Takahashi,
Vice-President of the bank, doing his utmost
to help the company. Meanwhile the direc-
tors had proceeded with the preparation of
plans for sulphur mining on a big scale.
JAl'AN M l.l'Hl K CO., LIU.; IHK tUMPANV's No. I FACiURV — AERIAL IKAMWAV AI IIIL NL^L\JIKI MINE — SULPHUR REFINERY AT THE
NUMAJIRI MINE GALLERY ENTRANCE TO THE TUNNEL AT ONE OF THE COMPANY'S SULPHUR MINES —
MANUFACTURING STICK SULPHUR AT THE KAWAGETA WORKS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
317
Mr. Akira Yamaria, soti of tlic founiler of the
company, was appointed specialist to super-
vise the entire arrangements for refining.
Mr. Yamada is a Master of Technology, and
made a special study of sulphur while in the
Technological Department of the Imperial
University. Mr. Makoto Yamada's interests
were formally merged in the Japan Suljjhur
Co., Ltd., in April, 1907, and the company
actually started operations in the following
year. Since then the company has pursued
a steady ])olicy of development of its prop-
erties and improvement of different processes.
In July, 1913, Mr. Akira Yamada was made
Managing Director in lieu of Mr. Kyutaro
Nagai, and Mr. Rikisaburo Ikeda was
appointed Chief of Mining Operations. The
outbreak of the European war adversely
affected economic circles in Japan and the
.sulphur industry suffered to .some extent,
but as the war developed conditions improved
and by March, 1916, the market for sulphur
was extremely brisk, the company's output
rising from about 35 tons of sulphur to 60
tons a day.
The Japan Sulphur Co., Ltd., operates
two sulphur fields, Numajiri and Numano-
taira, both of them in Azuma Village, Fuku-
shima. The two fields have a combined
area of over 390,000 Isubo. This district is
noted for its hot springs and sulphur baths,
principal among which are Nakanosawa,
Numajiri, and Yokomuki. Numajiri is a
mining bed of precipitated sulphur, about
50 feet in depth, approximately 500 feet from
cast to west, and 1,000 feet from north to
south. The ore is obtained by tunneling
into the bed. The Numanotaira deposits
are located on the summit of the mountain
and are of volcanic origin, the sulphur being
obtained by open cuts into the mass of the
(-leposit. The sulphur rock is transported to
the refinery by wire haulage, similar to an
aerial tramway. At the refinery the crude
product is treated by the dual processes of
fumigating and steaming. From the refinery
it is sent by wire haulage to Ohara railway
station and thence to market. The haulage
is known as the Tamamura System, which
has been patented in various parts of the
world. Steam power is at present employed,
but a recent decision of the directors will
result in electrical power being used at an
early date for all operations.
The operations of the JapaUi Sulphur Co.,
Ltd., are directed by various departments.
The Engineering Department makes all the
wire ropes, rails, and mining machinery
required, and also turns out rock-drills of
the Ashio and American type. There is a
forestry department engaged in the produc-
tion of all fuel needed for the mining opera-
tions and refining purposes, and in the manu-
facture of lumber ami wood work, including
seasoning of timber for the general trade.
The forest area is about 3,000,000 Isiibo, and
250 men are engaged, the lumber being hauled
over 4^2 miles of railway and by a 1,200-foot
span of wire rope. A general transportation
business is conducted over the company's
line from Kawageta to Ohara, a distance of
9^ miles, three locomotives, four passenger
cars, and 39 freight cars being employed.
An elementary school is maintained for the
children of the men engaged in the company's
service, and there is also a hosi)ital at the
mines.
Besides the digging and refining of sulphur
rock, the Japan Sulphur Co., Ltd., is engaged
in the production of sulphide of carbon,
sulphur liquid (concentrated lime sulphur
solution), calcium acetate, charcoal, aceton,
methyl alcohol, jjrecipitated sulphur, sulphur
sticks, powdered suljihur, and flowers of
sulphur. These products are manufactured
at the Kawageta Refinery. Sulphide of
carbon is produced in large quantities and is
sold as an insecticide, particularly for the
destruction of insects which are injurious to
cereal jilants. The sulphur liquid is generally
used for the destruction of insect life in the
rice fields, wheat fields, and orchards, being
used by means of sprays, or otherwdse.
Following is the annual productive capacity
of the mines and the refinery: sulphur rock
mined, 51,100 tons; refined sulphur, 20,000
tons; stick sulphur, 6,000 tons; powdered
sulphur, 2,000 tons; flower of sulphur, 1,000
tons; bisulphide of carbon, 1,000,000 pounds;
calcium carbide, 300 tons; concentrated
lime sulphur solution, 1,000,000 gallons.
The head office of the Japan Sulphur Co.,
Ltd., is at No. T2 Kagacho, Kyobashi-ku,
Tokyo. The principal officials of the com-
pany are: President and Managing Director,
Mr. Akira Yamada; Directors, Messrs. Kodo
Hiroshi, Yasusaburo Hara, and Komatsu
Fukuma; Auditors, Messrs. Tomoso Shino-
zaki and Masao Inouye. It is proposed to
enter into coaling operations in 191 8, when
the company will acquire and develop certain
properties with this object in view.
NIPPON CHISSO HIRYO K.\BUSHIKI
KAISHA (japan NITROGENOUS FERTI-
LIZER CO., limited)
The most highly scientific methods are
being applied in the works of the Nippon
Chisso Hiryo Kabushiki Kaisha to the in-
dustry of producing artificial fertilizers, and
other chemical products largely demanded
under modern commercial conditions. Not
satisfied with a large and varied production
by methods that are still availed of by other
concerns, this company has purchased a
number of foreign patents, among which is
the right to manufacture Calcium Cyanamide
and Sulphate of Ammonia from the atmospheric
nitrogen. As the company has available an
enormous and cheap supply of water power,
its operations have proved remarkably
successful from all points of view.
This company was originally formed in
January, 1906, with a capital of Yen 200,000.
It was then known as the Sogi Denki Kabus-
hiki Kaisha (Sogi Electric Co., Ltd.). The
original purpose of the company was the
supply of cheap electric power to two gold
mines, namely, Ushio and Okuchi, and to
furnish electric light for the town of Okuchi.
In April, 1907, the Sogi Denki Kabushiki
Kaisha made an agreement with the Nippon
Chisso Carbide Company to produce calcium
carbide, for acetylene gas making. To
carry out this undertaking the capital of
Sogi Denki Kabushiki Kaisha was raised to
Yen 400,000 and this company erected an
electric power station which generates 6,000
kilowatts at the lower part of the Sendai
River. At the same time the Nippon
Carbide Company installed a new carbide
factory at Minamata, Kumamoto Prefecture,
where the manufacture of carbide was started,
the operation of manufacttunng being placed
in the hands of a subsidiary to which the
Sogi Denki K. K. supplied free of charge,
the profits from the carbide factory being
shared equally by the two companies. In
April, 1908, the company acquired the sole
patent right for Japan of the Frank- Caro
process of manufacturing calcium cyanamide
and sulphate of ammonia from atmosphere,
and the capital was increased to Yen 1,000,-
000. An amalgamation of these companies
took place at this juncture, and the name of
the new company was changed from Sogi
Denki Kabushiki Kaisha to that of the
Nippon Chisso Hiryo Kabushiki Kaisha.
In October, 1910, the capital was increased
to Yen 2,000,000, subsequently being raised
to the present figure of Yen 10,000,000.
Since that time the company has developed
in several directions and the plan of exten-
sions, shortly to be completed, will give the
following productive capacity per annum:
calcium carbide, 85,000 tons; calcium cyana-
mide, 105,000 tons; sulphate of ammonia,
90,000 tons; Portland cement, 600,000
casks, and oxygen, 360 cubic metres per
hour. The company owns the following
patents: No. 15,481, a method for making
nitrogenous compound; No. 16,650, a method
for extracting nitrogen from atmosphere with
copper; No. 18,642, a method for making
carbide into powder in nitrogen gas; No.
18,018, a method for making atmospheric
ammonia fertilizer; No. 20,730, a method
for making nitrogenous compound from
carbide, and patents Nos. 24,317 and 22,678
Ill
!^1
TWO FACTORIES OF THE NIPl'ON CHISSO HIRYO KAUUSHIKI KAISHA, AT KUMAMOTO, KYUSHU
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
O F
J A P A N
319
comprises, Mr. T. Nakahashi, President,
Mr. J. Noguchi, Managing Director, and
Directors, Messrs. S. Ishikawa, Y. Watanabe,
R. Toyokawa, and Dr. N. Shiraishi (Doctor
of Technology). The Auditors are Messrs.
K. Kagami and K. Hon. Baron Kondo is
adviser to the company. The head office is
at Tosabori-dori, Nishiku, Osaka.
YE.-kR
Net Profit
Dividend
1906
1907
7,663
10%
1908
42.754
10%
1909
9,1,975
10%
I9IO
142.443
10%
I9II
145.992
9%
I912
286,238
10%
191.^
382,622
10%
I9I4
463,536
9%
I915
1 ,608,493
i3>^%
I916
2,451,197
n'AJo
TE.\ PICKERS OK SHIZUOK.\
for similar jirocesses. Briefly described, the
Nippon Chisso Hiryo Kabushiki Kaisha is
producing chemicals, nitrogenous fertilizers
and Iiy-products by the following processes
and for the purposes stated:
Charcoal and Limestone. — A mixture of
lime and coal or charcoal is heated in an
electric furnace. At high temperature the
lime and carbon combine and form calcium
carbide. Carbide generates acetylene gas
by interaction with water for lighting, and
for cutting and welding of iron and steel.
Also it is used as raw material of fertilizers.
Atmospheric Nitrogen and Carbide. — Nitro-
gen, extracted from the atmosphere and
crushed carbide; being heated again in elec-
tric furnace, calcium cyanamide is formed.
This material contains 20 per cent nitrogen
and is known as the newest available nitro-
gen fertilizer.
Sulphuric Acid and Calcium Cyanamide. —
When calcium cyanamide is treated with
steam the ammonia gas generates and,
combining with sulphuric acid, the sulphate
of ammonia is produced. This material is
used as fertilizer most extensively throughout
the world. From the residue of sulphate of
ammonia and clay, Portland cement is made.
Oxygen is extracted from the atmosphere
and is employed in various industries for
welding, cutting, and otherwise treating iron
and steel. It is also sold for medical and
general purposes.
Nippon Chisso Hiryo Kabushiki Kaisha
has two factories in Kumamoto Prefecture,
and one factory in Cita Prefecture. There
are two electrical generating stations in
Kagoshima and three in Kumamoto Pre-
fecture. These electrical plants give the
company about 25,000 horsepower at a
remarkably low cost, and as it derives
most of its chemical products from the
atmosphere, it can be seen at once how sound
a financial proposition the whole enterpri.se
is. Still, the best way to illustrate the
financial condition of the company is to give
the figures in the accompanying table.
Furthermore, this company has written
off Yen 3,000,000 against its properties and
has built up a reserve of Yen 450,000. The
company has a strong directorate which
TOKYO SULPHURIC ACID CO., LIMITED
(TOKYO RYUSAN KABUSHIKI KWAISHA)
In the matter of chemical production
Japan has rapidly come to the front among the
nations of the world, and she is now almost
independent of foreign sources of supply for
most of the leading commercial requirements.
This result has been brought about by the
special efforts of a small group of farseeing
men, who have devoted their time and money
to building up the chemical industry, and
among them must be prominently placed Mr.
Bokushin Oi, President, and Mr. Seinosuke
Shibata, Managing Director, of the Tokyo
Sulphuric Acid Co., Ltd.
WO.MEN PICKING TE.A
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PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
321
Mr. Oi, witli Mr. Slii1i,-ita .-iiid five other
Kcntk-mcii, established tlie business now
coniiucted so successfully by the company,
in 1905, the capital originally at their dispcsal
l)eing Yen 250,000, as against the Yen 1,500,-
000 now available. From the inception of this
special branch of the chemical manufacturing
industry, the company has been noted for its
progressive policy, and to it is due the credit
of many advancements in the methods of
manufacture. As an example it may be said
that although sulphuric acid is produced in
large cjuantities in Japan, most of it obtained
by means of the "lead chamber" system, the
Tokyo Sulphiu-ic Acid Co., Ltd., is now lead-
ing the field with the production of anhydrous
and fuming sulphuric acids, under a special
patented process, the rights of which were
acquired in 19 16. So far anhydrous and
fuming sulphuric acids have not been pro-
duced perfectly, or on a large scale, in Japan,
except in the Government plants. For some
industries, such as the refining of mineral oils,
the manufacture of dyestuflfs and explosives,
and the production of nitro-compounds, etc.,
anhydrous and fuming sulphuric acids are
absolutely indispensable. Realising this need,
the Tokyo Sulphuric Acid Co., Ltd., although
producing almost every kind of acid under the
best conditions, set out to supply this special
demand. The patent rights of making acid
by the most modern contact system were
purchased from the Tentelov Chemical
Industry Company of Petrograd, so that
the company now has the monopoly for Japan
and her territories for producing anhydrous
and fuming sulphuric acids by this process.
The Tokyo Sulphuric Acid Co., Ltd.,
erected and installed a special factory with
this system, and it is expected that the new
product will be marketed in the near future,
when the chemical industrial field of Japan
will lie well supplied with pure and low-priced
sulphuric acid. At present the company has
an annual output of 35,000 tons of sulphuric
acid, valued at Yen 398,000. The installa-
tion under the old system comprises the lead
chamber method with an ore burning furnace
and lead room and acid refining and decocting
arrangements. The new contact system
comprises the ore burning furnace and
various arrangements. There are also the
necessary air compressors, gas compressors,
water raisers, etc., the whole plant being
perfectly equipped for the production of
every class of commercial acid. Motive
power is derived from electricity and steam.
An excellent factory site of 10,000 Isiiho is
owned by the company at Oshima-machi, in
the outskirts of Tokyo. The buildings are
ver>' extensive and cover 2,500 tsubo, there
being no fewer than 40 spans of roof, the
DRYING TE.\ LEAVES OVER A CHAR-
COAL HEATER
factory being constructed on the modem
"bay" system. At present there are 150
employees, the wages bill amounting to Yen
50,000 per annum, but when the factory is
being operated at its full capacity this number
will have to be increased. Sulphuric acid
of 65 and 66 degrees is sold very widely
throughout Japan, and the company has also
developed an export trade with the South
Seas, India, China, and Russia.
The head office of the Tokyo Sulphuric
Acid Co., Ltd., is at No. 7-chome, Oshima-
machi, Minami-Katsushika County, Tokyo
Prefecture. Mr. Bokushin Oi is the Presi-
dent-Director, Mr. Seinosuke Shibata, the
Managing Director, and other Directors are
Messrs. Jozo Suzuki, M. P., Kotaro Uyeda,
Ikusaburo Hirano, and Sosuke Nakagawa.
The Auditors are Messrs. Tarobei Akita and
Matayemon Tazawa.
KANTO SANSO KABUSHIKI KAISHA
One noteworthy direction in which rapid
and substantial progress has been made in the
industries of Japan, is in connection with the
manufacture of chemicals, fertilizers, dye-
stuffs and similar lines, upon which the
country, like many others, was largely depen-
dent upon Germany before the war. Of
course, the war has given rise to a number of
new' enterprises to exploit this wide field of
commercial activity. The pioneer and most
substantial of all such concerns is, however,
the Kanto Sanso Kabushiki Kaisha, or the
Kanto Acids and Alkali Co., Ltd. Originally
the business which has since been developed
on such a wide scale by the Kanto Company
was a State enterprise, the Japanese Govern-
ment, under the policy which then prevailed
of fostering certain industries, having estab-
lished a factory at Oji, Tokyo, in 1885, for
the manufacture of acids and other chemicals.
The works were continued by the Govern-
ment for ten years, without any marked
jirogress being made, except to demonstrate
that the manufacture of such lines was a
practical business in Japan, and then, in 1895,
the Kanto Sanso Kabushiki Kaisha was formed
and took over the Government interest. The
founders of the company were its present
directors. Their original capital was only
Yen 95,000.00, as against the present capital
of Yen 5,000,000.00. The guiding spirit in
the company is Mr. Y. Tanaka. From the
inception of its operations the Kanto Com-
pany made progress, and undoubtedly the
success which attended its pioneer efforts
in this new field of industry, encouraged other
concerns to open up business in the same line
and thus help to give Japan another powerful
commercial outlet for her activities and
resources.
The Kanto Sanso Kabushiki Kaisha is
engaged in the manufacture and sale of
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric
acid, caustic soda, sodium sulphide, lime
sulphur liquor, bleaching powder, copper,
zinc, hydrosulphide, superphosphate, mixed
fertilizers and several other chemicals. The
head office and principal works are at Oji,
Tokyo, and branches are established at Kobe
and Osaka. The company has its own mines
at Niigata-ken and Akita-ken, from which are
derived a large quantity of the raw materials
used in the manufacture of the commercial
products. Excluding the mines, the works
and factories of the Kanto Company cover
over 60 acres. The buildings are mainly of
brick and concrete, erected according to the
most approved designs and installed with the
latest plant and machinery for the treatment
of the raw material. About 1,200 hands are
employed regularly, and the pay-roll totals
over Yen 400,000.00 annually. In addition,
about a thousand coolies are employed as
casual labourers, being hired by the day.
The annual output of the company's works is
approximately Yen 10,000,000.00 in value.
This is disposed of in the Japanese market,
and large quantities are exported to Japanese
possessions, China, Australia, New Zealand,
the South Pacific islands, Africa, India and
elsewhere .
Following are the officers of this important
enterprise: President, Mr. Y. Tanaka;
Managing Director, Mr. U. Ishikawa; and
Directors, Messrs. Y. Konishi, A. Fukuhara,
and T. Moritomo.
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CO., LTD. (DEXKI KAGAKU KOGYO KABUSHIKI KAISHA) : F.ACTORY AT TOMAKOMAI -
F.\CTORY AT BUJUN — FACTORY AT OMUDA
324
PRESENT-DAY I M P K i; b S I O N S OF J A P A X
GENERAL VIEW OF THE FACTORY OF THE
THE ELECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CO.,
LIXHTED
A RAPID development has taken place in
the chemical and fertilizer industries in Japan,
and the Empire is almost independent of
foreign products. This result has been
brought about by the war conditions compel-
ling greater attention to the industries on the
part of the Japanese, but it must be admitted
that some of the scientific men of Japan only
needed a little opportunity to enable them to
show what they could do. Foremost among
the chemical manufacturers and experts of
Japan is Mr. Tsuneichi Fujiyama, who has
given many years to the study of the science,
and is the inventor of several processes by
which commercially required chemicals may
be satisfactoril}' and cheaply produced.
Under the auspices of the Mitsui family, Mr.
Fujiyama established the Hokkai Carbide
Works at Tomakomai, Hokkaido, in May,
1912, and after conducting this enterprise for
three years, he transferred all the plants to
the Electro-Chemical Company, Limited, or
the Denki Kagaku Kogj-o Kabushiki Kaisha,
which was formed for the purpose with a
capital of Yen 5,000,000. The promoters of
this company were Baron E. Shibusawa,
Messrs. Takashi Masuda, Takuma Dan,
Kyohei Makoshi, Shintaro Ohashi, Toj'oji
Wada, Nagabumi Ariga, Jugoro OtagiiTO,
Senkichiro Hayakawa and others. The new
company acquired the patent rights of Air.
Fujiyama, and was also fortunate in securing
his services as a director. His invention, a
patent granted by the Japanese and almost
all other governments of civilised countries,
consists in making carbide of lime absorb
nitrogen, the product, viz., nitrate of lime,
being used as an effective fertilizer in that
condition or transformed into sulphate of
ammonia by adding sulphuric acid thereto
These are among the principal products of
the Electro-Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
The company started operations on a large
scale in May, 191 5, and has extensive works
at Omuda City, Fukuoka Prefecture, and
also at Bujun, 5?outh Manchuria. The
plants cover an area of about 130,000 Isiiho,
and give employment to a staff of 150 officials
and 1,200 workmen, the annual wages and
salan,' bill being over Yen 200,000. Chem-
icals of various kinds are produced to the
value of over Yen 6,000,000 per annum, and
apart from the strong local demand for the
company's manufactures, an extensive export
trade is being done in China, Hawaii
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
325
JAPAN GLYCERINE INDUSTRY COMPANY, LIMITED
Australia, the East Indies and elsewhere. The
company is well represented abroad by the
Mitsui Bussan Kaisha and its agencies are
to be found in all the branches of that con-
cern abroad. That the undertaking of the
company is a profitable one may be seen from
the fact that though it has been established
less than three years it paid a dividend in
the last half of 191 6 of 12 per cent ordinary
and 5 per cent sjiecial, and for the first six
months of 191 7 the dividends were 12 per
cent ordinary and 10 per cent special. The
officers of the Electro-Chemical Industry Co.,
Ltd., are: President, Mr. Kyohei Makoshi;
Managing Director, Mr. Jugoro Otaguro,
and Director, Mr. Tsunoichi Fujiyama.
The head office of the company is at
Xii. 4, Honkawaya-cho, Nihonbashi-ku,
Ti )kyo.
THE JAP.\N GLYCERINE INDUSTRY CO.,
LIMITED
The manufacture of glycerine and kindred
products is not a very old industry in Japan,
and it does not appear to have been success-
fully conducted before the Nippon Glycerine
Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha, with expert direc-
tion, took over the business. Prior to that
time, there were several concerns in existence.
The promoters of the Japan Glycerine In-
dustry Co., Ltd., formed a company with a
capital of Yen 3,000,000, under the auspices
of the Government to take over the Teikoko
Gyoyu Seisei Kabushiki Kaisha's factory
and plant, as well as that of the Nippon
Seiyu Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha. The Im-
perial Government entered into an arrange-
ment with the company under which a return
of eight per cent on the capital was guaran-
teed, and the company started operations
on March i, 1916. For the first business
period the company received a small subsidy
from the Government to make good the
deficiency on the working, but since that time
the concern has been able to pay dividends
on its own account, despite the fact that raw
material rose three to five times higher than
the pre-war prices, and that manufactured
articles required in the industry were 60 to
70 per cent higher. War prices have materi-
ally affected the company's operations, and
the sooner the war ends the better from the
point of view of the shareholders in the
Japan Glycerine Industry Co., Ltd. Never-
theless the company paid an eight per cent
dividend in its second term, and a similar
dividend with an additional special dividend
of one per cent in the third period. With
22
326
P R K S K N T - n A V I M P R K S S I O N S OF JAPAN
DWAKl- IRKE, OLDER THAN HIMSELF
the eight per cent dividend guaranteed by
the Government for a term of ten years, the
company's stock is an attractive investment,
and it is not surprising to learn that when,
after eighteen months of prosperous trading,
the capital was doubled and made Yen 6,000,-
000, the public readily provided the funds.
This company manufactures glycerine,
oleic acid, stearic acid, soapstock (fatty
acids), stearine pitch, etc. Beef tallow is
imported from Australia and China. The
detailed lines of production are as follows:
glycerine is made for explosives, medical and
industrial purposes, tobacco curing, printing,
toilet purposes, technical and other uses.
Stearic acid is made for candle-manufacture
and carbon papers. Oleic acid is produced
for the woollen, cotton, and silk industries,
and as a base for metal polishes. Soap-
stock is for making soaps, for sizings on piece
goods, and for metal polishes. Stearine pitch
forms the base of such things as ships' paint,
water-proofing, for coating electric wires,
for asphalt, for water-proof paper, etc. In
its soft form it is used for heavy steel plate
rollers; and for electrical machinery and
dry batteries, the hard pitch is used. Con-
sumers of the company's products are:
the Imperial Army and Navy Departments,
the Tobacco Monopoly Bureau, Imperial
University, woollen goods factories, silk and
cotton factories, cotton piece goods printing
factories, chemists generally, and the soap-
makers. An export trade is done with Russia,
America, China, and India.
The Japan Glycerine Industry Co.'s main
factory is at Tsukuda, Chifune Village,
Nishinari, Osaka, and there is a branch
factory at Nunoya, Kawakita, Osaka Pre-
fecture. The head office and main factory
cover 23,000 tsiibo, and the branch factory
extends over 8,131 tsubo. Buildings are of
brick, reinforced concrete, or wood, and
are of three stories. The total area covered
by buildings is 3,766 tsubo. Steam is
employed for power purposes, and the plant
comprises the very latest machinery. About
500 hands are engaged. When the works are
entirely completed, according to present
plans, the output will reach about 17,500
tons of all the products enumerated, per
annum, representing a gross sales value of
Yen 12,100,800. The Board of Directors
and Inspectors consists of the following:
Directors, Messrs. S. Hirata (President),
T. Fujimoto (Managing Director), Y. Hiraga
(Professor of Technology), S. Uyemura, C.
Kase, H. Soma, and G. Koizuka. Inspectors,
Messrs. R. Iwasaki, R. Miura, and M.Taku.
THE J.\PAN ACETIC ACID MANUFAC-
TURING CO., LIMITED
The success of the Japan Acetic Acid
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., or Nippon Sakusan
Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha, is another instance
of the determination with which Japanese
manufacturers have fought to establish indus-
tries the operation of which tends to make
the Empire self-contained and independent of
foreign products. The history of the concern
also demonstrates the persistence with which
the pioneers of many of these industries have
held to their original plans, overcoming many
difficulties, and steadily solving one problem
after the other as it arose.
The inception of the large business now
controlled by the Japan Acetic Acid Manu-
facturing Co., Ltd., dates back to May,
1894, when a small factory was started by
the present Managing Director, Mr. Shoich-
iro Katow, as a private enterprise. The
works were established in Ochiaimura,
Kamitsuga-Gun,Tochigi-ken, machinery was
imported from Europe, and the manufacture
of certain products started in August of
JAPAN ACETIC A( 111 M AMFACTrRING CO., LTD.: GENERAL VIEW OF AKAYA F.XCTORY — GENERAL VIEW Ob HONJO F.^CTORV — THE OSAKA
FACTORY, UNDER CONSTRUCTION, I9I5 — THE SHIOBARA WOOD DISTILLING WORKS
32«
P R E S E N T - n A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
1894. Mr. Katow had to overcome many
difficulties in his effort to manufacture locally
the products which had hitherto been im-
ported, but he plodded along and had the
satisfaction of seeing his business gradually
extend, and of arousing some interest in his
work among other manufacturers. In one
direction in particular was this the case, viz.,
among the charcoal manufacturers, whose
attention was directed by Mr. Katow to the
profitable production of acetate of lime, by
means of an economising method of utilising
waste smoke from their kilns. Mr. Katow's
business continued to increase to such an
extent that in July, 1903, he transformed his
private concern into a joint-stock company
with a capital of Yen 100,000, and concen-
trated chiefly on the production of acetic
acid and acetates. Despite the growing
demand for these chemicals in Japan, the
new company did not prosper because it
could not compete with the foreign products
which were far superior in quality. Mr.
Katow knew where the difficulty lay, and
believing that he could overcome it and turn
out chemicals equal to those of foreign pro-
duction he approached Baron Eiichi Slii-
busawa, Baron Kihachiro Ohkura, Mr.
Kyohei Makoshi, Mr. Chosaburo Uyemura,
and other prominent business men, and
succeeded in enlisting their interest and
support in his work. With such powerful
assistance the capital of the company was
increased to Yen 300,000 in September, 1906,
and in the following year the works were
extended, and machinery of the most modern
type was installed for the production of acetic
acid of the purest quality. The new plant
was put in operation in February, 1908, and
the results justified all Mr. Katow's expec-
tations. The products speedily earned an
excellent reputation for their quality, and
though a strong foreign competition had still
to be faced, the company's output increased,
while the quality improved, and since 191 1
the foreign product has been almost entirely
driven out of the Japanese market. The
manufacture of acetone was commenced in
February, 1909, when new machinery was
installed for the purpose, and this under-
taking has also met with great success.
The Japan Explosives Co., Ltd., which manu-
factures gun powders for the Imperial Japa-
nese Navy, looks exclusively to the Japan
Acetic Acid Manufacturing Co., Ltd., for
the supply of all its requirements of acetone,
and, besides this, the company's product is
in much demand for the manufacture of
celluloid and artificial leathers.
In spite of the great development which had
taken place in the manufacture of acetic acid
and acetone, the supply of the raw material,
acetate of lime, had remained inactive for a
numljcr of years, and the greater part of
the demand had been met by importing
from the United States. Realising the situa-
tion in July, 191 1 , the Japan Company estab-
lished a large wood distillation works on
the European model in Shiobara-mura, near
Nikko. This gave rise to the company's
trade mark, "Maru-ko," "maru" meaning a
circle, and "ko" being taken from the name of
the popular visiting place. To carry out this
undertaking the capital of the concern was
increased to Yen 600,000, and in August, 191 1,
distillation was started in what is regarded as
the model works of its kind in the Orient,
where acetate of lime, crude methyl alcohol,
and charcoal and wood tar are produced,
graded up to the best foreign standards.
The output of these works being insufficient
to meet the demand for acetate of lime, the
company in 1915 established four other works
in the provinces of Shima, Akaya, Sennai, and
Kurisawa. Meantime the manufacture of
formalin from crude methyl alcohol had been
started by the company in November, 1913,
when machinery of the latest type was
imported from Eiu'ope. On the organisation
of the Toyo Chemical Co., Ltd., in 1915, the
Japan Acetic Acid Manvifactiu-ing Co., Ltd.,
made over to that company all its formalin
manufacturing plant, and has since supplied
the Toyo Co. with the materials for producing
formalin. This step was taken in accordance
with the regulations of the Government under
the Encouragement Act for the production of
dyestuffs and chemicals. The demand for
acetic acid having still further increased, and
the foreign product being almost out of the
market, the company established a second
factory at Osaka in December, 1913, and in
May, 1914, they purchased the Osaka Acetic
Acid Company, Ltd., and brought the works
into the organisation under the name of the
Owada Factory. To make this purchase the
capital was increased to Yen 680,000. In
June, 1915, the capital was further increased
to Yen 1,300,000, at which figure it stands
to-da}'. The company has, under the pros-
perous conditions brought about by the great
war, opened up foreign markets such as Great
Britain, France, Russia, China, India, Dutch
East Indies, Australia, French Indo-China,
the Malay States, the Philippines, etc., and
its factories are working at full capacity to
execute the orders.
The factories of the Japan Acetic Acid
Manufactiuing Co., Ltd., are modem build-
ings of brick and stone, and together with the
offices they cover about 25,000 tstibo. A
stafT of 75 experts and administrative officers
is engaged as well as an average of about
1,000 labourers. The amount paid annually
in wages runs to Yen 85,000. The annual
output of the company is valued at Yen
3,200,000, and the products include: acetic
acid, gracial, 96 per cent, 98 per cent, 99 per
cent — 100 per cent (pure and technical); acetic
acid, 35 per cent, 36 per cent, and 48 per cent
(pure and technical) ; acetate of lime, acetone,
sodium acetate and lead acetate (crystal, pure
and technical); methyl alcohol, 95 per cent,
99 per cent, and 99-5 per cent (refined and
crude). The prosperous condition of the
company may be gathered from its develop-
ment as recorded above, and from the fact
that it has in hand reserve funds totalling Yen
542,524. The head office and main factory of
the company are located at No. 3 Yanagi-
shima, Yokogawa-cho, Honjo-ku, Tokyo, but
the general business is transacted at its
branch off.ce. No. 4 Yorozu-cho, Xihonbashi-
ku, Tokyo. Following are the principal
officers of the Japan Acetic Acid Manufactur-
ing Co., Ltd.: President, Mr. K. Makoshi;
Managing Director, Mr. Shoichiro Katow;
Directors, Messrs. C. Uyemura, H. Ohkawa,
C. Shiga, T. Kitagawa; Auditors, Messrs. N.
Ohta, K. Ohkura, T. Shibusawa; Advisers,
Baron Kihachiro Ohkura and Mr. K. Kume
(Bungakuhakushi) ; General Manager, Mr. T.
Miyahara (Hogakushi), and Chief Engineer,
Mr. K. Kobayashi (Hogakushi).
TOYO CHEMICVL INDUSTRI.\L COM-
PANY, LIMITED
This company was established for the
refining of chemicals, the manufacture of
drugs, and although not indicated by the
business title, for mining operations on a
fairly extensive scale. Well installed works
and extensive godowns of the company are
located in Nagano, Miye, and Fukui Pre-
fectures, the combined sites measuring nearly
9,000 tsiiho. Chloride of potash, iodine,
sulphate of potash, carbonate of potash,
chloride of soda, chlorate of potash, acetate
of lime, permanganate of potash, etc., are
produced on a large scale. The present
mining concessions held by the company
represent an area of 2,442,900 tsubn located in
the Aomori, Akita, Fukushima, Fukui, and
other prefectures. They produce gold, silver,
copper, zinc, and lead in quantities, which,
considering that the development may be
regarded as still in the initial stages, augurs a
very bright future for the enterprise.
The offices of both the mining and chemical
departments of the business are located at
I-chome, Fushima-machi, Higashi-ku, Osaka,
though each carries its separate staff. The
former is equipped with a small but modem
ore-reducing plant, and the latter with a
well installed chemical laboratory, affording
unusual facilities for the work of the min-
ing and chemical experts in charge. The
President of the company is Mr. Gentatsu
Shimidzu.
n.
Hi
I [J
m
CORAL POTASH — THE WELL-INSTALLED CHEMICAL LABORATORY — A CORNER IN THE CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT
THE FAMOUS CASTLE WALLS AND MOAT CONSTRUCTED BY lYEYASU
XVI. Tea
Shizuoka — Tea — Commercial Notices
SHIZUOKA, the capital of the Prefecture
of the same name of the Province of
Suruga, lies 120 miles to the southwest
of Tokyo by the Tokaido Railway, and
has a population of about 55,000. Sit-
uated on the highway connecting Kyoto
with Tokyo over which the feudal lords
with their numerous retinues had to
pass in former days, Shizuoka has played
an important part at various periods of
Japanese history. It was there that lyeyasu,
the founder of the Shogunate, retired more
japonico in his latter days and where he died.
On the Restoration of the Imperial Power in
1868 this great example was followed by
Keiki, the last of the line, who lived in seclu-
sion in Shizuoka up to 1897, when he removed
to Tokyo. Many mementoes of its connec-
tion with names famous in history are to be
found in the art objects treasured in the
neighbouring temples.
The town is pleasantly situated and, being
protected from the northern blasts by the
great mountain range which embraces the
lofty Koshu Shirane-san, Akaishi-san and
others, and from the bleak northeasterly
winds by the Peninsula of Izu, it enjoys a
much more equable and a milder climate than
most places on or near this coast. Tea is the
chief product. It ranks second only to that
of Uji near Kyoto, and the thick tea-bushes,
symmetrically trimmed and laid out, which
cover the low-lying hills and the ground in
this neighbourhood form a pleasing feature
of the landscape to the passing traveller.
The proximity of Shizuoka to the port of
Shimizu has largely assisted in the develop-
ment of the tea industry, shipment of the
staple now being made thence direct to
America and Canada, the chief buyers, in-
stead of, as formerly, from Yokohama.
BUDDHIST TEMPLE AT SHlZUOK.\
The principal manufactures of Shizuoka
consist of a cheap form of lacquer-ware,
bamboo-wares, and paper goods. The por-
celain, known as Shidoro-yaki, which bears a
marked resemblance to the famous Bizen
ware, is produced in the Province of Totomi,
now part of the Shizuoka Prefecture. The
egg-shell porcelain cups come from the
Province of Mino.
Though Shizuoka, like most Japanese
provincial towns, is dull and of httle interest
in itself, the temples in its immediate vicinity
and the noted spots within easy reach afford
attractions to the tourist, besides making it
a pleasant place at which to break the long
journey between Kyoto and Tokyo. Noth-
ing remains of the old feudal castle except the
walls and moats. The prefecture and other
official buildings stand within the grounds.
There is also an imperial villa just outside.
Of the temples, Rinzaiji, belonging to the
Zen sect of Buddhists, is noted for its connec-
tion with lyeyasu, and its treasures, especially
the screens, scrolls, specimens of lacquer and
jiorcelain, and kake-mniio by Kano Masanobu,
Chin Nampu, and other old masters. The
temple of Sengen, though devoted to Shinto
worship, is constructed in the most ornate
Buddhistic style and decorated with ex-
cellent carvings. Some of the compart-
ments contain very fine specimens of
paintings by artists of the Kano school.
P R IC S E N T - 1) A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
331
The grounds which siirrounrl this temple
are noted throughout Japan for their more
than usual beauty. Also, that great com-
pany of world travellers that has visited
the Land of the Rising Sun has spread the
fame of these temple parks abroad, so
that Shizuoka and its temples are known
in all lands. The exceptionally fine speci-
mens of wood carving to be seen in the
Temple of Sengen constitute another claim
on the traveller's attention. Altogether,
Shizuoka offers much of interest to the
sightseer from other lands, both in the way
of modern industrial enterprise, as displayed
by the great tea houses, and in historical
monuments and natural beauty.
Some six miles to the east of Shizuoka lies
Kuno-zan, one of the most interesting and
picturesque spots on this part of the coast.
It is a steep fortress-like hill, though only
900 feet high, and was the first burial-place of
the illustrious lyeyasu. The magnificent
mausolea at Nikko, whither his remains were
removed in 1617, are but more elaborate
examples of the shrine at Kuno-zan erected
in his honour.
STREET SCENE IN SHIZUOK.A
GENER.\I. VIEW OF THE CITY OF SHIZIOK.^
332
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
TEA
By CHARLES E. ATWOOD, Vice-Presi-
dent of the J. C. \\'hitney Company
IT is interesting to note that as far back
as history records, the use of tea as
a beverage has been connected with man-
kind; not at first, perhaps, in the exquisite
perfection that now marks it, but always as a
benefit, from the time of its earhest history
when taken as a medicine, to the present day,
A TEA GARDEN
when it serves to refresh and stimulate and
vitalise. .In the earliest Chinese records, the
tea plant is mentioned, and from China it has
been transplanted to the various countries
now interested in its production. Wherever
cultivated it forms a large percentage of the
products of the country', whether it be Green
or unfermented tea, or Black fermented sorts
from China; unfermented tea from Japan:
semi-fermented from Formosa, or fully fer-
mented teas from Ceylon, India, or Java.
FLOWERING TEA
In the earliest ages tea was used as a
medicine and, with the Chinese, believed to
have power not only to reUeve fatigue, but to
delight the soul, fortify the will, and improve
the eyesight. It was even applied externally
for various ailments. Monks and priests
used it in ritualistic services, with even a
patron saint to aid. Many ceremonies were
quite incomplete without the introduction of
a Tea Service, which lent no detrimental
effects but, on the contrary, was felt to bring
into harmony everj-thing that had to do with
the development and the movements of the
peoples. Prom this historical past we have
moved down through the ages, with tea ever
producing "the cup that cheers but does not
inebriate," until it has become a real bene-
factor, helping the human race to overcome
its fatigue, to enjoy its foods, to satisfy its
thirst, and to bring gladness to the
heart.
It is wonderful how the development of the
tea plant in the various countries has pro-
duced beverages that take on a variety of
qualities, from the very light, thin, unfer-
mented teas producing pale liquors, to the
thick, heavy liquoring sorts, producing
infusions as thick as coffee. To really
discriminate in tea has become a real
attainment, reached by few and by them
only through years of study and appli-
cation.
While climatic conditions, together with
favourable positions of tea gardens on the
mountain sides or in the higher altitudes, have
much to do with the qualities of various teas
produced, yet this variation is enhanced and
I' K !•; S E N T - n A Y I M I' K i: S S I O N s
O I'-
I A P \ N
333
nioR' fully (IfVflopc'd by thf iih-iIukI of
procedure in the curing or firing of the leaf.
When it is known that the tea plant is the
same species, whether from the mountains of
Darjeeling, India, producing the thick, heavy
liquoring kinds, or from the hills of Japan,
with its mild, bright liquoring sorts, it can be
seen at once that the method of culture or
manufacture has mucli to do with the varieties
that arc offered to the consumers throughout
the entire world. We need, therefore, to
distinguish between the methods of manu-
facture and to note that in the production of
so-called Green tea, that may be had from
China under the names of Gunpowder,
Imperial, and Young Hyson, or from Japan.
Whether called Natural Leaf, Basket Fired
Leaf, or Pan Fired Leaf, these teas may be
classed as unfermentcd for the reason that
the leaf is transferred, as rapidly as possible
after being picked, to small out-houses
stationed in close proximity to the tea fields,
where the leaf can have heat or steam applied.
This process at once seals the pores of the leaf,
drying up the natural sap and thus prevent-
ing the leaf from fermenting or oxidizing.
After this, the leaf can be handled in many
forms that show m the variety of colors and
sizes offered in trade, but its character has
been fixed by this process, and after that it is
but a matter of sorting and sifting and blend-
ing, through which process the tea travels.
After receiving a second firing, either in the
jians set in masonry in the interior of China,
or in the more up-to-date firing pans and
wicker baskets of Japan, the care of the tea is
definitely fixed or set, and it becomes the
finished product traded in throughout the
world.
From this we turn to the semi-fermented
teas of South China, exj)orted from the
market of Foochow, and the Formosa teas,
brought from the island from which it takes
its name, both of which kinds have been
allowed to partially ferment by remaining in
withering trays so that the leaf has taken on a
semi-oxidization. Afterward the leaf is fired
and fixed in the particular form that produces
the distinguishing features of its infusing or
steeping qualities.
From this we turn to the teas of India,
Ceylon, and Java, where we find that the
growers believe that a better beverage is
produced by allowing the leaf to become fully
fermented — done by allowing the leaf to
remain in withering rooms so oxidization is
completed before it is taken into the firing
rooms, there to be cured so as to produce
the dark, heavy liquors that constitute the
particular character of these teas.
Thus we see that there are three general
classes of tea, covering the entire tea world;
namely, fermented, semi-fermented, and
unfermented. This is the first step in learn-
ing the A B C's of tea.
While characters are dependent in a large
measure upon climatic conditions, the ele-
vation of the plantations, the care in matters
of cultivation and fertilisation, yet grades
and values are produced through the manip-
ulation of the leaf. Discrimination is re-
quired, in the first place, in the early plucking
of the leaf; secondly, in the care with which
it is handled in its curing process; and
thirdly, in the sifting out or separating of
the leaf.
This latter process may be handled in the
more crude method used in China, winnow-
ing by hand — placing the tea in bamboo trays
and so manipulating it that different sizes
of leaf are thrown off of the trays in different
piles, or by the use of machine sieves, over
which the leaf is passed and separated in
liifferent sizes for use in making up
the various grades. This separation, or
sortation, becomes one of the features
of each tea estate, as the object to be
attained is the sorting and blending of the
leaf into the forms best suited for the mar-
ket to which the particular tea is destined.
ANOTHER GARDEN SCENE
334
I' K !•: S E N T - I) A Y I M T R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
WILTING THE TEA LEAVES IN THE SUN
In the case of the fermented teas of India,
Ceylon, and Java, these sortations, or sepa-
rations, take on characters known to the trade
under various names, which designate the
character of the leaf as finally offered for
sale; namely, Flowery Orange Pekoe,
Broken Orange Pekoe, Orange Pekoe, Broken
Pekoe, Pekoe, and Pekoe Souchong. While
in Japan and Formosa there may be no
significant names in common use, yet to those
engaged in actual production of tea, their
grades may be known as Choicest, Choice,
Finest, Fine, Superior, Good-common, and
Common sorts. In China, the Green or
unfermented leaf is simply classed generally
as Gunpowder, Imperial, and Young Hyson,
although Gunpowder and Imperial may be
known as Extra-firsts, Firsts, Seconds, and
the Young Hyson as Chun Mee, Foong Mee,
Sow Mee, Firsts, Seconds, Thirds, and
DRYING THE TEA OVER A CHARCOAL I-TRE, AS IT IS DONE IN A SM.\LL F.\CTORV
Fourths, — all these names indicating grades
and sizes of leaf.
We should now be fairly intelligent as to
method of manufacture and general char-
acters of various teas, and be prepared to
enter into the post-graduate course of tea
knowledge — that of distinguishing in the
infused leaf, liquor-producing qualities
that make the distinguishing features in
placing values on the teas. This requires
an education of the palate to distinguish
flavours, and of the smelling senses to note
aroma, which can only be developed by
years of practice. When it is considered
that teas are graded down to as small margins
as a quarter of a cent, with prices varying
from fifteen cents per pound for the common
sorts, to as high as one dollar per pound for
the choicest teas — import costs — it is at once
recognised that to become an expert in the
handling of this product is a matter of
extensive education.
THE J. C. WHITNEY COMPANY
The corporation that becomes the subject
of this sketch came into its present form of
organisation in the year 1905, although the
men comprising this company have been
identified with the tea trade as far back as
1870, when associated with the firm of J. W.
Doane & Company, to which firm they be-
came the successors.
Upon the incorporation of the J. C. Whit-
ney Company, the studied policy of the
organisation to put itself in active touch
with the growers of all kinds of teas, took
form in the sending to the Orient of a staff
of tea experts, who had been trained in the
United States and Canada. These experts
had knowledge, from personal touch, of the
exact needs of each particular buyer in the
very large territory, comprising various
sections, each having its own peculiar require-
ments, which knowledge would unques-
tionably fit them to select the special char-
acters of teas demanded by distributors in
these sections throughout the United States
and Canada.
At the time of writing (191 8), this policy
has been so developed and perfected that
wherever tea is grown, experts from this
firm are established, and the policy first
adopted has proved its own wnsdom in the
volume of business actually done — which
is second to that of no other firm.
It was in the very early years of the
twentieth century that the Japan tea trade
began to undergo a marked change and a
transition, from the former method of selling
raw leaf to foreign firms for final manufacture,
to the final curing of teas by the Japanese
themselves. At this time, practically all of
the Japan tea exported was handled through
Us to
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"ws-itisatonu
»ai expert in He
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rm COMPASY
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i tude as far back as
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0 whicb film tbev be-
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stndied policy of tie
itself in active toicb
al kiiids of teas, took
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'leiiintlie
personal toiick, of tie 1
Mrtioilaibtyerintbe
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ed and !«««' *'
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its own wisdom in*
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JO other firm.
En- early «>« '^ *
ia't.ie]apa»"»'f'
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stiine.P®
P R E S 1-; N T - D A Y
I NI IMt E S S I O N S
OF JAPAN
335
foreign houses, largely English, stationed at
the two i)orts of Yokohama and Kobe. Some
influential Japanese began to see an oppor-
tunity of organising Japanese firms for the
final curing of tea. This sometimes took
the form of cooperative companies and the
establishment of Japanese firing plants in
the various tea-producing prefectures, whicli
mo\-ement has continued to develop. At
the present time it might be estimated that
70 per cent of the entire Japan crop is finally
cured by native re-firers stationed through-
out the tea-producing sections of Japan.
It was in the earliest period c.if tliese
changing conditions that, through wisdom
and foresight, the J. C. Whitney Company
established themselves in the heart of the
largest tea-producing prefecture, and at once
became a factor in the manufacturing and
shipping at Shizuoka, Japan, being the
first foreign firm to take up direct relation-
ship with the Japanese re-firers. The fact
that each year has seen an increasing amount
of tea bought and shipped, until the firm
stands to-day the largest single exporter of
Japan tea, is ample proof of the successful
results attending the policies adopted. It
is also worth noting that the old markets
at Kob(5 and Yokohama are now practically
abandoned as tea centres, and every tea-
exporting firm of importance now has its
headqitarters at Shizuoka.
This firm early adopted the method of
training its own men in every branch of the
business, and has been constantly develop-
ing talent and building up an organisation
that has no equal in the tea trade, and
because of this, its business has been con-
stantly enlarging, both in the buying markets
in the Orient and in the distributing sections
throughout the United States and Canada.
The personnel of the firm may be stated
as being Messrs. Joel C. Whitney, President
(now retired); Gustav A. Brecher, Vice-
President and Treasurer, who carries the
financial burdens of the institution; Charles
E. Atwood, Vice-President, and Fred A.
Grow, Vice-President and Secretary, who are
engaged in the active operating end of the
business. Associated with them are men of
years' experience in the tea trade, some of
whom have become managers of the branch
offices of the firm stationed at various cities
in the United States, and managers of the
firm's buying offices in the Orient. Among
them might be mentioned Mr. J. F. Oglevee,
stationed at Shizuoka, Japan; Mr. E. J.
Hazen, at Shanghai, China, and Mr. F. D.
Mott, at Daitotei, Formosa.
HELLYER & CO.
It would be difficult to imagine what the
tea industry of Japan would be without
SORTING TEA
the control and direction of the foreign
firms which originally developed the trade,
and made it one of the staples of the country.
From the very earliest days of the opening
of Japan to foreign trade and influence, the
tea industry has been almost entirely in
the hands of foreigners; in fact, it is one of the
very few that have not reverted to Japanese
control. Associated with the history of the
development of the trade are several firm
names, known throughout Japan, and in the
United States and Canada, with which
countries practically the entire export trade
is done. Among these names is that of
Hellyer & Co. This business was founded
by Mr. Frederick Hellyer, in 1875, who was
assisted by his brother, Mr. Thomas Hellyer.
Originally the business was conducted from
Kobe, and later at Yokohama, but when the
centre of the tea industry shifted to Shizuoka,
Hellyer & Co. established their factory there,
and made it their headquarters for Japan.
The firm's factory and plant are among
the largest and most completely equipped
WEICHI.NC TE.\ LE.WES WITH PRIMITIVE SCALE
^^i^g:rg^>a^^^cw>^0i^^
HELLYER & COMPANY: TEA TASTER AT WORK SCENE IN THE PACKING DEPARTMENT — TEA SIFTING DEPARTMENT -
PACKING TEA IN CHESTS — MECHANICAL TEA FIRING PLANT AT SHIZUOKA
P R E S E N T - I) A V 1 M I' R [C S S 1 O N S O F
ARAN
337
I'ROMINENT TEA TRADERS
Mr Kahei Otani, President of the Yokohama Chamber of Commerce and an Outstanding Figure in the Japanese Tea Trade — Members
of the Firm of Hellycr & Co., the Pounder, Mr. Frederick Hellyer (seated), and (from left to right) Messrs. Walter, Arthur T.,
and Harold J. Hellyer, Partners — Mr. H. R. Hunt, Managing Partner, Hunt & Co.
in Japan, the whole presenting a vastly
different spectacle from that to have been
observed forty years ago when the trade
was in its infancy and the methods used
were crude and, to some extent, casual.
To-day the modern tea factory, which
embraces in its operations, the different
processes of grading, firing, preparing, and
packing teas for export, is replete with
mechanical appliances that not only have
the virtue of being labour-saving, but also
conduce to an output uniform and regular
GROWERS BRINGING IN THEIR TEA TO THE MARKET AT SHIZUOKA
in quantity and qualit}'. In these respects
Messrs. Hellyer & Co. have every advantage,
backed by their lengthy experience, not
only of the business of preparing tea for
export, but of the requirements of the con-
sumers of the product. The factorj' covers
an area of 3,700 tstibo, and the buildings
are of stone, plaster, and wood. One of our
illustrations shows the tea-firing plant which,
before it was brought to its present state of
perfection, was the subject of years of experi-
ment by practical tea men, in the effort to
overcome the costly and slow process of
hand-firing. Other photographs convey an
idea of the busy scenes which are witnessed
at the plant during the height of the tea
season, when the firm employs from five to
six hundred hands. Messrs. Hellyer & Co.
deal with about 6,000,000 pounds of tea per
annum, the product of their factory being
exported in chests as well as in packets.
The business is a partnership which com-
prises Messrs. Arthur T., Walter, and Harold
J. Helh'er. The firm's head office is at No.
326 West Madison Street, Chicago.
HUNT & CO.
In these days of the "mushroom" com-
pany, and when so much attention is being
directed to the history of the commercial
and industrial development of Japan, con-
siderable interest attaches to the origin and
HUNT & company: A (,I.IMI's|.. , ,| |||| main 1 \( HIKV — AUTOMATIC HIT. I liiNVEYOR AND WOMEN I'AIKING TEA -
THE PROCESS OF WEIGHING AND PACKING IN CHESTS — THE SHIPPING GODOWN
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
339
history of some of I lie old foreign houses,
whose names are inseparably assoeiated with
the early and strenuous pioneer days. This
is the case with Messrs. Hunt & Co., of
Shizuoka, a concern that can lay claim, not
only to being one of the first half-dozen
pioneers of the tea trade, and to having
held that position through all the vicissi-
tudes of nearly fifty years, but to being
one of the actual founders of the industry.
Mr. H. J. Hunt, father of the present
active partners, but now retired, was in i86H
stationed at Nagasaki as the manager of the
business of Ault & Co., a firm which traded
in practically every line of merchandise,
though the principal items of trade were
arms, ships, and piece-goods, their custom-
ers being spread throughout the southern
islands and the western parts of Japan.
During the Satsuma Rebellion of 1871-2,
the revolting clans made large purchases
of ships and arms. They were unable to
pay cash, and the produce of certain lands
was offered in lieu thereof, the firm of
Hunt & Co. being formed to operate the
various transactions. Later it was dis-
covered that a portion of the lands, from the
produce of which the claims of the firm were
to be satisfied, was under tea, in which trade
LOADING TEA LIGHTERS lOK I KANSFER TO LINERS
Mr. Himt had fortunately had previous
experience. Hunt & Co. developed the tea
production, rough dried the leaf and shipped
it to America, where it met with a ready
market. Such is the origin of the firm, and
the inception of a business which has grown
to enormous proportions in the inter\'ening
years.
BUYING TEA FROM THE GROWERS
340
P R E S E N T - I) A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Messrs. Hunt & Co. opened offices at
KoW in 1874, but in 1882 the head office
was removed to Yokohama, and in 19 10 a
further transfer took place, the centre of
operations being changed to Shizuoka, in
the heart of the principal tea district. At
Shizuoka the firm has one of the most
complete tea factories to be found in the
Orient. The offices and spacious godowns,
compounds, etc., cover an area of 6,000 tsttbo,
or about 36,000 square feet, but even so the
accommodation is no more than is necessary
for the firm's operations during the heavy
movement in the height of the tea season.
Rough granite has been employed in the
construction of the various buildings, which
comprise all the usual departments of the
modern tea factory. The plant and equip-
ment is of the latest design. One interest-
ing feature is the endless belt conveyor
system, which, by the way, is the invention
of the present Managing Partner, Mr. H. R.
Hunt. By this installation the tea, when
ready for packing, is transported down a
line of waiting girls, facilitating the packing
operations considerably, the importance of
which can be realised when it is stated that
the firm exports an average of three million
packets of tea annually.
Practically everj' line of Japanese tea is
handled by Messrs. Hunt & Co., but the
largest share of the business is done in the
medium grades for which there is the strong-
est demand. The tea is not dried by the
firm, but that stage of its treatment is
left to a number of smaller concerns who
work exclusively for Messrs. Hunt & Co.
Besides a large number of women and coolies,
a staff of thirty-five clerks is employed at
Shizuoka. At Kobe the firm's property
extends over about 2,000 tsuho, and is located
in the most valuable part of the foreign
section, while at Yokohama, Messrs. Hunt
& Co. own close on 4,000 tsiiho in the best
residential quarters of the Bluff. They are
perhaps, the largest foreign landholders in
Japan.
The accompanying illustrations of the
firm's Shizuoka factory and appurtenances
will give an idea of the unusual facilities
enjoyed by the firm, in the way of godowns
and other structures, but as the photographs
were taken at the end of the season, they do
not adequately portray the busy scenes
which are to be witnessed every day during
the height of the activity in the tea industry
of Japan.
The active partners in the firm of Hunt
& Co. are Messrs. H. R. and E. G. Hunt.
Mr. H. R. Hunt makes an annual l)usiness
visit to the United States and Canada, where
the principal connections of the firm are
established, and where the house and its
products enjoy a high reputation. The
firm has its own branch offices at \o. 135
Front Street, New York City; at Hearst
Building, 326 West Madison St., Chicago,
and at 3 Nicholas Street, Montreal. Both
the Messrs. Hunt were educated at O.xford
and take a keen interest in sport. Old
Oxonians will remember Mr. H. R. Hunt as a
football half-blue. Mr. E. G. Hunt is now
at the front. Mr. H. R. Hunt took his
turn earlier in the war, but has been
invalided out.
A HUMBLE PRODUCER OF THE MULBERRY TREE —
SILKWORMS, FOUR WEEKS OLD — FEEDING SILKWORMS
XVII. The Silk Industry of Japan
By MR. AKIRA SHITO, Director of the Imperial Japanese Silk Conditioning House
History of the Industry — Modern Developments — Development and Improvement
Production— Filature Operations — The Export Trade — Japan's Place in
World Production — Commercial Notices
IT is impossible to overstate the impor-
tance of the silk industry to Japan.
The country is peculiarly well adapted
to siUc production, sericulture being practised
practically throughout the entire Empire,
giving employment to close on 2,000,000
families, and constituting the most valuable
of the primary resources of Japan. As a
source of wealth silk is easily first among the
industries. It may not be as vital to the
existence of the Japanese as the production
of rice, which is the "staff of life," but it
would be hard to imagine the condition of
Japan without the silk industry. And in a
country like Japan sericulture has this great
advantage, that it does not materially in-
terfere with the energy and enterprise neces-
sary for the ordinary pursuits of husbandry.
Quite possibly if the silk industry were
unknown, or at least were not developed to
the extent it is, the volume of labour avail-
able for rice cultivation, or for other depart-
ments of agriculture, would be to some
extent greater, and the production of food-
stuffs would be enlarged, but even this is
doubtful, because sericulture is only one of
the natural concomitants of husbandry, in-
terfering no more with the tillage of the
soil and the harvesting of its produce, than
does poultry breeding, or hog raising, in-
terfere with farming in other countries.
In Japan silkworm-rearing and silk pro-
duction, speaking generally, may best be
described as the home industry of the farmer
and his family. It is specialised as an in-
dustry in some cases, but as a rule it is merely
incidental to ordinary farming, the time
devoted to it not interfering with the farmer's
primary business of producing food, and the
labour absorbed being that which can well
and most profitably be spared. Sericulture
provides an occupation for the entire family,
just as in other countries dairying, chicken
raising and other occupations associated with
the farmer's home, provide an interest and a
usefulness for those who do not actually
engage in the rough work on the land. And
there is this difference, that for the labour
called for, silk is more profitable. Indeed it
is questionable whether the Japanese farming
families would be able to make agriculture
pay at all did they not have such an industry-
as silk production to help them out. Where
the business of silkworm-rearing, and the
reeling of silk do call for labour that at other
seasons of the year is available to the farmer
as assistance on the land, the attention to
the silk industry pays him well enough to
enable him to engage outside labour, and
then leave him a profit. These general state-
ments, of course, need qualification in certain
respects, particularly in the cases where silk
as an industry comes first in the farmer's
ideas of importance, but broadly, what has
been said above holds true for the entire
country.
To gain an idea of the extent to which
sericulture is practised in Japan it may be
said that official figures for 19 1 6 gave the
number of families engaged in the production
of cocoons as 1,498,007. If we take the
average Japanese family as five in number,
this means that 7,490,035 persons gave some
portion of their time and attention to silk-
worm-rearing. In the same year there were
284,500 families employed in filatures, or in
reeling operations in their own homes. The
raising of silkworms and the production of the
raw silk are only two,though they are the most
important, phases of the silk industry. If we
consider the silk weaving and spinning
factories, the hundreds of godowns, the
transportation, sorting, grading, testing, and
general handling of the raw product, it would
not be extravagant to say that the siUc
industry furnishes whole, or part-time, occu-
pation to at least ten millions of the people
of Japan. What the actual value of the
industry is to Japan could only be estimated
after an involved calculation. Official returns
for 1 9 16 gave the total production as 6,084,-
406 kivan, or approximately 50,400,000
pounds of silk valued at Yen 322,551,660.
Other figures to be given later will more fully
demonstrate the monetary importance of this
great industry.
HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY
As in the case of many other arts, crafts,
and industries, the Japanese appear to have
obtained their knowledge of sericulture orig-
inally from the Chinese. The antiquity of the
industry is lost in the mists of time and leg-
end. Whence the Chinese secured their
knowledge of silk and its production is not
known, but ancient records ascribe the
introduction of sericulture to Hwang Ti
about the year 2,697 b. c. In Japan the
23
342
PRESENT
-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
INTERIOR (IF THE COCOON
existence of silkworms as early as in
Jindai (the Sacred Age) is recorded, but
whether their rearing was practised as an
occupation is not ascertainable. The first
definite information regarding silk as an
industry in Japan discloses the fact that it was
introduced from China about 199 A. D., in the
reign of the Emperor Chu-ai, when Koma-0,
a descendant of a Chinese emperor, came to
Japan and secured naturahsation, paying
tribute for the privilege with precious things,
which included silkworm eggs. There is
every reason to believe that from that time
silk production was a regular thing in Japan,
but not till the time of the Emperor O-jin
(270 A. D.) was there a definite move to make
it an industry. At that time a descendant of
Koma-O, named Tsudzuki-no-kimi, brought
to Japan from China a large number of silk
farmers. These were distributed throughout
Japan, and were ordered by the Emperor to
engage in silkworm-rearing. This may be
said to have been the real start of sericulture
in Japan.
SORTING OUT THE COCOONS
The succeeding Emjieror Nin-toku showed
a warm interest in silk culture by sending the
Empress to visit Nurinomi, a Korean lady
who was engaged in rearing silkworms at
Tsudzuki, in the Province of Yamashiro.
From this time sericulture flourished under
imperial patronage. The Emperor Yu-r>'aku
induced his consort to set an example to the
people by rearing silkworms in person. He
also gathered all the naturahsed Chinese, who
had been scattered throughout the country,
and set them to work under the direction of
Miki-no-kimi, a descendant of Koma-O, to
undertake sericulture more extensively. An
imperial decree was also issued encouraging
the cultivation of the mulberry tree. Sub-
sequent rulers keenly appreciated the value of
the silk industrj- and history records many
Lflorts made to foster its development. Thus
a decree issued in the reign of the Empress
Suiko, about thirteen hundred years ago.
secured to the people freedom from pubhc
ser\-ices during the seasons of farming and
silkworm-rearing. At that time also fire
warming was resorted to, to raise the temper-
ature of the rearing rooms. In the reign of
Emperor Kotoku (645 A. D.) a new system of
taxes was inaugurated under which imposts
were payable in silk fabrics, and this naturally
increased the value of silk and led to its
further production. The forty-second Em-
peror, Bum-bu, ordered that every family
should cultivate mulberry trees according to
the family class, namely, three hundred trees
for the first class, two hundred for the second,
and one hundred for the third class.
Up to this time silk production was confined
to the central and southwestern parts of
Japan, but in the reign of the Empress Gem-
myo some of the rich families in the central
part of Japan were transferred to the northeast-
ern provinces and sericulture was introduced
there. In the reign of the Emperor Daigo,
some thousand years ago, the districts pro-
ducing silks of a superior quality were the
following prefectures: Miye, Aichi, Shiga,
Gifu, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Waka-
yama, and Tokushima. Medium quality
silks were produced in the prefectures of
Fukui, Ishikawa, Xiigata, Kyoto, Tottori,
Shimane,Yamaguchi,Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi,
Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Saga, Kumamoto, Oita,
Miyazaki, and the southern part of Shizuoka.
Inferior silks came from the northern part of
Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Kanagawa, Tokyo.
Chiba, Ibaraki, Nagano, Gumma, and
Tochigi. At that time the industry flour-
ished more in the central and south-
western districts, the distribution of seri-
culture being quite different from what
it is to-day when the northeastern dis-
tricts are such prominent silk producers.
Up till the turbulent era of Gem-pei, when
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
343
the rival families of Minamoto and Taira
plunged the country in war, the silk in-
dustry flourished, but the wars, and the
introduction of cotton gave it a serious set-
back from which it did not recover until the
sixteenth centurj' when the establishment of
the Tokugawa regime brought peace. Then
sericulture, along with other industries,
received due encouragement, but the produc-
tion was not what it had been in former
periods. There were two reasons for this.
First, frugality in the mode of living and dress
was the order of the day, and naturally the
wearing of silk was discountenanced. Sec-
ondly, the common people were not allowed to
wear silk, that material being reserved for the
samurai, or military class.
Nevertheless in this era of the Tokugawa
shoguns, the industry made some advance-
ment, the development of silk-producing
areas being mainly toward the north. The
terrible famine of 1785 devastated the whole
country, and a decree was again passed
prohibiting the common people from wearing
silk, with consequent unfavourable influences
upon the industry.
From this history it may be observed that
the Japanese have always been sensible of the
importance of sericulture, and it is doubtful
if any industry ever had so much encourage-
ment as a national occupation, or was more
studiously fostered by the successive emperors
and governments, except in times of internal
strife.
MODERN DEVELOPMENTS
Japanese silks were amongst the most
valued articles of trade in the eyes of foreign-
ers, and with the opening of Yokohama to
overseas commerce in 1857, silk production
was one of the first of the national activities to
feel the influence of contact with the outer
world. From the inception of the Meiji era,
or even earlier, the Japanese Government and
the people generally, gave closer attention to
sericulture which promised to become such a
source of wealth from foreign countries.
Perhaps the first real stimulus to the
industry was the demand which arose over
fifty years ago for Japanese silkworm eggs, to
replace the stock which had been ravaged in
Italy and France by the disease known as
pebrine. The annual export of egg cards from
Japan at one time reached the enormous
figure of 1,000,000, and the production of eggs
for foreign silk-growing countries became in
itself an important industry. The export of
egg cards began to fall off when the late M.
Pasteur introduced his system of egg selection
for the benefit of the European silk farmers.
In 1886 only 4,000 cards were exported from
Japan. The number dropped to 800 in 1895
and at the present time t.he export has
practically ceased.
COCOONS READY FOR THE MARKET
Throughout the history of Japanese silk
production, up to the opening of the country
to foreign trade, silk-reeling, or the unwinding
of the silk from the cocoons, had been per-
formed by primitive methods, the simple hand
wheels being employed. It was not long,
however, before foreign methods were intro-
duced, and the industry gradually became
systematised along modern lines. In 1869 the
Ono-gumi established a filature of one hun-
dred reelers at Tsukiji, Tokyo, the French
model being adopted. This factory was
removed three years later to Nihonmatsu,
Fukushima Prefecture, where it remains to
this day under the name of the Sosho-kwan.
In 1870 the Government started a factory
at Tomioka in Gumma Prefecture, and a
Frenchman, Paul Bruner, was employed as
an instructor. This was the inception of
practical and modern governmental super-
vision of the industry without which it is
questionable whether silk production would
have reached the high standard to which it
has attained. Later on we mav come to the
THE SILK-COI ciuN MERCHANT
344
I' R E S !■; N T - D A Y I M 1' R IC S S I O N S OF J A P A N
THE PROCESS OF IMMERSING THE COCOON IN BOILING WATER PRIOR TO TNWINDING THE SILK,
AND IN THE FACTORY
AS CARRIED ON IN THE HOME
discussion of the question of Government
control and regulation designed to maintain
and improve the entire industry as one of
first rate national importance. The earliest
factories were soon followed by others, and
presently filatures were established all over
Japan. The number in operation to-day is
approximately 4,200, which number, however,
includes small household work-rooms fitted up
as filatures, and employing only the members
of the family. These home "factories," for
the most part, have under ten basins. Among
the regular factories, however, the smallest
have from 50 to 70 basins, and the largest
range from 800 to 1,000 basins in the one
building. In France and Italy the largest
filatures have from 500 to 600 basins, so
that in this respect many of the Japanese
filatures, or raw silk factories, are the largest
in the world, though some experts do not
consider it so advantageous, from the point of
view of economical and efficient working, for a
filature to have more than 500 basins in one
building. In all operations of reeling and
re-reeling silk there were in use in 1916, 615,-
675 basins.
DEVELOPIIEXT AND IMPROVE.MENT
We have dealt with the ancient, and one
phase of the modem, history of the silk
industry of Japan, and have indicated the
great extent of its growth. It is now neces-
sary to speak of the means adopted to im-
prove the qualit}- of the product, and develop
a more extensive production, and generally
to systematise the industry in all respects.
This work has been almost entirely carried
out under Government supen'ision, with the
assistance of foreign experts originally, and
supported by various associations of seri-
culturists.
The Imperial Japanese Government, early
in the Aleiji era, exerted every effort to foster
sericulture, and readily adopted foreign ideas
for the betterment of the industry. We
have seen that a State factory was started
in 1870. Coincidentally the supervision of
sericulture was placed in the hands of the
Department of Agriculture and Commerce.
Foreign experts were engaged to raise the
standard of production, and modem machin-
ery' and methods were introduced. Need-
less to say the silk produced forty or fifty
years ago under the old methods was much
inferior in quality to what it is to-day. A
greater part of it was reeled from yellow-
cocoons. This gradually gave place to the
white silk which is so much in demand to-day.
The silkworms raised were then of the uni-
voltine race, hatching in spring. Some
attempts had . been made to rear bivoltine
worms for a summer crop, but it was not
till fifty years ago that it was found by chance
that the eggs of the univoltine race, preserved
in a cave, would retard their hatching until
autumn. From that time the practice of
keeping the egg cards in cool storage, which
is generally found in caves, or special places
dug in the hillsides, has been general, and
Japan now raises a spring, summer, and
autumn crop of cocoons.
It would be too lengthy a process to de-
scribe all the steps that have been taken to
bring the industry to the remarkable state
of efficiency and national value which it
discloses to-day, but we may touch on the
leading features of the State policy. Special-
ists have regularly been sent abroad by the
Government to study conditions prevailing
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
345
MANUFACTURING SILK THREAD FROM SILK WOOL
in the industries in France, Italy and else-
where, and to investigate the market require-
ments in America. In 1874 the Sericultural
Experiment Station was opened by the
Department of Home Affairs at Naito,
Shinjuku, Tokyo. This was abolished in
1879, but the terrible ravages of disease in
Italy and France showed that scientific con-
trol of sericulture was absolutely essential
in Japan, and the Government established a
station for the investigation of silkworm
diseases, at Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo, in 1884.
Research revealed the presence of pi-brine
in Japanese silkworms and in 1886 official
regulations for the examination of eggs were
promulgated. Students were trained in the
examination of eggs and moths, and by this
means a better knowledge of the methods of
preventing disease was spread throughout
the industry. Government supervision was
coordinated and centred in the Sericultural
Institute in 1896, and three years later
another institute was established at Kyoto,
where experiments were conducted, and in-
struction regularly given. The question of
reeling became as important as that of the
proper scientific methods of raising silkworms
and preventing disease, and accordingly a
filature department was added to the Seri-
cultural Institute at Tok>-o in 1902 to con-
duct experiments and give instruction to
those in the industry'.
Through the work of these state institu-
tions, seconded by the many prefectural
schools and supervising bodies, as well as
different associations of a semi-public nature,
the entire industrj' of raising silkworms, pro-
ducing cocoons, and working off the raw silk.
was raised to a high degree of perfection,
being standardised in every respect. There
only remained the need for conditioning and
regulating silk for the open market and for
export. This work was taken in hand by
the Government which in 1895 established
two conditioning houses, one at Yokohama
and the other at Kobe. The latter was
closed in 1897, as there did not appear to be
much need for it, Yokohama having become
the silk-marketing centre of the Empire.
The operations of the silk-conditioning house
there have increased enormouslv and to-day
the value and importance of the Yokohama
Silk Condition House can hardly be over-
estimated, its operations being indispensable
to the industry. Besides these, a few years
ago the Government established the Seri-
cultural Experimental Station at Nakano,
Tokyo, and it has seven branches located
according to climatical conditions.
PRODUCTION
As mulberry trees can be cultivated
almost anywhere in the Japanese Empire,
between Hokkaido and Formosa, a geograph-
ical range of twenty-three degrees of latitude,
it may be said that the sericultural industry
is general to Japan with the exception of
the Saghalien territory. There is hardly a
district in which silkworms are not reared
on a large scale, but the most attention is
given to the industry in the prefectures of
Nagano, Fukushima, Gumma, Aichi, Saitama,
Yamanashi, Gifu, Shiga, Yamagata, and
Tokyo. Practically all the mulberry trees,
to the number of several hundred different
varieties, are indigenous to Japan, though
one or two varieties were imported from
China. From the point of view of zoology
the silkworms are only one species of the
insect, albeit there are many varieties ob-
tained by natural and artificial selection and
breeding. In Japan the worms are classified
as univoltines (or annuals), bivoltines, and
polyvoltines. The annuals produce one
brood, the bivoltines two broods, and the
polyvoltines three or more broods in the
year. The annuals are conceded by silk
growers to be the most satisfactory and
profitable, because they produce the greatest
amount of silk for the quantity of mulberry
THE WEAVING LOOM
346
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
OF JAPAN
leaves fed to them. The l>ivoltincs produce
less silk, and the least productive are the
poly\'o!tincs. The latter are the easiest to
rear, being vigourous and ready eaters. In
inverse ratio the annuals are the most diffi-
cult to rear and feed. Varieties of worms
are often also known by the class of cocoon
they produce, as white, yellow, and green,
but the white cocoon is the chief variety.
Lastly the Japanese silkworms are classified
as spring, summer, and autumn breeds.
ence between this number and the number
given in our table obviously representing
the farmers who raise summer and autumn
cocoons only. The total value of the cocoons
raised for 191 6 reached the enormous figure
of Yen 273,058,254. A study of the table
above also indicates a higher degree of skill
in sericulture during the last few years of the
period under review, for it will be seen that
though the number of families engaged did
not increase very materially, a greater
Production of Cocoons, 1907 to 1916
weaving factories, the great bulk of it is
exported. Fonnerly, raisers of raw silk
used to sell off their products at Yokohama,
whence it passed into the hands of foreign
dealers for export. In 1875 the first at-
tempt at direct export was made by
Chotaro Hoshino, of Gumma Prefecture,
who made a shipment through Messrs.
Kindon & Co., of Yokohama, but the attempt
to open direct trade with importers and
manufacturers in other countries, was not
Year
No. of
Families
No. OF
Egg Cards
Cocoons
(KoKU)*
DopnoNi
(KoKU)*
Pierced
Cocoons
Waste
Cocoons
Total
(KoKu)*
Percentages
Spring
Summer
Autumn
1907
1,421,030
4.433.157
2,789.815
359.659
58,646
248.847
3.456,967
65
14
21
1908
1,436,805
4.554.922
2,860,031
364,968
56,221
248,948
3,530,168
62
14
24
• 909
1,450,248
4.598,331
2,928,437
383.973
57.416
260,041
3,629,867
63
13
24
1910
1,462,976
4,839,128
3.137,104
414.325
69.563
279,970
3,900,962
62
13
25
191 1
1.507,550
5.058,810
3,431,060
446,708
65.059
292,463
4.235,290
61
12
27
191J
1,300,409
5. 1 35. .568
3,610,180
471.544
67.677
302,906
4.452..307
57
12
31
1913
1,500,280
5,159,421
3.759.398
467.997
63.672
300,481
4.,59i.548
57
12
31
1914
1,459,016
5,094,856
3.607,989
449,480
61.132
293.638
4.412.239
59
14
27
1915
1,433,045
5.332.323
3,845,567
478,767
323,094
4.647.428
56
13
31
1916
1,498,007
5.757.414
4.775.085
576,104
357.274
5,708,463
54
1 1
35
* The yield of cocoons, it will be obser\-ed, is given in koku. a measure of capacity which is a little under five bushels.
Though this classification is popularly used
it does not mean that the worms are different
varieties, but only shows the different seasons
of their feeding. The spring breed is allowed
to hatch after the budding of the mulberry
trees, the siunmer breed, soon after the
"mounting" of the spring worms, and the
autumn breed from about the beginning of
August till the middle of September.
Japanese statistics disclose the extent of
the sericultural industry by giving the areas
under mulberry plantation, the number of
families engaged in silkworm-raising, the
quantity of egg cards obtained, the yield
of cocoons for the three seasons, and the pro-
duction of raw silk. For instance, we learn
that the area of mulberry trees in 1916 was
465,865 cho, or about 1,164,660 acres, or
close on 20 per cent of the total farm lands,
and the area is increasing every year. A
comparative idea of the extent of the industry
may be' gained from the accompanying table.
In the foregoing table the number of
families engaged, represents those who raise
spring cocoons. Many of these same fami-
lies raise summer and autumn cocoons as
well, while other families devote their atten-
tion either to summer or autumn cocoons
alone, so to gain an idea of the total number
of families engaged it is necessary to take the
figures for 19 16, compiled by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Commerce, applying
to the production of all cocoons, irrespective
of season. In this return the number of
families is stated to be 1,765,937, the differ-
numbcr of egg cards were hatched, and the
production steadily increased, with a regular
diminution of pierced, or spoiled, cocoons.
The steady development of autumn breeding
is also a conspicuous feature of the return.
As a matter of fact this and other statis-
tical tables demonstrate the results of the
careful attention which the Government has
given to the great silk industry, the farmers
handling all phases of silkworm-rearing and
silk production with a degree of skill that has
eliminated much of the risk and loss from
what was once a precarious business, subject
to many baneful influences.
FIL.4TURE OPER.\TIONS
As a general rule the Japanese farmers
stop with the raising and sale of their cocoons.
There are many thousands of homes in which
reeling operations take place, but with the
establishment of regular factories this busi-
ness is left to them. The regular filatures
are equipped in a most scientific manner,
and they handle the bulk of the cocoons.
Re-reeling is largely left to the home workers,
however, as may be seen from the first table
on the following page.
There is some extent of export and im-
port of cocoons, though the latter exceeds
the former. The second table on the follow-
ing page shows the movement in this trade.
THE EXPORT TRADE
While a considerable quantity of Japanese
raw silk is consumed by local spinning and
on that occasion, successful. However, in
the following year Mr. Hoshino, associated
with Mr. Momotaro Sato, of Chiba Pre-
fecture, succeeded in executing the sale of
400 kin at Yen 650 per kin, to a merchant
in New Jersey. This was the first instance
of direct export recorded.
It may be mentioned here, in this connec-
tion, that for export purposes, silk weights
are given in kin, each equal to approxi-
mately ij^ pounds avoirdupois. The es-
tablishment of the Doshin Kwaisha at
Yokohama, in 1879, opened the way for
regular direct export, and the inauguration
of the Yokohama Specie Bank the follow-
ing year gave great faciUties for the hand-
Hng of the foreign trade.
The raw silk, as it comes from the homes
which engage in reeling operations, or from
the larger filatures, is practically all con-
signed to Yokohama, where it is disposed
of in the Doshin Kwaisha, or Silk Exchange,
buyers purchasing either direct or through
silk brokers. Thence the silk passes into the
godowns of the exporting firms, and event-
ually is shipped, mainly to the United States.
In the operations of purchase and handling
for shipment, the raw silk is tested, classified,
and in other ways "conditioned," this work
being generally carried out by the Imperial
Silk Conditioning House at Yokohama.
Most of the buying is done subject to certifi-
cates of condition, obtainable on tests, from
the Silk Conditioning House. The extent
to which this Government institution controls
P R E S E N T - II A Y IMPRESSIONS O F
Filature, Re-Reel, and Other Operations, 1910
JAPAN
347
Filatures
Totals
Operation
Under 10
Rasins
Over 10
Basins
Over 50
Basins
Over 100
Basins
No. of
Filatures
No. of
Basins
Production
(Kwan)
Value
(Yen)
Value
per
Kwan
Raw Silk
Waste Silk:
Noshi
Kibiso
Others
Re-Reel
Waste Silk:
Noshi
Kibiso
Others
Doppioni
Waste Silk;
Noshi
Kibiso
Others
Floss Silk
Yamamai anil
Tussah
1,588
238,383
40,670
1 ,200
891
225
785
26
71
621
4
36
4, 1 94
2,W,3"4
(families)
41,002
(families)
224,569
328,384
62,722
3„S38,9i8
60,877
687,916
450,620
636,4,^4
68,740
105,164
43,412
344,478
44.759
41,425
61,643
119,525
308
261,890,860
721,397
5,315,921
775,314
40,166,562
544,476
638,489
114,752
11,775,537
223,808
285,761
98,783
2,645,313
25,073
74
12
8
2
63
8
6
3
34
5
7
2
22
Totals
615,675
6,204,239
323,222,046
Exports
\xi) Impokis (II' Cocoons, 1907 to igif
Exports
I.MP(
RTS
Year
Quantity
(Kin)
Value
(Yen)
QUAXTITY
(Kin)
Value
(Yen)
1907
22,005
11,057
1,031,278
1,090,272
1908
16,597
11,1 50
581,678
474,417
1909
5,450
3.735
1,112,886
859,255
1910
304,531
524.151
1,791,309
1,299,776
1911
408,709
679,896
1,353,436
919,383
iqi2
226,446
369,737
1,879,495
1,152,551
1913
377.776
662,716
1,609,685
952,765
1914
266,212
327,557
901,198
683,486
I915
449,326
664,483
1,774,968
1,845,100
1916
513,225
823.855
1,349,506
1,370,837
the sale and export of silk may be gathered
from the fact that in 1916, 195,715 tests
were made, the quantity of raw silk handled
for conditioning being about 8,848,854 pounds.
The number of tests conducted in 1916 was
more than twice the number in 1907.
In the following table will be found figures
disclosing the c^uantity and value of raw silk
exported from Japan for ten years. The
table deals only with the two main items,
raw silk and waste silk. There are other
qualities or varieties of silk exported, which
would swell the grand total, but these figures
are a suflficient indication of the great expan-
sion which has taken place in the trade.
Produciiiin ami Exports of Silk, 1907 10 19 16*
Raw
Silk
Waste Silk
Balance of
\'alue of
Value of
Year
Production
Exports
Production
Exports
Production
Exports
Exports
Kin
Kin
Kin
Yen
Kin
Kin
Yen
1907
15,331,088
9,354.361
5,976,727
116,888,627
4,843,625
5,650,123
6,243,305
1908
16,946,694
11,521,795
5,424,899
108,609,052
5,009,338
7,891,257
7,872,465
1909
18,139,100
13,469,406
4,669,694
124,243,239
5,459,100
6,733,023
6,928,607
1910
19,840,469
14,846,175
4,994,294
130,832,940
6,083,344
7,506,054
8,417-344
191 1
21,341,500
14,456,047
6,885,453
128,875,094
6,501,781
6,975,191
7.785,646
1912
22,780,96^
17.102,574
5,678,395
150,321,198
6,773,038
9,745,746
10,543,264
1913
23,381,406
20,228,616
3,152,790
188,916,892
6,878,206
8,034,014
10,471,008
1914
23,474,288
17.148.753
6.325,535
161,797,411
6,955,500
3,816,610
4,672,560
1915
25,286,506
17.814.174
7.472.332
152,030,518
8,840,344
5,818,849
5,951,526
1916
28,249,063
21.741.976
6,507,087
267,036,616
9,778,475
8,366,238
10,480,462
*In the table the e.\port of waste silk considerably excee(Js the production in the years anterior to igij. This discrepancy is officially explained to be due to the fact
that production is ascertained from figures of prefectural authorities, and export from figures of the Department of Finance, the presumption being that the prefectural
reports are not conclusive as to actual production.
■■*;J
m
kl
fll
SIBER, HEGNER &• CO., YOKOHAMA: THE COMPOIND, SHOWING OFFICES AND GODOWNS — SCENE IN THE SILK PACKING GODOWN
THE SILK DEPARTMENT THE WASTE SILK DEPARTMENT
P R 1'". S E N T - n A ^■ I M I' 1^ l\ S S I O N S OF J A P A N
349
Japan's place in world production
To conclude tliis necessarily quick survey
of the silk industry of Japan it is proper to
give some idea of the position which Japan
occupies as a producer of silk, in relation to
the rest of the silk-growing countries of the
world. She is easily first, her production
being three times greater than that of the
whole of the European silk countries, and
twice that of her greatest rival, China.
Statistics of silk production are classified
geographically, the figures for each country
being grouped as "Western Europe," "East-
ern Europe and Central Asia," and "Eastern
Asia." Western Europe produced in 1916,
4,072,000 kilogrammes of raw silk. Eastern
Europe and Central Asia produced 1,040,000
kilos, and Eastern Asia, 20,583,000 kilos, or
a grand total for the world of 25,695,000
kilos, equal to about 56,529,000 pounds.
Japan alone produced 13,350,000 kilos, or
more than one-half of the total world output
of raw silk.
The United States is the largest importer
of raw silk in the world, France, Italy and
other silk producing and manufacturing
countries depending almost entirely on their
own supplies, though they also export. Some
interesting figures for the United States show
the following for three years past:
Total imports of all silks, 1914, 25,000,000
pounds of which 74 per cent came from Japan,
17 per cent from China, 7 per cent from
Italy, and 3 per cent from France.
Total imports of all silks, 1915, 30,000,000
pounds, of which 64 per cent came from
Japan, 24 per cent from China, 10 per cent
rom Italy, and 3 per cent from France.
Total imports of all silks, 1916, 32,000,000
pounds, of which 75 per cent came from
Japan, 19 per cent from China, 4.7 per cent
from Italy, and 2 per cent from France.
Japan's trade with the United States for
191 7 was estimated by the Silk Association
of America to be from 220,000 to 230,000
bales of raw silk, an increase of from 18 to
20 per cent above the imports for the previous
year.
Truly the silk imlustry of Japan, and the
maintenance of her great market in the
United States, are two things of first rate
economic and political importance.
SIBER, HEGNER & CO.
This firm which is incorporated in Switzer-
land, is the largest foreign firm of raw silk
exporters in Japan, and for many years, until
the huge Japanese organisations came on the
scene, it was the first concern in the trade, at
one time handling one-fourth of the entire
export. The business was founded in 1866 by
Mr. H. Siber and the late Mr. Brennwald,
who were among the first foreign merchants in
Yokohama. Mr. Siber had been engaged in
the silk business in Switzerland and concen-
trated on that branch of Japanese industry
upon his arrival in Yokohama. Mr. Brenn-
wald died about 1899 and as the Swiss
company laws dictate that the name of a
deceased partner shall not be used in the trade
designation, the firm then became known as
Siber, Wolff & Co., and subsequently as Siber,
Hegner & Co.
From the records of the firm it is possible to
obtain a very good idea of the remarkable
expansion of the raw silk industry of Japan,
TYPE OF SMALL SILK RETWI STING MILL
in the development of which Messrs. Siber,
Hegner & Co. have played an important part.
It is not so many years ago that the entire
export of silk from Japan was only between
40,000 and 50,000 bales, of which 20 per cent
was handled by the firm. This year, which
will constitute the firm's record, they will have
handled over 21.405 bales, out of a total of
239,800 bales. The Japanese Government
has not been unmindful of the work done by
the firm for the development of the industry.
In 1903 they were awarded a gold medal and
diploma, the latter setting out that the firm
had been estabhshcd in Yokohama at the
time of the opening of the port, and further
stating that the Japanese Government had
been advised by them to encourage the
improvement of the quality of silk produced,
with the very best results to the great
national industry.
Messrs. Siber, Hegner & Co. also do a very
large business in waste and carded waste silk.
As general importers and exporters they
handle principally the lines stated above as
well as general produce, and they import
textiles, iron, machinery, chemicals, and
dyestuffs, for the latter of which they have
their own laboratory under the direction of a
fully qualified analytical chemist, who is
constantly engaged in research work. Siber,
Hegner, & Co. also do a large import business
in electrical metres and watches. They have
branches at Tokyo, Kobe, Seoul, and Zurich.
Agencies are maintained at London, New
York, Milan, and Lyons.
The offices and godowns of Messrs. Siber,
Hegner & Co. are among the most extensive of
foreign properties in Yokohama. The land
is held under perpetual lease, and has an area
of 1,000 tsubo. On this area are erected the
main offices, twelve godowns and other
buildings, all of the most substantial construc-
tion, brick and stone being employed. The
staff comprises ten Europeans, and for regular
work about 60 hands are employed at Yoko-
hama and another 35 at the Kobe branch.
But in the height of the silk season the firm
engages from four to five hundred sorting
women and from forty to sixty coolies. A
pleasing feature about the work people of this
old established firm is that ver>' many of them
have been with the concern for practically all
their lives. Messrs. Siber, Hegner & Co. have
many hands who have served their interests
for thirty-five years, and some of the old
pensioners have been with the house well over
forty-five years. Of the partners in the firm,
Mr. Siber is at Milan and Mr. Hegner in
Zurich. The local managing partners are
Messrs. F. Ehrismann and Ed. Bosshart,
each of whom has had about thirty years'
experience of the business of silk production
and exportation.
350
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
L. BARMONT & CIE: THE SILK-TESTIXG ROOM — THE OFFICE AND GODOWNS, YOKOHAMA — INTERIOR OF SILK GOUOWN
L. BARJIONT & CIE
The firm of L. Barmont & Cie, which, as the
name implies, is a French business concern,
was originally established by the late Mr.
L. Mottet in 1895. In 1907 Mr. Mottet was
joined by Mr. L. Barmont as partner, and the
firm became known as L. Mottet & Barmont.
Both Messrs. Mottet and Barmont had had a
lengthy experience of the silk trade, both in
France and China, and when they turned
their attention to the rapidly developing
industry in Japan, they qviickly established a
substantial business, and through the special
knowledge of the Lyons market which they
possessed they were able to develop their
interests, and at the same time materially
promote the silk industry of Japan. On the
death of Mr. Mottet, Mr. Barmont became
the sole proprietor of the business.
At one time the firm of Barmont & Cie
handled some general lines of imports and
exports, but their trade in raw silk increased
to such an extent that finally they concen-
trated their efforts entirely on this industry,
and are to-day among the largest dealers
of the foreign firms in silk, shipping annuallj'
about 10,000 bales to the United States and
France, approximately 75 per cent of the
export going to the former country. While
all silk exported from Japan passes through
the Imperial Japanese Silk Conditioning
House, and is there tested and classified,
Messrs. Barmont & Cie have their own testing
machines by means of which their exports are
subjected to a double test, the private one,
and the official test. The advantage of this
system is obvious. Messrs Barmont & Cie
know from their own investigations in their
testing room whether the sil5*liey are export-
ing is well up to standard, and the official test
which follows, ensures customers of the most
careful inspection, and is a double guarantee
of the quaUty which the firm handles.
Furthermore Messrs. Barmont & Cie have in
their service as inspector, Mr. Rciffingcr, who
has been in the silk business for practically
forty years, of which thirty have been spent
in Japan. Mr. Reiffinger is recognised
generally to be one of the best judges of silk in
the Japanese market. Amongst the raw silk
handled by Barmont & Cie are the Gunze
filature, the Sano filature, the Matsushima
filature, and the Higoseishi filature. These
names are particularly well known to the
trade for the extra fine quality of their
products. For some time Barmont & Cie
took the whole of the output of the famous
Gunze filature. They are now handUng the
entire production of the Sano filature, which
for years has been considered as one of the
best sources of supply in Japan. The
Matsushima filature is under the control of
Mr. Sano. Barmont & Cie have also given a
good deal of attention to the production of
silk hosiery in Japan, and until a few months
ago they did a large business in raw silk with
Moscow, as well as shipping largely to the
United States and France.
Barmont & Cie have excellent connections
abroad. They operate on joint account with
Messrs. F. Desgeorge et Cie, who are one of
the oldest and most respected firms operating
as importers on the Lyons market. In New
York the firm is represented by Messrs.
Aldridge & MacFarlane, Incorporated, and
Messrs. H. L. Walter & Co. Barmont & Cie
have a large three-story godown, complete
with all appliances for handling raw silk,
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
351
adjacent to their offices, which are at No. 183
Yamashita-cho, Yokohama.
A. P. VILLA & BROS., OF JAPAN,
INCORPORATED
A VISIT to the silk godowns of IVIessrs.
A. P. Villa & Bros, furnishes one with an
impression of the great care taken in the
handling of raw silk for export, and conveys
an idea of the extremely delicate nature of
the business in which this firm specialises.
Messrs. V'illa & Bros., of Japan, Inc., are
among the largest foreign firms dealing in
raw silk. They export to France, Italy, and
Switzerland, but the main outlet for the
goods they handle is the New York market,
where they have special warehouses and
plant for working up the raw silk into various
plies, suited to the requirements of the
American manufacturers. Among their reg-
ular customers in the United States are
some of the greatest silk piece goods and
hosiery manufacturers, and it necessarily
follows that the most careful attention is
called for in Japan to ensure that the high
reputation which the firm has obtained for
the uniform excellence of its shipments, is in
no way injured. This means, as stated
above, very careful handling of the raw
product in the Yokohama godowns. Messrs.
Villa & Bros, have spared no expense in their
establishment. The raw silk comes, in llie
first place, from the very best filatures, but
even so, it is carefully examined and tested
before it is purchased for shipment abroad.
The firm has extensive godowns for the
storage and inspection and packing of the
silk, but prior to its reaching those stages it
has to pass the most rigid tests for colour,
fineness, elasticity, and strength. Messrs.
Villa & Bros, have their own testing rooms,
replete with the most approved modern
appliances, which are attended by skilled
work people whose business it is to record
the results of all tests. These results are
then examined by the buying experts, and
the silk offered by the filatures is accepted,
or rejected, as the case may be.
The firm also has its own conditioning
room, for the projier regulation of the silk
to be shipped under its name and guarantee,
and it is obvious from the care taken and
the degree of skill exercised in the examina-
tion, classification, and testing of the silk,
that the very highest standards of quality
are maintained. About 7,000 bales of silk
are shipped annually by Messrs. Villa &
Bros. The silk goes direct to the firm's
own warehouses in New York, or to the
branches at Turin, Milan, and Lyons. This
quantity refers, of course, to the Yokohama
office. There are also buying offices and
godowns at Shanghai and Canton, which
deal in Chinese silk. The Yokohama branch,
which is under the management of Mr.
T. M. G. da Cruz, was opened on June 26,
1912, and is located very centrally to the
Imperial Silk Conditioning House, and the
business quarter generally, at No. 206 Yama-
shitacho. Mr. da Cruz is an expert silk
man of over seventeen years' experience.
The Canton branch was opened in September,
1912, under the management of Mr. Gustave
Hoppeler. The Chinese hong name for the
house is "Tak Lee." The Shanghai branch
fi ~'.' II '
A. VILLA & BROS. OF JAPAN: INTERIOR VIEW OF THE CANTON OFFICES — THE OFFICES AND GODOWNS .\T VOKOHAMA-
THE firm's HANDSOME PREMISES AT SHANGHAI
i
C. liVMAKD &• CIE: the HEAD OFFICE
— THE CUMPOUiND, FILLED WITH DALES OF WASTE SILK — WOMEN AT WOKE ON \\\--ll-. --11 K
P R IC S I', N T - I) A V
I M 1' k K S S r O N S
O I"
J A P A N
353
Z3
ffiHSl
SILK MERCHANTS
(Upper Row, Left to Right) M. Zahn, Manager, Nabholz & Co. — L. Barmont, of L. Barmont & Cie — K. Ono, a Prominent .Silk
Merchant of Yokohama, and Chairman of Memorial Hall Committee. (Lower Row) Charles Eymard, of C. Eymard & Cie —
Claude Eymard, of C. Eymard & Cie — Cesar Eymard, of C. Eymard & Cie
was established in May, 19 13, and is under
the management of Mr. Eric Ericson, the
house being known to the Chinese as "Ching
Chong."
The Messrs. Villa Brothers are Italian
silk merchants, whose interests are very
extensive. They have been in the business
for a lifetime, and undoubtedly have estab-
lished a world-wide reputation in the silk
trade.
C. EYAL\RD & CIE
There are several branches of the great
staple industry of Japan — silk. The most
important, of course, is the export of the raw-
product, which is shipped in vast quantities
to Europe and America. Silk weaving in
Japan is a secondary industry, which, how-
ever, is making vast strides. Then comes
the handhng of the waste silk, an industry
which calls for thousands of work people,
mostly women. In this business Messrs.
C. Eymard & Cie, the well known French
firm of Yokohama, do perhaps the largest
business in Japan. The interests of this
firm were established at Yokohama in 1885
by Mr. Claude Eymard, and they have
steadily expanded with the development of
the silk industry. Messrs. C. Eymard &
Cie export entirely to France, where the waste
silk, carefully examined and classified at
Yokohama, is utilised for many purposes.
The firm handles approximately about 2,000,-
000 kilos of waste silk per annum, and tlic
value of the material varies, according to
the market, between Yen 2,000,000 and
Yen 4,000,000. Godowns utilised by the
firm are of solid brick construction, and
cover an area of 1 ,200 Isubo. In the height
of the season the compound is a scene of great
activity, and one of our illustrations shows
the scores of bales of waste silk, laid out and
opened for inspection. At such times 500
or more hands are employed, sorting, grading,
and picking over the material as it comes
from the filatures. The silk is re-baled under
an hydraulic press, gas power being utilised
for the plant.
The partners of the firm are Messrs.
Claude, Charles, and Cesar Eymard. A
capital of Yen 100,000 is employed in the
business, the offices of which are located at
No. 253, Yamashita-cho, Yokohama.
KYOTO TEXTILE CO., LI.MITED
In the history of this company is to be
found the story of the eflfort on the part of
the textile industries of Japan to produce
the higher class of goods, such as silk fabrics,
brocades, etc., as manufactured in Europe
by modern machinery, as against the old-
fashioned hand weaving processes. The
Kyoto Orimono Kabushiki Kaisha, or Kyoto
Textile Co., Ltd., was originally established
m May, 1887, with a capital of Yen 450,000,
its objective being to develop the industry
354
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
(0
^
1 I
t'fl'MBiii wi I PtiBW I I IIJJl
Ill
KYOTO SILK WEAVING CO , LTD.
INTERIOR OF THE MECHANICAL WEAVING DEPARTMENT — GENERAL VIEW OF THE FACTORY —
THE SII.K-1-INI?.HING PLANT — THE DYEING DEPARTMENT
of weaving and dyeing, by mechanical pro-
cesses, utilising machinery imported from
Europe, and following the most approved
modern theory and practice. It was also
designed to become a model organisation, to
improve and build up the entire textile in-
dustries of Japan. At this time there was in
operation the "Oridono," or "weaving man-
sion," conducted under the control of the
Kyoto Prefecture, as a semi-official institu-
tion. The business of this concern was
transferred to the Kyoto Textile Co., Ltd.
What was, in effect, an entirely new-
industry for Japan, was thus entered upon.
The comjiany despatched three specialists
to Europe to study the business of dyeing
and weaving, and at the same time three
French experts were engaged to super\'ise
the work in the factories. Great difficulties
were encountered in the first years. Among
the obstacles to advancement was the reluc-
tance of dyers and weavers to depart from
old methods, and their general inability to
acquire the knowledge of the use of the new
machinery. However, the company's efforts
were not relaxed, and steady progress was
made. The construction of the new Imperial
Palace gave the company a chance to show
what was being done, the directors being
favoured with substantial orders for fabrics
for the new mansion, and the imperial com-
mand demonstrating that the work had the
hearty approval of His Majesty the Emperor.
Four or five years after the commencement
of operations the work was going on nicely
and the Kyoto Textile Co., Ltd., was able
to produce Chinese satin, thereby giving a
check to the import of this material. On
the contrary the company began the export
of Chinese satin to several markets in the
East.
By 1896 the new industry was on such a
sound footing that the directors found it
necessary to increase the capital to 900,000
yen, to admit of an enlargement of business,
and further the sales of the Toyo Donsu, the
Oriental damask, a silk and cotton satin,
which had already been sold successfully in
China in trial lots. In 1900 the company
made a trial with chiffon, which was so
popular in Europe. The trial was a success
and the product of the Kyoto factory found
favour at home and abroad. It was ex-
ported in large quantities to India and the
South Seas, and with the Oriental damask
became one of the two specialities of the
company The name of the Kyoto Textile
Co., Ltd., was honoured by inclusion in the
list of approved suppliers to the Imperial
Household in 1902. In 1905 an amalgama-
tion was effected with the Murasakino Tex-
tile Co., Ltd., of Atago County, and that
company's works were made the Kyoto
Textile Co.'s branch factorv', this new de-
velopment calling for an increase of the
capital to 1,050,000 yen. At this time the
company was favoured with large orders for
fine art decorations for the new palace of
the Imperial Crown Prince. The capital of
the concern was again increased to 2,500,000
yen, in 1907. The next development was
the weaving and dj'eing of men and women's
dress stuffs, brocades, and damasks for India
and China, the result being to supplant
French and German products in the markets
of those countries. Crepes were woven in
1914, and were exported to America, where
they met with a favourable reception, the
PRESENT-nA^ IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
355
output of this material now being very
large. For the great Imperial Coronation
Ceremonies in 1915 the Kyoto Textile Co.,
Ltd., received a large number of valuable
orders for the highest class of fabrics. The
manner in which the company and its work
have been officially honoured may be seen
from the following facts relative to Imperial
patronage, and awards won at expositions:
On April 27, 1900, the Empress Dowager
(consort of the late Emperor Meiji) visited
the factory, and the following year, on October
24, the mother of the late Emperor honoured
the company with a visit of inspection. On
May 23, 1899, and again on April 23, 1903,
the Chamberlain Yoneda was despatched to
the company's factory by Imperial Command.
In June, 1903, the Princesses Tsune and
Chika visited the works, and the present
Emperor, then Crown Prince, honoured the
company with a \'isit on September 28,
1910. The company was awarded the Effec-
tive Medal at the Third National Industrial
Exhibition in 1900; the silver medal at the
Chicago International Exposition in 1892;
the First Progress Medal at the Fourth
National Industrial Exhibition in 1895; the
Medal of Honour at the Paris International
Exposition in 190a; the Gold Medal at the
Fifth National Industrial Exhibition in 1903;
the Medal of Honour at the St. Louis Inter-
national Exposition in 1904, and the Medal
of Honour at the Tokyo Taisho Exhibition
in 1914.
The company's present capital is Yen
2,500,000. Of recent years the annual out-
put has been valued at Yen 4,500,000. A
stafT of technical experts numbering 52, and
2,200 workmen and workwomen are engaged
in the factories. The principal products of
the works are: crepe Georgette, crepe de
chine, and other silk crepes; silk and cotton
linings, ladies' dress stuflfs, fine art house
decoration fabrics, and other lines compris-
ing the most beautiful products of the weav-
er's and the dyer's arts. Mr. G. Tanaka,
who holds the Order of the 3rd Merit, and the
5th Rank, is the President and Chairman of
Directors. Other Directors are: Messrs. H.
Funasaka (Managing Director), J. Naiki
(Order of the 4th Merit), S. Nakai, and M-
lida. The Auditors are: Messrs. H. Funa-
bashi, Y. Tsuda, and H. Ito.
T.-\KASHIM.\Y,\
(MESSRS. IID.\ & CO., LI.VIITEd)
For many years now the well-known firm
of Takashimaya, owned by Messrs. lida &
Company, Limited, has been one of the
leading dealers in silk piece goods in Japan.
No one visiting the Japanese capital has
seen what the weavers of the nation can
produce in the way of beautiful silks, until
an inspection has been made of the magnifi-
cent store of Takashimaya. Indeed, the
silk-weaving industry owes more to Mr.
Shin-hichi lida and his brother, Mr. Shimbei
lida, for improvement and expansion, than
perhaps to any other two persons in the
Empire. Born in 1 859 in Kyoto, the ancient
centre of the silk-weaver's highest art, Mr.
Shin-hichi lida devoted most of his early
life to the art of producing silks of incom-
parable texture and design, obtaining through
long years of perseverance and unexampled
TAK.\SHI.\I.\-V.\, limited: SCENE IN THE DEP.\RTMENT STORE — A CORNER OF THE SCREEN DEP.\RTMENT
356
p R r: s K N T - n A V i m !• u !•: s s i o x s of jap a n
skill tho recognition of the public, both at
home and abroad, as one of the greatest
silk merchants of the world. The name of
Takashimaya on a piece of silk embroidery,
or figured or plain goods, will carry it any-
where that fine goods are known and api>re-
ciated.
Proceeding to China, America, and Europe
in 1889, the senior partner of the firm made
exhaustive investigations concerning the silk
business, and on his return to Japan made
important improvements in accordance with
foreign demand, especially in silk velvet.
The improvements introduced into the weav-
ing of habutai and brocade won express
appreciation from that most infallible of all
judges of fine silks, the Imperial Household.
The fact that the Imperial Household should
entrust the Takashimaya firm with the
selection of its silk for gifts and other pur-
poses, is the highest commendation a silk
house can receive.
Starting in Kyoto, the Tokyo office was
opened in 1898 to accommodate the demand
from the Imperial Household and the army
and navy; and in the same year another
branch store was opened in Osaka, the Kobe
shop being opened in 1901. It was not until
1893, when the quality of the goods turned
out by Takashimaya began to become known
abroad, that the Export Department of the
company commenced to show rapid develop-
ment. The refined taste of the Japanese in
silks is not fully shared abroad, and the
Takashimaya people have been devoting
special attention to the foreign demand,
with remarkable satisfaction and success.
Members of the firm frequently visit Europe
and America to study the prevailing taste;
and the branch office in Lyons, France, does
an immense business in importing silks to
that country. The Yokohama branch of
Takashimaya deals mostly in goods for
export. At the time of the great Paris
Exposition, representatives of Takashimaya
went to study the situation in silk, and since
then the firm has kept constantly in touch
with the overseas demand. The Chinese are
always lovers of good silk, and Takashimaya
devotes considerable attention to that coun-
try, where its large branch office at Tientsin
distributes the most exquisite fabrics among
the great families of China.
As business began gradually to centre in
the Capital — and also to facilitate the busi-
ness activity of import and export — lida
& Co., Takashimaya, which is the partner-
ship of Messrs. lida Brothers, established a
new company in Tokyo, forming the present
joint-stock concern, with a capital of Yen
1,000,000. Mr. Shin-hichi lida became
President of the new concern. The import
and export business of this company shows
a remarkable development from year to
year, a progress that must surely continue,
based as it is on a long-established repu-
tation, and high quality of goods. The
main store of Takashimaya is situated at
No. I Nishikonya-cho, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo.
In addition to the branch offices at Yoko-
hama, Osaka, Kyoto, Yokosuka, and Tient-
sin, the company has offices at London,
England, and Sydney, Australia. The Lon-
don office is at 122 Wood Street and the
Sydney office is at 47 King Street.
The Yokohama branch deals in all sorts
of silk piece goods, embroideries, velvets,
coloured silks and designs of every texture
and description, as well as the manufacture
of such goods, and those pertaining to the
drapery business.
Among the more important activities of
Takashimaya, Ltd., in addition to silk piece
goods of every description, and silk em-
broideries and brocades of the finest quality,
are cotton, wool, and hemp fabrics, as well
as waterproof cloths, and cloths used for
uniforms in trains, ships, and tramways.
The company imports wool, woollen yarn,
woollen cloth and the material therefor, also
industrial and construction materials such as
iron, weaving machines, and other appliances.
These transactions in general merchandise
are principally controlled in the Tokyo office.
Apart from the great silk business con-
ducted by Messrs. lida & Co., Ltd., there is
lida & Co., Takashimaya (lida Gomei
Kaisha), a partnership of the lida Brothers,
as above referred to, which conducts a
magnificent department store at Tokyo,
handling dry goods of all descriptions,
household furniture and general lines. This
department store is housed in a splendid
building, and is one of the show palaces of
the Capital.
One has only to send for samples of the
wonderful silks produced by Takashimaya
to be at once charmed by their singular
beauty and excellence, from fabrics of the
most exquisite and filmy texture to those of
heavier weaves. The crepes, embroideries,
and brocades are a dream that no one would
believe possible until after seeing them.
The material for upholstering fine furniture,
too, is not to be matched elsewhere, and is
found in the best rooms of all the princely
houses of Japan. The finest robes of the
princes and princesses of the Empire usually
come from the house of Takashimaya. A
visit to the great store in Tok\-o at once
brings one among great ladies of wealth and
station making select purchases, as well as
introducing one to a fairyland of beauty that
seems much too exquisite to have been the
work of human hands. Nor are the variety
and excellence of the fabrics displayed more
astonishing than the moderate prices at
which the most lovely things are to be had.
Editor's Note: In this section we have
dealt with those firms handling silk only,
but there are a large number of important
concerns operating very largely in silk de-
partmentally. Such firms are reviewed in the
Import and Export sections of this volume.
VIEW FROM SAKAYE-MACHI-DORI, LOOKING TOWARD THE MONUMENT
XVIII. The City of Nagoya
THE city of Nagoya, the seat of the
prefectural capital, lies midway be-
tween the two great cities of Tokyo
and Osaka, and its ambitious citizens are
wont to call it the Chukyo, or mid-capital,
of the Empire, as against Tokyo, the eastern
capital, and Kyoto, the western capital. In
ancient times Nagoya was an important
strategic point of the Tokugawa clan, who
erected the famous castle, still extant, and
celebrated not only for its proportions but
for the golden dolphins which adorn its
gables. Until recent years the city attracted
little attention save as a stop-over point
between Tokyo and Kyoto for tourists who
desired to see the castle. In the last few
years, however, Nagoya has come to be a
centre of great commercial and industrial
enterprise, as well as an important railway
junction for passengers branching off by the
new short line opened up to the west coast
of Japan. All through mediaeval times the
site remained a spacious plain, sparsely
populated, whatever community existed
being centred around the village of Kiyosu,
where Oda Nobunaga had a seat. But when
leyasu became shogun he made his son Yo-
shinao lord of the Province of Owari, at
which period the present fortress was con-
structed, and the town soon began to attract
population. In fifty years more, in 1657,
Nagoya had grown to a place of over 50,000
people. As the Owari clan was closely related
to the shogun, Nagoya was greatly favoured,
and after the abolition of feudalism Owari was
made a prefecture of the Empire. By 1889
the population of Nagoya had increased
to the number of 160,000, and to-day it is
not less than 453,000, or a little over that
of Kobe.
The municipality of Nagoya is presided
over by a mayor and council of aldermen,
who manage all municipal affairs; and the
city is divided into four wards, known as the
east, west, south, and central wards. Nagoya
is one of the few important cities of Japan
which appears to get along without the bur-
den of large loans. Its municipal taxes work
out at the rate of about 2.37 yen per head.
The following figures show the revenue and
expenditure of Nagoya in an ordinary year:
Revenue
Expenditure
SouKrKs
Yen
City fees
Municipal taxes
Miscellaneous taxes
124,080
1,025,513
162,820
135,026
Total
1.447.439
Objects
Yen
199.447
93,375
463.348
109,204
Bounties for industries
Public charities ,
Police affairs
Special account
Miscellaneous
6,773
35.730
25.533
441,000
47,638
Total
1,.J22,048
The Nagoya municipality receives four
per cent of the net profit from the city gas
company, and three per cent from the Nagoya
Electric Company, as well as four per cent
from the City Electric •Light Company, and
manages on its own resources the city water-
works, sewage, a butchery, public cemetery,
and disposal of city refuse. The waterworks,
started in 1907, at a cost of 5,715,000 yen,
are now completed, as is the sewage system,
begun about the same time, at an outlay of
3,150,000 yen. The expense for waterworks
was assisted by the State Treasury to the
extent of 1,302,000 yen, while the amount
spent for the sewage system included 1,043,-
000 ven from the State, the balance having
24
358
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
VIEW OF NAGOVA PIER AND HARBOIR, NOW UNDER CONSTRUCTION
been raised from public loans. The out-
standing liabilities of the municipality are
as follows:
Waterworks Loan (British). . . .7,816,000 yen
(£800,000) redeemable 1917-43
Public Instruction Loan
(redeemable 1915-29)
. . 870,000 yen
Total 8,686,000 yen
For meeting obligations arising out of the
above loans the sum of 438,650 yen is annu-
ally set aside from the municipal treasurj',
met chiefly by ta.xation. The city as an
asset holds 2,000,000 yen in Government
4 per cent bonds.
' The future of Nagoya lies in its commer-
cial and industrial possibilities, which are
very bright. Development in this respect
in the last few years has been remarkably
rapid; and its central position, together with
easy facilities of communication bv rail and
sea, have also assisted in its advancement,
to say nothing of the advantages offered by
its level en\'irons for the erection of great
manufacturing works. The streets of the
city have been extended on a spacious scale,
and along the centre of its main thorough-
fare, seventy-eight feet wide, runs a street
car line for seven miles. If Osaka is the
Manchester of Japan, Nagoya may be re-
garded as the Birmingham of the countn,'.
The annual trade of the city for 191 5
amounted to 6,349,564 yen in imports and
3,726,112 in exports, not a very large total
compared with Kobe and Yokohama, but an
important beginning, when it is remembered
that it is but recently that Nagoya has come
into possession of a harbour. Beside its
numerous and important textile factories,
Nagoya is the centre of a great cloisonne
industry, and the foremost city of the Em-
pire in the manufacture of clocks, which are
turned out in enormous quantities for the
Asiatic market. Innumerable other indus-
tries employ the large and skilful industrial
population of Nagoya. In this city is situated
the Japan Car Works, with a capital of over
1,200,000 yen, manufacturing railway rolling
stock of all kinds. The Miye Spinning Mill,
with a capital of 10,250,000 yen, is engaged
in spinning cotton yam and wea\-ing cotton
fabrics, emploving over 2,000 operatives and
having an annual output worth 3,000,000 yen.
Another important concern is the Suzuki
Violin Factory which supplies fine toned
instruments which will bear favourable com-
parison with the best made in Europe.
Large quantities of these instruments are
sold in the United States. The Japan Potterj-
Company employs over 2,000 hands in man-
ufacturing a kind of porcelain peculiar to the
city, known as Nagoya ware; while some ten
miles away is the great Seto factory where
600 kilns are turning out the famous ware
of the same name. Nagoya potters employ
about 5,000 hands and their annual output
is valued at about 4,000,000 yen, most of
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
359
the pottery going to Europe, America,
and Australia. The total value of Nagoya's
cotton output is about 8,000,000 yen. The
making of fans, geta, confections, straw
and chip braid, lanterns, toys, hosiery,
and lacquer occupies large numbers of people
as well.
The harbour of Nagoya lies some distance
southward from the city, facing the Bay of
Is^. Though much money has been expended
upon it the results are not wholly satisfac-
tory, as it does not yet afford accommodation
for ships of any great size. In addition to
the 3,000,000 yen or so expended on the har-
bour, at least another 2,000,000 yen will be
necessary to bring accommodation up to the
needs of the city. The annual tonnage
entering the port is already in the vicinity
of a million, however, and shipping is ex-
pected to increase with further harbour im-
provements.
Nagoya is also well equipped with facilities
of modern civilisation, having good scliools,
including a polytechnic high school and a
national high school. Other important build-
ings are the Prefectural Office, the Appeal
Court, and the Headquarters of the Third
Imperial Army Division. Tsuruma Park lies
toward the east end of the city, and Naka-
mura Park, toward the west, marks the birth-
place of such heroes as Hideyoshi and Kato
Kiyomasa. In this locality is also a shrine
dedicated to the spirit of the Shogun leyasu
and his son Yoshinao. Nagoya has plenty of
temples and Christian churches, and the
vitality of the native religions may be inferred
from the number and vigour of the national
religious festivals that annually take place.
Over all towers the noted castle, dominating
the whole city and plain for miles. Every
one approaching the city is struck by its
unique and imposing proportions rising sol-
emnly over the city, the two golden dolphins
still lifting their tails gamely from the horns
of the great tower. No one would suppose
that they were of gold or that they were
forty-eight feet long, but it is averred that
they are, and were placed in that position to
avert fire, the fish being regarded as sacred
and a master of water, of which the god of
fire is in constant terror. The amusement
places, theatres, and dancing halls of Nagoya
are a feature of interest to the tourist and
sightseer. The Nagoya Hotel affords com-
fortable accommodation to foreigners at
reasonable rates.
THE MITSUI BUSSAN KAISHA, LTD.,
NAGOYA BRANCH
The famous Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, Ltd.,
occupies a leading position in the rapidly
increasing trade of Nagoya, where a branch
was established in 1899. This branch
engages principally in imports and exports,
sales on commission, transportation, insur-
ance agency, and brokerage generally. Since
the original establishment the branch has
developed to a surprising extent, and its
SCENE IN NAGOY.^ HARBOUR
36o
P R E S E N T - I) A \- I M P K i: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
THE NEW OFFICES OF THE MITSUI BUSSAX KAISHA, LIMITED
annual transactions now total over Yen
30,000,000 in value. The whole scope of the
business has been enlarged many times, new
departments continually being added. At
present the business includes departments for
handling cotton, cereals and fertilizers,
coal, machinery, sugar, timber, and sundry
goods.
One of the main items of export is enamel
ware of all descriptions, and other leading
lines are packing cases of all kinds, bean-oil,
cotton yarn, and cotton piece goods. Imports
are mainly rice, soya beans, bean cake,
machinery, and hardware. In the domestic
trade the Nagoya Branch of the Mitsui
Bussan Kaisha, Ltd., handles practically
every item of general merchandise. Mr.
G. Mitsui is the President of the company
and Mr. S. Futagami is the Manager. The
premises of the company are located at
Sasashima-cho, Shichome, Nakaku, \agoya,
where a very handsome new building has
been erected which is one of the most
conspicuous and extensive structures in
the city, and is equipped in the most
modern manner throughout.
LOOKING TOWARD THE MOXVMENT FROM THE ROOF OF FIJIMOTO BILLBROKER BANK, NAGOYA
XIX. Forestry
Afforestation— Distribution— Forest Acreacje and Revenue— Other Forest Products
THE tojiographical formation of Japan,
with its numerous hills and moun-
tains, as well as the mild and humid
climate of the country, both go to favour
forest growth, and consequently over seventy
per cent of the total area is so occupied. The
beauty of Japan's thickly wooded plains and
uplands has no doubt left its aesthetic mark
on the people, moulding the native mind into
an appreciation of sylvan scener>' and of
nature generally, and revealing an innate
love of trees and shrubs among Japanese of
all classes.
Commercially Japan's forests have not
bulked very largely as yet in the national
economy, chiefly for the reason that the
Government exercises a jealous care and pro-
tection o\'er them, not only preserving them
intact as far as possible, but adding consider-
ably to their original extent by aflforestation.
Japan regards her forests as a trust inherited
from the past, and the entail is profoundly
respected. The result is that she still has a
large and \'aluable area of forest land, while
neighbouring countries are almost denuded
of their arboreal fauna. The system of for-
est management in Japan aims at securing
continuity and at the same time increasing
the most valuable timber-producing trees as
a national asset. Though it is still but a
few years since forestry and dendrological
research have been placed on a scientific basis
in Japan, very creditable progress has been
made in all directions. The Forestry Bureau
established in 1 897 aims at a thorough work-
ing of the forests, disposing of those not
needed as State lands, supervising the siu-vey
of forests, regulating the procedure and oper-
ations of forest officers, the afforestation of
bare lands, the improvement of transporta-
tion facilities for timber, the purchase of
forests required by the State, and the pro-
motion of improvement works. The expenses
of the work are borne from the proceeds
of the forests themselves. The afforestation
system especially has been vigourously
developed, trees being regularly planted on
hillsides and denuded areas as well as in the
uncultivable land of mountain regions, thus
adding to the beauty of the landscape, pro-
tecting the hills against landslides, feeding
SCENE NEAR KVOfO
BRI.NGINC LOOS POW.V THE RIVER
362
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
CRYPTOMERIA GROVE AT XIKKO
springs and rivers, precluding floods, improv-
ing the public health, and creating a forest
heritage for posterity. In Japan, forests are
planted and harvested with the same regu-
larity and care as any other crop, the people
showing the same patience for crops of de-
cades and centuries as for those of annual
yield. In 1910 Forest Plantation Encourage-
ment Regulations were issued, granting sub-
sidies to towns and villages imdertaking
afforestation. In 191 1 the sum of 15,598,000
yen was appropriated, to be expended over
a period of nineteen years, for readjustment
of watercourses, and the areas of prohibited
exploitation were extended.
DISTRIBUTION
I.N Japan, forests clothe the slopes of most
of the mountains, abounding more particu-
larly in the central portion of Honshu, and
in Hokkaido and Saghalien, as well as in
Formosa. The lack of uniformity in distri-
bution is due for the most part to peculi-
arities of soil. Density of population renders
paramount the claims of agriculture; and
consequently, in those regions favourable to
cereal production, such as the islands of
Shikoku, Kyushu, and certain portions of
Honshu, forest areas naturaUj- had to give
way to cultivated lands. Broadly speaking,
there are four zones of forest distribution in
Japan. The tropical zone extends through
south Formosa and the more southern archi-
pelagoes generally: that is, through Luchu
and the Bonin Islands, where the bamboo
and the banj'an attain their most luxuriant
growth. The sub-tropical zone covers north
Formosa, Kyushu, and Shikoku, as well as
the lower parts of Honshu, where broad-
leaved evergreens, conifers, and broad-
leavcd deciduous trees predominate. Here
the camphor, the oak, and the pine flourish,
as well as the box and the ilex. There is also
a great growth of bamboo, and the edible
fungus that thrives on the pine trees, known
as matsiitake. The temperate zone runs
through the north part of Honshu and the
southwest regions of Hokkaido, where the
forests most economicaUj' important are
found, such as the sugi, or cryptomeria, the
hinoki and the black and red pine, as well
as the oak, chestnut, maple, and several
other valuable woods peculiar to Japan.
Among the more than sixty species available
for use, the peculiarh- scented fir known as
hinoki is perhaps the most valuable, being
tough, strong, close-grained, and excellent
for house construction, shipbuilding, and
bridge work. The sugi which resembles the
great sequoia of CaUfomia in appearance
and texture, is one of Japan's noblest trees,
thriving well in moist soil and on sunny
places, specimens often measuring six feet
in diamater and 130 feet in height. The
wood is light yellow with a tinge of red, and
is used largely for the manufacture of wooden
kitchen utensils and tools. The sawara is
used much for boards and planks, being a
wood that is soft and sphts easily. The
momi (maple) is used largely for making
pulp for paper and for tea-chests. The pines,
both red and black, all through this region
make valuable timber. Among the broad-
leaved trees of this zone, the keyaki is
supreme in respect to utility and value. It
is found in mixed woods all through Honshu,
Shikoku, and Kyushu, attaining its best
■ kvelopment in calcareous soils. The tree
grows slowly, but its timber is strong, hard,
and lustrous and it is in great demand for
building, canning, and good furniture, some
species having a beautiful grain. The buna
(beech) is a verj' widely distributed species,
attains a great size, and was used by the
ancient aborigines of Japan for making their
dug-outs. The inuenji, the chestnut, and
the oak are found through Honshu and the
plains of Hokkaido, and are used for furniture
and railway sleepers. In the frigid zone of
the high mountains of Honshu and the north-
east part of Hokkaido the black and white
pine is the most valuable wood, growing with
great luxuriance in the mountains of Ishikari,
Teshio, Tokachi, Nemuro, and Kitami. The
wood is light, coarse-grained, and liable to
warp, but is always in demand for building
work. In the Kurile Islands there is little
timber of much value, chiefly a stunted larch
and white birch. It would, of course, be
impossible to discuss aU the valuable woods
of Japanese forests in the space at our dis-
posal. Further treatment of the subject
will be found under the Flora and Fauna of
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
363
Japan (page 19). The most famous primi-
tive forests still intact are at Kiso in Nagano,
at Nagasawa in Akita, and Tsugaru in
Aomori. The beautiful forests at Yoshino in
Yamato, Tenryu in Shizuoka, and Oso-
washii in Kii are of artificial origin. Almost
the whole of the Island of Saghalien, except
a small sandy area along the coast, is covered
with virgin forest of large and valuable
growth. The forests of Korea have been
greatly depleted, but under Japan's admin-
istration reafTorestation is making great
headway. Japan has also fine timber forests
on the Yalu River, whence valuable ship-
ments of timber constantly come to Japan
proper, usually in logs and balks.
FOREST ACREAGE AND REVENUE
The forest areas of Japan are classified
according to ownership, as follows: Those
belonging to the State; the Crown; to com-
munal bodies; to shrines and temples; and
to private individuals. These are again
divided by the Government into forests
under Government protection, forests open
sistent with the possibilities, yet there is
evidence of considerable progress in this
direction. The revenue of State forests for
the financial year ending March, 1915,
derived from sale of products, by-products,
rents, and other receipts, was 10,275,822
7,242,205 yen, so that the net profit of the
year's working was only 3,766,492 yen, not
including Hokkaido and the Bonin Islands.
The average profit for the previous four
years, however, was about five million yen
a year. The income from Crown forests
Products
Logs and balks
Railway sleepers •.
Wood for clogs
Pulp wood
Bamboo
Hinoki and Sugi bark
Charcoal
Mushrooms
Total, including others
■905
(Yen)
22,334,610
703,580
1,254,420
231,430
1,280,870
659,120
11,393,010
1,344,500
59,302,180
1909
(Yen)
38,899,380
1,342,140
1,818,970
523,500
1,697,701)
1,021,070
18,419,460
2,363.710
96,944,560
1914
(Yen)
38,485,340
1.591.371
2.319.809
1.028,512
2.439.985
1.334.184
22,634,342
2,400,732
108,310,872
yen, which was three times that of ten years
before. An additional income of 2,699,201
yen came from sales of forests and plains.
But expenses were heavy, amounting to
Classification
Protection
Forests
Acres
Utilisation
Forests
Acres
Tot.-u.
Acres
26,805
1.517,767
610,452
18,603
531.555
4,458,175
18,073,713
5.923.845
266,980
15,107,920
4,484,980
19,591,480
6.534.297
285.583
15.639,475
5.459.882
State Forests
Communal Forests
Temples and Shrines
Private Forests
Moors and Plains
Total
2,705,182
43.830,633
5 1. 995.697
can only be estimated, a rough calculation
making it about 2,000,000 yen; while the
revenue from private forests is estimated at
about 63,000,000 yen a year. The total
output of timber for the year 191 5 was
229,832,256 cubic feet, valued at 34,588,387
yen; and of fire-wood and charcoal, 296,261,-
460 cubic feet, valued at 28,378,216 yen.
The value of the principal forest products of
Japan is given in the preceding table for the
years 1905, 1909, and 1914.
It will be seen that the productivity of
Japanese forests greatly increased during
the ten years above indicated. The figures
for the years up to 191 7 are not materially
different.
to exploitation, and forests under the control
of villages or towns which are entitled to a
percentage of the forest proceeds. The
total area of forest and wild land in Japan
at the end of March, 1915, was 51,995,697
acres, owned as above.
The State forests represent those which
the feudal princes, at the time of the Resto-
ration, surrendered to the Government, some
of which were taken as Crown Lands for the
benefit of the Imperial Household, and
which are now under the administration of
the Minister of the Imperial Household;
while the State forests are under the Forestry
Administration Bureau in the Department
of Agriculture and Commerce. In early
times shrines and temples were erected in
forests to protect the latter from molestation,
and the titles to these properties have been
recognised by the Government. The forests
in Hokkaido, Saghalien, Formosa, and Korea
are under the Governors-General of these
territories.
Forestry as a source of revenue has not
yet attained an importance in Japan con-
CAMPHOR TREE
^64
I'RRSENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ORIEN'TAL CREOSOTIN'G CO., LTD.: (ABOVE) GENERAL VIEW OF OSAKA WORKS — (BELOW) CYLINDRICAL CHAMBERS IN WHICH
CREOSOTE OIL IS IN'JECTED INTO TIMBER
OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS
Forest growths that iisuallj' go to waste
in other countries are made profitable use
of by the Japanese to an enormous extent.
The forests of the country are rich in long
grasses and undergrowth of great variety,
which are much used as fuel and fertilizer.
Seeds, acorns, and walnuts are also a great
item of forest produce, and wax and oil are
extracted from various trees for industrial
uses. The barks of certain species of oaks,
alders, and chestnuts is used for tanning
and dyeing, while the stone quarries of the
forest districts are of great utility and value.
Up to a few years ago all timber in Japan
was sawn by hand, but now, with the in-
creasing industrial utilisation of wood, there
are numerous private saw-mills representing
an invested capital of some 7,000,000
yen, with ten Government mills for the
conversion of timber, in Aomori, Akita,
Mumamoto, Oita, and Kochi. The amount
of timber converted by all the mills of Japan
in 1915 was about 229,833,256 cubic feet,
with a value of 34,588,387 yen, while the
output in fagots was 592,523,520 cubic feet.
valued at 28,378,216 yen. The cost of
transportation from the forests to the lumber
mills is very high, particularly when roads
are few and rough, with torrential streams
to be crossed. In Hokkaido the timber can
be skidded or hauled over the snow, but in
the more southern parts of the Empire such
advantages do not exist. No doubt as time
goes on better roads will be made into the
heart of the timber regions and steam power
utilised for transporting the logs to the mills,
as in other countries. The principal exports
of timber from Japan are to China, Great
Britain, and the United States, with some
to Australia, chiefly for making tea-chests
and match-wood, valued at about 10,000,000
yen annually; while wooden manufactures,
such as bent- wood chairs, toys, and articles of
furniture, are increasing in export. Japan's
imports of timber, chiefly teak for ships and
Oregon pine for flooring, amount to about
2,500,000 yen in value annually, the teak
coming principally from Siam. The camphor
industr\- is one of Japan's important forest
undertakings; but it must be treated under
the head of Government Monopolies.
THE ORIENTAL CREOSOTING CO.,
LIMITED
The value of the system of preser\'ing
timber by the injection of creosote oil is
too well known to require much discussion.
It is adopted in aU coimtries where timber
has to be exposed to the elements, or is
likely to be attacked by white ants, or other
insects. Exhaustive tests under practical
conditions have shown that creosoted timber
will outlast all others, and it is used nowa-
days for virtually all classes of heavy con-
struction, including wharf piles, etc. In
Japan the industry is largely in the hands
of the Oriental Creosoting Co., Ltd., an
Osaka company which has obtained a num-
ber of patent rights under Japanese laws
for its method of treating the timber. The
company is also the sole contractor for all
the creosote oil produced in Japan, which
amounts to about 10,000 tons yearly. This
oil is the best grade of coal tar product,
obtained from coal gas tar, or coke oven tar.
It is entirely liquid and its specific gravity
is at least 1.03 at 38 degrees Centigrade.
When distilled by the common method, that
I' R K S E N T - 11 A \- IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
365
is, usinf^ an S-ouncv retort, asbestos covered,
with standard thermometer, bulb half an
inch above the surface of the oil, the oil,
calculated on the basis of the dry oil, gives
no distillate below 200. C, and not more
than 5 per cent below 210. C, not more than
25 per cent below 235. C, and the residue
above 355. C, which is more than 5 per cent,
is soft. With a large stock of oil, the com-
pany is carrying on an extensive industry,
preparing well preserved timbers, for which
the two creosoting plants at Osaka and Tokyo
are working constantly. From August, 1907,
to the end of 19 17, the Oriental Creosoting
Company has treated about 12,000,000 cubic
feet of timber, under its special processes.
Of this output of preserved timber, railway
sleepers form the largest part, about 8,000,-
000 ha\'ing been treated. The timbers used
for these sleepers are all of Japanese growth,
being mainly beech, oak, and elm. Electric
look's have been creosoted to the niuiiljer uf
about 1,200,000 cubic feet, the wood in this
case being chiefly cryptomeria. The balance
of the quantity treated has comprised heavy
stmctural timber, such as piers, piles, etc.,
])avement blocks and sundry lines, the
materials generally being "Matsu," or
Jajjanese pine. The company is injecting
oil into timbers with several different pro-
cesses. In the main the idea is the universal
one of drying the timber, while at the same
time extracting all air from the pores in
hermetically sealed cylindrical chambers,
and then forcing creosote oil into the pores.
Timber so treated is practically immune
from attacks by fungus, white ants xylotrya,
and teredo worm. The Oriental Creosoting
Company has given innumerable demon-
strations of the success of its system, and
inquirers are readily invited to apply to the
Japanese Imperial Railways, the Telephone
and Telegraph Department, the Civil Engi-
neering Bureau and the Formosan Govern-
ment, as to the official view of the success of
the work carried out.
Apart from the actual work of treating
timbers, the company is also trading in
creosote oil, and sells a large jjart of the
surplus product, which it controls, to the
United States. Within recent times a
(juantity of 10,000 tons has been exported
and has been used by the Pacific Creosoting
Company of Seattle, and others. The head
office of the Oriental Creosoting Company
is at No. I Nakano-shima, 3-chome, Kitaku,
Osaka. The Tokyo office is at No. 8 Kaga-
cho, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo. The works are
.situated at Sakurajima-cho, Nishi-ku, Osaka,
and No. 593 Senda-cho, Fukagawa-ku, Tokyo.
Mr. Yoshitomi Hiraga, Doctor of Chemistry,
is in charge of the company's technical
operations.
A TYPICAL FISHING VILLAGE
XX. Fisheries
Present Conditions — Annual Catches — Deep-Sea Fisheries— Marine Manufactured
Products— Commercial Notice
WITH a coastline o£ over 18,000
miles, exclusive of Korea, and a
geographical extension from the
torrid to the frigid zone, with innumerable
bays, gulfs, and river-mouths, it is but
natural that the densely populated islands
of Japan should form one of the greatest
fishing countries in the world. As the daily
fare of rice and vegetables needs to be
supplemented by some more invigourating
food, the Japanese must to a very great
extent resort to the sea for sustenance;
and the habit has long been confirmed by
Buddhism in its aversion to a meat diet.
The importance of the fishing industry
to Japan is indicated by the fact that almost
1,000,000 persons are engaged in it, about
800,000 exclusively and the rest partially
so employed. The number of boats on the
Japanese fishing grounds is over 400,000,
mostly small, native, open craft about thirty
feet in length, though foreign-built boats and
steam trawlers are gradually coming into
use, as the people can afiford them. When
the total value of the annual catches, which
amounts to about 95,000,000 yen, is divided
among the fishing boats, it amounts to an
average of no more than 237 yen for each
crew of five, a very small return indeed for
such hard and perilous toil. The unprofitable
aspect of the industry accounts for the
gradual decrease in the number of fishing
boats witnessed during the past few years.
amounting to over 14,000 fishing craft in
the last decade. The Japanese fisherman is
easily attracted by any labour offering a
higher living wage. Owing to the frequent
and treacherous storms of the Japanese
waters the lives of the toilers of the sea are
seldom without imminent peril, and more
than a thousand boats, with as many crews,
suffer shipwreck annually. It may be, how-
ever, that as time goes on and more sea-
worthy craft become possible, the fishing
industry of Japan will attract increasing
instead of decreasing numbers, as at present.
Already 166 trawlers have been intro-
duced, although the European war has re-
duced the number to some extent, while
fishing boats of Western type now number
over one thousand in all.
.\XNUAL CATCHES
Japanese waters afford an enormous
number and variety of fish, though intensive
methods have reduced the species in some
cases. The Marine Biological Bureau at
Tajima has classified over four hundred
species of marine products that may be util-
ised either as food or fertilizer, or as providing
material for various industries. If the neces-
sary capital, therefore, were forthcoming, and
better equipment provided, the sea harvest
of Japan could be made infinitely more eco-
nomically popular. It is in this connection
encouraging to note that certain Japanese
capitalists are beginning to be interested,
and already two or three have made success-
ful ventures. In accordance with the Fishery'
Agreement which Japan made with Russia
in 1907, Japan's fishing rights along the
coasts of Siberia and north Saghalien %vere
confirmed, and now extend as far north as
Kamchatka. The value of the catches in
these northern waters is about 8,000,000 yen
a year, while the fish taken in the waters of
Korea, Kwantung, and Formosa are worth
at least 1 1 ,000,000 yen more, which, added
to the total of Japan's fishery harvest at
home, brings the grand total for the Empire
up to about 113,000,000 yen annually. The
abbreviated table on the next page wiU give
some idea of Japan's inshore and freshwater
fisheries for the year 1914, with the figures
for two previous inter\'als of five years each,
for comparison. The figures for 1915, 1916,
and 191 7 are in most cases less.
The herring fishery is chiefly carried on
along the western shores of Hokkaido and
the north of the main island, March and May
being the best months. The fish are taken
with pond-nets and gill-nets, and only the
parts along the backbone are used for food,
the rest being turned into fertilizer. Besides
herring, the principal fish taken on inshore
grounds are salmon and salmon trout, for
which gill-nets and drag-nets are used. Sar-
dines and anchovies are caught all along the
Japanese coast, seines and purse-seines being
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
367
CORMORANT FISHING — TWO GROUPS ENGAGED IN SPEARING SALMON TROUT
chiefly used. Formerly these fish were used
as fertilizer, but in recent years they have
been tinned and are finding an increasing sale
abroad. The bonito, a very favourite fish
with the Japanese, is taken chiefly in the
warmer waters, being caught with a hook,
using live sardine for bait. Tai is the prin-
cipal fish of spring and summer, the best
coming from the Inland Sea waters. The
fish are corralled by drive-nets and then taken
with a seine, but sometimes the fish is taken
with long lines. This fish is seldom salted,
as the people regard it as the best product of
the sea and want it always fresh. The
sawara also comes mostly from the Inland
Sea, and as it swims in shoals, it may be taken
with drift-nets. The tunny, which is found
everywhere, is taken in the same manner.
Though usually eaten fresh, the tunny is
often salted or dried. The yellow-tail is
caught for the most part in the Japan Sea
and along the southwestern coast, and may
be eaten either fresh or salted. One of the
most ubiquitous of Japanese fish is the
mackerel, which is caught with spread-nets
and seines, and usually preserved in salt.
Cod is taken with lines and nets, and there
is some business done in cod-liver oil. Tlie
Japanese salmon is a very fine fish. It
ascends the rivers flowing into the Japan Sea
and into the Pacific towards the north,
especially in Hokkaido and north Honshu,
where it is taken with river-seines and traps,
but at sea the salmon is caught with pound-
nets. Most of the catch is salted or tinned.
Salmon trout is another delicious product
of Japanese waters, and is taken and pre-
served in the same manner as salmon.
The sea-ear is one of Japan's most impor-
tant shell fish, being valuable both for its
flesh and for the mother-of-pearl found in
its shell. The flesh is exported to China
and brings in a considerable income. There
is a growing demand for oysters in Japan,
and the culture of this bivalve is now exten-
Species
Herring
Sardine and Anchovy
Bonito
Mackerel
Tunny
Yellow-tail
Tai (Pagrus)
Karei (Flatfish)
Sawara (Cybium) . . . .
Horse mackerel
Grey Mullet
Salmon
Eel
Sea-ear
Squid and Cuttlefish .
Prawns, Lobsters. , . ,
Others
Tolal
1904
Yen
3
070,337
330,969
613.796
,874,660
,126,067
878,978
334,899
439.969
707,164
899,582
869,295
037,050
604,460
576,485
303.143
333,455
229,309
55,2^9,618
1909
Yen
5,938.312
9-353,197
7,208,462
2,366,185
2.471.527
3.127. 715
5,465,386
1,922,654
1,295,835
1,479,713
1,320,627
918,523
1,160,334
730,554
3,483,046
1,686,899
27.663,740
77.592,709
1914
Yen
10,474,131
10,180,426
7,683,158
2,727,119
2,982,706
4,357,824
5,785,126
2,627,771
1,150,105
1,244,884
1,063,683
1,291,566
1.238,995
979,472
5,141,472
2,291,013
33,834,367
95,053,818
sively carried on. At Tobashima, in the
Bay of Ago, Mr. Mikamoto has the unique
monopoly of hatching pearl-oysters, the
method being to raise the oysters in the usual
bed and to introduce grains of mother-of-
pearl between the shells of three-year-old
oysters, the irritation thus set up causing
the fish to put forth the secretion which
produces the pearl; and in four years' time
a pearl of considerable size and beauty is
formed.
Lobsters may be taken anywhere along
the coast of Japan, gill-nets being used.
The Japanese lobster appears to be diflferent
from the same fish in Western countries,
as it has no claws. The prawn, which it
resembles, abounds in the Inland Sea waters
and warmer inlets, and is taken chiefly with
trawl-nets, exports being large to China.
The cuttlefish, squid, and octopus find
increasing use at home and are also largely
exported to China, being caught by
trawls and with lines; while the sea-cucumber.
or beche de mer, is found mostly in Hokkaido
and along the coasts of Honshu. This
product goes chiefly to China, as does the
shark-fin, which is taken mostly off' the coasts
of Oita. There is in Japan an immense
harvest of seaweeds, which grow principally
along the shores of Hokkaido and southeast
Honshu. The various weeds are taken and
dried, and usually pressed into form for the
market, being used as a relish with soup,
fish, or rice. When dissolved and properly
treated the weed produces kaiilen, a kind of
gelatin, which is much used for food and as
isinglass.
DEEP-SEA FISHERIES
On account of the striking ingenuity and
inventiveness displayed by the Japanese
fisherman, resulting in diversity of method
and implement in catching fish, the inshore
waters in recent years have been suffering
from a growing scarcity of fish. Conse-
quently the Government is promoting the
74
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v/
DRYING BONITO FISH — DEVIL FISH — A SARDINE CATCH TAX FISH — OCTOPUS, TOKYO BAY — ON THE LOOKOUT FOR
SARDINES — BLUE FISH — SUN FISH FISHWIVES
PRESENT-DAY INrPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
369
DYEING NETS, A WEEKLY OPERATION, WITH A VIEW TO PRESERVATION — MENDING THE NETS — ROLLING TWINE
FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF BLUE-FISH NETS
encouragement of better and more extensive
equipment for deep-sea fishing. There are
now about 800 deep-sea boats in use, pro-
pelled mostly by oil engines, and going after
cod, tunny, bonito, mackerel, shark, and
whale, with a few sealers. In 1898 the
Government granted State aid to the amount
of 150,000 yen to encourage pelagic fisheries,
limited to those equipped for taking bonito,
and those using drag-nets, drift-lines and so
on. The amount has since been increased
to 200,000 yen a year, and vessels entitled
to a share of it must not be over 200 tons for
steamers, and 150 tons for sailing ships, with
the exception of whalers, which may be as
large as 400 tons. Under State encourage-
ment the deep-sea fisheries of Japan have
made remarkable progress in the last ten
years. Before State aid was granted there
were only 9 deep-sea vessels, aggregating
581 tons, their annual catch being valued
at 77,000 yen. To-day there are over
1,800 deep-sea boats with a total tonnage of
18,345, anci taking an annual catch worth
5,860,087 yen.
Owing to intensive methods the seal
fisheries of Japan have been exhausted and
the Government, after negotiation with
Great Britain, the United States, and Russia,
in 191 1 agreed to prohibit the taking of fur
seals for a period of ten years, expending some
45,000 yen in the effort. In addition to seals,
such fur-bearing animals as otters, black
foxes, and sea lions are protected. After
the introduction of Norwegian methods of
whale fishing the species frequenting the
waters of Japan greatly decUned, especially
right-whale, sulphur-bottom, and hump-
back, which used to appear in great numbers
off the coasts of Shikoku and Kyushu. Con-
sequently the Government had to issue an
ordinance for the protection of whales, and
in 1909 the number of whalers was limited
to thirty. The present whaling grounds are
off Kinkazan Island in summer and as far
south as Tokyo Bay, and the Sea of Kishu
and Tosa in winter. Korean waters have
recently been taken by Japanese whalers,
formerly monopolised by the Russians. The
annual value of the whales taken by the
thirty Japanese vessels now thus engaged is
about 1,300,000 yen, and the total for deep-
sea fisheries is about 6,000,000 yen.
MARINE MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS
With the rapid development in means of
transportation and the increasing demand
for prepared marine products, this aspect of
Japan's industry has shown remarkable
growth in the last few years. In 1900 the
total income from this source was a little
over 33,000,000 yen; in 1910 it had grown to
43,000,000 yen; and to-day it is over 60,-
000,000 yen. The greater part of the indus-
try is in dried fish, especially bonito,
cuttlefish, tunny, and sardine, besides the
immense development of the tinned fish
industry, particularly crab and salmon as
well as sardine, to say nothing of various
kinds of shell-fish. The table on the follow-
ing page gives the progress of Japan's fish-
products industry for the last ten years, in in-
tervals of five years. The total for 191 5 was
63,527,567 yen, and for 1917 somewhat less.
370
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Products
Dried cuttlefish and squid
Sardine, dried and boiled ,
Dried bonito
Seaweeds
Isinglass
Fish guano
Herring bone
Others
Total
1904
Yen
3,021,059
2,234.877
3,958.45<''
909,472
865,586
6,516,503
2,349,338
12,737.054
32,592,345
1909
Yen
3,264,115
2,841,711
6,089,759
1,466,123
1,531,532
3,990,574
919,404
20,116,522
40,219,740
1914
Yen
4,466,888
3,6i5,'94
8,707,716
1,809,263
1 ,833,340
10,756,748
1,325,342
27,765,178
60,279,669
Another industry of great antiquity in
Japan, and of increasing importance, is that
of salt-refining from sea- water; but as this is
a Government monopoly it will be treated
under that head. The annual output is
about 1,600,000,000 pounds, valued at about
12,000,000 yen.
The manufacture of by-products from
marine industries has greatly developed in
recent years, and now such imports as iodine,
iodide of potash, isinglass, and shell buttons
have quite ceased, resulting in considerable
exportation of these commodities abroad.
This progress has been achieved chiefly under
encouragement from the Government Bureau
of Marine Products. The shell button
industry has increased to an extent that
shells have now to be imported from Singa-
pore, Australia, and the South Seas to meet
the demand, while the market for Japanese
tinned crab and salmon has shown unusual
development of late. The accompanying
table indicates the progress in marine by-
products for the last five years:
The total of Japan's annual exportation
of fish and marine products now generally
amounts to about 20,000,000 yen, going
mostly to China, the United States, Europe,
South America, and the South Seas. Of this
total about 12,000,000 yen represents manu-
factured products.
The Imperial Government has encouraged
the promotion of various institutions for the
improvement of fisheries and the increasing
of marine products, and also established
Experimental Fishery Stations and Fisheries
Schools, there being at present some twenty-
nine of the former and five of the latter. At
the same time there arc 3,669 fishery guilds
for protecting the interests of fishermen,
with a membership of 468,100; while the
.Marine Products Guild numbers 212 asso-
ciations, with 309,846 members. The arti-
ficial breeding of important fish like salmon,
trout, carp, eel, and also of snapping-turtles
is carried on in numerous places at an expense
of some 3,000,000 yen a year.
THE ORIENTAL WH.\LING CO., LIMITED
The frequently heard statement that
whaling as an industry is a thing of the past
can not be applied to the industry in Japanese
and adjacent waters. The Oriental Whaling
Co., Ltd., is doing an extensive trade in oil,
and with modern methods reports an increas-
ing production of oil and other whale prod-
ucts every year. This company was estab-
lished in 1909 by an amalgamation of four
companies, namely, the Oriental Fishery Co.,
the Nagasaki Whaling Co., the Dai-Nippon
Whaling Co., and the Imperial Marine
Products Co.'s whaling department. The
Products
191 1
1916
Yen
Yen
242,789
502,984
1,531,532
1,476,530
1,981,032
1,209,207
Iodide of Potash -
857,562
1,832,240
Shell buttons
1,550,823
2,653,915
Tolal
5,734,867
8,103,747
FISHING BO.\TS, M.\TSUSHIM.\
«.
y. ' ii
VI
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M^^!^^
t:^^>c:^V^:/ ,; ^fclcW"^^^'''^:;^^
ORIENTAL WHALING CO., LTD.: TYPE OF THE COMPANY'S WHALING VESSEL, SHOWING THE HARPOON GUN IN THE BOWS-
FIRING THE HARPOON GUN ONE OF THE COMPANY'S STEAMERS
372
I' I< E S H N T -DAY IMPRESSIONS OF J A F A N
PICKING SEAWEED — CULTIVATED SEAWEED AT OMORI, NEAR TOKYO-
-A SEAWEED MARKET — DRYING EDIBLE SEAWEED
original capital was Yen 2,100,000 and the
company then possessed eighteen whaling
ships, and it also had two chartered ships.
The company also purchased the interests of
the Tokai Fishery and Pacific Fishery Com-
panies, and in April, 19 1 6, it further extended
its control of the whaling industry by buying
out the Kii Marine Products Co., the Nagato
Whaling Co., the Dai-Nippon Marine Prod-
ucts Co., and the Naigai Marine Products
Co., and increased the capital to Yen 3,-
000,000, fully paid up. The fleet now num-
bers twenty-four whaling ships, and the
sphere of operations extends over the entire
coast of Japan, Formosa, Saghalien, Kuerile
Islands, Kwantung Province, and even to
Tsingtao. Thus, viewed from the strength
of its capital, the number of ships that it
owns, and the extent of waters in which it
operates, the Oriental Whaling Co., Ltd.,
may be considered one of the largest whale-
fishing concerns in the world. The table on
the next page shows the assets of the com-
pany for three business periods.
In none of these periods is any remark-
able increase to be found, except in the third
column, and this increase is due to the
purchase of the four companies, as stated.
Otherwise the slow increase means that the
company is steadily writing off the value of
THE CAPSTAN IN USE TO HAUL IN
FISHING JUNKS
its property at the rate of Yen 110,000 per
annum. The amount already' paid back
from fixed capital amounts to Y^en 750,000.
In the company's first business period (cover-
ing a year's operations), there was placed to
reserve Y'en 181,544, and dividends and
bonus amounting to Y'en 332,000 were paid.
For the year ended January 31, 1917, Yen
340,862 was placed to reserve and dividends,
and bonus totalling Yen 376,210 were paid.
From the commencement of the twelfth
period, which began on February i, 1917,
there was a noticeable improvement in gen-
eral conditions. The companj- employed
twenty-three whaling vessels and eight
transports in the whaling in Miyagi, Waka-
yama, Kochi, Miyazaki, Nagasaki, and
Kagoshima Prefectures, Korea, and Kwan-
tung. From the rise in the price of whale
oil the concern is realising a fairly large
profit. What the increase in the price means
may be seen from the statement that in its
tenth business period the Oriental Whaling
Co., Ltd., had a gross revenue of Yen
1,360,000, of which only Yen 260,000 came
from the sale of whale oil, but in the ele\-enth
P R E S E N T - U A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
373
period, out of a gross revenue of Yen 1,960,-
000 whale oil yielded the handsome figure of
Yen 710,000. In view of this development
the company is now giving particular atten-
tion to the oil-production side of the industry,
and it is expected that the output will be
increased by from 30,000 to 40,000 cases per
annum, bringing the company's total pro-
duction of whale oil up to 130,000 cases per
annum. Taking the price at Yen 10 per
case, it is expected that the revenue from this
source will almost cover the entire annual
expenditure of the company. As all other
products of whale fishing have increased in
value by at least 20 per cent, and more often
by 50 per cent, the directors naturally antici-
pate an extraordinarily successful future for
the company. The development of the
business side of the Oriental Whaling Co.,
Ltd., is shown in the accompanying table.
The catch of whales is likely to be consid-
erably increased as the company has started
operations in new waters around Korea and
Skikotan Island, as well as in the coastal
waters of Kii Province. A refining factory
I IsIU-KMAnV HilMK, UHAKA, K\/l --A I'KOVINCE
Bl SINESS
Jan. 31, 1915
Jan. 31, 1916
Jan. 31, 1917
Yen
Yi-n
Yen
Ships
1,273,401.1 1
278,817.34
254,772.78
153,838.43
1,231,8.39-35
275,437.60
249,104.85
153,920.01
1,790,285.25
304,201.73
Machinery, etc.
284,917.37
Land
I54,429.,36
Tolals
T, ((60,829. 66
1,910,301.81
2,533,833-71
is to be started in the near future, and a
chemical investigation is now proceeding
with a view to establishing the following
secondary productive undertakings: To ob-
tain adolinalin from the whale kidnevs; to
obtain valuable chemicals from the under
part of whale bodies; to manufacture dye-
stuffs from whale blood; and to utilise the
retitin. This investigation will also cover
many other questions of the more thorough
use of whale products for commercial pur-
poses. At present the Oriental Whaling
Co., Ltd., is selling whale oil, salted flesh,
whale flesh for fertilisers, whale beard,
whale bone and muscle, and other products.
In September, 1917, the company, through
its President, Mr. J. Oka, petitioned the
Imperial Government to give it special pro-
tection in its operations, and to eliminate
competition with other concerns, the grounds
of the request being that the industry has
now become a national one through the
absorption of so many companies and the
regulation of the fisheries.
The heaid office of the Oriental Whaling
Co., Ltd., is at No. 14 Kawaguchi-cho,
Nishi-ku, Osaka.
Year
Whales Caught
Net Profit, Yen
Dividend, Per Cent
1909
897
514,000
15
1910
898
474,000
15
1911
937
415,000
10
1912
824
412,000
10 (first half)
12 (second half)
1913
978
49 1 ,000
12
1914
952
412,000
12
1915
1,083
441,000
12
1916
1,261
717,000
12
25
TOKYO GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
XXI. Constitution and Law of Japan
By J. E. de BECKER, LL. B., D. C. L.
Bases of Japanese Law— Constitution — Codes— Civil Code— Civil Procedure— Commercial
Code — Criminal Code — Code of Criminal Procedure — Civil Law in General-
Criminal Law— The Judiciary
THE original foundation of law in
Japan may be traced back to the
national patriarchal system, which
was based on the family as a unit, and on
ancestor-worship. It consisted in those
far-off times of little more than custom
hardened into precedent; but subsequent to
the seventh century, and up to the Imperial
Restoration in 1868, the Chinese legal
sj'stem was adopted and elaborate criminal
and civil laws were enacted. All these
laws, however, were extremely arbitrary,
and were simply made for the convenience
and protection of the governing classes,
quite regardless of the welfare of the people
at large or the claims of justice and fair-
play. The tyrannous methods of the Toku-
gawa government had become so unbearable,
and its political system so rotten, that it
only survived the shock of foreign inter-
course for a few years. On March 31, 1854,
Japan's first treaty with America was signed,
but it provided — like all the older treaties
— for the establishment of extraterritoriality,
which granted the exemption of foreigners
from the jurisdiction of the Japanese tribu-
nals and the right to set up their own courts
in Japan. The "tacitly assumed basis" of
these old treaties was "the unequal status
of the two contracting parties, — civilised
white men on the one hand, Japan but
just emerging from Asiatic semi-barbarism
on the other "; and, indeed, the position was
actually such that it would have been
positively criminal for the Foreign Powers
to have placed their nationals at the mercy
of the ignorant, untrained, brutal Japanese
judges of these early days, when the grossest
forms of torture were freely employed as
officially recognised part and parcel of
judicial proceedings. In 1867 the Restora-
tion of the Emperor took place, the feudal
system gradually was broken up, and in 1871
a centralised bureaucracy was established.
It then became clear that the hitherto
existing legal system was out of date, and
entirely unsuited to the changed circum-
stances of the time. Japanese statesmen
began to recognise that Japan could never
hope for admittance to the comity of civilised
nations unless radical reforms were instituted,
and that the abolition of extraterritoriality
would be impossible until the Treaty Powers
were satisfied that the Japanese Empire
was equipped with a legal system of which
those Powers approved. A Judicial Depart-
ment was established and the legislative
activity of the Government resulted in the
production of a number of codes, the pro-
visions of which were largely borrowed from
French and German law. Finally, to cut a
long story short, Japan, by the recognition
of her new codes, obtained the abolition of
extraterritoriality, and the coimtrj' is now
more or less committed to the principle of
enacting laws on bases and usages approxi-
mating the average European standard.
CONSTITUTION
The basic law of the State is found in
the Constitution and the Imperial House
Law. The former embodies regulations
which form the fundamental organisation
of the State, define the powers of the direct
and immediate organs thereof, and deter-
mine the rights, privileges, and obligations
of subjects; while the latter consists of
organic regulations relating to the internal
affairs of the Imperial House.
CODES
The principal Codes of Japan are :
(l) the Civil Code, (2) the Code of Civil
Procedure, (3) the Commercial Code, (4)
the Criminal Code and (5) the Code of
Criminal Procedure, and these are supple-
mented by a host of auxiliary laws and
PRESENT-DAY I%rPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
375
ordiiiaticfs. All these codes have been
translated into English by the writer of
this article.
CIVIL CODE
'1'he Civil Code (which was pronmlKatcd
on April 27, 1896, and enforced on July 16,
1898) is a very creditable piece of work,
based on Roman law. It consists of five
books arranged in the following sequence:
(i) General Provisions, (2) Real Rights,
(3) Obligations, (4) Relatives, and (5) Suc-
cession. The provisions of the first three
books follow Continental precedents very
closely, but the last two l.iooks take into
greater account the existing fabric of Japa-
nese society, which is based on the family
as the social unit. ("Annotated Civil Code
of Japan" by Dr. J. E. de Becker).
CIVIL PROCEDURE
The Code of Civil Procedure (which was
promulgated on April 21, 1890, and enforced
on April i, 1891) is a law governing the
formalities laid down for obtaining remedies
from the State for encroachments upon
private rights. It needs radical revision to
bring it up to date. It lacks in completeness
in many essential points, and one of its
great faults is inflexibility, the judges being
bound hand and foot by its rigid provisions.
COMMERCIAL CODE
The Commercial Code (which was
promulgated on March 9, 1899, and enforced
on June 16, 1899) contains provisions
relating to commerce, such as partake of
the nature of private law. It is divided
into five books, I'iz.: (i) General Provisions,
(2) Companies, (3) Commercial Trans-
actions, (4) Bills, and (5) Commerce by Sea.
The code itself is a good one so far as it goes,
but its draftsmen lacked broadness of
vi.sion. While it may serve the purpose of
petty dealers, it is not sufficiently flexible to
suit the needs of large traders, and requires
considerable amendment to bring it into
line with commercial law and practice as
understood and recognised in business
circles in Europe and America.
CRIMINAL CODE
The Criminal Code (which was promul-
gated on April 24, 1907, and enforced on
October i, 1908) is practically a "hash-up"
of the various European codes. It has been
called by one of the former Judges of the
Supreme Court, "the worst criminal code
in the world," but, on the average, it is
neither better nor worse than its Occidental
prototypes. It is divided into forty chapters,
and provides penalties for various oR^ences,
ranging from death to simple fine. Acts
done to avert imminent danger, or in justifi-
able defence, are not punishable, and first
offenders may, under certain conditions,
escape actual imprisonment by virturc of
provisions to that effect. The code recog-
nises amnesty, pardon, prescription, and
liberation on tickets-of-leavc.
CODE OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE
The Code of Criminal Procedure (which
was promulgated on October 7, 1890, and
enforced on November i, 1890) is a formal
public law containing provisions with which
the Public Procurators, accused persons,
etc., must comply in regard to any dispute
about the application of law when the State
enforces, or endeavours to enforce, its penal
power against alleged offenders under the
Criininal Code. This code constitutes a
danger to the community, and contains
very few provisions calculated adequately to
guard the interests of the accused against
abuse of power.
CIVIL LAW IN GENERAL
The Judicial System. — The Japanese Courts
consist of (l) Local Courts (Ku-Saibanslw),
(2) District Courts {Chiho-Saibansho) , (3)
Courts of Appeal (Koso-In), and (4) the Su-
preme Court (Daishin-In). The Local Courts
are held by single judges ; District Courts and
Courts of Appeal are collegiate courts, divided
into several divisions, each consisting of
three judges; and the Supreme Court is a
collegiate court, also divided into divisions,
in each of which five judges sit. All the
courts have both civil and criminal jurisdic-
tion, but the scope of jurisdiction possessed
by the various classes is defined by law. In
addition to the ordinary courts there is one
called the Court of Administrative Litiga-
tion (Gyosei-Saibansho) , which tries actions
brought by the injured party when the right
of an individual is injured by an illegal
administrative disposition.
Actions. — (/) Forum. The place where
an action may be brought against a person
is the place of his domicile. The court of the
general forum has jurisdiction over all actions
brought against such person, unless an exclu-
sive forum is prescribed by law for a particu-
lar action. The general forum of a person
having no domicile in Japan is the place of
his residence, or, if that is not known, the
place of his last domicile in Japan; but if he
has a domicile in a foreign country, an action
can be brought against him in such general
forum only in ease the right on which the
action is based arose in Japan. A special
forum is the place where some particular
kind of action may be brought. The .Jaw
prescribes certain special forums. By con-
sent of the parties, an action may be brought
in any court of first instance, except where an
exclusive forum is prescribed by law, or
where the right on which the action is based
is not a jjropcrty right. Any right having a
pecuniary value, or any claim to recover
pecuniary damages, is included under the
expression "property right."
(.2) Parlies. — -A party may in any case
conduct his action himself. If he does not
choose to do so, he must be rejiresented by a
lawyer, except that before a local court, or if
no lawyer is obtainable, a party may be
represented by a relative or a servant; if no
such person is obtainable, by any other
competent person. A written power of
attorney must be filed in the court. It
must be certified by a notary or some other
proper public officer, if the other party de-
mands such certificate. A power of attorney
authorises the representative to do all acts
relating to the action except those bearing
upon an appeal, a revision, appointment of a
substitute, a compromise, or the renunciation
or acknowledgment of the claim. If the
power of attorney is to include those acts,
they must be specified in it, and it is always
advisable to make the instrument very
comprehensive.
(j) Security. — A foreign plaintiff is required
to give security for costs, except —
(a) When by treaty, or by the laws of
the plaintiff's country, a Japanese in a
similar case would not be required to
give security.
(6) On a counter-claim.
(c) In the special proceedings based on
bills of exchange, promissory notes and
other kinds of documents.
If security to the amount fixed by the
judge is not furnished within the time
allowed, the action is deemed to have been
discontinued. A foreigner who is unable
to bear the costs of a lawsuit may, on applica-
tion, obtain provisional dispensation from
the payment of the costs and from the
furnishing of security, provided that -a
Japanese enjoys the same right in the
country of the applicant. If the applicant
has a domicile or residence in Japan, he
must produce a certificate from the head of
the city, town, or village where he lives, or,
if these officers can not givs such certificate,
from his Consul. Otherwise he must pro-
duce a certificate from the proper authorities
of his country, which must be confirmed by
a Consul of his country residing in Japan.
(4) Service of Papers. — Service of paper
is made by the Shiltatsuri* or by post. It
must be made on the party himself, or, if
the action is conducted by a representative,
on the latter. However, if a party has a
"prociu-ator,"t service on the procurator is
*ShiUatsuri is an executive officer attached to certain
courts whose principal duty is the service of papers and
the execution of judicial decrees.
tA "procurator" is a registered manager, holding
power to represent, and sign for, a firm or company.
376
PRESENT-DAY I M I' R E S S I O N S () !■■ J A 1' A N
generally equivalrnt to service on the party
himself. In the case of a commercial
company or other juridical person, it is
sufficient to make service upon some one of
the managers. If a person has a residence
or an office in a place, service on him in that
place can be made only at such residence or
office, unless he consents to service else-
where. If the person to be served is absent
from his residence, service may be made on
any adtilt relative living in his house, or on
his servant. If the person to be served is
absent from his office, service may be made
on a trade assistant found on the premises.
If service can not be made in any of the
above mentioned ways, it may be made
by delivering the paper to the chief official
of the city, town, or village where the service
ought to be made, and also posting a written
notice on the door of the residence and
giving notice thereof to two neighbours.
If acceptance of the paper to be served is
refused without any reasonable cause, it
it may be left at the place of service. Ser-
vice can r.ot be made by a Shiltatsuri on
Sunday, or any legal holiday, or at night,
except by permission of the judge.
The person who serves a paper must
make a written return of the service, which
must be signed by the person to whom the
paper is delivered. If the whereabouts of
the person to be served is not known, service
may be made by a public notification.
(5) Procedure in Court. — All proceedings
are oral, unless it is otherwise provided by
law. For persons unacquainted with the
Japanese language an interpreter must be
provided. In an action to which a foreigner
is a party, the oral proceedings may be in a
foreign language, if the officials and all other
persons concerned are acquainted with
such language, but no instance of actual
application of this provision of the law has
been known. An action is generally begun
by filing in the court a written statement
of claim, which must contain:
(a) The designation of the parties and
of the court;
(6) A statement of the nature of the
plaintiff 's claim and of the ground on which
it is based;
(c) A prayer for relief;
W) A statement of the facts of the case ;
{e) A statement of the mode in which
the plaintiff's allegations are to be proved;
(/) The signature and name-stamp of
the plaintiff;
ig) The date.
In addition, the value of the subject of
the controversy must be stated.
Between the service of the statement of
claim and the trial a jieriod of at least
twenty days must intervene. The defendant
must file an answer to the statement of
claim within two weeks after its service
upon him. These periods may, in a proper
case, be shortened or extended. The with-
drawal of the action without the defendant's
consent, or the putting of a dilatory plea
by the defendant, including an objection to
the competence of the court, is allowed only
before the defendant begins his oral pro-
ceedings at the trial. Judgment must be
given within seven days after the last oral
proceedings (Art. 233). It must be pro-
nounced orally in open court. The judge
may at the same time, if he chooses to do so,
state the reasons for his judgment. If a
party does not appear at the time fixed for
a trial, judgment is given against him on
the application of the other party. If it is
the plaintiff who fails to appear, the action
is dismissed. If the defendant makes
default, a judgment on the merits is given
against him pursuant to the statement of
claim, if and in so far as the facts alleged by
the plaintiff, if proved, would justify such
judgment. A judgment given on the non-
appearance of a party is vacated as of
course on an application made to the court
within two weeks, but the party applying
must pay costs. A second judgment
given on the party's failure to appear is not
so vacated. As to the procedirre in Local
Courts, the interval between the service of
process and the trial need not be more than
three days, or in cases of urgency twenty-
four hours (Art. 377). On regular trial
days the parties may appear before the
judge and proceed with the action without
any process. Instead of bringing an action,
a party may apply to the court to summon
the other party for the purpose of making
an amicable settlement of the case.
(6) Eindence. — Evidence is generally
taken before the court. Every person is
bound to testify, except where it is other-
wise provided by law. A witness who
fails to appear must pay the costs arising
therefrom and also a fine not exceeding
Yen 20. If he fails to appear a second
time, the judge may order him to be brought
to the court. A relative* of a party, a person
under his guardianship, his servant, or a
person living in his house may refuse to
testify, except in certain specified cases.
The following persons may also refuse to
testify :
(a) Public officers in regard to facts
which their official duty requires them to
keep secret;
(h) Priests, physicians, apothecaries,
lawyers, notaries, etc., in regard to facts
♦These include relatives by blood up to the sixth
degree inclusive, husband and wife, and relatives by
affinity up to the third degree inclusive.
DR. J. E. DE BECKER, YOKOH.\MA
confided to them by reason of their
position ;
(c) Any person as to questions the an-
swer to which would disgrace himself, a
relative or his servant, or a person living
in his house, or would cause pecuniary
damage to himself, or to such a person.
A party may object to a witness if he is
a relative or servant of the other party, or
lives in the same house with him. A witness
must affirm that he will speak the truth and
will not conceal or add anything. Perjury
can be punished as a crime. A witness who
refuses to affirm is deemed to refuse to
testify. The parties are not allowed to put
questions direct to a witness, but may
request the president of the court to do so.
If the president refuses to put the question,
the court decides whether he shall do it.
Hearsay evidence, and what would be con-
sidered in America irrelevant testimony, is
freely admitted. If after all the evidence
produced by the parties has been taken it
seems to the cottrt to be insufficient, the
court may order the examination of the
parties.
(7) Appeal, Revision, and Complaint. —
An appeal lies against a judgment rendered
in first instance by a District Court or a
Local Court. It must be taken within one
month from the service of the judgment.
Proceedings before the Court of Appeal
are oral, and new allegations of facts and
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
377
IMPERIAL LAW COURT, KOBE
new evidence may be introduced. Revision
applies to judgments rendered in the second
instance by a District Court or a Court of
Appeal. It is only for errors in law. The
time for revision is the same as for appeal.
Complaint can be made against any ruling
or order of the court, other than a judg-
ment, by which an application relating to
the proceedings is refused, and in such other
cases as are prescribed by law. A decision
on a complaint is generally made without
oral proceedings. No period is fixed for a
complaint except that in certain cases an
immediate complaint is provided for, wliich
must be made within one week from the
service of the order or ruling.
(S) Summary Proceedings. — When a claim
is for a fixed sum of money, or for the presta-
tion of a fixed quantity of other fungible
things,* or of securities, the creditor, instead
of bringing an action, may apply to the
Local Court of the general forum of the
debtor, or, if the claim is secured by a lien
on an immovable of the real forum, to make
an "order of payment" agianst the debtor.
The latter may object to this order within
two weeks after it is served upon him, or
at any time before an order of execution is
made. If he does not do so, an order is
made for the execution of the order of pay-
ment.
ig) Execution. — As a general rule execu-
tion is granted on a judgment which is no
longer subject to appeal or revision, and
also on certain orders of court, on com-
* A fungible thing is a thing which is to be deliv-
ered in kind and not in species, as. for example, a
certain quantity of rice when no specific rice is agreed
upon.
promises made in court, and on notarial
instruments for the payment of a fixed sum
of money or the prestation of a fixed quantity
of fungible things or of securities, provided
it is so expressly stipulated in the instrument.
In certain cases of urgency, or in any case
if the plaintiff gives security, a judgment
may be on application at once declared
provisionally executory. It may then be
executed immediately, although the time
for appeal or revision has not elapsed. In
certain cases enumerated in Art. 501 of the
Code of Civil Procedure judgments are
declared provisionally executory without
any application on the part of the creditor.
Execution is generally carried out by the
Sfiittalsuri. It can not be effected at night,
or on Sunday, or on a legal holiday, except
by the express permission of the court.
Necessaries of life are exempt from execution.
What these are, is specified in Art. 570 of
the Code of Civil Procedure. Movables
seized on execution can not, as a general
rule, be sold until one week after seizure.
The sale is by public auction, but securities
which are listed on the Stock Exchange are
sold by private sale at the quotation of the
day. Execution on an obligation in favour
of the debtor against a third person is made
by an order of the court forbidding the
third person to perform to the debtor, and
either transferring the obligation itself to
the creditor or authorizing him to enforce it
for his own benefit. If an execution is made
on an obligation which is secured by mort-
gage, the fact must be registered. The
income of a public officer, a priest or clergy-
man, teacher, workman, labourer, and
servant is exempt from execution, unless
it exceeds Yen 300 yearly, in which case
half of the excess can be taken. Execution
against immovables is either by a sale at
auction or by sequestration. The fact of
the execution must be entered on the Register.
A sale is allowed only if it is probable that
a surplus will remain after deducting the
value of all real rights and other charges
prior to the claim of the execution creditor,
unless the latter offers to purchase the
immovable at higher price and gives security
therefor. This sale is made by a Shittaisuri.
On demand of any person interested, a
bidder must give security, to the amount of
one-tenth of his bid, by a deposit of cash
or equivalent security. If the piu-chaser
fails to pay the pitfchase money at the
proper time, the coiu't must order a re-sale,
and the first purchaser is liable for the
difference between the price obtained at
the first and at the second sale, and for all
expenses caused by his failure to pay.
Instead of an auction, bids in writing may
be ordered by the court.
A ' ' provisional seizure ' ' t may be made in
a case where otherwise execution would be
found impossible or substantially more
difficult, e.g., where there is reasonable
ground to believe that the debtor is about to
abscond to a foreign covmtry. A "pro-
visional disposition''^ as to a matter in
dispute may be made by the court if it
appears that by the act of one of the parties
the existing situation may be so changed
that execution may become impossible or
substantially more difficult, etc.
(10) Arbitration. — -An agreement to ar-
bitrate is void unless it refers to a specific
matter and controversies arising therefrom.
Thus, an agreement made beforehand to
submit to arbitration all controversies which
may arise out of a specific partnership
contract would be quite valid, but an agree-
ment between two persons to submit to
arbitration controversies which might there-
after arise between them would be void.
Arrest. — Imprisonment for debt is unknown,
and even in the case of a party disobeying
the mandate of a Civil Court or leaving
Japan to avoid civil process, personal arrest
is not allowed. "Contempt of Court" (in
the English and American sense) can not be
dealt with by committal, the result being
that certain court orders in the nature of
injunctions (provisional dispositions) are ren-
dered entirely nugatory in practice.
Bankruptcy. — There is an old bankruptcy
law in force which regulates the bank-
ruptcy of traders, but it has proved un-
trhat is. "attachment," the Japanese word is kari-
saiihiosae.
XKari-shobitn.
378
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
satisfactory, and the dov-ernment is now-
drafting a new statute dealing with the
matter. An adjudication may lie made
on the application of the debtor himself, or
of any of his creditors; but if made by a
creditor security must be lodged with the
Court. Any trader who suspends payment
must give notice to the Court within five
days. Any gratuitous disposition made
by the debtor after suspension of payment,
or within thirty days previous thereto, is
void as against the creditors. The law
provides penalties for deceit and fraud in
connection with bankruptcy, and contains
pro\isions for respite, composition and
rehabilitation under certain specific con-
ditions. Domestic and foreign creditors
are on an equal footing. Bankruptcy
administration is conducted by an adminis-
trator chosen from a list of official adminis-
trators, subject, however, to the supervision
of a commissioner appointed from among
the judges of the court having jurisdiction.
Claims are presented and examined at a
creditors' meeting called by the commissioner,
and are deemed to be admitted if not chal-
lenged. If a claim is objected to, it is
referred by the commissioner to the Bank-
ruptcy Court, and decided upon at a regular
sitting. Assets are gradually distributed
among the creditors who have enforceable
claims against the bankrupt subsisting
when the proceedings are commenced.
There are provisions for the protection of
preferential claims.
Bills of Exchange, Promissory Notes, and
Cheques. — The law of bills and notes, which
is contained in the Commercial Code, is
substantially the same as that of most
European countries. As there is no law
which forbids the making of a bill or note in
any language, such instrument can be drawn
up in foreign languages. A bill or note must
contain an explicit denomination of itself as
such. For instance, in Japanese the words
" Kawase-legata or " Yakusokii-tegata," in
English the words "bill of exchange"
or "promissory note," in German the
words "Wechsel" or " Hand-schein," in
French the words "Lettre de change" or
"Billet de change," or " Promesse" should
be used. A mere written order for money,
or a promise to pay money, which does not
declare itself to be a bill or note is not
sufficient. If anything is inserted in a bill
or note in addition to the matters specified
in the law as proper to be inserted, that is
not regarded as forming a part of the instru-
ment, although it may be binding as a
contract between the immediate parties.
This includes a stipulation for interest on
the principal sum named in the bill. There-
fore if interest is to be made payable, it
should be computed in advance and put in
as a part of the principal sum. A bill or
note for less than Yen 30 can not be made
payable to bearer. Days of grace are not
allowed. A bill payable at sight or on
demand must l:)e presented for payment
within one year, unless a shorter time is
specified in the instrument itself. Not
only foreign bills, but all bills or notes which
are dishonoured must be protested to enable
the holder to have recourse against the
prior parties.
A cheque can be made payable only at
sight, and must be presented for payment
within ten days from its date. If dis-
honoured, it may be protested, but it is
sufficient instead of a formal protest for
the bank to make a memorandum on the
cheque of the fact and date of dishonour.
On a crossed cheque the word "bank"
iginko) or some equivalent word (such as
"& Co.") should be written. It is made
an offence punishable by fine to draw a
cheque on a bank where the drawer has
neither a deposit nor a credit, even without
any fraudulent intent. The formal validity
of a bill drawn in a foreign country is deter-
mined according to the laws of such country.
Bills of Sale and Chattel Mortgages. — These
are unknown, but conditional sales of
specific property can be made effective in
the case of immovables (real estate) by
registration, and in the case of movables
(personal property) by means of a notarially
attested deed, which must be drawn by a
Japanese notary in the Japanese language.
Companies. — There are four kinds of
commercial companies, viz.: Ordinary part-
nerships (gomeikwaisha), limited partner-
ships (goshi-kwaisha) , joint-stock companies
[kabushiki-kwaisha), and joint-stock limited
companies ikabiishiki-goshi-kwaisha). Each
of these (including an ordinary partnership)
is a juridical or artificial person like a
corporation, having for legal purposes a
personality distinct from that of its members
and being able as a person to hold property,
buy, sell and contract, sue and be sued
separately. A partnership or company
created in Japan under the Commercial Code,
and duly registered, becomes a Japanese
juridical person distinct from its individual
members, even though some, or all, of its
members are foreigners. Such a partner-
ship or company of foreigners has, as a
Japanese juridical person, practically all
the rights of a similar native organisation.
(A) Ordinary partnerships have two or
more partners, each of whom is unlimit-
edly liable for the debts of the firm. Newly
admitted partners become personally respon-
sible for all the debts of the partnership,
even for those which were contracted before
their admission, and a retiring partner
continues liable for the debts of the firm
contracted before he left it for two years
calculated from the registration of his
retirement (Commercial Code, Arts. 49 to
103). (B) Limited partnerships are made
up of one or more active partners with un-
limited liability and one or more partners
with limited liability (Commercial Code,
Arts. 104 to 118). (C) Joint-stock com-
panies resemble the English joint-stock
companies, and can not be formed by less
than seven persons (Commercial Code, Arts.
119 to 234). In the absence of any regis-
tered restriction on his powers, each and
every director is entitled to represent the
company. (D) Joint-stock limited com-
panies are limited partnerships in which the
part of the capital contributed by the
limited partners is represented by transfer-
able shares, like the capital of a joint-
stock company (Commercial Code, Arts.
225 to 254). (E) Foreign commercial com-
panies. A foreign company is a company
which is organised under the law of a
foreign country. A company formed by
foreigners in Japan under the Japanese law
is, as already mentioned, a Japanese and
not a foreign company, and enjoys nearly
all the rights of a Japanese company, but
it does not enjoy diplomatic protection.
This should be borne in mind.
Foreign commercial companies are recog-
nised by Japanese law and are allowed to do
business in Japan, subject, however, to the
power of the court to close the office of the
company if its representative commits, in
the course of its business, "any act contrary
to public welfare or to good morals." A
foreign commercial company may even have
its principal office in Japan, but in that case
it must comply' with all the requirements
which the law imposes upon Japanese
companies. If, however, it only establishes
a branch office here, it must appoint a repre-
sentative, who will be deemed to possess
full and unrestricted power to act for the
compan}'. For certain purposes, that
branch office of a foreign company which
is first established in Japan is treated as its
principal office. A foreign company must
make the same registrations as are required
to he made by a Japanese company of the
same or a similar kind. In making an
application to register a foreign commercial
company, the name and domicile of the
representative of the branch office must be
inserted in the application, and the follow-
ing documents annexed:
(a) A document sufficiently showing
that a principal office exists;
(6) A document showing the character
of the representative as such;
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
379
(c) The company contract or a docu-
ment sufficient to show the nature of the
company.
The above documents must be certified
by the proper authorities of the country
to which the foreign company belongs, or
by a consul of such country residing in
Japan (Commercial Code, Arts. 255 to 260
and special laws).
Copyright. — By the revised law enforced
since 1910, and based on the resolution of the
International Copyright Convention held
at Berne in 1908, the protection covered b}-
the new legislative act has been consider-
ably enlarged in scope. The law no longer
requires the registration of copyright merely
for the purpose of protecting it against
piracy, but registration is required when
copyright is to be used as an object of
pledge, and generally as an object of market
value. The fee is Yen 10 for a book, Sen
50 (25 cents) for a newspaper or periodical,
and Sen 45 (22 >^ cents) for a drama or
photograph. A Copyright Convention exists
between Japan and the United States.
Descent and Succession. — The family law
of Japan and the law- of succession as set
forth in Books IV and V of the Civil Code
differ from the other parts of the code in
being mainly of native origin. They are
founded upon and adapted to the peculiar
conditions of society in Japan. In accord-
ance with the general principles of inter-
national law which obtain among European
nations, the Government of Japan has, for
the most part, exempted foreigners from the
operation of its peculiar family law and left
them to be governed by the laws of their
own nationalities, which, however, are of
course to be administered and applied by the
Japanese courts, except as otherwise pro-
vided by treaty. If a person belongs to a
country the law of which is different accord-
ing to locality, he is governed by the law of
the locality to which he belongs. Thus an
American citizen remains, as to family and
succession matters, under the law of his
particular home State. Succession to
property at death is determined according
to the law of the country of the decedent.
This appUes to the question as to who is to
receive the property. The appointment
and the powers of an executor would be
determined by Japanese law, unless other-
wise provided by treaty. By Japanese
law the property goes to the heirs directly,
and the executor, if there is one, is a mere
manager and does not become the owner of
the property. There is no process by which
an executor can obtain a formal discharge
from the Court upon the completion of his
duties or upon his resignation.
Divorce. — The causes for which divorce
may be granted are determined by the
law of the husband's nationality, except
that a Japanese court can not decree
a divorce for any cause which is not deemed
sufficient by the Japanese law. Application
for divorce should be lodged within one
year from the time when the party entitled
to sue had knowledge of the facts forming
the cause for divorce. Proof of the foreign
law must be furnished to the Court. Adul-
not be specified in detail owing to want of
space. Claims under the Civil Code are
extinguished by prescription after the lapse
of from five to twenty years; while claims
under the Commercial Code are extinguished
in from one to five years according to class.
Prescription is recognised in all criminal
matters also.
Marriages. — The capacity of parties to a
marriage, and such matters as the consent
4
ftuJ^l. .^^,
H^^^^^9B ^■^^61
^.:.f:;:
^
SUPREME COURT BUILDING, TOKYO
tery of the male is not a ground for divorce
unless coupled with cruelty.
Land. — The distinction between real and
personal property, which plays so important
a part in English and American law, has no
place in the law of Japan, which latter, in
this respect, resembles the laws of most
continental European countries. A "real"
right in the Japanese law means simply a
right in a thing, as distinguished from
contract rights and rights arising from quasi-
contracts and from wrongs. The rules for
all kinds of property are the same, except in
so far as the peculiar nature of immovable
things creates a necessity for special rules
Contrary to the Anglo-American rule,
buildings and fixtures, and in many cases
even trees and plants, upon land are not
considered for legal purposes as forming
part of the land, and a tenant who has
attached such things to the land may usually
take them away. Foreigners are not entitled
to own and hold land, but they may acquire
the ownership of buildings. They can
acquire long building leases (period unlimited)
called "Superficies" (Civ. Code, Arts. 265
to 269), which are valuable properties if
registered. At the end of a lease the houses
on the land do not vest in the landlord.
Limitations of Actions. — All rights of
action are barred by lapse of time, but the
periods of time vary considerably and can
of parents or guardians are governed by the
law of the parties' own country. As to the
form and manner of the celebration of a
marriage, it is sufficient it the law of the place
of the marriage is complied with. Therefore,
as far as the law of Japan goes, foreigners who
marry here may follow the forms of their
own law or of Japanese law; but care must
be taken to examine the law of their own
country and of the various consular regula-
tions in regard to this matter, as otherwise
the marriage may be valid in Japan and yet
not be recognised at home or in the consulate
having jurisdiction. The effect of a marriage
— that is, the relations created by it between
husband and wife and the rights of each in
the other's property — is determined accord-
ing to the law of the husband's nationaUty,
except in the case where a foreigner marries
a Japanese woman who is the head of a
house and enters her house, or marries the
daughter of a Japanese and is adopted by the
father. For instance, if an Englishman
marries a Japanese woman, his rights in his
wife and her property are determined by
the English and not by the Japanese law.
Matrimonial Property. — According to Art.
795 of the Civil Code, if aliens who have
made an arrangement as to their matrimonial
property different from the legal arrangement
of the country to which the husband belonged
at the time of the marriage, acquire a domicile
38o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
in Jai)aii, they must have such arrangement
registered within one year, or else the contract
can not be set up against the successors of
the husband or wife or against third per-
sons. The registration of a contract relating
to matrimonial property is made on the
ap]>Hcation of all the parties to the con-
tract. In the case of foreign writing, a
Japanese translation must be annexed.
In the case of a foreigner marrying in Japan
and desiring to make a special arrangement
re matrimonial property, the contract embody-
ing the same must be registered prior to
the marriage. If a special arrangement is
not made, then the matrimonial property
is governed by the law of the country to
which the husband belongs at the time of the
marriage.
Mining. — Individual foreigners can not
engage in mining, but a company formed
under Japanese law by foreigners can do so.
Generally speaking, the Japanese Mining
Law is satisfactory.
Minors. — Majority is attained at the age
of full twenty years. In the case of for-
eigners, the age of majority follows the laws
of their respective home countries.
Mortgages. — Foreigners are entitled to
acquire mortgages on immovables upon the
same conditions as Japanese subjects. A
mortgage (teiko-ken) is an hypothecation of
land or buildings to secure the performance
of an obligation. Contrary to the English
rule, but in accordance with the laws of
most Eiu-opean countries and of some of the
American States, the mortgagee does not
become the owner of the mortgaged property
and has no right of possession. A mortgage
is created by the written agreement of the
parties, and in order to render it valid
against third persons it must be registered.
A separate column is set apart in the Registry
Book for mortgages. These are registered
in the order of the times of the applications
for their registration, and rank among
themselves according to the order of their
registration. An unregistered mortgage can
not be enforced against the holder of a
subsequently registered one, though it may
be good between the parties. A superficies
or emphyteusis may be mortgaged; so may
buildings. A mortgage of land or buildings
includes fixtures attached to them. A
mortgage of land, however, does not cover
the buildings on it, unless they are specified
in the agreement. The mortgage does not
include the fruits of the land until a judicial
seizure has been made under the mortgage.
Movables can not be separately mortgaged,
Ijut only when they are attached to land or
buildings as fixtures. Machinery, as under
the English law, may be a fixture or not,
according to its nature and the manner of
its attachment. A mortgage of machinery
by itself is entirely invalid.
If the debt for which the mortgage is
given is not paid at maturity, the mortgagee
may bring an action for foreclosure. A
strict foreclosure after the English fashion
is not allowed, but the foreclosure is by a
sale of the property made under an order
of the Court. Out of the proceeds the debt
and the costs of the foreclosure are paid, and
the remaining proceeds, if any, go to the
mortgagor or to the holders of junior liens.
If the proceeds are insufficient to pay the
debt, the debtor remains personally liable
for the amount unpaid; and if he is himself
the mortgagor, a judgment for the amount
may be given against him in the same
proceeding. The Civil Code says nothing
about the insertion of a power of sale in a .
mortgage, although in case of pledge it is
forbidden by Art. 349; but the courts have
already unheld such a power. As between
the parties the mortgage is extinguished
by the discharge of the debt; but so long
as it stands uncancelled upon the Register
it is considered to exist in favour of any
third person who acquires it in good faith,
and such person may still enforce payment
of it. Therefore it is advisable for the
mortgagor, when he pays the debt, to make
sure that the mortgage is cancelled on the
Register.
Patents. — An applicant for a patent or a
patentee who is not domiciled in Japan must
appoint a representative domiciled in Japan.
A patent right is granted for a term of
fifteen years from the day of the registration
of the patent. The term, however, can be
extended for a period of from three to ten
years. A patent right can be assigned or
pledged, but such assignment or pledge can
only be set up against third persons when
registered. If a person who has applied for
a patent in a country belonging to the
International Union for the Protection of
Industrial Property applies in Japan within
twelve months thereafter for a patent on the
same invention, such latter application has
the same effect as if it had been made at
the time of the former application. When
an application for a patent is refused, the
applicant may within sixty days demand a
re-examination by another examiner, stating
grounds for such demand. If the desired
patent is again refused, he is entitled to a
hearing before the Patent Office, if he should
apply for it within sixty days. From a de-
cision of the Patent Office, an appeal lies
to the Supreme Court on questions of law
only.
A patent may be revoked by the Director
of the Patent Office: (i) If the patentee
does not, for three years or more from the
day of the registration of his patent, pro-
jjcrly use the same, or, if he suspends the use
thereof for three years or more. (2) If the
patentee fails to pay any fee on his patent
when it falls due.
Fees are payable on a yjatcnt as follows:
Yen
1. Aiiijlication for a patent 5
lst-3rd years payable at once at time
of registration 20
4th-6th years payable annually 10
7th-9th years payable annually 15
2. Patent fee.
ioth-i2th years payable annually.. . .20
1 3th- 1 5th years payable annually.. . .25
3. Patent fee for extended term.
ist-3rd years payable at once at time
of registration 150
4th-6th years payable annually 70
7th-ioth 100
Pledge. — A pledge (shichi-ken) is where
property is put in the possession of the creditor
to hold as collateral security for his claim.
Movables, immovables, or rights may be
pledged. The thing pledged must be actuallj'
delivered into the possession of the pledgee.
It' can not be kept for him by the pledgor as
his agent or bailee. There is no method by
which security can be given on movables
without actual delivery, except when they
are stored in a public warehouse or are in
course of carriage, and a warehouse receipt
or bill of lading has been given for them.
The practice in England and America of
hypothecating chattels by a registered bill
of sale is not admitted in Japanese law.
Prize Law. — Proceedings in prize are
regulated by Imperial Ordinance No. 149
of the 27th year of Meiji (1894) amended by-
Imperial Ordinance No. 188 of the 3rd
year of Taisho (19 14).
Seals. — In Japan every person possesses
— or is supposed to possess — a seal, which
he affixes to important papers. Alost
persons have two seals, one known as a jilsii-
in (true seal) and the other as a mitome-in
(initialling seal). The jitsu-in is registered
with the local Government office, and a
certificate of an impression thereof can he
procured from the mayor for a trifling fee,
on the application of the owner whenever
necessity arises to prove its authenticity.
The mitome-in is used for formal acts,
and is generally not registered, but it is
equally binding on the user. Seals are
only a relic of a past age when few persons
could write their names. In these modem
times the omission to seal a document after
signature does not invalidate the instru-
ment, unless in a case where sealing is a
formal and specific statutory requirement.
The ([uestion is one of personal identity
pure a
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
381
pure and simple. The common seal of a
corporation is unknown in Ja[)an in the
Anglo-American sense. While corporations
do actually adopt and use seals for purposes
of advertisement and convenience, the
afli.xing of a corporation seal has no special
signification. The corporation does not
"speak through its seal," but through the
signature of its directors. The name of
the corporation is first written down, after
which each of the directors acting signs his
own name and affixes his own seal. Cor-
porations do not possess an oflfieial secretary,
president, or treasurer recognised by law.
So far as foreigners are concerned, where
under any law or regulation a Japanese
subject must sign his name and affix his
name-stamp, or sign his name or affix his
name-stamp to a document, it is sufficient
for a foreigner to sign only. The old foreign
custom of using wafer-seals on documents in
Japan is entirely superfluous unless such
papers are intended for subsequent use
abroad.
Trade-marks. — Trade-marks are regulated
by Law No. 23 of April 2, 1909. The
exclusive right is granted for a term of twenty
years from the day of registration, but it
can be renewed. A trade-mark can not
be assigned except in connection with the
business for the purposes for which it is
used. Such assignment can only be set up
against third persons when duly registered.
If several applications are made for the
registration of the same trade-mark, the
first one takes precedence. If they are
made at the same time, none of them is
granted. If a person who has applied for
the registration of a trade-mark in a country
belonging to the International Union for the
Protection of Industrial Property applies
in Japan within four months thereafter
for the registration of the same trade-mark,
such latter application has the same effect
as if it had been made at the time of the
former application. The fees payable are:
Yen 3 upon application. Yen 20 upon
registration, Yen 10 on assignment. Yen 2
upon application for renewal, Yen 20 for
renew-al. Yen 3 upon application for re-exam-
ination, and Yen 12 upon application for
decision of the Patent Office.
Trusts. — Trusts as such are unknown in
Japan, but in order to meet the demand for
a system for the protection of debenture-
holders, a law known as "The Secured
Debentures Trust Law" (No. 52 of 1905)
has been enacted in connection with "The
Factory Mortgage Law" (No. 54 of 1905)
and "The Railway Mortgage Law" (No. 53
of 1905). Under its provisions it is now pos-
sible to mortgage various kinds of property,
both movable and immovable, including {in-
ter-aiia) j^Iedges of movable properties,
pledges of claims sujiported by documentary
evidence, mortgages of immovable properties,
of ships, railways, tramways, factories (includ-
ing fittings, machinery, tools, and acces-
sories), mining properties, rights of individ-
ual ownership, etc. The modus operandi is to
create "Estates" or Foundations" com-
jjosed of certain property, and to register
a mortgage on the same to a trust company
for the benefit of the debenture-holders.
The trust only extends to specific property
listed in the inventories, and no words
inserted in the deed can create a floating
charge. An agreement can be made to
add after-acquired property to the mort-
gaged "estate," but until such property is
specifically added and registered, the bond-
holders to not acquire any extra security.
A "floating charge" is unknown in Japanese
law, and is opposed to its fundamental
principles.
War Legislation. — An Imperial Ordinance
(No. 41 of April 23, 191 7) has been pro-
mulgated forbidding transactions with enemy
subjects and States. It provides that no
unlicensed transactions may be made or
entered into with or for the benefit of:
(i) Enemy countries (the German Empire
and other Powers engaged in hostile acts
against the Allied Powers); (2) Enemy
subjects or juridical persons; (3) Persons
who are domiciled in enemy territory, or
who make it their principal object to carry
on businesses within enemy territory; (4)
Businesses which have been publicly listed
by the Government as being imder the
management, either wholly or partly, of
enemy persons, or as being under enemy
influence. The penalties imposed are (i) a
fine not exceeding Yen 200 or (2) penal
servitude for a term not exceeding one year.
The ordinance is effective throughout the
Empire, and wherever Japan enjoys extra
territorial jurisdiction.
Enemy subjects in Japan receive remark-
ably liberal treatment in regard to freedom
of residence, etc., but their incomes and
disbursements are controlled by the Govern-
ment, and any indiscreet conduct leads to
deportation. Xo enemy subjects are now
allowed to land in Japan. No moratorium
has been decreed. A law has been passed
dealing with the control and utilisation of
industrial property rights owned by enemy
subjects. The tendency is to make the
regulations for the control of enemy subjects
stricter as time goes on.
Wills. — A person who has completed his
fifteenth year can make a will. A will can
be made (i) by a holograph document,
(2) by public (notarially certified) document,
or (3) by a secret document ; but exceptional
forms are provided for in cases of urgency
(Civ. Code, Arts. 1050 to 1086). Wills
must not contravene provisions re legal
portions (lineal descendant who is the legal
heir to a house, 50 per cent; any other heir
to a house, 333^ per cent). As regards
foreigners, the existence and the effect of a
will are governed by the law of the nation-
ality of the testator. As to the form and
manner of making a will, the law of the
place where it is made may be followed.
Apparently, therefore, so far as the form
is concerned, a foreigner may make his will
in the manner prescribed by his own law or
by the law of Japan; but care must be
exercised in regard to form when disposing
of property situated abroad.
CRIMINAL LAW
(t) Arrest and Criminal Procedure. —
Offences are divided by the Japanese law into
three classes, which may be conveniently
distinguished as crimes, misdemeanours,
and petty offences. A police officer may
arrest a person without a warrant and may
even enter a private house for that purpose,
in the following cases:
(a) If the person arrested is in the act
of committing an offence or has just com-
mitted one;
(i) If other persons are in actual pursuit
of him as an offender;
(c) If dangerous weapons or stolen goods
or other indicia of an offence having been
committed are found in his possession;
{d) If the assistance of the officer is
called for by the head of a house in case
of an offence committed in the house.
For a petty offence the officer can only
take the name and address of the offender in
order to make a complaint against him;
except that he may arrest him if his name
or address appear to be uncertain, or there
is danger that he will run away. An arrest
may also be made in a similar case by a
private person, if the offence is a serious
one punishable by imprisonment or severer
punishment. A person who is arrested
without a warrant must be taken imme-
diately to a police office, where the officer
in charge must inquire into the facts and
draw up a protocol of the result of his
inquiry. The person arrested can not be
forced to answer any question, nor can any
violence be used against his person. Any
ill-treatment of the accused person would
amount to a crime for which the officer
would be punishable.
If the offence is a petty one, punishable
only by a fine of not more than Yen 20, or
by detention for not more than thirty daj's,
the officer in charge of the station may
dispose of the case summarily. His decision,
382
P R E S K N T - n A V
IMPRFSSTONS OF JAPAN
however, is subject to review l^y the court.
If the defendant desires to bring the matter
before the court, he must give security for
his appearance, which, in case of a fine, may
be done by the deposit of the amount of
the fine. If the off'ence is too serious to be
dealt with summarily, the case goes into the
hands of the pulilic procurator, the defendant
being either detained or, if the charge is
not of great importance, released for the
time being w-ithout giving bail. If he is
detained, he is to be brought before an
examining judge, by whom he may be
admitted to bail. Under Japanese law,
prosecutions for criminal offences are not
conducted by private persons but by the
public procurator, whose official duty is to
prosecute for every offence of which he
has knowledge. A separate procurator is
attached to each criminal court.
When the public procurator is informed
of the commission of an offence, he takes
one of two coiu-ses. If the offence is a
misdemeanour, he may himself make the
necessary investigation, and if he finds
sufficient cause for doing so, at once institute
a criminal prosecution. If the offence is a
crime, he must apply to an examining judge
for a preliminary examination; and he may
do so, if he thinks fit, in the case of a mis-
demeanour. The preliminary examination
is an investigation of the entire case, includ-
ing the examination of the defendant himself,
the hearing of witnesses and the taking of
any other evidence for the purpose of ascer-
taining whether there is probable cause for
holding the defendant for trial. Generally, the
examining judge issues a summons to the de-
fendant to appear for examination on an ap-
pointed day. If the summons is disobeyed,
an attachment against his person is issued ;
but in certain cases specified by the law the
judge is empowered to issue an attachment
in the first place instead of a summons.
The first examination of a person arrested
must take place within forty-eight hours of
his arrest. But either at the preliminary
examination or the trial he may refuse to
answer any question which is put to him.
After the examination he must either be set
free or a warrant of detention must be made.
No time limit is fixed by the law for the
completion of the preliminary examination,
so that it might extend over a long period,
during which the accused person might be
kept in confinement.
In case of the flight of an accused person
no preliminary examination is held, but a
warrant of detention is issued immediately,
on which he may be arrested and detained
for trial. In order to arrest a person against
whom a warrant has been issued, any house
or place where he is supposed to be may be
searched, but such a search can be made
only in the daytime, except in a hotel or
other place of public entertainment. The
search is made by the police officer in the
presence of the mayor of the town or village,
or, if he is not available, in the presence of
two neighbours. The judge may also order
a search of the house of the accused penson
or of any place where there is reason to
suppose that things important as evidence
may be found. The accused person has a
right to be present at the search, unless he
is under detention. In the absence of the
accused, a search must be made in the
presence of relatives living in his house, or of
the mayor. If on such a search any articles
are found which will probably be important
as evidence, they may be taken possession
of by the public authorities. The judge
may also require the officials of the post-
office and of telegraphs and railways to
deliver to him for inspection all letters,
messages, and parcels directed to the ac-
cused person.
A defendant has no absolute right to bail,
the allowance of bail being discretionary
with the examining judge, but in practice
the granting of bail is often delayed on the
ground that the accused may destroy
evidence, etc. Bail may be given by the
deposit of money or satisfactory securities,
or l)y a single bondsman who must be a
person of sufficient pecuniary standing,
residing within the jurisdiction of the court.
Even after bail has been allowed, the judge
may at any time, if he thinks it necessary to
do so, revoke the allowance and order the
defendant to be arrested. Instead of releas-
ing the defendant on bail, the judge has
power, if he thinks fit, to entrust the defend-
ant to the custody of relatives or friends.
If bail is refused, complaint may be made to
the court, but the judges are usually guided
in their decision by the views of the
procurator.
The trial is not by jury, but is before
three or five judges, or in petty cases before
a single judge. Under present conditions
in Japan this is probably a better tribunal
than a jury would be so far as foreigners,
at any rate, are concerned. The accused
person must not be fettered during the trial.
He is entitled to counsel, but must employ
one of the counsel attached to the court in
which he is tried, unless the court grants
him permission to employ somebody else.
The defendant may testify in his own behalf,
and after the testimony of any witness has
been given or any evidence adduced, he is to
be allowed an opportunity to remark upon
it. If the defendant does not understand
the Japanese language, an interpreter must
be provided by the court.
In the case of petty offences punishable
only by a fine the defendant need not be
present at the trial, but may be represented
by an attorney. If he does not appear at all,
judgment may be given against him by
default. From the court of first instance
an appeal can be taken on both the facts
and the law; and any question of law in
serious cases can be carried to the court of
last resort. The time within which an
appeal can be taken is very short, being
only three or five days. There is no right
of habeas corpus or anything exactly
equivalent thereto. Administrative arrests,
however, are not allowed, and the unlawful
imprisonment of a person is — at least in
theory — a serious crime. According to Japa-
nese lav/, a person who is needed as a witness
can not be detained beforehand to secure
his appearance.
(2) Domiciliary Visits. — Besides the right
to enter a private house in order to
make an arrest for crime or to execute a
search warrant, the police and sanitary
officials have a right to visit private houses
in the following cases:
(a) When a person is suffering
from an infectious disease in a house,
certain sanitary, police, and admin-
istrative officers may enter the place
and take necessary measures for
cleansing and disinfecting it. They
may put the house under quarantine,
or, if necessary, a whole street or block
of houses. They also have power to
require the removal of the sick person
to a hospital, if they think it necessary.
lb) If it is reported that any person
has an infectious disease, the police
authorities may require him to appear at a
police station for inspection, or may
send a physician to his house to make
the inspection, but a policeman who
goes with the physician must remain
outside the house.
(c) At certain intervals every house is
visited by a police officer for the pur-
pose of inquiring what persons are
inmates of it, especially in regard to
servants or guests. The officer has no
right to enter the house against the will
of the householder, but must make his
inquiries at the door. Except as specially
provided by law or regulation, a police
officer has no right to enter a dwell-
ing house.
(3) Criminal Law Generally. — The sub-
stantive law itself is neither worse nor better
than that of most other countries, but the
adjective law needs drastic revision. The
system of criminal procedure is calculated
to entail hardship and much waste of time.
At the moment of writing there is a move-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
383
nn'iit oil foot having for its ohjfct the better
protection of aeeused persons, and it is
reassuring to know that the Imperial Govern-
ment is considering a reform in criminal
procedure. Under the present system of
preliminary examination, few guilty persons
escape when once in the meshes of the law,
but innocent people occasionally suffer by
the process. Witnesses can only appear
by consent of the judge, and are examined by
him and not by the parties or their attorneys.
Effective cross-examination is thus practi-
cally impossible.
The so-called "mise en secret," by which
a person under examination could be put
into solitary confinement, if the judge
should consider it necessary in order to
ascertain the truth, is abolished. A person
who has been arrested and is under examina-
tion may see other persons in the presence
of an officer, and may send and receive
letters and any otiier written communications
after they have been examined bj- the judge
conducting the preliminary examination or
the public jirocurator. The judge may,
however, if he thinks it necessary, isolate
the cell in which the person under examina-
tion is confined, or may forbid intercourse
with other persons or the sending or receiv-
ing of writings or other things, or may
take possession of them.
In some respects the administration of
the criminal law in Japan is certainly not
what it should be, and accordingly it is hoped
that the Government will early give its atten-
tion to necessary reforms. It is only fair to
add that the courts have shown themselves
particularly careful in foreign criminal cases.
THE JUDICIARY
The status of the judiciary is by no
means satisfactory, the emoluments of its
members being meagre, their official rank
below what it should be, and their pros-
pective pensions altogether too small. Not-
withstanding the disadvantages imdcr which
they labour, it must be conceded that the
judges are, on the whole, a high-minded
and conscientious body of men, characterised
by honesty and painstaking industry.
To sum up, Japan has accomplished a
good deal in connection with the reform of
her judicial system, but much remains to be
done in order to make it reasonably perfect.
CAVES AT MAT>USHIMA TO WHICH IHt I'KII -I- i i! HIUDHA KKUKED FOR STUDY MORE THA!f 1,200 YEAR- Ai.i'
XXII. Education
By Dr. J. INGRAM BRYAN, M. A., M. Litt., Ph. D. The Meiji University and the Imperial Naval College, and Japan Corre-
spondent of the London "Morning Post"
Remote Beginnings and Early Development — Education in the Tokugawa Era-
Introduction OF Modern Education — Japans Educational
System To-day— Outlay on Education
BEFORE the opening of Japan to the
modem world the nation was, of
course, without any system of secular
education. Pre-Restoration Japan had wit-
nessed no such steady evolution of great
centres of learning as had marked the prog-
ress of pre-Reformation Europe. Indeed,
education can scarcely be said to have
attained a degree of development either so
general or so effective as that of the later
schools of Greece, not to sav' anything of its
inferiority to Rome's improvement on her
heritage of Hellenic culture. As among the
ancient nations of Europe a youth bent upon
satisfying his thirst for knowledge and intel-
lectual achievement had to fit himself for a
reaUsation of his ambitions, if not by what he
could gain of experience and suggestion from
the wandering sage or "the schools of the
prophets," yet from the stern realities of Ufe
itself, so was it with the men of old Japan.
Education, in so far as it had ceased to be a
conventional dabbling in Chinese classics or
a mere mental abstraction of the idle and the
pretentious, centred, as in early Greece,
around a few great names; but these, unlike
the Sophists of old, founded no schools, left
no successors, and the pupils scattered with
the decease of the master. In the realm of
arts, crafts, and general industry it was in
some measure otherwise, for here education
and the secrets of artificial production often
passed from master to pupil until craft
became hereditan,'; which means that the
education of early Japan was for the
most part utiUtarian both in spirit and
practice.
As Rome from Greece and Egypt, so did
Japan from China and Korea draw most of
her intellectual inspiration. But Confucius
and Mencius, who might have been to Japan
what Socrates and Plato were to the pre-
Christian world, produced only a stoicism
that appealed to none but the stern dictators
of unreasoning loj'alty, leaV'ing the mass of
the people to the crude superstitions of Shinto,
the native religion; and so the nation was
thrown back upon Buddhism for its "Moses
and the prophets," the schools that the alien
religion brought with it from India and
China. This turned the mind of the Japa-
nese to aesthetic vagaries tending largely to
the grotesque, with a depreciation of the prac-
tical world and a failure to produce much
character of the heroic mould. Buddhism by
compromise ultimately united with Shinto to
enslave the national mind in still more grovel-
ling superstition, until men emulated the
goblins of primitive or aberrant fancy, and
felt themselves bound every way about by the
guardian semi-human deities of ancestral
days. Here and there appeared a brilliant
scholar, a popular poet or minstrel, a Budd-
hist saint of high degree, but the masses
remained untouched and dense. Education
so far as it can be said to have existed, clung
P K E S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
385
(AHOVE) the TAIMEI GAKKO, an ordinary PRIiMARY SCHOOL AT TOKYO — ^(bELOW) TOKYO HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL -
THE SEISHIN JOGAKUIN, OR GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL, TOKYO
to the skirts of princes and potentates about
the changing capitals of the Empire, until in
the twelfth century, with the rapid decline of
imperial power, the rule of empire passed into
the hands of the militarists, and education
took refuge where it began, with the teachers
of religion. It was thenceforth a thing of
temples and monasteries as in mediaeval
Europe, but with little of the intellectual
eminence displayed by the monastic schools
of the West, until the ascendancy of the
Tokugawa shoguns, when it once more began
to receive the active support of the author-
ities, and schools of a kind commenced to
flourish at the courts of the more prominent
daimyo, like those of Satsuma, Mito, Owari,
and Hizen, the present Imperial Universities
having germinated from these feudal acad-
emies.
Thus in Japan, as in all other lands,
education began only after the nation had
passed through the struggle that resulted in
the birth of an empire, and the people had
begun to realise that they had done something
worthy of thought. Adversity is as much
the mother of intellectual and moral achieve-
ment as it is reputed to be of invention.
Japan had now reached a stage where her
heroes were sufficiently conspicuous to be
easily separated from their deeds and set up
as ideals for the race. The nation was l^egin-
ning to break away from the fatal preposses-
sion that a man can only be what his ancestors
have made him and it is the will of the gods
that he have little to do with his destiny,
though a great part of Japan still labours
under this fatalism. Discovering, with the
birth of knowledge, that nations, like men,
are but what they make themselves, the
leaders of Japan were no longer content to
have life regulated by ancestral custom, but
by thought, truth, and action. When educa-
tion ceased to be a thing of family convention
and superstitious scruples and became a
definite necessity of service and choice, the
citizen for the first time was given an oppor-
tunity to regulate his life by reason and
conscience rather than by rigid ancestral rule.
Education was no longer regarded as an
ornament of the few, but an inalienable right
of the many. Such, indeed, was the ideal
with which the new Japan set out, but how
far she has lived up to it, we shall now endeav-
our to examine.
REMOTE BEGINNINGS
AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT
The Japanese, no more than other races,
could have sprung from barbarism at a
bovmd. The early settlers on the islands,
having come from the continent, doubtless
carried with them some modicum of formal
education, such as then existed in Korea and
China. It is not, however, necessary to
suppose that they were at first much con-
cerned with education except in an ancestral
sense. Nascent peoples must preserve their
family or racial customs, which implies some
notion of education. Primitive races always
have some conception of religion, and religion
always stands for education in some degree.
The basis of Japanese religion was, and stiU
is, ancestor worship, and the state of society
it represented naturally recognised no social
tie save that of blood. The aim of a primitive
people is the satisfaction of immediate wants;
and youth was no doubt taught the occupa-
tions of the race so as to take part in providing
the necessaries of life: food, clotliing, shelter,
protection from enemies, and the procreation
of the tribe. Education in early Japan was,
therefore, much too practical for formal
386
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JATAN
schools. It proceeded through the family
and clan and involved a working knowledge
of how to deal with Nature and everyday life,
as well as to propitiate the Unseen. Youth
for the most part blindly imitated age, as age
did its ancestors, and life was as it always had
been and always would be. The main duty
of Hfe was to "carry on" in the most prim-
itive sense. Custom was the rule of living,
and the right of individual development was
not recognised. Ethical doctrines, so far as
they existed, were prudential and sordid,
and precept did not always appeal to the
inner hght in man. As education was chiefly
utilitarian, on the one hand, and a sheer
effort of memory on the other, it naturally
did little for intellectual and moral develop-
ment. These considerations it is essential
to bear in mind, for it will be seen as we
proceed that the underiying principles of
Japanese education have not been able yet to
rise above those primitive notions that
retarded its progress from the outset, in spite
of the outward adoption of modern modes
and forms.
Nor can one wonder at this, since from its
very inception Japanese education has been
based on that of China, whence it sprang
and drew its first ideals and inspiration.
Chinese education, like the civilisation pro-
duced by it, has not changed a whit in three
thousand years, no matter what waves of out-
ward influence have at times ruffled its surface.
Confucius, the greatest teacher of China, de-
clared that Heaven had given man Nature
to follow, and that his whole duty lay in
imitating Nature. But by Nature he meant
custom, or what has been agreed upon in the
past. Thus virtue is knowledge and obser-
vance of fixed ideas and customs. The sum
total of duty is loyalty of subject to sovereign,
child to parent, and man to Nature. Of
course if this is all there is to education, it
must necessarily be non-progressive. In
China only what proceeded from authority
was of any importance and required any
deference, a principle that still very much
prevails in Japan. The early immigrants to
Japan got away from this system as it
obtained in China, and had nearly a thousand
years of independent development, but com-
munication with the continent was apparently
more or less unbroken and the Yamato race
did not proceed very far along instinctive
lines before Chinese ideas began to reappear
and impose themselves upon a race still
primitive enough to be purely imitative.
The question as to when formal education
commenced in Japan may be regarded as
speculative as it is academic. The ancient
records make mention of a set of Chinese
classics presented to the Imperial Court of
Yamato by the tripartate kingdom of Korea
in 270 A. D., or 284 as other records aver;
but in such matters a discrepancy of ten or
twenty years does not seem to be of great
importance. We do not come down to
authentic history until the sixth century,
when Chinese and Hindu religion and civil-
isation began to take root in Japan. In the
reign of the Emperor Mommu, 701 .\. D., an
ordinance relating to education was issued,
establishing formal schools, of which history
seems to make little or no subsequent men-
tion. The Japanese boast of this as ante-
dating the Educational Ordinance of Charla-
magne by a hundred years, and Oxford
University by nearly two centuries, but the
facts as regards the system of education
established by Charlamagne and King Alfred
the Great are based on evidence much less
mythical than the records on which Japanese
educationists base their claims to antiquity.
The Japanese themselves must admit that
the schools thus early mentioned did not
succeed in maintaining continuity, like
Oxford and Cambridge and the great insti-
tutions of continental Europe. The edu-
cational system of ancient Japan, if it existed
at all, must have been swept away and
obliterated during the long ages of civil
strife from the tenth to the fifteenth century.
Through those dark centuries of bloodshed
the only remnant of education was found in
Buddhist monasteries and temples; and
Buddhist priests, as at the beginning, came
to be the only educators of the nation. They
it was who brought books from China, in-
vented a system of native writing, and taught
the people of Japan how to read, for which
some of them, like Kobodaishi, are to-day
worshipped as gods. As early as 771 A. D.
we have reference to books being printed
from wooden blocks, also the work of the
priests; but for the most part they were
laboriously copied, as in Europe of the same
period. Even then, education was confined
to courtiers, priests, and the few warriors
who cared for such diversions, though in the
eighth and ninth centuries it is remarkable
what a number of women authors appeared.
The task of memorising Chinese ideographs
was no doubt as much a drawback to ancient
as it is to modern education in Japan, and
for this reason a native syllabary was in-
vented to assist in conveying the sounds of
the alien characters and denoting the correct
pronunciation of them; but the vast mass
of the commonalty was even more un-
touched by education than it was in Europe.
During the Nara period, from the eighth to
the eleventh century, an imposing array of
scholars, poets, and poetesses appeared
around the Imperial Court, whose works
are still read as ancient classics of the nation ;
yet in this as in less enlightened eras the
people were left in ignorance, poverty, and
serfdom. That age of enlightenment among
the upiier classes of society, due to priestly
culture from China, seems to have been
almost obliterated by the succeeding centuries
of civil war, when education fled with religion
into the temples and monasteries.
EDUCATION IN THE TOKUGAWA ERA
With the return of peaceful days during
the era of the Tokugawa shoguns, when the
nation knew no war for two hundred and
fifty years, education naturally revived,
under the auspices of the Buddhist schools
and the favour of the authorities. It was
still anything but universal, however, and so
far as women were concerned education did
not exist at all. Nothing, indeed, is more
remarkable than the contrast between the
brilliant period of female authors in the
Nara age and their utter absence in sub-
sequent times. Who can say how much of
greatness Japan lost by this total suppres-
sion and neglect of her womanhood intel-
lectually? Surely no further proof is needed
of the national deterioration that can be
brought about by long periods of bloody
strife! The education of the Tokugawa era
proved no more able than that of previous
periods, to rise above the level set by Con-
fucian ethics and models. It was stilted,
barren, and without inspiration or outlook.
Education limited its scope to the instruc-
tion of boys in Chinese classics, Japanese
history, laws, and a little mathematics and
Japanese literature. It had little or nothing
to do with real life or the development of
manhood. Ideas on education were as con-
fused as they were on religion. Though in
the past education had been largely a matter
of mental drill under the tutelage of the
Buddhist priesthood, it had no vital con-
nection with religion. The Japanese seem
never to have associated religion with real
life: it w-as usually treated as a thing apart.
Yet Shinto, the native religion of the Japa-
nese, taught that true citizenship involved
the worship of the Emperor as the descend-
ant of the gods, which w-ould seem to have
some connection with practical life, since
loyalty is a practical ideal of citizenship.
In the modern system of Japanese education
this confusion and inconsistency prevails,
the nation denying that religion can have
any connection with education, while insist-
ing on the pupils of the schools worshipping
before the national shrines! The Tokugawa
authorities at first cared for none of these
things. Their main concern was with mak-
ing the subject loyal to his master, and every
one obedient to the rule of the shogun. For
this Confucianism was more adapted than
either Shinto or Buddhism; for Shinto
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
387
insisted on loyalty to the Imperial House,
whose rights the shogunate had in some
degree usurped, and Buddhism was devote<l
to theological intricacies that tould never
prove practical politics, while the main
principle of Confucianism was loyalty of
inferior to superior, an excellent religion for
promoting Prussianism. Against this aggres-
sive insistence on absolute subservience to
government authority there came a reaction
due to a revival of the ancient classics of the
nation under teachers like Motoori and the
lord of Mito, himself a member of the Toku-
gawa family, which in time began to shake
people's faith in loyalty to the shogun and
turn it back to its original objective in the
Imperial House. Thus it will be seen that
education in the Tokugawa era no more
escaped from Chinese influence than it did
in previous ages, and Confucianism still
remains the foundation of morality and
education in Japan.
INTRODUCTION OF MODERN EDUCATION
It has already been pointed out that up
to the end of the Tokugawa period in 1868,
there was no proper system of education in
Japan, the schools being under the auspices
of Buddhist temples, and culture confined
to the few. Preparation, nevertheless, had
long been going on for a change in education,
which eventually reached its consummation
in the Meiji era, the so-called Era of En-
lightenment, when Japan set about a trans-
formation to modern ways. This prepa-
ration, it is trtie, was limited to but few, yet
these had an influence far beyond their own
SCHOOL BOYS
individual importance. How was it that a
people isolated for centuries from the West-
ern world came suddenly to decide to change
its policy? There are those who suppose
that the idea had birth with the arrival of
Commodore Perry, who opened up Japan
to foreign intercourse in 1854. As far back
as 1573, however, a Japanese embassy had
traversed the whole of Europe and returned
with marvellous stories of the barbarian
world. This arrested the attention of the
nation and furthered the welcome offered the
Europeans who came to Japan for purposes
SCHOOL EXCURSION TO NARA PARK
of trade and religious propaganda. From
1542 to 1637 Japan was under the influence
of the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and
iMiglish, who began the movement toward
overthrowing the intellectual and moral
<lomination of China, which was partially
completed by the colony of Dutch inter-
preters at Nagasaki, whose influence re-
mained unbroken over Japan from 161 1 to
the opening of the country in 1854. From
these foreigners Japan gradually becafne con-
scious of the greatness and necessity of a
world of knowledge yet unacquired by her.
As she listened with amazement to the tales
of emprise and achievement retailed to her
by such men as Kaempfer and von Siebold,
curiosity and ambition overthrew the walls
of conservatism, until not only were the
strangers permitted to sojourn in the land
after the Spanish and Portuguese had been
banished, but steps were taken to learn all
that the Dutch could teach.
In this way it came about that a con-
siderable knowledge of Occidental arts and
crafts, mathematics and medicine, began
to circulate throughout the Empire, and the
sacrifices made by the youth of Japan to
obtain what information the foreigners
could impart was unprecedented in the
experience of the teachers. The circum-
stances only go to show what an apt pupil
Japan would have proved had she not been
isolated from the Europe of the mediaeval
period, and perhaps by this time might have
surpassed the Europe of to-day.
Shortly after Commodore Perry had suc-
ceeded in negotiating his treaty of amity and
intercourse with Japan, a deputation of the
leading minds of the nation, including some
of the more brilliant pupils of the Dutch
teachers at Nagasaki, was sent abroad to
investigate the secrets of Occidental prog-
ress, and to report on Japan's requirements
for successful development of the Empire
and efficient competition with the outside
world. Among the more important recom-
mendations made by the deputation on its
return was the establishment of a modern
system of education. In 1869 an ordinance
relating to universities, secondary and pri-
mary education, was issued, and in 187 1 the
first Department of Education was organised
for the supervision of the schools to be es-
tablished throughout the Empire. One of
the most important articles in the five sec-
tions of the Imperial Oath sworn to on April
6, 1868, in the presence of the Imperial
Princes and other high personages of State,
at the palace in Kyoto was: "Knowledge
shall be sought for throughout the world,
so that the welfare of the Empire may be
promoted." This gave the keynote to the
great educational change that rapidly
388
P R R S K N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
followed and supplied Japan with a carefully
devised school system. In 1872 a code re-
garding education was promulgated, consist-
ing of one hundred and nine chapters, dealing
fully with all subjects connected with the
establishment of the new system. Educa-
tion was to be diffused everywhere. There
was not to be a village with an ignorant
family nor a family with an ignorant member.
The system put into force was based on the
French model. The whole country was
divided into eight educational districts, each
to have one university, 32 middle schools,
and 6,720 primary schools, or one elementary
school for everj' 600 of the population.
Superintendents were duly appointed to see
to the establishment and maintenance of
these institutions.
The hastily prepared, cut-and-dried sys-
tem of education thus imported from abroad
and imposed upon the whole Empire proved
immature, however, and, as it was thought
•an American model might be better for
Japan, where education was to be made
universal, educational experts were sought
from that countrj', and Dr. David Murray,
SCHOOL GIRLS
of the Massachusetts State Department of
Education, was brought out to reorganise
the new system. This he did with excellent
effect, establishing schools all over the coun-
try; but the authorities, fearing the oppor-
tunities afforded for the development of
individuality by the American system, later
introduced Prussian models as being more
consistent with native ideals. From the
beginning the Japanese insisted on having
a system that was purely utilitarian, unas-
sociated with religion. No distinction was
drawn between moral and intellectual train-
ing; which was quite in line with Shinto
teaching as well as Confucianism, that
morals are for barbarians, a Japanese being
so inherently moral that he may always do
what he thinks. Although religion was
rigidly excluded from the new system of edu-
cation, the pupils in Japanese schools are
brought to worship at the national shrines,
which the authorities insist is not associat-
ing religion with education. It is clear that
the educational authorities of Japan were
from the first, if not suspicious of foreign
ideas, yet very restless under foreign guid-
ance, as they always are; and consequently
students were early sent abroad to famil-
iarise themselves with American and Euro-
pean methods of education, that they might
return and adapt these methods to Japanese
ideas as far as was consistent with national
ideals. It is rather difficult, however, to
Japanise the truth; and, with Western con-
ceptions of education, and foreign influence
generally, constantly filtering into the coun-
try, the notions of science, religion, and
human freedom that consequently began to
grow, threatened the native cosmogony and
tended to disturb traditional tenets as to
monarchy and government. Therefore, with
a view to controlling these alleged "danger-
ous thoughts," as they were called, the regu-
lations pertaining to education were revised
in 1880, the discipline and management of
students being made more rigid and strict,
which, however, did not seem to bring about
the desired effect, as school discipline in
Japan is anything but good, and school
strikes are an increasing feature of educa-
tion. The conservative reaction against
the new code was so strong that the entire
P R E S R N T - n A V I M I> K E S S I O N S
O F
I A P A N
389
educational code was revised once more in
1886, an Imperial Ordinance was again issued
in relation to universities, middle and normal
schools, and inspection was made more exact-
ing. The new trend in education was
appropriately marked by the employment
of a German to take the place of an American
in the Teachers' Training College for those
of higher grade, and soon military and
physical training was added to the curricula
of the various schools. The Prussian ideals
of education then introduced as being more
consistent with Japanese nationality, still
obtain with increasing emphasis, whereby
the individual is a mere lump of dough to
be modelled into whatever shape the author-
ities may decide, independently of will
and individual fitness. All pupils are now
turned into a machine from which after a
prescribed time they are turned out, all after
the same pattern, models of absolute sub-
servience to authority, recognising no other
duty and claiming no other rights; but
grossly ignorant of the first principles of
citizenship and good government, as under-
stood in Western countries. The defects of
Japanese education have been frequently
pointed out by leaders of thought in Japan,
and need not here be specially dwelt upon.
To correct the dangers arising from West-
ern ideas of education and form a statement
of Japanese ideals on which all education
in future might be safely based, the follow-
ing Imperial Rescript was issued in 1890:
"Know ye. Our subjects:
"Our Imperial Ancestors have founded
Our Empire on a basis broad and everlast-
ing and have deeply and firmly implanted
virtue; Our subjects, ever united in loyalty
and fiUal piety, have from generation to
generation illustrated the beauty thereof.
This is the glory of the fundamental char-
acter of Our Empire and herein hes the
source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects,
be filial to your parents, affectionate to your
brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives
be harmonious; as friends, true; bear your-
selves in modesty and moderation; extend
your benevolence to all; pursue learning and
cultivate arts, and thereby develop intel-
lectual faculties and perfect moral powers;
furthermore, advance public good and pro-
mote common interests; always respect the
Constitution and observe the laws; should
emergency arise ofTer yourselves courage-
ously to the State; and thus guard and main-
tain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne
coeval with Heaven and Earth. So shall
ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects,
but render illustrious the best traditions of
your forefathers.
"The way here set forth is indeed the
"home lessons'
teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial An-
cestors, to be observed alike by Their De-
scendants and Their Subjects, infallible for
all ages and true in all places. It is Our
wish to lay it to heart in all reverence, in
common with you Our Subjects, that we may
all attain to the same virtue."
"The 30th day of the 23rd year of Meiji."
(October 30, 1890)
(Imperial Sign Manual. Imperial Seal.)
A copy of the above rescript is distributed
by the Department of Education to each
school in the Empire, and is kept in a sacred
place, with photographs of the Emperor and
Empress; and on all imijortant public occa-
sions they are brought out, when the assem-
bled school hears the reading of the Imperial
Rescript and bows before the imperial por-
traits, the function being regarded as the
most solemn that can take place. Cases are
on record where teachers and school officials
have given their lives to save the imperial
pictures from fire or other destruction, the
victim being accorded the rank of a hero
forever.
Education in Japan, being considered one
of the most important functions of the
State, is entirely under Government control.
The department charged with these duties
PHYSICAL DRILL BY GIRLS .\T .\ SCHOOL DEMONSTR.\TIO.\, YOKOH.\M.\
26
390
PRESENT-DAY I M I' K K S S I O N S OF JAPAN
bl-OKlS AT WASEDA UNIVERSITY
is under the Minister of Education who
directly or indirectly supervises the whole
educational system of the Empire. It is to
be noticed that in Japan education is not
based on laws passed by the national legis-
lature, but on Imperial Ordinances issued
by the Emperor on recommendation of the
cabinet after being submitted to the Privy
Council. The people, therefore, have no
voice in how their children are to be edu-
cated.
japan's educational system to-day
The educational system of Japan as it
stands at present may be said to have its
basis in a patriotic and aggressive mate-
rialism. Its controlling motive is undoubt-
edly utilitarian rather than the improvement
of morals or the acquirement of culture. Its
most glaring weakness is that it fails to draw
out and develop the natural powers to the
same extent that it succeeds in cramming
the mind of the rising generation with a vast
collection of all sorts of unrelated and undi-
gested facts about the science of the modern
world, and the general affairs of Occidental
life. The Japanese apparently have not yet
reached that period of national evolution
where they are so much concerned with
man's potentialities or his place in the uni-
verse, as they are with their own destiny on
earth and the best means of ensuring it.
Education in Japan is not influenced by any
profound philosophy of life, nor by religion
in any sense that the West would not regard
as superstitious. There are, of course, here
and there some hopeful indications of a
change, especially since the war with Russia
and the unprecedented conflict in Europe,
both of which have given Japan much food
for thought. From an educational point of
view, however, these two great events in
human history leave Japan still seriously
confused. The victory over Russia was
ascribed to the superiority of the Japanese
spirit under impetus from the spirits of the
Imperial Ancestors, but the war in Europe
has shown that the spirit of the Anglo-Saxon
is in no sense inferior to that of the Japanese.
This will doubtless lead th? more intelligent
of Japanese educationists to lay greater
stress on the moral side of human culture,
while the war itself must prove to Japan that
real education implies ap])lication as much
as theory and the mere acquirement of
facts.
Apart from the weaknesses above indi-
cated, the educational system of modern
Japan is fairl}' fulfilling the aim of its founders
and directors. The aim which it emphasises
is a general education for the masses, a special
education for the professions, and a technical
education for industry and trade, each of
these branches of education being divided
into three grades: primary, secondary, and
higher education. The system of general
education is supposed to impart the knowl-
edge and training essential to every citizen
without reference to any particular occu-
pation or calling. It is entrusted for the
most part to the primary schools, to which
all the children of the nation must go. In
this respect Japanese education may be said
SPORTS at WASEDA UNIVERSITY
to resemble that of the United States,
though apart from universality the resem-
blance ceases. The middle schools of Japan
are nothing more than the primary schools
carried to a higher grade. Special education
has to do with instruction in science and art
for the promotion of social and industrial
progress: it provides specialists in law,
politics, medicine, science, literature, music,
painting, and pedagogy. Technical educa-
tion comprises the knowledge necessary to
farmers, mechanics, artisans, merchants and
others, for which the nation has provided
agricultvu-al schools, technical schools, and
commercial schools, of various grades. In
addition to the schools under the Board of
Education there are schools in connection
with the Imperial Household Department,
the Army and Navy, the Department of
Home Affairs, and the Department of Com-
munications ; and there are numerous private
schools corresponding in purpose and grade
to the various Government schools alread)'
mentioned.
It will thus be seen that the educational
system of Japan divides its common schools
into three grades; elementary, secondary, and
high schools. These, together with four
imperial universities and various special and
technical schools, form the main educational
forces under direct control of the Govern-
ment. Of course it must be remembered
that all education in Japan is more or less
under official supervision, including even
private schools if they desire recognition
from the Department of Education, and this
all do desire, since without it the graduates of
such schools would stand no chance of
appointments. For the more careful control
of national education the Department of
Education has three bureaux, known as the
Bureau of General Education, the Bureau
of Special Education, and the Bureau of
Religion, the latter surely being an anomaly
in a land that ostensibly insists in separating
religion and education in theor}- while inter-
fering to some extent with religion in practice.
The school age in Japan is from six to
fourteen, the child entering the primary
school on completing the sixth year, and there
attendance is compulsorj- for the next six
years of life, during which time the pupil must
apply the mind studiously for five hours a
da\-, six days a week, with rest on Sundays
and national holidays and about one month
in summer. The Japanese, however, regard
holidays as a sign of inferiority physically and
do not encourage them, some schools insisting
on lessons during the unbearable heat of
summer, the pupils attending naked. Before
entering the primary school, pupils may
attend kindergartens, if there be any in the
neighbourhood, but in Japan such schools
are yet in a nascent stage, there being no
more than 535 in the w'hole Empire, with
45,000 pupils and 1,535 teachers. The ele-
mentary schools are of two kinds, known as
the ordinary and the higher, but in many
instances both are in the same building.
Children are universally under compulsion to
attend the ordinary elementary school for
six years; and then if they do not intend to
proceed to the middle school, they may take
sports at WASEDA UNIVERSITY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
391
further advanced courses in the local higher
elementary school. The existence of private
elementary schools side by side with public
schools of the same grade is recognised by
law, provided such schools are subject to
Oovcrnment supervision. As a rule the
rliililreii of all classes attend the same school,
tliough there is a distinct movement toward
providing separate private schools for children
of the better classes, especially in female
education. Every locality is bound to make
provision for all the children within its juris-
diction, but arrangements are made by which
several small communities may combine in
a school union, bearing the costs of primary
schools for several villages, each village
sharing proportionately the expenses. Some-
times school grants are afforded to poor
districts by the county authorities. The
higher elementary school course as a rule
extends over two or three years, according
to the decree of the local authorities, and a
small fee may be charged. About 65 per
cent of primary education in Japan is repre-
sented by schools of the lower grade, while
35 per cent would represent those combining
the higher standard. In [primary schools
boys and girls may be taught together or the
sexes may be in separate classes. The num-
ber of elementary schools is now 25,615, with
'57i285 teachers and 7,095,755 pupils. The
curriculum embraces instruction in Japanese
morals, Japanese language, arithmetic, Japa-
nese history, geography, science, drawing,
singing, gymnastics, and sewing for girls,
with manual training for boys, and during
the last three years of the course the following
subjects are added: agriculture, commerce,
and English language, the latter depending on
local circumstances. Although the teaching
hours must number at least from 21 to 32
per week according to age, in certain schools
18 hours a week may be permitted, and in
the case of young children 12 hours a week.
All text books are provided by the Depart-
ment of Education and purchased by the
pupils, the subjects being treated carefully
from a native point of view. Owing to the
strict regulations attendance is very regular
and satisfactory at elementary schools,
reaching, as it does, a total of 98.16 per cent,
as may be seen from the following table:
coed to the middle school, thougli there is
not always sufTieient accommodation to
receive them. From and including the
middle school upward the education of the
sexes in Japan is strictly separate, and even
the schools are of different standard, that for
girls being lower. At present there are only
318 middle schools for boys in the whole
Empire, with 6,276 teachers and 131,846
pupils, indicating an accommodation cer-
tainly inadequate for a population of 57,000,-
000 people. The subject of educational
provision is all the more pressing when it is
remembered that the Japanese system is
like a machine, and unless one passes through
the entrance he is not permitted to issue at
the exit; and all young men who hope to
seciu-e employment under the Government in
any capacity, or in banks, schools, and the
higher circles of commerce and industry, as
well as those who hope to get a university
education, must first pass through the middle
school. The method of limiting numbers is
by severe competitive examinations, with
the result that nearly 50 per cent of the youth
of the nation, anxious and ready for higher
education, are precluded from ever realising
their ambitions in this direction, and through
no fault of their own. Lack of school
accommodation is one of the greatest disa-
bilities that the rising generation of Japan
has to face ; but so long as the main volume of
expenditure is devoted to armamental expan-
sion there is no hope of relief. As the Gov-
ernment spends little more than 10,000,000
yen annually on education, it has been
suggested that the present deficiency in
school accommodation could be met by doing
with one gunboat the less. Many an ambi-
tion cruelly nipped in the bud by lack of
facilities for education has led to suicide, or
a life of dissipation equally ruinous. Over
against the Government outlay on education
we have some 80,000,000 yen spent by the
people themselves every year, which amply
indicates the interest being taken in the
subject by the people of the Empire.
Japanese boys enter the middle school at
the age of 12, having first completed the six
years required at the elementary school, and
they must then pass through a course of study
covering five years, with a supplementary
Children of School Age
Children at School
Aver.^ge
Boys
Girls
Total
Boys
Girls
Total
Boys
Girls
Av.
3.854.376
3.558,792
7.4 1 3. 1 68
3,805,817
3.471. 107
7.276,924
98.74
97-54
98.16
From the elementary school, in which the
vast majority of the children of Japan com-
plete their education, those desiring, and
able to afford, a higher course of study, pro-
course not exceeding one year in duration.
In Japan the main difficulty is to get into a
school; there appears to be none in leaving it.
In other words, the entrance examination is
much more important than tlic graduating
examination, as few matriculants are success-
ful, but all invariably graduate. This is
doubtless because room can not be afforded
for keeping a student to take his course over
again, on account of the number waiting to
enter, and the result is that hundreds of
young men possess diplomas who are not up
to the standard entitled to them. Education
is thus turned into a process of putting in the
required time, rather than in mastering and
applying the required knowledge and culture,
which again quite corresponds with a theory
of education that involves cramming instead
of educating individual ability and talent.
The middle school curriculum requires over
30 hours a week of study, which includes
Japanese morals, Japanese language, Chinese
classics, either the English or German lan-
guage, history, geography, arithmetic, natural
history, physics, chemistry, drawing, singing,
and gymnastics, including military drill.
The regulations also provide for instruction
in law and enonomics, but the hours for these
subjects may be devoted to foreign languages,
while singing may be omitted. Great stress
is laid on the Japanese language, and on the
Chinese classics, the one being essential to
success in practical life, and the other to an
understanding of Confucian morals. Next in
importance come modern languages, chiefly
English, for which the more important middle
schools employ a foreign instructor in addi-
tion to native teachers. There are numerous
private middle schools besides those under
official auspices, all being subject to the same
supervision, and many of them supported by
foreign mission boards.
Graduates of middle schools, who wish to
enter the teaching profession, must enter a
normal school, men and women proceeding to
separate institutions, where they take a
course of five years morality, pedagogics,
Japanese language, Chinese literature, Eng-
lish language, history, geography, mathemat-
ics, natural historj-, physics, chemistry, law,
economics, penmanship, drawing, manual
training, music, and gymnastics or driU, the
only optional subject being English. They
have to study 31 out of the 34 hours per week
on the curriculum. In connection with each
normal school is an elementarj' school in
which prospective teachers practise. Tuition
in normal schools is free, and students are
provided with board and clothing, in return
for which they must serve as teachers for a
certain period in the locahty where they have
been trained. In normal schools great stress
is laid on rigid discipline and on militan,'
training. There are also two higher normal
schools, one in Tokyo and one in Hiro-
shima, with others for women, all having a
course of four years. There are two kinds of
392
P R K S K N T - n A Y
M I' R n; s s I o N s of j a I' a n
certificates for teachers, General Certificates
granted by the Department of Education
and vahd anywhere throughout the Empire,
and Prefectural Certificates, available only
in the prefecture where they have been issued.
In addition, there are certificates for regular
teachers, assistant teachers, and special
teachers, each carefully indicating the grade
of school where the holder may be employed.
The number of ordinary normal schools for
men is 86, in addition to the two higher
institutions already mentioned, and the
number of teachers is 1,623, with 27,928
])upils. Of girls' higher normal schools there
are also two, with 126 teachers and 689
students. Girls attend the ordinary normal
schools in separate classes from the boys.
In spite of the years of training afforded, the
native teacher is regarded as, on the whole,
rather inefficient, due possibly to the
methods already indicated in the case of
Japanese education generally. It is impos-
sible for the Prussian system in vogue to
escape from being mechanical, carefully
following rules and regulations rather than
pursuing reason and progress, with careful
application and development of initiative.
The Japanese now regard themselves as equal
to Western nations in pedagogical attain-
ments and no longer employ foreign experts
in this department, except as instructors in
language only. But no one familiar with
Japanese education can avoid the conviction
that the system has still much to learn from
Western countries, especially in the science
of teaching. This is now sought by sending
Japanese teachers abroad for a short time to
acquaint themselves with methods adopted
by experts in England, Germany, and the
United States, but it requires a man of unus-
ual ability and natural talent to gain much
from a brief sojourn under foreign educators.
Much more practical would it be to have
British or American pedagogical experts in
Japanese normal schools, to collaborate with
native instntctors as to methods of teaching.
But as Western schools of education do not
adopt this method, Japan considers it likely
to create a misunderstanding as to her
advancement to do so. All normal schools
in Japan, whether under prefectures or the
Government, must have a Government
director, paid by the Department of Educa-
tion. There are eleven school inspectors
under the same department, whose duties are
mainly connected with supervision of primary
schools, but there is still greater need for more
efficient inspection in regard to middle and
higher schools.
The Japanese high schools were established
for the purpose of preparing pupils in a special
way for entrance to the various colleges of the
imperial universities. Of these institutions
COMMEMl)R.\T10N H.\1,I., W.\SED.\ UNIVERSITY — LECTURE H.\l,L OF THE MEIJI LXIVERSITY —
JOCHI UNIVERSITY, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
393
thiTc art: now t'l^Iit, cmil' each at Tokyo, Scn-
dai, Kyoto, Kaiiazavva, Kmnamoto, Kago-
shiina, Okaj'ama, and Nagoya. The high
schools lay emi^hasis chiefly on three phases of
university study: the faculties of Law and Lit-
erature, of Pharmacy and Medicine, and of
Science and Engineering; in all of which tht:
principal subjects arc ethics, Japanese lan-
guage, English, Chinese and German, or
French, each course affording facilities for
sijccialising according to the department the
in foreign language's. All the graduates of
high schools do not proceed to the university,
of course, as these institutions are also
regarded as schools where men of talent arc
prepared for the Government services and
higher callings of life. In addition to the
national high schools there arc five commer-
cial high schools which turn out hundreds of
graduates annually for the ranks of trade and
industry. At the eight national high schools
there are 358 instructors, with 6,^,^9 students.
university at Kyoto still lacks a faculty of
Agriculture, but has 172 instructors and 1,707
students; while the University of Tohoku,
with colleges of Science, Agriculture, Medi-
cine, and Engineering, has 187 instructors
and 1,945 students. The new university
established at Fukuoka in Kyushu in 1910
has only 79 teachers, and 595 students
enrolled, having as yet only the two colleges,
one of Medicine and one of Engineering.
The average age at which students enter the
TECHNICAL SCHOOL, TOKYO IMriiRI.\L UMNLKMTV — THE LAW COLLEGE, TOKYO IMPERI.YL U.VIVERSITY
student expects to enter at the university. In
the section concerned with Literature and
Law, for instance, the principal subjects are
history, logic, mental philosophy, elementary
law, political economy and so on, while in the
medical section stress is laid mostly on mathe-
matics, physics, chemistry, zoology, botany,
and drawing, while in the third section
geology and mineralogy are more important
than zoology and botany. Here also accom-
modation is sadly limited, the rigid competi-
tive examinations excluding thousands of
ambitious youths who are unable to gratify
their thirst for higher education. The high
schools devote much attention to instruction
There are at present four Imperial Univer-
sities in Japan: one each at Tokyo, Kyoto,
and Kyushu, and the University of Tohoku,
in the north. The Tokyo University, which
is the most important, was established in
1877, arising from an amalgamation of older
colleges. It was created an Imperial Univer-
sity in 1886 and assumed its final form in
1890. It now consists of a University Hall,
a College of Law, a College of Medicine, a
College cf Literature, and a College of Science
and Engineering and of Agriculture. At
present the number of instructors at the
various colleges of the Imperial Tokyo
University is 377, with 4,993 students. The
university is about twenty-three, and as they
have to spend four years at the institution
they are nearly thirty before entering upon
their life's work. This is regarded as a
disadvantage, which the authorities are
endeavouring to obviate. There is also a
Woman's University in Tokyo, which is of
lower grade than the usual institution under
that name. Tokyo also has several private
universities, such as the Keiogijuku, founded
by the late Mr. Fukuzawa, which has faculties
of Law, Politics, Economics, Medicine, and
Literature, and the Meiji University and
VVaseda University, with the same faculties
with the exception of Medicine. There
394
PRESENT-DAY TNrPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
are some thirty-four others of university
standard but possessing only one or two
faculties, the most important of which is the
Doshisha in Kyoto. The Christian Church,
as represented by various foreign mission
boards, is contemplating the establishment
of a first-class university in Tokj'o under
Christian auspices to meet the deficiency in
university accommodation in Japan, but
whether this movement will come to anything
remains to be seen.
Japan has numerous other schools of
various kinds. There are six schools of
medicine, with three other medical schools
established by prefectures, to say nothing
of private schools of medicine, the period
of study at which is four years for medicine
and three for pharmacy. To each govern-
ment medical school a hospital is attached
and every equipment is provided for a com-
plete medical education. The graduates of
these colleges, however, are below those from
the schools of medicine connected with the
Imperial Universities, as they lack the pre-
jiaratory high school education and pro-
ficiency in foreign languages. The Govern-
ment also provides a school of foreign lan-
guages in Tokyo, where practical instruction
is given both by native and foreign teachers
in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish,
Russian, Chinese, Korean, Tamil, Hindu-
stani, Mongolian, and Malay, the course
taking three years. For this school also the
number of applicants is far more than can
be admitted. For the education of students
in technical subjects fourteen colleges are
established in various parts of the Empire,
and there are also many others of secondary
and primary grade. There are also schools
for mechanics, dyeing, weaving, architecture,
chemistry, mining, metallurgy, and com-
merce, the usual course being three years,
with facilities for postgraduate work. The
higher education of women is provided by
girls' high schools and the one woman's
imivcrsity, already mentioned. There are
33" girls' higher schools, which are practically
only of middle-school grade, having 4,118
teachers and 83,287 pupils. The education
of women is still more or less neglected in
Japan, though there are efficient higher
schools under private auspices, such as the
Toranomon School, and the Peeresses' School,
as well as various mission schools for girls.
Under the influence of Buddhist and Con-
fucian teaching the women of Japan have
been for centuries relegated to a secondary
position, their chief duty being as faithful
wives and devoted mothers. With the ad-
vancement of civilisation, however, and a
greater division of labour, the Japanese
woman is coming to the front as a com-
petitor with man in the ranks of trade and
industry, and, as for this some special edu-
cation is necessarj', more attention is now
being given to the provision of schools for
women in Japan.
One of the greatest handicaps of Japanese
education is the immense disadvantage under
which the child labours in having to devote
so much time to the memorising of the thou-
sands of Chinese ideographs that he must
know before being able to read. The diffi-
culty might easily be obviated by the sub-
stitution of the Roman alphabet for the
native characters, but prejudice is yet too
powerful and ingrained to permit this, and
thus the mind of the rising generation is
cramped and burdened by unprogressive
labour, until at the age of even fourteen
ability to read a book or newspaper is still
unattained, all the early portion of youth
being enslaved to merely memorising word-
pictures that could much more readily be
known from the twenty-six letters of the
Occidental alphabet. A movement has been
started to save the three years of every
Japanese child's life wasted in memorising
Chinese characters, though it is discourag-
ing to find that it has made so httle progress.
For international reasons, too, it is very
necessary that Japan should adopt a modern
system of writing, since the use of ideo-
graphs is always a positive deterrent to a
study of the Japanese language by Western
nations.
The following statistics show the number
of Japanese schools, teachers, and pupils in
the year 1916:
higher remuneration. The foreign teacher,
however, is at present somewhat at a dis-
count in Japan, and there is little to encour-
age those of higher standing and ability to
undertake service in this country, as the
work has no future. Even in the Imperial
Universities there are no professors of English
now, although that is the chief foreign lan-
guage, the foreigners employed there being
relegated to the rank of instructors, or
assistants to the Japanese professors, who
regard themselves as quite capable of lectur-
ing on English language and literature.
The whole system of foreign-language teach-
ing in Japan is admittedly quite unsatis-
factory, simply because most of those engaged
at it are not teachers in the modem scientific
sense of the term, and the Japanese system
does not allow the student proper oppor-
tunities for language study.
OUTLAY ON EDUCATION
In Japan education is not free except for
the absolutely poor and indigent, most of
the schools charging a small fee, which in
elementary schools amounts to about ten sen
per month in rural districts and twenty sen
in urban districts, while the fee for higher
grades is thirty sen for the country and
sixty for the city. Of the total number of
children attending school in 1916, 24,578
were exempted from fees, and 107,030
partially exempted. The salaries paid in
elementary schools are much too small to
command either ability or efficiency, the
average being about eighteen yen a month.
Institutkin
Elementary schools
Middle schools (boys)
Middle schools (girls)
High schools
Nonnal schools
Higher normal schools (men). . .
Higher normal schools (women)
Imperial universities
Special schools (high)
Technical high schools
Technical common schools
Teachers' training institutes. . . .
Sericultural schools
Other schools
Total
Number
25,615
3i«
330
8
86
2
2
4
17
I'l
531
5
2
2,532
29,471
Te.achers
157,285
6,276
4,118
35s
1,623
126
96
815
1,991
673
4,639
26
48
7,633
185,707
Pupils
7,095,755
131,846
83,287
6,359
27,928
1,077
689
9,572
30,109
7,098
80,922
339
338
154,429
7,629,748
The number of foreigners employed in
Japanese Government schools is now 105,
of whom 31 are British, 17 American, 11
French, 27 German, and the rest other
nationalities, the total amount paid annually
in salaries to foreign teachers being 366,510
yen. Salaries to foreign teachers range from
250 to 300 yen a month, though a few get
Many teachers, cspeciallj' women, get as
low as five yen a month. Out of 131,295
elementary school teachers in 19 1 6, 65
received less than 5 yen a month, only 875
received over 50 yen a month, while the vast
majority ranged between 15 and 20 yen per
month. For middle schools the salaries of
teachers average about 47 yen a month,
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
395
while puinls sometimes pay as high as 2 yen
a montli in fees. In high schools the fees
are from 30 to 35 yen a year, while the
salaries of teachers range from 60 to 100 yen
a month; and the same rates apply to the
universities, except that professors' salaries
are naturally somewhat higher. Owing to
the largest portion of the annual budget being
appropriated for military expansion, the
amount devoted by the Government to
education must always be quite inadequate
to the needs of the nation. After the war
with China, in 1895, some 10,000,000 yen
was set apart from the indemnity received,
as an educational fund, but this was again
appropriated by the war chest during the
war with Russia, in 1905, to be refunded
later. This has not been done, however,
except that the National Treasury affords a
grant of 250,000 yen each year for the origi-
nal purposes of the fund. A supplementary
fund was created in lyoi which now amounts
to about 4,500,000 yen. Another fund of
some 6,000,000 yen exists for increasing the
salaries of teachers. The annual grant of
250,000 yen has recently been increased to
500,000, devoted mostly to construction
of new school buildings and the rewarding of
deserving teachers. For the promotion of
commercial, technical, agricultural and other
forms of education the Government makes
further grants to the amount of some 300,000
yen a year, but the burden of education in
Japan has to be borne by the provinces. In
spite of the enormous rate of taxation im-
posed in Japan the Government in 1916
afforded only 10,798,209 yen for public
instruction, while the provinces paid directly
for schools about 78,000,000 yen.
It is only in recent years, especially since
the great wealth accumulated during the
European war, that any citizens of Japan
have begun to take an interest in the endow-
ment of education. The example was set
by Baron Okura, who founded and endowed
with a sum of 500,000 yen a commercial
school in Tokyo and another in Osaka, the
Sumitomo family following suit in 191 5 by
donating more than 1,000,000 yen to an
apprentice school in Osaka, while the Furu-
kawa Mining Company has endowed a
faculty of science at the Kyushu University
with a sum of 1,000,000 yen, and Mr. Yasu-
kawa, another mining millionaire, gave an
endowment of over 3,000,000 yen to establish
a technical college at Wakamatsu. The
nation as a whole, however, including the
Government, has not begun to reaUse the
absolute necessity of efficient education to
national progress; in which respect, of
course, it is not unlike even some Western
countries. The only departments that show
any adequate appreciation of the importance
of education are the Armj' and Navy; and
even these are by no means as efficient in
this respect as they could be.
TORII GATE OF HIKAWA TEMPLE
XXIII. Language and Literature
The Japanese Language— Japanese Literature— Poetry and Drama
THE language of Japan is associated
by philologists with the Turanian or
Oural- Altaic family, of which Turkish,
Finnish, Tinguisic, and Korean are also
surviving tongues. Like these, Japanese is
distinctively an agglutinative language, build-
ing up its words and grammatical forms by
means of suffixes loosely joined to roots or
stems, the latter undergoing no change,
though these particles which take the place
of inflexions in other languages, in being
affixed to the roots are sometimes blended
with them sufficiently to satisfy the require-
ments of euphony. Further fundamental
characteristics of the structure of the Jap-
anese language are its use of postpositions
in place of prepositions, while qualifying
words must invariably precede the words
they modify and dependent clauses alwaj's
the principal clause, the principal verb always
coming last in the sentence. The object,
moreover, invariably precedes the verb.
There is no relative pronoun, and personal
pronouns are used but sparingly. The
Japanese do not say, "The man who came
yesterday," but "Yesterday's came man,"
and in asking the question, "Do you see it?"
of verb inflexions for persons and the absence
of personal pronouns. In Japanese, wa is
the particle which signifies the nominative
case, ga being also used, and wo indicates
the accusative, as —
Kane wa nai (I have no money); Ano hito wo mimaska? (Do you see that man?)
Money as-for is-not That man (accus) do-you-see?
no pronoun is used, the question being
simply, "See it?" In accidence the dis-
similarity to English is stiU more striking,
as Japanese nouns have no number or gender,
and adjectives no degrees of comparison
In Japanese the object often becomes the
subject, as in the first example above given.
A further example of construction in a longer
sentence may be seen from the following:
Kaeri-gake ni kaiikoba ye yolle,
Returning-while in bazaar at stopping
sukoshi kaimono shite kimashita
little buying-thing doing have come
except what can be conveyed by using
"more" and "most," while even verbs
have no persons. But verbs, on the other
hand, have a negative voice and forms to
indicate causation and potentiality, as well
as an elaborate system of honorifics which
to some extent compensates for the absence
In English we should say: "On my way
back I stopped in at a bazaar and did a little
shopping." To get any adequate idea of
the intricacies of Japanese construction,
however, a paragraph of composition should
be studied. The following is a very good
example, taken from a Buddhist sermon:
PRESENT-DAY I .M I' K I<; S S I O N S O E JAPAN
397
Uma
Horse
Cliiigi
Loyalty
dckiru
forthcomos
zen-aku
good -evil
ni miikatte Koko wo tsukusc! " okami iii mtikalte
to confronting "Filial-piety (accus) exhaust!" wolf to confronting
wo
(accus)
koio
fact
wo
(accus)
tsukusc!"
exhaust !"
lie wa
indeed
wakatsu
discern
nada
etc.
gnzaimasen
is-not
chic
intelligence
to
that
Ma
said
tokoro
place
ga, hi to
but man
(nom)
wa
as-for
although
ze-hi
right-wrong
attc kiini ni chu
being, lord to Loyally
wo tsukiislii, oya ni ko ton tsukitshi, kyodai wa naka
(accus) exhausting, parent to Filial-piety (accus) exhausting, brethren as-for, intercourse
yoku
fufu
zua
mutsumashiku hoyu ni
loa sliitashiku
being-good,
spouses
as-for
being-harmonious, friends to
as-for being-inlimate
makoto
wo
matte
majiwalti koso,
hajimete shin no kilo
sincerity
(accus)
taking,
having-intercourse indeed,
firstly truth's person
/() rwun-nuisii.
that gets-
■sail
i.
In ordinary English the above would be
as follows: "If you were to say to a horse,
'Practise Filial Piety!' or to a wolf, 'Prac-
tise Loyalty!' and so on, they would not
be able to do it ; but man has the intelligence
wherewith to discern right from wrong,
good from evil, and he can only be said to
be truly man when he practises loyalty
towards his master and filial piety towards his
parents, when he is affectionate towards
his brethren and lives harmoniously with
his wife, when he is amiable towards his
friends and acts sincerely in his social inter-
course."
It is a remarkable fact that although the
Japanese language has some structural fea-
tures in common with the same family of
languages, it yet has nothing in common as
to vocabulary, with the exception of a few
words of Korean origin. Of course after the
advent of Chinese influence additions from
the vocabulary of that language became
numerous, especially for official and technical
purposes. The masses of the people, how-
ever, ignored most of the strange words, and
the language of the country did not change.
The sound of Japanese speech is distinguished
for its musical softness in which it may be
said to surpass any of the languages of
Europe, all words ending in vowels excepting
those concluding with the consonant n.
The less it is mixed with Chinese or other
foreign words the more pleasant it is to the
ear, and therefore comes most sweetly from
the lips of Japanese women, whose language
is always purer than that spoken by the men
of the country. It is, therefore, only in a
technical way that the language of Japan
has been enriched by that of China. By a
skillful combination of Chinese mono-
syllabics the Japanese can express any
technical term desired, just as Western
scientists do with Greek and Latin in arriv-
ing at terms to convey scientific ideas.
Electricity becomes den-ki, or "lighting-
spirit"; and jin-riki-sha "man-power-car";
torpedo, "water-thunder"; fish-torpedoi
"fish-form- water-thunder," and so on. In
all Chinese words and their combinations a
Japanese pronunciation is used and to all
intents and purposes they are regarded as
part of the native language, much in the same
way as we regard words of Latin or French
extraction in English speech.
It must also be remembered that the
spoken language of Japan is quite different
in many respects from the written language.
This, of course, is true of European languages
also to some extent, there being a natural
difference between the colloquial and the
literary styles, but the difference is still
more marked in Japanese, since the spoken
language is an ear-language, intended only
for hearing, but unpleasant to the eye, while
the written language is an eye-language, not
intended for the ear, and some Japanese
can not well understand written language
unless they can see it. The spoken language
is natural and the written is artificial, the
latter being composed of Chinese ideo-
graphs which are pictures made for the
eye. The Japanese originally had no way of
writing, the art being introduced from
China and the Chinese method of writing
adopted. As the mass of the people could
neither remember nor understand the for-
eign ideographs, a native syllabary was
invented in time to convey the sounds of
the foreign characters. This syllabary for
phonetically expressing the pronunciation of
the Chinese ideographs appeared in the
eighth century, the sounds of the language
being analysed into forty-seven syllables,
symbolised by abbreviated forms of the
Chinese characters. The native syllabary
has two forms, known as the katakana,
and hiragana, the former being a more
simple form, like our printed alphabet, while
the latter is more like our script. As there
V.\K-X OF THE GENJI MONOGAT.^RI, SHOWING CHINESE AND HIRAGANA CURSIVE SCRIPT (ELEVENTH CENTURY)
598
P R E S K N T -,D A Y I Nf P R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
are many different forms of the latter it is
much more difficult to acquire, but it has to
be mastered by those who wish to read
Japanese, since it is the form most commonls'
used in books and in the press. The kanii
syllabary is constantly mixed with the
ideographs to express the sound intended
by the latter or to form suffixes used as
inflexions. To read Japanese well a mastery
of some four thousand characters is essential,
and this very few foreign students of the
language have ever accomplished. A knowl-
edge of two thousand characters, however,
will enable one to make out most of what is
in the newspapers and ordinary books. The
intelligent student of Japanese must, there-
fore, master two languages, the spoken and
the written, he must learn two syllabaries
so as to know them at sight, and he must
master the hundreds of ideographs in the
various forms in which they appear, from
a plain square print to the most abbreviated
scrawl, looking like a war of angle-worms,
and at the same time get accustomed to a
page without either punctuation or division
of words, hke the ancient cursive writing of
the Greeks and Latins. One does not
wonder at the remark of the Jesuit mission-
aries that the Japanese language was in-
vented by the Devil, as the surest way to
prevent the introduction of Christianity.
To make the situation worse, there remains
the persistent refusal of the Japanese people
to obviate one of the greatest obstacles to
the acquirement of their language by replac-
ing the complicated ideographs by the use
of the Roman alphabet, and thus put the
language within reach of Europeans. In
doing this they would at the same time save
six or seven years of every Japanese child's
life now wasted in mastering the ideographs
before he can read his school books. The
only virtue possessed by the written language
of Japan is its beauty, and the centuries of
practising it have made the nation a race
of artists.
JAPANESE LITERATURE
As writing was not introduced into Japan
for a thousand years after the foundation
of the Empire literature did not begin until
then, the first traces of anything in that
direction appearing with the establishment
of the capital at Nara at the beginning of
the eighth century. The Japanese claim that
the ancient records of the nation were com-
mitted to writing as early as the fourth cen-
tury, but it is not probable that writing was
introduced long before the advent of Buddh-
ism, about the middle of the fifth centur>%
when Chinese influence attained its greatest
power. Under the influence of learning
developed by Buddhist scholars, literature
HIHAKU WRITING (NINTH CENTURY),
BY THE PRIEST KOBO
began to dawn. It must be borne in mind,
however, that literature in Japan and Japa-
nese literature are two very different things,
as unlike as the Latin writings of medisval
Europe and the native languages of the
nations where these classical compositions
flourished. Not for many years after Japan's
acquisition of Chinese letters did she make
any attempt to express the language of her
people in writing. The higher officials of
State and the priests had a monopoly of
learning, and up to the eighth century all
writing was Chinese in form and diction.
With the invention of a native script means
were at last provided foi; the expression of
Japanese speech and ultimately a native
literature.
The earliest existing literary product of
Japan is that mar\'ellous summary of treas-
ured tradition known as the Kojiki, or
Record of Ancient Things, written by im-
perial command in 712 .\. d. Like the Book
of Genesis, it is a compilation of preceding
traditions, giving an account of creation, the
origin of the imperial family, the history of
the Japanese people, and the general status
of the country down to the era immediately
preceding its compilation. It is especially
valuable to the student of literature, as it
reveals the nature of the earliest hterary
impulses of the Japanese. It shows that the
Japanese people, like those of other nations,
WRITING BRUSHES, WITH CAPS AND DRIED INKS, PRESERVED IN THE SHOSO-IN
TREASLRY, NARA (EIGHTH CENTURY)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
399
passed through a period of song and iioetry
before reaching the age of prose. Nine
years after the Kojiki there appeared another
compilation known as the Nihpngi, bringing
the national story down to the close of the
seventh century, but as the volume was
chiefly in Chinese it is of value to Japanese
literature only because it preserves some
examples of ancient Japanese verse. The
chief depository of Japanese literature in .
its beginnings is that wonderful anthology
of the Nara period called the Manyoshu, or
Collection of a Myriad Leaves, wherein the
choicest utterances then existing in verse
were garnered, and which still remains the
most valuable memorial of the intellectual
awakening that followed Japan's first inter-
course with China. Poets and scholars
began now to flock around the Imi)erial
Court and a real national literature was
beginning to appear. The native syllabary
soon became so improved as to lend itself
to a better expression of native speech, and
to supplant the foreign ideographs in litera-
ture. When the next anthology, the Kokin-
shu, was published in 900 A. D., by order of
the Emperor Daigo, it proved to be a collec-
tion of songs and poems evidencing a fuller
fruition of poetic excellence. The capital
of the Empire had moved from Nara to
Kyoto, where it became fixed, and during
the succeeding four hundred years there was
a remarkable development in literature.
The nation had done something worth writ-
ing about, but not in the way of history or
the impulse to epic poetry. These were
centuries of serene development, when the
ruling classes entered on a period of high
culture, refinement, and elegance of life that
eventually passed into an excess of luxury,
effeminacy, and dissipation. The nation
was more interested in poetry than in prose,
and the themes of the Muses were petty and
restricted, being for the most part love,
pleasure, and admiration for nature. The
culture of literature in the Chinese language
never wholly ceased, especially in history
and theology, but the poetry of this time was
composed in the pure native language. At
this time, too, appeared the first fiction, the
Genji Monogatari and the Makura-no-
Soshi, both the work of women; indeed,
some of the best literary artists of the day
were ladies of the court.
Among the prose writings of this period
none is more interesting than the Tosa Nikki,
a diary of travel, from the pen of one of the
most distinguished poets of the day, Tsuray-
uki, who was Governor of the Province of
Tosa, the diary giving an account of his
journey from Tosa to Kyoto, written in the
purest of native speech. The poet was one
of the editors of the Kokinshu anthology,
PART OF A SCREEN PRESERVED IN THE
SHOSO-IN TREASURY AT NARA. CHINESE
IDEOGRAPHS ARE DECORATED WITH
DOW.N FEATHERS OF BIRDS, AND
, COLOURING (EIGHTH CENTURY)
already mentioned, and the account which he
gives of his tastes and experiences in the Tosa
Nikki is a charming study of the life of old
Japan, written in 935. Among the other
choice tenth-century classics may be men-
tioned the Taketori Monogatari, or Tales of
a Bamboo Cutter; the Ise Monogatari, or
Story of Ise; and the Yamamoto Monogatari.
None of these, however, excel the Genji
Monogatari and the Makura-no-Soshi, al-
ready mentioned, written by the two court
ladies, Murasaki Shikibu and Sei Shonagon.
These works mark the close of Japan's
greatest literary epoch. From the twelfth
century the country became a battlefield and
civil strife reigned to the discomfiture of
literature, which, like religion, was banished
to temples and monasteries. During this
period the Imperial Court ceased to be a
political factor in the life of the nation, and
with its decline in influence literature suffered.
During these five centuries of unrest most of
the works written were of politics or history,
like the Heike Monogatari, or Story of the
Hcike War, somewhat like the Wars of the
Roses in England; the Hojoki by Chomei and
the Tsure-zure gusa by Kenko, which are
excellent examples of the forcible and viva-
cious prose style still possessed by the nation,
the last-named work especially opening the
way for that literary speech that came into
full development in the seventeenth century
and has ever since remained the language of
literature in Japan. Here for the first time
we find Chinese words being blended into
Japanese forms and phrases without doing
violence to native modes of expression. But
the voice of poetry was not extinct, for in the
last half of the thirteenth century another
anthology was compiled, known as the Hyaku
Nin Isshu, or Single Poems of a Hundred
Men, which is still one of the most popular
volumes of national poetry in Japan. The
only form of literary art that much appealed
to the ages of anarchy was the dramatic
imijulse, and so we find that in this period the
old religious dances and dramas begin to
assume a secular form and motive, as seen in
the Noh-no-Utai. These strange lyric plays
are mostly dateless and probably came from
the hands of priests, who may have used them
as the Miracle Plays were used in Europe, to
interest the uninterested in religion. Com-
edies called kyogen were also written as inter-
ludes in the more severe and less interesting
sacred drama, and composed in the ordinary
colloquial of the day.
After the age of strife was passed and the
Tokugawa shogunate established at the
beginning of the seventeenth centxiry, there
came a revival of the study of ancient records
and the writings of the classic age. Led by
the example of leyasu, the first shogun of the
new line, the various territorial nobles estab-
lished schools for the revival of learning.
Mitsukuni, lord of Mito, had a history of
Japan, called the Nihonshi, compiled by
scholars, and later came the Nihon Gwaishi,
a history of the shogunate. Both these
works had great political influence, and event-
ually discredited the shogunate in favour of
direct imperial rule. The elaborate critical
commentaries of such writers as Keichyu
(1640-1701), Mabuchi (1700-1769), and Mo-
toori (1730- 1 800) elucidated the ancient
annals of the nation as well as its religion
and literature. Novelists like Bakin (1767-
1840) and Ikku (i 763-1 831) wrote popular
stories that displayed new literary skill.
Other noted writers of the Tokugawa period
were Takdea Izumo (1690-1756) and Chika-
matsu, the Shakespere of Japan (1652- 1724).
Most of the fiction was full of offensive
elements but the otogi-banashi, or fairy tales,
were charmingly innocent and humourous,
most of which have appeared in English and
are familiar to Western readers.
It will thus be seen that the earlier litera-
ture of Japan is Chinese in language and
script, which attained its dominance between
the eighth and the thirteenth centuries.
During the ages of strife it was becoming
blended with a pure native form in which the
ideographs were mixed with native script
and the mode of expression essentially true to
400
P R E S K N r - 1) A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the Japanese language in idiom and construc-
tion. This achievement was perfect by the
close of the Tokugawa period. Then with
the fall of the shogunate and the Restoration
of Imperial Rule, literature underwent a
change and during the last fifty years quite a
new school of writers has arisen.
Now, the change that Japanese literature
underwent with the dawn of the modern
period was in itself largely the means of
bringing about the modernisation of Japan,
in which literature has had more direct influ-
ence than any other single factor. Japan's
leading writers were the first pioneers of
liberty, individual rights, and constitutional
government. And strange to say, the peculiar
history of their language had prepared the
nation in the best way for expressing foreign
ideas in native ways. Used for over a thou-
sand years almost exclusively as a medium
for expressing Chinese, the Japanese language
turned quite naturally to expressing the
thought of Europe with which it had little
natural affinity. It is nothing less than
astonishing how well this task has been
accomplished. Much of the success, how-
ever, must be attributed to the mar\'ellous
capabilities of the Chinese ideographs in
lending themselves to any combination
necessary to express all kinds of ideas, foreign
or alien. It is almost inconceivable that
Western thought could have made such rapid
progress in Japan had it not been for this long
period of training in expressing native thought
through a foreign medium offering facility for
every turn of expression and definition.
And thus these long centuries of culture in
expressing Chinese thought and civilisation
united in qualifying the Japanese language
for the great work it has accomplished in the
modem era.
The history of Japanese modem literature,
which is much too long for full transcription
here, indicates clearly the various stages
through which the thought of the nation has
passed in the modernisation of the country.
During the past fifty years three distinct
influences, marked by as many periods, have
been at work on the Japanese mind and
conspicuously represented in the national
literature. There is first the strong Occiden-
talising tendency seen for the first fifteen
years following 1870. This was followed by
some ten years of reaction when the tide set
strong towards ultranationalism, owing to the
sudden and radical changes taking place.
Foreign countries were to be imitated only in
a material sense, but in moral standards,
religion, refinement, and modes of life gen-
erally Japan was to learn nothing from
Europeans. The third period began with a
fear that Japan was to revert to feudal days
and so there was an attempt to introduce the
A STAGE SETTING FOR ONE OF THE .\NCIENT DRAM.\S, AT THE IMPERIAL THEATRE, TOKYO
individualism of Nietzsche, led by a Dr.
Takayama. During all this time the English
language was being earnestly studied in the
national schools and in private and most of
the great English writers were read or trans-
lated into Japanese. Herbert Spencer, Mill,
Tyndall, Huxley, Bacon, Scott, Dickens,
Hugo, Gibbon, Macaulay, and Carlyle were
used as text-books in the public schools.
Owing to the Germanisation of the army and
the medical schools, that language perforce
came into use and German philosophers and
scientists were also widely read and trans-
lated, as well as the works of Tolstoi and
other Russian writers. Many Japanese
writers now began to imitate British and
German models. Mozume issued a history
of Japanese civilisation something like
Green's "History of the English People."
Hundreds of dictionaries, grammars, and
phrase books showed the attention being
given to foreign languages. Attempts were
made to replace the complicated Chinese
ideographs by the Roman alphabet, but
Japanese minds proved unable to carry on
complicated trains of thought apart from the
old idea-expressing media. In Japan, spoken
language does not wield half the power that
written language does, and so books are
always the nation's best teachers. As a
famous Japanese writer has said: "The Japa-
nese are earless and tongueless, all eyes." In
spite of this, however, the approach of the
written to the spoken language is closer than
it has been, chiefly through the influence of
the public press, which has a habit of insert-
ing colloquial phrases in learned articles. It
may be noted here that formal public speeches
were never heard in Japan until modern
times, the late Mr. Fukuzawa, founder of the
Keiogijuku University, being the first
Japanese to attempt it, and his first efforts
were delivered squatting on the floor in native
fashion. Talk is plentiful enough in modern
times, however, but no one pays much atten-
tion to it. The press and periodical literature
of the day have an immeasurably greater
influence than the nation's teachers, and
here some of the best minds of the nation
have made their mark. But Japan has yet
produced no great philosophical thinkers,
nor, indeed, any scientific writers of very
high merit. The national mind dislikes
metaphysical speculation, and has not suffi-
cient regard to the importance of truth to
regard science with real reverence. The best
writing at present is in the sphere of com-
merce, finance, and fiction.
Japan has no veteran fiction writers such
as are to be found in England, France, and
the United States. Public taste is so fickle
that the lion of to-day is forgotten to-morrow,
and the career of even the greatest is but
short-lived. Thus a novelist has no incen-
tive to essay anything worth while. He
usually tries to meet the taste of the moment
and make what hit he can in the time avail-
able. This is, perhaps, due to the fact
that the majority of Japanese readers of
fiction are students and leisure-lo\'ing house-
wives, the intellectual class as yet showing no
appreciation of fiction. Formerly such was
the case in regard to drama and the theatre,
but histrionic art is now recovering and begin-
ning to command the respect of minds jaded
with the boredom of daily business. The
P R K S E N T - D A \' IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
401
JAPANESE GEISHA
novel has yet to win readers from the more
influential classes, and hence it is forced to
move in a limited area of love and the hack-
neyed tales of ronin and vendetta. Indeed,
ver>' few Japanese novelists can live from
their works; they have to make up the defi-
ciency of income by doing hack work for
the press and periodicals. The most suc-
cessful of recent Japanese novelists have
been Soseki Natsume, bom 1867; Roka
Tokutomi, 1868; Katai Toyama, 1871;
Koda Rohan, 1867; Mori Ogai, i860; and
Dr. Tsubouchi, 1858. These men have won
fame amidst a host of lesser lights who died
poor and mostly unremembered. Yet the
greater writers have stuck to their pens with
true literary spirit and persisted in their
art with genuine artistic zeal. The work of
the writers of fiction has done more to mark
the break between feudalism and the new
Japan than any other force to be reckoned
with. Tsubouchi's "Essentials of Fiction,"
published in 1885, asserts that the most
important element in the novel is passion,
to which circumstances and customs must
be subject. This affirmation, which the
novelist faithfully practised, was in radical
opposition to the old national fiction, as
represented by Bakin, where passion was
always subdued to conscience and reason
in an artificial manner never seen in real
life. The motive of the old fiction was moral
and didactic; that of the new is truth.
Taking modem Japanese fiction as a whole
it resolves itself into three schools, all reveal-
ing the effect of corres])onding influences in
European literature: the Classicists, the
Realists, and the Naturalistic School. In
the Classic School Ogai was the leader, all
his work being highly polished and revealing
evidence of the ease that comes of toil. One
of the greatest writers of the school of Realism
was Hasegawa, who died in lyog. He was
a disciple of the Russian school of writers,
and was followed by Oguri Tayo, Kosugi
Tagai, and Yanagawa Shunyo, as well as
Koyo Ozaki. These writers were not all
quite the same, though they represented the
same school. Hasegawa was humanistic.
using art on behalf of life, while Ozaki was
aesthetic, devoted to art for its own sake.
These writers sought to bring literature into
closer relation to life, though as yet no
separation was made between the individual
and society. The fiction of Koda Rohan
lays emphasis on the invisible elements of
life as the more important; he attached more
importance to insight than to observation.
Thus, the Realistic writers were in some
measure adherents of idealism. .And then
came the Naturalistic School represented by
writers like Kunikida Doppo, who died in
1908, followed by Toson, Masamune Haku-
cho and many others, who produced stories
in a fascinating style and bold, unconven-
tional treatment, which charmed the young
and unsophisticated while causing the sober
to frown. Most of these writers, like their
masters in France and Russia, were bom in
the provinces, gave up unfinished the dull
routine of school life, and took to Bohemian
ways of existence as aspirants to fame, being
usually connected with some journal or
another. Besides these there are numerous
productions representing the political novel,
the historical novel, the domestic novel,
the chivalrous novel, the social novel, the
psychological novel, the tenderloin novel, and
the novel of lower class society. In fact,
every side of the national life is set forth in
the popular fiction of the day, a good deal
of which is •> mere reflex of European liter-
ature. Its most significant feature is the
break with the past which it shows and its
intense interest in the present, with a con-
sequent greater breadth of range and a
deeper seriousness in art.
A STAGE SETTING
4o2
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
It must not l)f imagined, however, that the
change has been wrought without great
sacrifice. Some of the naturalism is too base
and the reahsm too gross to be quite whole-
some. The artificial marvels of the old
fiction have not been replaced by the normal
and the ordinary; too often the fabulous lias
been replaced by the hideous, and mystery
by sen.suality. The recognition of natural
passion in fiction has not solved the problem
of its reinstatement. The cosmic force of
love is recognised but the legitimate form of
its self-expression is not yet found to be a
spring of ser\'ice and a source of joy in har-
mony with the spirit of the universe.
Looking back over the history of Japanese
literature as a whole, one can not say that it
abounds in a content of living interest to
Western readers. It springs from customs,
events, personages, places, and traditions so
utterly different, and from motives of action,
of praise and censure, so widely at variance
with those dominating Western civilisation,
that on reading it the Western mind finds
little in common and a marked absence of
appeal. To us it seems strange and alien,
dwelling painstakingly on minute details
that no Western mind would pause over,
indulging in the most prolix verbosity, dealmg
freely with matters forbidden by the more
delicate taste of the West. It nevertheless
records the social, religious, and political his-
tory of the Japanese people, and for this
reason.it may be profitably studied, though
the reader will look in vain for intellectual
creativeness or invention. The whole history
of Japan appears as an unbroken imitation
YUR.\Kr-KW.'VN THE.\TRE, TOKYO
.\ 1'I<(1VINC1.\L .\CTOR
of Other nations, until the genius of the
native mind now lies in the appropriation
and refinement of the gains and acquirements
of others. Yet Japanese literature attained
to considerable excellence in art and mode
of expression, as did the nation's other arts,
particularly in poetry and drama.
POETRY AND DRAM.\
J.\p.\NESE poetry remains the most original
of the nation's literary efforts. Much Chi-
nese poetry has been w-ritten by the Japanese,
just as much Latin verse has been composed
by English scholars and students, but unlike
Japanese prose, the national poetry has
never been subjected to Chinese ways of <
thought and expression. With but little
variation the oldest Japanese song recorded
is still the model for the versification of her
poets. Its first characteristic is its extreme
brevity, and the whole range of poetic liter-
ature includes nothing in the way of an epic
or even a narrative poem, all such attempts
being as brief as they are few. When the
Japanese speak of poetry they always mean
a tiny verse known as a tanka, or waka, of
five lines, containing in all thirty-one sylla-
bles, the first and third lines each making five
and the others each seven syllables; a-b-a-b-b.
But short as it is, it has the divisions of a
sonnet, the first three lines forming the
"upper" and the last two lines the "lower,"
a slight break occurring in the sequence and a
slight pause marking it in the reading. In
expression it is extremely compact and
limited. The native idea of poetry is as a
verse of mere suggestion, a gem of thought
from which a world of meaning can be
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
403
OPEN-AIR STREET THEATRE DURING A FESTIVAL
inferred. If the poet can thus produce a
gram of raihuni he is successful, but if his
efforts require artificial illumination he is
only a scribbler. The following is the oldest
Japanese poem in existence, sung at the
opening of the bridal palace of the gods:
Yakumo tatsu;
Izumo yae gaki;
Tsuma gomi ni
Yae gaki tsukuru:
Sono yae gaki wo!
(Many clouds appear:
Eightfold clouds a barrier raise
Round the wedded pair.
Manifold the clouds stand guard;
O, that eightfold barrier-ward!)
In Japanese poetry there are remarkabU-
eccentricities such as redundant expletives,
phrases called "pillow words" and "intro-
ductions," into which we can not now go.
The subject matter of poetry is usually some
simple and serene emotion in reference to
man or nature. It always has a dainty
quality and a meditative mood. It is marked
by a lyric character that is often idyllic, like
a painting on a Greek vase, conventional,
suggestive, and impressionistic, as is the
national pictorial art. The ■waka metre is
not the only form of Japanese verse. There
is a mode still more brief known as the
hokku, consisting of seventeen syllables, and
formed like the first three lines of the tanka
verse. It is used mostly for an expression
of wit or an epigrammatic statement. For
long poems the Japanese poet adopts what
is called the naga-iUa mode, consisting
merely of a series of tanka verses, like a
sonnet sequence. In this as in all other
forms of Japanese poetry, there is nothing
to distinguish it from prose except the
regular alternation of five and seven syllables.
There is neither rhyme, tone, alliteration,
accent, nor quantity. Nearly all Japanese
have a knack for poetry and try verse com-
position some time or other, but more
especially when they come to die, that being
the most dignified form of farewell to life.
Various attempts have been made to
modernise Japanese poetry by making
translations from Western poets into Japa-
nese, but none of them have been considered
successful. The Bureau of Poetry main-
tained by the Imperial Court in Tokyo holds
a poetic symposium annually at the beginning
of the year, when efforts in verse are sub-
mitted by any one who wishes, the number
sent in being usually over 25,000, of which a
certain number are selected by experts for
submission to the Emperor. The late Em-
peror was himself a poet of no mean dis-
tinction, and the art greatly flourished under
imperial patronage.
The works of all the more famous of the
ancient poets are included in the three
anthologies already mentioned in the course
of this essay. The editor of the anthology
known as the Kokinshu, Tsurayuki, was a
distinguished poet himself, and one of the
gems from his pen reads:
Sakura chiru,
Sono shita kaze wa
Samukara de
Sora ni shirarenu
Yuki zo furikeru!
(The white flakes fall ;
Yet "neath the trees
Unchilled the breeze;
For over all
A snow that never knew the sky. —
Fair cherry petals — fall and die!)
The following is a translation of a verse
of zaaka by Prince Aki of the eighth century:
Blue depths to-night are as the sea
Where clouds like billows rise.
Through which the moon glides gracefully
To portals in the skies:
O Love, thus you
Elude me, too! )
JAPANESE .\C1UK^ oi
ITIE iMi'iiKiAL tiii:atki;, Ti
FOR AX ANCIENT DRAMA
iKVi), IN Till- C
404
PRESENT-DAY I M I' R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
One or two examples may now be given
from modem poets, the following being from
the pen of the late Emperor of Japan :
Puyu fukaki
Neya no fusuma wo
Kasanete mo
Omou wa shizu ga
Yosameru nari keri!
(On winter nights when wild winds blow.
And double care keeps out the cold,
I think of those exposed to snow, —
The nameless, homeless poor and old ! )
These examples of modern Japanese poetry
may fitly conclude with one by the late
Empress of Japan :
Midaru beki
Ori wo ba okite
Hana-zakura
Mazu emu hodo wo
Naraiteshi gama!
(Flowers have their smiling time.
And then their time of wilding:
Girls should have their smiling time.
And never reach their wilding!)
It will thus be seen that Japanese poetry
can not be regarded as a means chosen for
sounding and recording any very profound
spiritual experience. But if it can not be
ranked among the great achievements of the
human intellect, it has, nevertheless, a degree
of art and ideal that is truly pleasing, and
if it has given solace to the mind of the nation
at all times, the unappreciative foreigner
should not despise it as unworthy of atten-
tion. The poetr>' and romance of the nation
have had much influence on the drama and
the theatre, as we shall now see.
Japanese drama originated, as drama did
elsewhere, in the performance of the ancient
folk-dances and folk-songs known as the
kuhiiki, which go back beyond the dawn of
history, probably having a religious origin,
as in Greece. Nations have always been
able to write poetry before prose, to sing
before they could speak, and to dance before
they could act with any histrionic art. This
dance that gave rise to the theatre was a folk-
dance and consequently different from danc-
ing as a social amusement, a distinction which
led to the ballet in Europe as to the geisha
dance in Japan. The motive of the his-
trionic dance, however, was as sacred as the
religious dances, being an attempt to give
expression to an undying passion, a bit of
eternal reality which is the source of all true
dramatic inspiration. At just what period
the kabuki, or secular dance, separated from
the kagura, or sacred dance, no one now
knows, but the existence of the Noh, or
Lyrical Drama, indicates a brave attempt
to preserve the sacred dignity of the art,
keeping it just above the status of an
operetta.
A GREAT JAPANESE ACTRESS, MISS RITSUKO MORI, AN IMPERIAL THE.\TRE STAR
The first Japanese theatre is said to have
appeared in the land of Idzumo where the
immigrants from northern China first settled,
and to a lady is ascribed the honour of the
invention. Tradition has it that the Lady
Kuni left Idzumo and came to ' Kyoto,
where she set up a stage near Shijo by the
sea. A remarkable feature of histrionic art
at this early period was that most of the
performers appear to have been females,
who adopted male attire for stage purposes.
Kuni and her troupe eventually invaded
Yedo, the capital of the shogun, and set up a
stage in 1603, just about the time when the
English stage was coming into prominence.
The popularity of the new form of art (ind
entertainment soon led to its having imita-
tors, and other theatres began to be set up
in Yedo. It is probable that the acting of
the period was not much abov-e the puppet
shows that were already in vogue in such
centres as Osaka. The puppet shows were,
of course, the precursors of the modern
theatre, but to a woman is given the dis-
tinction of having dared to perform in person
what the public had been accustomed to see
done by puppets. The puppets moved on
wires and acted their parts to the sound of
what was called music, accompanied by a
kind of song, called joruri, explaining the
meaning of the action. Those familiar with
Japanese plays and stage life will be inclined
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
405
to conclude that the actors of the nation
not only imitated the puppets, but have, in
fact, never gotten away from that style of
acting, the stiff, unnatural, and even gro-
tesque movements of the actor being much
after the manner of the ayatsuri. Thus what
was first a mere imitation of the puppets for
the amusement of the audience, has now
become a convention from which the actor
has great difficulty in breaking away.
The Japanese theatre is usually a modest
oblong building constructed of plain, unvar-
nished wood, the only adornments being a
ponderous roof and glaring wooden posters
outside, illustrating the plays to be performed
within. The interior is divided, first, into
the pit, or hiradoma, covered with square
spaces, each capable of seating four persons
on a matted floor, while on either side are
two-storied galleries with the best seats
arranged in a boxlike fashion. Over the
entrance, on a level with the second tier of
boxes, is a single gallery, which is the cheap-
est portion of the house. The stage, facing
the door, has two curtains, the outer one to
hide the whole when the play is not in motion,
a very elaborate affair usually presented by
some patron and bearing his name, and the
second, or drop curtain, to let down during
a change of scene. Entry to the stage is
obtained not only from the wings but by a
long gangway known as the hanamichi, or
Flower Path, so called because the original
intention was to afford persons who desired
to make presents to the actors, easy access
to the stage. It runs across the entire pit
and has the advantage of enabling long
processions characteristic of feudal plaj^s to
be seen by the audience, and also permits
two scenes to be acted simultaneously, the
one on the stage engaged, and the one on
the hanamichi approaching. In the centre
of the stage is a large revolving platform,
which allows one scene to be in preparation
while another is being acted, and then
suddenly to be brought into view without
dropping the curtain. The European stage
appeals to the mind like a framed picture,
but the Japanese stage does not attempt
to be different from ordinary life or to be
apart from it. But the Japanese theatre is
becoming more and more like those of
Europe, the best one in the capital having
dispensed with the revolving stage and the
hanamichi altogether. After the manner of
the theatres of ancient Greece the Japanese
stage has a star-trap, or seridashi, a hollow
place under the stage with a trap-door to
it, into which the actor can drop when he
desires to disappear, and from whence he
can also rise as an apparition. The kurombo
is another curious feature of Japanese the-
atrical personnel, the term being applied to
a person draped in black and su]>posc(i to
be invisible, whose duty is to assist the
actors by carrying lights or removing corpses
killed in stage action. The scenery and
dress of the Japanese stage is accurate and,
as a rule, of high artistic excellence. When
the time arrives for the play to begin two
pieces of wood are clapped together.
Generally speaking, the accessories of a
Japanese stage do not appear to be far
removed from the unimaginative scenery
of the stage in Elizabethan England. In
fact, such plays as the Noh can only be com-
pared to the Moralities and Mysteries of
pre-Shakesperian times. Yet one is forced
to admit that, so far as histrionic art goes,
mediaeval Japan reached a higher level
than the England of the same period, for
the English mediaeval plays were somewhat
rough and vulgar, displaying little of that
beauty and refinement still evident in the
Japanese lyrical drama, yet the English
plays were much more infused with whole-
hearted human passion and natural action.
What the Japanese play lacks in dramatic
action is compensated for by grave and
graceful motion and sober, pleasing drapery.
Theatre-going in Japan is a long-drawn-
out affair, lasting most of the day. In old
Japan the play lasted all day, but in these
more active days it lasts from two in the
afternoon until ten or eleven at night. Every
theatre is surrounded by restaurants of all
kinds and playgoers send out for food and
refreshments as wanted. Actors were for-
merly all of the male sex, as the profession
deteriorated after its foundation by a woman,
I )ut in recent years the profession has regained
respectability and women are permitted in
the best theatres, some of the actresses
displaying considerable ability, yet nothing
to that seen among European actresses.
The raising of the Japanese theatre to a
place where respectable persons might be
found was managed by the theatre man-
agers themselves, and in a very simple way.
After the opening of Japan to foreign inter-
course many foreigners of importance began
to visit the country, whereupon the theatre
managers adopted a custom of inviting
foreigners to their theatres, including Minis-
ters and Ambassadors as well as foreign
princes who chanced to visit Japan. In
most cases these invitations were accepted.
When General Grant and the grandson of
the German Emperor visited the Shintomi
Theatre, no one could say that such places
were unfit for high-class patrons. From
this time the upper classes began to patron-
ise the theatre and the Imperial Court
invited great actors to perform before dis-
tinguished assemblages in private. Hav-
ing attained unto imperial favour the Japa-
nese theatre had nothing more to do toward
retrieving its respectability.
As to the plays of the modern Japanese
theatre they are legion, and represent every
side of human life from ancient to modem
times. The most aristocratic play is that
called the Noh, a kind of operetta consist-
ing of singing and dancing, being, as has
been already pointed out, a descendant of
the ancient kagura, or temple dances. There
are hundreds of Noh dramas in existence
THE KABUKI-Z.\, A JAPANESE THEATRE AT TOKYO
27
IMITRIAI. THEATRE. TOKYO THE UPPER FOYER AND ENTRANCE TO DRESS CIRCLE — THE FOYER —THE RESTAIRAXT ON THE DRESS
CIRCLE FLOOR — THE AUDITORIl^M
PRESi: NT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
407
most of tlu'iii written Ijy priestly autliors
prior to the sixteenth century. No scenery
is used on the stage where they are performed.
A chorus sits on the ground to one side and
there is a simple orchestra at the back, with
a large painting of a pine tree. But the robes
worn in the Noh drama are very elaborate,
being triumphs of artistic skill. Some of
these robes are the property of ancient
families and have been preserved in the same
family for centuries. To relieve the mo-
notony of Noh plays there is the kyogen, a
kind of farce used as an interlude. The
common people, however, had small appre-
ciation for these plays. They preferred the
puppet shows and later the kabiiki, or popular
drama, of which there are numerous varieties
both ancient and modern. Two classes of
plays predominate, however, the jidai, or
historical dramas, and the sewa-mono, or
comedies of contemporar\' life. There is
hardly any important incident of national
history that has not been dramatised and
in the most realistic manner, like the Chushin-
Hiini, or League of the Forty-seven Ronin,
the Soga-Kyodai, and others. The last
named is based on the tale of two brothers
who seek revenge on the murderer of their
father. The Sendai Hagi is based on the
attempt to poison a child of the Lord of
Sendai, and the Kokusenya on the story of
the expulsion of the Dutch from Formosa
by Koxinga in the seventeenth century.
Among modern playwrights the most noted
is Dr. Tsubouchi, a university professor of
literature. His Maki-no-kata, an historical
drama based on the efforts of the Hojo
family to obtain the shogunate for their
house, is praised by Japanese critics as a
clever depiction of a woman's intrigue for
the sake of her child. Some of Shakespere's
plays, such as "Othello" and "Hamlet,"
have been translated and acted in Japan,
with indiflerent success. Japanese forms of
llisen's plays and those of George Bernard
Shaw and Sudermann have been more pop-
ular, though it is a question whether such
plays are really understood by a Japanese
audience. The theatres have some difficulty
in fulfilling police regulations prohibiting
plays with so-called "dangerous thoughts";
and consequently no great plays dealing with
modem life and its difficulties appear on the
Japanese stage. The mind of the nation is
devoted to a worship of its own past, as a
reaction against the modern tendency to
abandon Oriental for Occidental ideals.
But in the pull of the dead past and the pull
of the living present there is an odds which
no devotion to the past can overcome.
Japan is destined to break away from her
antiquated notions of drama as surely as
she is abandoning her old modes of commerce
and industry, and if she can carry with her
the imperishal:>le good, to the rest she may
say farewell with a will. When Japan
becomes more imljued with a world-conscious-
ness of culture she will move on in literature
and drama to a future that may easily
outshine her past.
THE 1MFEKI.\L THE.\TRIC, TOKYO
The Tcikoku Gekyo, or the Imperial
Theatre at Tokyo, may truly be described
as a Japanese national institution, designed
to foster the highest art, supported by the
most prominent art patrons of the Country,
and conducted under those auspices which
raise such an institution above the ranks of
mere commercial enterprises. It is famous
the world over as the home of Japanese
dramatic art, and as a theatre it unquestion-
ably occupies the same place in the nation
as the greatest theatres occupy in Great
Britain, France, Germany, or Itah*. Attend-
ance at the Imperial Theatre is almost
obligator^' on all visitors to Japan who wish
to see the best performances, not only of
modern Japanese plays and foreign pro-
ductions, but of the old lyric dramas for
which the Japanese have long been famous.
At the Imperial Theatre the visitor sees
nothing but the best, and the most charac-
teristic plays, dances and other features of
the dramatic art of the country, performed
by the best and highest paid artists in the
Orient.
As stated before, the Imperial Theatre is
not so much a commercial enterprise as it is
the national home of the drama. A school of
acting is maintained, actors and actresses are
trained from youth, and to appear on the
stage of the Imperial in one of the great pro-
ductions is to have the seal set on the artist's
fame. The Imperial Theatre in every sense
maintains the highest traditions set by its
founders. Directing the theatre there is, of
course, a body of the best known business
men and art patrons of Japan. The joint-
stock company which controls the institution
was established in 1909 under the encourage-
ment of the late Prince Ito, Marquis Saionji,
the late Count Hayashi and others, equally
well known for their fer\'id interest in aflfairs
of state, and in the encouragement of the fine
arts. The company was formed with a
capital of Yen 1,200,000, divided into 24,000
shares of Yen 50 each. A magnificent site
for the great new theatre was secured at No.i
Yuraku-cho, Tokj'o. This position is in
front of the Babasaki Mon, a gateway leading
to the Imperial Palace, and is near the Hibiya
Park, in the most attractive part of the
national capital. The theatre is adjacent to
the Central Railway Station and is also easily
reached from other points of interest to the
visitor to Tokyo. The building was com-
pleted in February, 191 1, at a cost of about
Yen 1,000,000, and was formally opened in
the following month.
The beauty and excellence of the building
can not be denied. Before the plans were
drawn the directors had placed before them
the best ideas of foreign designers, and the
Superintending Architect, Dr. T. Yokogawa,
was sent abroad to investigate the construc-
tion and design of theatres in Eiu'ope and
America. Himself a Master of Technology,
Dr. Yokogawa was readily able to assimilate
the good points of foreign theatres, and to
incorporate with them Japanese ideas in the
design and lauilding of the Imperial Theatre.
The building is both fire-proof and proof
against damage by earthquake. The prep-
aration of the site comprised the driving of
15,000 piles, 18 to 21 feet long, into the
ground, and binding them into a solid mass
w'ith reinforced concrete filling. The founda-
tions of the building were then laid 15 feet
below the surface of the ground, and upon
them was erected the steel frame, which is
filled in with bricks. The design is of the
Renaissance, and the whole conception
is pleasing to the eye. The building
measures approximately 102 feet wide along
the front elevation, this width extending to
150 feet in the central part. It extends back
from the street a depth of 198 feet. The front
of the building is 52 feet high, but above
the stage the roof is raised to a height of 66
feet. Surmounting the front arched roof is
the figure of the God of Good Luck. The
entire outside walls of the theatre are faced
with pure white tiles from Imbe, a place in
Bizen Pro%'ince famous for its manufacture of
tiles. There are many fine points about the
building which must be seen to be appreci-
ated. The interior decoration is delicate and
tasteful, every window and stairway, or
appurtenance of the building being carried
out in good style, and there is a profusion of
marbles, statuary, and pictures to heighten
the effect of the tout ensemble. No trouble or
expense has been spared in the lighting and
ventilating arrangements, which are most
modem in their planning. For instance, the
Imperial Theatre maintains its own plant for
cooling and heating the atmosphere, and for
drawing off vitiated air, which is entirely
renewed every ten minutes by mechanical
appliances. The electrical current for light-
ing purposes is accumulated in storage
batteries in the machine rooms, and it is
impossible for the theatre to be thrown into
darkness through any sudden failure of the
city light service. It may be added that all
these features of the internal arrangement
and maintenance of the theatre were care-
fully studied by experts sent abroad specially
4o8
P R E S E N T - n A \'
I M r R E S S I O N S
O F
J A P A N
to investigate such questions, and everything
of a mechanical nature, whether for the
control of the footlights, or otherwise, is the
result of close attention to what is the best
and latest. The same applies to the work
which has been done to make the Imperial
Theatre thoroughly fireproof. In addition to
the usual asbestos curtain before the stage,
the theatre is divided into three sections, each
of which can be isolated from the others
instantaneously and automatically by con-
trivances which operate when fire raises the
temperature. As to the seating arrange-
ments, they are, naturally, installed mainly
with the idea of the comfort of the Japanese
patrons, but it may be said at once that
foreigners are accommodated in boxes, or
with chairs which leave nothing to be desired
for ease and for convenience of view. The
internal arrangement of the Imperial Theatre,
is, in fact, a great tribute to the cleverness of
the Japanese for blending their own require-
ments with those of the foreigners. An
evening spent at the Imperial Theatre will
disclose that nothing is lacking to promote
the comfort and enjoyment of the visitor,
Japanese or foreign. There are four floors,
or tiers of seats, arranged in conformity with
the European plan for a horseshoe-shaped
auditorium. Ranged to left and right of the
first and second tiers are the boxes, private
and public, including the special boxes for
dignitaries. The seating accommodation is
for 1,700 persons.
The proscenium is 48 feet wide and 24 feet
high, the stage itself being raised about six
feet. All curtains and backs are raised with-
out being folded or rolled. A revolving
stage, 48 feet in diameter and operated by a
1 2 horsepower electric motor is provided, and
is controlled by specialists w'ho were sent to
Europe and America to study mechanical
arrangements of this nature in modern
theaters. The general a|)pointments of the
Imperial Theatre are remarkably fine.
Quite apart from all modern conveniences,
such as toilet rooms, retiring rooms, smoking
rooms, lounge, and bar, there is a well
organised catering department having the
appointments of a first class restaurant which
is always well patronised by the Japanese
and foreign visitors. In addition there are
dining and refreshment rooms for each floor.
The main restaurant is a handsome room,
its walls hung with pictures by such a re-
nowned artist as Mr. Yeisaku Wada. In
the retiring rooms adjacent are also magni-
ficent paintings, one particularly fine series
in oils being morning, noon, and evening
scenes by Mr. Saburosuke Okada, another
famous painter. The theatre also contains
a post and telegraph department, medical
room, telephones for the use of the public,
and many more similar thoughtfully pro-
vided conveniences.
In the School of Art conducted by the
Imperial Theatre, actors and actresses,
vocalists, musicians, and dancers are trained,
so that the standard of talent to be presented
to patrons is always maintained according to
the highest traditions. In this school there
is a stage for the novices, apart from the
second stage on which rehearsals take place.
A large number of pupils attend the school,
and as they qualify they are introduced into
the performances as their services may be
called for. By May, 191 7, there were many
fifth-year graduates of the dramatic course
placed by the Directorate of the theatre. A
widely diversified programme of entertain-
ments is presented at the Imperial Theatre
throughout the year, including ancient and
modem dramas, dances, and so on, as well as
cinematograph, and opera. The theatre is
available under special arrangements for
foreign companies, and many excellent
touring companies have been seen there.
Occasionally the Japanese artists cooperate
with local foreign talent in producing operas
and similar works, and one may often see
adaptations of foreign drama staged in the
best style and acted by artists whose fame
has spread far beyond Japan. Many of the
Japanese performances start about four
o'clock in the afternoon, and extend through-
out the evening, but as a rule the perform-
ances are timed as they are in foreign
countries.
The Directorate of the Imperial Theater
comprises Baron Shibusawa, Honourary
Adviser; Baron Okiu"a, President; Mr. K.
Yamamoto, Managing Director, and Messrs.
M. Fukuzawa, T. Masuda, T. Tanaka,
T. Tezuka, R. Fujiyama, and S. Tsunoda,
Directors. Messrs. K. Murai and C.
Yasoshima are the Auditors. The great
success which has attended this undertaking
is admittedly largely due to the highly capable
management of Mr. Yamamoto, whose name
is familiar in theatrical circles throughout
the world. Mr. Yamamoto has a keen sense
of the dignity of the Imperial Theatre, and it
is his constant endeavour to maintain the
highest standards of excellence in the conduct
of the institution and in the presentation of
the best that money can provide in the way
of art. Very high salaries are paid to the
leading actors and actresses. It is, of course,
impossible to regard the Imperial Theatre in
the light of a business concern purely and
simply, nevertheless the financial situation is
a very satisfactory one. For the half-year
ended July 31, 19 17, the gross earnings were
Yen 349,530 and the expenses Yen 268,753,
leaving a net profit of Yen 80,777. A divi-
dend of Yen 1.13^^4 per share was declared.
Yen 4,100 was added to the reserves, and
after distribution of other sums, Yen 12,000
was carried forward.
THE HOSPITAL AND HEADQUARTERS OF THE JAPAN RED CROSS SOCIETY
XXIV. The Progress of Medicine
IN Japan
By PROF. S. KITASATO, M. D., F. R. S., London, etc.
History— Institutions for Medical Research — Medical Societies and Periodicals
ROME was not built in a day," says
an often used proverb, and the same
is true of the science of Japanese
medicine which is to-day the result of a slow
but steady growth that has extended over
two thousand years from the time when
intercourse between Japan and the Asiatic
continent had its first misty beginnings.
An external culture and Buddhism were
then introduced into the country, and the
seeds of medical knowledge were sown on
Japanese soil, together with the seeds of
various other sciences and arts.
.•\s a result of the new knowledge, and of
its influence on the life of the people, a body
of laws, which is known as the "Taihorei,"
was drawn in the reign of Mommu Tenno
(701 A. D.), in which some articles were
devised to regulate and control the practice
of medicine. From those laws we learn that
even at that time distinctions were already
made between the practice of medicine,
surgery, pediatrics, ophthalmology, and
otology, acupuncture and massage. Medical
students were educated at the public expense
and their qualification was finally deter-
mined by a kind of state examination. The
progress of medicine, however, was impeded
by the fact that it, as well as other branches
of learning, were usurped by Buddhism.
This continued to be the case until the
beginning of the Kamakura period (1186-
1315 A. D.), when a revolution against the
general government was attempted. The
result was that both religion and medicine
gradually began to assume features that
were more in consonance with the national
character. Modifications and improvements
were made along lines of practical knowledge
which led to corresponding improved methods
of treatment. Quite a number of volumin-
ous medical works were also published, which
embodied the results of previous experiences,
so that the medical practitioner had a reli-
able source of information to guide him and
to extend his knowledge.
In the time of Oda-Yoyotomi (l 568-1 614
A. D.) the medical school of Japan had to
meet a strong current of Western medical
learning, whose first indications were to be
seen coincident with the introduction of
Christianity in Japan in 1549. It led Japa-
nese medicine to take a quick gait toward
the progress in surgery, which was known
as "Nambanryu," meaning the "System of
the South." The long years of internal
peace and quiet of the Tokugawa reign
(1615-1867 A. D.) greatly favoured the
spreading of Chinese medicine and of Chinese
medical methods in Japan, which were
strongly supported by the respect and
popularity which Chinese ethics, and the
moral precepts of Confucius and Mentius,
found among the learned and educated
classes of Japan. The fact, however, must
not be overlooked that at the same time the
Japanese school also had produced physi-
cians of note and high repute, who, how-
ever, formed a class of their own.
In the further development of Japanese
medicine, the Dutch medical learning, intro-
duced in Japan about 1641 A. D., was greatly
studied and investigated by the followers of
the Japanese school. In the latter part
of the Tokugawa reign, great physicians
4IO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PROFESSOR S. KITASATD, M. D., F. R. S.
(LONDON)
appeared, such as Ranka Mayeno and Gem-
paku Sugita, who were the harbingers of
the further progress and enlightenment of the
Meiji Era. They saw the imperative neces-
sity of employing the empiric methods of
the new school, and of abandoning the old
deductive methods. The propagation of
these new methods was greatly helped by
the work of Dr. von Siebold, a German
physician who came to Nagasaki in 1826,
and to the Government, which established
a Translation Bureau in which many of the
leading foreign medical works were translated,
and thus made accessible to all. But the
advocates of the old Chinese and Japanese
schools succeeded in getting the govern-
mental authorities to prohibit the propaga-
tion of the new learning in Japan, and accord-
ingly a corresponding prohibition law was
enacted in 1849. Strange to say, it was in
the same year that Jenner's method of
vaccination was introduced in Japan. The
followers of the European school carried on
their work and studies in secret, in the guise
of vaccinators. It was not long, however,
before the prohibition was rescinded, and a
number of medical schools came into exis-
tence toward the close of the Tokugawa
reign. The most famous of them were the
Tokyo-Igakkwan, which later was reorgan-
ised as the Tokyo Imperial University
Medical College, and the Scitokukwan in
Nagasaki, later reorganised as the Naga.saki
Medical School.
At the beginning of the Meiji Era, Dr.
William Millis, an English physician, who
was then physician to the British Legation
in Tokyo, applied for a position in the medical
service of the imperial army which was then
contending with the shogunate forces.
.'\fterward, he was engaged in the organisa-
tion of the Medical College and Hospital of
the Tokyo Imperial University. Later on,
the German school of medicine, which ap-
pears to have been better adapted to the
genius and bent of mind of the Japanese,
took the place of other schools that had
hitherto existed. In the fourth year of
Meiji (1872), Drs. Miiller and Hoffman were
engaged to take the place of the English
physician, and since then numerous German
instructors have followed, to be attached
to the Tokyo Imperial University as pro-
fessors. The last of these were the late
Dr. von Barlz and Dr. Scriba.
Medical education in Japan consists of
two classes; namely, university and medical
school. Both require a four-year course of
study, the only difference between them
being the two years of preliminary study
in the higher schools, besides the five-year
course of the middle schools and six years
in the primary school. Graduates of both
are qualified and licensed to practise medi-
cine. There are at present four Imperial
Universities: namely, in Tolcyo, established
in 1879; in Kyoto; in Sendai (the Tohoku
Imperial University); and in Fukuoka
(the Kyushu Imperial University). There
are still two other colleges, such as the
Osaka and the Keiogijiku. The Osaka
Medical College is the district govern-
mental institution and the other is the private
college of the Keiogijiku University. The
medical schools are the Chiba, the Sendai,
the Okayama, the Kanazawa, the Nagasaki,
the Niigata, the Kyoto, the Aichi, and the
Kumamoto. and the Tokyo Charity Hospital
Medical School.
INSTITUTIONS FOR MEDICAL
RESEARCH
The Kitasato Institute for Infectious
Diseases, established in 1892, was the first
of the kind to be organised in Japan. It
has been due to this institute that some of
the world-famous discoveries were made.
Among these may be mentioned the dis-
covery of plague bacillus and dysentery
bacillus; contributions to the serum therapy
of tetanus and diphtheria; improvements
in the preparation of pure calf lymph; es-
tablishment of rational method for preven-
tion of plague and of other infectious diseases ;
discovery of intermediate hosts of lung and
liver flukes and other biological studies of
parasites; improvements in the preparation
of efficacious sensitised typhoid, cholera,
gonorrhoea and other vaccines. Two of the
most widely known discoveries made in
Japan lately are the determination of the
causative agent of Schistosomiasis, that was
made by Professors Fujinami and Katsurada,
and of Weil's disease, or hemorrhagic jaun-
dice, that was achieved by Professors Inada
and Ido of the Fukuoka Imperial University.
They named the germ as "Spirocheta icter-
ohsmatologiae." Full details regarding the
discoveries and work referred to above may
be found in medical literature throughout the
world, and therefore further reference here
will be omitted.
MEDICAL SOCIETIES AND
PERIODICALS
The first among the medical bodies is
the Association of Physicians, of all Japan,
which watches over the rights and interests
of the profession. There are more than
forty-five medical societies and associations
for scientific purposes, which all have their
own journals. There are over sixt}' medical
periodicals, all of which arc published in
Japanese, but journals in foreign languages
are pubUshed periodically by the Tokyo,
Kyoto, and Kyushu Imperial LTniversities.
Another periodical in the European languages
is published by the Kitasato Institute for
Infectious Diseases, entitled "The Kitasato
Archives of Experimental Medicine."
' 1 1
:♦ •» &
GOLF LINKS ON ROKKO MOUNT
XXV. The Foreigner in Japan
By ROBERT YOUNG, Editor and Proprietor of "The Japan Chronicle"
IN books on Japan it is not uncommon
to find it assumed that the remarkable
changes which have taken place in the
course of the last sixty years have been the
product solely of Japanese initiative and
energy, and that changes of such a far-reach-
ing character should have been possible in
so short a time is quoted as proof of the
marvellous capacity of the Japanese. What
may be justly credited to the Japanese is
their receptivity and openness to new ideas,
their readiness to learn from others, and their
facility for adaptation. This has been
evident throughout their history. From
China or Korea the Japanese received their
script, their art, their philosophy, their
methods of government, and for the great
mass of the people their religion. When, a
few centuries later (in 1542), the first Euro-
peans appeared on the scene, in the guise
of three Portuguese adventurers, followed
by Portuguese missionaries and traders, the
Japanese were found equally receptive. The
adoption of Western firearms revolutionised
the art of war. It was to the Portuguese
that the castles which played so great a
part in those troublous times owed their
architecture, and when Nobunaga, the
great warrior of the sixteenth century, reared
his famous castle at Azushi in the Province
of Omi, "he placed the Christian God (by
which it is supposed is meant a crucifix] on
the top of the keep." The Christian religion
of the Catholic variety, with all its intoler-
ance, was introduced and spread rapidly; it
might even have supplemented the Buddhist
religion, which it so much resembled, had
it not been for the suspicion aroused by the
aggressive designs of the Portuguese in the
East and the interference of the priests in
Japanese politics. It was in this period that
the Japanese began to take interest in over-
sea trade, and when a Kentish sea-captain
named Adams, pilot or sailing-master of a
Dutch vessel, arrived in Japan in 1600,
with the only remaining ship of a fleet that
had set sail originally for the purpose of
trading to Spanish America, the Japanese
eagerly learned from him the art of building
sea-going vessels that would be capable of
something more than coasting voyages.
Dutch and English traders arrived in
Japan in the early years of the seventeenth
centur>', and were warmly welcomed. The
English withdrew after a somewhat chequered
business career of ten years, but the Dutch
remained, and when Christianity was pro-
scribed and the Portuguese expelled, the
Dutch were allowed to remain, quarters
being given them in Nagasaki, where a small
trade, limited to two or three ships a year,
was maintained with the West. For more
than two centuries Japan led a secluded life.
Unfortunately for her this was a period of
great progress in Europe, in which science
gradually extended its range, the distant
places of the world were explored, new
products were discovered or invented, and
steam began to revolutionise industry.
Japan of her own will remained outside
the circle of cultiu-e contact, and when the
country was reopened to the world in the
middle of the nineteenth century Japan was
found to be still at a stage of civilisation
which other nations had long passed. Yet
during all that time the small Dutch colony
at Nagasaki had been a window through
which gleams of the light of science came
from the Western world. Some members
of the Dutch factory were men of consider-
able learning, and the colony from time to
time numbered among its members German
scientists who desired to study conditions
in Japan. To them came Japanese secretly,
thirsting for knowledge, and the elements
of mathematics, geographjs astronomy, bot-
any, medicine, and other sciences were
obtained from this source.
Nevertheless, the "black ships" of Com-
modore Perry found in 1853 a Japan but
little changed from the Japan of the seven-
teenth centurj'. The tide of progress in
civilisation had passed her by and left her
stranded. As the result of his efforts a few
ports were unwillingly opened to foreign
trade. Then commenced a long struggle
412
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
between the forces of conscr\'atism and
innovation, compHcated by the strife between
the shogunate and the clans of Satsuma and
Choshu, which lasted until 1868, when the
shogunate fell. Up to that time the clans
opposing the shogunate had been counted
as conser\-atives, though as a matter of fact
the daimyate of Satsuma had introduced
some foreign innovations, purchasing steam-
ships and establishing a spinning mill. But
generally the clans claiming to be pro-
Imperialist and anti-shogim denounced the
opening of the ports to foreigners as a dese-
cration of Japanese soil and insistently
demanded that the "hairy barbarians"
should be driven into the sea and the ports
closed. When the shogunate fell and the
Mikado came to rule as well as reign, with
the Satsuma and Choshu clans in full control
of the reins of government, a complete
change took place in their attitude. They
began to perceive that owing to the exten-
sion of communications seclusion was no
longer possible and that intercourse with
foreign nations, once restored, could not be
broken off without danger. It was natural
that in these new circumstances the younger
men, some of whom had visited foreign
countries and learned how far Japan lagged
behind the times, should be called to fill a
place in the national councils, and to insti-
tute reforms calculated to bring Japan on a
level with the progressive countries of the
West.
The consequence of this new spirit was
that foreign scientists and experts were en-
gaged as teachers. Japanese weakness being
strikingly evident in the matter of defence,
it was the reorganisation of the army and
navy to which attention was first directed.
Englishmen were employed to convert a
navy of war-junks, propelled by sweeps or
sails, into a nax'j' of modem steam-driven
warships, the success of which was shown in
1894 at the Yalu and in 1904 at Tsushima.
Frenchmen were engaged to build arsenals
and dockyards and reorganise the army,
being replaced by Germans after the war
of 1870-71 had shown the superiority of the
German military* machine. How closely the
Japanese army has followed German patterns,
even to the goose-step, will be realised bv
any one who makes an examination of its
methods. Organisation, administrative de-
tails, training, equipment, the whole is a
remarkably close copy of the German mili-
tary machine, and, unlike copies in general,
the imitation showed itself in its encounter
with the Russian armies to possess the driv-
ing force of the original. From questions of
defence the new Government turned to the
reorganisation of the civil and criminal law,
early reaUsing that unless its legal adminis-
mr. robert vovxc, proprietor of
"the j.\p.\n' chronicle"
tration could be brought more into accord-
ance with the principles animating the
juridical systems of the West, it would be
hopeless to expect admission to the comity
of nations. The codification of Japanese
law was begun by a Frenchman, M. Bois-
sonade de Fontarabie, who incidentally
brought about the abolition of torture by
offering his employers the choice between
its immediate suspension or his resignation.
His work of codification was continued by
Germans, and the Japanese legal system
to-day may be said to be an amalgam of
French and German principles upon which
Japanese customar\' law and institutions
are grafted.
Another important question to which the
new Government early turned its attention
was that of the currency, which was reorgan-
ised under British auspices. A mint origin-
ally erected at Hongkong was obtained and
set up in Osaka, where for many years it
was operated by English experts who raised
the Japanese coinage to an equalitj- with
that of any other nation both as regards
standard and appearance. Education was
placed in the hands of Americans, who laid
the foundations of an excellent system of
instruction, afterward influenced and modi-
fied by German ideas. But it was an English-
man — Basil Hall Chamberlain — who was
made Professor of Japanese and Philology
in the Imperial University of Tok\-o, and
whose example did so much to encourage the
study of the language from a philological
standpoint among the Japanese themselves.
The higher medical instruction of the coun-
try was for many years in the hands of
Germans, the whole medical science of the
country to-day being on German lines.
Post office, telegraphs, and railways were all
organised or constructed by British subjects.
Lighthouses were planned and erected under
British super\'ision. The reform of the
prisons was undertaken vmder British advice.
Waterworks and harbour works were con-
structed under the superintendence of Brit-
ish employees of the Japanese Government.
The first spinning mills were erected and
run by men from Lancashire; the first flour
mills were built and operated by English-
men, while the organisation of the first
steamship company was undertaken by
foreigners, chiefly British and Americans,
who also for many years officered the vessels.
It was an Englishman who started the first
newspaper in Japan printed in the native
script. "By foreigners," says Professor
Chamberlain, "the first men-of-war were
built, the first large public edifices erected,
the first lessons given in rational finance.
Nor must it be supposed that they have
been mere supers'isors. It has been a case
of off-coats, of actual manual work, of
example as well as precept. Technical men
have shown their Japanese employees how-
to do technical things, the name of chef de
bureau, captain, foreman, or what not, being
no doubt generally painted on a Japanese
figure-head, but the real power behind each
little throne being the foreign adviser or
specialist."
Nothing but praise is due the Japanese
for so readily recognising that they must sink
any national pride and employ foreigners in
the work of reorganisation, and it may be
acknowledged that these experts were liber-
ally recompensed and generously treated.
But this scarcely gives the Japanese the right
to claim the labours of the foreign experts
as their own, and it does not justify the
assumption so frequently made that the
metamorphosis from feudalism to the modem
industrial State has been the unaided work of
the Japanese, without expert knowledge or
training — a modem miracle. What is so
remarkable is that despite the assistance
rendered by foreigners in the great work of
reconstruction, the general attitude towards
the resident foreigner is neither just nor
generous. Considerable jealously is shown
regarding his efforts both in the matter of
trade and industries. Ten years ago, one of
Japan's greatest admirers, the late Captain
Brinkley, wrote: "He would be a very ill-
advised Occidental who carried his money to
Japan and proceeded to set up a factory on
his own account." The attitude taken by
the bulk of the Japanese is that any profit
made by a foreigner in Japan is so much taken
from the pockets of Japanese. No considera-
tion is given to the development of resources
effected by foreign aid or even to the fact that
in the majority of cases any profits made are
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS O !•' JAPAN
413
spent in tlic country itself. The Japanese
view seems to be that capital invested in the
country must be under the sole administra-
tion of Japanese. It was, of course, the foreign
merchant who instituted and developed
Japan's oversea trade, and it is due in no
small measure to the foundation he laid that
Japan's exports in the Meiji Era increased
from a total value of Yen 15,000,000 in
1868 (say Yen 3,000,000 at the then rate of
exchange) to Yen 458,000,000 in 19 10.
Nevertheless, the view of the Japanese is
that the foreign merchant is an interloper
and that he should go his way with the
foreign experts whose services have now
been dispensed with. It does not seem to
occur to the Japanese who take this view —
and it is to be feared that they are
the large majority — that the more foreign
merchants who can be persuaded to use their
energy, capacity, and capital in developing
Japanese trade and finding a market for
Japanese products, the greater must be the
profit for Japan. The general feeling seems
to be that the foreign merchant is in some way
robbing the Japanese of business that would
otherwise come into his hands, and upon
which he w-ould reap the profit that is now
made by the foreigner. Of course, as time
has gone by it is only natural that the bulk of
Japan's foreign trade should pass into the
hands of the Japanese, who, with growing
experience, have become more capable of con-
ducting it. But, as might be expected, with
an increase of the bulk of foreign trade, the
share of foreign merchants has increased in
amount, though it has diminished in the per-
centage of the total. As indicating the
extent of trade done by foreign merchants
and the contributions levied thereupon by
Japanese taxation, it may be interesting to
state that according to an investigation made
a few years ago, the foreigners of Kobe, who,
including the Chinese, do not constitute quite
I per cent of the population, paid almost 10
per cent of the total imperial taxation, 13 per
cent of the total income tax, and 21 per cent
of the total business tax. A similar investi-
gation with regard to Yokohama showed that
while foreigners constituted only 2.09 per
cent of the total population, they paid 22.62
per cent of the business tax.
It might be thought that such facts as these
would prove the value of the small foreign
community to the Japanese State, both from
the work done in extending Japanese trade
and the contributions to Japanese expendi-
ture, but this is not the case. The attitude
of the Japanese Government as well as the
Japanese people is that of hostility, more or
less veiled, to foreigners and foreign enter-
prise. The alien is imder many disabilities.
Foreigners are denied the right to possess
land in their own names. Prior to the last
revision of the treaties in 191 1 a Land Owner-
shi]> Bill was passed which proposed to extend
this right to foreigners whose countries
granted Japanese a similar concession. The
measure was, however, hedged about with so
many harassing restrictions, such as that a
foreigner who desired to purchase land must
be domiciled in the country and must sell his
land on leaving Japan on pain of confiscation,
that it would have been of but little value in
practice. Though passed by the Diet, it has
never come into operation, and it remains a
dead letter. It is possible, however, for two
or more foreigners to organise a company
under Japanese law and thus hold land, but
the device is not altogether satisfactory as it
does not rest on any established right. Dr. de
Becker, a jurist of acknowledged authority,
points out that foreigners can be interested
in (i) limited partnerships, (2) joint-stock
limited partnerships, and (3) joint-stock
limited companies owning Japanese ships;
but in the first place they can not become
partners with unlimited liability; in the
second case, the same rule applies, and in the
third case, they can not become directors.
In other words, the law is so framed that
all the executive power is vested in the
hands of Japanese subjects. Foreigners
may not become shareholders in the semi-
State banks, such as the Bank of Japan,
the Yokohama Specie Bank, or the Agri-
cultural or Industrial Banks. These banks,
with the authority of the State behind
them, in some cases make loans to Japanese
at rates far below those ruling in the
markets, in order to enable Japanese to
compete on favourable terms with foreign
undertakings. Seeing that any loss is borne
by taxation, to which foreigners contribute,
the exclusion of foreigners from being share-
holders or from the benefits derived from such
banks is evidently unjust. Again, the articles
of subsidised companies, such as the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha (Japan Steamship Company),
exclude foreigners from membership, though
here also the sulisidies come from general
taxation to which foreigners contribute.
Foreigners can not become members, share-
holders, or brokers of the various exchanges,
and they are excluded from membership in
the chambers of commerce. Foreigners can
not engage in the emigration business either
as individuals or as shareholders of the emi-
gration companies. Foreigners i>a\- rates,
but can not vote in municipal elections.
Foreigners can not become members of the
Japanese Bar or practise in a Japanese court.
despite the fact that a number of Japanese
have been called to the English Bar. Vessels
flying a foreign flag are not only excluded
from the Japanese coasting trade, but even
the concession under which foreign ships on a
continuous voyage were able to carry cargo
and passengers between Nagasaki, Kob(5, and
Yokohama was withdrawn when the treaties
were revised in 191 1. Thus, while Japanese
ships may ply to and from any British port
(Hongkong to Singa])ore, Singapore to Cal-
cutta, Colombo, Bombay, or home ports), a
British vessel is prohibited from carrying a
pound of tea or a single passenger between
Formosa and Nagasaki, Kobe, or Yokohama.
In view of these disabilities it is scarcely
surijrising that the extension of Japanese
influence or territory in the East is not wel-
comed by British or any other foreigners in
this part of the world. In Formosa, for
example, there has been a deliberate attempt
to squeeze out foreigners from the trade they
established. "Japan for the Japanese" is the
principle advocated, and reciprocity is lost
sight of. When it is considered how much
Japan has owed to foreigners in the past, it is
surprising that such a short-sighted policy
should prevail. In the matter of the admin-
istration of justice, foreigners have full and
unrestricted access to the courts, but the
procedure is so cumbrous and is subject to so
many delays that merchants in many cases
prefer to suffer loss rather than indulge in
svich an expensive luxury. However, they
are no worse oflt in this respect than their
Japanese fellow-residents. What may justly
be resented is the latent hostility to foreigners
and foreign enterprise, which is sometimes
even more evident in Government circles than
among the mass of the people. Occasionally
even officials of Government departments
have openly advocated the supplanting of the
foreign merchant in the interests of what is
called "direct trade," quite oblivious to the
fact that every agency which can be recruited
is of advantage to the extension of Japanese
cominerce.
It inay be hoped that as a knowledge of the
teachings of economics extends, there will be
a wider appreciation of the benefits to be
derived from the assistance given by foreign-
ers in the extension of Japanese trade and the
development of Japan's resources. No one
suggests, of course, that foreigners are
animated by an altruistic motive in their
commercial undertakings, but, in view of the
liberty extended abroad to Japanese when
engaged in mercantile pursuits, foreign mer-
chants in Japan and Japanese territories
have a right to expect some measure of
reciprocity.
XXVI. Japanese Characteristics:
THE Physical, the Mental,
AND THE Moral
By DR. J. INGRAM BRYAN, M. A., M. Litt., Ph.D. The Meiji University and the Imperial Naval College,
and Japan Correspondent of the " London Morning Post "
Physical Characteristics— Mental Characteristics — Moral Characteristics
A GOOD deal has been said and written
by Occidentals on the character-
istics of the Japanese, mostly by
those whose briefness of sojourn in Japan
could not possibly have made them author-
ities on the subject. Even old residents
increasingly feel convinced that the longer
one lives in the country the more one should
honestly hesitate to venture upon any pos-
itive estimate of the nation's more salient
points of character. All that one feels fully
persuaded of is that while the Japanese are
in many ways a puzzle, from an Occidental
point of view, they are nevertheless neither
beneath nor beyond the pale of humanity as
known in other lands ; they are indeed the most
human of mortals, with their full share of all
the virtues and vices, the greatness and mean-
ness, that man is heir to everywhere, only
developed from a different angle, so to speak.
With those who hold that long intimacy
of contact with Eastern peoples incapaci-
tates an Occidental for trustworthy appre-
ciation of their character, surely no rational
mind can agree. If the resident of the Far
East be supposed to lose sense of proportion
and even to forget or ignore the alleged
superior standards of the West, or, on the
other hand, to acquire that familiarity
which breeds contempt by over-long associ-
ation with the life of the Orient, how is it
that no such absurd notion is entertained
when the case is reversed and the problem
becomes a proper estimate of Occidental
character by Orientals? No one would dare
to advance the contention that extended
residence in Europe or America invalidated
the claim of a Japanese to a proper appraise-
ment of Occidental characteristics. If the
qualification of a careful first-hand study of
a people's civilisation and historj- be deemed
essential in the one case, it must be equally
so in the other. What one has to avoid, in
order to get at the truth, is that attitude of
prejudice so often evinced by the average
Occidental in approaching an estimate of
Oriental characteristics. It is a matter
where absolute impartiality is imperative, if
one desires the truth. Too often it is found
that when the verdict is condemnatory of
the East the Occidental does not discredit
it as the product of over-ripe or over-hasty
observation, but when judgment turns out
to be of a eulogistic nature it is declared due
to one or other of the causes stated. Thus
it is only a favourable opinion that seems
open to suspicion. This prejudice may be
unconscious, but it is too frequently obvious,
none the less, and it inevitably revolts against
anything antagonistic to its promptings.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
415
The present essay, based on many years
of close first-hand study and observation of
life and character in Japan, is an appeal
only to those of an ojicn mind. Facts and
incidents which only extended residence and
laljour could have accumulated, will be
brought to light and opinion frankly stated.
No attempt will be made to deny that the
globe-trotter and other superficial observers
may find in Japan conditions which merelj'
to see are sufficient ground for judgment.
But this concession can not alter the fact
that for any adequate appreciation of Japa-
nese characteristics a knowledge of the
language and some degree of communion
with the thought of the people are essential.
Even the average foreign resident of Japan,
much less the average tourist, sees no more
than the barest superficialities of everj'day
life. To some, of course, this is all of life,
but it is a very inadequate basis for trust-
worthy understanding of national character-
istics. Even from those Japanese who
speak one's language very little can be
gathered of the native character and spirit,
as they invariably put themselves in the
position of the foreigner and talk to him
from his point of view. And to increase the
difficulty, the Japanese with whom the
average foreigner most comes in contact
are least representative of the nation at its
best. This is especially true of the foreign
merchant and the foreign tourist, the one in
Japan to get money and the other to spend
it, and both of whom meet as a rule only
the inferior type of trader. Very seldom
indeed do those engaged in trade and pleas-
ure-hunting meet the best class of Japanese.
The missionary and the teacher of a foreign
language are the foreigners in closest contact
with all classes of the people and must be
regarded as the best judges of the nation's
character, though the data supplied by the
foreign merchant should receive due con-
sideration.
To the foreign observer Japanese charac-
teristics can be most conveniently considered
under three heads: the physical, the mental,
and the moral.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The Japanese race no doubt derived its
physical characteristics from the various
migrations arriving in the islands from Korea,
Mongolia, Malaya, and the islands of the
Pacific, the predominant type being Mon-
goloid. The admirable qualities of Mongol
physique, however, have been diluted by
infiltrations of tribal inferiority from the
Pacific islands, forming a blend of bloods
that his, been a tremendous handicap to
Japanese racial development. Fear of this
retarding influence of inferior immigrants on
racial progress is natural and legitimate
among the white races, and eminently
justified by a study of Japanese evolution.
The racial intermixture took place in Japan
in prehistoric times, and though the memo-
ries of it are now forgotten, echoes of
the ancient antagonisms are still heard in
the clan disputes of modern politics, and
in the struggle for priority and position. On
the other hand, Japan's mixture of bloods,
so far as the ingredients were superior, has
proved the salvation of the race. After all,
only mixed races are strong, as may be seen
in the case of the Anglo-Saxons; but when
the mixture is of doubtful reputation, as
was the case in Spain, the race is inevitably
threatened with deterioration. After more
than two thousand years Japan is just
beginning to show signs of rising above the
disabilities imposed upon her by the tide of
inferior blood from the south, and she now
bids fair to reveal an immense racial potenti-
ality.
Archaeological and anthropological re-
search indicate that two main streams of
immigration met in Japan, a mild and
cultured strain to the west coast from China
and Korea, and a fierce, warlike strain from
the south, the latter subduing the former
and imparting those fighting qualities that
enabled the race to conquer the aborigines
and establish the Empire. The upper
PE.^S.\.\T TYPES
4i6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
nmrrrf-i -TWinjM-. ' I 'I ifr.:.-riss
YOUTHFUL BABY NURSES
classes of Japan, descended from the priests
and soldiers of the invaders, have preserved
the blood of their distant ancestors free from
the aboriginal bloods of the islands, and
mixed only with Korean and Chinese
immigrants and missionaries who came to
Japan in large numbers in the fifth and sixth
centuries, thus accentuating the aristocratic
characteristics of the nation. This type is
distinguished by long oval faces, oblique
eyes set in deep sockets, long eyelids, small
mouths, straight noses and finely cut features,
high and narrow foreheads, fair complexions
with soft hairless skin, called by the Japa-
nese "silken skin." On the other hand, in
the labouring and agricultural classes of the
present day we see the squat round faces
and coarse features of the aboriginal races
and the migrations from the southern islands.
Their eyes are level with their faces, and they
have thick, upturned noses and exposed
nostrils. All Japanese have the yellow skin
and black hair of their Mongol ancestors,
but there are important excejjtions, which
will be noted later.
In physique and muscular energy the Japa-
nese are inferior to Europeans, but their defi-
ciency in these respects is redeemed in some
measure by their activity and endurance.
No one can mingle with the Japanese without
seeing at once that their stature is quite
diminutive compared with foreigners, the
average height for men being five feet three
inches, and for women four feet ten inches.
The stature of male Japanese seems about
equal to that of European females. The
average Japanese soldier is two inches less
in height and twenty pounds less in weight
than the average European soldier. The
shortness of Japanese stature is found to be
in the legs more than in the body, the trunk
being but slightly shorter than that of the
European. In case of a difference of two
inches in height between a Japanese and a
European, there will be found a difference
of only half an inch in their bodies. It is
said that the cause of the disparity is the
Japanese habit of squatting on the floor,
drawing the legs up under the body in a very
cramped position, a posture that no Euro-
pean can endure for more than a minute
but which a Japanese can maintain for hours
at a time. This custom may also account
for the prevalence of bandy legs in Japan,
though this deformity is also ascribed by
some to the further habit of carrying babies
and children on the backs of mothers and
nurses with the legs drawn around the
bearer's hips.
Though so diminutive in physique the
Japanese command a remarkable strength
of muscle, and can easily carry burdens
that both baffle and astonish the Occidental.
Trunks and baggage that a Western railway
porter would not dream of handling alone,
because they tip the scales at between 200
and 300 pounds, are seized by a single Japa-
nese coolie and borne from the deck of a
steamer down to the launch with apparent
ease. And the Japanese can live and main-
tain himself in a working condition on food
that would soon make an Occidental work-
man an invalid. It is a question, however,
whether the Japanese is capable of enduring
the same degree of steady strain as a Euro-
pean of the same class. Certainly Japanese
servants and labourers are not capable of
doing the work that Western men and
women do in the same time. In long and
forced marches Japanese soldiers are found
to fall out and collapse more frequently
than in the case of Europeans, though it
must be admitted that the Japanese recruit
receives less consideration from his officers.
On the other hand, Japanese appear capable
of enduring greater physical pain than
Europeans, evidently having a coarser grain
and a more metallic nerve. Japanese go
through surgical operations without an
anaesthetic that no Occidental could face,
and they meet death with equal composure.
Physically and mentally the Japanese woman
seems less developed than the man, though
her nervous system is naturally more highly
organised. On the whole it may be said
that the Japanese w-oman is not equal to the
Eiu'opean woman in physical endurance,
perhaps because her life is harder, lacking,
as she usually does, the consolations of con-
jugal love and tenderness, w'hich mean so
much to women.
Looking into the matter of Japanese
physique more in detail one can not refrain
from saying, without any attempt at being
guilty of Hibemianism, that Japanese heads
and faces are things in themselves. When
one is prone to criticise the cartoons in
"Punch" and "Puck" and "Judge" and
"Life," as sometimes too severe a strain on
the imagination, all one has to do is to come
to Japan and find that the most extravagant
reaches of the brush and pencil are true to life.
There are, indeed, three distinct types of face
among the Japanese, recalling the various
bloods comprising the race. These may
be termed the oval, the wide, and the long
face. The dolichocephalous head is not so
common as the brachycephalic, while progna-
thous countenances both among the upper
and lower classes are frequent. Some Japa-
nese have a negroid face, with thick pro-
truding lips and fine teeth, and others have
a Filipino cast of countenance, indicating
their origin. Then there are faces, as already
mentioned, strikingly like those of Chinese
and Koreans, with high cheek bones and
oblique eyes. The noblest examples of face
and physique among the Japanese, how-
ever, are of a type quite different in some
important respects from any of the above.
These have faces that would make as perfect
Greek models as any to be found in Europe,
and with complexions to match. Again,
there are numerous faces that remind one of
the American Indian and of the Esquimo.
Invariably the eyes and hair are dark, but
in varying degrees, from pitch-black to light
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
417
brown, and some heads have even a tinge of
red. The eyes, likewise, arc black, but also
varying in shade to light brown, hazel, and
lic|uid amber. The hair is nearly always
straight and lanky, but wavy and even fuzzy
heads are seen. While the men have their
hair clipped short, the women devote great
attention to the dressing of their wonder-
fully long tresses, always having them built
up in a remarkable coiffure on the top of
the head. Some of the women have locks
of raven black that fall below the hips, as
may be seen among the school-girls who
have not yet put their hair up. One may
even see cases where the hair falls below the
knees. While the eyes of the Japanese are
either almond-shaped and oblique or big
and ox-like, there are many with tiny eyes
and others with eyes that dance. It is
at once quite evident that the cause of the
oblique eye is that the eye .socket is
thrown up at the outer side by the high
cheek bone. The nose is truly one of the
most distinguishing facial characteristics of
the Japanese, its proverbial flatness doubt-
less due to its having scarcely any bridge.
In width and length the Japanese nose re-
minds one of the Egyptian nose, as seen in
the ancient sculpture of that country. The
best example of a typical Japanese nose is
to be seen in the great statue of Buddha at
Kamakura. Not infrequently one sees indi-
A STREET CONJURER PRODUCING A PIECE OF WIRE FRO.M HIS NOSE
viduals whose cheeks and lips protrude quite
beyond their noses, the latter set in a little
hollow between the eyes and mouth, the
effect being not exactly successful from an
artistic point of view.
The colour of Japanese skin is dark ivory
often merging into yellow and brown, but
there are striking differences, more striking
than in the shades of complexion to be seen
in Europe, varying from dark brown, copper
and leather colour, to skins as white as a
European's. According to native taste the
ideal complexion for a woman is pure ivory,
or, as the Japanese poets say, "white as
young tree roots," which in reality are ivory
colour. To this ideal most of the women
of Japan endeavour to attain by means of face
powder, though in numerous cases it is
reached by nature. It will probably sur-
prise Europeans to be told that some Japa-
nese, especially ladies, have skins as white
as Occidentals; but it is a fact that often
one can see young women in Japan with a
natural complexion even superior to any-
thing that can be seen abroad. One must
needs concede that a country which can
produce such pretty girls must surely have
in it the makings of a great nation. Only
too often, however, the exquisite natural
tint of young maidenhood is spoilt by
artificial additions that poison the skin and
destroy forever its god-given peachbloom.
The incomparable complexion of what may
lie called a white Japanese girl is rich rose-
misted marble, not unlike the Italian girl
at her best, while the hands of Japanese
women are no less than a dream of shapely
refinement. As a rule, the Japanese women
are much more handsome than the men,
and they are also generally far more re-
fined in speech and manners. In most cases,
at the age of about thirty the Japa-
nese woman begins to lose the bloom of
youth, fading into an appearance that surely
must come from unfair treatment; but to
this also there are notable exceptions, which
suggest that with proper care the women
of Japan might preserve their youth and
beauty as long as their Western sisters.
.Another sad phase of life in Japan is that
some of the most beautiful girls are devoted
to the business of singing girls, called geisha,
for in no other land has beauty a higher
])ricc than in Japan. Japanese ideas of
physical beauty differ considerably from
those of the West, many Occidental beauties
seeming to the children of the gods like
green-eyed goblins, though it is noticeable
that when Japanese marry Occidental wives
they almost invariably choose women with
auburn hair and eyes of blue. The Japa-
nese children are almost always pretty, being
rosy as ripe apples.
41 8
P R E S E N T - n A ^• IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
DR. EDWARD SALISBURY, A NUMBER OF WHOSE
ADMIRABLE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF
PEASANT TYPES APPEAR IN THIS
ARTICLE AND ELSEWHERE
IN THIS VOLUME
Japanese arms are longer than ours, the
peculiarity being emphasised by the
shortness of the legs; and their hands
and fingers have a graceful, prehensile
movement. Indeed, the Japanese can do
much more with hands and fingers than
Europeans can; and where fingers prove
inadequate even teeth and toes easily come
into requisition. Some Japanese can tie
or untie a knot as easily with their
toes as foreigners can with their fingers.
The Japanese are the most dexterous race
in the world, that being one reason why
they are in such demand as fruit-pickers
in California. To see a row of Japanese
girls rolling cigarettes in a factory is to see
a manipulation so agile as to seem scarcely
human. Japanese sometimes use their ears
as purses for small coins, while behind the
ear is often carried a toothpick or a cigarette
or both. The people have remarkably good
teeth, of which they take excellent care by
brushing them while they take a morning
w-alk. Dentists are many and cheap and
even the common coolie may be seen with a
mouth full of gold teeth. As a rule, the
hands are carefully manicured, the nail on
one little finger, in Chinese fashion, often
being left about half an inch long. The
shoulders of the Japanese are usually wider
than the hips, the latter being remarkably
narrow, especially in the women. The
foot is broad and not deprived of its natural
shape by boots. The feet of ladies and
gentlemen are, as a rule, small, and covered
with a kind of sock divided for the
great toe.
The general appearance of Japanese phy-
sique in the nude is that of a baby, rather
stocky and undeveloped, something after
the manner of Michael Angelo's angels.
Indeed, when the writer first saw these he
wondered if the Italians were really so
stocky in the Middle Ages, but on coming
to Japan he was interested to note that such
mortals still live.
On the whole it may be said that Japanese
physique is generallj' inferior to that of the
European. One seldom sees a really well-
built man or woman on the streets. For this
reason the people look better in native
than in foreign costume, the latter expos-
ing their physical defects, this being more
especially true of w-omen. It must be
understood, however, that there are notable
exceptions, which suggest hopeful possi-
bilities for the future. It is onlj' a case of
arrested development, and with proper
physical education and feeding no doubt
great improvement could be brought about.
For the present it is to be hoped that the
desire to introduce foreign dress will not be
gratified. A long waist and short skirt are
conducive neither to grace nor beauty, while
the native kimono makes any figure look
well. In some cases arrested development
is so conspicuous as to suggest the survival
of the cave man, offering a splendid field of
study for the anthropologist, while side by
side with these are examples of physical
development equal to any seen in Europe,
suggesting what Japan might have been but
for the blighting strain of inferior blood
mixture.
MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
The Japanese mind is a much more for-
midable problem to the Occidental than the
question of Japanese physique, for native
reticence and proverbial precaution render
it almost impossible to get at what a Japa-
nese really thinks, or even to learn his mental
processes. To gauge the mental phenomena
of a countrj- and people steeped for ages in
occultism and superstition is assuredly a
task for first-hand study by an expert psy-
chologist, and a task which even he must
approach with hesitation. Of course the
grey matter of the brain is essentially the
same in kind, if not in degree, everj'where,
and two plus two make four in Japan as
in the West. Yet, owing to difference of
education and social environment, the gulf
between the mind of the Occident and that
of the Orient is admittedly wide, and only
the greatest patience and honesty can hope
to bridge it.
The question whether Japanese cerebral
capacity is equal to that of the European
has long ago been decided by scientists in
the affirmative, though sometimes one sees
things in Japan which would tend to reopen
the question.
To a pedagogist there can be no doubt
that the Japanese system of education,
a natural evolution from feudal training,
which places the many at the mercy
of the few, tends toward arrest of mental
development. Japanese education develops
the lower faculties of the mind, such as
memor}', at the expense of the higher facul-
ties of reasoning and logical inference.
DR. SAilSBURY H.
>■- A LEVEE
THE YOUNGER GENERATION — STIDIES BY DR. SAI.ISBIRY
420
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Memory in itself is not a mark of sanity,
since some lunatics have marvellous memo-
ries. The first fourteen years of every
Japanese child's life are given perforce to
memorising thousands of Chinese ideo-
graphs, even the meaning of which he does
not always know-, and after he has mastered
them the rest of his life is devoted to memo-
rising what his ancestors thought and did.
Thus his whole existence is a memon,- and an
imitation and his whole duty memorising
and imitating, with little attention to ini-
tiati\-e or originaUty. His mind is like a
photographic plate which is ever receiving
but seldom imparting. During the long
centuries of feudalism the whole nation was
in subservience to authority that forced
everything, and every mind especially, into
the same narrow groove, and after a nation
has depended so long on others to do its
thmking, it does not readily begin to think
GEISHA
for itself. This attitude of incapacity is a
feature of Japan's social and industrial
machinery still The Japanese does not
follow reason; he follows his eye and his
memory. He is confined to rules, and if
they do not work he is helpless. A Japanese
who can memorise the most complex system
of ideographs often can not do a simple
problem in mental arithmetic without his
abacus, or by counting on his fingers.
The average Japanese seems to have more
fear of being different or being laughed at
than of being in the wrong. The people are
very emotional and liable to extremes.
Society, is subject to waves of emotion and
sentimentality which a Western mind can
hardly understand. They will die for an
idea too minute for any Occidental mind to
perceive. Thus one finds in Japan a childish
cheerfulness and a crass contentment with
listlessness and inefficiency. Among the
peasantry there is an unsophisticated dis-
position to trustfulness that becomes an
easy prey to the designing, and on the
other hand an unreasoning suspicion of
all things strange. With the Japanese,
silence always means dissent. Their long
feudal subjection has created a state of mind
that is content to take nominality for actu-
ality. If a man treats you with profuse
politeness you must not expect him to pay
his debts. If he subscribes to your fund he
may pay it by getting an equal subscription
trom you to a fund of his. Even patriotism
is more of an emotion than an ideal or even
an idea; it seems an instinct, like the devo-
tion of the bees to the queen. Natural
under a system where intellectual and social
development has been retarded, the childish
emotions are conspicuous.
Devoted for so long to the objective and
what appeals to the eye, the Japanese mind
has little appreciation of metaphysical,
psychological, and ethical subtleties, and
disdains idealism save in the direction of the
l^etty and the queer. With even the educated,
life is rather a mechanical, humdrum affair,
since they are quite unable to appreciate the
moral and iesthetic niceties of Western civil-
isation. One can only infer this from the
indifference shown to Western culture as seen
in the lives of scholars resident in Japan, and
in the Japanese contention of their superiority
to Occidental civilisation. The only excep-
tion seems to be in the direction of poetry and
pictorial art, where the treatment is always
more suggestive than finished, and often
exquisitely idealistic. Yet it is always the
idealism that runs to little things. It adores
little wives, little children, little houses, little
hands, little gardens, little flowers, little trees,
little pictures, little poems, miniature scenes
and plants. In religion, art, and poetr>- the
COOUE TYPE
Japanese always look for the spirit, without
which no perfection of form can av-ail. But
this virtue is confined to the very few able
fully to appreciate art, the masses popularly
following the fashion in this respect.
Consistently, however, the Japanese mind
loves simplicity and strives to achieve great
things from small means. It may be some-
thing more than simplicity, for ages of forced
frugahty must have preserved the original
primitiveness to a large extent. The Japa-
nese house is a very simple affair. From the
bamboo tree alone hundreds of simple articles
for daily use are made, from toothpicks to
tables. A Japanese does not hesitate to set
up a piano factor^' of ten by twelve feet.
The most exquisite silk fabrics are produced
from tiny looms in small houses. Some
Japanese motor-car agents have to climb over
the sample car to get into their houses, as it
fills the whole of the front room. Their love
of the bizarre and the grotesque may be a
reaction against the monotonous convention-
ality of daily life.
The Japanese mind has a tendency to be
active rather than passive, and it absorbs
only what is agreeable to it; that is, only what
is capable of being Japanised. It is naturally
anti-pessimistic and gay, having little use for
melancholy either in religion or society. The
famous Japanese smile, however, is often no
more than a brave endeavour to hide a sad
heart, as well as a courteous effort to save
others from unpleasant feelings. Predilection
for the agreeable, which is confounded with
the good, often deprives the Japanese of what
is most necessary for their moral and mental
good. In adopting their eclectic system of
Western civilisation the Japanese do not ask
whether it is good or true but whether it can
PRESENT-DAY I M I' K E S S T O N S OF JAPAN
421
WARV AND DANGER PAST
be adapted to native ideas of nationality.
To be contrary to or inconsistent with the
jjenius of Japanese civilisation is to stand
condemned. For a thousand years Japan
has been imitating China and for half a
century Europe, but never for a moment has
she lost her mental independence or the genius
of her own civilisation, always exercising the
most careful discrimination. It is the nature
of the Japanese mind to Japanise everything
it receives, even the truth itself.
It is this characteristic that leads thu
foreigner to the conviction that the Japanese
are an obstinate and stubborn race, with an
abnormal degree of self-conceit. There is
nothing the Japanese mind hates more than
to retract a statement, and t his is why the
people as a race are noted for their reticence,
though a further reason is that they arc
always suspicious .Jest they be taken advan-
tage of. It is al so due to the influence of
feudalism which often made mistakes fatal.
The Japanese usually think a long time before
committing themselves, but after the utter-
ance is made , it will not be reiracted, even if
it be proved inaccurate. Their principle is to
assert only mature thought and then stand by
it. It is always a matter of astonishment to
Japanese to hear great men abroad admitting
their errors or mistakes. A Japanese official
wo uld resign and retire from the world rather
than admit he was mistaken. Most Western
people would regard this attitude of infalli-
bility as one of pure conceit and a weakness,
but in Japan it is takenfor nobility of spirit.
It certainly leads to infliction of mistakes and
errors on a long-sufTering population, and to a
disrespect for truth. It is a weakness that
also leads to frequent misunderstanding of
foreigners. A Japanese believes he can infer
the future from the past and the whole froin
the part, making no allowance for evolution
and development; and this constant effort to
arrive at truth without adequate investiga-
tion, leads him to think that when he is
talking to any one he can know what is in his
interlocutor's head. In judging a foreigner
from a Japanese standard and motive, the
!li"
4-
DECOR.^TIOXS FOR A BOYS FESTIVAL
verdict is more often than not quite unjusti-
fied and unfair to the foreigner. This
belief in thuir powers of mind-reading often
leads the Japanese to make mistakes in regard
to foreigners. Often when a foreigner is
advising Japanese for their own good they
believe he is advising them for his own good,
and so refuse to take the advice.
MOR,\L CHAR.\CTERISTICS
The subject of Japanese morals has been
discussed with such diverse conclusions that
one naturally hesitates to approach the
question with any degree of confidence. To
many Europeans the Japanese seem less
developed morally than the peoples of Chris-
tendom, while to others, a minority perhaps,
Japanese ideas of ethics are more enlightened
and rational than those of Europe. Certainly
in some ways the Japanese are more free in
respect to moral scruples than Occidentals,
since their civilisation permits many things
that would be offensive to the moral laws and
ideals of the West. This is only to say, how-
ever, that the East and West are morally
different. To the average Occidental the
Japanese appear to treat moral questions very
lightly, this being also due to the fact that
the Japanese differ from foreigners as to what
is and what is not moral. Japanese morals
are based on a very simple if inadequate
foundation, free from the complexities and the
conscience of Western moral codes. There is
but one law of conduct, known as Loyalty
and Filial Piety: Loyalty to sovereign, to
parents and superiors, apart from which there
is no piety, religion, or morality. The great
weakness of this code is that once the individ-
ual has satisfied himself as to his duty toward
those above him, his duty is done; he owes
nothing to those below him. It is, therefore,
THE EL.\BORATE COIFFURE
28
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THE OLDER GENERATION — STUDIES BY DR SALISBURY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
423
PLAYING UNDER DIFFICULTIES
a morality fitted only for slaves and serfs, and
was indeed the outcome of feudal days when
there was a law for the inferior but none for
the superior save his own will. Consequently
there is no immorality except in relation to
sovereign, or parents or superiors. It is
immoral not to put away your wife if your
mother commands it, but not immoral to
be unfaithful to your wife, or to put her
away after falling in love with some other
woman. Morality consists in observing the
precepts of one's ancestors, and for the rest,
simply following the dictates of nature.
According to Western morals it would be
immoral for a parent to sell a daughter to a
life of shame, but in Japan it would not be
immoral for her to acquiesce if the parents
required it. Man should follow nature, as
Confucius taught. It is not wrong to do
what nature demands so long as it in no
way conflicts with one's superiors. But the
superior is not bound in the same way to
respect the inferior except as the legal code
demands, and this the superior can easily find
a way of evading, for if the inferior does not
submit to the superior he or she will soon
be without a master and a living. Due pro-
vision is made by the State to gratify all the
normal mental, physical, and social wants of
man; but for woman it is different. Espe-
cially in regard to sexual morals there is one
code for the man and another for the woman.
There is among the Japanese apparently no
sense of shame with regard to what nature
demands. If it is natural it is nothing to be
ashamed of. Once admit this and one can
fancy many things to be seen and done in
Japan that are cither not seen or secretly
done abroad.
When it is said that canons of probity
do not command so wide an observance
in Japan as in Europe, the Japanese reply
that foreigners associate only with the
inferior classes. Taking truth as a matter
of expediency, however, is not apparently
limited to any one grade of society in
Japan. The hal^it is naturally the out-
come of feudal government and military
regime, where the only escape is by deceit
and lying. For nearly three hundred years
Japan was practically governed by means
of secret information obtained through spies.
Thus every one had to be careful as to whom
he talked with and to say only what would
be in the interests of his master and his
family. Of course, white lies are a matter of
course. In the West this habit is usually
confined to doctors and patients, parents and
children, where the truth can not always
be told with good effect; but the Japanese
I)lay fast and loose with this principle to an
extent that must be regarded by Europeans
as immoral. If a servant is going to leave
her mistress she seldom tells the truth about
it. She acts like a diplomatic official and
gives some agreeable reason for her conduct.
Consequently in Japan no one believes
servants and diplomatists.
The main feature of Japanese morality
is its communaUsm; it is a morality for
classes and families, and entirely inade-
quate to the individualism w'hich modern
democracy is bringing to Japan. An exami-
nation of 70,000 children in Japanese schools
carefully made by an expert educationist
showed that the vast majority put down
Loyalty and FiUal Piety as the end and aim
of Hfe. Truth, honesty, sincerity, kindness,
philanthropy, altruism had no place. Such
is the natural result of a civilisation that
has been communal and military rather than
commercial and industrial, for no commerce
can succeed where confidence is lacking.
INTERIOR DECOR.\TI0XS FOR A BOYS FESTIVAL
424
PRESENT-DAY
I M I' k E S S I O N S
O F
J A I' A \
Ja])aii has yet to prove that her physical,
mental, and moral virtues are sufficient to
meet the strain of modern evolution. Until
her communalism makes room for the indi-
vidual, fully developed and capable of
all the virtues of the best sort of ^lan,
it will fail to hold its jilace in the modern
world.
That Japanese society is capable of chang-
ing to suit the demands of growing humanity
there is no doubt. The difference in charac-
teristics between Japanese and foreigners is
not due so much to inherent i)sychic nature
transmitted by heredity, as to the nature of
the social order transmitted by social heredity.
In other words, it is the result of a false
system of education, and can only be obviated
by a proper system of education. No
amount of boasting about bushido and the
Japanese spirit can take the place of this.
There is nothing in bushido nor in any com-
pendium of morality published in Japan
that contains anything so admirable as the
simple catechism of the Church of England
in the part dealing with one's duty to one's
neighbour. Bushido is a code for soldiers,
a class code: and Yatnato Damashii, or the
Japanese Spirit, is only the spirit of a people
forced to stern endurance and convention
in the fires of a merciless and selfish feudalism.
A truly scientific educational system would
alone meet the physical, mental, and moral
needs of Japan.
1
•
4
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LAKK BIWA, NEAR KYOTO
XXVII. Japanese Arts of Self-Defenge
By E. J. HAURISON, F. K. G. S.
THE most distinctive Japanese arts of
both defence and attack are judo
(more generally known abroad as
jiujilsu) and kenjitsu, or fencing. The
former, by name at least and to some extent
in practice, has become popularised in
Europe and America, but the latter is less
familiar. Both, however, are admirable in
their respective ways, embodying as they do
the applied and cumulative wisdom of many
successive generations of sturdy fighters.
In this place I am not concerned to decide
whether or not the Japanese deserve to be
called warlike; be that as it may there is
no gainsaying the fact that certain chosen
spirits from the earliest times have dis-
played a remarkable aptitude for combining
theoretical and empirical knowledge in the
domain of what, for lack of a more con-
venient nomenclature, may be termed the
warlike arts. This aptitude is perhaps
attributable to a phase of the Japanese
mentality which in some quarters has been
denied originality, but which nevertheless
can not justly be denied genius if, as a
certain sage has observed, genius is an
infinite capacity for taking pains.
Thus, even if it were true, which is doubt-
ful, that jujitlsu was introduced into Japan
by Chucn Yuan-pin, of the Ming dynasty,
the fact remains that the art owes its develop-
ment solely to native investigators and
practitioners. Like so many other things
Japanese, the original of jujutsu is traced
back to the mythological age, for it is said
that the gods Kajima and Kadori availed
themselves of the art to chastise the lawless
inhabitants of the eastern provinces. But
from then until the Hojo regime — from the
twelfth to the fourteenth • century — no
special schools, styled rytigi, existed. Later,
however, the various methods employed by
a weaker person to defeat a stronger adver-
sary were carefully elaborated until, in
course of time, many ryugi, sects, or schools
arose throughout the country. A volume
could be filled merely with the mass of fact
and fancy that has grown up around the
names of these various systems which,
however greatly they may differ in detail,
are all based upon one and the same princi-
ple. This principle is aptly signified in the
very name of the art, for jujutsu is written
with two ideographs, the first, ju, meaning
"to obey, submit to, weak, soft, pliable,"
and the second meaning "art" or "science."
This combination, sometimes facetiously
spoken of as the "gentle art," thus con-
nects a system which relies for its triumphs,
not upon brute strength, but upon skill and
finesse, the ability to win by appearing to
yield. The basic idea of opposing skill to
"beef" in combat is fully exemplified in
the story of the origin of the well-known
Yoshin-ryu or Yoshin sect of jujutsu. The
founder of this sect, a Nagasaki physician
named Akiyama Shirobei Yoshitaki, chanced
to notice one day in winter that the branches
of a willow-tree in front of a temple where
he was staying, did not retain the show,
even after a heavy fall, and that, owing to
the suppleness of the branches, which gave
way under the falling snow, and thus threw
it off as fast as it accumulated, the tree
escaped the fate of seemingly sturdier
growths, whose branches were everywhere
ruthlessly crushed and broken under the
burden. This observation gave him the
clue to the valuable principle which lies at
the root of a\\ jujutsu "te," or tricks, thanks
to which he was able greatly to improve
his art and increase the number of his
disciples. Hence he styled his sect Yoshin-
ryu, meaning "Willow-heart school." The
name of jujutsu ryugi, or sects, is legion.
Among the better known which have sur-
vived to this day are the Kiraku-ryu, Take-
nouchi-rj'u, Sekiguchio-ryu, Shinnoshindo-
-ryu, Tenshin Shinyo-ryu, Shibukawa-ryu,
Kito-ryu, Shimmei Sakkwatsu-ryu, etc.
But all these at the present day are en-
tirely secondary to what is known as the
Kodo-kwan system of judo, founded by
Dr. Kano Jigoro, an educationist of con-
siderable prominence who, some twenty-
five or thirty years ago, was induced to
take up the practice of the old jujutsu in
order to improve his own physique which
then left much to be desired. On account
of the reaction against the warlike arts that
had set in after the Restoration and the
abolition of feudalism, the former prosper-
ous ryugi had fallen upon evil days and
were almost deserted. Young Kano was
therefore welcomed with open arms by their
teachers and speedily initiated into all the
secrets of the different schools, with the
result that in the end he evolved his own
426
PRESENT-DAY I M P R I-: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
MASTER AND PUPIL AT ^\V(IRU PRACTICE
system, which is an eclectic one embracing
all the best features of the older sects, with
the addition of numerous improvements of
his own. Among Dr. Kano's pupils are
many of the most prominent military and
naval men of Japan, not excepting even
princes of the imperial blood. Judo is the
system officially recognised, compulsory in
all naval and military schools, practised at
all Government universities and schools, at
nearly all the larger private educational
establishments, and by the police. It is
impossible within the limits of an article
to give anything like a complete description
of this art, which would require a special
treatise, with illustrations, for its satisfactory
elucidation. The word judo, it should be
said, differs from jujulsu only in the last
syllable which means "way" or "path,"
thus implying that judo is not simply a
method of defence and attack, but an
ethical system as well.
SWORD PRACTICE
The non-esoteric branches of judo are
called randori, or "free wrestling," and
kala, or "form," in which the principal
tricks are demonstrated in a given order
for two performers. Free wrestling com-
prises a most effective repertoire of throws,
choke-locks, and bone-locks, called gyaku,
and methods of pinning an opponent to
the ground, styled osae-komi. There is a
strict system of classification according to
merit, the external badges of progressive
efficiency being belts of three colours, namely,
white, brown, and black, in the order named.
Wearers of the white belt are merely be-
ginners. The right to wear the brown belt
goes willi the grade of kyu, from three kyu
to one kyu, of which the latter is the highest.
From one or the first kyu (ikkyu), the stu-
dent graduates into the lowest of the dan
(meaning "grade" or "degree") class,
entitling him to wear the coveted black
belt and to teach randori. In contradis-
tinction to the kyu classification, the second
dan is higher than the first dan, the third
than the second dan, and so on, up to the
seventh dan, of which there are probably
not more than two or three holders through-
out Japan, belonging, that is, to the Kodo-
kwan school. After the student has won
the black belt with the rank of shodan (first
dan), he is gradually initiated into the
esoteric branches of judo, which include
atemi, or the art of striking and kicking
vital spots, and kwappo, or methods of
resuscitating one who has been rendered
unconscious by strangulation or other cause.
Among other things the graduate is required
to undergo a decidedly tr>'ing ordeal which
takes the form of both strangling and being
strangled. Under the supervision of experts,
each newly made shodan must lie limp and
supine, offering no resistance to the choke-
lock of another shodan, the while a time-
keeper tells off the number of seconds it
requires to "put him to sleep." The shodan
who' has performed the active role must
then revive his victim by the recognised
form of kwappo. The principal object of
this ceremony is to strengthen the student's
nerve and presence of mind, so that in a real
emergency he may not be found wanting.
Proficiency in the art of judo is gained, as
in most forms of sport, both by everj'day
practise and periodical contests for the
various classes. .\t the Kodo-kwan, and
kindred institutions, competitions are held
every month or six weeks, while twice a
year, in the spring and autumn, an all-day
series of contests is given for the ikkyu ( first
kyu") and dan classes. These occasions are
termed Kohaku shobu," or "Red and White
Contests," because the competitors are
divided into two rival teams distinguished
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
427
by red and white colours. The leader of
either team is usually of the fourth grade
(yodan). A good showing at this form of
contest is a great aid to rapid i)romotion.
The skill and endurance exhibited arc
extraordinary, and in both the brown and
black belt classes good wrestlers will some-
times throw five or six opponents in succes-
sion. In the usual monthly contests the
maximum proportion of falls required for a
victory is two out of three, but if the con-
test continues longer than a given time with-
out a score on either side, the umpire may
declare the first fall to win, or if that limit
is exceeded, a draw is announced. On the
other hand, in the Red and White com-
petitions the first fall scored decides thf
contest, when the winner must meet the
next man on the list, and retires only after
he has been defeated or wrestled a draw.
In the brown belt (kym) class a win can be
scored by a clean throw from a standing
position, a choke-lock, or pinning one's
opponent to the mat for a fixed time de-
cided by the umpire; in the brown belt
class recourse to bone-locks (gyaku) is pro-
hibited as far as regular contests are con-
cerned, though it is allowed in practice.
Among competitors of the black belt class
(yiidansha) throws, choke-locks, bone-locks,
and osae-komi are all permitted, and it not
infrequently happens that bones are broken
on these occasions. I can recall one Red
and White Competition at which three
elbows and two knee-caps were dislocated.
When, as sometimes takes place, a good
ikkyu meets a shodati (holder of the first
dan), the former may resort to gyaku which,
however, is forbidden to the shodan. Excite-
ment runs high at these contests, especially
towards the end of the day, when one side
or the other is in the lead. Should it happen
that the two team captains have to wrestle,
the umpire has the right to extend the
ordinan,' time allotted for competitors of
lower grade, unless a decision has been
reached beforehand. I have known two
team captains to bout for an hour before
a \'ictor>' could be scored on either side, and
it is in struggles of this kind that one sees
judn at its best. Both the Red and White
and periodical Kodo-kwan competitions are
conducted with the greatest formality. The
umpire is always an experienced judo-ka of
the third grade or higher, and from his
decisions there is no appeal. As the result
of observation extending over many years,
I do not hesitate to declare that although
the Japanese have been accused, not always
unjustly, of being poor sportsmen in Western
games, they give little cause for criticism on
their own ground. It might be too much
perhaps to assert that displays of bad tem-
ONE PH.ASE OF .ATT.\CK .\ND DEFENCE
per are unknown in either judo or kenjutsu,
but certainly they are few and far between,
and if carried to extremes meet with stern
and speedy repression. The student of
judo voluntarily submits to a rigourous
discipline which makes for both his physical
and moral wellbeing. Just as the best
boxers are generally the men who possess
self-control and live clean lives, so no Japa-
nese can hope to excel in judo if prone to
give way to bad temper or to over-indulge
in any shape or form. Now that freedom
to practise the art is no longer confined to
the samurai class but includes all sorts and
conditions of young men, it is impossible to
guarantee that there will be no black sheep
in the fold; but applying the law of aver-
ages, I can honestly say that I could not
reasonably ask for a finer, manlier set of
young fellows than the judo-ka of the Kodo-
kwan.
Nevertheless the superstition entertained
P.\RRYING .\ BODY BLOW
428
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF J A P A N
A WOMAN FENCER
in some quarters abroad that every Japanese
is a judo expert must be dispelled. Perhaps
the ratio of good judo men in Japan is not
larger than that of good boxers in England
or America, and as in the West, so in
Japan, as a rule the best men are to be
found among the student body and to a
lesser extent among the police. On the
other hand, the Japanese judo-ka probably
trains far more systematically and zealously
than the average Western amateur boxer.
The majority of students at the Kodo-kwan
attend daily from three or four to five or
six P. M., year in and year out, until they
win the coveted black belt. Many devote
Sunday mornings also to the exercise.
It is my opinion, shared by all other for-
eigners who have devoted any attention to
the subject, that judo is superior to all known
forms of Western wrestling. Judo is essenti-
ally practical in its conception and proceeds
upon the assumption that as a rule your
adversary will be clad and that he will not
always adhere strictly to Marquis of Queens-
bury rules. Therefore in practise the
contestants wear a special costume made of
strong cotton cloth, with long sleeves, and in
theory nothing is barred, although in friendly
bouts every care is taken to prevent accidents
which, nevertheless, can not always be
avoided. Anybody familiar with the arbi-
trary limitations of the Greco-Roman and, to
a lesser extent, of the catch-as-catch-can, or
free American styles of wrestling, will appre-
ciate this distinction. Thus in judo almost
every muscle of the body and limbs is brought
into play and developed. Indubitably judo,
when systematically and conscientiously
practised from youth up, produces a splendid
type of physique characterised by a harmoni-
ously distributed, all-round development, not
always found among our own heav\'weights
of the mat in Europe and America, although
the latter would generally greatly outweigh
the judo-ka, or exponent of judo. With a
fairly comprehensive experience of both the
Western and Japanese types of physique, I
am inclined to say that, owing in some degree.
no doubt, to the habit of squatting and to
early training, the Japanese wrestler enjoys
an advantage over the Westerner in the pos-
session of comparatively more powerful loins,
which play such an important part in judo.
Undeniabl)' many of our Western sports, like
football, tennis, and rowing, develop the leg
muscles, but strong as are the lower limbs of
our European and American athletes, they
generally lack the elasticity, the fluid quality,
so to speak, of the thigh and buttock muscles
of an expert Japanese wrestler. The rela-
tively greater need for strength of loin in the
Japanese as compared with the Western
system of wrestling, especially Greco-Roman,
must be apparent when we remember that
under the rules of the latter the contestants
may not lift their feet from the ground to trip
an opponent. Judo, on the other hand, may
almost be termed tripping in excehis. A
good judo-ka can use his loin ("koshi" in
Japanese) with the force of a battering-ram
to disturb his adversary's centre of gravity
and throw him to the ground. After years of
assiduous practice the judo-ka develops some-
thing almost in the nature of a sixth sense,
which enables him instinctively to feel in
what part of the body his opponent is concen-
trating his strength, when, with the swiftness
of a reflex action, he will direct his attack
against the unprotected area and score a
victory. The Japanese language provides a
multitude of technical terms to describe every
phase of judo, both passive and active,
physical and mental. Thus we speak of the
"fleating" condition of our adversary's unpro-
tected area, whether the upper or lower
AN OLD SWORDSMAN
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
429
I)ortion of tlie body. And tlic rrpcrtoire of
tricks in judo is so extensive that an expert is
never at a loss to find a method of dealing
with either. Randori, or free wrestling, for
example, is subdivided into groups of tricks
in which the arms, loins, feet, singly or in
combination, are subtly utilised to bring about
the desired result. Not every expert judo-ka
could verbally explain the laws of leverage
and balance, but in practice he is continually
applying them with the maximum efTect.
The question is constantly being asked.
How does judo compare with boxing? No
fair reply can as yet be given to this question,
because only a contest which no police regula-
tions now-adays would permit could ever
decide the point. The so-called "tests" here-
school known to have been guilty of unjustifi-
able violence or rowdy conduct is promptly
expelled. The rarity of such cases proves
the effectiveness of the training given not
only in relation to the body, but also in the
formation of character. As bearing upon
this latter phase of the subject, I must sj)eak
briefly about the distinctive summer and
winter exercises which are part of the curricu-
lum of the Kodo-kwan and other jujulsu
schools. For the former, the hottest season
of the year, from about mid-July to mid-
August is chosen, and for the latter the coldest
month, January, when daily the pupils start
wrestling at four A. M. and keep at it until
seven or eight A. M. The summer practice is
called shochu-geiko, and the winter practice,
A WRESTLING MATCH
tofore held have been mere farces, since the
boxer has had to wear gloves and the judo-ka
has necessarily been obliged to abstain from
employing tricks which, against an inexperi-
enced antagonist, might entail very grave if
not fatal consequences. Personally, I am
convinced that given experts on either side,
barring accidents, the judo-ka, with his far
more extensive repertoire of tricks, ought to
win in a fight to a finish. In Japan a good
man of the third or fourth grade would think
nothing of defeating half a dozen adversaries
ignorant of the art, and had I space at my dis-
posal I could cite several authentic instances
where judo experts have fought successfully
against amazing odds. But it must be added
that the rules of the Kodo kwan are uncom-
promisingly strict against the abuse of this
dangerous power, and any member of the
kangeiko. In this manner not only is the
judo-ka inured to the two extremes of heat
and cold, but also cultivates the virtue of
perseverance, thus developing will-power.
It is not too much to say that the revival of
the samurai art of judo in this improved form
has done wonders to reclaim the physique of
young Japan, which was undeniably on the
downgrade when Dr. Kano appeared on the
scene. The Kodo-kw^an as an institution has
no money-making objects, but exists solely
for the purpose of imparting a valuable art to
the rising generation for a fee which barely
suffices to support the place, and although
regular judo teachers are paid for their
services, they are not allowed to give exhibi-
tions of their skill in public, if any charge has
been made for admission, save for charity.
Japanese kenjulsu, or fencing, appeals
perhaps less to the Westerner than judo, but
it is a genuine national growth and as emi-
nently practical in its own way us judo. The
weapon used in practice, to imitate as closely
as possible the old two-handed sword of the
samurai, is a stick called a shinae, made of
three strips of bamboo bound tightly together,
with a small round guard and a hilt large
enough to accommodate both hands. It is
usually about four feet long. In practice the
performers are protected by masks and
breastplates of strong lacquer and by gaunt-
lets. In practice bouts striking at the legs is
forbidden and the decisive points are the
head, both sides, the right arm, and throat,
the latter being virtually the only thrust
permitted. The Japanese style may seem to
lack the fineness and grace of the French and
Italian rapier play, but of its value in real
combat there can be no question. One good
cut with a Japanese two-handed sword on any
of the points cited would put the victim out
of commission then and there. Although, I
think, inferior to judo as a physical exercise,
kenjulsu provides an excellent training for
hand, foot, and eye. Japanese addicted to
the sport can as a rule be detected by the
abnormal development of their forearms.
Tlie principal native schools are the Shinkage,
Shinto, Yagiu, Ono-ha-itto, and the Nito-ryu,
the last named being practised with two
swords, one for each hand, as invented by the
famous Miyamoto Musashi during the seven-
teenth century.
I shall close this brief sketch of the princi-
pal Japanese arts of self-defence by hardly
more than a reference to the native pro-
fessional style of wrestKng called sumo,
which must on no account be confounded
with judo. Sumo is usually practised pro-
fessionally by men of great size, "moun-
tains of fat and muscle," as Mr. Mitford
(now Lord Redesdale) rightly calls them.
The biggest are often considerably over six
feet in height and three hundred pounds in
weight. Properly speaking, sumo is not a
defensiv'e or an offensive system, but a test
of skill and strength, like our Western styles
of wrestling. Of course, among the twelve
throws, twelve lifts, twelve twists, and
twelve throws over the back which go to
make up the repertoire of sumo, there are
many, no doubt, that could be utilised in a
genuine encounter, but as in our own popu-
lar styles the test of victory or defeat is
artificial and arbitrary, consisting as it
does in the ability of one of the contestants
not only to throw his opponent, but to carry
or push him beyond the boundary of the
arena. Thus, other things equal, weight is
the decisive factor, and the sumo-lori, or
wrestlers, are therefore at great pains to
cultivate it.
"geishas"
XXVIII. Japan as a Tourist Land
By W. B. MASON, Joint-author of "Murray's Handbook to Japan," etc., and Corresponding Member
for Japan of the Royal Scottish (Jeographical Society
JAPAN has become the wonder-land of
the tourist. Ever since her unique
social and political structure was rudely
shaken by the guns of Western navies at
Shimonoseki and Kogoshima, the interest
taken in the Land of the Rising Sun has been
absorbing and universal. The traveller has
found there the charm, the mystery of an
ancient civilisation, for whose manners and
customs we have to go back to Pompeii and
Herculaneum to find a parallel. Certainly,
more for these than for the feverish rush of
modem industrialism or her great achieve-
ments in arms has Japan drawn the tourist
to her shores.
Let us first take a general glance at what
the life was and can still be for him a few
miles away from railways and the Open
Ports. He comes to his journey's end
after a day in the open air, transported by
a jinrikisha — that "pull-man-car" of Japa-
nese roads — having men in the shafts with
the limbs of athletes. He is made welcome
at the threshold of the inn by both master
and servant; he leaves his boots behind
him at the entrance; his room is devoid of
what we call furniture, but he stretches
himself on the spotless mats, while a wait-
ing-maid, always bright and cheerful, brings
him a tiny cup of refreshing, unsweetened
tea. Later, the bath is ready for him,
followed by a simple dinner of soup, fish,
vegetables, and rice, laid out on miniature
tables. While he deftly plies the chop-sticks,
the maid is there to replenish his rice-bowl
and, should he understand the language,
beguile the time with the chatter and gossip
of the "petty burgh." Finally, the futon,
or mattress, is brought in and spread over
the mats — sitting-room, dining-room, and
bedroom in one. He "turns in," again
hears the thoughtful inquiry if all is to his
satisfaction, and a last gentle "0 yasumi
nasai," or "Pleasant rest to you." Is it a
matter for wonder, then, that he composes
himself to sleep with the reflection, it may be,
that there is an element of comfort in this, a
something in the philosophy of living that
Europe and America with their huge hotels
and groaning machinery have not attained?
Indeed, it is this idyllic simplicity, together
with the natural charm of the people, that
has left such a pleasing impression on
generations of visitors.
Next morning the traveller takes a walk
along the street of this country town, for
he is off the beaten track. It is a lengthy
line of wooden houses with open shop-fronts,
and nothing very remarkable in them, just
the common articles of everyday use. The
fac similes of the dainty cabinets which
adorned the niches of the rooms of the
Duchess of Portsmouth in the time of
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
431
"the waiting maid"
Charles the Second are not to be seen there,
nor will he meet with specimens of porce-
lain like those with which Mary, the consort
of William, Prince of Orange, amused her-
self in embellishing Hampton Court during
the mania for collecting china from the Far
East. He will have to go to the big cities
or the open ports — to Tokyo, Kyoto, Yoko-
hama, or Kob^ — for these and other art
treasures so eagerly sought by connoisseurs.
We are in Old Japan, the Japan that lives
and thrives still in spite of the rapid exten-
sion of the railway system, the introduction
of electric tramways, and the electric light.
That these Western innovations have
effected vast change in almost every phase
of native life is readily apparent. The
tourist can now- travel through the country
without being subjected to unfamiliar con-
ditions, which, though often interesting, may
sometimes be not altogether congenial. Let
it be said at once that Japanese inns lack
what we regard as comfort; they are, for
instance, open to every wind that blows,
draughts which we abhor are a joy to the
Japanese, there is no real privacy, the sani-
tary arrangements leave much to be desired,
while except for youth and supple limbs.
sejuatting on the floor is not an ideal means
of resting. Nor is eating with chop-sticks
(though one finds pleasure in their cleanli-
ness), instead of knives and forks, an accom-
plishment to be acquired in a day. Yet,
for the curious, some experience of such a
mode of living can always be obtained by a
visit to one of the attractive tea-houses or
restaurants that abound in every town.
What about the home life of the people?
The tourist complains of seeing so little of
it and is often at a loss to account for a
seeming lack of hospitality in a people
renowned in literature for that virtue. The
fact is that society, as it exists in the West,
is unknown in the Orient ; there is ceremonial
visiting and feasting of intimate friends, but
otherwise little to compare with the social
amenities of Occidental lands. This has
led various writers, Lafcadio Hearn amongst
them, to make the curious assertion that
the inner life of the people still remains a
sealed book to the stranger. If by inner
life is meant the soul, the hidden sources
from which flow the elements that con-
stitute the special characteristics of the
race and of which a knowledge can only be
acquired by prolonged study of the history
and language, the statement may not be
contested. In all other respects it is falla-
cious. The ordinary work-a-day life of the
Japanese is openly revealed; it is there for
all to see. A stroll along the main street
of any town on a summer day will show,
from the open shop-front, the family sitting
at their meals or at work and, at the same
time, give you a glimpse through the house
to the tiny garden beyond. There are no
veiled mysteries, no secret cupboards. Plots
and con.spiracies, such as we are familiar
with, are unthinkable things in Japan,
because of a mode of living where conceal-
ment is so difficult. Every pickpocket, of
any notoriety in his profession, is said to be
known to the police. You may realise this
should you happen to be relieved of your
gold watch; the chances are ten to one that
it will be restored to you within twenty-four
hours. The same may not be asserted of
your purse ! For this and cognate reasons
Tokyo, the capital, is, for its size, the safest
of any of the great cities in the world for
one to roam about in at any hour of the
day or night.
On two important points sufficient stress is
never laid in treating of Japan as a tourist
land — first, the time of year at which it will
be found at its best; and second, the climate.
There is a deep-rooted impression that Japan
lies in the tropics and that it is bathed in
continual sunshine. Except for a part of July
and all of August, and a rainy season during
June, there is not much else to recall the
hotter parts of the earth. The climate,
however, differs in one respect from that of
England, for instance, in so far as, when it
rains, it may continue without intermission
for several days. Showery weather is almost
unknown. A visitor unfortunate enough to
choose a week of rain and gloom for his little
tour is not likely to be enthusiastic over his
experience, and such is the fate of many.
DANCING GEISHAS
432
P R E S E N T - D A \' I M 1' R E S S I O \ S OF J A l^ A X
GEISHAS ENJOYING A JAUNT IN THE COUNTRY
Japan is at her best in Spring, from the first
days of April till well on in May; again in late
October, throughout November, and often
up to Christmas and New Year's time, — the
former period for its succession of flowers and
gay outdoor life, the latter for its bright
cloudless skies and the colouring of the
wooded uplands. It is worthy of note that
the crowds who flock every summer to the
famous mountain resorts of Karuizawa,
Nikko, Unzen, etc., are not composed of
tourists, but of residents of Japan and
other parts of the Orient — South China,
Singapore, etc. — in search of rest and
recreation.
Geographical and historical considerations,
together with the facilities of modern travel
and the wide-spread knowledge of the English
language, render Japan peculiarly easy for
the tourist to take on his way, it may be,
round the world. There need be no retracing
of one's footsteps. Mr. Gerard, late United
States Ambassador to Germany, tells us how
in a few hours in Europe it is possible to
travel in an automobile across country where
people differ violently from the countries
surrounding them, not only in language,
customs, and costumes, but in methods of
thought and physical appearance. Japan,
on the contrary, presents a singular homo-
geneity. From one end to the other, for a
distance of 1,400 miles, the people speak the
same tongue with only slight dialectic diver-
gences, manners and customs vary scarcely at
all, even the scenery of Nambu in the north —
a succession of mountains, valleys, and rice-
plains — much resembles that of Satsuma in
the south. Volcanoes active and extinct are
found in both. The few aboriginal Ainu
inhabitants, whose physical features are more
akin to the European than to the Japanese,
scattered about the Island of Yezo (now
known as Hokkaido), are of interest only to
the anthropologist. Hence it is not essential
in Japan, as it would be in China, for instance,
to travel extensively, to wander in remote
parts, in order to gain anything like a compre-
hensi\e knowledge of the people.
The question of the length of time to be
given to one's stay is, however, an important
factor. A trustworthy authority suggests
two or three weeks for ordinary sightseeing;
more serious observation may require months.
Our point of view is that of the former.
Now that the automobile is available at
every popular spot the matter of roads suited
to that mode of locomotion looms in impor-
tance. Cars are not infrequently brought by
tourists themselves to Japan for touring
purposes; but, taking it altogether, the
roads, with few exceptions, are not well
adapted to them. Unfamiliarity with native
ways, though another obstacle, may largely
be overcome by the employment of Japanese
guides or chauffeurs. Roads and bridges,
swept away bj' the floods which now and then
devastate the land, are long left unrepaired,
while the roads in the more hilly parts are apt
to be much neglected at all times.
With the spread of railways and tramways
the jinrikisha, once ubiquitous, has dis-
appeared from rural parts, though in busy
I' K K S K N T - I) A V I M I' R K S S 1 O N S
O I-
.1 A P A N
433
PARK VIEWS AT NARA
centres it still continues to be a convenient
method for making short trips and for shop-
ping.
It may here be remarked that the policy
of centralisation which set in after the Court
removed from Kyoto to Tol<yo had the effect,
not only of attracting most of the wealth and
intellectual energy to the new capital, but
of reducing provincial life to the dullest of
routine existence. The old feudal chiefs, — the
historic daimyos, — now that they possess
IJermancnt residences in Tokyo, rarely visit
their former domains, so that nothing exists
at all apjjroaching to British squirc-archy or
country gentry life.
The traveller will usually either touch first
at Yokohama, after crossing the Pacific in
one of the luxuriously fitted steamers of the
Canadian Pacific Ocean Service, the Toyo
Kisen Kaisha, or the Pacific Mail Company;
or else he will be landed at Koh6 — rarely at
Nagasaki — by one of these Hners or the
equally well-known boats of the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha. The latter simply involves
a reversal of the following order of doing
things.
The two cities of Tokyo and Kyoto, with
their adjacent seaports of Yokohama and
Kob6 respectively, one in eastern Japan and
the other in the west, form good centres from
which to make excursions to places and from
which to see things worth seeing. All the
towns just mentioned possess excellent hotels
in foreign style, as well as shops. But one
must be careful not to judge Japan by what
is seen in the so-called "Foreign Settlements"
in the Treaty Ports, at which the traveller
often stays for but a few hours while en route
to China, Manila, or other parts of the Far
East. They originated in the early days of
foreign intercourse, when trade and residence
with the alien were confined to narrow limits.
Tokyo lies eighteen miles by rail from
Yokohama. It claims neither the historic
interest nor the charming situation for which
Kyoto, the old capital, is renowned, but it
is the city that affords the most varied
aspects of modern social and political life.
There reside the Emperor and Empress and
the members of the Imperial Family, who
twice a year entertain the Diplomatic Corps,
the elite of Japanese society, and distinguished
visitors at a garden party in one of the sub-
.sidiary palace grounds, the first in spring for
\ iewing the cherry blossoms and the later one
in autumn for the show of chrysanthemums.
The theatres, museums, and exhibitions —
] lain tings, industries, wrestling, etc. — are, of
course, the finest of their kind in the country.
Permission to inspect the various educational
and other institutions not open to the general
liublic, is freely granted to those furnished
with proper introductions. On the whole,
Tokyo is not without a beauty of its own,
especially in the early half of the year, when
it is radiant with blossom and verdant foliage.
Save for the mausolea of the shoguns
situated in Shiba Park, time need not be set
aside for temple viewing, as a trip to Nikko,
the incomparable, if only for two or three
days, must not be omitted, — Nikko, "a glory
of nature and art," where stand the tomb of
lyeyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa
dynasty, and the gorgeous shrines dedicated
to his memory. They are amongst the most
434
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
NIGATSUDO TEMPLE, NARA
perfect specimens of religious architecture in
Japan, and are approached by magnificent
avenues of gigantic cryptomerias. This
sacred spot stands about a hundred miles
from Tokyo by rail. If fatigued by much art
and legendary lore at Nikko, a welcome
change may be obtained by an excursion on
horseback, or by jinrikisha, to Lake Chuzenji
and the pretty waterfalls in its vicinity.
Nothing of much interest to the casual
tourist is to be found north of Nikko. True,
the pine-clad islets of Matsushima, one of
"The Great Sights" of Japan, lie another
hundred miles farther in the same direction,
but it is a conventional beauty spot in a land
enslaved by convention, and with so much to
see elsewhere, it may well be omitted. Of the
other so-called "Great Sights," the sacred
island of Itsukushima, near Hiroshima, in the
west, alone merits a visit. It, however, is
reached from Kob6, and if made by steamer,
the trip thither affords at the same
time, an excellent panoramic view of the
Inland Sea.
Returning to Tokyo or Yokohama from
Nikko, a day should be given to Kamakura,
once the site of the capital of eastern Japan,
for the sake of the world-famed image of the
Daibutsu, or "Great Buddha," which stands
there, and other lesser sights. Kamakurj
itself has, of late years, become a fashionable
seaside resort for both the Japanese and the
foreign resident.
Few places in Japan present better oppor-
tunities for studying the manners and cus-
toms of the people than the natural hot spring
resorts which are found chiefly in the more
mountainous parts. Some of these possess
fine, modem foreign-built hotels for the
accommodation of the tourist, whilst the
Japanese live apart in their own specially
constructed hostelries.
Within easy reach of Yokohama, either by
automobile or by train, tramway and jin-
rikisha, Miyanoshita, with its noted hotel,
the "Fuji-ya," should on no account be
missed. It can be taken on the journey west-
ward to Kyoto, and whether for novelty and
scenic charm or for rest after davs of strenu-
ous sightseeing, the change will be found
delightful. There are, besides, numerous
short excursions available from Miyanoshita,
notably to Lake Hakone and the solfataras in
the immediate neighbourhood.
When the ascent of Fuji, "the peerless
mountain," is practicable in late July and
during August, Miyanoshita makes a good
starting-point, guides and coolies being there
obtainable. Let it be borne in mind that the
expedition to Fuji calls for nothing beyond
simple endurance and the power of with-
standing a highly rarefied atmosphere; of
climbing, properly so-called, there is none.
Of real mountaineering such as the "Japanese
Alps" afford, there is no lack, but the subject
demands special treatment.
The leisurely disposed tourist in continuing
his journey westward may like to break it at
the large and prosperous town of Nagoya.
Its chief sight is the Castle, in perfect repair,
with fine suites of apartments, decorated by
artists of the Kano School of painting, and
formerly reserved for the use of the shogun.
Some of the rooms are never shown to vis-
itors because of being occasionally occupied
by H. M. the Emperor.
It is possible, b}' diverging and taking a
branch railway at Nagoya, to visit the cele-
brated Shinto shrines at Ise. The buildings
there are after the usual Shinto pattern —
plain, unomamented, wooden structures,
representative of the most archaic st^'le of
Japanese architecture, but they are to be
viewed only from the outside. As has
been aptly said of them: "There is noth-
ing to see and they won't let you see
it." The chief shrines stand in noble
FUJIYAMA, FROM KAWAC.UCHI LAKE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
435
HOT SPRINGS NEAR FUKUSHIMA
parks timbered with a wealth of glorious
cryi^tomeria, camphor, and maple trees.
Kyoto, the ancient capital before the
Restoration of the Mikado to absolute power,
is by far the most fascinating of all Japan's
cities, for it realises to-day, in spite of modern
innovations, the ideal formed from descrip-
tions of the country Vjy old writers and which
one wishes to verify — the quaintness, the
charm, the colour, the marvel of an alien and
unique civilisation. Nothing can rob Kyoto
of its delightful situation, surrounded as it is
by wooded heights, nor so long as the ancient
palaces and temijles remain can its historical
associations fail to interest the serious stu-
dent. Specimens of the achievements of the
nation's greatest artists and painters will be
found amongst the temple treasures, while the
landscape gardens are dreams of beauty.
'File natural Ijcauty of the landscape sup-
plies a setting for the handiwork of man,
which spring enhances with clouds of
tinted cherry blossoms, and autumn glori-
fies with its gorgeousness of maple col-
ouring.
A hurried stay in Kyoto is a misfortune,
for time and leisure should be at one's dis-
posal not only to see its sights but to inspect
the various art industries for which the city
is famed. These latter embrace pottery and
porcelain, bronze, lacquer, embroideries,
brocades. Curios, both old and new, deplete
ii), -i-tT » i:i*\ ¥:'AMrvA *:¥i( -Of'
\
:^^
-a^
Wi*' * '1 n -A -^a' ^ .'■f
-^NS'
DOTAN-BORI STREET, CTNIMA THEATRE DISTRICT, OSAKA
436
P R K S E N T - n A Y IMPRESSIONS O !■■ JAPAN
A JAPANESE CEMETERY
the purses of those — and few escape — who
are lured towards them
Nowhere else in Japan are the religious
festivals (matsuri) in connection with the
popular shrines and temples maintained in
greater splendour. At some of the temples,
too, the old-fashioned custom of the cha-no-
yu, or "tea ceremony," is displayed for the
delectation of visitors. The dancing by
geishu in spring and autumn, emblematic of
fioral life, is quaint and pretty and forms a
special feature at those times.
The traveller desirous of visiting the pal-
aces which are not accessible to the general
public must not fail to be provided with the
permits, usually obtainable by application
to one's own embassy in Tokyo.
Among pleasant excursions in the envi-
rons are those to Lake Biwa and to Nara,
the former made from Kyoto and the
n
STONE BUDDHAS BY A ROADSIDE
latter preferably by making a stay at Nara
itself. Nara, the capital of Japan from
700 to 784 A. D., is a mullum in parvo for
ancient art and architecture, if one has not
liad a surfeit already of what Kyoto provides
in abundance in that respect.
The great city of Osaka with its forest ol
chimneys and its pall of smoke, so unlike
any other place in the Empire, will detain
only those interested in manufactures and
commerce. It is the Manchester of Japan.
The old Castle, whose buildings were com-
pletely destroyed by the Tokugawa troops
in 1868, is a noteworthy relic of feudal days.
The Cyclopean granite walls attest its former
strength.
Kobe, with the adjoining large town of
Hyogo, is the most flourishing of the Treaty
Ports, and shows in its rapid growth from
insignificant beginnings in 1868, what foreign
trade has done to develop the resources of the
country. The "Foreign Concession" is a
model of its kind, being well laid out with
spacious streets. But a fine situation shel-
tered from the northern blasts and a com-
paratively dry climate are in themselves not
sufficient to keep the toitrist long away from
the manifold novelties and attractions of
Kyoto and its neighbourhood, with the his-
toric interest of centuries behind them, lying
within such easy reach.
As already indicated, Kob6 is the starting-
point for the Inland Sea by whose islet-
studded waters one proceeds to their western
gate at Shimonoseki and thence into the
Korean Straits on to Nagasaki. It is at
Shimonoseki that those bound for Korea,
Manchuria, and North China leave the
shores of Japan, and for them it is more
convenient to go by rail from Kobe, as the
big trans-Pacific liners do not touch at
Shimonoseki. The railway journey, though
not devoid of scenic beauty, is long and apt
to be tiresome.
The Island of Kyushu, which is separated
from the mainland by the narrow straits of
Shimonoseki, is picturesque throughout, but
has no hotels approaching the standard of the
places hitherto described. The solfataras at
Unzen in the Shimabara peninsula afford
good accommodation in foreign style, as
does the hot spring resort of Beppu on the
east coast of the island; but the latter lies
off the beaten track of the tourist itinerary.
'l"hc important towns of Kumamoto and
Kagoshima, celebrated for the part they
played in the last rebellion against the new-
order of things, furnish only Japanese inns.
Nagasaki, with its memories of the old
Dutch traders, the Portuguese missionaries,
and the days of our early intercourse with the
Island Empire, calls for little comment from
a traveller's point of view. The steamers
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
437
usually remain in port but a few hours
for coaling purposes, during which a
jinrikisha drive through the narrow streets
will suffice for all there is to see. Pierre
Loti, it must be rememljered, was not a
globe-trotter.
As we leave the beautiful landlocked har-
bour of Nagasaki with the islets guarding it,
the shores of Dai Nippon soon fade from view
and we settle down to prepare for other and
vastly dififcilng sights and sounds.
NIKKO
THE Japanese speak in aflfectionate and
extravagant terms of their famous town
of Nikko, unquestionably one of the most
beautiful spots in the Orient, and with the
natural beauties of the place accentuated by
the fact that Nikko is a repository of ancient
Japanese art, it is not surprising that the
town has become such a popular point in
the itinerary of the tourist. The Japanese
have a saying, "Don't use the word 'splen-
dour' until you have seen Nikko."
The town is the terminus of the Utsun-
omiya-Nikko branch line, and is situated in
northeastern Japan, about 90 miles from
Tokj-o, the railway journey occupying about
four and a half hours. It lies in a most
attractive setting of scenery and presents to
the lover of beauty a wonderful vista of
mountain, cascade, sparkling streams, lovely
lakes, and ancient trees. Naturally gorgeous
in its surroundings, Nikko has been enriched
KIKIFIRI WATERF.\LL
by the cunning craftsmanship of the Japanese,
and presents a delectable scene in which to
spend several days. Commercially, the town
has no great importance. The population is
under 20,000. But Nikko has historical
associations, and a general attractiveness that
have raised it to a position of eminence among
the lesser towns or cities of Japan.
Nikko itself possesses several remarkable
features. It was first brought to public
attention in 766, when Shodo-Shonin pene-
trated the mountains, intending to reach the
SHINTO TEMPLE FESTIV.AL DAY AT NIKKO
summit of Futarasan. He was unable to
accomplish his object, and remained in the
forest, practising ascetic exercises for fourteen
years, finally reaching the top of the mountain
in 781. Shodo-Shonin founded several
temples at Nikko and attracted to his retreat
a band of devotees, who were later followed
by regular settlers. In course of time Nikko
became a famous religious centre, and many
temples were built, the first shogun taking a
keen interest in the development of the site.
The town became still more famous as the
Ijurial place of Tokugawa-Iyeyasu, the
founder of the Tokugawa shogimate, whose
remains are interred there. His grandson,
lyemitsu, who succeeded to the shogunate,
erected the magnificent mausoleum which
took twelve years to complete, and is reputed
to have cost Yen 17,000,000. This gorgeous
shrine became the special, charge of successive
princes of the Imperial Family, who were
known as Prince-Superiors. This custom
was maintained until the collapse of the sho-
gunate in 1868, when the shrine became the
charge of the Imperial Government, which has
recognised certain Shinto temples and sacred
places as State institutions. Apart from
this great mausoleum, Nikko possesses an
abundance of wealth of Japanese architecture
of various periods. There are three- and five-
storied pagodas, the Sacred Cistern, the
Drum Tower, and other features always
of interest to the tourist or the lover of art.
The temples are amongst the most ancient in
Japan.
Nikko is attractive at all seasons of the
year, but particularly so in the spring and the
autumn, while as a summer resort it has
become quite popular, on account of the
mildness of the climate. Here one may also
see, at different seasons of the year, the most
ancient religious and other festivals. The
town is also famous for its beautiful avenues
of cryptomerias, which extend for a distance
of 24 miles. These beautiful trees are over
300 years old, and visitors rarely miss the
opportunity of walking the whole distance to
enjoy to the full the enchanting aspect of the
beautifully bordered highway into the town.
The environs of Nikko, and the adjacent
scenic beauties give the town as much of its
splendour as the sights within its boundaries.
Lake Chuzenji, one of the most entrancing
visions in Japan, lies about ten miles distant,
and the neighbouring mountain ranges are a
perpetual glory to the place. About 15 miles
away is the famous Ashio Copper Mine,
worked by the Furukawa family. This mine
and the smelting and refining works, give the
district about the only industrial interest that
exists for it, the town of Ashio having a busy
population of 30,000 people, four-fifths of
whom are miners.
29
A WINTER SCENE AT KIXKAKUJI, KYOTO
XXIX. The City of Kyoto
The Old Capital — Kyoto in Modern Times — Municipal Finance
Industry and Commerce
THE city of Kyoto, known as the
ancient capital of Japan, a distinc-
tion it enjoyed for more than eleven
hundred years, was founded by the Emperor
Kwammu in 781 a. d. In the long course
of her history Japan has had many capitals,
more than sixty in all, it is said, due to the
fact that in ancient times there was a super-
stitious dread of any place where death had
occurred. Just as the sons of a dead father
had to build the family a new house if the
father died in the old one, so when an
emperor passed away his successor had to
find himself a new capital. With the advent
of a more permanent civilisation from China
and the rise of great temples and other insti-
tutions, the inconvenience of removing the
capital with each accession to the throne
began to be felt, and we find that Nara
remained the national capital through eight
reigns. When the Emperor Kwammu came
to the throne he found the Government
indulging in grave irregularities under the
aegis of a corrupt and lax officialism, nor was
the condition of religion much better, and so
he decided to get away from it all by estab-
lishing a new capital on the river Kamo at the
foot of beautiful hills which he had learned to
admire during his hunting trips.
THE OLD CAPITAL
Kyoto is one of the few cities of the world
that did not rise by chance, as it was duly
planned, and the plan carefully carried out.
Under the famous architect, Kiyomaru, the
new city was skilfully designed, the site being
an extended parallelogram, with a central
avenue leading to the imperial palace. One
side of the main avenue was known as the
Sakyo, or left city, and the other was called
the Ukyo, or right city, each side to contain
nine jo, or, in all, about 14,832 houses, the
streets running at right angles from east to
west and north to south, 1,216 streets in all.
The central avenue was 280 feet in width, and
the adjoining streets from 170 to 120 feet, the
minor streets being from 80 to 40 feet wide.
The new capital was, indeed, the model of a
Chinese city, surrounded b}' moats ten feet
wide, flanked by high walls. Traversing the
city were eight canals excavated for ornament
as well as transportation purposes, of which
but one now remains. At the entrance to
the central avenue was a great gate, storied
and roofed with tiles. The imperial palace
stood between the first and second jo, or city
blocks, facing the south, with a frontage of
4,600 feet, and a depth of over 3,000 feet.
The imperial apartments were in the centre of
the building, with rooms and offices for
courtiers and officials all around. The
expense of constructing the new capital was
borne by the various provinces, the 12 gates
of the city being special gifts from feudal
lords.
.lEsthetically, at least, Kyoto has remained
through the centuries much what it was at
the beginning. Antiquity and imperial
dignity still possess Kyoto in a marked degree,
as well as great natural beauty, and the
sacredness of the place to the Japanese mind
mav be inferred from the fact that the rulers
HONGWANJI, THE LARGEST Hll)I)HI>T TEMPLE IN JAPAN — KIYOMIZL TEMPLE, KYOTO — THE CHIO-IN TEMPLE AT KYOTO-
ANOTHER VIEW OF KIVOMIZU TEMPLE — KINKAKUJI TEMPLE, GOLDEN PAVILION, KYOTO
440
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
of Japan are still crowned there. It would,
indeed, be difficult to imagine a more superbly
situated city than Japan's ancient capital.
But the changes and vicissitudes of time have
done much to remove some of its material
splendoiu", for it has been decimated by fire
time and again, and each time the rebuilding
has been on an inferior scale. Ashikaga
Takauji, Oda Nobunaga, and Hideyoshi To-
yotomi all tried to beautify the capital and
make it a worthy imperial city, but wars
raged round it and pestilence came at times
to quench the ardour of the citizens. Popu-
lation gradually moved toward the Sakyo, or
left district of the city, and so the Ukyo, or
right side of the old capital, has completely
disappeared, being now but a planted field.
The Kyoto of to-daj' is less than half the
size of the ancient capital, and when the
Emperor removed to Tokyo, a decline
naturally set in for Kyoto.
KYOTO IN MODERN TIMES
When the Emperor Kwammu founded his
capital he called it Heianjo, the City of Peace,
and though it has seen stormy times in the
course of its long history, Kyoto is still a
place of delightful tranquillity. On three
sides are yet the beautiful, well-wooded
mountains, looking down on the peaceful
streets. A great part of the city's area seems
still given up to temples, palaces, and pleasure
grounds. The Japanese like to erect their
sacred edifices in groves of stately trees on the
hillsides or in picturesque spots along the
mountain ranges, their gilt or burnished
copper decorations rising through the dark
green of the environing cryptomerias with
impressive effect. The modem city of Kyoto
covers an area of some i8 square miles, the
Kamo River penetrating it from the north
and the Katsura River on the west, with the
Takase between. The present population of
Kyoto is about 510,000, more than twice the
number of a century ago. As a place of
scenic and historic interest, the old city can
never lose its charm either for Japanese or
foreigners. The establishment of lines of
communication, the development of num-
erous industries, especially those of an artistic
nature, as well as the natural beauty of the
place, all combine to preser\'e, if not to bring
back, something of its ancient glor>', and to
attract all who appreciate lovely things.
As to government, the municipality has its
mayor and city council, as other cities of
Japan, only, perhaps, it may be said that the
municipal officials of the old capital are men
of keener artistic appreciation than most of
such officials usually are. Kyoto is fortunate
in having men at the head of affairs who
realise the city's possibilities from a historic
and Eesthetic point of view, and try to have
their city take full advantage of its prestige.
MUNICIP.\L FIN.\NCE
FiN.\xci.\LLY the old capital is not so pros-
perous, perhaps, as cities like Osaka and
Tokyo, where commerce and industrj' are
making greater progress, but Kyoto has
considerable wealth and manages to meet its
obligations without embarrassment. The
city is well provided with communications,
having its canal running through the streets,
and another nmning to Lake Biwa, which
SHIGOnORI, THE BISIEST STREET IN KYOTO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
441
A BEAUTIFUL PRIVATE GARDEN
existed even before railways. The main lines
of the Imperial Government Railway now
meet there, while an electric tram system
connects the city with Osaka. When the
time comes, as it no doubt will, that Kyoto
becomes a residential centre for Osaka mil-
lionaires and prosperous merchants, the pros-
pects of the city financially may be brighter,
though artistically it may suffer. Kyoto is
well lighted with electricity and is admirably
governed. The amount of annual revenue is
a little below 5,000,000 yen, while the city's
indebtedness in foreign loans is 19,500,000
yen, contracted mainly for waterworks, street
improvements, and tramways. Though Ky-
oto can not boast of the wealthy citizens that
Osaka and Tokyo can, it nevertheless may be
regarded as a wealthy city for Japan and its
citizens show a good deal more public spirit
than in most cities of the Empire. In 1915
the revenue and expenditure of Kyoto were
as follows:
Receipts
Sources
Yen
City properties 2,176
Fees 73.567
Subsidies 75,o"3
Legacies 3i05"
Taxes i ,202,242
Other receipts 129,837
Expenditure
Objects
Yen
City office 187,706
Public works 182,762
Public instruction 250,655
Sanitation 247,204
Bounties 83,926
Interest on loans 22,838
Loan account 150,000
Miscellaneous 402,626
In addition, there was an estimated outlay
of about 4,000,000 yen on canals, water-
works, tramways, and interest on loans.
Already some 6,316,122 yen have been spent
on canals and a water-power system for pro-
ducing electricity, which are now nearing
completion, if they are not already finished.
The canal is for purposes of transportation
and to supply the hydro-electric plant of the
city. The city waterworks is a separate
undertaking, completed in 1912 at a cost of
3,000,000 yen, of which 750,000 yen came
from the national treasury. The water for
the city is drawn by special canal from Lake
Biwa and is sufficient for a population of
500,000. The city electric tramways have a
mileage of fourteen, carrying an average of
24,000 passengers a day, and the annual
receipts in 1915 were 839,935 yen. The sys-
tem was completed at a cost of 10,379,212
yen. The liabilities of the municipality are
as follows:
French Loan 19,500,000 Yen
Municipal Loan i ,200,000 Yen
Park Extension Loan 50,000 Yen
Total 20,750,000 Yen
HOZU RAPIDS AT KYOTO
44^
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSION'S OF JAPAN
LIGHTERS CONVEYING TEA TO STEAMERS LYING OFF SHORE
KYOTO LEADING BUSINESS MEN
(Upper) Mr. T. Shimadzi-, Managing Director, Shimadzu Seisakusho, Ltd. (Middle Row)
Mr. Yuzo Kami, Managing Director, Nihon Chozo Ginko — Mr. H. Funasaka, Managing
Director, Kyoto Orimono Kaisha — Mr. Genzo Shimadzu, President, Shimadzu Seisakusho,
Ltd. (Lower) Mr. G. Otani, President, Hyogo Prefectural Hypothec Bank
INDUSTRY AXD COMMERCE
The admirable commercial museum estab-
lished in Okazaki Park by the citizens of
Kyoto indicates what the population is doing
in the way of art, commerce, and industry.
It would, indeed, be diflScult to imagine a
better way of displaying the beautiful prod-
ucts of the district, which include ceramics,
embroideries, silk tapestry, and other exqui-
site silk fabrics and brocades imrivalled else-
where. Every possible effort is being made
not only to secure and retain for the benefit
of the public all the fine examples of early
Japanese arts and crafts, but also to improve
by the aid of scientific and experimental
institutions the production of all classes of
modem Japanese manufactures, some of the
most attractive of which are produced at
Kyoto.
Among the more famous products of the
district are the rich brocades woven at the
Kawashima factory, than which no creation
of the weaver's art can be more beautiful.
These fabrics, known as tsiizure-nishiki, are a
form of woven embroider}', emploj'ed with
advantage by the wealthy and the great for
the decoration of walls and ceilings of palatial
apartments. The accomplished artists em-
ployed in this establishment can produce any
scene from nature or life. The magnificent
piece of silk tapestrj- presented by the late
Emperor of Japan to the Japanese room in
the Peace Palace at The Hague, was woven in
the Kawashima factor}', where there is one
loom capable of producing fabrics fifty feet
wide. Some of the exquisite historical
scenes in the panels of the imperial palace
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
443
were also woven here. Of course, weaving is
one of the oldest of Japanese arts, and has
been a specialty of Kyoto for more than a
thousand years. The industrial history of
the city would, in fact, be a history of the
finest textile fabrics of the Empire. Besides
silk tapestry weaving and embroidery, there
is silk cord making, lace work, porcelain,
lacquer work, fans, metal work, cloisonne
enamel, dolls, toys, trays, gold and silver
goods, umbrellas, needles, paper, copper
sheeting, and others too numerous to be
recorded here. Kyoto has over 10,000 arti-
sans of skill working in more than 200 fac-
tories, and there are about 400 great com-
mercial corjiorations in the city, with a capital
of over 52,000,000 yen. The city Chamber
of Commerce is an intelligent and energetic
body of men, anxious to promote the com-
merce and industry of their city. The annual
value of the city's industrial output is esti-
mated at 20,000,000 yen, of which 1,000,000
yen represents cotton, 2,500,000 yen porce-
lain, 600,000 yen paper, and 500,000 yen
lacquer.
Kyoto is also a noted educational centre,
having an Imperial University, a national
high school, a great Christian university
called the Doshisha, and many other schools.
THE JAP.\N S.WINGS BANK
This institution was originally known as
the Kyoto Savings Bank. It was established
on May 25, 1893, with a capital of Yen 100,-
000, and its policy of encouraging thrift
amongst the workers and others quickly
found favour, and led to the bank becoming
a popular concern. Branches were opened
in several places, and a general extension of
business necessitated increases in the capital.
This was raised to Yen 500,000 in November,
1913, and finally to Yen 800,000 on May 27,
1 9 16. At this time the Taisho Savings Bank,
Ltd., of Awajicho, Higashi-ku, Osaka, was
amalgamated, and the name of the joint con-
cern was changed to the Japan Savings Bank.
In every sense the bank is one for the people
at large. Deposits as small as 10 sen are
fmmuMU.!
V
III
HEAD OFFICE OF THE JAPAN SAVINGS BANK, LIMITED, KYOTO
INTERESTED ONLOOKERS .AT A bLHOOL
DEMONSTRATION
accepted, and liberal interest is paid, though
at the same time the public's money is most
carefully invested, in the highest grade of
securities, no speculative risks being taken.
There are nine branches in Kyoto and four-
teen in Osaka, a staff of 152 clerks and
others being employed. The Directorate
consists of Messrs. Y. Kami (Managing
Director), R. Imanishi, Y. Uyeda, and T.
Takakura (Manager). The Auditors are
Messrs. K. Yendo, K. Uyeda, and H. Mori.
The head office is at No. 401 Karasumaru,
Matsubara, Shimokyo-ku, Kyoto,
INABA CLOISONNE WARE COMPANY
No art store in Japan is better known to
foreign visitors and lovers of the beautiful
than " Kin-un-Kcn," at Kyoto, which is the
store of Mr. Hiroichi Inaba, whose cloisonne
ware factory and showrooms are indeed a
sight well worth seeing. Mr. Inaba is an
authority on the beautiful work of which he is
a maker. From his researches it appears that
the method of manufacturing cloisonne ware
in Japan was transmitted from China about
850 years ago, but nothing in detail can be
ascertained, as there are no relics of the
earliest work. In 1 871, Mr. Ozaki, master
of the Kin-un-Ken, made cloisonne as a trial.
At first the raw material was earthenware,
but gradually copper came into use. In 1874
the Chemical Bureau was established at
Kyoto, and physical and chemical investiga-
tions were made under the direction of Mr.
444
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
CHOICE SPECIMENS OF CLOISONNE WARE IN THE SHOWROOMS OF KIN-UN-KEN
(KYOTO CLOISONNE WARE COMPANY)
Wagner. Part of the work of this bureau was
the study of the making of enamel for
cloisonne ware. Mr. Y. Momonoi, of Aichi
Prefecture, was Mr. Wagner's assistant.
They prepared an enamel and distributed it
to all the people engaged in the making of
cloisonne and similar work, which gave a
great stimulus to the manufacture of cloi-
sonne, and a considerable improvement was
effected in the shapes, designs, hardness,
lustre, fineness, and finish. A special im-
provement was noticed in the "lineless cloi-
sonne," which was invented by Mr. Xami-
kawa of Tokyo.
In 1897 silver was used, and transparent
enamel was applied on this metal, while at
about the same time red iridescent cloisonne
made its first appearance. This was pro-
duced by applying red enamel on copper
material. The next development was the
production in 1899 of silver-plated cloisonne.
Transparent productions were made in 1907,
the method being to apply acid preparations
on copper. The manufacture of cloisonne
falls within the fine arts, so that it is rather
hard to make it a business under the ordinary
industrial system, and consequently it is not
possible to start a large company for the
exploitation of the great popularity of this
beautiful ware. Cloisonne can only be made
by artists who have been carefully trained
and who have some natural skill for the
work. But so far as it is possible to con-
duct the making and sale of cloisonne as a
business, this has been well done by the
Kin-un-Ken.
The business controlled by Mr. Inaba was
founded by Mr. Ozaki in 1871, and was
transferred to its present owner in 1888. In
1902 the late Emperor Leopold of Belgium
favoured the firm with an order for making
cloisonne for the imperial household at Brus-
sels. In 1900 Mr. Inaba was awarded the
silver medal at the Paris Exposition, and he
has also received many other awards for the
beauty and exceptionally high quality of his
work.
The works and the beautiful showrooms
of the Kin-un-Ken are at Xo. 12 Sanjo,
Shinakawabashi Kvoto.
If
A DIDUHIST CEREMONY
XXX. Religion
Historical Outlines — Shinto — Confucianism — Buddhism — Christianity
THERE are those who aver that the
Japanese are not a religious people,
but the fact that Japan has more re-
ligions, sects, and cults to the square acre than
perhaps any other countrj' of modeni times
may be taken to indicate the reverse of this
statement, while almost every year sees new
religions, or sects of old ones, emerging into
prominence and claiming official recognition.
In Japan every religious society must gain
the formal acquiescence of the Government
before it can lay claim to the legal status of
a religion and hope to be successful in the
propagation of its tenets. Religion is free,
but not to the extent of setting forth doctrines
considered dangerous to the State: hence the
necessity of acquiring official status.
As all religions can not be equally true,
nor prove equally worthy of public confi-
dence, one might be disposed to assume that
a people who welcome so many religions
really have faith in none. But the Japanese
are not only a very pragmatic people, but per-
sistently pantheistic, and as God is every-
where and in everything, one religion may
have as much divine truth as another, as
they are all different ways of reaching the
same end. The proof of a religion is in its
utility, especially for national purposes. As
no man can claim a monopoly of the secrets of
the Unseen, one religious teacher may know
as much about the subject as another.
Though the more educated classes of Japan
are prone to be cynical if not atheistic in
regard to the supernatural, they are inclined
to hold that the motives supplied by religion
are useful for cultivating and maintaining
reverence for national tradition and respect
for authority in the ignorant, the fanatical,
and the superstitious. Of this theory the
late Mr. Fukuzawa, the Sage of Mita, and
founder of the Keiogijuku University, was
the most notable exponent. He contended
that while religion was no use to him per-
sonally, nor could he see how it could be to
any fully developed mind, he was ready to
believe that in the future it might prove, as
it had in the past, a very valuable aid to
morals and government among the more
ignorant masses of the population. Be the
mind of the educated classes what it may in
regard to religion, there is no doubt that large
numbers of them uphold it, while the vast
mass of the Japanese people zealously support
some creed or cult, which could hardly be the
case without some degree of faith in religion.
The astonishing thing, of course, is not
that the Japanese have so many religions,
for that is true of other countries, but that
they should believe more or less in all, or
nearly all, that claim their allegiance, with
the exception of, perhaps, Christianity.
There are numerous cases where Christians
hold to the old faiths to some extent, while at
the same time being out-and-out followers
of Christ. Shinto is popular as a means of
promoting patriotism, as a counterblast to
Buddhist pessimism, and as affording a
becoming ritual for marriage ceremonies;
Buddhism is popular for funerals and impos-
ing ceremonies of state; Confucianism proves
most useful in education and government, for
inculcating practical politics and unreasoning
subserviency to bureaucracy; Christianity is
welcomed for its international influence and
its eleemosynary institutions. Taking the
Japanese as a whole, it is safe to say that the
one aspect of religion that claims universal
allegiance is its patriotism. Religion implies
belief in the national gods, as taught by Shinto
and Buddhism, or in the Almighty, as
taught by the Christians: so that the divine
being or beings are the ancestors of the
Japanese, the Emperor being the descendant
direct and representative immediate of the
gods, and to be reverenced and obeyed as
such. True religion is devotion to Emperor
446
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
If
;^^
_x^
III
t^^^lW^^'''^^'^^
GILT BRONZE EMBOSSED BUDDHIST FIGURES OF THE IMPERIAL COURT (EIGHTH CENTURY).
EXHIBITED IN THE TOKYO IMPERIAL MUSEUM
and country. As Shinto best sets forth the
national ideal, all Japanese are more or less
Shintoists, including those whose main inter-
ests are with Buddhism or Confucianism or
Christianity. To most of the educated
classes, no doubt, Shinto is a refined form of
patriotism, and probably the so-called wor-
ship of ancestors does not mean much more
than the veneration Occidentals accord the
memory of the great dead; but there is not
the slightest doubt that to the vast majority
of the Japanese Shinto is a religion, and to
many of them the only one. Nevertheless
the Government avers that Shinto is not a
religion, and thus evades the inconsistency
of officially supporting the national shrines.
HISTORICAL OUTLINES
What the religion of the Yamato race was
when it first settled in the islands of Nippon
can only be surmised from archseological
remains and from what is found in practice at
the beginning of the sixth century A. D.,
when authentic history begins. It is quite
clear that the Yamato had a definite religion
then, and it was characterised by three main
elements: Nature worship, which may have
been imbibed from the native inhabitants;
ancestor worship, involving deification of
progenitors, which the conquering race had
brought with them from their own home; and
Confucianism, which had early found its way
to the country, probably with some of the
original immigrants. With the advent of
Buddhism, in 535 A. D., we find the three
elements combining to resist the invader; and
so the early days of Buddhist propaganda
were marred by civil strife.
Japan's theogony as well as her ideas of
cosmology will be found more fuUy treated in
the chapter on the origin and historj' of the
Japanese people at the beginning of this
vokime. Suffice it here to say that believing,
as the Yamato did, in their heaven-descended
sovereign and themselves as the children of
the gods, destined to deification after this life,
they could not very well accept the pessi-
mistic affirmations of the Indian religion.
The literary monuments of the struggle for
preservation of the national ideals in religion
are to be found in the two oldest records of
the nation, known as the Kojiki and the
Nihongi, which belong in spirit, at least, to
this period, and occupy in Japanese tradition
much the same position as the Old Testament
does in the Hebrew. These mythical com-
positions pointed the Yamato people to an
origin and sovereignty more ancient than
China, summing up the legends on which such
claims were based and showing "the Way of
the Gods." With the growth of Chinese
influence and the constant introduction of
new cults, it was no doubt found necessar>' to
ONE OF THE ANCIENT GODS, BIZEN IMBE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
447
ofTcr tliis protest and assert the priority and
preeminence of the national faith.
Uuddhism, however, waged an incessant
l)attle. The influence of Korea and China,
with their ancient tradition and Hterary lore,
permeated Yamato civiHsation, and when the
rulers of Japan, as well as her leading states-
men, finally espoused the foreign religion, the
result was naturally a compromise. The
tenacity of the national faith, however, is
seen in the fact that the yielding was on the
side of the alien religion. Indeed, Buddhism
had always won its way to new lands and
peoples by this same method of compromise.
Buddhism, though essentially atheistic, even
on its native soil never rejected the gods of
Brahmanism, and it was prepared to accept
the indigenous deities of Yamato on the same
terms. During its long journeyings across
the plains of Asia the Indian religion had
learned to believe that Buddhas and Bod-
hissatvas could be incarnated many times for
the benefit of suffering humanity, and why
should not the same principle be extended to
the Japanese pantheon? This was especially
necessary in regard to the deified rulers of the
Yamato race! And so the gods of Shinto
were accepted as reincarnations of the great
Buddhas, and the two religions were treated
practically as indentical. Thus the outward
form of Buddhism was superimposed on the
national cult of Shinto mainly through
the influence of Chinese civilisation and the
Imperial Court, which had adopted it, though
the Yamato race had never really changed at
heart.
The period best representing the age of
compromise was when the capital was at Nara
in the eighth century. During this time and
for centuries afterward, the foreign religion
continued to gain influence and to hold sway
over the Japanese race. Great temples arose,
numerous monasteries were established,
princes and potentates championed the faith
of Buddha, until at last the entire State was
under the domination of priests and monks.
And as is usually the case with a secularisation
of religion, it became corrupt and devoted
to intrigue and poHtical aspirations. The
Emperor Kwammu, at the beginning of the
ninth century, removed the capital from
Nara to Kyoto to elude the tentacles of the
monks and enable the national ideal to assert
itself. The Buddhism of Kyoto was much
more consonant with Japanese character and
tradition than that of Nara. During the
three centuries that had elapsed since the
advent of Buddhism, the peculiar insistency
of the native character had successfully
regained the ascendancy in national affairs,
having absorbed and digested Confucianism,
Taoism, Indian and Chinese Buddliism, and
numerous elements of less immediate impor-
I I-.
URONZE BUDDHA IN ASAKUSA PARK, TOKYO
tance, the result being a masterpiece of
theological construction, known as the
Tejidai.
Amid the incessant civil strife of the
eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries
religion fell sadly into decay. Perhaps it is
safe to assume that because it had already
lost, or refused to lose, its soul, the nation
descended to these long periods of civil war.
Religion now took refuge from the sword in
temples and monasteries, and here and there
in the hearts of the common people. From
this time religion came to be marked by these
three distinct types: that of the monk, the
warrior, and the peasant. The type still per-
sists and must be borne in mind by all who
would not misunderstand Japanese religion.
Nowhere in the world is it more evident than
in Japan that religion is not racial but human.
In the Japanese, as in all mortals, there is a
mystic strain, which in some individuals finds
its highest experience in monastic life. Even
in the busy Japan of to-day the monk persists
and thrives. In the dark days of civil war
much of the best intellect and spirit of the
nation found its way to the cloister. There
it preserved the religion that would have
perished in blood, and the literature that
would have been obliterated in burning cities,
supplying the nation with the only moral and
intellectual stimulus of the time. The mon-
asteries and temples of Japan were as truly
lights in the darkness of the Middle Ages as
were those of the Christians in contemporary
Europe. In the great monasteries at Hiye-
zan, Koyasan, and Nara, art, religion, and
literature were prescribed from annihilation.
Nearly all the great teachers, painters, poets,
and authors of this period were monks and
priests.
Over against the monks and their aversion
to blood and strife stood the warrior class,
represented by the great military government
which raised itself to power at Kamakura.
448
P R E S K N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS
O F
JAPAN
For centuries it was seen that a faith which
opposed the taking of Hfe, even animal Hfc,
was not well suited to the sturdy and stren-
uous Yaniato, so recently removed from that
primitive stage where victims were sacrificed
to appease angrj' deities. The early Japanese
sovereigns always had victims buried alive
with their masters, so that the departed might
not have to venture unattended into the
Shinto unseen. Under the influence of the
new religion this practice was discontinued.
But the wars of the Minamoto and the Taira,
of Yoritomo, Hojo, and Hideyoshi, showed
that the Japanese were not at heart Buddhist,
just as the great war in Europe showed that
the Germans were not at heart Christian.
The whole period of civil war was a protest
against the religion of the monks. They were
accused of political intrigues for opposing
the warriors, of which, indeed, some were
undoubtedly guilty, and actual war had to be
waged against some of the monasteries at
Kyoto. As the years of strife proceeded
there arose a class known as the biishi, or
knights, as in England. They were what
J,
rVm^ 9 at trA^
n!
i!L?"
1^ I
subsequently came to be known as samurai,
the proud descendants of the ancient warriors
who had conquered Nippon. They held a
position not unlike that usurped by the Anglo-
Norman aristocracy in medieval England.
The samurai were not exactly an irreligious
people, but they wanted a religion appropriate
to their nature, and a faith that forbade the
taking of life was not one for men whose soul
was the sword. They were the descendants
of the men who had resisted the introduction
of Buddhism and with whom the foreign
religion had to reach a compromise before it
could secure freedom in the islands. They
still form the most powerful influence in
Japanese society, and any religion that desires
favour in Japan has to reckon with them.
Buddhism in the thirteenth century began to
realise that it must be prepared for further
compromise. The first compromise had been
in regard to gods; the second had to be con-
cerned with certain doctrines averse to
war. At Kamakura, the military capital,
accordingly, was found emerging a form of
Buddhism which appealed to the military
instincts of the samurai. It is known as Zen
Buddhism, and makes little of forms, cere-
monies, and doctrines, aiming chiefly at strict
intellectual and moral discipline. It is an
attempt to deal with bushido in a religious
way. Bushido is really the conquering spirit
of the warriors who subdued Japan under
Jimmu Tenno; and Buddhism had tried to
tame it and make it religious, with only
indifferent results, but yet quite as successful
as the Church has been with Teutonic kultur.
At any rate, Zen Buddhism is the only sect of
that faith that has any special appeal for the
samurai.
And for the poor and the unlettered there
was the teaching of the all-embracing mercy
of Amida, the father of all sentient beings,
and through whom the worlds came into
existence and of whom all Buddhas are mani-
festations. He came into human flesh to
find a way to save rnen from their unhappy
condition in this world, and all who have
faith in him and invoke his name will be
welcomed at last into the habitations of bliss
whiTr Ik- w.'iits to ri'cvivi' tlnm. .\nd then
-^
i
FIGURE OF KOXGWORIKISHF, IN COLOURED WOOD, FIVE FEET IN HEIGHT, ATTRIBUTED TO JOKEI, THIRTEENTH CENTURY, OWNED BY KOFUKU-JI,
A TEMPLE AT KARA CITY — INTERIOR OF THE HOODO H.\LL, UJI, YAMASHIRO, AND ITS PRINCIPAL WOODEN IMAGE OF BUDDHA
AMITABHA, PROBABLY BY JOCHO, ELEVENTH CENTURY FIGURE OF MEIKIRA-TAISHO, ONE OF THE TWELVE COMPANION
BUDDHIST DEITIES KNO%VN AS JUNI-SHINJO. H.\LF-RELIEVO ON WOOD, EARLY FUJIWARA PERIOD (888-1068 A. D.)
P k K S E N T - n A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
449
8SI
THE FAMOUS HONGVVAN'JI TEjMPI.E AT KYOTO
came Christianity, in the sixteenth century,
with the Portuguese and Spanish mission-
aries. The aversion of the Buddhists, their
cruel persecutions in cooperation with the
government for the eradication of the Western
rehgion, and all that interesting record of
martyrdom must be reserved for its proper
place.
It will now be in order to deal with each of
the religions claiming the allegiance of the
Japanese — what they are and what they have
accomplished in modern times.
SHINTO
Shinto, or the Way of the Gods, is the
original faith of the Japanese. To justify
their claim that there is no official religion
in Japan, the Government holds that Shinto
is not a religion, as it has no dogmas, no
sacred books, and no moral code, but it
will hardly be conceded that a cult which
insists on recognition of deities and the
worship of them is not a religion. Nowhere
is this remarkable inconsistency more con-
spicuous than in the words of the Govern-
ment itself, as may be seen from the following
extract taken from a statement issued by the
Bureau of Shrines connected with the Govern-
ment: "Whatever ideas or beliefs the people
may have, the Government does not look
upon the shrines as being religious in nature.
However desirable it may be for people
gradually to return to the former ideas and
interpretations regarding the shrines, at the
present time the Government has no thought
of doing anything to bring this about. The
Government simply encourages respect for
shrines and believes that shrines may be
reverenced and supported by those who
have faith in any religion without conflict
or inconvenience. Whatever opinion may
be held as to what should be done regard-
ing the religious attitude toward the shrines,
the Government will maintain a neutral
position, on the ground that religious belief
should be free!" Obviously this must be
interpreted as an attitude calculated to lead
all other religions to revere the Shinto shrines
and deities as a patriotic duty, on the score
that they have official assurance that in doing
so they are in no way disloyal to their own
faith. As already stated, to the great mass
of the Japanese people Shinto is undoubtedly
a religion and the spirits of the dead are
worshipped as gods. Shinto is primarily a
system of ancestor worship, according to
which the spirits of the dead become kami,
or exalted beings of god-like rank, entitled
to the homage and reverence of the living.
Doubtless the cult originated with the fear
of ghosts which characterises the beliefs of
primitive races, and is now used as a form
of filial piety, yet there is no doubt that a
Japanese believes that his ancestors are liv-
ing, know all about him, and perceive as
well as endeavour to guide his every action,
and that he should always be governed by
their example and counsel. In every Japa-
nese home there is an altar-shelf in which
are enshrined the ancestral spirits, and
offerings are made and worship performed
before the shrine twice a day. The number
of gods in the Shinto pantheon is legion,
vaguely enumerated as "eight hundred
myriads," a sort of bacteriological calcu-
lation.
There are, however, three prevailing types
of gods that call for more than passing
notice; the National Gods, the Communal
Deities, and the Family Gods. The Nation-
al gods comprise the spirits of departed
KASUGA TEMPLE AT NARA, NEAR KYOTO
P R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ENTRANCE AND INTERIOR OF A NIKKO TEMPLE
emperors, the central shrine being at Ise,
with a branch in the Imperial Palace in
Tok\'0. These are honoured at certain
appointed periods and on great national
occasions, the officiants being appointed
for the purpose by the Imperial Household.
All matters of national importance are
referred to the notice of the Imperial Spirits
at the national shrine, and thanks are offered
to them for. national mercies. Since the
victories over China and Russia greater
attention has been devoted to these shrines,
and the highest authorities have freely pro-
claimed the invincibility of the nation to be
due to the assistance of the ancestral spirits,
whom to ignore or offend is to be condemned.
It is, of course, rather difficult to arrive at
any very definite idea of what the Japanese
mean by a Creator. Shinto speaks of the
Ogami, or great God, of Ise, but what deity
is singled out from the gods many and lords
many of the national pantheon, it is im-
possible to determine. The inevitable infer-
ence, however, is that the Almighty is a
Japanese, the Emperor of Japan is His de-
scendant, and that the Imperial House of
Japan is therefore superior to all the petty
rulers of other countries, if not destined to
rule them.
The Communal Gods are the spirits of
great personages, such as princes or daimyo
or other potentates, who have been bene-
factors to the pro\'ince or community. The
shrines in their honour are to be seen in ever\-
community down to the tiniest hamlet,
while cities have many such shrines, and on
appointed occasions and anniversaries offer-
ings are made at festivals celebrated before
these shrines for the consolation of the
departed spirit and the winning of its favour
to bless and prosper the community. Some
of these shrines date their foundation in
remote antiquitj', and the older they are the
greater becomes their claim to reverence
and gifts. These gods must, of course, be
always Japanese, and when the nation
began to acquire colonies, these could have
no shrines because these countries had no
gods, all deities being Japanese. However,
a Japanese prince happened to die in Formosa
while on a visit and the occasion was seized
to raise a shrine to his memory, and thus
that colony is now fortunately provided
with a guardian deit}', relieving the com-
munal deities in Japan proper from the care
of the outlying portions of the Empire. In
Korea no Japanese shrine of any importance
has yet been erected as no great spirit con-
nected with that country and of Japanese
blood has passed into the unseen as j'et;
but no doubt in due time occasion will be
afforded for the founding of such a shrine.
As to family shrines, these, as has already
been indicated, are in the form of small
altars in the household, the Shinto shrines
being very simple, but the Buddhist more
elaborate wnth the name of the departed
inscribed on a tablet, or thai, before which
the family perform their dailj- devotions,
seeking the help of the departed. How far
back ancestor worship should go has not
been decided, though to the evolutionists
in Japan it must form an interesting ques-
tion. The average Japanese, however, is
not troubled by such problems, as he, like
the average Christian of the West, believes
he has descended in direct succession from
the gods, without a thought of any missing
P R IC S K N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
451
link between. To the more educated classes,
on the other hand, it must appear that the
less remote one's ancestors are the more
worthy of worship and emulation in charac-
ter do they become. In addition to the
ancestral gods, the Japanese have innumer-
able other deities whose duty is to oversee
every action and aspect of human life, from
the performance of a great State ceremony
to the performance of the toilet, the build-
ing of a house or the marrying of a wife.
There are gods of wind, of fire, of pestilence,
of war, of food, of the pot in which the food
is cooked, gods of the kitchen, the door,
and the gate.
In spite of its avowed independence of
moral codes and dogmatics in general, Shinto
has a complicated ritual which requires a
special education to understand and perform,
and it has numerous ceremonies of purifica-
tion from wrongdoing and bodily defilement.
It is a religion, however, which has no
heaven or hell, and no morals except man-
ners and national customs, in which it shows
Confucian influence. Shinto holds that the
Japanese, being children of the gods, are
naturally and innately moral, and so require
no moral code or teaching as do the barba-
rian nations of the West. All a Shintoist
has to do is to follow the devices and desires
of his own heart and obey the Mikado and
he has fulfilled his whole duty to man.
The Imperial Rescript on Education, quoted
in the article on that subject in this volume,
may be taken to represent the Shinto sum-
mary of ethics, and on this the ethical edu-
cation of each rising generation is based.
That the theory is not only defective but quite
ineffective, either as a motive or a mode for
the shaping of moral life, is clear from the
appalling degree of immorality characteristic
of Japanese civilisation, where not only has
the Golden Rule small place, but the general
idea is: Do unto others as they would do
unto you, only do it first.
The Shinto temple, in contrast to the
gorgeous altars of Buddhism, is very simple,
constructed, as it is, of plain, undecorated
wood, without any altar save a shelf on
which stand a mirror, and some bunches of
paper symbolizing prayers and offerings.
The aim of the architecture seems to be to
preserve the form of the primeval hut in
which lived the ancestors to be worshipped.
The Shinto priest when engaged before the
altar wears a loose gown of black over white,
fastened at the waist with a girdle, and he
has a black cap of curious form on his head.
.•\t Shinto festivals there are intoning of
prayers, the reciting of incantations, and the
performing of dances for the pleasure and
entertainment of the gods. Some of the
plays and operettas go back in origin to the
birth of music and poetry. Shinto is possi-
bly the most optimistic religion in the world.
Its gods are very human and enjoy what
man enjoys; and consequently one is not
surprised to find Shintoists now and then
even joking with the gods. It may be that
it was felt impossible to survej' some of the
countenances the gods had produced in
Japan and believe the Creator was lacking
in a sense of humour. And sometimes the
gods are even punished, as there are cases
on record where, prayers for rain being
ignored, the image of the deity petitioned
was taken down from its pedestal and hurled
into a pond. Even the gods have to play
up to Japanese ideas or suffer the conse-
quences. The Japanese mother takes her
new'-bom babe to the Shinto shrine to invoke
the protection of the guardian deity for its
success in life, for there also she was prob-
ably married. In death, however, recourse
is had to Buddhism, which claims to be more
familiar with the dark secrets of the unseen
than Shinto, and therefore to offer better
facilities of ceremonial for the dead. At the
famous war museum at Kudan in Tokyo
there is a great shrine known as the Yasukuni
Jinja, dedicated to the spirits of all those
that have died on the field of battle for
Japan, including even the names of some
Englishmen. There twice every year repre-
sentatives of the Emperor, the Government,
and the army and navy, as well as of the
people at large, hold a solemn festival in
honour of the fallen heroes, when their
spirits are invoked for the prosperity of
the country for which they have given
their lives.
BRONZE BUDDH.\ .\T SHIN.\G.\VV.\, TOKYO
452
P R E S K N T - I) A \' I M P R !•: S S [ O N S O F JAPAN
INTERIOR OF A BUDDHIST SHRINE
As to official status, Shinto shrines are
divided into twelve grades, with the Grand
Shrine of Ise at the head and the Grand
Shrine of Izumo second, the Kashima Shrine
at Hitachi third, and so on. Every portion
of the Empire is under the guardianship of
Shinto deities. The total number of Shinto
shrines in Japan is 122,593, with 14,223
priests, the latter being as a rule of little
education, though there is a college in Tokyo
for the training of priests. As this training
consists of mere memorising and practising
the national ritual for State occasions, the
course is only for a few months and the
education in no way profound. In Japan
the Emperor is the chief priest of the nation,
and he may officiate at the Shinto altar or
appoint a deputy, while at the inferior
shrines a duly appointed Shinto priest
attends to such duties, the office being
generally hereditary. To make confusion
worse confounded, from a theological point
of view, there are numerous sects of Shinto,
and subjects galore, of which thirteen are
of more than ordinary importance, and are
accorded official recognition. The leading
sect simply calls itself the Shinto Sect, and
announces that its main claim to distinction
lies in the facilities it offers for the worship
of the ancestors of "the whole divine race"
of the age of myth. The Jingukyo Sect
enshrines the Sun Goddess as its principal
deity, and makes a special feature of marriage
services and correctness of national ritual.
The Taishakyo Sect looks to the Grand
Shrine of Izumo as its head, is dedicated
to six deities of the mythic ages, and special-
ises in luck for lovers and their weddings.
The Fuso Sect was founded by Fujiwara
Sumi}'uiki in the sixteenth century after a
prolonged meditation on Mount Fuji, where
he obtained a divine revelation. Conse-
quently it is much associated with the
sacred mountain, and worships the three
principal deities of creation, in other words,
the ancestors of the Japanese race. The
Daiscikyo Sect worships the "myriad deities"
of heaven and earth, including the imperial
ancestors, and upholds the divine precepts
that maintain national polity. Another sect,
called the Jikko, teaches that Fujisan is the
heart of the whole earth, offers worship in
connection with that mountain, and prays
unceasingly for the prosperity of the Imperial
House. The Kurozumi Sect was founded
in 1849 by a man of the same name, with
a view to upholding more fer\'ently the
divine precepts of the Imperial Ancestors
and making the Sun Goddess the central
object of worship, the sun being the primal
source of life and light. This sect makes
much of sun baths and sun meditations,
with deep respiration, and is very popular.
The Shuseiha Sect aims at a closer harmony
between Shinto and Buddhism, while wor-
shipping the national ancestors; and the
Jisshukyo Sect aims at undoing the evils
of Buddhism and Christianity in national
life, the effects of which it professes to remove
by exorcism and divination. The main
features of the Mitakekv'o Sect are cleanli-
ness of body and mind as the means of
winning godly favour, and it propitiates the
national deities by promoting mountain
climbing. Loyalty to the Imperial Throne
is the outstanding feature of the Miharaikyo
Sect of Shinto, with a corresponding aver-
sion to all foreign religions. It laj's great
stress on bodily purification. The founder
of the Shinrikyo Sect is still living. His
BRONZE RELL, D.\TED 1577, ^^ RELIC OF AN
EARI.V JESUIT MISSION. NOW PRESERVED
IN A BUDDHIST TEMPLE AT KYOTO
I'RESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
453
name is Sano Tsucnhiko, and his main
principle of faith is unceasing prayer and
the practice of divination. The Tenrikyo
Sect was founded V)y a farmer's wife named
Miki Nakayama, in iHS". At first im-
prisoned for imposing on the public, the
founder of the new sect at last won her way
to official recognition. Ten gods are wor-
shipped and self-sacrifice and benevolence
are the chief features of ])ractice. A holding
of property and wealth in common is advo-
cated and a life of poverty commended.
This new sect is very popular, having in
the short space of its existence already 3,000
shrines and more than 4,000,000 adherents.
It will thus be seen that if the Japanese are
not sufficiently patriotic, it is not for want
of sects to impress them with its importance
and necessity; and if Japan is unfortunate
in the future as a nation it will not be for
lack of gods to look after her interests and
devotees to remind them of their duties.
CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism can hardly be said to
exist as a separate cult in Japan, though
no doubt it is the only rule of life for a
considerable number of individuals, especially
among the upper classes. It is particularly
adapted to that increasing number of Japa-
nese who, through the influence of modern
science, ha\-e broken away from and aban-
doned the myths and su]5erstitions of national
tradition and now only observe the ancient
ceremonies out of respect for the past and
loyalty to the present. Being more of a
philosophy of life than a religion, Con-
fucianism in Japan has no more to say about
gods than it has in China. It simply avers
that the chief end of man is to follow nature;
that is, to be true to his own instincts. This
cult is especially adapted to Japanese notions
of nationality and citizenship, since it agrees
with Shinto in teaching that the Japanese
are the direct descendants of the gods, and,
with such a parentage, are well fitted to
assume the responsibility which freedom to
follow nature offers. When Baron Shi-
busawa, one of the most distinguished dis-
ciples of Confucius in Japan, returned from
a visit to the United States, he told his
fellow countrymen how John Wanamaker,
the great merchant prince of America,
asked him one day before a public audience
how it was that he, an intelligent man, could
accept a religion or rule of life that China
had followed for 3,000 years without making
any progress. Baron Shibusawa's admission
that he had no answer to this question is
significant. In days when so much con-
fusion prevails in regard to religion, and yet
many men feel that life must have some
anchor in the way of a creed, Confucianism
THE FAMOUS DAIBUTSU AT KAMAKURA
appeals to many Japanese as offering the
least that religion can demand and retain
its name. In its emphasis on the loyalty
of subject to sovereign and children to
parents and inferior to superior, this cult
is very agreeable to the bureaucratic spirit
of Japanese government and civilisation,
and is always made the basis of national
ethics. For the masses, however, Con-
fucianism has little or no appeal, as it lacks
the motives which faith in deity compels
and sincere worship inspires and strengthens.
A religion or cull that offers mortal man
nothing better than himself to have faith in
and emulate, can never command confidence
save among those already pretty well fixed,
to use a vulgar term. Without a faith that
can be touched by some sincere emotion
and ideal, Confucianism lies cold in the
brains of its exponents, and suffering human-
ity finds little or no place for it in the heart.
In this respect Buddhism with its tender
and merciful deities appeals to the Japanese
people much more, and consequently there
w-as never much harmony between the two
until the Tokugawa days, when the shogun,
in his grasp of power, was bent on making
the subservience of inferior to superior a
religion. A school of Confucianism was
established, but failed to accomplish much.
Such scholars as Hirata and Motoori began
to expound the ancient doctrines, tending to
show that Japan was the country of the
gods, the divine ancestors whom the con-
querors worshipped long before Confucianism
and Buddhism ever came to the sacred land
of Yamato. As these ancient gods had
created Japan and gave it to their descend-
30
454
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
MIYAJIMA TEMPLE
ants, it was the duty of all loyal Japanese
to worship these gods and the Emperor who
represented them on earth. Patriotism,
loyalty, and religion were one and the same
thing to these new teachers of the old faith.
It did not take very long for such teaching
to overthrow the shogunate, which had
usurped the imperial prerogatives and set
up a centre of government of its own. That
was the beginning of a new movement
that received fresh impetus with the down-
fall of feudalism and the Restoration of
Imperial Rule, so that for the last fifty years
or more Shinto has been leaving both Bud-
dhism and Christianity and all other reli-
gions in the shade.
BUDDHISM
In the brief space at our disposal it would
be absurd to attempt an exposition of Bud-
INTERIOR OF A BUDDHIST TEMPLE, SHOWING THE CEREMONI.U, FURNITURE
dhism as taught in Japan, where it is not
at all the same religion that it is in India
and other countries of its adoption. The
Buddhism of India offers salvation through
self-perfection — grace comes through knowl-
edge and enlightenment. Japanese Bud-
dhism, on the other hand, leans far toward
the Christian doctrine of faith in a saviour
as the way to life, and perhaps largely under
Christian influence. In Japan Buddhism
has, nevertheless, been unable to divest
itself of its inherent pessimism, nor to escape
from pantheism, notwithstanding its athe-
istical trend. Japanese Buddhism, however,
teaches that Amida is the creator and father
of men and that salvation depends on man's
faith in Buddha, the incarnation of Amida.
Beneath this outward show of theism Bud-
dhism yet remains essentially panthetistic.
The Divine Being is regarded as identical
with the universe, one with the Mind of
the Universe, absorbed in the five elements
that go to the composition of matter. In
philosophic treatises, in hymns, and in general
liturgies, this teaching is certainly implied.
Those familiar with the details of early
Christian history will see in Buddhism much
of the pantheism which IrenKus describes in
the God of Basilides. Between Mahayana
Buddhism and ancient Gnosticism there is a
striking resemblance, showing that the long
exploded and forgotten theories and heresies
of , ancient Egypt and Syria still sur\'ive in
Japan. Traces of similarity are also found
between the Buddhism of Japan and the
religion of ancient Egypt, both having the
same central deity, with his retinue of sub-
sidiary deities and a host of minor beings,
the whole making up the sum total of the
divine. There are, moreover, the same incan-
tations, charms, and manual gesticulations.
Interesting references were made to this by
Professor Sayce during his visit to Japan,
after concluding his great explorations and
excavations in Egypt. So from Egypt,
through India and China, this religion came
to Japan, and the Daibutsu at Nara maj' be
taken as identical with Osiris. Nor may the
idea be wholly farfetched to suppose that
there is possibly some Egj^ptian blood in the
Japanese race. In its appeal to the masses
in Japan, however. Buddhism lays great
stress on the mercy and all-abounding love
of Amida. This idea was first put forth by
Zcndo of the seventh century in China, and
early found its way to Japan, stirring power-
fully the hearts of such men as Genshin,
Honen, Shinran and others, but the cele-
brated reformer, Xichiren, rejected it and its
Amida as a new thing in Buddhism and pro-
claimed Shakyamuni as supreme, seeking to
call men back to the original beliefs of the
faith. Thus arose in Japan sect after sect.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
455
each warring with the other, the new sects
often becoming pohtical intriguers, with their
trainbands of warriors, while pious souls in
secluded temples kept alight the lamp of
religion.
When Christianity came to Japan in the
sixteenth century. Buddhism waged relentless
war against it, while to the Jesuits there w-as
no love lost. Those who had for centuries
been teaching the sin of taking animal life,
and of eating animal food, now saw no
iniquity in delivering up innocent men and
women and even babes to deaths of the most
cruel and revolting kind. From this rever-
sion to barbarism Japanese Buddhism has
never recovered, the effect being not unlike
that of the Inquisition in Spain. With the
downfall of the shogunate and the Restoration
of Imperial Rule, Buddhism was disestab-
lished and left to its own resources. Since
then it has greatly bestirred itself, under the
rivalry of Christianity, and constrained by
the whip of adversity. Its chief success, so
far as it may truthfully be said to have had
any, has been in impressing the people with
the mercy and all-embracing care of Amida,
which are described in terms remarkably
like those of the Christian preacher. The
Zen sect has, perhaps, been the most popu-
lar, especially in educated and military cir-
cles, as it appeals to the fighting qualities in
man, but the masses support one or the other
of the remaining innumerable sects into
which the religion is divided. Buddhism in
Japan can not be said to show much indi-
cation of progress, though it no doubt still
has a great hold on the masses of the people.
Too often one sees temples neglected and
falling into decay to believe that the faith is
universally very much alive. But the popu-
lar temples seem well supported, the annual
collections dropped into the treasure boxes
at the doors amounting to enormous sums.
In recent years attempts have been made
to establish Buddhist missions, but with
indifferent results. Even in the Japanese
colonies, if we are to go by accusations in the
vernacular press, Buddhism takes little or
no practical interest, as compared with that
shown by the Christians. Temples have
been erected in America and England, but
no one will claim that Buddhist propaganda
in these countries has had any appreciable
effect. The Buddhist priesthood in Japan is
still too generally illiterate and lax, and even
immoral, according to the daily papers, to
exercise a commanding religious influence on
the nation, while even among the leading
temples, such as those at Kyoto, verj- ques-
tionable financial transactions are reported,
causing grave scandal. During the war with
Russia Buddhism made special efforts to
assist the troops in a practical way at the
front, which attracted very favourable recog-
nition and caused some revival of interest in
the religion. There is yet little or no coop-
eration between Buddhism and Christianity
in Japan, but relations between them are
much less acrimonious than in the old days.
At present the number of Buddhist sects
entitled to official recognition by the Govern-
ment in Japan is twelve, which again are
subdivided into numerous other sects, the
Shin, Zen, and the Shingon sects claiming
each ten minor sects, and others more or less
subdivisions. The Hosso Sect, which is the
oldest, dating from 653 A. D., has its head-
quarters at the Kofukuji temple at Nara,
being the family temple of the great Fujiwara
clan, whence the empresses of Japan are
always taken. Another ancient sect is the
Kegon, dating from 735 A.D., with its head
temple in Nara, famous for the colossal
image of Buddha. The Tendai Sect was
introduced from China by Saicho in 805 A. D.,
and was the first to base all religious doctrines
on the scriptures and the attainment of salva-
tion by practising the cardinal virtues and
religious observances. The Enr>-akuji tem-
ple on Mount Hiyei is the head of this sect.
The Shingon Sect was founded by Kukai in
the year 806, the founder being the inventor
of the Japanese syllabary. This sect has its
central temple in Kyoto, the famous Goko-
kuji, and one of the chief features is the
emphasis it lays on mystic rites and prayers.
The Yuzu Nembutsu Sect dates from the
twelfth centur\', and makes a specialty of
chanting invocations and incantations. The
Jodo Sect also dates from the twelfth century,
having been founded by the great priest
Honen, who tried to make religion popular
by expounding a difference between the doc-
trines necessary for the initiated and those
for the masses. The head temple is the
Chion-in in Kyoto. The Zen Sect came to
Japan from China in the thirteenth century,
making salvation depend on meditation and
introspection, the essential virtue cultivated
being self-control. There are numerous
subjects, but it would take the acumen of a
schoolman to detect the differences between
them. One of the most prosperous of Bud-
dhist sects is the Shin, founded by Shinran,
who based his doctrines on the three great
.sutras. This sect does not prohibit the
eating of meat or the marriage of the priest-
hood. Salvation is attained by faith in
Amida and by praising his holy name. The
chief prayer is Namu Amida Bulsii, which
means, "I trust in the mercy of Buddha."
The chief temple is the Hongwanji at Kyoto.
The Hokke Sect was founded by Nichiren
in the thirteenth centurj'. Its distinctive
feature is the doctrine that salvation is to be
attained by chanting a certain invocation to
the accompaniment of noisy drum-beating.
The head temple is the Kyuenji, on Mount
Minobu, in Kai. The Ji Sect is another
offshoot of the thirteenth century, and repre-
sents a compromise between the Holy Path
school and the Pure Land school of some of
the older sects. The Shinshoji Sect was
formed from a schism in the Shingon Sect,
caused by a difference of opinion over the
Masakado rebellion in 940 a. d. For this
reason it is resorted to by all in trouble
through war or other calamity. The sects
of Buddhism in Japan possessing over a
thousand temples are the Tendai with 4,572;
the Shingon, 12,357; the Jodo, 8,356; the
Rinzai, 6,091; the Sodo, 14,225; the Shinshu,
19,638; the Nichiren, 5,028, the total number
of temples being 71,730, with 53,558 priests.
CHRISTI.\NITY
The opposition which Buddhism met with
as an alien religion on its advent to Japan
w-as nothing to that which Christianity ulti-
mately had to face when it was discovered
that the Western religion was less ready to
compromise for its existence. The mis-
sionaries of the Nazarene were firm in their
teaching and unyielding in their moral restric-
tions, two features that did not well fall in
with a people taught that the way of nature
was the way of the gods. At first, of course,
Christianity was welcomed with open arms,
and no more strange and violent contrast can
be found than that between the cordiality of
its inception and the violent hatred of its
rejection a hundred years later. It was at
first received because it brought the foreigner
with his knowledge of Western science and
the arts of war; it was rejected because the
Spanish and Portuguese came to be suspected
as political emissaries bent on the final subju-
gation of Japan, while the religion of the
missionaries was inconvenient to the sensual
and harem-loving authorities who controlled
the national policy. The progress of the
Christian religion in Japan during the first
years of its propaganda was nothing short
of marvellous. Converts were drawn from
all classes alike. Noblemen, Buddhist priests,
men of learning and probity, even great
daimyo, embraced the new faith with the
same conscientious zeal as did the poor and
the lowly. In some thirty years from the
date of its advent in 1549, the Christian
Chiu-ch in Japan had no less than 600,000
converts, with 130 European missionaries and
numerous native priests and teachers.
One of the first as well as the greatest of
these early missionaries was the noble and
saintly Francis Xavier. He had been en-
gaged in the evangelisation of India and the
Sunda Islands when he met a Japanese
456
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE GOD OF SICKNESS — A BUDDHIST PRIEST AND A SHINTO PRIEST, BOTH IN FULL CEREMONIAL ROBES
named Anjiro, a native of Kagoshima, who
had gone to India in a Chinese junk. Anjiro
was a man of some character and eagerly
embraced the faith and was baptised. The
account of Japan which he gave to Xavier
induced the famous missionary to set out
for the country. Arriving at Kagoshima
in 1549, the stranger was received with
distinguished courtesy by the Prince of
Satsuma, and forthwith began to preach
the Gospel unhindered. This man remained
only two years and a half in Japan but in
that time established missions at various
places, notably at Hirado, Yamaguchi, and
Kyoto. Xavier left behind him two Jesuits
who had accompanied him, named Cosmo
de Torres and one Fernandez. Other
missionaries soon came in the various ships
of Spain and Portugal that began to trade
with Japan. In forty years the faith had so
well established itself that the Church was
able to send an embassy to Rome, supported
by the daimyo of Bungo, Arima, and Omura.
The embassy reached Rome in 1585, having
been three years on the way, and was re-
ceived warmly l)y the Pope. The letters
brought to His Holiness from the daimyo
of Japan expressed gratification for the
opportunity of knowing Christ, and besought
the favour of the Holy Father on the infant
Church of Japan. The party had sailed
from Japan by way of Goa and thence around
the Cape of Good Hope to Mexico, whence
it proceeded to Spain and from Madrid across
the continent to Rome. Returning by the
same route the embassy came by way of
Manila and did not reach Japan until 1590.
Another emljassy was despatched to Europe
by the daimyo of Sendai in 1613, but while
it was on the way persecution against the
Christians had broken out in Japan, and the
envoys did not meet with a very hearty
reception, the lord of Sendai himself having
proved a betrayer of the faithful.
vSuch then was the happy situation of the
Church in Japan when fierce persecution
arose. TJie earlier persecutions were in some
degree due to the mistakes of the missionaries
themselves. The Christian propaganda at
first went on harmoniously, save for the
opposition it met from Buddhism, until the
arrival of the Franciscans from the Philip-
pines. These were in some measure jealous
of the Jesuits, and their attitude was still
more emphasised by the bitterness prevail-
ing between the Spanish and Portuguese
traders, who, in order to compass each
other's ruin, began a campaign of mutual
libel in the ears of the Japanese authorities.
This acrimonious division of opinion among
the foreigners gave rise to suspicions among
the Japanese. The Portuguese said that
Spain had subdued the Americas with great
cruelty, as well as taken the Philippine
Islands, and that the same policy would
be pursued doubtless in Japan. When the
Dutch traders began to come they confirmed
this rumour and included the Portuguese in
its sinister significance. These suspicions,
combined with the constant quarrels between
the Buddhists and the Christians, in which
both sides showed too great a spirit of ag-
gression, led to the enactment of laws restrict-
ing religious propaganda, and as the Francis-
cans defied these regulations,- it looked to
the authorities as if the foreigners were not
going to wait for the lielp of European armies
l:>efore taking matters into their own hands.
PRESENT-DAY
I M P R K S S I O N S
O 1'
J A PAN
457
At thi' same tinir tlic war I)ct\vccn liuddhism
and Christianity grew more bitter and
relentless, furthered by certain daimyo who
had a grudge against the monks and were
anxious to use the foreign religion as a
means of taking revenge on the temples.
To make matters worse, the Governor of
Nagasaki, where Christianity was strongest,
had borrowed a large sum of money from
the foreigners for military purposes, and
being unable to repay the money when it
became due, he was obliged to concede the
foreigners certain privileges in regard to
trade and religion that in time seemed to
threaten the independence of the authorities.
To evade these responsibilities Nagasaki
petitioned Hideyoshi, the war lord of Kyoto,
to withdraw the privileges and suppress the
foreigners. Hideyoshi had no love for
Christianity, as the missionaries had inter-
fered with his domestic policy of sending
out agents to collect all the prettiest maidens
of various districts for his harem, refusing
to give up the Christian girls. So he was
ready to sanction the Nagasaki proposal
and suppress the Christians. From this
time the trial of blood began, that was to
sweep so unmercifully over the Christian
Church in Japan. This was about the
beginning of the seventeenth century, at
which time it is said there were no less than
a million Christians in the Empire, with
churches in almost every important place.
To undertake the eradication of the religion
was, therefore, no easy task, yet the feudal
authorities attempted no less. Although the
PICTURES OFFERED TO THE TEMPLE WHEN PR.WERS H.WE BEEN ANSWERED
early Christian persecutions began from
causes which we have seen to be hardly
conscientious, the campaign against the
Church during the seventeenth century was
no doubt inspired by fear of foreigners as
well as hatred of the stubborn martyr-
spirit of the faithful. At first there was some
hesitation in enforcing the laws against the
Christians, lest such a policy should result
in the destruction of foreign trade which
was then flourishing between Japan and
Europe, for the authorities knew it would
A DunnmsT cemetery, showing the sticks which .\re set ve whenever speci.-vl
PR.^YERS ARE OFFERED BY THE PRIEST
be difficult to keep out the missionaries so
long as foreign ships were allowed to come
to Japan. But the arrival of the Dutch
obviated this difficulty, as they were not
only opposed to the Spanish and Portuguese
but brought no missionaries in their ships,
W'hile at the same time the Tokugawa sho-
guns had not so much interest in trade as
their predecessors. The Dutch proved their
sincerity in supporting the authorities by
sending a ship to bombard the Christians
who had taken refuge in the castle at Shima-
bara during the Amakusa rebellion.
From the year 1611 onwards for half a
century the persecutions enforced for the
eradication of Christianit}' in Japan were
so terrible as to be among the most bar-
barous in the annals of human cruelty. At
first it was against the leaders, and more
than 200 of the missionaries suffered martyr-
dom, Japanese and foreigners alike going
bra\-ely to the stake, the cross, or slow death
by unmentionable mutilation. But the laity
jjroved as staunch adherents of the faith as
the priests and teachers, and they, too, were
finally included in the holocaust of terror.
E\-ery man, woman, and child who refused
to recant according to a prescribed formula
was put to the torture and the death. The
ways and means of increasing the terror
were of the most fiendish invention and the
most excruciating nature. Many were cruci-
fied by being fastened to X-shaped crosses
and having spears thrust through their
bodies obliquely from either side, piercing
the vitals. Others were suspended by the feet
in deep holes in the ground, until ready
to recant or die, as they usually did in three
or four days. In Sendai and that neighbour-
458
RESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SHINTO PRIEST OFFERING PRAYER ON FESTIVAL DAY
hood the method most popular was to strip
the victims naked and throw them into icy
ponds mitil they perished with cold. In
Kyushu the Christians were taken to the
boihng springs at Unzen and suspended head-
first in the water seething with intense
heat, being dipped up and down until recan-
tation or death relieved the agony. Hun-
dreds were simply burned at the stake,
mothers bearing their little ones in their
arms to the flames. Others were beheaded,
drowned, flung over precipices, buried alive,
torn asunder by oxen, tied up in rice sacks,
piled in heaps and set fire to; some were
put in cages with food suspended beyond
their reach until they starved to death.
No form of torture or inhumanity was too
terrible if the people could only be turned
from the foreign religion. Most of the
Christians were faithful unto death, and
this left an impression on the Empire that
has never been forgotten. The cruelties of
the persecution not only appeared to have no
terror for the martyrs of Japan, but seemed to
them to prove the truth of their creed and its
superiority to the civihsation that so rtith-
lessly committed them to an inhuman death.
The methods adopted by the authorities
for testing the Christians are interesting.
The Buddhist temples were asked to make
a census of each district and to keep a record
of all who were suspected of being Christians.
Every governor of every province was made
responsible for the religious beUef of all
within his jurisdiction, and he in turn made
the headman of every village similarly
responsible. Every street in every city,
town, and village was divided into families
of five, one household being made responsible
for the religion of the other four, and having
to report regularly to headquarters. Officials
went from house to house requiring each
member of the family to trample on the
crucifix. The latter was known as the
fitmi-ye, a kind of figure in reUef made of
brass or copper cast by a brass founder in
Nagasaki, the invention being distributed
all over the country for testing the victims.
Public meetings were summoned at temples
where the fumi-ye were displayed to be
trampled on, refusal to do which, or even
to attend the meeting, was met by instant
arrest and torture. Every daimyo in the
Empire had to establish an official bureau
for the extirpation of Christianity. At first
a suspect might escape by purchasing a
certificate from a local temple, the idea
being that this might add to temple funds,
but the Christians refused this compromise
and the scheme was abandoned. Then a
census was resorted to, this being the origin
of census-taking in Japan. In its anxiety
to ensure the extermination of the Christians,
Buddhism became barbarous, cowardly, and
materialistic, bringing in a spiritual decadence
from which it has not since recovered. Prize
money was offered by the Government to
all informers against the Christians, notices
to this effect being posted in all conspicuous
places. Two hundred pieces of silver were
paid for the apprehension of one padre, one
hundred tor a deacon, and fifty for a common
Christian, the money to be paid even if those
apprehended should renounce the faith. All
books making reference to the hated religion
were collected and burnt Thus the perse-
cution continued until it was supposed no
Christians were left. Here and there, how-
ever, a remnant happened to escape detection.
Mter the centuries of seclusion had passed
away and the cruelties of the bloody perse-
cutions had been forgotten and the mission-
aries were allowed to return, descendants of
the early Christians were found still adher-
ing to the faith of their fathers. In an
around Nagasaki were discovered Christian
families who had survived the ruins of the
Church two centuries before. The history
of Christianity in feudal Japan forms one
of the noblest records of martyrdom in the
history of the Church, and proves how
bravely and firmly the Japanese people can
face danger and even death itself for an ideal
they can believe in. Given a great faith
and a life worth dying for, the Japanese
will prove the most devoted of people. As
they have not yet had full freedom in this
direction, the Japan of to-day is doubtless
nothing to the Japan of the future.
After the opening of Japan to international
intercovuse the missionaries came back as
a matter of course, the first ones, however,
representing only the Protestant churches.
There was a clergyman on board the flagship
of Commodore Perry when he visited Japan
in 1853, who showed some interest in the
evangelisation of the Japanese. The first
missionary to Japan following the abolition
of the exclusion poUcy was Dr. Brown, who
came to Kanagawa, followed by Dr. Hepburn,
"pilgrims'
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
459
with l^r. Wills Williams at Nagasaki, Bishop
Williams at Osaka, Dr. Greene in Tokj-o, and
Dr. Davis at Kyoto. These leaders of the
pioneer band proved remarkably worthy of
the resi)Onsil)ility thus thrust upon them
and soon won the confidence of the Jajjanese,
preparing the way for the progress Christi-
anity has since experienced in the country.
These men were not only teachers of religion,
but leaders of the whole nation at a time
when little was known of Western ways.
Men like Drs. Greene and Verbeck saved
the Government from mistakes it might
easily have made in its early relations with
Western nations, and Dr. Verbeck especially
had much to do with laying the foundations
of Japanese education. As the first treaty
of amity and commerce was with the United
States, it was but natural that the first
missionaries should be mostly from that
country. The school of Dr. Brown and the
dispensary of Dr. Hepburn at Yokohama
had much to do with showing the Japanese
the humanitarian side of the foreign religion.
Captain James, an earnest Christian leader
employed in a school at Kumamoto, and
Professor Clarke of the Sapporo College
were able leaders in the new Christian move-
ment. Soon native Christians like Xijima,
who founded the Doshisha University,
began to rise, with a large following from
among their fellow countrymen.
The first Roman Catholic missionaries
came to Japan in 1844, landing in Luchu,
but as there was yet no treaty with France,
they were deported to Hongkong. In 1859,
after the conclusion of the treaty with France,
Roman Catholic missionaries came to Naga-
saki, Kob6, Yokohama, and Luchu, and in
1872 the work was extended to Tokyo, the
present head of the mission. The Russian
Orthodox Church arrived in Japan in 1855,
and under one man, the late Archbishoji
Nicholai, who lived for fifty years in Japan,
made remarkable progress, the work being
all done through native converts. From
the beginning of its mission the Russian
Church looked forward to making its work
independent and it has well succeeded in
this policy, save financially. In one sense
the missions of the Russian Church and the
Roman Church have been more successful
in Japan than the Protestant missions, as
they appeal more to the Japanese love of
ceremonial and elaborate form, and closeh-
resemble Buddhism outwardly, while satis-
fying the Japanese jiroclivity to superstition.
On the other hand, the Japanese reveal an
almost opposite preference for elegant sim-
plicity, as may be seen in Shinto, and to
this side of their nature Protestantism most
appeals. The existence of numerous sects,
of all degrees of enlightenment and none,
among the Shintoists and Buddhists shows
HOY.S CELEBR.\TI.NG A SHINTO FESTIV.\L D.W
the Japanese weakness for religious divisions
and affords ample soil for the sects and cults
of Christendom to take root and flourish.
In addition to all the denominations of
European and American Christendom, Japan
has the Young Men's Christian Association,
which is very popular on account of its
unsectarian principles as well as its assistance
to young men, and the Salvation Army,
which is also popular, chiefly on account
of the military aspect and its charity and
rescue work. It is not too much to say that
closer union and more efficient cooperation
between the various Christian sects and
churches in Japan would doubtless ensure
greater progress for the Church as a whole.
Some of the denominational subdivisions have
already united under this conviction, but the
medley of creeds and forms still appealing
to the Japanese is very confusing, as well as
calculated to create hesitation and doubt.
The ordinary Japanese does not find
Christianity more irrational or less desirable
than the religions of his country, his only
SACRED PIGEONS IN ASAKUSA PARK, TOKYO
460
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS
O F
J A P A N
objection, as a rule, being that it is a foreign
religion, forgetting that the same argument
was originally used against Buddhism. One
can appreciate his attitude by trying to
imagine what would be. the attitude of the
average Englishman toward a Buddhist priest
who should open a preaching place in an
English town and begin to persuade the
Englishman concerning the superiority of
the Oriental religion. With the more edu-
cated Japanese the difficulty is greater; for
he has already abandoned Shinto and Bud-
dhism save for ceremonial or patriotic
reasons, and he is not ready to accord a
hearing to any creed that seems to savor
of the superstitions and traditions from
which he has cut himself free. Among the
Christian propositions that most baffle him
are the doctrine of the Trinity, the Incar-
nation, and the Atonement. The man Christ
Jesus he has no objection to, except that he
is a foreigner, and claims an allegiance above
that accorded the Emperor. To those Japa-
nese who accept the creeds of Shinto and
Buddhism, as the majority of Japan's millions
do, Christianity can not appear more irra-
tional than what they already believe.
Indeed, it seems to many much more rational,
as well as better calculated to inspire man
to nobler ideals and save his soul from hell.
To all Japanese alike, however, there is
some difficulty in reconciling the claims of
Christ with those of the Imperial House.
The Japanese Christians seem, however, to
find no difficulty here, as they see no con-
flict between the loyalty to Christ and loyalty
to their ruler. But those who are not Chris-
tians profess to find serious objections to
Christianity on the score of loyalty, even so
erudite a citizen as Dr. Tetsujiro Inouye, of
the Tokyo Imperial University, holding that
Christianity is incompatible with Japanese
loyalty to the Imperial Throne, since it
places Christ above all rulers on earth. He
becomes absurd, however, when he bases
his objections on the fact that Christianity
can not, like Shinto, be nationalised so as
to make the Christian God a Japanese. It
is abundantly evident, therefore, that the
more Christianity finds itself able to concede
compromise and lend itself to Japanisation,
as Buddhism did, the more prospect it will
have of claiming universal acceptance in
Japan. Already some missions appear to
have reached a state of mind where the prop-
agation of Christianity is handed over wholly
to the Japanese, but the Church as a whole
is firmly set against such compromise. The
Congregationalists have placed their work
practically in the hands of native workers,
to whom the foreign missionaries are assist-
ants and advisers. The Methodists have
gone so far as to make bishops of native
Christians, thus providing seed for schism
should a difference of opinion arise between
native and foreign workers; but the Anglican
and the American Episcopalians still hesitali-
to raise natives to the highest office in thv
Church, chiefly through fear of the passion
for Japanising Christianity. Of course, it
has to be admitted that since Christianity
has taken on so many accretions to faith
and practice on its journey westward, until
much that is taught to-day as essential, was
originally no part of the faith delivered to
the saints, it is not unreasonable to assume
that a people with so aggressive a racial spirit
as the Japanese may be expected to add
their quota in adapting the new religion to
their notions of life and citizenship. But
those who have proved such martyrs as the
Japanese have done, might surely be trusted
to guard the faith for which they were so
ready to die. The progress of modern
science is undermining Japan's notions of
cosmogony and tradition and inclining the
masses to democratic and liberal institutions,
and as Christianity is undoubtedly the
religion most consistent with such progress,
as w-eU as its best aid, the mind of Japan will
eventually turn more seriously toward the
religion of Christ. The Christianity of
Japan will, however, be of a more modem
MET.\L PL.\QUE IN THE IMI>ERI.\L MUSEUM,
TOKYO. A RELIC OF THE FIRST CHRISTI.\N
MISSION IN J.-^P.\N, IN THE SEVEN-
TEENTH CENTURY
type than that prevailing in the West and
preached by the foreign missionaries; it
will be modern in the best sense of the term.
The following table represents the latest
statistics for the Christian Church in Japan :
Missions
Buildings
Believers
SUXD.\Y
School
Children
MiSSION'.iRIES
Foreign
X.\TIVE
Congregationalist
Baptist
Christian Convention
Church of Christ
133
43
14
i2
13
18
117
17
19
224
214
73
3
4
5
5
31
9
87
2
14
13
21
19.521
4.479
1. 1 43
756
626
1.315
14,089
1. 33 1
1. 30 1
29.519
7.007
6,460
98
302
355
.?33
2,086
4.569
1.540
10,848
15.917
2,550
3,000
3.620
3.343
34,848
3.733
1.510
30.142
22,833
4.445
1,693
500
329
600
2,000
351
1,484
2,383
4,30s
78
74
9
29
41
15
194
13
8
189
241
12
13
6
6
24
13
18
15
10
20
20
29
278
265
26
124
34
40
290
114
25
563
330
235
31
5
10
45
37
73
29
15
59
97
136
Evangelical Association. .
Japan Methodist
Protestant Methodist . . . .
Japan Christian Church.. .
Episcopal Church
Salvation Army
Society of Friends
Universalists . .
Gen. Ev. Prot. Miss. Soc. .
Japan Evangelists
Omi Mission
Oriental Mission Society. .
Seventh Day Adventist. . .
Y. M. C. A
Y. W. C. A
Canada Presbyterian
English Presbjrterian ....
Other Protestant Societies
Total Protestants
1,128
96,827
1 50,496
1,084
2,861
Roman Catholic
Russian Orthodox
275
267
75.983
36,2(13
2,021
352
I
179
159
1,670
2<H|,073
'52,217
1.437
1.199
VIEW OF AWAJI SHIMA, FROM MAIKO
XXXI. Mines and Minerals
Mining in Old Japan— New Era in Mining — Rapid Development— Mineral Production in
Detail— The Future— Condition of Miners— Commercial Notices of Mining Companies.
The History of Oil in Japan — Commercial Notices of Oil Companies
THERE are authentic records to show
that mining is one of the oldest of
Japanese industries. The enterprise
reached considerable development even as
early as the sixth centurj^ when the demand
for metals in connection with the making of
war weapons lent impetus to the winning of
ore. With the advent of Chinese customs
and the Buddhist religion, in the seventh
century, metal became still more important
for coinage and the casting of sacred images,
as well as for the decoration of temples and
shrines. In the fifteenth century there is
every evidence that the mining of iron and
copper became specially active, as the Chinese
had begun to look to Japan for a portion of
the copper used in minting. An era of still
greater prosperity in mining began with the
rise to power of the famous warrior Hideyoshi
in 1583, as the unremitting strife between
feudal lords created increased demand for
metals, while captured prisoners were kept
in safe custody by being put to work in the
mines. The export of copper and sulpluir
which began in the fifteenth centur>- con-
tinued down to the seventeenth, when gold
and silver were added to the list of metals
in demand abroad.
MINING IN OLD JAPAN
The opening of trade with Holland un-
doubtedly gave greater impetus to exports
of metals, the foreigners taking large quanti-
ties of gold, copper, and silver in every cargo.
The extent of this trade can be inferred from
the fact that during the 153 years between
161 1 and 1764, exports of gold amounted to
3,763,572 ounces, and of silver to 135,768,918
ounces, while exports of copper in the 256
years between the establishment of the
Tokugawa shogunate in 1603 and the year
1859, amounted to 389,250 tons. At the
beginning of the eighteenth century the export
of copper to Holland and China was three
times that of the quantity consumed in
Japan. Such activity indicates that the
metal veins of the country must have been
extraordinarily rich and ver>' easily worked
in those days. Of course, the mining industry
was conducted according to traditional
methods which were, no doubt, somewhat
primitive. The usual method in Japanese
copper mines, before the introduction of the
Bessemer process, was mat smelting, which
was suitable onl^' for small work, a process
still used in the less developed mines of
Japan. The mat smelting process was
invented in the Tada mine by a metallurgist
of the sixteenth century. It is a simple form
of the Bessemer process, and can be operated
at small cost. The process adopted in the
Tada mine spread to others. In the gold
mines of Sado Island a pump on the principle
of the Archimedian screw was used, and plans
of the mines were drawn with specially pre-
pared instruments, after sur\'eys were taken.
The method of selection was not unlike that
of the dolly-tubs employed in the Cornish
mines for separating tin. Reference is also
462
P R E S E X T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
made in the old records to methods of separat-
ing gold and assaying gold and silver. But
in the absence of any full application of
scientific principles the industrj^ suffered a
tremendous handicap, an immense amount of
manual labour being required to perform
merely superficial work. Consequently as
the upper veins became exhausted, and
excavation, transportation, and ventilation
grew more difficult, the industry decUned and
many mines were abandoned.
NEW ERA IN MINING
During the process of reconstruction and
reform that began with the Meiji Restoration,
it was soon seen that without the use of proper
machinery and modern chemical methods the
mining industry in Japan could not hope to
make any substantial progress. In 1868 the
majority of mines were worked in shallow
bonanzas and ore shoots, and they were
generally filled with water and foul air, while
the unevenness of the mine beds caused
considerable loss. At the same time, the
general depression in trade during the closing
years of the Tokugawa era reacted against
tlic mining industry'. Then, with the opening
of the country to Western civilisation, came
the study and ultimate adoption of Western
mining methods, the Government of the day
laying on itself the responsibility of recovering
the mining industry and promoting its
development to the utmost. In 1873 special
mining regulations were drawn up by the
Privy' Council, according to which obligations
of mine owners were defined and a system of
inspection instituted. The extension of
mining rights to individuals was liberally
accorded, and the industry no longer regarded
as a Government monopoly. The mining
regulations thus issued for the promotion and
encouragement of the industry became laws
of the nation on the opening of the Imperial
Diet in 1890, and after subsequent revisions
a new law was enacted in 1905. The Bureau
of Mines was placed under the Department of
Agriculture and Commerce, and for adminis-
trative purposes the country was divided
into five districts, each having its own super-
vision office. In 1878 a Bureau of Geology-
was founded, which in time organised an
institute for carrj'ing on geological surveys
and duly publishing maps of the country.
Mining engineers from Europe and America
were engaged for the diffusing of scientific
knowledge, and the old secret methods, so far
as they were of any value, found a new basis,
with Western mining machinery to make
them practical, and mechanical power applied
wherever possible. To describe all that the
seventy or eighty Occidental mining experts
did for the mining industry of Japan is beyond
the limit of the brief space at our disposal.
Suffice it to say that inside of ten years ten of
the most important mines that had been
closed for want of proper means of working,
were reopened, yielding gold, silver, copper,
iron, and coal in paying quantities. The
mines were then all worked under expert
foreign guidance and were used as training
schools for miners who later opened other
mines. After the desired results had been
effected by Western training, official action
was discontinued, though the Government
still retains control of a few mines of iron and
coal. The engineering college established
by the Government in connection with the
Imperial University, with the assistance of
MiTSU BisHi company: (lpper) ore dressing pl.ant .\t the s.\do mine — (left) ar.\k.\\va mine — (right) osaruzawa mine
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
463
professors from England, has done a great
deal for the jiromotion of education in mining.
Such courses are now conducted at all the
national universities and technical high
schools, as well as at some private institutions
R.^I'ID DEVELOPMENT
In 1875 Jai)an's total mineral outjuit did
not amount in value to more than 2,500,000
yen annually. In 1880 it was 6,700,000 yen,
and by 1890 it had grown to 15,500,000 yen.
Ten years later it rose to 49,000,000 yen, in
1905 it was 106,900,000 yen, while the total
value of mineral output in 1913 was 146,000,-
000 yen, or about three times that of the
previous decade. The mineral outijut of
Japan to-day, including Korea, is about
200,000,000 yen a year in value. The
number of mines existing in 1908 was 11,099,
covering a total area of 2,362,777 acres, with
233,144 cm])loyees, and possessing 1,236 miles
of railway, and 100 miles of cable tramway,
while such as produce oil have 160 miles of
piping. The following table illustrates the
quantity and value of Japan's principal
mineral output for periods covering five
years for fifteen average years:
As to the amount of capital invested in
mining operations there is no very reliable
information, but the registered mining cor-
porations, which represent about 75 per cent
of the total, show a paid up capital of 178,-
146,600, yen, among which there are 53
companies with a capital of over 1,000,000 yen.
represent a \'alue of nearly 60,000,000 yen
annually.
.MINERAL PRODUCTION IN DETAIL
The facts and figuresalready indicated form
the basis of the present importance of the
mining industry in Japan. The possibilities
Prodi'cts
Coal (met. tons) . . .
Copper (met. tons)
Iron (met. tons) . . .
Gold (ounces)
Petroleum (gals.). .
Quantity
1912
20,046,081
63,893
56,731
358,065
67,586,860
1913
n, 762, 036
67,967
56,971
387,568
"1,779,000
1914
19,518,480
67,000
58,500
217,000
89,500,000
1915
17,836,750
72,500
49,750
262,000
100,000,000
Year
E.\ PORTS
I.MPORTS
TuTAl,
Excess
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1904
1908
1913
29,996,164
42,942,556
57,612,495
73,268,684
80,319,250
1 1 1,283,761
103,264,848
123,261,806
168,896,256
43,272,520
27,376,694
53,671,266
Average for 5 years
46,987,755
89,974,109
136,961,864
42,986,353
1904
1909
1914
Products
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Yen
Yen
Yen
Gold (oz.)
Silver (oz.)
Copper (tons) ...
Lead (tons)
Iron (tons)
Pyrites (tons)
Manganese (tons) .
Antimony (lbs.) . . .
Coal (tons)
Sulphur (tons) ....
Petroleum (gals.). .
88,756
3,174.436
35,440
18,500
36,547
29,407
6,265
938,260
■0,723.796
28,205
51,452,320
3.880,685
2,276,805
17,928,255
236,234
1,317,397
53,089
37,884
83,744
29,218,134
571,444
2,776,433
126,324
3,498,787
50,504
37,800
48,075
24,815
9.7,56
374.884
15,048,113
40,625
79,137,728
5,077,058
4,261,481
24,536,150
428,204
2,067,102
106,840
51,119
39,452
58,213,680
812,673
6,428,514
222,044
4,866,084
71,430
50,200
99,208
127,604
3.010
53,933
22,293,000
9,494
107,184,000
9,430,000
5,384,000
38,350,000
827,000
3,636,000
600,000
15,900
3,000
80,350,000
2,050,000
9,631,000
The progress of output for Japan's
principal mining industries for the years
leading up to the European war was as
shown in the table above.
A considerable portion of Japan's mineral
output finds its way abroad, and during the
European war there was a remarkable increase
in this direction, especially as regards copper.
In 1905 mineral exports amounted to 34,000,-
000 }'en in value, and in 1910 they increased
to 44,000,000 yen. while at the time of writing
they are in the vicinity of 80,000,000 yen.
The progress of exports and imports of
minerals will be seen from the table above,
which shows also how dependent Japan still is
on imports of minerals.
Japan's principal mineral for export is cop-
per, which is sent abroad annually to the
value of more than 30,000,000 yen, and during
the European war much more than this was
realised. In normal times about 44 per cent
of the copper exports go to Europe and 27 per
cent to the United States. Next in impor-
tance among mineral exports comes coal,
amounting to nearly 4,000,000 tons a year,
chiefly to the Philippine Islands and the
Straits Settlements, as well as Australia.
The United States and Australia take most of
the export in sulphur, the annual total being
about 2,000,000 yen in value. Among
mineral imports the chief are pig iron, iron
bars, rod and plate as well as pipes, which
of expansion and further development depend
on resources, and these must now be examined .
The most important of Japan's minerals at
present is coal, which is of a non-metal variety
and found chiefly in Kyushu, Hokkaido, and
in certain parts of the main island. The
oldest coal is found in the Mesozoic formation,
but the greater seams are all in Tertiary
strata, especially in Kyushu and Hokkaido.
The Kyushu fields are in Chikuzen and Buzen,
and supply about 75 per cent of the total, with
about 10 per cent from Hokkaido and the rest
from Honshu. The coal resources of the
country have not been fully explored, but the
Mining Bureau estimates that there are at
least 1,738,000,000 tons in sight out of a total
of 3,762,000,000 tons in workable seams not
yet surveyed. Of this quantity i ,000,000,000
tons are in Kyushu, 568,000,000 in Hokkaido,
and 170,000,000 tons in Iwaki, Ibaraki, and
Choshu. The anthracite mined in Kyushu
is of excellent quality, and more is found in
Kii and Choshu in the main island. The
predominant type, however, is a brown bitu-
minous coal of which there are heavy deposits
in both Kyushu and Hokkaido. The great
Miike colliery in Kyushu works two main
layers, one 20 feet thick in parts, and produces
over a million tons annually. In the Fuku-
oka district of Kyushu there are over 20
mines. The coal-field of Hokkaido is at
Ishikari, and is about 50 miles long by 12
broad. The best coal in Japan is produced at
the Takashima mine on an island near
464
P R E S E N T - D A V
I M I' K 1: S S I O N S
O F
A I' A N
Nagasaki. Japan has also valuable coal
resources in the big Fushun mines in Man-
churia. Following are the more important
mines, with locality, proprietorship, output,
and numlier of labourers emi)loyed in 1914:
while in the northern arc the metasomatic
type prevails, the vein type predominating on
the inner arc on the Japan Sea side of the
country. In the latter are found the greater
number of mines. Of 53 principal mines,
Mines
Miike
Mitsui-Tagawa .
Onoura
Yubari . . .
Mineji . .
Futase. . ,
Iriyama
Yoshinodani . . .
Meiji
Hokkoku . .
Namazuta.
Shinnyu
Mitsui-Yamano
Tadakuma
Shiogashira . - - .
Uchigo
Mitsui-Hondo . .
Ochi
Kanada
Shin- Yubari . . .
Yoshima
Matsushima. . ,
Kinoshima ...
Otsuji
Yoshio
Sorachi
Prefkctiri;
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Hokkaido
Kyushu
Fukuoka
Iwaki
Saga
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Iwaki
Fukuoka
Saga
Fukuoka
Hokkaido
Iwaki
Nagasaki
Kyushu
Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Hokkaido
COXCESSION.MRES
Mitsui Mining Co. . .
Mitsui Mining Co..
Kaijima Tasuke
Hokkaido Coal &• S. S. Co
Kurauchi, Y
Government
Iriyama Coal Co
Mitsu Bishi Co
Meiji Mining Co
Meiji Mining Co. . .
Mitsu Bishi Co
Mitsu Bishi Co
Mitsui Mining Co. .
Sumitomo
Furukawa & Co
Iwaki Coal Mining Co. . .
Mitsui Mining Co
Mitsu Bishi Co
Mitsu Bishi Co. .
Toky-o Gas Co ... .
Yo.shima Coal Co
Matsushima Coal Mng
Iko, T
Kajima Mining Co
Aso, T
Hokkaido Coal & S. S. Co,
Co.
Output
(Long tons)
2,011,046
983.356
791.879
696.953
663,528
594.435
536,682
535,550
495.707
495.576
469.750
421,665
409,882
409,882
404.376
375.199
369.305
363.572
329.790
328,434
324.213
315,894
285,290
278,602
258,486
248,460
L.\BOURERS
9.976
4,460
6,195
5,008
2,629
1,402
3,160
3,186
2,207
4.945
2.320
1,697
2,705
1,408
3,084
2,476
2,442
913
1,694
1,792
1,957
Copper comes next in importance as a
mineral product. It occurs in deposits of two
kinds. The first and richest is as a vein in
tuflf or other volcanic rocks, the ore sometimes
containing as much as 30 per cent of copper.
Most of the ore is found both on the outer and
inner side of the southern and northern arcs of
Japan proper. In the southern arc the con-
tact-metamorphic type is much in evidence.
veins supply 44 per cent, representing 32
mines; in 11 mines beds supply 20 per cent;
in 3 mines metasomatic deposits supply 18
per cent; m
mines contact-metamorphic
deposits yield 3 per cent of the output.
Deposits of the vein type are worked in such
mines as the Ashio in Tochigi, the Kosaka in
Akita, as well as by mines in Niigata and
Fukushima and the north generally. Where
the deposits are found in crystalline schists
the percentage obtained is not above ten per
cent and often as low as two per cent. The
principal district for this type of mine is
Miyazaki in Kyushu, but copper is found in
almost every district in Japan with the
exception of Saitama, Shizuoka, Toyama,
Oita, and Kagoshima. The largest and
richest copper mines in the Empire are those
of the Fujita Company in Akita, the Ashio
mines owned by the Furukawa Company,
and the Besshi mines of the Sumitomo Com-
pany as well as the Kuhara Company of
Ibaraki. The Ashio mine possesses a some-
what remarkable system of electric railways
serving the workings, where the daily output
is about 1,200 metric tons, which after con-
centration yields about 1 1 per cent Cu. At
the Osaruzawa mine are employed the
Mabuki hearths, an invention of the old
Japanese smelters, which has been brought
into line with modern ideas, producing about
1 1 per cent Cu. matte. The Ikuno mine is
another good producer, with a large output
of silver, and a high percentage of both gold
and silver comes from the dressed ore of the
Hitachi. There is no doubt that the copper
industry in Japan is destined to experience
still more remarkable development, especially
as the export now represents between 50 and
60 per cent of the total production, whereas
the export of coal is now only about 20 per
cent of the total output.
In recent years petroleum has become one
of the most important products of Japan's
mineral kingdom, the petroliferous strata
apparently extending from the northern to
the southern limits of the Empire, chiefly in
a narrow vein following the western coasts of
the islands, occurring in Tertiary rocks of the
same geological epoch as those of Galicia,
California, and Baku. The chief oil wells are
in Echigo and Akita, but there are five oil
SUMITOMO company: view of the TREATMENT WORKS IN CONNECTION WITH THE BESSHI COPPER MINE, AT NIIHAMA
P R K S H N T - D A Y
I M
RESSIONS OF JAPAN
465
fields ill all, wliosc dopth ranges from 180 lo
2,880 feet. Ecliigo alone has over 300 pro-
ducing wells, and there are about 900 wells in
all. Some remarkable gushers have been
tapped, yielding over 400,000 gallons of crude
oil a day, though the average yield of wells is
com]iaratively modest, the specific gravity
varying not only in each field but acconling
Tertiary rocks, especially in sedimentary and
eruptive strata. The output of gold is con-
stantly increasing, as, on account of the recent
development in the smelting of copper ores
and the invention of the cyanide process,
gold is being extracted from ores that were
formerly difficult to treat. In the principal
mines, notably at Sado, the Yamagano and
occurs for the most part in the form of sul-
phides in tuff and other volcanic rocks, usually
in association with copper, lead, gold, and
zinc, the Kosaka mine being particularly rich
in silver. Most of the best silver-producing
mines are in Honshu, one of the largest being
the Tsubaki. The ore is argentiferous galena
and blende, and the silver content of the
OENER.\L VIEW OF THE VILLAGE OF S.\G.\NOSEKI, KUHARA MINING CO., LTD.
to depth. The petroleum industry is fur-
ther treated in a special article.
Gold is found in almost every part of Japan,
though not in any great quantities, the chief
producing districts being Kagoshima, Niigata,
and Hokkaido. There are also mines in
Korea and Fomiosa. Placer mining is
practised to some extent, but over 90 per cent
of the metal is obtained from lode mining.
The precious metal occurs in three types of
deposits, the most important of which is con-
tained in quartz veins in volcanic rocks, such
as obtain in north Formosa, at Niigata, and
the island of Sado in Honshu. The greater
number of the veins found in Japan occur in
the Serigano, modern plants have been put
up, complete in some cases, not only with
cyaniding machinery, but with slimes plant.
At Sado there is a battery with a capacity for
treating 650 tons of ore per day, the ore
averaging 0.0071 per cent and at Yamagano
0.0087 per cent. Alluvial gold is found
chiefly in Hokkaido, and to a lesser extent at
Ishikawa in north Honshu. Some of the
deposits in Korea are being worked by Ameri-
can interests. The total output amounts to
about 400,000 ounces a year.
Silver is found in much the same geological
formations as gold, the chief mines being in
Honshu, Kyvtshu, and Hokkaido. The metal
dressed ore averages 0.078 per cent, without
gold or copper. In the Innai mine the
dressed ore contains o. i per cent, with a
small gold content. Over 60 per cent of the
silver produced is obtained from argentiferous
lead ores. The annual output is about 5,000,-
000 ounces.
Japan is not rich in jVoh deposits, but such
iron as does exist consists of magnetite,
hematite iron sand, and limonite, the first
being the principal oxide, widely distributed
but with few mines yet in operation. One of
tlie largest deposits is at Wakamatsu, in
Kyushu, where the Government iron works is
situated, but there are other important
466
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SUMITOMO company: aerial tramway at
THE BESSHI COPPER MINE
deposits at Kamaishi in Iwate, north Honshu,
where a quantity of magnetite is smelted.
Hematite is also found in north Honshu at
Akadani and Kamo, while limonite, or
hydrated oxide, occurs in many places. Iron
pyrites is found in Akita, Gumma, and
Ibaraki, as well as in south Honshu. Japan,
however, is obliged to bring most of her iron
ore from China. The number of blast
furnaces, which for some time stood at seven,
has been increased, and the output of pig
iron is now some 50,000 tons a year. Steel is
produced to the amount of from 12,000 to
14,000 tons in acid open-hearth furnaces, and
it may be noted that most of the steel made
in Japan is manufactured by acid process.
None of the ore is exported, and in view of the
urgent need for expanding the native iron
industry a good deal of prospecting has still
to be done. In fact, the native iron and steel
trade is still in its infancy, and the total pro-
duction is about 250,000 tons of both pig iron
and steel annually, which is far short of the
quantity required for domestic consumption.
While the annual production is only about
17,500,000 yen, the value of iron imports is
almost 60,000,000 yen. The establishment
of the Imperial Iron Works has given great
impetus to the manufacturing side of the
industry. The equipment is designed on
modern lines, with several blast furnaces of
large capacity — up to 150 tons — in opera-
tion, together with steel converters of the
Bessemer type and an open-hearth plant.
In point of value sulphur is next on the
list. It is but natural that in so volcanic a
country as Japan large deposits should be
found. Only high grade deposits are worked,
those yielding not less than 40 per cent.
About 70 per cent of the total yield comes
from Hokkaido. Other sulphur mines are
in Fukushima and northward in the main
island generally. Kyushu produces smaller
quantities about the districts of Kagoshiam
and Oita. Zinc blende occurs in numerous
veins with other metalHc sulphides, Kamioka
in Hida being the most important mine
both for lead and zinc. Formerly the zinc
ore had to be shipped abroad for refining,
but recently the number of smelting plants
has been increased and imports of this metal
may be expected to diminish. The chief
refineries are at Osaka, Miike, and the
Fujita Company at Kosaka mine, with
electric refining works in Niigata. Lead
occurs as sulphides containing more or less
silver, in tuff and other volcanic rocks, Gifu
being the most productive district. The
total annual output is valued at 827,000 yen.
The only district producing tin to any extent
is Kagoshima, though a little is produced in
Gifu and Ibaraki. Tin is a new industry
which was started by the Mitsu Bishi Com-
pany at its Ikuno mine in 1914, but the out-
put is still insignificant and more than 380,-
000 yen' worth has to be imported annually.
Antimony is produced chiefly in Ehime in
Shikoku. It is also found at Nara and in
Kyushu. The war caused a tremendous
increase in the output. Manganese occurs
in Hokkaido and in several districts in
other islands of the Empire. About half
the total yield comes from Aomori, the
northenmiost district of the main island, with
other mines in Kochi in Shikoku and near
Kyoto, the annual output being valued at
about 160,000 yen.
As to other minerals in Japan there are not
many that are mined in sufficient quantities
to be worthy of extended notice. Asphalt
deposits occur in the district around Akita,
and graphite is found principally in Iwate
in north Honshu as well as in Hokkaido,
Gifu, Toyama, and Kagoshima. Phosphate
ore has been found near Tokyo and in the
Ishikawa districts and tungsten at Ibaraki
and in Korea, the latter mines proving quite
promising. Chrome iron ore is found at
Tottori and near Kumamoto, and a little
mercury at Tokushima.
The value of the total yield of minerals
in Japan proper is now about 155,000,000
yen annually, with some 50,000,000 more
for the output in Korea, of which nearly
60 per cent represents collieries.
THE FUTURE
The present preponderance of coal output
and copper does not at all indicate that
Japan is poor in other mineral possibilities,
as almost every part of the country is miner-
alogically rich. The figures indicating pro-
duction do not as yet begin to represent
the potential and actual mineral wealth of
the country. Owing to lack of proper facil-
ities of transportation and the absence of
modem methods of extraction still employed
in many mines, this important industry has
not kept pace with others. As soon as
sufficient capital is attracted no doubt a
vast increase of output in all directions may
KUNE MINES, I'lRUKAWA GOMEI KAISHA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
467
be expcctfd. Tlie abnormal expansion of
the mining industry in Japan after the war
with Russia suggests that development
largely depends on the amount of capit:il
that can be attracted, which is still further
emphasised by the fact tliat an increase of
mineral output is certain to be associated
with advance in metal manufacturing indus-
tries as distinguished from the mining and
smelting of ores. The tremendous impetus
lent to Japan's mining industries by the
European war can not fail to be followed up
1)V a permanent advance in operation and
output. Applications for prospecting have
greatly increased, and all mines are showing
extended operations. The minerals indicat-
ing the most phenomenal increase in 1914
and 1915 are tin, with an increase of 2,110
per cent; zinc, no per cent; bismuth, 250
per cent; manganese and tungsten, 50 per
cent; gold, 15.3 per cent; silver, 1.7 per
cent; copper, 3.9 per cent; while coal
decreased 8 . 7 per cent and iron 29 . i per
cent. One of the most interesting features
of the present situation is the increase in
such rare metals as tungsten and molyb-
denum, caused chiefly by the war. The
nctable increase in gold production is due
mainly to the discovery of new veins in
Shizuoka Prefecture, but some are resusci-
tated mines. Another important aspect of
the situation is the activity in zinc refining,
the six refining works now not only dealing
with all domestic ores but importing ore
from China and the South Seas. Such
wealthy and prosperous companies as the
Kuhara, the Mitsu Bishi, the Mitsui, the
Sumitomo, and the Okura have all intro-
duced the latest scientific refining plants with
a view to meeting the increasing national
demand for iron and steel. The European
war has made it imperative that Japan shall
have some source of iron and steel supply
independent of war conditions, as she can
turn out only about 400,000 tons of the more
than 1,500,000 tons required by her annually.
The Government has made an appropriation
of 35,000,000 yen more for improvement of
its steel works at Wakamatsu, and is trying
to double its output to some 600,000 tons.
Large companies are being formed for similar
purposes, one of which will have a capital
of 50,000,000 yen, the iron ore to be im-
ported from China. Indeed, the situation
makes it absolutely necessary that Japan
shall at all times have access to the iron
mines of China, which will explain her politi-
cal attitude on Chinese questions, when
Western nations are puzzled to know why
lier interest in that country is so keen and
persistent. The question of self-sufficiency
in iron is the one vital problem of the political
as well as of the mineral situation in Japan
at present, being frequently before the
Imperial Diet, which has now committed it
to the supervision of twenty specialists, who
will see that the nation's iron interests and
resources are duly safeguarded.
CONDITION OF MINERS
The condition of miners in Japan repre-
sents some remarkable features, not the least
of which is the comparative absence of strikes,
though these are not wholly unknown. But
the mine workers of Japan, especially those
underground, as a rule are satisfied with
their wages. The miner works from eight
to eleven hours a day, usually about twenty-
seven days a month, and his wages are no
more than seventy sen a day for the highest,
and forty- two sen a day for the lowest,
while women get only twenty-five sen as a
maximum and twenty-three as a minimum
wage. These wages apply to metal mines,
but in coal mines men get seventy-eight sen
and women sixty sen a day, with forty-four
sen as minimum for men and twenty-eight for
women. Children, of whom there are many,
get from sixteen to twenty sen a day in
metal mines, and from thirteen to thirty-
eight sen in coal mines. The number of
males employed in metal mines is about
47,000, underground, and the number of
females is about 23,000, of whom children
both male and female, number about 1,000.
Above ground the number of men in metal
mines is about 34,000, with some 13,000
women and some 900 children. In coal
mines the number of hands is, of course,
greater. Underground, men number 103,-
000, women 38,000, with about 2,000 children,
while above ground the numl^er of men is
33,000, woman 15,000, and children 1,000.
The following table will give some idea of
the sexes and numbers of those employed
in mining operations in Japan:
SUMITOMO company: the village of
TONARU, nESSHI COPPER MINE
They bring their wives and families and
settle down in the thatched huts provided
by the company, while the unmarried men
live in large common-rooms. Food is sup-
plied by the mine owners at less than the
usual cost, and the miner is generally satis-
fied if he has enough to eat. The average
Japanese, however, does not care for the life
of a miner, and the raining companies have
to have agents to secure hands, so that one
often sees placards in cities calling for volun-
teers. The miners usually work in three
relays per day, every few men having a boss,
who gets a much higher wage than those he
oversees. The Japanese miner is apt to be
superstitious, and has a conviction that the
spirits of all killed in the mines still haunt
their dark chambers. If his lamp suddenly
Underground
Above Ground
Total
Age
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Under 12
56
1,563
21,609
128,837
34
930
8,983
29,544
23
921
9,434
64,679
21
1,027
7,055
19,697
79
2,884
31,043
193,516
55
Under I'y
1,957
16,038
Above ''O . .
49,241
Total
152,065
39,491
75,057
27,800
227,522
67,291
The Japanese miner is proverbially care-
less and accidents from fire and explosives
are common. In 1914 the number of acci-
dents was no less than 157,021, with 1,758
deaths, the total list of casualties numbering
159,002. The miners are usually natives of
the district or the adjoining prefecture.
goes out he believes a spirit has extinguished
it. Seeing phosphoric light along mine
floors, he says there is where the bones of
the dead have crumbled into dust. Like
all Japanese labourers, the miner sings as
he works. Mine owners bear the expense
of hospital treatment in case of accidents,
468
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE MITSU DISHI COLLIERY ON TAKASHIMA ISLAND
of pay during disablement, and of compen-
sation in case of permanent disablement or
death. In the larger mines the men have
mutual aid associations to whose funds the
owners contribute, and miners' children are
educated either at schools established by
the mine owners or at institutions subsidised
by them, thus reducing the fees paid by the
children. There is little disaffection among
the miners of Japan, and when it does appear
it is usually due to some injustice, such as
the dismissal of some employee or the ill
treatment of some popular member of a
gang, rather than to improper wages, and
then the usual method is to attack the house
of the manager. The gang-boss wields
absolute authority; his orders must be
obeyed, right or wrong, and if one boss has
a quarrel with another, the men take it up
and soon there is a riot.
The five mining inspection offices exercise
due control over such matters as ventilation,
constrvtction, and the use of explosives. The
mine owners have to submit to these inspec-
tion offices the rules and regulations adopted
for their men. The inspection offices are
at Sapporo, Sendai, Osaka, Tokyo, and
Fukuoka. While foreigners are not per-
mitted to hold mining property in Japan,
they are allowed to work mines in partner-
ship with Japanese subjects. The Mining
Law of 1905 authorises the Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce to grant, cancel,
or suspend mining rights. The area for
coal mines must be not less than four acres,
for other mines less, and in no case to exceed
820 acres. A limited time is allowed for the
development of concessions registered, and
all mines in operation must pay a tax of
one per cent on value of products, except
in the case of gold, silver, and iron mines.
According to Japanese law, the owner of the
land is not de facto the owner of the minerals
it may contain; he has to make application
for prospecting rights the same as any other
man, in default of which another applicant
may have the right to work the mine on
his property.
[Editorial Note: While in the foregoing
article the statistics furnished appear to be,
in certain cases, far behind, we are assured
by the writer of the article that they were the
very latest official figures available at the
time the matter was prepared. It is, how-
ever, generally recognised that the mining
industry of Japan and Chosen made great
strides during the period subsequent to the
outbreak of the European war. This is par-
ticularly the case with copper and iron.
The rapidly developed shipping industry of
Japan has called for enormous quantities of
iron and steel, and the limitation of exports
from the United States has compelled the
Japanese to concentrate attention on their
own resources. These are admittedly scant,
but such as they are, they are now being
most energetically exploited by the Japa-
nese, and there has been quite a boom during
1 91 7 in opening up iron fields in Chosen and
Kwantung (Manchuria). The high price of
copper has also led to strong development in
that branch of mining. It is generally con-
ceded that the figures of the production for
191 7 easily exceed those of all former years,
and the manufactured output of metals and
mineral products will also show a heavy
increase. With reference to the capital em-
ployed in this industry, we are entitled to
infer from the increases that were recorded
in 191 7, in the case of the largest companies,
and from the flotations of new enterprises,
that the investment to-day is well over
Yen 200,000,000. The Kuhara Mining Com-
pany alone has a capital of Yen 75,000,000,
and the other big concerns such as the
Furukawa, Suzuki, Fujitagumi, and Mitsu
Bishi employ similarly large sums of money
in the exploitation of the industry.]
TOKYO office OF FURUKAWA GOMEI KAISHA
KUHARA MINING COMPANY, LIMITED: GENERAL VIEW OF THE SAGANOSEKI SMELTING WORKS AND THE HARBOUR— GIGANTIC
CHIMNEY AT THE SAGANOSEKI SMELTING WORKS — ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SAGANOSEKI SMELTING WORKS
31
4/0
PRESENT-DAY I M 1' K li S S 1 O N S
O F
J A P A N
THE KUHARA MINING COMPANY
This famous mining company is numbered
amongst the most active of the big concerns
of Japan, and though the title suggests only
one enterprise, the Kuhara, like the Mitsu
Bishi and the Sumitomo, is engaged in many
varied commercial and industrial under-
takings. Departments of the business com-
prise: (A) mining; (B) chemical industry' in
connection with mining; (C) manufacture
and construction of machinery; (D) electrical
works; (E) agriculture and forestry; (F) to
carry on any of the foregoing businesses,
pursuits, or undertakings, in partnership or
on joint account with other persons or cor-
porations. In addition, the Kuhara Company
is now giving its attention to the shipbuild-
ing industry.
The business originated in December, 1905,
when Mr. Fusanosuke Kuhara purchased the
Hitachi Mine in the prefecture of Ibaraki,
and commenced operations there. The mine
at that time was comparatively undeveloped,
but when it came into Mr. Kuhara's hands he
pushed on with explorations and development
work and also established smelting works, the
output of the mine being increased year by
year, and the Hitachi property became known
as one of the greatest in the Empire. Mean-
while several mines such as Higashiyama,
Mineosawa, and Takeno were purchased, and
the manufacture of machinery was started as
a subsidiary enterprise. In .September, 19 12,
the concern's organisation was changed and
the Kuhara Company became a limited
liability corporation, with a capital of Yen
10,000,000. The mines of Ose, Takaura,
Toyoha, Kawadzu, Nii Kameda,and Yoshino
were added to the company's possessions,
and a smelting plant was erected at the port
of Chinnampo, Chosen. In February, 1916,
the company increased its capital to Yen
30,000,000, purchased the Kapsan Mine in
Chosen, and erected the smelting works at
Saganoseki and lyejima. With these devel-
opments the opportunity came for the
company to extend its operations to the outer
world, and the capital was again increased to
the huge sum of Yen 75,000,000. The mines
operated by the company are scattered all
over the Empire, and number 71 in all,
including some properties which are held for
prospecting. Besides these mines, the com-
pany has the Chinnampo Smelting Works,
the lyejima Zinc Works, the Saganoseki
Smelting Works, the Hitachi Engineering
Works, the Tsukudajima Engineering Works,
Tokyo, and the Tawao Estate in British North
Borneo. In order to govern and manage
these enterprises, the company has estab-
lished offices at the following centres: Main
office, Osaka, Japan, and branch offices, at
Tokyo, Japan; London, England; New York
City, U. S. A.; Singapore, Federated Malay
Settlements; Tientsin, China; Tsinan, China,
and Mukden, Manchuria.
The Kuhara Company has, in all, some 700
concessions for metal, coal, petroleum, and
sulphur, the total area being 317,375 acres,
with 41 miles of river bed. Due to a constant
expansion of area mined and the development
of treatment plants, the company's mineral
production is annually increasing. The out-
put for 1916 was: 4,428 kilos of gold; 57,928
kilos of silver; 23,674 metric tons of copper,
and 1,182 tons of zinc, the total value being
estimated at Yen 40,000,000. Comparing
these figures with those of 1912, when the
reorganisation of the concern took place, we
find an increase of nearly seven times of gold
and silver, and three times of copper, the
value of the products having in the same
period increased five times.
The production of manufactures has also
increased by a little more than 220 per cent,
the value of the output in 1912 having been
Yen 792,422 as against Yen 2,542,447 in 1916.
The number of employees in a clerical or
technical capacity, but excluding those rated
as assistant clerks, was 443 at the end of 1912.
This number was increased to 841 at the end
of 1915, and reached 1,457 at the beginning
of August, 191 7. The labour forces at the
end of May, 1917, were 24,591. That the
enterprise of the Kuhara Company has been
singularly successful may be gathered from
the statement that since 191 2 it has always
paid a profit of more than 30 per cent on the
paid-up capital, and maintained this rate of
earning even in 1914, when copper dropped
so low in price. For the six months ending
May 31, 1917, the profit was 80 per cent
against the paid-up capital. The dividends
paid to shareholders during these years were
at least from 15 to 35 per cent per annum.
The reserve funds have been increased every
six months, and the total has now reached
Yen 13,325,744, which represents 45 per cent
of the paid-up capital.
While a technical description of the mines
and works of the Kuhara Company would be
out of place in this article, it may be said that
the properties are developed or are being
opened up along the most modern lines. The
equipment is recognised to be the very best
in the Orient, and the products of the various
plants leave nothing to be desired.
The Tawao Estate in British North Borneo
was acquired by the company in January,
1916. It is splendidly situated, and the soil
is fertile enough not only for a rubber and
cocoanut plantation, but for one-year crops
such as rice, tobacco, hemp, sugar, etc. The
area of the estate is 26,710 acres, of which the
company has the lease of 3,310 acres, an
application now being lodged for the balance.
The Kuhara Company has made rapid pro-
gress with development, there being 471 acres
already under rubber.
The Kuhara Company in 191 7 took up,
with its usual energy, the question of ship-
building, forming a subsidiarj' company for
this purpose. The details of the new enter-
prise are, however, given in the Tokyo
section of this work. (See page 634.)
THE Fl'RUKAWA GOMEI KAISHA
(furukaw.a & CO.)
More than ordinary commercial interest
attaches to the history of several of the great
industrial houses of Japan, because in writing
of their origin and development one neces-
sarily writes of the origin and growth of some
of Japan's greatest industries. Such is the
case with the Furukawa Gomel Kaisha, a
concern which ranks among the pioneers of
the mining and metal industry of the Empire,
and is to-day perhaps the greatest organisa-
tion of its kind in the entire East. Under the
control of the Furukawa Gomei Kaisha are
many of the richest and best developed
mining properties in Japan, and its smelters,
refineries, foundries, and iron and steel works
are famous for their management and for the
fineness of their products.
It is now over forty years since the late
Mr. Ichibei Furukawa established the busi-
ness and made it the first copper concern
in Tokyo. He was energetic, far-seeing, and
progressive, and under his direction the busi-
ness became one of first rate national impor-
tance. The mines were worked under the
most modern systems, and as the output
increased, mills and factories grew apace to
handle the crude products. To-day the
kaisha has eleven branch offices, four copper
works, and twenty-five mines, whose grand
total area is about 70,000 acres, employing
2,000 officials and 35,000 hands. The
annual production is 35,000 tons of copper,
220,000 tons of copper ore, 1,200,000 tons
of coal, and large quantities of bullion, lead
ingot, silver ore, gold, zinc, and by-products.
The principal mines are: Ashio, Ani, Naga-
matsu, Muzusawa, Otori Kune, and Furo-
kura (copper); Kijo gold mine, Innai silver
mine, Daira lead mine, and the Shakanoo,
Shiogashira, Dai-ni-Shakanoo, Shimoyamada,
Shin-Shakanoo, and Yoshima collieries. The
company deals in all kinds of ores and metals,
in the crude, manufactured, or partially
refined stages, and also through its agencies
in America, Australia and elsewhere, is able
to handle practically any metal or by-product
of the world. The quality of the products
from the company's own mines is spoken of
in metallurgical circles as of the very best.
The establishment of the company's first
copper refinery dates back over thirty-two
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FURUKAWA GOMEI KAISHA: ASHIO COPPER MINE NIKKO COPPER WORKS ENTRANCE TO ASHIO COPPER MINE-
POWER HOUSE OF THE ASHIO COPPER MINE AND WORKS — INTERIOR OF BESEMA WORKS
472
PRESENT-UAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUMITOMO
years, whun the refining of crude copper ores
from the mines under their own control was
started at the works at Yanagiwara, Honjo,
Tokyo, and the products were gradually
introduced to the Japanese markets. The
electrolytic process was adopted in 1889, and
in 1895 a copper wire works of a rather
primary nature and scale was erected to
meet the demand of electrical requirements,
then rapidly developing, Extensive im-
provements followed, and in 1902 the kaisha
began making trolley wire for traction
purposes. The great advances then being
rapidly made in all branches of electrical
engineering demanded that the company
should move with the times, and in 1905
both refining and wire works were erected
at Nikko, occupying an area of twenty-five
acres, inclusive of five acres for buildings.
Two years later the original works at Tokyo
were discontinued. The works at Nikko
are regarded as modern and complete in
every respect, and a world-wide reputation
has been won for the products. The works
are fully equipped with smelting furnaces,
rolling apparatus, and a complete set of
wire-drawing machinery capable of making
every description of copper bare wire for
electrical uses, from the largest sized trolley
wire down to the wire necessary for the
finest and most delicate mechanism, the
output totalhng 2,500 tons monthly, of
which 80 per cent is for domestic consump-
tion. In addition, the works are well pro-
vided with chemical, physical, and electrical
laboratories, all problems arising from time
to time being solved by entirely reliable and
accomplished experts. The systems of in-
spection and testing are most modern, and
as a consequence the Purukawa Gomel
Kaisha has earned the very best name for
the uniform quality and thorough reliableness
of its products, which conform in all respects
to the highest accepted European standards.
To give a detailed description of the prod-
ucts of the Purukawa Gomel Kaisha is
impossible in small compass. An extensive
domestic and foreign trade is done in every
line of metals, ores, and manufactures, such
as wires, cables, bearing metals, and ingots.
The company are sole agents for the Yoko-
hama Electric Wire Works, the Taisho
Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha, and the Takata
Coal Co. Works are maintained at Nikko,
Tokyo, Amagasaki, and Mizushima. The
head office of the Purukawa Gomei Kaisha
is at Yaesucho, Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo, and
the branches are at Osaka, Moji, Wakamatsu,
Hakata, Shanghai, Hankow, Hongkong,
Dairen, and New York. The company has
representatives and agencies at London,
Petrograd, Moscow, Vladivostock, Harbin,
Bombay, Calcutta, and elsewhere.
The immense business of the company
was directed by the late Mr. Junkitchi
Purukawa, a son of the founder of the con-
cern, from 1903, and upon his death in 1907,
his brother. Baron Purukawa, became
President of the enterprise. The present
officers of the Purukawa Gomei Kaisha are:
President, Baron Toranbsuke Purukawa;
Managing Director, Dr. Rokusaburo Kondo;
and Directors, Dr, Masayuki Otagawa, Mr.
Koji Inouye, and Mr. Bunjiro Konda.
THE HOUSE OF sr^^TOMO
In the House of Sumitomo there is found
one of the most ancient firms in Japan — a
firm in which the stability of an old house
and sound business principles of a noble
entrepreneur are well combined. Ever since
the discovery of the Besshi Copper Mine
in 1690 — four years before the foundation
of the Bank of England, so far back does the
Sumitomo's business record go — the family
has been engaged in mining. The firm were
for nearly two centuries concerned with no
other business, and were quite satisfied with
the slow but steady progress they made in
working and developing the copper mine.
They carried on the development of mining
with unwearied research and scrupulous
fidelity, and so laid the corner-stone upon
which the present structure of the Sumitomo
firm has been reared. Soon after the Res-
toration in 1868 they began to advance
loans against mercliandise and shares, afford-
ing facilities for the enhancement of the
commerce of all the "river valley" of the
day. On the other hand, they started export
business with their product, providing a
special office at Kobe, known in later years
as Sumitomo Copper Sales Department.
When they had entered upon a general
financial business, they paved the way for
a bank with a capital of 30,000,000 yen, and
a warehouse, with its branches all over the
city and Kobe, as well as Tokyo, for there
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
473
STEEL WORKS AT NISHl-KU, OSAKA
have sprung up, in later years, the Sumitomo
Bank, Ltd., and Sumitomo Warehouse, in
the course of the firm's evolution. As
nations grow in intelligence and civilisation,
their industry extends. Japan's has vastly
advanced and the Sumitomo's, too! Dur-
ing the year 1894 they bought out a copper
rolling concern in Osaka, their old and
original seat, and started manufacturing
their copper from the Besshi Mine into
plates, rods, tubes, and all sorts of things.
A few years later, to reinforce their manu-
facturing facility, they took up another
works in the metallurgical line of business,
and made it a branch of their copper rolling
works, where zinc plates and rods, aluminum
plates, and all sorts of wires for electrical
purposes, both bare and insulated, were
made. Since that date, improvement has
been regularly made to keep up with impor-
tant changes and remarkable advances in
all branches of metallurgical industry and
electrical engineering. The works is very
well known as the first one that succeeded
in turning out home-made shipbuilding
materials of a quality that could be relied
upon. Their pipes and steam-turbine ma-
terials are both ajiproved for use by the
Imperial Japanese Navy. In 1894, the firm
procured a coal mine in Tadakuma, Chikuzen,
Kiushiu. The concession covers an area of
over nine thousand acres and yields some
five hundred thousand tons per annum of
black and bituminous coal of high heating
value. Coal from the mine is selling very
well on account of its high heating value,
which makes it so suitable for the produc-
tion of coke. In 1901, a small private steel
manufacturing corporation, then in exist-
ence by the name of Nippon Steel Works,
was taken over by the firm, who launched
out as steel manufTcturers. The Sumitomo
Steel Works, it must be noted, was the first
private steel works to set up in Japan, and
there was little indication in its earlier exist-
ence of the prosperity which it was later to
enjoy under the firm's name. Along with
the development of the business that has
followed fast upon the public appreciation
of its products, shops and sheds have been
erected, and plants and furnaces have been
installed. The works turns out over a
million tons of wheels, axles, rollers, cylinders,
toothed wheels, ship and engine accessories,
etc., every year. It is now a maker approved
by the Imperial Japanese Government, and
by Lloyds, in England. Six years ago
(191 1) the wire and cable factory of the firm,
where the first paper cable in Japan had
been produced, was made independent of
the copper works, to accompany the steady
growth of its business. The Sumitomo
Electric Wire and Cable Works is the name
of the new works, which has been separated
from the parent works. In its present
buildings, important improvements in manu-
facturing of all kinds of wire have been
invented and adopted. Its business and
plants have rapidly developed. The factory
equipment is the most extensive and best
accommodated one in the Orient. Its
products have the appreciation of the Depart-
ment of Communications, Japan, for their
unexcelled quality. The ores mined at
the Besshi Copper Mine contain sulphur
beside copper and other components, but
none of them had been treated for their
sulphur content till 19 1 3, when the Sumi-
tomo Fertilizer Manufactory was established
in Niihama, lyo Province. The factory is
now in full operation after three years of
preparation. It produces some two million
tons of artificial fertilizer which are sold
through the firm's selling agents, one in
each prefecture, direct to the farmers. The
firm's mining activities of recent years in the
northern part of Japan must also be noted.
Their gold mines in Hokkaido, among others,
have such good prospects that, it is said, it
will not be long before the Sumitomo will en-
joy as world-wide a reputation as a gold
producer as it does now as a copper
supplier.
These different enterprises are continuing
as prosperous as ever under the personal
guidance of the energetic captain of indus-
try, Baron Kichizayemon Sumitomo, present
head of the firm and family. He is a younger
brother to Prince Tokudaiji, ex-Lord Chara-
berlain-in-Chief to His Late Imperial Maj-
esty Meijitenno, and to Marquis Saionji, a
political star that illuminates Modern Japan.
He was adopted into the Sumitomo famil)' in
1892, when he was twenty-eight years old,
and set out on a tour to Europe and Amsrica
in 1897. The days spent on his trip were
well employed, for he visited many works,
factories, and mines. Baron Sumitomo
474
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SUMITOMO STEEL WORKS: ENTRANCE TO NO. 3
PIT AT THE BESSHI COPPER MINE
studied organisation and system that
would promote the happiness of his
men. Soon after his return, he was elected
a member of the House of Peers, but he
resigned in order to apply himself more
closely to the development of his enter-
prises. On August 25, 191 1, he was created
a baron in recognition of what he had done
for the sake of industrial Japan.
SUMITOMO GENERAL HEAD OFFICE
The entire organisation of the Sumitomo
Company is controlled through the Sumi-
tomo Honten, or Head Oflfice. Baron Sumi-
tomo is the head, and has with him in the
management of the firm's vast interests, a
Board of Directors, which comprises Messrs.
Masaya Suzuki (Director in Chief), Kin-
kichi Nakada, Kwankichi Yukawa, and
Munio Kubo. There are two joint Man
agers, Messrs. Yoshitaro Yamashita and
Masatsune Ogura. The four directors and
two managers keep all the various enter-
prises under their control and account to
Baron Sumitomo for all affairs of impor-
tance, and also see that his policy is carried
out.
Each department has its own executive,
who reports to his special director. It is
interesting to mention the great change
which has taken place in the attitude of the
Sumitomo towards foreign trade. Although
the old firm was as good and as stable as
any concern in Japan, its policy was restricted
and the general attitude was one of self-
centralisation and self-satisfaction. With the
present Board of Directors the Sumitomo
to-day is always closely in touch with world
affairs. It has become a firm with a broad
vision whose horizon takes in every part of
the globe, and finds interests in all phases
of the world's business activities.
SUMITOMO BESSHI MINING OFFICE
Mr. Munio Kubo is President of this
branch of the Sumitomo enterprises and
has the assistance of two co-managers,
Messrs. Junkichi Matsumoto and Komad-
zuchi Ohdaira. The famous old Besshi
Copper Mine was discovered in 1690, and
has been worked ever since by the family.
The mine is situated in the central part of
Shikoku Island in the Inland Sea, and the
mining concession extends over 6,480 acres.
There is no richer copper mine east of Suez.
This one mine has produced 194,552 tons
of refined copper and the product has be-
come famous all over the world under the
name of "K. S Ingots of Japan," its purity
being 99.7 to 99.9 per cent of copper. The
Besshi Mine is a model of modern working,
ics plant and general equipment being the
finest in Japan. The firm has all accessory
departments of the mine, such as machine
shops, etc. There are 3,700 men on the pay-
roll, and for this army of employees the
Sumitomo has provided every convenience
for the betterment of working and living
conditions, such as workmen's quarters,
schools, a hospital, and so on.
SUMITOMO WAREHOUSE
This is a separate department of the Sumi-
tomo business, and was established to pro-
vide warehouse accommodation for goods
taken by the Sumitomo Bank on mortgage.
Since then it has developed into a public
business, the company having erected go-
downs in various centres. Some idea of the
popularity of this institution may be gathered
from the fact that the company now has
goods valued at Yen 60,000,000 entrusted
to its care. Mr. Chojiro Kusaka is the
Manager of this department.
WAKAMATSU COAL DEPARTMENT
The Sumitomo has in the Wakamatsu
Colliery one of the finest mining properties
in the whole of Japan, and the working and
equipment of the colliery are in keeping
with the extent and richness of the concern.
This colliery produced, in 191 5, 352,900
tons of black and bituminous coal of the
highest grade. Over 3,000 men are engaged
in this branch of the Sumitomo operations,
under the direction of Mr. Yoshiharu Yoshida.
SUMITOMO COPPER WORKS
These works are located at Ajigawa,
Kita-ku, Osaka, and deal principally with
the output of the Besshi Mine. The plant
covers 13.61 acres, and employs 2,700 hands.
Dr. Enju Adagiri is President of the sub-
sidiary company, and Mr. Kumajiro Honjo
is the Manager. The works are divided into
six departments, comprising foundries, sheet
and plate mill, tube mill, bar mill, steel tube
mill, and testing department. It may be
taken for granted that the plant is up to
date in every respect and is staffed and
equipped in the best style. The company
produces many kinds of materials, and its
output finds a ready demand among its
numerous customers, including the Imperial
Navy
SUMITOMO ELECTRIC WIRE &• CABLE WORKS
Though this enterprise was only started
in 1908, the works have the reputation of
being the most efficiently equipped in the
Orient. It is, in fact, the only plant in
Japan where the system of "standardised
production " has been introduced. All classes
of electric wires and cables are manufactured,
and several new processes have been intro-
duced to the industry through these works.
In 191 1 the works employed no more than
180 hands, but the number to-day is over
2,000. The products of the Sumitomo Elec-
tric Wire & Cable Works are extensively
VIEW OF SHISAKAJIMA S.MELTING WORKS OF THE BESSHI COPPER MINE
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KONOSHIMA (west) AND KONOSHIMA (EASt) WORKS OF THE OSAKA ZINC MINING AND SMELTING CO., LTD.
476
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
exported to India, Australia, Russia, China,
Italy, and Canada. Dr. Yasuo Riko is
President, and Mr. Denichiro Nishizaki is
Manager. The works are advantageously
located at Okijima-minamicho, Nishi-ku,
Osaka.
SUMITOMO FERTILIZER M.\NUFACTORY
This plant is under the direction of Messrs.
Niihama lyo and Kamajiro Kajiura. The
output includes sulphuric acid, nitric acid,
superphosphate, compound manure, and
complete manure. Though it is one of the
youngest amongst the firm's enterprises, its
products are well known in all the local and
foreign markets. The plant is of the very
best type, and as the company has no lack
of raw materials from the Besshi Mine and
the copper works, the plant is able to pro-
duce more phosphate than is turned out by
all the other works in Japan.
SUMITOMO STEEL WORKS, LIMITED
This enterprise is organised as a separate
company, the directorate comprising Baron
Sumitomo, President; Messrs. Kinkichi
Nakada and Yoshio lijima, Managing
Directors, and Messrs. Masaya Suzuki,
Kwankichi Yukawa, and Yoshitaro Yama-
shita, Directors. Messrs. Munio Kubo,
Shizetaro Ueno, and Masatsuma Ogura are
the Auditors.
The works are situated at Shimaya-cho,
Osaka, and claim the distinction of having
been the first of the kind to be established
in Japan. The operations are confined to
the production of steel castings with one
fifteen-ton acid process and one basic Siemens
furnace of the same capacity. Among the
products are cast steel crossings, turns,
wheels, etc., for railways, collieries, and
mines; all essential parts of marine boilers
and engines, propellers, propeller-blades,
anchors, marine steering gears, and general
shipwrights' materials; rollers, for iron,
copper, and brass mills; hydraulic cylinders;
yokes for electric dynamos, gearings with
straight or helical teeth, dredger buckets,
etc., and all heavy parts of machinery.
The works have received Lloyds certificate
and have also won the highest awards at
industrial exhibitions at home and abroad.
THE OSAK.\ ZINC MINING & SMELTING
CO.MPANY, LIMITED
Until a few years ago the zinc ore pro-
duced in Japan was always exported to
Germany and Belgium, where it was refined
and treated for commercial purposes, and
then shipped back to Japan. A large
opportunity awaited the establishment of
domestic treatment plants, especially in
view of the increasing production of the
crude ore from the rapidly developed mines
of Japan and contiguous countries. To
take advantage of the situation the Osaka
Kogyo Shikenjo was established at Ama-
gasaki, Hyogo Prefecture, and the treat-
ment of ore was started. In October, 191 1,
another company was founded with a capital
of Yen 1,000,000, and a little later the busi-
ness of the Osaka Kogyo Shikenjo was
transferred to it, the new amalgamation
becoming known as the Osaka Zinc Mining
& Smelting Company, Ltd. The business
of the company was not flourishing for some
time, but with the outbreak of the war and
the entire stoppage of all imports of zinc,
the promoters of the industry' had the chance
to carry out their long-cherished design and
to show the world their mechanical ability.
The factory at Amagasaki was enlarged,
and at the same time the Konoshima facton.'
was newly estabUshed in Okayama Prefec-
ture and, also, electric refineries were erected
at Torishima, Osaka Prefecture. From this
moment the industry was put on a proper
footing and ever since the output has in-
creased, and its quality has improved. Such
a degree of prosperity has been attained
that the Osaka Zinc Mining & Smelting
Company, Ltd., is now turning out about
60 per cent of the total production of Japan,
and the products are regarded with the
highest favour abroad. In the Konoshima
refinery, Mr. Van Quick, a Belgian expert
metallurgist, has been engaged since the
end of 19 16, and the manufacturing under
his direction has been most successful. The
company produces zinc sheet, refines gold,
silver, lead ore, copper ore, and other basic
mineral products, manufactures zinc chlo-
ride, sulphate of copper, sulphuric acid,
and bleaching powder, and, furthermore,
supplies cheap electrical current by means
of its powerful water plant, which is operated
under the name of the Meiji Suiryoku Denki
Kabushiki Kaisha. A most important proj-
ect now before the directorate of this com-
pany is the starting of mining operations
in China, Korea, and other Oriental and
Southern territories, wherever there is a
possibility of obtaining base ore in ample
quantity. For instance, the company is
now negotiating the purchase of a big copper
mine in Kosho County, in the north of
Heiando. Korea. Mining is now actually
going on in connection with this property,
the operations being conducted under the
name of the Kosho Mining Company, Ltd.
The Osaka Zinc Mining & Smelting Com-
pany, Ltd., has its head office at No. 20
Kitamachi, Dojima, Kitaku, Osaka. The
factories are: Konoshima, where the area
held covers 175,000 tsubo and the buildings
cover 15,144 tsubo; Amagasaki, area 1,373
tsubo, buildings 853 tsubo; and Torishima,
area 5,602 tsubo, buildings 3,055 tsubo.
A staff of 400 officials, experts, and clerks
are engaged at the head office and factories,
and the mill hands number 4,634. The
capital of the company has been increased
on more than one occasion, the last being
in May, 1917, when the sum was raised to
Yen 7,500,000, of which Yen 5,000,000 is
paid up. The resen-e fund amounts to
Yen 4,544,905. The following is a list of
the products manufactured by the company,
with the annual output given for each:
Pure zinc (high grade spelter) of over 99.9
per cent, 12,000 tons; pure zinc of over
99.5 per cent, 2,000 tons; primary spelter,
98 per cent, 5,200 tons; electrolytic copper,
2,500 tons; soft pig lead, 6,000 tons; zinc
dust, 500 tons; silver, 25,000 pounds;
chloride of zinc, 600 tons; sulphate of copper,
500 tons; ordinary- sulphuric acid, 108,000,-
000 pounds, and strong sulphuric acid,
43,200,000 pounds. The following shows
the volume of the export business done by
the company during 1916, and exemplifies
how solidly Japan is now producing for
markets from which she once imported:
828 tons of pure zinc sold in the general
market; 3,144 tons, to the Imperial Army
and Na\-y; 4,073 tons to Britain; 2,907
tons sold to Russia; 2,643 tons sold to
France; 51 tons sold to the United States;
2,581 tons of slab zinc sold to the general
market; 80 tons sold to the Imperial Army
and Navy; 1,118 tons sold to Britain; and
1,498 tons sold to Russia.
As to the general business policy of the
Osaka Zinc Mining & Smelting Company,
Ltd., it may be said that it does not believe
in distributing aU its profits to the share-
holders, but is consistently building up
reser%'es, and paying off capital, while it
is spending large sums on experimental work
for the improvement of its products, and is
also carrying out arrangements for the
promotion of the technical skill of its em-
ployees. Nevertheless the profits of the
enterprise distributed to shareholders have
been substantial. In the last half of 1915
the dividend was i8Jis per cent, 20 per cent
in the first half of 1916, and 10 per cent in
the last half of that year. The Directorate
of the company is as follows: Messrs. H.
Fujita (President), S. Hashimoto (Managing
Director), K. Tsujimoto, Y. Takagi, N. Saka,
and T. Sakano. The Auditors are Messrs.
R. Sakai and S. Yamashita. The Sales
Department of the Osaka Zinc Mining &
Smelting Company, Ltd., is at No. 26
Tosabori-dori, Nishiku, Osaka.
OS.\K.\ DENKIBUNDO K.\BrSHlKl K.\ISH.A.
This company, known in English as the
Osaka Copper Refining Company, Ltd., was
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
477
■
--!
1
^
i
J
OSAKA COPPER REFINING CO., LTD.: VIEW SHOWING THE ELECTROLYTIC REFINING PROCESS VIEW SHOWING THE PREPARATION
OF COPPER, BRASS, AND ZINC PLATES GENERAL VIEW OF THE FACTORY
founded in April, 1893, with a capital of
Yen 300,000, and operated a metal refining
and treatment works in a small way of busi-
ness, before it launched out on its present
wide scale of operations, which has made
it one of the largest works of its kind in
Japan.
Coincident with the development of min-
ing in Japan, and the expansion of manu-
facturing industries calling for copper, zinc,
etc., the Osaka Copper Refining Co., Ltd.,
experienced a strong demand for its products.
This necessitated extension of the plant, the
installation of new machinery, and other
improvements, following the lines of the
leading refineries in other parts of the world.
To carry out this work the capital of the
company has been increased on several
occasions and now stands at Yen 5,000,000.
The main plant of the Osaka Copper Refin-
ing Company, Ltd., is at 57 1 Temmabashisuji,
Nishi Nichome, Kitaku, Osaka, and covers an
area of 12,500 tsubo. The buildings are of
stone and brick, and house the most modern
of plants for the production of fine brass,
copper, electrolytic copper, zinc plate, etc.
The annual output of copper alone is about
35,000,000 pounds per annum, valued at
Yen 17,000,000. The office staff of the com-
pany comprises 30, and there arc 50 engineers
and about 1,500 workmen. At Chinan, in
the Shantung Province, China, the Osaka
Metal Refining Co., Ltd., has a branch works
and sales department. To keep the works
going at full capacity the company not
only utilises a large quantity of crude ores
produced in Japan, but also imports exten-
sively from China, India, AustraUa and
elsewhere, in return shipping the refined
products to Europe, China, and India. The
sole sales agent for the products of the Osaka
refinery are the Mitsui Bussan Kabushiki
Kaisha. Mr. S. Matsuoka is the President
of the Osaka Copper Refining Co., Ltd.
The Managing Director is Mr. S. Suzuki,
and the Directors are Messrs. S. Yoshida
and S. Kotera. The inspectors are Messrs.
T. Koono, S. Kitaraura, and S. Noda.
THE FUJITA COMPANY
There are a few companies in Japan
which, although private enterprises, may
yet be said to be great national concerns in
the sense that their work is of first-rate
national importance, the profits from the
undertakings going to the shareholders,
but the real benefits of the enterprise dis-
played, accruing to the Nation and the
people. Foremost amongst such companies
must be named the Pujitagumi, or Fujita
Company. This powerful concern has
carried out work of such an important
nature that it is rightly regarded more in
the nature of a branch of national develop-
ment than as a private corporation. A
specific instance of this work of the opening
up of new sources of wealth and industry
may be mentioned. The Fujita Company
has largely made Japan independent of
foreign countries in the production of ferro-
alloys, but the most conspicuous evidence
of its broad-minded national policy is the
reclamation of a large tract of tidal-water
land at Kojima Bay for agricultural purposes.
Reclamation for public purposes, such as
the provision of quays and harbour ap-
proaches, etc., is fairly common throughout
the world, but it is necessary to go to Holland
HEAD OFFICE OF THE FUJITA GUMI AND THE FUJITA MINING CO., LTD., OSAKA — THE FTJITA BANK, LTD., OSAKA
P R E S !■: N T -DAY I M I' R IC S S 1 O N S OF JAPAN
479
to see similar work to tliat carried out Ijy
the Fujita Company at Kojima Bay. Here
the company has already placed 4,000 acres,
out of a total of 12,000 acres, under rice
production, and when the work is completed
it is anticipated that there will he an annual
production of about 4,000,000 Inishels of
rice of a value of Yen 3,000,000. What this
mi'ans to a coimtry like Japan, which needs
every acre of rice land that can be obtained
in order to make up the present deficiency
between rice i>roduction and domestic con-
sumption, can better be imagined than
stated in set terms. The company's under-
taking is recognised as a striking instance
of national spirit, and it is not surprising to
learn that the new rice area is now officially
known as Fujita County, in honour of the
founders of the scheme.
It would be impossible to describe in detail
all the activities of the Fujita Company.
The company is associated in a vast number
of enterpri.ses, all tending toward the develop-
ment of the resources of the Empire. These
enterprises may be enumerated as follows:
mining and smelting, production of timber,
direction of timber mills, cultivation of rice
and cereals, development of agricultural
lands, and the financing of various other
industries. Farther afield, the company is
deeply interested in the development of
rubber plantations in the Malay Peninsula.
Before dealing with these various activities
it is well to mention that the business of
the company was founded in 1869 in Osaka,
the commercial and industrial centre of
Japan, by the late Baron Denzaburo Fujita,
who did as much as any man could have
done toward the exploitation of the latent
resources of the Empire, not merely with
the object of deriving profit from his energies,
but with the broader object in view of doing
his best to make Japan, as far as possible,
self-contained, and independent of foreign
countries. The founder of the company
has passed away, but on his death he was
succeeded by his eldest son, Baron Heitaro
Fujita, who is now President of the company.
The registered capital of the Pujitagumi is
Yen 5,000,000, but the capital actually in
operation in the various enterprises exceeds
the large sum of Yen 50,000,000.
Preeminent among the activities of the
Fujita Company is its close association with
the mining industry of Japan. When metal-
lic mining was started in Japan the company
was among the first to take an active interest
in it, and started mining operations in 1880,
leading the way with the adoption of the best
methods and the latest machinery and ap-
pliances as utilised in Europe and America.
The total number of mining claims held by
the company in Japan and Korea is 127, while
DIRECTORS OF L.\KGE MINING INTERESTS
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. His.\hiro N.\ito, President, Nippon Oil Co., Ltd. — Mr. Keiz.^buro H.\shimoto, President, Hohden
Oil Co., Ltd. (Middle Row) Mr. Sennosuke H.\shimoto, Managing Director, Osaka Zinc Mining and Smelting Co., Ltd. — Mr.
FusANOSUKE KuH.\R\, President, Kuhara Mining Co. — Mr. K. Taked-'^, President, Great Japan Mining Co., Ltd. (Lower Row) Mr.
H. Fujita, Chairman of Board of Directors, Osaka Zinc Mining and Smelting Co., Ltd. — Mr. Nakaslke Saka. Managing Director,
The Fujitagumi, Osaka.
48o
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
OF JAPAN
it is the direct owner of 44 different mines,
some of which are now being developed, while
13 are actually being successfully worked.
Of these mines the Kosaka is the most famous.
It produces gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc,
and bismuth. The other mines well known
by their names are: Hanaoka, Akitsu,
Shikaku, Oarasawa, Unekura, Matsuoka,
Tagonai, Ohmori, Obij'e, Ohmidani, Hisaki,
Somin, Antotsu, and Zuiko. The total value
of the mineral products of the Fujita Com-
pany exceeds Yen 10,000,000 per annum,
and the productive capacity of the mines is
steadily increasing, the ratio of their output
to the total mineral production of Japan
standing very high. Of silver, the company
produces 31 per cent of the total yield of
Japan; of copper, 19 per cent, and of gold, 13
per cent. Special efforts have been made by
the metallurgical experts of the company to
supply many of the necessaries, the lack of
which was felt in Japan immediately foreign
sources of supply were cut off by the war.
Ferro-alloys is a case in point. These were
always imported, but when the war came on
the Fujita Company started to produce ferro-
alloys of many kinds, the works at Hirota, in
the Fukushima District, operated by hydro-
electric power, being engaged in the work.
So far the greater part of the company's
output of ferro-alloys has been taken by the
Imperial Army and Navy arsenals, and by
various engineering works, though some
alloys are exported to Russia, Australia, and
the United States. The Osaka Zinc Mining
& Smelting Co., Ltd., is a subsidiary company
controlled by the Fujita Company, and is the
pioneer of the spelter industry' in Japan.
This concern operates four smelting plants,
and produces an enormous quantity of high-
grade spelter and other metals, two-thirds of
the production being available for export.
The Forestry Department of the Fujita
Company is another very important enter-
prise, conducting work of largely a national
character, embracing all businesses which
ordinarily come within the purview of forestry
management. The company's operations
include deforestation and afforestation, activ-
ities not being confined alone to Japan, but
extending wherever a suitable field for
enterprise is located. Extensive forests,
aggregating some 180,000 acres, are being
worked in Hokkaido, which is famed for its
oak. The Fujita Company is in a position to
supply any orders for oak, ash, birch, tamo,
pine, etc., both in logs and sawn. The
Yawataya Saw Mill, which is regarded as one
of the finest equipped lumber plants in the
entire Orient, is operated by the Fujita
Company. It is conveniently situated on the
harbour front at Osaka, and apart from the
usual equipment of such a mill, there are
flooring and box-making plants, together
with drj'-kilns of the latest tj'pe. The
Xagakisawa Saw Mill, also owned by the
Fujita Company, is in the northern part of
Japan, in the Akita district, and not far from
the famous Kosaka Mine, in the heart of the
cedar-producing forest lands. The company
has a large concession of cedar forest from the
Government to supply the mill with logs.
This mill produces about 30,000,000 B. M.
feet per annum for the home market.
In the Malay Peninsula the Fujita Com-
pany has taken an important position in the
rubber industry. The company's estate is
situated at Kota Tinggi, in the State of
Johore, about 30 miles up the river from
Singapore, and covers some 6,000 acres.
This property was acquired in 1910 and since
then practically the whole of it has been
planted. The first and second years' plant-
ings are now yielding rubber, and when the
whole comes into bearing the output is
expected to be about 1,200 tons of crude
rubber aimually. It is also proposed to
establish a rubber factor>', either in Singapore
or Kobe, in connection with the Fujita Com-
pany's Nam Heng Rubber Estate.
From this brief description of the enter-
prises controlled by the Fujita Company, it
may be gathered how important are its
operations, view-ed from a Japanese national
standpoint. The company holds the highest
reputation for its progressive policy and the
soundness of its business methods, and there
is no question but that it is destined to play
an even greater part in the further develop-
ment of the natural resources, and the
secondary industries of Japan, than it has
played in the past.
Since the above article was written vari-
ous important changes have been made
which may briefly be summarised:
The Fujita Gumi, a private enterprise,
as heretofore operates in mining, forestry,
agriculture, and banking. The partners are
Baron Heitaro Fujita, Tokujiro Fujita,
Esq., and Hikosaburo Fujita, Esq.
The Fujita Mining Co., Ltd., with a
nominal capital of Yen 30,000,000, of which
15,000,000 is paid up, is under the direction
of T. Fujita, Esq., as President, and N.
Saka, Esq., as Managing Director. The pro-
ducts, to a large extent exported, comprise
gold, silver, electrolytic copper, electrolytic
zinc, ferro-alloy, ferro-silicon, ferro-titanium,
ferro-tungsten, ferro-manganese, ferro-molyb-
denum, and ferro-chrome. The mines oper-
ated are located at Kosaka, Obiye, Omori,
Oarasawa Zuiho, and a number of other
places in Japan proper, Korea, and Formosa.
The Fujita Bank, Ltd., a further distinct
branch enterprise, with a nominal capital
of Yen 10,000,000, Yen 5,000,000 paid up
is under the direction of Baron H. Fujita
as President and K. Suzuki, Esq., as Man-
aging Director. The head oflfice is, as will
be seen from the accompanying illustration,
located in very fine premises at 4-chome,
Imabashi, Higashi-ku, Osaka. Branches
are rapidly being opened throughout the
country. Those at Tokyo, Kyoto, and other
important centres will, of course, be operating
ere this publication is issued. It may with
safety be predicted that the expansion over-
seas will follow at no distant date.
GREAT JAPAN MINING CO., LIMITED
Ix mining, as in all other industries, great
progress has been witnessed in Japan, modem
methods, and labour saving machinery, com-
bined with the bold investment of a large
amount of capital, and expert technical
direction, having led to a large increase in the
output from old mines, and the opening up of
many new mineral areas. The greatest
enterprise has been shown by such concerns
as the Great Japan Mining Co., Ltd., the
Mitsu Bishi Company, Ftirukawa & Co., and
the Kuhara Mining Company, all of which
are powerful corporations, having abundance
of capital at their disposal, and working on
the most improved methods to develop the
mineral resources of Japan.
The Dai-Nippon Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha,
or Great Japan Mining Co., Ltd., has been in
existence only two or three years, but it has
accomplished a vast amount of useful and
profitable work, particularly in the opening
up on a proper scale of old mines, and in the
development of new processes for the more
effective extraction of gold, silver, and copper
from base ores. This company was estab-
lished in November, 191 5, by Messrs.
Kyosaku Takeda, Xobuo Tajima, and a small
group of their business associates, the original
capital being Yen 2,000,000. This sum was
shortly afterwards increased to Yen 5,000,000,
when it was seen that extensive work would
have to be done in the provision of smelting
works, refineries, and other establishments
necessarj' for the handling of the large bodies
of ore in sight in the company's mines. The
company is working chiefly the following
properties: Hassei Mine, situated at Hachi-
mori \''illage, Yamamoto County, Akita
Prefecture, producing gold, silver, and copper
ore; Yoshino Mine, at Nishi-Naruse Village,
Okachi County, Akita, producing gold, silver,
copper, and lead ores; Kitomo Colliery, at
Funagata Village, Mogami County, Yama-
gata Prefecture, producing lignite and a
special coke or charcoal. In addition, the
company is operating its own iron works at
Saruyecho, Fukagawa-ku, Tokj-o.
The areas under control comprise: Hassei
ife
I: ''^ ^
■vx.^ovVi W-^sj^^^A^-. % ^/^^J'/J^/.^/JJJa^UOL^^
J
GREAT JAPAN MINING CO., LTD.: HASSEI MINE .^ND CENTRAL SMELTER — YOSHINO MINE, SHOWING THE CONCENTRATION
IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION (NOVEMBER, I9I7)
PLANT
482
PRESENT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS O E
A P A N
Mine and subsidiary workings, 940,892 tusbo,
of which 35,000 tsubo are being worked;
Yoshino Mine, 10,261,676 tsubo, of which
90,000 tsubo arc being w'orked; and Kitom
Colliery, 8,695,632 tsubo, of which 25,000
tsubo are being worked. The various build-
ings, such as battery houses, concentration
plants, smelters, refineries, etc., are con-
structed of stone, wood, or brick, and cover in
all an area of 20,000 tsubo. There are installed
with all the latest machinerjr for mining use,
and, moreover, the company has a complete
iron-working plant at its Tok>-o factory, as
well as wood-working machinery. Water
power, steam and gas engines are employed
for different purposes, according to the
localities of the several plants. The technical
and clerical staff comprises 2 1 o, and at the end
of October, 1917, there were 4,480 workmen
on the company's payroll, the amount dis-
bursed in wages being about Yen 950,000 per
annum. These figures will indicate the
extent of the operations of the Great Japan
Mining Co., Ltd.
Although the number of shares in the com-
pany is 100,000, at Yen 50 each, there is a
comparatively small number of shareholders,
consequently the policy of the concern is
easily directed and there is the smoothest
relationship between the directorate and the
shareholders.
Hassei Mine possesses the largest silver ore
bed in Japan. When it was known as the
Tsubaki (Camelia) Silver Mine, a few years
ago, it produced the largest output of silver
in the country. The situation of the pro-
perty is very convenient, being easily access-
ible both by sea and land. The site is an
ideal one for a central smelter and refinery.
because there is no settlement to be damaged
by smoke or fumes, but the nature of the
silver ore being too silicic, refining has been
greatly decreased, and the company does not
attach much importance to the silver mining
at this centre. The Yoshino Mine is pre-
eminent for the extent of the ore body, which
is perhaps the largest in Japan. It is
estimated that there is about 1,500,000,000
kwan of payable ore in sight (i kwayi equals
8}^ lbs.), but exploratory work now in pro-
gress is expected to disclose a further 5,000,-
000,000 to 10,000,000,000, kwan of ore.
The concentration of the ore is very simple,
being carried out by what is known as the
"flotation" process. In other ways the
Yoshino Mine is a model of simplicity and
automatic w'orking, giving the most effective
results at a minimum of cost. At present
about 100 tons of ore are handled daily, which
within a few months will be increased to 1,500
tons. The concentrates produced are noted
for the large percentage of gold and silver
which they contain. Under the present
arrangement the ores and concentrates from
the Yoshino and other mines are sent to the
Hassei Mine, where the central smelter and
the refinery are located and there they are
smelted and refined, together with the silver
and other ores from the Hassei. It is the
intention of the company to begin the pro-
duction of electrolytic copper at an early date,
a new concentration plant being under
construction at the Yoshino Mine, to be
completed by March, 1918.
At the Kitomo Colliery a special charcoal
factory is being erected for the production of
a new kind of lignite charcoal, made by a
distillation process. This product is known
as "new charcoal," produced under a special
and recent invention. It is like charcoal in
many respects, and is much cheaper than the
latter, while possessing a higher calorific
value. Ashes, which constitute a big defect
in most cokes, are very limited with the "new
charcoal," and it is also deficient in phos-
phorus and sulphur. It is claimed to be an
ideal fuel for making a special iron and
steel, and can also be used for general indus-
trial and household purposes. In the course
of producing this coke there are by-products,
such as tar, and also acetic and carbolic
acids. To utilise these the company is now
contemplating the installation of a plant to
produce various chemical substances, and so
to engage largely in the chemical industry.
The output of the various properties owned
by the Great Japan Mining Co., Ltd., for
the ten months ended October 31, 1917, were
as follows: Gold, 2,304 momme, valued at
Yen 11,520; silver, 1,536,000 momme, valued
at Y^en 307,200; copper, 3,000,000 kin, valued
at Yen 1,740,000, or a total value of Y'en 2,-
058,720, apart from the value of the coal and
coke produced from the colliery. In 19 18, it
is estimated that the output will be increased
as follows: Gold, 12,000 momme; silver,
6,600,000 momme, and copper 8,000,000 kin
(120 momme equal i pound; I kin equals
I yi pounds). In addition to its own output,
the company purchases ores from other
sources for treatment in its works.
The head office of the Great Japan Mining
Co., Ltd., is at No. 6 Tameike-machi, Aka-
saka-ku, Tokyo. Mr. K. Takeda is the
Chairman of Directors, and the following
are also on the Board: Messrs. X. Tajima,
M. Isobe, N. Namiki, and M. Mayekawa.
PRESENT n A \- I M IM< I-: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
483
THE HISTORY OF OIL
IN JAPAN
By A. P. SCOTT, Manaiiin^ Director,
Rising Sun Petroleum Co., Ltd.
MORE than 1,200 years ago pctroloum
was known in Japan as "burning
earth and burning water." In those ages
these elements were considered as something
spiritual, and were approached with awe
and reverence. Then the insect- kilhng prop-
erties of petroleum were discovered, and
about two hundred vears ago petroleum
began to be used for illuminating purposes
in its crude and semi-crude state. But dan-
ger, smoke, and bad smell were inseparable,
and as a result the use of it was confined to
the poor people of the producing districts.
When Japan was opened for foreign trade
some sixty years ago, refined petroleum began
to be imported from America in small quan-
tities by Chinese merchants of Nagasaki as
one of the Western novelties. Such importa-
tions at Nagasaki were: 8 cases in 1869;
70 in 1870; 417 in 1871; 3,530 in 1872.
In this early period only the progressive
upper-class made use of the refined product.
Of its value as a novelty of the Western
world the following anecdote, told by the
Japanese, affords a good illustration: In
1869 a number of young men wished to find an
occasion of showing their gratitude towards
their English master, an official translator of
the Department of Foreign Affairs, recently
returned from Europe, who gave them Eng-
lish lessons free of charge. They raised a
subscription and bought a present that was
handed to the wife of the official. It con-
sisted of a lamp stand and half a dozen black
bottles, each having a label printed in Eng-
lish. The master coming home saw the
present, took up a bottle, read the label and
said: "This is Triangle Brand Bass Ale, a
precious liquor that is brewed in England
from wheat. Happy am I to taste the long
forgotten drink." Thus speaking to his wife
he poured it in a glass, and as soon as he
gulped it down he vomited and gurgled in a
very excited and confused manner. It was
not beer, as he expected, but kerosene! The
colour of early imported kero.sene was not
the water white of the present day, and it was
sold in old beer bottles. The wholesale price
was about Yen 40 per case. Later it came
down to 82. 60 Mexican silver
Until 1893, when the Standard Oil Com-
pany began direct sales in Japan, the import
trade had been very speculative. The cus-
tomary transaction was to buy forward from
importers. Sailing vessels usually left the
Atlantic coast during the months of February
and March and took six to seven months
before they arrived in Japan. Forward sales
.\ BIG GUSHHR HROl'GHT IN liV THE NIPPON OIL COMPANY
contracts were chiefly made in May, June,
and July. The buyer had to bear the risk
of fluctuation of price during from two to six
months. The matter was made worse by
violent and frequent fluctuation of the ex-
change rate of the Mexican dollar. Thus, a
kerosene merchant was regarded as a specu-
lator rather than a sound business man.
In 1887 Russian oil was imported to Japan
by Samuel Samuel & Co., and for a time it
4S4
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
occupied an important position in the Japa-
nese oil trade.
Meanwhile the native oil industry was in a
struggling state. Production of native crude
was: 24,000 koku in 1879, and 39,000 koku
in 1888. The oil wells were dug by hand and
the deepest one was not more than 600 feet.
By the year 1889 there existed four or five
refineries in the oil-producing centres of
Echigo, but these being the undertakings of
private individuals were necessarily on a
small scale and imperfectly equipped. The
total output of refined petroleum of the same
year was 4,511 koku, against an import of
28,500,000 gallons. About this time several
oil wells of the Amase field succeeded, and
this place attracted the attention of the
Echigo people. Stimulated by the activity
of the Amase field, Messrs. G. Yamaguchi,
S. Homura, H. Naito, and other prominent
men of Echigo promoted a company in 1889,
with a subscribed capital of Yen 150,000.
Mr. Naito was elected the Managing Director
of the new company. During a dinner given
to celebrate the organisation of the company
a bat entered the room. They interpreted
this as a good omen because the Chinese
character of "bat" is pronounced the same as
that of "happy fortune," so they adopted
"Bat" as their trade-mark.
In the year 1887 Mr. Yamada, Ex-Presi-
dent of the Hohdcn Oil Company, first
engaged in the oil-well trade. In 1890 the
Nippon Oil Company imported drilling
machines from America, and these proved a
success. In 1891 there were 430 companies
doing oil business, with a capital invested
amounting to Yen 5,535,300. In 1893 the
Hohden Oil Company was organised by
Mr. M. Yamada and others, with a subscribed
capital of Yen 15,000, and an oil field of
4,000 tsubo. This company was very well
managed and was lucky in striking oil, and
was so prosperous that business rapidly
expanded. Within seven years their capital
had been increased to Yen 600,000, and they
purchased fifteen companies and partner-
ships. Ever since, amalgamation of smaller
companies has been characteristic of the
policy of the Hohden Oil Company.
As stated elsewhere, up to 1893 the Stand-
ard Oil Company had no direct selling organ-
isation in the country. American oil was
imported by the Japan and China Trading
Co., Smith-Baker, Brown & Co., Jardine,
Matheson Co., the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha,
etc. In this year the Standard Oil Company
opened their Japan branch headquarters at
Yokohama, and branch offices at Kobe and
Nagasaki.
Against the selling organisation of the
Standard Oil Company Mr. Asano, the sole
buyer of Russian oil for Nagoya and the
northeast, organised a Guild in Tokyo, and
his operations through this medium were so
successful that from the start 100,000 units
were sold monthly, and this increased to over
180,000 units. Later this Guild was dis-
solved, and Mr. Asano opened branch selling
offices in many up-countr>' towns to deal
direct with local buyers.
From Januarj' i, 1899, the new tariff
law took effect. Kerosene was to be charged
I sen per gallon bulk and 1.6 sen packed in
tins. Before this, though there was a rate
fixed for import duty of kerosene, it was not
enforced over foreigners because they were
hidden behind the wall of exterritoriality.
By the year 1900 the Echigo fields were
very flourishing, and both Samuel Samuel &
Co. and the Standard Oil Company began to
consider seriously the advisability of exploit-
ing Japanese oilfields. The former, after
careful examination of the fields, abandoned
the idea, while the Standard Oil Company
had not much confidence in them, yet they
saw that the oil-indicating area was vast and
that if these fields really produced oil under
the direction of native enterprise, their own
strong position in the Oriental countries
might be seriously affected. They therefore
decided to take the risk of entering Japan as
producers, and in November, 1900, the Inter-
national Oil Company, a branch of the
Standard Oil Company, w'as formed with a
capital of Yen 10,000,000. Such a gigantic
enterprise by foreigners inspired awe and
suspicion among the natives.
The same year the International Oil Com-
pany began the exploitation of the Hokkaido
oilfield. The existence of mineral oil in
Hokkaido has been known since long before
the Restoration. First it was sold as a cure
for skin diseases, and very much later as an
illuminant. Several attempts on a small
scale by Japanese in Hokkaido had ended
without any good result.
However, this attempt of the International
Oil Company stimulated native enterprise.
Oil rights at the end of 1899 were 1,640,000
tsubo, which suddenly increased to 101,970,-
000 tsubo by the end of 1900, besides 14S,-
950,000 tsubo then pending application.
The year 1900 is also a memorable one,
because the import of Russian oil, which had
regularly appeared in the Japanese market
since 1887, ended this year, and Samuel
Samuel & Co. substituted Borneo oil for it.
The tank steamer Strombus arrived at Yoko-
hama in October with the first consignment
of 1,500 tons of Borneo oil. At first sales of
the new oil met with competition, but it
soon found its way into the market in spite
of it. The second consignment of 3,500 tons,
per tank steamer Clam, followed imme-
diately.
The import of kerosene in this year (1900)
was as follows: American oil, 48,472,229
gallons; Russian oil, 13,904,266 gallons;
Borneo oil, 5,465,829 gallons.
By this time Mr. Asano had opened his
selling offices in more than forty towns, well
spread over his selling area. This was to
protect his oil business against possible
attack from the Standard Oil Company.
The native oils up to this period (1900) were
mostly sold in Echigo Province, and in Tokyo
and the western provinces they were in de-
mand only for mixing with American oil. In
order to raise the standing of Echigo oil it was
necessary to standardise the products, and
thus a large refinery was established in Naga-
oka in 1900 with a capital of Yen 500,000, un-
der the name of the Nagaoka Refinery Com-
pany. In this year the Xippon Oil Company
commenced sales of lamp oil in Tokyo.
Up to this time the holding of an oilfield
right was charged with no royalty until the
field was actually worked. This resulted in
the holding of vast fields by mere adven-
turers, shutting out earnest industrial people.
Though the opinion of the Government met
with opposition from miners on the ground
that the Japanese oil industry still needed
contributions from adventurous prospectors,
it was decided in 1 90 1 to charge 10 sen per
1,000 tsubo per year on holding rights of
oilfields.
In this year a law to increase the import
duty on kerosene was passed, and the rate
was doubled, i. e., bulk kerosene rose from
1 sen per gallon to 2 sen, and in tins from
1 .6 sen to 3.2 rin per gallon. By this charge
an increase of revenue of Yen 850,000 was
expected.
In 1902 the Hohden Oil Company success-
fully effected the amalgamation of thirty
companies, and among the companies thus
amalgamated were several pipe line com-
panies and refineries. They increased their
capital from Yen 650,000 to Yen 1,500,000.
Up to this time the products of the Hohden
Oil Company were sold through the Oil
Department of Mr. Asano, but the expansion
of the company by amalgamation necessitated
a modification of the sales system, and a
partnership called Hosen Shokai was organ-
ised with a capital of Yen 350,000.
In this year the Nippon Sekiyu Kaisha
increased their capital to Yen 2,400,000.
This company first started with a capital of
Yen 150,000, then increased to Yen 600,000
in 1894, and to Yen 1,200,000 in 1900.
According to statistics taken by the Nagaoka
Miners' Association, there w-ere fifty-two
companies, with a capital of Yen 33,180,000,
at the end of 1902, as against fifty-eight com-
panies, with a capital of Yen 4,900,710, five
years previously.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
485
At this time the Niitsu ficlil suddenly
became active. The new demand for liquid
fuel was created, and the Niitsu crude was
the cheapest for the purpose. Up to 1900
it had been 65 sen per koku. Also, the wells
were shallow, the average depth being about
600 feet. At the end of June, 1902, there
were 101 wells with an average daily output
of 704 koku. The price of Niitsu crude
ranged from Yen i.oo to Yen 1.60 per koku.
shares, owing to general depression of trade
and industry by the Russo-Japanese War.
In this year the Native Oil Selling Com-
pany was organised with a capital of Yen
500,000. The whole products of the Nippon
and the Hohden were to be sold through
this organisation, the Bat and the Jewel being
the chief brands.
In 1905 the Mining Law was revised and
foreigners were given mining rights, provided
solved. Thus a big selling competition was
generally anticipated, but it only brought
about competition for improvements of
merchandise.
In 1907 the International Oil Company was
sold to the Nippon Oil Company for Yen
1,750,000. The failure of this company is
ascribed to difiticulty arising out of the
difference of feelings and customs between
America and Japan. From the beginning of
By the middle of the following year the daily
output of crude increased to 1,210 koku, and
the price also advanced to Yen 2.30 per koku.
The Standard Oil Company planned to
import kerosene in bulk. This was advan-
tageous because the import duty of bulk oil
was 20 sen per unit of 10 gallons, while
kerosene in t.ins was charged 32 sen. But
this idea was abandoned as a consequence of
the revision of the tariff, and the import duty
of both bulk oil and in tins was made the
same, i. e., 32 sen per unit of 10 gallons.
Up to this time the grading of kerosene
was: American oil first, Russian oil second,
and native oil third, but from October of this
year the positions of Russian and native oil
were reversed. The anti-Russian feeling
just before the Russo-Japanese War brought
about this change. In Osaka a placard was
shown warning the public to stop using Rus-
sian oil, with the penalty of one's house
being burnt down.
In 1904 the Hohden Oil Company effected
another amalgamation and purchased nine-
teen companies. This work was made easy
in consequence of a great depreciation of
SCENE IN K.\B.\KEI V.\LLEV, KYUSHU
they formed their companies under Japanese
laws.
In this year the Government Railway
Bureau laid a pipe line near Karuizawa, be-
tween Yokogawa and Usui, in order to
remedy the insufficient carrying capacity of
the train carrying ser\^ce.
In 1905 the Namboku Oil Company was
organised with a subscribed capital of Yen
1,500,000. Among the promoters, Messrs.
Okura, Yamada, Watanabe, Murai, and
Asano were prominent.
The Nippon Oil Company, taking advan-
tage of the prosperity of the share market
after the war, increased their capital from
Yen 2,400,000 to Yen 5,000,000, and the
Hohden Oil Company effected a third amal-
gamation of twenty-six oil companies.
In August, 1906, Mr. Asano's selling con-
tract with Samuel Samuel & Co. expired, and
since then sales northwest of Gifu, including
Hokurokudo, have been made by the im-
porters direct. In the following month the
Native Oil Selling Company, the combined
selling organisations of the Nippon Oil Com-
pany and the Hohden Oil Company, dis-
the existence of this company working
expenses were very heavy, and loss followed
loss. Finally they had to decide whether to
abandon the enterprise or reinforce it with
much more capital. In connection with this
ciuestion the Standard Oil Company head-
quarters in America sent their Engineer, Mr.
Carter, to Japan. Upon investigation of the
Echigo oilfields he saw that only shallow
strata had been exploited, and he had good
hopes of them for deeper boring with better
and larger plants. This opinion of Mr.
Carter's unfortunately did not meet with the
approval of Mr. Copman, the Manager of the
Standard Oil Company's Japan Branch, and
American Headquarters. Under such cir-
cumstances it is the usual policy of the
Standard Oil CoSnpany to carry home all
tools, machinery, etc., so that these may not
be utilised by their competitors. But the
case of the International Oil Company in
Japan was an exception. Mr. Dunn, the
Naoetsu Manager of the International Oil
Company and ex-American Minister for
Japan, was well disposed towards the Japa-
nese nation, and he advocated transferring
32
486
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the undertaking to able Japanese successors.
Mr. Copman was of the same opinion, and
the whole property, excepting that in Hok-
kaido, was transferred for Yen 1,750,000.
In the field there were 70 oil-producing wells
with 280 koku daily output of oil, and one
well with 1,300,000 cubic feet of gas.
In 1903 there was a great controversy in
regard to import duty on crude oil. After
several revisions kerosene, both bulk and in
tins, was charged 38 sen per 10 gallons.
Added to this another 38 sen was charged as
war duty, and this latter was increased to
58 sen from June i, 1905. The war tax was
continued after the war, and from April i,
1906, kerosene import duty was made 96 sen
per 10 gallons.
The import duty in 1906 relating to pe-
troleum was as follows: Mineral Oil (ex-
cepting crude oil) —
1. Light Oil (Benzine) below 0.730 of s. g.
@ 15° C, 20 per cent ad valorem.
2. Lamp Oil, not exceeding 0.875 of s. g.
@ 15° C, 96 sen per lo gals.
3. Heavy Oil, over 0.875 s. g. @ 15° C,
Yen 1.23 per 100 kin.
Thus there was no rate fixed for crude oil,
because no crude oil had been imported into
Japan, and it was the intention of the Govern-
ment to include crude oil in the category of
"Oil, grease, and wax," and charge 20 per
cent ad valorem. If so, it was obvious that
the export of lamp oil would be substituted
for crude oil. This meant a decrease of
revenue and it was thought that the native
oil industry would be threatened. In 1907
the bill relating to import duty of crude oil
was presented to the Diet by the Govern-
ment. There were two divisions of opinion.
One, represented by Mr. Asano, insisted upon
reducing crude oil import duty, while the
other strongly advocated raising it to a level
equivalent to that of illuminating oil. Mr.
Naito was the champion of the latter group.
Finally the original bill was a Uttle modified
and the new duty was put into effect from
April I, 1909.
MINERAL OIL
I. Crude Oil. Percentage of liquid distilled
at a temperature from I20°C. to 275°C. by
fraction distillation against original crude.
(A) Not exceeding 20 per cent duty,
.17 sen per 10 gallons.
(B) Not exceeding 25 per cent duty,
.21 sen per 10 gallons.
(C) Not exceeding 30 per cent duty,
.25 sen per 10 gallons.
(D) Not exceeding 35 per cent duty,
.29 sen per 10 gallons.
(E) Not exceeding 40 per cent duty,
.33 sen per 10 gallons.
(F) Others. Duty, .36 sen per 10
gallons.
2. Other Mineral Oils. Gravity at 15 °C.
(A) Not exceeding .730,* duty, 20 per
cent ad valorem.
(B) Not exceeding .875, duty, .96 sen
per 10 gallons.
(C) Others. Duty, Yen 1.23 per 100
kin.
The origin of the controversy and agitation
over the crude oil import duty is ascribed to
Mr. Asano's ambition to monopolise the oil
business in the East. As the first step
towards this realisation he made a contract
with the Graciosa Oil Company of California,
and two other oil companies, to buy crude oil,
and at the same time he secured a site at
Maiko (near Kob6) and secured a lease of
land at Dalny from the Government. Then
he increased the capital of the Namboku Oil
Company (established in 1905, capital Yen
1,500,000) to Yen 3,000,000, and amalga-
mated the Tozai Oil Company (established
in 1906, capital Yen 1,500,000). The
Namboku erected a large refinery at Hodo-
gaya and tank storage installation at Hira-
numa in 1908, and the crude oil imported by
Mr. Asano was sold to the Namboku at a
small profit. Thus it was very important
for Mr. Asano to keep the import duty of
crude oil at the lowest possible rate. How-
ever, in spite of his efforts, the Graciosa and
the two other Californian oil companies were
bought up by the Standard Oil Company,
and Mr. Asano's plan became impossible.
While the crude oil duty controversy was
being hotly discussed, the Miyasawa Oilfield
began boring and found new gushers. The
Nippon Kaisha struck eight wells, getting
850 koku per day, and the Hohden struck
four wells, getting 420 koku per day.
In 1908 the Nippon Oil Company struck
oil at a depth of 360 feet near Akita, and got
over 10 kuko per day. This was the first
well of any significance in the Akita district.
It was known from early times that oil
existed underground in the Akita district,
and from the Second Year of Meiji (1869)
there had been several attempts to get at it,
but these had ended without any satisfactory
results. With the trial success of the Nippon
Oil Company, oil people began putting some
hope in the Akita fields. In 1910 the Nippon
Oil Company built a refinery at Tsuchizaki
to refine Akita crude. In 1908 the Namboku
struck a good well at Byoritsu in Formosa,
and in the same year the Nippon Oil Company
bought oil rights in southern Formosa.
The Rising Sun Petroleum Co., Ltd., a
concern which had taken over a large number
of Mr. Asano's up-country depots and built
up a detailed up-country organisation, bought
a large tract of land at Saitozaki, near Hakata,
* Benzine. This was revised to so sen per lo
gallons in 1910.
in 1908, and began constructing a refinery
with a view to refining Borneo and Sumatra
oil to provide for Japan, Korea, and Man-
churia. The equipment of the refinery was
as follows:
2 4,000-ton crude tanks
1,500-
200-
60-
500-
100-
12-
100-
kerosene tanks
benzine tanks
agitators
silting tanks
receiving tanks
liquid fuel tanks
distiUing boilers
Two tin-shops (capacity, 8,000 pieces per
day), godowns, condensing house, electric
generating house, laborator>', pumping house,
filling shed, living quarters, and railway con-
nection to the Hakata Railway Company's
line.
It was so arranged that a 6,000-ton tanker
could discharge its whole bulk oil cargo at
a point 600 feet from the shore through an
8-inch pipe within 20 hours. The work was
completed in July, 1909, and refining com-
menced in September.
In 1908 the Namboku Oil Company was
finally amalgamated into the Hohden Oil
Company.
In April, 1908, the Standard Oil Company
commenced sales of Tiger Brand oil in bulk.
In January, 1909, the native companies
entered into a price agreement with the
importing companies, and strengthened
market prices. The foreign companies also
raised prices and the market seemed to
improve. This lasted but a very short time,
and before long there was keen competition
among the various parties, each endeavour-
ing to make full use of their new facilities.
The native oil people endeavoured to
stop competition and to form a sales confer-
ence, and an arrangement was made in
February, 1910, by which the two native
companies were to supply 35 per cent and
the two foreign companies 65 per cent of
the total lamp oil. The total consumption
was then estimated at 10,000,000 c/s
Hohden Echigo 1,520,000
" from imported crude 600,000
Nippon 1,380,000
S. O. C. & R. S. P. Co 6,500,000
Total 10,000,000
The arrangement worked for about six
months, but in September a period of un-
precedentedly keen competition set in. The
effect of this competition on the native oil
industry was so disastrous that the Govern-
ment contemplated taking some steps to
stop it. However, the competition slack-
ened by the end of December, and in August,
191 1, they entered into a state of truce.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
487
As far as productiun went, it was in 1910
thai there were several gushings at Garameki,
Niitsu district, the largest of which put out
1,360 koku per day, which at the time was
the record.
In 191 1 the desirability of amalgamation
of the Nippon and the Hohden was loudly
discussed. After the purchase of the Inter-
national Oil Company by the former these
two oil companies almost equally shared
nearly the total native production; other
people were too small to be considered.
There were obvious evils under such circum-
stances in the existence of two companies.
They competed with each other in sales, and
there was useless competition in drilling.
The controversy of amalgamation versus
non-amalgamation had increased its zeal
after the severe blow received by the native
companies from the oil war of the previous
year. The chief point of the amalgamist
is that, the two companies' oilfields lying
side by side in almost every district, a success
on the part of one company in boring a well
results in a competitive drilling along the
boundary by the two companies, thus wast-
ing energy and capital uselessly. The con-
tending argument is that the development
of the oil industry is chiefly due to com-
petition, and more or less waste of labour
is worth sacrificing. The amalgamation will
result in the monopoly of the native oil busi-
ness on the one hand, and will tend to check
technical development. Much importance
was attached to the question by the inter-
vention of Baron Goto, then the Chief of
the Government Railway Bureau, who
advised the companies concerned to amalga-
mate. The directors seriously considered
the question and met several times, but
failed to agree on any definite action.
Meanwhile deep drilling at Imo field, in
the Nishiyama district, proceeded success-
fully. Previous attempts in this oil field
have failed, and the mining right was trans-
ferred to the International Oil Company,
which in May, 1906, erected a big two-story
derrick, 84 feet high, for deep drilling, and
in May, 1907, struck the oil bed at a depth
of 2,219 feet, with a production of 45 koku
of crude per day. Three or four years
passed without any further attempts, and
after the right was transferred to the Nippon
Oil Company, deep drilling was again com-
menced, in 1909, In 1910 there were several
wells struck in an oil bed, at a depth of about
2,500 feet, the wells putting out some 50
koku per day. In 191 1 success was more
brilliant. The biggest gusher put out 120
koku per day, and the deepest well reached
a depth of 3,180 feet. Deep drilling at
2,500 to 3,000 feet with rope was a rather
difficult feat, and the success at Imo field
must be considered a remarkable achieve-
ment of the art of drilling. The average
length of time required to drill such a deep
well was about a year. In this year (191 1)
the Nippon Oil Company purchased the
whole of the International's Hokkaido
business, comprising forty-one mining rights
covering an area of over 600,000 tsubo, with
seven oil-producing wells (daily output, 170
koku), 54,000 tsubo of land, some buildings,
seven tanks (two of 4,000 tons, two of 1,000
tons, two of 400 tons, one of 200 tons), 60,000
feet of pipeline, and drilling machines and
tools.
By this time the total production of crude
had decreased to 1,550,000 koku per year
as against l ,830,000 koku three years before,
and the future of the Japanese oil industry
was viewed with pessimism. The cause of
the decrease of production was that the
shallow wells were gradually dying out, and
deep well drilling takes a long time and is
accompanied by many difficulties. However,
the importation of a new and powerful rotary
drilling machine by the Nippon Oil Company,
from America, with four mechanics, threw
new life into the Echigo oilfields. The effi-
ciency of the new rotary machine was so
great that it drilled from 120 feet to 180 feet,
per day of 24 hours, in the Nishiyama fields,
and only two or three months were required
to drill a well that would need one or two
years' drilling by the rope system. One well
drilled 3,300 feet in only 80 days, and struck
oil! The first rotary drilled well of 2,880 feet
was commenced on April 5th and completed
on June 23rd, and gushed 100 koku per
day. Encouraged by these successes, the
Nippon Sekiyu Kaisha installed rotary ma-
chines at Kamada, Takiya, Nagamini, Gochi,
and Niitsu, and these met with good results.
Then the Hohden followed the example, and
ordered rotary machines from America. The
new machine was installed at Iriwada field,
in Nishiyama district. Mr. Ogura bought
one and used it at Kamata. Then many
others began to use the rotary machine. Not
only did the new machine do wonderful ser-
vice itself, but it served as a stimulus to the
old rope system, and the latter was much
improved, and increased its efficiency. The
continued prosperity of the Nippon Sekiyu
Kaisha decided them to increase their capital
from Yen 10,000,000 to Yen 20,000,000.
In September, 1912, No. 71 rotary drilled
a well at Imo field, and at a depth of 443
feet struck oil, which gushed out at a rate
of 600 koku per day. About the same time
another rotary well at Kamada struck gas
and blew out 6,000,000 cubic feet of gas
per day. These two weUs, one oil and the
other gas, were then the biggest on record
in Japan. The total production of crude
oil in 1913 increased to 1,750,000, as against
1,470,000 koku in 1912.
In this year the Nippon Oil Company
erected a refinery at Garugawa, Hokkaido.
One of the most remarkable occurrences
in the annals of Japanese oil history is that
the Nippon Company's No. 5 rotary well
at Kurokawa field, Akita district, struck an
extraordinarily big oil deposit. The well
began gushing at midnight on May 25, 1914.
By the test made at nine in the morning it
gushed at a rate of nine koku per minute,
or 12,960 koku per 24 hours. This Kurokawa
field is at a distance of four rin from Akita
town, and dating from very ancient times
there have been oil indications. Crude oozed
out of the ground and floated on top of the
stream — perhaps this is why the place is
called Kurokawa, or "Black Stream."
The news of the gushing spread all over
the country at once and caused a sensation.
Everybody rushed to buy shares in the
Nippon Oil Company, and prices advanced
by Yen 22 per share in one day! The con-
fusion in the Tokyo stock exchange market
became so uncontrollable that they were
obliged to suspend transactions temporarily.
The Nippon Oil Company had good luck
at the Kurokawa oilfields. There were few
wells that failed. After the great gushing
of No. 5 well, the No. 8 was the next largest,
putting out 5,000 koku per twenty-four
hours.
The question of the Japanese oil companies
has been dealt with at some length because,
under present conditions of a decreasing
consumption, the native production naturally
remains the keynote to the oil market of
Japan. The operations of the importing
companies, the Rising Sun Petroleum Co.,
Ltd., and the Standard Oil Company, have
been touched upon briefly, as, while they
both have detailed organisations, the sphere
of their activities is, of course, affected by the
decreased consumption and increased pro-
duction of the country.
In addition to the kerosene trade, there are
the benzine or gasolene, and wax markets.
The Rising Sun Petroleum Co. imports in
bulk the well known Shell Brand of motor
spirit, and does a large business in it. The
Standard Oil Company sells a certain amount
of naphtha, and the production of the native
benzine has shown considerable increase,
though it seems that about the highwater
mark of this production has been reached,
unless the quantity of kerosene taken from
the crude is considerably reduced.
Both the Rising Sun Petroleum Co. and
the Standard Oil Company sell large quan-
tities of wax and wax in the form of candles
— -the former concern making a special fea-
ture of the candle trade. It possesses candle
^=^
\n
NIPPON OIL CO., LTD., TOKYO: THE REFINERY .^T K.'iSHIW.iiZAKI — OIL WELLS ON NAG.^MIXE LE.\SE, NISHIY.\MA OILFIELD
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
489
factorii'S of its own, ami lias doiu' much to
raiso the stamianl of this particular form of
illuminant. The native companies have, up
to the present, done but little in the way of
producing wax, although wax plants have
been installed. There is also a considerable
business in matchwax done by the importing
com])anii's.
The lubricating oil business — an impor-
tant branch of the trade — was until recently
largely in the hands of the Standard Oil
Company, and Vacuum Oil Co., but here,
too, the native production has shown a large
increase and the importers have suffered
accordingly.
In conclusion, the figures of production of
crude oil in Japan for the past three years
may be given, the information being that
compiled by the Nagaoka Chamber of Com-
merce, which is the most actively interested
public body, so far as the petroleum industry
is concerned. The output for 1915 was
2|653,5ii koku, or approximately 106,-
150,000 gallons. That for 1916 was 2,648,-
284 koku, or 105,940,000 gallons. It is
reliably estimated that in 191 7 the output
decreased to 2,300,000 koku, a falling off of
300,000 koku. This decrease is attributable
to the "petering out" of certain wells, and the
failure to make big strikes during the year
to offset the exhaustion of the older wells.
However, if we take the annual production
of crude oil in Japan at 100,000,000 gallons
per annum, valued at from Yen 4 to Yen 5 per
unit of ten gallons, in the open market it will
be seen that the industry is an exceedingly
valuable one.
THE NIPPOX OIL COMPANY, LLMITED
The existence of petroleum in Japan was
known very early in the history of the coun-
try, and it is recorded in the ancient annals
that in 668 a. d. the people of Echigo paid
homage to the court of Emperor Tenchi,
offering a marvellous liquid called Moyuru
mizu, or "inflammable water," which must
evidently have been the natural oil. The
first efforts to work the oil beds were made
three hundred years ago when wells were
sunk at Echigo, but the commercial history
of the industry dates back no farther than
the early part of the Meiji era, when the
Japanese found the newly imported kerosene
to be a refined product of the petroleum oil
they knew to exist in their own country.
This knowledge led to attempts of a crude
nature to sink wells for, and refine, the oil
at Echigo. A small seaside town, called
Amaze, on the coast of Echigo, became the
centre of this industry and many wells were
sunk, with fair results. Anticipating large
returns, attempts were made to drill with
American apparatus, but owing to want of
proper technical knowledge and other difli-
cultics, the initial effort to develop Japan's
oil resources with modern plant was a com-
plete failure.
The honour of being the first successful
driller for oil was reserved for the Nippon
Oil Company, Ltd., the pioneer and the
largest of the Japanese oil companies. This
concern was organised in the Spring of 1888,
with a capital of Yen 150,000, and, unlike
other companies then existing the Nippon
had on its board of directors only men of the
highest social and financial standing, includ-
ing Mr. Hisashiro Naito, the President, the
most prominent man in Echigo and a leading
spirit in the Japanese oil industry. This
company started its operations by digging
several wells on one of the holdings secured in
Amaze, and though these wells were a payable
proposition and placed Mr. Naito and his
associates on a good footing from the start,
the first move by which they were able to
lay a secure foundation for success was their
introduction of American methods of drilling.
A complete set of drilling plant and an expert
driller were brought to Japan in the Fall of
1890. A derrick was rigged over one of the
old holes at Amaze, and driUing was started
in December of the same year. The well was
completed in the following April, a depth of
1,000 feet being reached, and the bore pro-
ducing 40 koku (i koku equals 39.70 gallons)
a day of very fine oil, having a gravity of
42 deg. Be. Thus encouraged, the Nippon
Oil Company drilled several wells in succes-
sion, and struck oil in all of them at depths
varying from 1,200 to 1,500 feet, producing
from 80 to 180 koku a day. This decided
success opened a new era in the history of the
Japanese oil industry, and led to the rapid
development of Amaze, and other fields as
well, not alone by the Nippon but by other
companies also.
It was then that the Nippon Oil Company
showed itself the leader in the newly devel-
oped industry, its name being associated
with every progressive step. President Naito
himself visited the United States in 189 1,
taking with him Messrs. Hirpse and Takano,
the superintendents respectively of the pro-
ducing and refining departments. Further
visits were made periodically, and always the
Nippon Company kept abreast of the times,
importing the best plant, and introducing
the latest methods for working the oil fields
and treating the rapidly growing output.
Later on, in 1900, Mr. Sasamura, the Super-
intendent of the Niigata Iron Works (owned
by the Nippon Oil Co., Ltd.), was sent
abroad to make a thorough study of the
process of manufacturing oil drilling appar-
atus and refining machinery, and on his
return the entire plant of the company was
enlarged, and the Niigata Iron Works began
the manufacture of drilling and refining
apparatus, thus enabling Japanese oil com-
panies to purchase these essentials much
cheaper than they had been able to import
them. In 1907 the International Oil Com-
pany, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Com-
pany, sold out to the Nippon Company its
entire property in the Echigo district. This
was a valuable acquisition of developed and
undeveloped holdings, the most modem
and best equipped refinery in the country,
as well as pipe lines, tank cars and other
plant, and a large number of operatives who
had had the best of training under American
technical experts. This record of progress
and development has been well maintained
by the Nippon Oil Co., Ltd. Within the
past few years the company has introduced
the American rotary drilHng and the Russian
system of continuous distillation, as well as
installing gasolene and wax plants, in all of
which great success has been realised. In
May, 1914, the Nippon brought in a record-
breaking gusher in Kurokawa lea.se, Akita
Prefecture, initially producing 10,000 barrels
a day. Since then several gushers, not quite
so large, have come in, changing the entire
situation of the Japanese oil industry. In
order to meet the requirements of its enor-
mously expanded business, the Nippon Oil
Co., Ltd., increased its capital in 1913 to
Yen 20,000,000, and removed its headquar-
ters to Tokyo the following year, taking up
offices at 21 Mitsubishi Building, Yuraku-
cho, Kojimachi-ku. The extent and sta-
bility of the Nippon Oil Co., Ltd., may be
gathered from the following financial facts
taken from the balance sheet for the half-year
ended June 30, 191 7. The net profits for the
half-year were Yen 3,219,223, and the
balance brought forward from the previous
period (Yen 1,360.062) brought the gross
profits up to Yen 4,580,185. From this,
Yen 500,000 was set aside against depre-
ciation of the company's property and plant,
and the balance was distributed as follows:
Added to reserves. Yen 135,961; bonuses for
officers and employees. Yen 163,153; pension
reserves. Yen 27,000; commemoration allow-
ances, Yen 403,813; dividends at 20 per cent
per annum. Yen 1,650,000; balance carried
forward, Y'en 1,700,258.
THE HOHDEN SEKIYU KABUSHIKI
KAISHA
The rapid development of the petroleum
industrj' of Japan is largely due to the enter-
prise and business courage of one or two
companies, foremost among w-hich is the
Hohden Sekiyu Kabushiki Kaisha, or the
Hohden Oil Company, Ltd. This com-
GENERAL VIEWS OF OILFIELDS OF THE HOHDEN OIL CO., LTD.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
491
pany is one of the largest industrial concerns
in the country, its authorised capital being
Yen 20,000,000, of which Yen 16,250,000
is paid up. In 1893, when the Hohden Oil
Company was established at Nagaoka, in the
Niigata Prefecture, with a modest capital
of Yen 15,000, the oil industry of Japan
was still undeveloped, and what prospecting
or boring was done was mostly conducted
by small concerns directed by enterprising
speculators. The future of the industry
was doubtful and certainly appeared to be
fraught with many dangers, the whole
business being considered a doubtful specu-
lation. The founders of the Hohden Oil
Company realised the situation, and aimed
to stabilize the industry to make its future
certain. To this end they sought to com-
bine all the small companies which had been
started by adventurous capitalists, and they
were successful in bringing about an amal-
gamation that placed the development of
the industry on a firm foundation. The
company at once embarked on a vigourous
policy and brought about a healthy develop-
ment in the oil resources of Japan. Its
capital was several times enlarged, and now
its prosperity and the scope of its activities
are quite striking, while the services it has
rendered to the Empire in promoting a
valuable industry are equally well recog-
nised. At present the affairs of the company
are divided into five departments; viz.,
working of the oil fields, refining of oil, sale
of the products, accountancy, and general
affairs. The system of working the fields
is most modern, the latest appliances being
employed, and every method science has
so far devised for this particular branch of
the industry, is adopted. The activity of
the exploitation department, and the great
confidence which the company enjoys with
the authorities, is strikingly demonstrated
by the area of the concessions obtained.
The company has constantly carried on
investigations into the geological features
of every nook and corner of the Empire to
find oil veins, and even now its capable
experts are at work in different districts
thought likely to produce oil. The area of
the concessions held in the main islands
and in Taiwan (Formosa) is over 586,000,000
square yards. At the oilfields actually being
worked, viz., at Higashiyama, Nishiyama,
Niitsu, Maki, Sagara, and Taiwan, branch
offices are established, and connected with
these fields and directed from them, 16 works
are in operation. For the actual working
of the fields, over 200 boilers, 700 engines,
and 300 pumps are operated to the fullest
capacity. For the sinking of wells the
company principally utiHses the American
mechanical boring system, though at some
District
Area
Being Worked
(Square Yards)
Area
Being Prospected
(Square Yards)
Niigata
58.459.9.59
1.247,957
1. 197.769
262,992
22,405,420
1,078,971
179.009,143
86,996,367
6,957,818
13,031.790
93,876,591
Akita
Aomori
Shizuoka
Hokkaido
Taiwan
Yamagata
96,826,107
1,109,089
Nagano
Tolal
108,137,459
477,806,905
fields the old-fashioned methods are still
resorted to. At present over 1,500 wells
have been sunk, and up to the end of 1916
the annual combined output was estimated
at 1,100,000 barrels in round figures.
The second department of the company
owns refineries at Nagaoka, Niitsu, Nuttari,
Niigata, Kashiwazaki, and Taiwan, their
capacity being so large as to turn out 100,000
gallons of refined oil a day. At all these
refineries the most up-to-date plant is in-
stalled, and under highly competent super-
vision the best possible goods are produced.
In the open market the Hohden Company's
products are received with favour and it is
generally said that they are equal in every
respect to the imported goods. The recep-
tacles for the perfected products are also
turned out by the company itself with every
possible care and precaution, at its factories
at Kashiwazaki, Nagaoka, and Niitsu.
The average monthly production at these
factories is 400,000 cans. The principal of
the company's products are as follows:
volatile oil gasolene, illuminating oil kero-
sene, vistral oil, lubricating oil, heavy oils
residue, anti-insect oil, and paraffin pitch.
The company's sales department has offices
at Tokyo, Osaka, Shimonoseki, arid Otaru.
Thanks to the efforts which the company
has made in the oil industry, and to the
superior quality of its products, the Hohden
lines have been advertised to the public, and
now their reputation is well established. The
Imperial Army, the Imperial Navy, and other
Government Departments, as well as a large
number of the largest private concerns, are
numbered among the buyers of the Hohden
Company's products. The officers of the
company are as follows: President, Mr.
Keizaburo Hashimoto; Managing Director,
Mr. Kinezo Fukushima; Directors, Messrs.
Tokichi Watanabe, Kwan-ichi Nakano, Sa-
taro Kawakami, Tokujiro Kakitomi, and
Shintaro Ohashi; Auditors, Viscount Ta-
daatsu Makino, and Messrs. Kichibei Murai
and Zensaku Shibuya.
The above shows the various localities
and total areas of the concessions held by
the Hohden Oil Company, Ltd.
STANDARD OIL COMPANY OF NEW YORK
It is not surprising to find such a world-
renowned organisation as the Standard Oil
Company of New York so strongly repre-
sented in Japan. The company's first active
operations in the Far East date back only
twenty-seven years, but during this short
period it has built up a strong organisation
and its products have become well known
throughout the Orient, even to the inhabit-
ants of the most outlying districts, and are
in popular demand.
Previous to the year 1880 or thereabouts
the importation of kerosene oil into Japan,
as well as into China, was on only a small
scale, in part cargo shipments, but from that
time on importations increased rapidly.
Vessels were chartered by leading concerns in
Japan and cargoes were bought direct from
the Standard Oil Company and the Atlantic
Refining Company on f. o. b. terms, the
vessels loading at the company's wharves.
For many years sailing vessels only were
employed in this business, until it was found
that steamer shipments could be made. By
the year 1890, the trade had assumed large
proportions, not only in kerosene oil, but in
other petroleum products, and the Standard
Oil Company of New York then decided to
control the distribution of their products in
the Orient and thus create better facilities to
actual consumers, with the resultant increase
in consumption. It was, therefore, during the
early part of 1891 that the company's repre-
sentatives were sent to Japan and offices
were shortly opened at Yokohama, Kobe, and
Nagasaki.
The development of the oil districts in
Japan naturally for a time interested the
company, and in fact they were (in a practical
sense) the pioneers of the exploitation of the
country's oil resources. The company, how-
ever, has mostly confined their operations to
y^vm-^
./.'.,
/
T^':^.?4;
/ ' K**
<
THE STORAGE TANKS A.NU CANMNc. WORKS OF THE STANDARD OIL CO. OF NEW YORK, NEAR YOKOHAMA-
THE YOKOHAMA OFFICES
1' R K S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
493
GREAT JAPAN PETROLEUM MINING CO., LTD.: THE HE.\D OFFICE THE TORIKOYE FIELD — ROTARY WELL BORING PLANT
AT TORIKOYE FIELD, NIIGATA
illiiininating oils, gasoline, and all grades of
luliricating oils and greases manufactured
abroad. A portion of their kerosene oil is
shipped to Japan in tank steamers and is then
pumped into large storage tanks conveniently
situated near Yokohama, Osaka, Nagasaki,
and Itozaki on the Inland Sea, where cans and
other receptacles are manufactured, in which
part of the oil is filled and boxed for the retail
trade. The balance is transported in bulk b}^
the company's own tank cars, bulk lighters,
and other vessels to secondary storage points,
placed at many convenient outlying centres
for further distribution to the trade.
A big selling and distributing force is
employed to handle the company's lines
throughout Japan and its dependencies. The
principal offices are maintained at Yokohama,
Kob6, Nagasaki, and Seoul (Korea), and
these branches, as well as many others, are
under the direction of the General Manager
at Yokohama, Mr. Herbert Allan Ensworth,
who holds this responsible post and has spent
many years in the service of the Standard Oil
Company of New York. He came to Japan
in 1906 as Assistant General Manager for
this field, and in 1914 was appointed as
General Manager. Mr. Ensworth is well
known to the native and foreign communities
of Yokohama and Tokyo, and is prominently
associated with various representative organ-
isations promoting interests in both cities.
GRE.\T JAPAN PETROLEUM MINING CO.,
LIMITED
That Japan contains many oilfields has
been amply demonstrated by the success
which has attended the operations of several
of the old-established companies, and that
the oil industry is a permanent one is appar-
ent from the steady increase which has
taken place in the yields from all the well-
known centres. It is the opinion of oil
experts that even now only a small portion
of the resources of the country has been
tapped, and consequently it is not at all
surprising to find a powerful organisation,
such as the Dai Nippon Sekiyu Kogyo
Kabushiki Kaisha, engaged in a systematic
search for petroleum. The need for such
work has been apparent to all who have given
thought to the matter, because Japan can
be made practically independent of all
foreign oilfields if her own resources are
thoroughly developed. This is the task
on which the Great Japan Petroleum Mining
Company, Ltd., is engaged.
The company came into existence in
January, 191 6, with the fixed purpose of
prospecting for oil in certain localities where
investigations made by the Geological
Department of the Bureau of Commerce
and Agriculture disclosed indications of the
presence of petroleum. The capital at first
was Yen 5,000,000, and the promoters of
the company secured the interest and finan-
cial assistance of some of the best known
business men in Japan. Furthermore, the
direction of the company's affairs was under-
taken by men well versed in the oil business,
the services of acknowledged experts being
secured for the prospecting of fields, and the
putting down of bores. On April 24, 1917.
the Hoko Kerosene Oil Company and the
Shin-Nippon Kerosene Oil Company were
494
PKI<:SENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
amalgamated, the authorised capital of the
company being then raised to Yen 7,500,000,
of which Yen 1,875,000 has already been
paid up. Operations were begun in the
districts recommended by the Department
of Commerce and Agriculture, the company
taking up leases in thirteen different areas,
namely: Asahi, Y'okoyama, Nishiyama,
Kanatsu, Higashijima, Koshi, Higashiyama,
Niizu, Nadachi, Ogumi, Furuoi, Ochiai, and
Maki. These areas are situated in Niigata
or Akita Prefectures, and the Furuoi is in
Hokkaido. The leases comprise 118 sec-
tions, having a total area of 48,719,531 tsubo.
Prospecting, which includes the sinking of
trial wells, has been carried out over an area
of 31,810,944 tsubo, which means that
already about two-thirds of the leased area
has been explored. Regular boring has been
carried out over about 4,089,000 tsubo.
Furthermore, the company has applied for
further leases comprising 12,818,937 tsubo,
so it may be seen at a glance how thoroughly
the directors arc carrying out the object of
making the closest search for oilfields. There
are in all 95 wells or bores, either complete,
or in course of sinking. Oil has been struck
in greater or lesser quantities in 75 bores,
21 have been abandoned, and 17 arc being
sunk.
That the capital and energy of the com-
pany has been wisely applied is apparent
from the results achieved after so short a
period. For the first half of 191 7 the com-
pany's production of oil was 3,741 koku,
which was sold for Yen 36,000. Small
though this revenue was, there was only a
deficiency in working expenses of about
Yen 9,200, the loss representing about one-
two-hundredth part of the capital paid up.
With the work done, and the prospects dis-
closed, it was anticipated that for the latter
half of 191 7 there would be an average daily
yield of 160 koku of oil, and with such a
yield there should be a revenue sufficient
to provide a surplus over working expenses.
and leave a balance to pay a dividend of
ten per cent. Should these expectations be
fulfilled, then the Great Japan Petroleum
Mining Co., Ltd., will have achieved some-
thing very rare in the history of oil mining,
considering that it has been in existence
only a little more than two years. There
is no question but that the company has
a great future before it. Its operations
are on an extensive scale, and the results
to be obtained should be commensurately
great.
Following are the Directors of the com-
pany: Admiral Baron Y. Ito (President),
Messrs. M. Hirose and T. Watanabe (Man-
aging Directors), S. Kobayashi, H. Nishi-
mura, S. Nakamura, T. Okumura, K. Goto,
Y. Uyeda. The Auditors are Messrs. C.
Hirose, S. Okada, S. Yokota, T. Nakanishi,
K. Sakurai, and S. Machida. The head
office of the company is at Mitoshiro-cho,
Kanda-ku, Tokyo, and there are factories
at Nagaoka, in Niigata Prefecture.
■^•yv^a*'
A MONOCHROME SIX-FOLDING SCREEN, ATTRIBUTED TO KANO MASANOBU (149O A. I).), ONE OF THE NATIONAL
TREASURES IN THE KYOTO IMPERIAL MUSEUM
XXXII. National Arts and Crafts
By Dr. J. INGRAM BRYAN, M. A., M. Litt., Ph. D. The Meiji University and the Imperial Naval Colle)<e, and Japan
Correspondent of The London "Morning Post"
Dawn of Art— The Cradle of Japanese Art— The Bronze Workers— Other Metals-
Ivory AND Wood Garvinc—Geramics— Cloisonne Enamel— Lacquer— Weaving
AND Embroidery— Pictorial Art— Minor Considerations
THE mythological period of Japanese
history reveals the same traces of
the beginnings of art that are to be
found in the prehistoric remains of European
nations. The earliest examples of the idea
of art in Japan are figures of men and animals
found in dolmens and other places of archa;-
ological sepulchre, and, although very primi-
tive in both conception and execution, these
figures must be regarded as considerably later
developments of the race's earliest attempts
at art. The contents of these ancient sep-
ulchres show that in prehistoric times the
artisans of Japan could forge iron into swords,
spear-heads, armour, and horse-trappings,
and could use gold and silver for decorative
purposes, as well as cast bronze and man-
ufacture wheel-turned pottery. There is
abundant evidence that in the remoter periods
of Japanese history the arts and crafts were
highly honoured. The first metal-worker, a
being descended from prehistoric ages, for
martial reasons naturally receives the highest
honour and is ranked among the kami, or
gods, equally with the canonized warriors of
the mythic period. It is clear, therefore, that
the hammerer preceded the sculptor and the
painter in Japanese art, and prepared the way
for the great glyptic artists of a later period.
Another evidence of the early inception of
Japanese arts and crafts is seen in the heredi-
tary corporations mentioned in the most
ancient chronicles of the nation: there are
associations of guilds of priests, metal-
workers, weavers, and potters. Such institu-
tions appear to have been peculiar to Japan.
They make their appearance at the very
dawn of the nation's existence, and it is
obvious that whatever country the Yamato
race came from, they brought these art
associations with them.
DAWN OF ART
Not until the introduction of Buddhism,
however, does the real history of Japan's arts
and crafts begin. Whatever art instinct the
Japanese possessed, it seems to have found
no appreciable expression until the stirring
inspiration and the gorgeous paraphernalia of
the Indian faith became a part of the national
hfe. And thus, as in Europe, so in Japan, did
religion become the mother of art. For true
art is always an attempt to suggest, imitate
or depict some divine idea that lies behind
things human — the effort of the divine unseen
to express itself in material form. As religion
stands for the same conception in the moral
and spiritual sphere, so the Church has ever
been the patron of art, and art has naturally
been regarded as the handmaid of religion.
And a reUgion like Buddhism, wherein images
and pictures find an important place, naturally
lent impetus to sculpture as well as to pictorial
art, to say nothing of applied as distinguished
from creative art.
The beginnings of Japan's arts and crafts
thus came to be exotic, as they were con-
stantly in the keeping of the Korean and
Chinese Buddhist missionaries and othei
immigrants who came from the continent.
It speaks well for the catholicity of the
Japanese mind even in that far-oflf day, that
these foreign artists should have found so
warm a welcome in the country. In that
period Japan seems to have offered many
attractions to her continental neighbours,
and not to the least intelligent or aesthetic of
them either. She was not convulsed by
496
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
(left to right) seventh century embroidery, showing the figure of BUDDHA — GOLD LACQUER WORK OF THE EIGHTEENTH,
TENTH, FIFTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND TENTH CENTURIES. ALL SPECIMENS FROM THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM.
dynastic changes, and she received with open
arms all who could add to her knowledge or
capacity. Japan set up no racial distinctions
between men's claims to the gratitude of the
State. In one of her oldest authentic records,
a list of peers compiled in 814 a. d., out of a
total of 1,177 noble families enumerated as
representing her aristocracy, no fewer than
381 traced their descent from Chinese or
Korean ancestors. To this stream of immi-
gration, with its fresh brain and blood from
the continent, Japan owed the development
if not the origin of her arts and crafts. And
even after the national art had started on an
independent career, it refreshed its inspiration
constantly by careful study of and imitation
of Chinese models, and even down to the
present day Chinese subjects may be
said to preponderate in the classical art
of Japan. It must not be forgotten,
however, that Japan's earhest arts were
practical and applied rather than assthetic
and creative, and to this aspect of her
development prior attention should be
devoted.
THE CRADLE OF JAPANESE ART
While it is clear that the beginnings of
Japanese art came from India and China,
it was in the old city of Nara, the Florence
of Japan, that the newly born artistic impulse
found its earliest cradle of development and
nurture. In the first Buddhist images and
pictures brought to Japan, it is easy to trace
resemblances to the contemporary period of
Gandhara in India, while the wall pictures
of the Horyuji temple in Yamato, one of the
oldest sacred edifices in Japan, suggest the
frescoes of caves of Ajunta. Numerous
relics of metal-work, lacquer-work, ceramics,
and textile fabrics indicate that in this period
Japan was not only in communication with
China and Korea, but with India as well,
if not regions beyond. In the capital at
Nara, where the Imperial Court resided
from 709 to 784 A. D., four sovereigns reigned
in succession, and during this period the art
of the nation began to lay serious claims to
high achievement. In other times, when
the capital moved with each new monarch,
art had no settled home. Once the Imperial
Court settled pcrmanentlj^ at Nara and art
at last found a safe abiding place, beautiful
temples were erected, with highly wrought
designs in wood and metal to decorate them,
and enshrining images and other objects
indicating a remarkable degree of attain-
ment. There is still at Nara a wooden
museum called the Shoso-in, which for
eleven centuries or more has been kept
intact to store the most ancient art relics
of the nation, most of them associated with
the emperors who ruled in Nara. This
building is quite unique in the history of
art. There is some difficulty in distinguish-
ing the origin of the various objects of art
in the Shoso-in, but a catalogue which
dates back to 756 a. d., indicates objects
that are Korean and Chinese, leaving one to
infer that all not thus indicated are Japa-
nese. It is, however, going too far to
assume that so many of the undesignated
art objects could have been produced in
Japan at a period when decorative designs
had not yet developed their distinctive
character. How to know with any degree
PRESENT- ri A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
497
of accuracy whether one is deaUng with
the work of the Cliinese teacher or the
Japanese pupil is, therefore, a problem.
If these objects are the work of Japanese
artists, then it must be concluded that the
native workers of the eighth century could
sculpture delicately and minutely, could inlay
metal with shell and amber, could apply cloi-
sonne decorations to objects of gold, using
silver cloisons, could work skilfully in lacquer,
black or golden, could encrust gold with
jewels, chisel metal in designs i jour or in the
round, could cast bronze by the cire-pardue
process, could overlay wood with ivory or
inlay it with mother-of-pearl, gold, or silver,
could weave rich brocades, and paint decora-
tive designs on wood, overlaying them with
translucent varnish. That such a degree of
artistic and technical skill could have been
attained by the Japanese in an epoch so
remote as the eighth century seems to some
very doubtful. Certainly, if true, it is very
notable. Whether these achievements were
due to Japanese genius or to Chinese and
Korean example and inspiration is a question
we can not now answer. But the Japanese
themselves are quite willing to attribute the
major portion of these ancient artistic suc-
cesses to foreign guidance or even to foreign
hands. But how is one to get over the
difficulty of attributing art work that is
undoubtedly above the level of China and
Korea in that period to these countries?
If they were equal to such heights in Japan,
why not at home? And this applied to
masterpieces of statuary as well as to smaller
objects of art. In such fields as painting,
ceramics, bronze-casting, cloisonnd enamel,
cameo-glass making, w'eaving, and embroi-
dery, China, of course, excelled anything
to be found in contemporary Japan, but in
statuary and sculpture generally the pupils
were able, under the inspiration of the new
religion, to carry conception and execution
far beyond the precepts of their instructors
from China and Korea. In the same way
the artists of the Nara period out-distanced
their instructors in bell-making. In the
year 732 A. D. they cast a bell for the Todaiji
Temple at Nara, which is 12 feet, 9 inches
in height, and 8 feet, 10 inches in diameter,
weighing 49 tons. For jierfection of execu-
tion and beauty of tone this bell is away
beyond anything that China could do at
that time, or even since. The famous statues
in wood belonging to this period, now pre-
served at the Horyuji Temple, representing
the four Heavenly Kings, are ascribed to
artists from Korea and China in the sixth
centurj-. In addition to the great bell
mentioned above, the colossal statue of
Buddha, 53>2 feet high, at Nara, was cast
in this period, about the year 760. The
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CARVED BRONZE BELL, MANY CENTURIES OLD,
RECOVERED FROM A BURIAL MOUND.
IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM
master-caster of that day was Kunio, and
in wood carving and sculpture Gyoki, Bunkei
and others were famous, while work in terra-
cotta and lacquer also made remarkable
progress.
THE BRONZE WORKERS
The marvellous artistic achievements of
the Nara period show how early Japan at-
tained high skill in all kinds of metal-work,
more particularly in bronze. It would be
an error, however, to assign to Japan the
palm in bronze-casting skill. Her wood
carvings are generally far superior to those
of China and Korea, and in bronze her
artists produced some castings cf matchless
art, as, for example, the immortal statue
of Amida at Kamakura, but in this sort of
work the Chinese excelled in designs and
accurate technique, while the Koreans were
superior in relief decorations. Nowhere in
the Orient, however, has there been any
approach to Greece as an interpreter of
beauty of form. The Oriental artists in
bronze are apparently unable to appreciate
the contour of the human body or mould a
form after the divine model of the Greeks.
China, however, has produced some models
in bronze vessels whose graceful shapes
compel admiration, whereas in Japan there
is seldom excellence of this sort except at
the cost of originality. But in giant statuary,
superiority rested with the East. The
Spartans had to hammer out the bronze
plates for the statue of Zeus on a model, but
the Chinese learned the art of hollow casting
in remote antiquity and handed it on to
Japan. During the Heian era, from 794 to
1183 A. D., there is evidence of continued
excellence in metal-work of all kinds, due
to the demand for armour and its accessories
by the warrior classes. All through the
Kamakura period, from 1183 to 1332, chisel-
ing, casting, and hammered work advanced
in the direction of greater elaboration and
finer technique. Bronzes having decoration
in relief did not make such marked progress.
Although the Japanese early in the four-
teenth century had received matchless
examples of bronze work from China, with
the peony scroll in relief, it was not until
the close of the sixteenth century that fine
specimens of Korean work, brought over
by the predatory troops of Hideyoshi, gave
any determining impulse to the adoption of
similar decorative designs in Japan. There-
after we find Japanese artists in bronze mak-
ing stupahs, lamps, vases, pricket-candle-
sticks, censers, pagodas, gates, fonts, pillar-
caps and all the other ornaments of the
Buddhist faith which one sees in such pro-
fusion at the Tokugawa mausolea in Tokyo,
where there is abundant evidence of Japan's
skill in great variety. The process went
on until Chinese shapes were covered with
Korean decorations, heralding quite a new
departure in bronze work. The movement
soon became apparent in household orna-
ments, such as flower vases and censers,
which up to this time had been made in other
metals only. It was not until the seven-
teenth century, therefore, that in Japan the
art of casting bronze became so delicate
and refined that its products could rank
with the choicest specimens of glyptic art.
Among the names that stand out conspic-
uously in the development of the art in Japan
are those of Kame, Seimin, Jouin, Masatsune,
Teijo, Sonin, Keisei, Gido, and Takusai, in
the older period, while in more modern
times Suzuki, Okazaki, Hasegawa, Jouin,
and Jomi have produced work equal to
anything done by the masters of the past.
OTHER METALS
Japan is a country of contrasts, and
nowhere is this more true than in her art.
The difference between the colossal statues
of Buddha in bronze at Nara and Kamakura,
and the exquisite temple and parlour bronzes
of later periods is assuredly vast, and in the
498
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
IVORY CARVINGS (tWO UPPER ROWS) AND EXAMPLES OF NETSUKE WORK
same way one may note the contrast between
the Cyclopean mediaeval castles of Japan
and the tiny metal-work ornaments that
may be said to constitute their jewelry. As
time went on the artist turned from giant
forms to small, and in all lines of diminu-
tive metal-work the glyptic artists of Japan
stand unrivalled, especially when it is re-
membered that here they owe nothing to
foreign inspiration. As an example of
forging the Japanese sword was unique, but
it was not more original than the metal
ornaments it carried. In all forms of sword
furniture the Japanese artist in metal dis-
played remarkable excellence. Unlike West-
em weapons of this class, the Japanese sword
had nine adjuncts, in every one of which
the native artists produced peerless specimens
of sculpture and metallurgic processes.
Some of these pieces are idyls of pictorial
art, equal to the tiny scenes on Greek pottery.
The artist in this sort of metal-work appar-
ently loved to expend the most patient
efforts on even the least conspicuous portions
of the object ornamented, partly because
loyalty to his art demanded it, and partly
because he wished to protest against any
striving after mere ostentation.
In exquisite achievements in metal-work
there are thirteen generations of the Goto
family, extending from the sixteenth to the
nineteenth century, each of which excelled
in some specialty of technique or decorative
design; as, for example, the Yokoya experts
who invented katakiri-bori in which every
line has its own value in the pictorial scheme,
the Nagoya masters, famous for wood-
grained grounds on metal, the Myochin
family, in whose hands iron was as tract-
able as wood, the Nagayoshi,' who were
renowned for inlaying, the Kisai artists,
associated with fine carving a jour, and there
are hosts of other names almost equally
celebrated.
In this kind of art must be included tielsuke
also, those delightful objects revealing as
much the art of the metal-worker as the skill
of the sculptor. The art which India had
learned from Persia in the car\-ing of ivory
and wood, and which China had developed
in carving elephant tusks and the horns of
the rhinoceros, attained its full range of
conception only in Japan, where it reveals
a wealth of fancy, realistic, conventional,
grave, humourous, and grotesque in the mak-
ing of netsuke, that has no equal anywhere.
With the passing of the ancient pipe-case
and tobacco pouch, as well as of the old-time
medicine box, the day of the netsuke ended,
but the glyptic artists found other fields for
skill in the sculpturing of ivory statuettes
and the production of various utensils and
ornaments of impressive beauty. In silver
salvers, tea and coffee services, fruit dishes,
napkin rings, spoons and other table furni-
ture, the work of the Japanese artist has a
beauty all its own, made, as such work is,
by the hand of a master, and not cast, as
abroad. The demand for cheap art is, how-
ever, forcing the metal-worker down to the
level of his customers, resulting in mere
decorative effect rather than artistic merit.
IVORY AND WOOD CARVIXG
We have seen how Buddhism from the
beginning lent great impetus to wood sculp-
ture, for when metal could not be had, or
was too expensive, wood was always at hand
to afford imposing images of gods and saints,
as well as to adorn in fine carvings the temple
friezes and gates. Few examples of the
wood-carver's art now remain, as, unlike
bronze work, wood was subject to decimation
by fire. A wooden statue by the famous
Shiba Tori is still preserved in the Hor>-uji
Temple, dating from 623 A. D. Later cen-
turies, however, show few carvers of great
talent and skill, the most important in the
ninth and tenth centuries being Kosho and
his son Jocho, with Unkei in the Kamakura
period. The art of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries in wood was confined to
exterior embellishment of temples, fine exam-
ples of which are to be seen at Nikko in
pillars, panels, beams, brackets, animals,
birds, and flowers. The greatest name in
this period was that of Hidari Jingoro. With
the rise of the puppet theatres there was new
employment for carvers in the making of
THE lAMOLS CARVING OF THE THREE MONKEYS, AT NIKKO
("HEAR NO EVIL, SPEAK NO EVIL, SEE NO EVIL")
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
499
WOOD AND IVORY CARVERS AT WORK'
images and masks, the work of such artists
as Matsumoto Kisaburo in the nineteenth
century even finding its way abroad. Among
modem wood-carvers and sculptors the
names of Takamura Koun and Takenouchi
Kyuchi are prominent. In ivory carving,
as well as in wood, art is suffering from want
of appreciative patronage. Most of the
demand for work of this kind is abroad,
some 90 per cent of all the objects made
being exported, chiefly to the United States.
The old carvers were forced to work on small
bits of tusk which were big enough to produce
netsuke, but the modern carver may have
a whole tusk to himself if he so desires, and
has, therefore, an unlimited field. Most of
the ivory artists, however, have to be content
with carving decorative objects for foreign
customers, which work they find more lucra-
tive than aesthetically inspiring, compelled,
as they are, to think of time and contract,
and not, as in the old days, moved by genius
and ideal conception. There does not appear
to be any very great appreciation of ivory
carving among the Japanese themselves,
owing, perhaps, to the comparatively high
cost, and the unsuitability of Japanese
houses for such ornaments. Nevertheless,
at present carving in ivory is showing more
skill and achievement than carving in wood,
and many of the wood-carvers are, therefore,
abandoning wood for ivory. The wood-
carver has indeed fallen upon evil days in
Japan. The successors of those inimitable
artists who produced the friezes and pillars
of the temples at Nikko and the wonderful
masks of the Noh drama, have now to be
content with making fancy table legs and
other furniture, stands for metal vases, and
even toys. In such work as sashimono, or
cabinet-making, there is, of course, room for
the display of great art in carving and in
objects like tansu. or chests of drawers, char-
coal braziers, tobacco trays, and furniture
generally, some really beautiful work is being
done. Here the skill of the joiner combines
with the genius of the artist to produce cas-
kets and cabinets worthy of all admiration.
CERAMICS
The making of porcelain and pottery is, of
course, one of the oldest of Japanese arts.
/T\
« 11
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A
raanoB
UDO COPPER SWORD FURNITURE INLAID WITH
GOLD. DESIGNED AND CARVED BY GOTO MUNE-
NORI (sixteenth CENTURV) — RARE SPECIMEN
OF KOZUKA UDO COPPER SWORD FURNITURE
(SI.XTEENTH CENTURY). CARVED WITH BUD-
DHIST WHEELS AND INLAID WITH GOLD. BY
JOSHIN GOTO IRON SWORD GUARDS OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURY (KANAYAM-TSUBA STYLE),
MADE BY NOBUIYE, A NOTED ARTIFICER. SPEC-
IMENS FROM THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
Introduced originally from China and Korea,
and improved under the tutelage of later con-
tinental teachers, the ceramic art of Japan
early attained a high degree of excellence,
especially under the patronage of the great
feudal lords, who encouraged in every fief
the art and activity of potters to meet the
needs of the people as well as to produce
speciaHsts in the craft. Upon the decUne of
feudalism the art of pottery suffered a relapse,
and the number of districts engaged in it
considerably lessened. The Meiji Govern-
ment imported experts from abroad who
introduced new methods of manufacture
and the use of foreign pigments in decora-
tion, after which the potters of Mino, Kyoto,
Aichi and other centres began to emulate
one another in the new movement, which,
though more profitable commericaUy in its
appeal to the inferior taste of the West, has
departed sadly from the ceramic art of the
old masters.
Although collectors generally speak of
Japanese porcelain in accents of enthusiasm,
it has to be admitted that the Japanese artist
in porcelain, as distinguished from faience,
never rose quite to the level of his Chinese
teacher. The pottery of Imari, called in
Europe Old Japan Ware, with its deep-
toned fields and crowded designs; the
Nabeshima porcelain, which stood for a
more aristocratic type of ceramic art; the
Kutani ware with its brilliant, richly massed
enamels, and the Hirado pottery in delicate
blue sous couverte, all go to testify to the
aesthetic sobriety of Japanese taste, and they
form the four great divisions of porcelain
on which the fame of Japanese ceramists
must rest. Yet in the opinion of experts
they are on the whole inferior to Chinese
masterpieces with their wonderful mono-
chromes, in indescribably delicate clair-de-
lune or faultless liquid-dawn; or the Chinese
PRESENT-DAY I M P U I-: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
CLOISONN'E-WARE ARTIST AT WORK
hawthorns, soft paste blue-and-white, bean
blossom, transmutation glaze, egg-shell,
famille-rose, and other incomparable crea-
tions. Before this galaxy of brilliant varie-
ties the masterpieces of Japanese porcelain
must, perhaps, pale. But not so in the case
of faience, which the Chinese ceramist was
prone to regard with contempt, but in
which the Japanese potter most excelled.
The choicest specimens of old Satsuma
ware, as well as some from Kyoto, hold
undisputed preeminence in the realm of
faience.
While the ceramists of modern Japan do
not seek to build their fame on reproducing
the masterpieces of the past, they do turn
out work equally fine, and in much greater
variety, at the same time adapting their
art to the needs of modern markets at home
and abroad. Foreign influence, however,
has forced deterioration, as will be noted
later. Instinctively the Japanese artist in
porcelain turns to China still for models, for
he knows that the Kangh.si, Yungcheng,
and Chienlung masters stand on a pedestal
to which he must climb before essaying
independent flight. While the Japanese
ceramist has produced many notable pieces
of beautiful porcelain, the liquid-dawn
monochrome of his Chinese master still
eludes him. In ivory-white, celadon, blue
sous coui'erle, enamelled painting over glaze,
mirror-ljlack, translucid decoration, and
various subglaze colours, as red, green,
vellow, and black, the Japanese potter has
succeeded admirably, as well as in the
wonderfully attenuated pdie of the Chinese
Totai-ki. In ceramics, Japan has never
THE POTTER
SPECIMEN OF CLOIbO.NNE WARE IX THE
IMPERIAL MUSEUM
ceased to be China's pupil. In the thir-
teenth century Kato Shirozaemon visited
the Sung kilns and acquired knowledge that
resulted in the wares of Seto. In the six-
teenth century Shonzui learned at Ching-
te-chen the process of making blue-and-white
porcelain, and in the nineteenth century
Seifu, Shozan Takemoto, Kato, and Higuchi
had no higher ambition than to reproduce
the masterpieces of China.
At present there are some fifteen places
in Japan noted for the production of pottery,
among which the more distinguished are
Kyoto, Hizen, Seto, Mino, Kaga, Satsuma,
and Tokyo. In porcelain, as in other arts,
the difficulty is to find patronage that will
justify the patience and application of
genius necessary to the production of master-
pieces. In the United States, where there
is a large demand for Japanese pottery, taste
EXAMPLES OF KYOTO WARE, BY THE ARTIST KANZAN — ANCIENT SPECIMENS OF KUTANI AND IMARI WARE — SETO WARE THE KANON
BUDDHA, IN PORCELAIN — KYOTO WARE BY THE FAMOUS ARTIST, NINSEI ANCIENT SPECIMENS OF SATSUMA — SETO WARE
RARE SPECIMENS OF IMARI AND SATSUMA WARE — IMARI WARE. ALL FROM COLLECTION IN IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
33
502
PRESENT-nAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
EXCELLENT MODERN SPECIMENS OF CLOISONNE WARE BY THE KIN-l'N-KEN FACTORY, KYOTO
has encouragingly improved within the last
few years, but as much can not be said for
other countries, the demand being still
greatest for hasty productions in gaudy
decoration. Naturally the demand for inar-
tistic exports has reacted unfavourably on
ceramic art in Japan, but there is now a
firm move being made to eliminate at least
the vulgar mixture of Japanese and foreign
elements in form and decoration. Some of
the modem porcelains produced for those
willing to pay for them are exquisitely beau-
tiful, comparing favourably with the best
of the past. Even the table-ware of the
poorest Japanese is infinitely more artistic
than that of the higher classes in Western
countries. Thus it is clear that it is not so
much cost of production, as it is inferiority
of taste, that results in the enormities of
decoration made for foreign export.
CLOISONNE ENAMEL
This is another of the deUghtful arts
that Japan acquired from China. In old
Japan the process of enclosing vitrifiable
enamels in designs traced with cloisons was
employed solely for the decoration of sword
AN exquisite EXAMPLE OF THE CLOIS0Nn£
ART (kIN-UN-KEN)
furniture and other subordinate purposes,
but Kaji Tsunekichi in the nineteenth
century extended its use to the manufacture
of vases, censers, and bowls. At first, in
cloisonne work the Japanese did not approach
the excellence of the Chinese in grandeur of
colour and perfection of technique, their
shades being always sombre and often
impure, but this period of inferiority soon
gave way to work of high skill, showing
specimens of remarkable richness of deco-
ration and purity of design, as well as admir-
able harmony of colour. New departures
were made by the introduction of cloison-
less enamel, known as miisen-jippo, and
translucent enamel. In this connection the
names of the two Xamikawas, and of Ando
and Hattori deser\-e special mention. The
use of silver instead of copper as a base, and
the setting of designs on the surface in
greater relief by the ishime process, indicate
still more recent progress in the art, while
Ando has successfully imitated the French
process of translucent designs, and Ota in
producing the red monochrome that has
long been the ambition of workers in cloi-
sonne enamel.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
503
LACQUER
This is certainly one of the most beautiful
of Japan's arts and crafts. On account of
the high excellence it has attained in form,
design, and execution, as well as on account
of the remarkable patience and skill required
in its successful manufacture, the art must
rank among the noblest efTorts of icsthetic
achievement. The designs in lacquer range
from great simplicity to elaborate decoration,
while the wonderful glow and sheen of the
gold, silver, and other variously coloured
lacquers represent something that is a joy
forever. Like other Japanese arts, lacquer
work first came from China, and that very
early, as it is mentioned in the oldest chron-
icles of Japan. Articles in this craft are
preserved in museums and temples of Japan,
that date as far back as the sixth century.
The earlier work appears to have been in
black, often inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and
mother-of-pearl on a gold ground appears
in the tenth century, and boxes with light
gold, with fence, fiower petals, and birds
have come down from the twelfth century.
By the fifteenth century decoration expanded
into floral and conventional landscapes, as
well as figures and architectural themes.
In process of time the Japanese artist in
lacquer seems to have far surpassed his
Chinese masters, especially after the four-
teenth century. The carved cinnabar lacquer
of China, of course, had no equal anywhere,
but in other forms the Japanese artist showed
THE PROCESS OF CONDENSING LIQUID LACQUER IN THE SUN
unapproachable excellence. In the second
half of the fifteenth century the dilettante
shogun Yoshimasa established tea clubs
which demanded various artistic utensils
in lacquer, when the craftsmen of Japan
soon began to produce that beautiful gold
lacquer with decorative designs in relief,
known as laka-nmkiye, as well as nashiji, or
lacquer with aventurine ground, resulting
in a long succession of exquisite specimens
and culminating in the elaborate decoration
applied to the interior of the Tokugawa
mausolea in Tokyo and Nikko. The summit
of development was reached in the latter
part of the seventeenth century when the
output was as artistic as it was extensive
VERY EARLY SPECIMENS OF TAPESTRY — A SPECIMEN OF CUT VELVET, A HUNDRED YEARS OLD, HY IIDA SHINSHICHI OF KYOTO A SPECIMEN
OF CUT VELVET AND GOLD BROCADE, MORE THAN A HUNDRED YEARS OLD, BY OKIO. (SPECIMENS FROM THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO)
504
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
In the eighteenth century the names of
Sonsen-sai, Chohci, Jokasai, Tayo, Kokyo,
Hirose, and Eki were among the most notable
artists in lacquer, while in modern times
Uyematsu Honin and Shirayama Shosai
have no equals. Indeed, the work of the
Western mind has a full appreciation of this
art in the same sense as the Jajianese, and
consequently lacquer has always been more
valued in Japan than abroad, though the
demand for better work in Western countries
is increasing. Even in Japan the best
SPECIMEN OF ANCIENT CUT-VELVET WORK, IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
lacquer artist to-day is quite up to that of
any of his predecessors. All the finest
pieces of the past were made to order, just
as it must be with the best work to-day.
It is impossible to form any adequate con-
ception of the wonderful variety of designs
and the endless combination of colours and
materials over which the modern craftsman
holds magic command. The Japanese, as
a rule, reveal simple taste in lacquer, such
as the plain, severe black, or nashiji, of the
seventeenth century, with, perhaps, a spray
of plum or cherry blossom or a bird soaring
toward the rising moon or rising sun. For-
eigners, however, prefer the more elaborate
and overcrowded work of the Genroku period,
inlays of mother-of-pearl or coral, various
metals with special use of gold. But no
pieces have always been purchased by the
Imperial Family, to be used as gifts for great
personages and foreign potentates.
WE.WJNG AND EMBROIDERY
As one of the earliest industries of the
nation, weaving in time began to reveal the
development and originality of an art. In
the oldest annals of Japan it is mentioned
as an avocation of goddesses in the myth-
ology of the nation, and corporations of
figured-cloth weavers are mentioned as
existing in lo a. d. From this it appears
that the art of weaving was practised in
Japan from immemorial times, and China
and Korea contributed materially to its
development. Embroidery, too, must have
been an ancient art of Japan, for embroidered
representations of Buddha sixteen feet long
are mentioned in the sixth century, and the
older temples of Japan have specimens of
this art dating from remote antiquity.
Both weaving and embroidery received
marked impetus from certain schools of
actors whose theatres required elaborately
woven and embroidered robes to lend spec-
tacular effect to their dramas. In connec-
tion with this Noh-kyogen drama, Japan in
time became the possessor of such stores
of textile fabrics as have never been excelled
anywhere in point of richness of quality,
beauty of design, and delicacy of technique.
Many of these famous collections have
been dispersed abroad where they ser\-e to
denote the achievements of old Japan, but
the modern exponents of these arts and
crafts are in no way behind their predecessors.
The modern brocades of Japan are, perhaps,
not always superior to those of the old
masters, but on the whole they afford very
favourable comparison with the best achieve-
ments of the past. Especially in tzuzure-
ttishiki, or tapestry, the modem manufacturer
has far out-distanced his ancestors, while in
embroidery the present-day masterpieces in
their wonderful chiaroscuro effects and aerial
perspective are away beyond anything that
the past has produced, and the remarkable
cut-velvets of the Kyoto artists have made
an entirely new addition to the list of art
fabrics. In silk brocade the Japanese
artist can produce any scene from nature
or any pattern selected, with his tiny loom
and threads of silk and gold. This is now
the most highly prized of all Japan's textiles,
but such products can be afforded only
by great personages, and even these wear
them only on important occasions. Dur-
ing the last fifty years the art of wea\'ing
silk brocade has made marvellous progress
under Jimbei Kawashima of Kyoto who
received much encouragement from the late
Emperor. He it was who undertook the
matchless creations in this art which the
late Emperor presented to the Palace of
Peace at The Hague. One of the finest
pieces of silk tapestry in the world is in the
Imperial Palace at Tokj'o, a magnificent
creation eighteen feet by twenty-four, which
took several years to complete. Only
genius of great originality and inspiration
could have produced the masterpieces in
this art to be seen only in Japan.
PICTORIAL ART
In the past foreigners have been prone
to treat Japanese art as for the most part
decorative or applied art, quite satisfied if
they have taken a scant review of the nation's
porcelain, pottery, lacquer, carving, and
colour-prints, without making any study of
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
505
its creative or pictorial art at all. This
was in some measure due to the fact that
the masterpieces of Japanese painting were
hidflcn away as treasures, and the world
was ignorant of the existence of such works
as Japan can show. In recent years, how-
ever, these have been brought from their
hiding places and put on view in the great
museums and galleries of the nation, and
the wealth of Japan's artistic achievements
has become better known. After all it must
be admitted that a nation's applied or in-
dustrial arts and crafts are but the overflow
of the shaping and inventing energy, as well
as tlie inspiration of her creative or free
arts. The decoration of things of use and
luxury is but the reflection of designs emanat-
ing from the minds of the great masters of
the brush and the chisel.
Pictorial art is one of Japan's oldest
achievements, introduced, like other and
kindred arts, from Korea and China. In
the hands of Kanaoka in the ninth century
the national pictorial art began to show some
signs of breaking away from slavish imita-
tion of the Chinese masters, but the paint-
ing of Japan did not completely find itself
until the eleventh century, when the Tosa
school appeared at Nara. Before this there
had been the Yamato school, established by
Motomitsu, which contained in itself most
of the peculiarities that have characterised
Japanese painting ever since, such as neglect
of perspective, impossible mountains, quaint
dissection of roofless interiors, and devotion
to insects and hobgoblins. This school
finally evolved into the Tosa school of paint-
ers and thenceforward devoted itself more
to classical subjects. The Tosa painters
were intent on the national manners and
customs of the past, and included a long
line of brilliant names down to Mitsuoki
of the seventeenth century, who painted the
thirty-six poets for the Toshogu at Nikko.
From the Tosa school arose another line of
artists with Kosin at their head, producing
richly decorated pieces in coloured ink,
depicting scenes and objects in nature. In
more modern times the honours of the Tosa
school have been worthily upheld by Kobori.
The Kano school of painters, an imitation of
the northern school of China, arose in the
fourteenth century, producing an extended
list of great names like Shoku, Suten, and
finally Masanobu, whose works are still to
be seen in various temples. The fifteenth
century is generally regarded as the most
glorious period of painting in Japan, as
indeed, by strange coincidence, it was in
Italy, Chodensu and Josetsu achieving fame
in the depiction of Buddhist subjects. Other
names of the period were Mitsunobu of the
Tosa school and Sesshu, Shubun, and
EMBROIDERY .ARTISTS
Masanobu of the Kano school. The latter,
even down to the present day, has continued
to be the stronghold of classicism in Japa-
nese painting, by which is rneant a close
adherence to Chinese models and subjects
at second hand. The quiet harmonious
colouring and the bold calligraphic drawing
of the old masters have justly excited the
emulation of succeeding generations, though
the circle of ideas in which the old masters
moved was too restricted to command
universal admiration. It was under the
influence of the calligraphic art of the south-
ern school of China that the Bunjinja school
arose in Japan, a school noted for the elegance
and beauty of its brush work, and of which
Kazan was a master. One of the great
names of the Kano school, Maruyama Okyo,
founded a school in the eighteenth century
bearing his name, its leading feature being a
faithful adherence to nature. Keibun, Toko-
hiko, Gyokusho, and Bunkyo, who died some
time ago, were all brilliant pupils of Okyo.
The Shijo school of painters, notably Take-
nouchi, showed admirable independence in the
direction of a pure Japanese style, practis-
ing a graceful naturalism, while the school
of everyday life, known as the Ukiyo-e,
devoted itself to the manners and customs
of the common people of the streets. The
beginning of this popular movement in
Japanese art may be traced back to the
droll sketches of Iwasa Matahei in the
sixteenth century, and the idea was later
So6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF J A I' A N
A VERY OLD PORTRAIT OF YOSHITSUNE, IN
THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM, TOKYO
developed by Moronobu and Hanabusa, who
illustrated books in popular style in colour.
The influence of Okyo, who made a sincere
attempt to paint with his eye on nature, did
something to turn the public mind to things
natural and real, and a whole host of artists
arose depicting life around them, releasing
art from the cold conventionalities of Chinese
taste and bringing it down to the society
of living men and women. One of the
greatest names in this artisan school was
that of Hokusai, who from 1760 to 1849
poured forth a continuous stream of novel
and vigourous creations covering the whole
range of Japanese motives, and resulting in
those wonderful colour-prints for which
Japan has become justly famous. Other
noted names of the Ukiyo-e school were
those of Toyokuni, Kunisada, Shigenobu,
Hiroshige, and Kyonobu. The last of the
masters of the old school was Kyosai, who
sur\'ived until 1889, his main themes, with
grim appropriateness, being the ghosts and
skeletons of the past.
After the opening of Japan to Western
civilisation and art, the painters of the nation
had serious difficulties with which to contend,
just as their ancestors before them had when
Japan came into contact with the influence
of China, with this difference, however, that
when Japan came under the tutelage of
China in art as in other things, she had no
traditions and nothing to unlearn but every-
thing to learn, but when she came face to
face with the West she had an immense
tradition to overcome and a long line of
artists to demand her loyalty. Art, like
religion, is something inseparable from the
soul of a race, and the result will wholly
depend on the attitude of the mind to the
woi'ld. In that attitude the religion and
tin- mind of Japan differed profoundly from
AN ANCIENT PAINTING OF SUGIWARA
MICHIZANE
Europe. At first it was supposed that every-
thing foreign, including art, was superior,
and native masters like Hogai and Kyosai
were neglected, the pupils flocking to the new
art teachers imported from Europe by the
Government. But even the foreigners them-
selves, led by Professor Fcnollosa, opposed
the aversion from the old masters and did
something to stay the wild rush to escape
the past, and so evade all pretence to orig-
inality. And so when the National School
of Fine Arts was founded in 1886, Hogai
and Gaho were its chief teachers. A brave
attempt was made to preclude the old,
native artistic individuality being lost dur-
ing the absorbing interest in the art of the
West. Devoted as some Japanese artists
have been to the Western style of painting,
Japan has not yet produced her Turners or
Tintorets, nor at the same time has she
given the world anything in native style
worthy of universal appeal. It is a grave
question with some whether the pictorial
art of Japan has made much progress since
the days of Okyo and Motonobu, while others
even doubt whether at any time she has
risen above the level of her Chinese masters,
especially in the delineation of landscape
with noble breadth of design, subtle relation
of tones, splendid calligraphic force, and an
all-pervading sense of poetrv-, such as one
sees in the masterpieces of the Tang, Sung,
and Yuan epochs, and which have been at
once the ideal and the inspiration of the
artists of Japan. But just as the glyptic
art of Japan won triumphs of its own in
such spheres as netsuke and sword furniture,
the pictorial art of the nation has revealed
its special genius in the Tosa and the Ukiyo-^
painters and their successors in modem
times. Though now in art the nation seems
PAINTING OF AN ANCIENT GOD (tODAIJI HACHI-
MAN), from the IMPERI.^L MUSEUM, TOKYO
HUMBLE MODERN CRAFTS: (UPPER ROW) THE SHOE REPAIRER — THE SHOE MAKER — PRAYER BEAD MAKERS; (SECOND ROW)
THE UMBRELLA MAKER — FAN MAKERS— THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH; (THIRD ROW) SAMISEN MAKERS — THE DRUM
FISH LANTERN MAKER— LANTERN MAKERS; (LOWER ROW) DOLL MAKERS — A TOY MAKER
5o8
RESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
at the ijarting of the ways, at a loss whether
to follow the West or to rely on the inspira-
tion and example of its own past, there is no
doubt that the Japanese artist will eventually
find himself, however difficult it may be
for him to get away from convention, Occi-
dental or Oriental. Even as the Tosa
painters had no peers in China as historical
a;sthetic realm, Kuroda and Miyak^ have
boldly adopted Occidental canons of art:
all these have produced pictures and are
still producing them, none of which, perhaps,
are quite worthy to hang with the old masters.
But as the noi.se and confusion of the transi-
tion period cease and the era of doubt passes,
the era of achievement approaches. When
FU-JIN (god of wind). ONE OF A P.\IR OF COLOURED, TWO-FOLDING SCREENS,
ATTRIBUTED TO TAWARAYA SOTATSU, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
OWNED BY KENNIX-JI TEMPLE, KYOTO
illustrators, combining the realistic and the
decorative in an admirable manner, so the
modern painters of Japan will eventually
contradict the contention that they are
degenerating into hybrid schools with the
virtues of neither East nor West. The Tosa
school found its inspiration in the camp,
the castle, and the battlefield, and the
Ukiyo-6 in the voluptuoas sestheticism and
the refined sensuality of the boudoir and the
bagnio, but the painters of new Japan will
not fall into the austerities resulting from
war on the oi)e hand, nor the vices resulting
from idle peace on the other. They live in
an age of transition without any traits
sufficiently marked to arouse enthusiasm
or inspire ideals. Bunkyo and Imao have
explored the naturalistic field, Kawabata
and Watanabe have been groping in the
achievement arrives will it reveal more of
what is Japanese or more of what is foreign?
There are those who wisely hope that the
artists of Japan will aim at maintaining
the nation's reputation in the field of art
after the native rather than after the foreign
manner, as in the old ways they are more
likely to succeed. If Japan's fame is not to
suffer she must aspire to eminence in lines
that do not come closely into competition
with Western achievement. Japanese paint-
ing is distinguished by directness, facility, and
strength of line, revealing a bold dash that is
probably due to the habit of writing and draw-
ing from the elbow rather than from the wrist.
The merest sketch has, therefore, a calli-
graphic quality that gives it merit. Though
it may be faultlessly accurate in natural de-
tails, it scorns to be tied down to any rules.
The bird may be perfect, but the tree only a
conventional short-hand symbol; the bamboo
lifelike, but part of it blurred by an artificial
atmosphere that never was on sea or land.
The Japanese artist is a poet and not a photog-
rapher; he is painting memories and feelings,
not scenes or objects. Had he breadth of view
and great genius he might produce something
grand, but he aims at condensation, not
expansion. He is intensive rather than
extensive, beUeving that the divine begins
where the visibility ends. Perhaps it is
because Japanese art has been utilised so
much in decoration that its peculiarities have
been over-emphasised, for who would look on
the side of a teapot for a rigid observance of
perspective? And so, while in broad surfaces
Japanese art has won no great place, as
decoration for smaller surfaces it has already
conquered the world. In this way Japanese
art has discovered the truth that mechanical
symmetry does not make for beauty. West-
ern art aims at the complete reaUsation of a
scene, whether observed or imagined, while
the Japanese artist is concerned only with
abstracting the reality by reproducing for the
spectator the emotion evoked in the artist —
and all not tending toward this end is omitted.
Western artists are to-day devoting more
attention to this spiritual presentation of life
than to the pursuit of realism for its own sake,
and thus they are more closely approaching
the Japanese ideal. This the Japanese artist
is himself beginning to realise in some meas-
ure, and the more he does so the less likely he
is to abandon the native for the foreign
tradition. W^hile adopting Occidental superi-
ority in knowledge of perspective, anatomy,
light and shadow, the Japanese artist will
preserve his own ideals and have more regard
to motive and nature and man than to the
mere crust of society and ci\'ihsation. It
would, indeed, be a misfortune if the artists
of the new Japan should allow their ideas to
be clogged or their ideals to be swamped with
Western materialism, or that they should
surrender their delicacy, suggestiveness, and
reticence of power for mere imitation of some
Western ideal, losing touch with the life of
Japan. Many of the foremost artists of the
nation have already come to the conclusion
that greatness can never lie in a combination
of qualities that do not harmoniously blend.
The distinctive virtues of Japanese and West-
em art can never be combined without losing
something of individuality and charm. Art,
however, must always be a criticism of Ufe, or
nothing, and the future of Japanese art
depends on the moral and spiritual ideals of
Japan herself. The present confusion pre-
vailing in this respect accounts for the
corresponding confusion in the world of
national art.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
509
THE ARROW MAKER
PASSING CRAFTS
THE SWORD SHARPENER
MINOR CONSIDERATIONS
Sculpture, which used to be one of Japan's
fine arts, has not been such now for centuries.
The static poses of Buddhist statuary have
chilled the native ideal and resulted in a
decline of skill and aspiration that no effort
seems able to overcome. Serious attempts
are being made, nevertheless, toward revival,
and there is really no good reason why the art
of sculpture should not develop and expand.
Most of the modern efforts in marble and
plaster are close imitations of Western art
and too trivial or lacking in force of concep-
tion to claim the honour of genius, or even to
claim kinship with their Western masters.
In art processes, however, Japan is more
highly distinguishing herself. If she can not
paint modern masterpieces she can at least
print them as nearly hke the originals as any
copy can be. In the magnificent reproduc-
tions of ancient masterpieces by the Shimbi
Shoin the world has at its disposal the whole
output of Japanese pictorial and other art for
centuries in albums of reasonable price.
Most of the minor arts, however, are sadly
affected by modern commercialism. With
the introduction of aniline dyes has come a
renewal of the colour-print, but the skill of
the wood-engravers is especially seen in the
reproducing of old masterpieces already
mentioned. -•\t the same time, there is going
on a divorce between creative and decorative
art that is to be deplored, and the only hope
lies in the real artists taking more interest in
the too long despised crafts. To a large
ixtent, modern Hthography is driving the old
art of xylography from the field, while photog-
raphy is being more and more preferred to
the illustrator for books and periodicals.
Even the Japanese colour-printers of old
masterpieces have in some measure to rely on
jihotography for accuracy of reproduction,
hut the results are far superior to those of
former days under the old-fashioned pro-
cesses, as the print is an exact copy of the
original and often as many as a hundred
tints are used in one picture.
The Japanese are now beginning to appre-
L-iate the value of their national masterpieces
and are buying them up to prevent their leav-
ing the country. When a painting from one
of the old masters comes on the market the
competition for it is most keen. Recently one
1 y Korin was knocked down at 105,000 yen,
and another from the brush of Okyo at 108,-
000 yen. Museums and galleries for the
preservation of art treasures have been
established, and the Government holds an
annual exhibition of present-day masters,
when over 3,000 pieces are submitted and
about 300 selected for hanging. The ancient
art treasures of the nation now number 2,533,
and are preserved at a cost of some 2,000,000
ven.
.\ H.WVK ON .\ PINE TREE. MONOCHROME,
ONE OF A PAIR OF KAKEMONO, BY SESSOU,
SIXTEENTH CENTURY, OWNED BY MANSHU-IN
TEMPLE, KYOTO-FU
VIEW OF A BUSY SECTION, SHOWING THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE EUROPEAN AND JAPANESE STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE, TYPIFYING THE
PROGRESS OF MODERN JAPAN
XXXIII. The City of Osaka
Antiquity— Modern Osaka — City Government — Finance — Industries and Trades
OSAKA, the commercial and industrial
metropolis of the Japanese Empire,
has had a lengthy and interesting
history, rivalling that of the capital itself.
When the first Emperor of the newly founded
Empire of Yamato, Jimmu Tenno, undertook
an expedition to the eastern portion of his
dominions, he landed near the site where
Osaka now stands, and called the place
Naniwa. From that time the village became
a centre of importance, especially as a rendez-
vous for ships and a stopping place for
travellers. In the literature of the day the
place is mentioned as possessing a good
harbour. The space now occupied by
crowded thoroughfares and imposing build-
ings given to manufacture and trade was in
ancient times the foreshore, long since rescued
from the sea. At first the localities now
known as Momoyama and Tennoji went
under the general name of Naniwa, and when
the Emperor Nintoku set up his capital there
in the fourth century the city began to assume
a position of national importance. Much
attention was devoted to the improvement
and development of the new capital, the
streets being better laid out, canals excavated,
and everything possible done to make it a
place worthy of imperial residence. During
the time of the Emperor Kinmei and the Em-
press Suiko, Naniwa was a great meeting place
for foreigners, including embassies from China.
Stately mansions and gorgeous Buddhist
temples began to rise, and the city became a
centre of political and religious propaganda,
and in its environs not a few famous battles
were fought. In time the capital removed
to Nara and Naniwa began to decline, but
owing to its advantageous position as a port
and centre of commerce, it never could fall
into complete decay. When the famous
Hideyoshi built his castle there in 1583 the
place again assumed the importance of an
administrative centre. To raise the lofty
walls of this, the greatest fortress of old Japan,
is said to have taken years of labour and the
toil of more than a million hands. Upon the
overthrow of the To}'otomi family and the
rise to supremacy of the Tokugawa clan, a
representative of the central Government
was stationed at Osaka as the strategic point
of the Empire, and from that time its com-
mercial prosperity was assured.
ANTIQl'ITY
From very early times Osaka was regarded
as the Chicago of the Empire. Within its
walls were established great warehouses for
the storing of rice, and it became the grain
emporium of the nation. Into these ware-
houses flowed the rice paid in taxes to the
several daimyo, and from there the grain was
sold or exchanged. Possessing a convenient
outlet to the Inland Sea, Osaka afforded
facilities for the despatch of supplies to the
various vassals of the barons, as well as for
rRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
;ii
the markx'ting of surplus products, and it
came to be an industrial centre as well. The
city was not, however, wholly given up to
material pursuits. Osaka was celebrated in
the dramas of Chickamatsu, the Shakespcre
of Japan, and also in the popular novels of the
city, producing new schools of acting and of
writing.
In the year 1625 the population of Osaka is
recorded as numbering 300,000, and by the
year 1662 it had increased to 400,000 — a
time when the number of citizens in London
was no more than 179,000. Plague and fire
often decimated Osaka, as they did the
capital of Britain, and Osaka continued to be
a place of great commercial and industrial
importance while many of the modern
European cities were still in the making. A
century later we find the Imperial Govern-
ment depending on the wealth of Osaka to
tide over its financial emergencies, and the
calls made upon its citizens for loans were
promptly responded to, the money being
suppHed by a remarkably small number of
capitalists. With the abolition of feudalism
Osaka naturally lost its chief source of wealth,
the sale of daimyo commodities. But few of
tlic old firms sustained the shock, most of
them going into bankruptcy. Thus, fifty
years ago Osaka had to begin its career all
over again. This time it concentrated its
main attention on manufacturing industries,
and although it has ceased to be the store-
house of the nation's rice, it was given the
Imperial Mint and made the storehouse of
the nation's gold.
MODERN OS,\KA
The city of Osaka stands on a broad plain
midway between Kyoto and Kob^, covering
the southeastern corner of the province of
MR. SHIRO IKF.r,.\MI, M.AYOR OF OS.\K.\
Settsu, facing the island of Awaji and the gulf
of Osaka. Behind the city rise the distant
peaks of Mount Ikoma and Mount Katsuragi
in the east, with the ranges of Izumi soaring
away northward. Osaka is well equipped with
what geographers regard as the important
factors of a city's composition — rivers, sea-
front, and rich, alluvial soil outside. The
atmosphere is not too humid and the rainfall
not excessive, so that life there is fairly com-
fortable the year round. Occupying, as it
does, the centre of the Empire for national
communication, Osaka becomes a vital point
in commerce and industry. The streets
and canals of Osaka are thronged with busy
multitudes of people, numbering 1,400,000
in all. On approaching the city one sees
innumerable tall factory chimneys sending
l^rth clouds of black smoke, but on entering
iIk- city these establishments are found to be
mostly of one story, on account of frequent
earthquakes. Through the dense smoke
loom up the picturesque hills and mountain
peaks in the shadowy background, while the
numerous canals and busy water life remind
one of Amsterdam or Venice. This network
of canals, laden with barges and boats of every
sort and description, relieves the streets of
pressure caused by the endless traffic in goods
and materials between the thousands of mills
and factories. The bridges of Osaka number
more than 450, most of them of wood, though
llie Tenjin Bridge over the River Yodo is of
steel, 780 feet long. The stores and shops of
Osaka seem to be also workshops and ware-
houses, as the process of production is every-
where in evidence. Clerks, designers, artisans,
packers, carters, sellers, and buyers all seem so
hopelessly mixed up that the wonder is how
they ever manage to evolve anything out of
the apparent chaos. One is, indeed, reminded
of the cities of the ancient world before the
days of modern capitalisation and centrali-
sation of industrial energy, when division of
laljour had not been accurately worked out.
Here one sees people working at making
umbrellas or fans; there is a shop where they
are producing or decorating pottery; next
comes an emporium of cotton fabrics, or rugs
or brushes or leather goods, all made and sold
on the same premises. And methods and
implements are as various as occupations.
On the streets are men pulling heavy loads on
carts to the wharf or depot, while within doors
are men in loincloths working modern sewing
machines. Side by side are ancient weavers
and the most modern looms; the post office,
\^
A VIEW OF KITA WARD, SHOWINc. WATANABE BRIDGE. PROMINENT IN THE PICTURE IS THE SUPREME COURT BUILDING
YEBISU-BASHI DISTRICT, OSAKA, SHOWING UP-TO-DATE ELECTRIC ADVERTISING SENNISHIMAYE, IN FRONT OF THE RAKUTENCHI AND ASHIBE
CLUB HRESTLING — SHIN-SAI-BASHI, ICHOME — VIEW TO THE SOUTH FROM SHIN-SAI-BASHI BRIDGE, IN THE SHOPPING CENTRE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
513
the telephone, and the electric car beside the
courier flying along the street; the ancient
handcart and the pedlar with his merchandise
on his back. Every one is busy — a delirium
of labour seems to pervade the population.
In matters of education, public health, com-
munications, lighting, harbour works, water
system commerce, and industry Osaka has
made remarkable progress, all of which will
find appropriate mention in the proper place.
of self-government was accorded to Osaka.
The city was divided into 548 streets, which
increased to 620 a little later. Subsequently
the city was divided into four wards with 903
streets. When self-government was finally
conceded to cities, Osaka established a muni-
cipal office, a mayor and attendant officials
were appointed, and a modern system of city
administration began. The mayor has under
him two deputy maj'ors, a treasurer, and an
the construction of an adequate system of
waterworks. The old system which was a
serious menace to the public health, was done
away in 1887, and great improvements were
inaugurated, resulting in the introduction of
a thoroughly modern system of waterworks
with all sorts of preventive measures against
disease. At present the densely populated
city is regarded as quite satisfactory from a
sanitary- point of view. Although completed
KIT.\HAMA, OSAK.-V. A SCENE NEAR THE STOCK EXCHANGE
CITY GOVERNMENT
In no way, perhaps, has Osaka shown more
modern development than in the promotion
of municipal government. During the
Tokugawa period the municipal government
of the city was quasi-democratic, for in old
Japan municipal management was always
partly the business of the central authorities.
There was a Jodai, who represented the
Imperial Government, and under him was a
machibug^yo, or mayor, with subordinate
officials representing the city. The citizens,
through their representatives, were enabled to
participate to some extent in the city adminis-
tration. The city council men were known
as sotoshiyori, and stood for three sections of
Osaka, and with these the higher officials duly
consulted. The old system of municipal
administration, of course, came to an end
with the beginning of the Meiji era, when
Osaka came directh' under the control of the
Imperial authorities. In 1889 some measure
assistant treasurer, and there are eight
departments of city government; namely.
Commerce, Industry, Education, Miscel-
laneous Affairs, Waterworks, Engineering,
Sanitation, and Accounts; while the Electric
Bureau manages the city lighting system and
a Harbour Committee attends to affairs
pertaining to shipping. The city adminis-
tration is directly under the supervision of
the mayor, who enjoys a large measure of
initiative, but he is bound to consult the
aldermen's council in matters relating to
finance. The Municipal Assembly, compris-
ing 60 members, has to pass all important
undertakings before they can be proceeded
with. There are also ward councils, which
manage affairs pertaining to their respective
wards.
Under the present form of administration
various improvements have been carried out
in the city, or started w-ith hopes of comple-
tion. Among the more important of these is
in 1 90 1, the water system of Osaka soon
proved inadequate to the rapidly increasing
population, and in 1908 some 9,500,000 yen
more was expended in extensions, the present
supply being sufficient for a population of
2,000,000 people.
Osaka has, moreover, an extensive mile-
age of tramways, with satisfactory income
and management. This service has been a
municipal undertaking from the outset.
Though the mileage is not large as com-
pared with Tokj'o, the passenger receipts
are about 10,000 yen a day throughout
the year. There is great need for further
extension of tram lines, but the streets of
the city are too narrow to allow this, and
the authorities may have to depend on
conflagrations to widen the streets suffi-
ciently to permit their plans to be carried
out. It will take about 18,000,000 \'en to
complete the tramway system. Further
works to be carried out consist of construct-
514
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
ing a new harbour for the city. Harbour
works have been under way since 1897 at
a contemplated cost of 20,000,000 yen, but
owing to increased price of labour and
material a further 10,000,000 has been
added, but it will require considerable time
yet before the undertaking is completed.
Already a good deal of ground has been
reclaimed and two large stone breakwaters
have been constructed, but Osaka is not a
natural harbour like Kobe, and the work is
very difficult and uncertain. Warned by
the outbreak of virulent epidemics, Osaka
undertook to put in a modem system of
sewerage works to be completed in ten years
from 191 1, at an estimated outlay of 4,500,-
000 yen, one-third of which was to come
from the national treasury, and the work
is still in progress. Osaka is also doing
something for education, especially in the
way of technical schools, and there are some
good libraries, many temples, shrines, and
Christian churches. There are fifteen thea-
tres in the city, with pleasure resorts in
plenty, and also a fine museum which is at
once a gallery of the fine arts and an exhibi-
tion of the manufactures and products of
the district.
FIN.\N'CE
The ordinary revenue of Osaka amounts
to about 20,000,000 a year, and is usually
exceeded by the expenditure, which has
sometimes to be met by loans. The accom-
panying table indicates sources of revenue
and items of expenditure for 1915.
Owing to loans contracted for such enter-
prises as harbour-works, electric tramways,
waterworks, and sewerage the debts of the
municipality of Osaka now amount to as
much as 70,000,000 yen, of which about
33,300,000 was issued abroad. According
to the plans of the city administration these
loans are to be redeemed between 1923 and
1942 with funds from taxation, electric
railways, and harbour dues.
INDUSTRIES AND TRADE
It was not until after the beginning of
the Meiji era that Osaka showed any re-
markable development as an industrial
centre, but the superior advantages it pos-
sessed in the way of communications and
transportation, as well as its central location
naturally lent impetus to the city's industrial
progress. The convenient factory sites
afforded by its extensive level environs
have been eagerly bought up and utilised
by masters of industry, both native and
foreign. As a manufacturing and industrial
centre Osaka has out-distanced all its rivals
on this side of the Pacific, and has been
called "the Manchester of Japan," as its
I- Reve.me
Revenue
E.XPENDITURE
SOURCKS 0
Yin
Yen
Taxes
3,2io,iii)()
1,482,000
465,000
4,168,000
1 ,995,000
652,000
465,000
\\''a.rds . .
Electric trams
Tr.im lavinp'
1 ,885,000
2,773,000
1 ,306,000
1.314,000
185,000
267,000
683,000
6,000
507,000
6,747,000
80,000
267,000
Other works
683,000
Trusts business
6,000
Sewerage
507,000
Loans
5,716,000
Total ... . .
19,034.000
16, ■535,000
chief manufacturing staple is cotton. Enor-
mous spinning mills raise their towering
chimneys everywhere within and without
the city, and, in addition, there are other
factories of vast extent and capacity, turn-
ing out textiles in silk, wool, cotton, while
others producing chemicals, fertilizers, brush-
es, carpets, bicycles, with great copper
smelting and refining works, engineering
works, type foundries and establishments
are too numerous to mention. Factories
employing 50 hands and over now number
as many as 14,105, an increase of more than
1,500 a year for the last few years, while
the number of factory workers in the city
is 162,217, represented in the table below.
It is not too much to say that almost
every form of industrial enterprise may be
found at Osaka, either on a large or small
scale, and side by side with its industrial
progress have grown up great banking
corporations that have enormous influence
in the financial circles of the Empire. Houses
like the Svmiitomo, the Fujia, Konoike, and
Kuhara are well known throughout the
world. The value of the annual output
of Osaka factories is in the vicinity of 300,-
000,000 yen. The Osaka Clearing House
represents transactions totalling over 3,400,-
000,000 yen annually.
In trade, too, Osaka shows remarkable
development. The total tonnage of ships
entering Osaka harbour has more than
doubled in recent years. In 1915 exports
leaving Osaka amounted in value to 93,822,-
636 yen, while the total value of imports
was 50,610,954 yen, or about twice the
volume of ten years ago. The table on the
next page will indicate the progress of for-
eign trade with Osaka for the last fifteen
years, at intervals of five years for the
sake of comparison.
These figures reveal an astonishing growth
for a Japanese city, and the same progress
is going on in various centres of the Empire.
The most of Osaka's trade is with China,
Korea, and Asia generally, which takes over
90,000,000 yen' worth of her total exports
and represents nearly 43,000,000 yen of her
imports. The city contains the head offices
of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, one of the
nation's great steamship companies. Judg-
ing by the present rate of development Osaka
will in the near future eclipse in population
and trade, as it does already in industry, all
other cities of the Empire. Osaka has suc-
ceeded in impressing on the whole Empire
the lesson that a realisation of industrial
development is the primary factor in achieve
ment and the preservation of national inde-
Industries
Dyeing and weaving
Machinery
Ship and car building
Metallurgical works
Chemical works
Kilns
Combustibles
Hides and leather
Comestibles
Miscellaneous
Special
Total
Workers
78,827
9.157
4,179
21,180
9,499
10,730
3,184
1 ,4.So
8,101
14,907
1,003
162,217
P K !•: S E N T - n A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
515
Year
Exports
Imports
Total
Yen
Yen
Yen
1 900
9,626,595
55,938,208
53,4«2,45o
93,822,636
9.741.437
i8,499,«3i
30,695,577
50,610,954
i9,'i68,o-?2
74,438,039
84,178,027
I n I ^
144.433.390
pcnilence, dissipating forever the antiquated
notion that mercantile life is to be held
contemptible. The political and military
classes no longer look down on centres like
Osaka as merely sordid and materialistic,
but as standing for the vita! factors of
national progress, producing and possessing
both the wealth and means to accomplish
great achievements.
OSAKA DOJI.MA RICE AND PRODUCE
EXCHANGE, LIMITED
The control of a vast amount of business,
transacted in the great commercial centre
of Osaka, lies in the hands of the Osaka
Dojima Rice and Produce Exchange, Lim-
ited, an institution which fulfils the same
functions at Osaka as the Tokyo Rice and
Produce Exchange, Limited, does at the
capital. These concerns bear the same
relation to commerce in rice, grain, and other
produce, as the big stock exchanges bear to
trading in stocks and shares and bonds.
The Osaka Dojima Rice and Produce Ex-
change, Limited, is, however, one of the
very oldest institutions of its kind in Japan.
Speculation in rice and produce actually
began in Japan as far back as the Kyoko
era (1650), and continued right down to
modern times, when the necessity for organi-
sation and control became apparent. A
Ijind of rice and produce exchange was started
in Osaka in April, 1871. It was known as
the Kome Kaisho, or "meeting place of rice
dealers," and became the recognised centre
of all speculative operations. In December,
1875, the office of the Kome Kaisho was
built at No. 55 Dojima, Hamadori, Itchome,
Osaka. This institution subsequently de-
veloped into the present exchange. Appli-
cation was made to the Imperial Government
for permission to incorporate such a body,
under the laws governing stock exchanges,
the applicants being the leaders of the
Kome Kaisho. The capital of the new organ-
isation was set at Yen 75,000, divided into
750 shares. The application was granted,
and the Exchange started operations under
its new constitution. In 1895 the name of
the Exchange was changed to its present
title and the capital was increased to Yen
150,000, divided into 3,000 shares of Yen
50 each. The transactions of the Osaka
Dojima Rice and Produce Exchange, Lim-
ited, rapidly increased in number and value,
and from time to time it was found necessary
to avigment the capital, which to-day is
Yen 2,000,000. The guiding spirit of the
Exchange through its most difficult periods,
and also in the days of its greatest success,
was its late President, Mr. Tokei Takakura.
Mr. Takakura died in September, 1917, and
by his death the whole commercial com-
munit}' of Osaka sustained a very severe loss.
The other principal officers of the Osaka
Dojima Rice and Produce Exchange, Lim-
ited, are: Directors, Messrs. Masatoshi
Fujino, Yasutaro Motodc, and Yahei Uyeda;
Manager, Mr. Buye Yoshida; Auditors,
Messrs. Seijiro Gion, Tommichi Hamazaki,
and Keisuke Miyazaki. The exchange is
located in a capacious building at No. 39
Dojima, Itchome, Kita-ku, Osaka.
OSAKA MERCANTILE AGENCY
What Bradstreet and R. G. Dun & Co. are
to the Anglo-Saxon business world, the
Shogyo Koshinsho, or Mercantile Agency, is
to Japan. This institution fulfils a highly
important function in the business and com-
mercial life of the country, and its work should
be of considerable interest to foreign traders
who wish to be kept well posted regarding
commercial operations in Japan, and the
credit ratings of concerns with whom they
wish to do business. The need for such an
agency was recognised very early in the
development of Japan's commercial field, and
as a matter of fact the Shogyo Koshinsho is
the oldest mercantile agency in Japan, having
been estabHshed in 1892. Such agencies had
been in existence for many years in Europe
and America. Their operations were studied
Ijy the Japanese, and it was realised that
there was ample scope for such an institution
in a great commercial centre like Osaka.
Consequently four of the bankers of that city
conjointly established the Shogyo Koshinsho,
which makes the reasonable claim that it was
the original medium through which credit
inquiries and similar work was started in
Japan. Since that time the Shogyo Koshin-
sho has amply justified the ideas of its
founders. It has attained an importance in
Japan and abroad that can not be questioned.
OSAKA dojima RICE AND PRODUCE EXCHANGE, LIMITED
Ii6
PR KSE NT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
FINE OSAKA PREMISES OF SHOGYO KOSHINSHO (MERCANTILE AGENCY)
From the original branch at Osaka it has
spread itself all over Japan and China, and
moreover, through the introduction of home
and foreign consuls and the Yokohama Specie
Bank it communicates with Bradstreet's,
Seyd & Co. of England, and other similar
foreign organisations, besides being associated
with kindred concerns established in other
cities in Japan.
The Shogyo Koshinsho conducts a business
precisely similar to that of other mercantile
agencies abroad, furnishing reports on the
means, credit rates, characters, and business
affairs of bankers, merchants, and industrial
companies. Reports are supphed in con-
fidence to subscribers, who may be of one of
four classes. Special, First, Second, and Third
class, the annual subscription fees ranging
from Yen 200 to Yen 60 per annum. The
agency collects a variety of information of
general interest to the business world, besides
supplying copies of the daily bulletins of the
Bank of Japan, regarding exchange, specie
movernents, etc., furnishes reports on promis-
sory notes and bills of exchange issued, and
makes special enquiries at home and abroad,
according to request. As an indication of the
confidence which the Shogj'o Koshinsho has
established, it may be said that the Osaka
and local district courts have appointed the
agency appraisers of movables and immov-
ables that come within the notice of the courts
in legal actions, and members of its staff have
been appointed examiners of joint-stock
companies by the Osaka Local Court, on
various occasions, the authorities being quite
satisfied with the impartiality and correct-
ness of the agency's deaUngs. In the first
seven months of its existence the Shog\'0
Koshinsho furnished 1,200 reports on enquir\-,
and 19 reports on lawsuits. To show the
growth of the operations of the agency it is
only necessar>' to say that now it is furnishing
annually over 150,000 reports for enquirers,
62,000 reports on lawsuits, over 17,000 daily
reports, and 130,000 sets of registrations.
The Shogyo Koshinsho is in a position
through its correspondents and associated
agencies to conduct investigations in the
United States, Canada, Mexico, Cuba,
France, England, Italy, Switzerland, Spain,
Portugal, Holland, Belgium, Denmark, India,
AustraUa, Russia, Roumania, and Egypt.
The principal officers of the Shogj'O Koshinsho
are: Managing Director, Mr. Motoyoshi
Makino; Manager, Mr. Naomi Abe; Auditor,
Mr. Y. Ashida; Adviser, Mr. S. Toyama;
Secretarj- and Superintendent of the Investi-
gation Department, Mr. T. Shibuya; Super-
intendent of the Recording Department,
Mr. Y. Hata; Superintendent of the Local
Department, Mr. M. Mitsuoka; Superintend-
ent of the Foreign Department, Mr. T.
Tashima, and Treasurer, Mr. S. Taki. The
head office of the Shogyo Koshinsho is at
15 Kitahama, 3-chome, Osaka. There arealso
offices at Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, and Moji,
with sub-offices established in about twenty-
five other centres of commercial importance.
Moreover, through its association with the
Tokyo Koshinsho, the agency has representa-
tion in many outlying centres, including
Shanghai.
A STREET BAND ADVERTISING A MOVING PICTURE SHOW
XXXIV. Banking, Finance, and
Insurance
BANKING
THE THIRTY-FOURTH BANK, LIMITED
UXDER the National Bank Laws,
which led to the formation of so
many financial institutions about
forty years ago, the Thirty-fourth National
Bank was formed at Osaka, in March, 1878,
under a time charter of twenty years' dura-
tion. When this charter expired the Thirty-
fourth Bank became for a time a private
concern, but later on, after several amalga-
mations, it was registered as a joint-stock,
limited liability bank, and to-day it occupies
a position of great importance. A vigourous
policy has always been associated with the
conduct of the Thirty-fourth Bank, Ltd.
Shortly after the expiration of its original
charter it amalgamated with the 121st Bank,
and since then has absorbed the Nippon
Churitsu, Nippon Kyodo, and the Yugyo
Banks, the capital rising to Yen 10,000,000,
which was the figure on June 30, 191 7. At
the date of writing it is planned to absorb
the Amagasaki Bank, and if this is carried
out the capital will become Yen 10,300,000,
all fully paid up. The Thirty-fourth Bank,
Ltd., has reserves amounting to Yen 4,350,-
000, and if those of the Amagasaki Bank
be added this will raise the sum to Yen
4,460,000. The deposits on June 30, 191 7,
totalled Yen 73,000,000, and the volume of
business handled in the six months reached
the large figure of Yen 3,872,000,000.
From May, 1907, the Thirty-fourth Bank,
Ltd., became the agent of the International
Banking Corporation, and in May, 1910, the
Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation,
Ltd., appointed the head office at Osaka,
agent for that important commercial centre.
It was at that time that the Thirty-fourth
Bank, Ltd., began to conduct a foreign
exchange business. From time to time the
bank has extended its foreign relations, and,
furthermore, it has taken a very active part
in the industrial development of Osaka. An
important move was made in April, 1912,
when it was decided to supply funds at low
rates of interest to industrial concerns. The
*The institutions enumerated in this section are
identified with the cities of Osaka and Kob<'. Others
located in Yokohama and Tokyo will be found in the
Section devoted to them, page 90.
(Osaka and Kobe Section*)
value of this assistance to industry in such a Electricity Co., Ltd. The head office of the
great manufacturing city as Osaka can not be bank is at Koraibashi, 4th Street, Higashi-ku,
overestimated, and the Thirty-fourth Bank, Osaka. There are six branches in the same
Ltd., may justly claim to have recognised the city, and one each at Tokyo, Kyoto, Kob6,
HE.^D OFFICE OF THE THIKTY-ForRTH B.\NK, LIMITED, OSAK.\
need of such accommodation, well ahead of
most other banks. From the same period
the bank began the trustee business of issuing
debentures for industrial concerns. At pres-
ent such investments are being made in the
case of five large concerns, the amount taken
up by the bank being over Yen 10,640,000.
The latest undertakings in this line were the
issues of the Dunlop Rubber (Far Eastern)
Co., I>td., and the Kinugawa Water Power
Hyogo, Amagasaki, Himeji, Itami, Hiroshima,
Tokushiina, Nara, Taihoku, and Tainan. In
addition, the bank is in correspondence with
4,286 banks and financial houses in Japan and
abroad, which gives it a remarkably strong
influence in all local and foreign business.
THE K.\JI.\1A BANK, LI.MITED
There are very few banks in the world
that can claim a continued existence of three
34
lil
:l
i
I
I
e
S
1
HEAD OFFICE OF KAJIMA ulNKo ^ THE KAJIMA BANK, LID j AT OSAKA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
519
hundred years. This is the record of the
Kajima Ginko of the Osaka Prefecture, an
institution whose history is as interesting as
any that may be found in the prosaic story of
financial houses. The Kajima Bank was known
over three hundred years ago in mediasval
Japan under the name of the Kajimaya.
It then attended to the interests of the
Tokugawa shogunate as accountants, and
was also engaged for centuries in the exchange
of old gold and silver bullion and paper cur-
rency. As occasion arose, also, the Kajimaya
acted as financiers to the shogunate in the
stormy times, right down to the Restoration.
From the commencement of the Meiji era
(1867) the Kajimaya engaged solely in
exchange business for some years. When
new ideas had spread through Japan, the
Kajimaya decided on reorganisation on
modern lines, and in December, 1887,
apjilied for permission to establish the
Kajima Bank. This was granted, and the
modern business was started in January,
1888. Naturally such an ancient institu-
tion did not lack public confidence, and
with the broadening of its charter business
grew rapidly, especially when Osaka and
the district developed such commercial and
industrial activity. The Kajima Bank was
entrusted by the Imperial Treasury with
the handling of public funds, and later on
permission was obtained for making invest-
ments with debentures as security. When
the Bankers' Syndicate was formed the
Kajima Ginko became a member, and en-
larged its foreign operations. On November
3, 1916, the last stage in the evolution of
this old bank was reached when it became
a joint-stock company, with a capital of
Yen 5,000,000 fully paid up. Then under
special contract with the Yokohama Specie
Bank, foreign drafts were handled. The
reserves of the Kajima Bank amounted to
Yen 1,800,000 at the end of August, 1917.
The head office is at Tosabori-dori, First
Street, Osaka. There are six branches in
Osaka, and two at Tokyo, with other branches
distributed as follows: Kyoto, Kob6,
Okayama (2), Fukuyama, Hiroshima, Toku-
yama, Makikata, Ibaraki, Ikeda, Amagasaki,
and Takatsuki. The Presiding Director is
Mr. K. Hiro-oka; Managing Director, Mr.
Y. Hoshino; Director, Mr. S. Gion, and
Manager, Mr. S. Kawakami. Cable address,
"Kajimagink," Osaka, or Kob6; code A. B.
C, 5th edition. The balance sheet for the
period ended August 31, 19 17, follows.
THE OMI BANK. LI.MITED
In 1894 some wealthy merchants of Shiga
Prefecture founded the Omi Ginko with a
modest capital of Yen 500,000. The new
bunk had its periods of prosperity and adver-
Credit
Debit
Yen
Yen
Loans against securities 428,601 . 13
Loans against drafts 37,781,502.63
Temporary overdrafts 3,396,094,26
Capital 5,000,000.00
Reserve 1,800,000.00
Public funds on deposit 2,335,922 . 75
Current deposits 21,506,929.72
Special deposits 14,036,381 . 65
Deposits on notice 3,072,982.00
Fixed deposits 32,554,949.64
Other special deposits 2,625,522 . 82
Due to other banks I 520 536 75
Promissory notes 13,272,795.82
Bills drawn against shipments . 386,741 . 1 7
Loans to other banks 615,633 .49
Acceptance of payments coun-
termanded 1,415,481 .53
Deposits 986,267 . 05
Foreign loan bonds 5,348,000 . 00
Public loan bonds 8,080,390 34
Acceptances of payment 1,415,481 .53
Interest not yet paid 534,269 . 92
Discount fee not yet passed .... 337,846 . 93
Foreisn drafts sold •?5'?,iqo. 52
Debentures 868,236 00
Shares 331,538.90
Land, buildings, and furniture. 850,168.91
Other properties 224,481 . 10
Cash on hand 8,052,763 . 38
Foreign drafts bought 353,199.52
Net profit (including Yen 81,-
942.40 brought forward from
last period) 307,872 . 00
Total Yen 87,401,895.23
Total Yen 87,401,895.23
sity during the first few years of its existence,
but on the whole it made steady progress,
and when the great industrial and com-
mercial expansion of Japan took place, the
bank's business developed to a remarkable
extent, until to-day it has a capital of
Yen 10,000,000 and conducts twenty-one
branches. During the first half of 1917 the
deposits with the bank totalled over Yen
65,000,000, and the credit given by way of
overdrafts and loans was in excess of Yen
53,000,000. Drafts put through the Clear-
ing House during 19 16 represented a value
of over Yen 1,149,000,000, and the money
handled by the Omi Bank in the same
period exceeded Yen 5,674,000,000. With
the outbreak of war, trade and commerce
witnessed a strong revival, especially at
HE.^D OFFICE OF OMI GINKO (THE OMI B.\NK, LTD.), OSAK.\
520
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Osaka. 'I'his activity placed a strong
demand on monetary accommodation, and
the necessity for ready financing was espec-
ially urgent in view of Japan's operations
in foreign markets. The Omi Bank recog-
nised the situation and has done its best to
supply commercial and industrial concerns
with funds, while at the same time accept-
ing foreign and domestic loans as a member
of the Japan Banks' Syndicate. Banks
that have over a hundred millions of yen
in deposits and at credit are not rare, so
that the Omi Bank's total deposits and loans
(Yen 118,000,000) for the first half of 1917
are not exceptional, but when such a figure
is set in proportion against the amount of
capital actually paid up, it can readily be
seen how strenuously this institution has
performed its functions as a backer of trade
and commerce. The total deposit is over
sixteen times the paid-up capital of Yen
4,000,000, and the total credit given exceeds
the same figure over thirteen times. Such
a state of affairs is seldom seen in the sta-
tistics of other banks, except those of a
special nature. The average amount of
drafts put through the Clearing House
during the first half of 1917, for ,^5 banks
in Osaka, was 28 in numlier daily, while the
Omi Bank put through an average of 135.
From such figures the confidence in the
Omi Bank, and the extent of its operations
may easily be gauged. This institution is,
furthermore, closely connected with the
industries of cotton yarn and cotton piece
goods, and with the wholesale dry goods
merchants generally. This is one of the
specialties of its operations and it gives
the Omi Bank a firm basis among the
trading community.
In the latter half of 191 7 the capital was
increased to Yen 10,000,000, of which Yen
5,500,000 was paid up. Foreign drafts,
debentures with security, and investments
in accordance with the Investment Law
began to be handled by the Omi Bank. This
was a big development, and the progressive
policy of the institution has resulted in a
large increase in the deposits, and in the
credit and reputation of the bank.
From the first half of 19 1 2 the Omi Bank
has paid dividends of not less than eight
per cent per annum, and more frequently
nine per cent. For the six months ended
June 30, 1917, a net profit of Yen 362,852
was realised, which is equal to 18 per cent
of the paid up capital. It is confidently
expected that the dividends will be main-
tained at nine per cent, and quite probably
that figure will be exceeded. The head
PROMINENT B.^NKERS OF KOBE .\ND OS.\K.\
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Messrs. K. Banno, Managing Director, Yamaguchi Bank, Ltd. —A. E. Irving, Manager, International
Banking Corporation— Kentatsu Aiko, Managing Director, Naniwa Bank, Ltd. (Middle Row) Y. Hoshino, Managing Director, Kajima
Bank — Masao -Matsuk.wa, President, Naniwa Bank, Ltd. — K. Yamaguchi, President, Yamaguchi Bank, Ltd. (Lower Row) T.
Hika(;a, President, Fujimoto Billbrokers Bank, Ltd. — Ichitaro Tanimura, Managing Director, Fujimoto Billbrokers Bank, Ltd. — Y.
YoKoTA, Managing; Director; •F.ajimoto Billbrokers Bank, iLtth ' !
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
;2i
Assets
Liabilities
Yen
Yen
Loans on securities 193,584. 18
Loans on drafts 20,269,325.05
Overdrafts 5,348,^50. 39
Capital 4,000,000 . 00
Legal reserve 690,000 . 00
Staff pension fund 10,000.00
Call loans 2.qoo,ooo . 00
Fixed deposits 30,184,204.97
Current deposits 19,336,396.69
Special current deposits 13.579,253 . 63
Special deposits 972,316.82
Deposits on notice 1 ,334, 1 74 . 94
Deposits from other banks 5,267,343.28
Acceptances 136,748.85
Remittance drafts payable .... 56,359 . 59
Dividends unpaid 1,520. 10
Interest unpaid 28,617.29
Drafts discounted 23,928,029.41
Documentary drafts discounted 625,742 . 45
Deposits with other banks 2,477,866 . 02
Acceptances of payments with-
drawn 136,748 85
Deposits 1,074,305.06
National loan bonds 4,252,107. 17
Russian Exchequer bonds 1,800,000.00
British Exchequer bonds 1,599,000 00
Various debentures . . . '^80.612 . SO
Discount fee not yet passed .... 267, 1 63 . 89
Net profit for the half-year. . . 362,825.03
Real estate, buildings, etc 630,785 . 82
Tolal Yen 76,226,952 .08
office of the Omi Bank is at No. 35-37 Bingo-
machi, Higashi-ku, Osaka. There are twenty-
one branches situated in Osaka, Kyoto,
Tokyo, Kob6, Nagoya, Otsu, and other
places in Shiga Prefecture. The principal
officials of the bank are: President and
Director, Mr. K. Ikeda; Directors, Messrs.
K. Seo, S. Nishida, F. Abe, C. Ito, and D.
Shimogo. The Auditors are Messrs. Y.
Kitagawa and I. Abe. Above appears the
balance sheet for the period to June 30, 191 7.
The profit for the half-year was divided
as follows: To legal reserve, Yen 100,000;
bonus, Yen 32,300; staff pension fund, Yen
10,000; dividend at nine per cent, Yen 172,-
500; carried forward. Yen 48,052.03.
SUMITOMO BANK, LIMITED
This old institution may fairly claim to
be older by four years than the Bank of
England, for it really came into existence
at the same time as the Sumitomo firm
itself, which was in 1690. In its early
days the Sumitomo firm was advancing
loans to tlie daimyos and feudal lords under
the shogunate, and to the merchants of
Osaka, which city was then rapidly advanc-
ing to its present position as the mercantile
centre of the Empire. Of course, since those
early days the institution has undergone
many changes, but the control has always
remained with the Sumitomo family. To-
day the affairs of this bank are directed by
Baron Sumitomo, President; Kwankichi
Yukawa, Managing Director; and Messrs.
Masaya Suzuki and Kinkichi Nakada.
THE SUMITOMO B.\NK AND SU.MITO.MO C.EXERAL HEAD OFFICE AT OSAKA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The Auditors arc Messrs. Teigo Iba and
Munio Kiibo. There are three managers,
Messrs. Shigetaro Uyeno, Shinhichi Yos-
hida, and Norihiko Yatsushiro. The sub-
scribed capital is Yen 30,000,000, of which
Yen 18,750,000 has been paid up. The
reserves total Yen 2,100,000 and the de-
posits amount to the large sum of Yen 180,-
270,000, as against loan's of Yen 170,600,000.
In 1895, the firm built upon its old general
financiers' business a modern banking sys-
tem with a capital of one million yen, under
the title of the "Sumitomo Bank." Since
that date the Ijank has made steady prog-
ress, as may be seen at a glance from the
statement at the top of this page.
The private bank was converted into the
Sumitomo Bank, Ltd., in April, 1912, and
the figures since then are shown in the
second table.
Many important branches have been
established, and the Foreign Exchange
Department was opened in 1905, with
numerous correspondents in the principal
centres of the world. When the bank was
incorporated under the Japanese law as a
Date
Deposits
Loans
Reserves
Yen
Yen
Yen
Dec. 31, 1895
Dec. 31, 1899
Dee. 31, 1903
Dec. 31, 1907
Dec. 31, 1 9 1 1
882,000
7,486,000
19,468,000
32,596,000
44,348,000
2,142,000
8,164,000
16,220,000
26,539,000
35.,39i.ooo
0
850,000
1 ,950,000
3,400,000
4,Soo,ooo
Date
Dec. 31, 1912
Dec. 31, 1915
June 30, 19 1 7
Deposits
Yen
51,937,000
86,123,000
1 56,228,000
Loans
Yen
43,909,000
75,014,000
139,048,000
Reserves
Yen
200,000
1,100,000
2,100,000
joint-stock company in 1912, its capital was
increased to 15,000,000 yen, the greater part
of which was subscribed by the Sumitomo
family. Another increase in capital was
found necessary in order to keep pace with
the rapid growth in its business. In July,
1917, therefore, an increase in capital by
15,000,000 yen was decided upon, and
Liabilities
Assets
Yen
Yen
Deposits 156,228,874.15
Exchange sold i ^7^ 770 80
Loans, bills discounted and
exchange purchased I35,,S48,577.47
Customers' liability on foreign
credits, acceptances, and
guarantees 27,198,044.67
Account with the Postal
Transfer Savings Office. . . 168,577.69
Government bonds 18,597,002.09
Bills payable 864,039.70
Margin of exchange unsettled 249,210.30
Foreign credits, acceptances,
and guarantees 27,198,044.67
Due to other banks 2,394,795.13
Due to foreign banks 624,580.02
Rebate on bills not yet due. . 537,460.97
Interest accrued on deposits . 909,480.96
Subscribed capital 30,000,000.00
Municipal and other securities 2,496,850.00
Due from other banks 594.596-31
Due from foreign banks 948,509.13
Bank premises and furniture. 1,702,820.66
Real estates 21,05^.82
Reserve for doubtful debts. . . 70,000.00
Pension reserve 50,000.00
Foreign currencies 7,871.1 ^
Dividends unpaid . . 11 1 98
Capital unpaid 1 5,000,000.00
Money at call and at short
notice 3,500,000.00
Cash in hand 18,368,298.36
Balance brought forward from
last half-year 334,051.82
Net profit for the half-year. . 1,717,771.83
Total Yen 224,152,201.33
Tolul Yen 224,152,201.33
Profit and Loss Account
Yen
To reserve fund 500,000.00
To dividends 600,000.00
To resen,-e for doubtful debts 350,000.00
To pension reserve 150,000.00
To bonus 55,000.00
To balance carried forward to
next half-year 516,823.65
Total Yen 2,171,823.65
Yen
By balance brought forward
from last half-year 334,051.82
By reserve for doubtful debts 70,000.00
By pension reserve 50,000.00
By net profit for the half-year 1,717,771.83
Total Yen 2,171,823.65
public subscription was invited, with great
success. The Sumitomo Bank, Ltd., occupies
a foremost position in the banking system of
Japan. The balance sheet for the six months
ending June, 19 17, appears on this page.
NANIWA BANK, LIMITED
The record of the Naniwa Bank, Ltd., is
one of rapid development to a position of first
rate importance in finance in Japan. It was
originally the 32nd National Bank, formed
in February, 1878, under the National Bank
Laws, but when the business term expired in
January, 1898, an amalgamation was eff'ected
with the 5th National Bank, and the joint
concern became the Naniwa Bank, Ltd.,
with a capital of Yen 1,800,000. The 5th
National Bank had been the property of
Prince Shimazu and his family, and after the
amalgamation the Naniwa Bank continued
to serve those private interests, but some time
later the capital was increased to Yen 2,400,-
000, and the business circle was considerably
widened, the bank beginning to exercise some
influence in general financial affairs. Within
the next three years three strong banks, the
Osaka Meiji, Osaka Kyoritsu, and Osaka
Shoko Banks were amalgamated and the
capital became Yen 4,000,000. Subsequent
to the Russo-Japanese War further extensions
took place. The capital was made Yen
7,000,000, the Wakayama Bank was pur-
chased, the Mitsui Bank's business through
the branch at Wakayama City was turned
over to the Naniwa Bank, Ltd., and the latter
then established branches at many important
centres in Japan. In 1914 the business of the
Tennoji Bank was purchased. The entire
capital of Yen 7,000,000 was paid up in
January, 1916, and at once the shareholders
agreed to double the capital. Under present
arrangements the Bakan Shogyo Bank of
Shimonoseki is to be amalgamated, and
negotiations have been completed for the
purchase of the Kyushu Jitsugyo Bank, these
,4:i:>^^?^^'-^
THE HEAD OFKICE OF NANIWA GINKO (NANIWA BANK, LTD.), OSAKA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A SCENE IN THE BUSINESS SECTION OF OSAKA (HONMACHI-DORI, SANCHOME}
Operations calling for a still further increase
in capital.
It may be seen from this record of expan-
sion how influential the Naniwa Bank, Ltd.,
has become. The shareholders of the banks
absorbed are spread all over Japan, and
amongst the principal shareholders are Prince
Shimazu and his family, as well as many
other influential persons. As one of the
syndicate of eighteen leading banks of
Japan, and by reason of its widespread
connections throughout the country, the
Naniwa Bank, Ltd., claims a leading position
in the financial world, and undoubtedly
it is one of the foremost institutions of
western Japan.
Mr. M. Matsukata, President of the
Naniwa Bank, Ltd., is the fourth son of
Marquis Matsukata, who was the senior
clansman for the Restoration. Mr. Matsu-
kata studied political economy abroad, and
returned to Japan in 1898. He was for some
time Managing Director of the Naniwa Bank
at Kobe, and upon the resignation of the
presidency by Mr. N. Nagata, Mr. Matsukata
succeeded to that position. He is a man of
very likable disposition, and has a sound
knowledge of the banking business. Others
who have rendered valuable services to the
institution are the late Mr. T. Toyama, the
first President; Mr. G. Nomoto, the second
President; Mr. N. Nagata, ex- President, and
Mr. K. Aiko, now the Managing Director.
The proud position in which the bank stands
to-day is due to their splendid services, and
the substantial work done by the experienced
staffs. The capital of the institution is Yen
14,000,000, and there are reserves of Yen
2,985,000. Deposits total Yen 82,686,000.
At the last settlement of accounts a profit for
the half-year of Yen 817,000 was shown. A
dividend of nine per cent per annum was paid
and Yen 164,000 was carried forward. Busi-
ness transacted by the Naniwa Bank, Ltd.,
consists of current accounts, discounts,
collections of drafts, agencies for other banks,
and investments generally. It is in cor-
respondence with the principal banks of
Japan, and through the Y'okohama Specie
Bank it is now handling foreign drafts for
London, Lyons, New York, San Francisco,
Los Angeles, Hawaii, Sydney, Singapore,
Bombay, Calcutta, and throughout China
and Manchuria. The head office of the
Bank is at Awajicho, 2nd Street, Higashi-ku,
Osaka. There are branches in West, South,
and North Osaka, as well as at Namba, Kujo,
Tennoji, Tamatsukuri, Tokyo, Sakai, Waka-
yama, Nishinomiya, Kob6, Fukuoka, and
Kagoshima. The head office is a handsome
new building, and all the branches are
modern.
THE Y.\MAGVCHI BANK, IIMIIED
HE.\r) Office : 2 chome, Karamono-Machi,
Higashiku, Osaka. Branches in Osaka:
Xishi, Minami, Kita, Kyomachibori, Uema-
chi, Kohzu, Dohjima, Kujoh, and Namba.
Other branches: Tokyo, Kyoto, Kobe, Oka-
yama, and Mikage.
The origin of the business now conducted
by the Yamaguchi Bank, Ltd., at Osaka goes
very far back in the financial history of Japan.
In the first year of Ganji (1864), in the time of
the Tokugawa shogunate, the Yamaguchi
Money Exchanger, or Ryogaeya, was formed,
and carried on business for many years, long
before the modem bank was thought of in
Japan. The business was carried on by the
148th National Bank, which was established
in 1879 with a capital of Yen 100,000. In
1888 the capital was increased to Yen 300,000,
and when the bank's business term expired in
1898 under the old National Bank Act, the
Yamaguchi Bank took over the business as a
private concern, the capital being fixed at
Yen 1,000,000. For some years the Yama-
guchi Bank was conducted as a private
partnership, but in May, 191 7, a reorgan-
isation took place, and a limited liability
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF J A I' A N
525
company was formed with a capital of Yen
20, 000, 000, of which Yen 10, 000, 000 has been
paid up. All descriptions of general domestic
and foreign banking business are transacted.
The confidence shown in the bank is best
exemplified by the statement that deposits
exceed Yen 88,000,000, and total resources
Yen 100,000,000. (Nov., 1917.)
Tlic Directors are: Messrs. Kichirobei
Yamaguchi (President), Kanemichi Banno
(Managing Director), Kamanosuke Sasaki
(Managing Director), Chuji Machida, Kat-
sujiro Iwai, and Kanjuro Tomonaga. The
.Auditors are Messrs. Kenshiro Yamaguchi
and Ichigoro Hirase.
THE OSAKA SAVINGS BANK, LIMITED
This is one of the important savings banks
of Japan, and operating in a great industrial
centre like Osaka and adjoining districts, it is
not surprising to learn that the Osaka Savings
Bank, Ltd., conducts an enormous business.
The bank was established in December, 1890,
with a capital of Yen 100,000, which w'as
increased in March, 1916, to Yen 500,000, in
UMEUA STATION, OS.\KA
500 shares of Yen i ,000 each. Originally the
liank was described as a "savings deposits"
institution, I.iut in accordance with the
Savings Banks Law it now confines its busi-
ness solely to the handling of ordinary savings.
On September 25, 191 7, the Osaka Savings
THE FINE OSAKA OFFICES OF YAMAGUCHI GIXKO
526
PRESENT-DAV IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
OS.\KA CHOCHIKU GINKO (OSAK.\ SAVINGS BANK, LTD.): THE PREMISES OF THE KYOTO BRANCH — THE HEAD OFFICE AT OS.\KA
Bank, Ltd., had 1,150,000 deposit accounts,
representing a grand total of deposits of Yen
32,674,477. The officials of the bank are:
Messrs. K. Yamaguchi (President), M. Hirase
(Managing Director), S. Toyama (Director),
and T. Taku and J. Ashida, Auditors. The
head office is at No. 18 Fushimicho, 3rd
Street, Higashiku, Osaka, and there are eight
branches in that city and four in Kyoto. Fol-
lowing is the balance sheet as at June 30, 191 7:
FUJIMOTO BILLBROKERS BANK,
LIMITED
The Fujimoto Billbrokers Bank, Ltd., of
Osaka, is one of the leading institutions of its
kind, and also a special development of the
banking system of Japan, playing an impor-
tant role in the stimulation of the money
market and in the financing of industries.
The business originated with a private firm,
known as "Fujimoto Billbroker," which was
Assets
Liabilities
Yen
Yen
Capital 500,000.00
Legal reserve 580,000.00
Special reserve 1,220,000.00
Liquidation of property fund . 50,000.00
Staff pension fund 120,000.00
Ordinary savings 30,146,520.90
Interest unpaid 51,609.01
Discount fee not passed 23,869.27
Net profit for term, including
Yen 119,619.25 brought for-
ward.. . ■;j.o7;7.j.6
Drafts discounted . 187 749 07
Deposits 9,716,787.76
Russian Exchequer Bonds. . . . 1,110,000.00
Public loan bonds 18,265,260.00
Debentures 976,310.00
Shares 294,412.50
Fund for various purchases. . . 20,000.00
Land, building, furniture, etc. 617,551.37
Cash on hand 838,265.94
Tola! Yen 33,032,736.64
Total Yen 33,032,736.64
established by Mr. Seibei Fujimoto in Osaka,
and commenced operations on May i, 1902.
This firm was the pioneer of such undertakings
and the business transacted was the fore-
runner of bill broking in Japan, the special
function of which is to act as the intermediary
for bill discounting and short term loans, that
is "call money" and call loans" as handled
by the old established brokerage houses of
Lombard Street, London. The introduction
of the English terms, "bill broker," "call
money," etc., into the title and account of
the firm, and their use in the daily monetary
transactions of the business people of the big
industrial and commercial centres of Japan,
irresistibly excited the curiosity of traders,
and yet it was not an easy task to lead them
to understand and utilise this newly formed
agency. Fortunately the firm found itself in
harmony with the demand of financial circles.
The business gradually expanded, and in the
course of a few years, this simple brokerage
firm came to be a retail dealer in bills, employ-
ing more capital and securing more extended
credit. Through the era of severe mone-
tary crisis which was experienced during
the Russo-Japanese War and throughout the
y
mil
\
4\
I
I
I
A,
I:
■(t7
IS
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i\
i:-
•\{:-\\
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LU
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FUJIMOTO BILLBROKERS BANK, LIMITED: TOKYO BRANCH (KABVTO-CHtl, MHONBASHI-KU) — NAGOYA BRANCH (5-CHOME,
SHIMADA-CHO) — HEAD OFFICE, OSAKA
528
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
postbellum boom which was its reaction,
the firm was steadily growing, and in Octo-
ber, 1906, it was reorganised as a joint-stock
company, with a paid up capital of Yen 200,-
000, under the control of Mr. Fujimoto.
It was not long before the necessity for
more solidarity and the improvement of
business demanded that the company should
increase its capital, which was raised to Yen
1,000,000. In 1908 the company was author-
ised by the Minister of Finance to undertake
ordinary banking business, and, in addition,
to act as an agency for various financial
purposes. Then the present title of the
Fujimoto Billbrokers Bank was adopted,
subject to the provisions of the current
Banking Act. The next year Mr. Fujimoto
resigned his presidency on account of the
disturbance over the affairs of the Dai
Nippon Sugar Refining Company, and Mr.
Toshi Hiraga took the presidency of the
disordered bank. By the zealous efforts
of the new President and the Directors, the
bank rapidly restored its credit and repu-
tation, and year by year became more
prosjjerous, consequent on the increase in
the volume of business and the enlarged
sphere of operations. To-day the Fujimoto
Billbrokers Bank, Ltd., performs a number
of functions and maintains the following
departments: (i) Banking Department —
deposit, loans, discount of bills, dealing in
domestic exchange and documentary drafts,
acceptances, safe-deposit and other mis-
cellaneous banking business; (2) Invest-
ment and Trust Department — underwriting
and subscription of high-grade bonds, stocks
(domestic and foreign), dealing in bonds,
stocks, and other securities, corporation
reorganisation and financing, sundry busi-
ness as agent or trustee for corporations,
intermediary for long and short term loans,
and intermediary for the sale and mortgage
of real estate; (3) Investigating Department
— investigation of economic and financial
conditions (domestic and foreign), investi-
gation of credit and property of corporations
and individuals, and the publication of a
journal, the "Fujimoto Billbrokers Bank
Weekly."
The main office of the bank is located at
Yokobori, i-chome, Higashi-ku, Osaka, and
there are branches at Tokyo, Nagoya, and
Kobd. Members of the present Board of
Management are Messrs. Toshi Hiraga,
President; Yoshio Yokota and Ichitaro
Tanimura, Directors; and Auditors, Messrs.
Y. Yagi, H. Yanagi, and T. Kuwabara.
The tables on page 530 will indicate the
extent of the transactions of this important
institution, and will also show its develop-
ment during the past three business periods
THE OKAZ.\KI BANK, LIMITED
The widespread interests of the Okazaki
family at Kobe have attracted a great deal
of attention in commercial and financial
circles in Japan, the family being noted for
its keen enterprise and its readiness to em-
bark on new ventures, having for their
object the strengthening of Japan's com-
SAKAI-SUJI. HlGASHI-KU, OSAKA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
529
HEAD OFFICE KOBE OKAZAKI GINKO (KOBE OKAZAKI BANK, LIMITED)
SHIX-XANIWA-BASHI BRIDCE, OSAKA, SHOWING TOWER OF OSAKA COURT OF APPEAL ON THE LEFT
.■>j
o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
mercial position. As an instance of this
spirit tnay be mentioned the Okazaki Bank,
Limited. This institution was founded after
the outbreak of the war, the object being to
provide free banking facilities for the ship-
ping interests, and particularly as the medium
for the financial operations of the Okazaki
Steamship Co., Ltd. Mr. Tokichi Okazaki
has had a lengthy experience of the shipping
business, and when the great development
of Japan's mercantile marine took place, and
the need for accommodating the shipping
concerns vWth funds was felt, he was one of
the first to appreciate the situation, and to
do something to meet it. Consequently
the Okazaki Bank was established, with a
Assets
Item
June 30, 1916
Dec. 31, 1916
June 30, 1917
Yen
Yen
Yen
600,000
46,608
8,090,024
35,810,855
4,043
562,616
600,000
21,213,043
4,117,108
6,806,559
400,000
Loans (collateral and overdrafts)
26,045,537
15,115.778
12,246,388
27,817
Stocks and bonds (including foreign bonds)
Customers' liability on acceptances
Due from correspondent banks
Office furniture and other assets
1,976,606
30,000
183,440
6,537
238,657
3,800,240
60,000
118,947
6,461
392,675
558,816
8,076
934.340
Totals
45,632,232
35,171,952
59,196,992
Liabilities
Item
Capital
Reserve funds
Deposits
Money borrowed
Call money
Bills rediscounted
Acceptances
Due to correspondent banks
Other liabilities
Profit
Totals
Jl NE 30, I916
Y'en
1 ,000,000
151.740
6,720,934
16,842,549
11,410,000
8,441,681
676,831
103,393
285,100
45,632,232
Dec. 31, 1916
Yen
1 ,000,000
226,740
11,489,921
9,761,912
7,065,000
4.598,445
30,000
528,439
144.031
327,464
" 1 .952
June 30, 191 7
Yen
1 ,000,000
331.740
16,444,064
16,639,274
15.779.000
6,563,251
60,000
1,844,720
193.876
341.067
59.196.992
The dividends paid for these periods were: June 30, 1916, ordinary, 10 per cent and special
5 per cent; December 31, 1916, ordinary 10 per cent, special 10 per cent; June 30, 1917, ordinary
10 per cent, and special, 10 per cent.
Traxs.\ctioxs
Item
Jl NE 30, 1916
Dec. 31, 1916
Jim; 30, 191 7
Yen
Yen
Yen
Call money . .
Money borrowed ...
Fixed deposits. . . . . .
Bills rediscounted .
Call loan
218,061,000
44,110,600
15,042,997
33,146,631
106,866,737
58,242,978
67,377,983
2,312,497,748
348,510,255
38,839,100
23,163,626
26,262,502
98,951,118
37,210,076
82,545.374
2,935,798,774
406,426,007
38,600,100
31,094,928
30,632,744
150,3-50,875
43,166,701
Loans on collateral
Payment and receipt of cash . .
84,549,101
3.393.707.581
capital of Yen 10,000,000. It is the only
financial institution, so far, in Japan, devot-
ing its business mainly to shipping. Mr.
Tokichi Okazaki is the President of the
Okazaki Steamship Co., Ltd., and of the
Kobe Marine Transport and Fire Insurance
Co., Ltd. His son, Mr. Tadao Okazaki, is
Managing Director of the bank, which is
located at No. 56 Naniwacho, Kob^.
IIASUDA BILLBROKER BANK
The business of bill brokerage as a branch
of banking has been in existence in Japan
only about ten years, but it has now reached
very- large proportions through such insti-
tutions as the Masuda Billbroker Bank at
Osaka, Tokyo, and other centres. While
the banks generally do their best to provide
money for accommodating holders of drafts,
there frequently arise circumstances which
prevent the regular institutions from giving
satisfaction to clients, mainly because funds
for such purposes are limited. The Masuda
Bank does its utmost to meet all such cases.
It also deals with call money and call loans
at the lowest premium, the advances and
repayments being made at a day's notice
mthout any particular conditions of terms.
Besides pro\'iding money to meet bills, and
to cover documents drawn against ship-
ments, the Masuda Billbroker Bank deals
in bonds, loans against other securities,
mortgages, etc., and also acts as financial
adviser to many small industrial concerns
who can not obtain monej' easily from the
regular sources. The bank is divided into
two departments, one dealing with loans
and the other with investments. In the
Loans Department the following classes of
business are done: (i) sale and purchase
of commercial drafts, and drafts with secu-
rity; (2) handling call money and call loans;
(3) sale and purchase of bills and bills drawn
against shipments; (4) other general bank-
ing business. In the Investment Depart-
ment the business transacted is: (i) sale
and purchase of bonds and securities; (2)
acceptance, raising, and payment of deben-
tures, shares, etc.; (3) sale and purchase
of real estate and for lease, mortgage, etc.
The Masuda Billbroker Bank was es-
tablished in October, 1897, but it was then
doing a general business and was known as
the Masuda Ginko Gomei Kaisha. In
September, 191 1, its status was changed
and it became the Masuda Billbroker Bank,
concentrating on the classes of business
outlined above. The head office of the bank
is at No. 14 Inabashi, Higashiku, Osaka.
There are important branches at Sakayecho,
Kobe, and at Minami-Kayabacho, Nihon-
bashiku, Tokv'O. The principal officials are:
Directors, Messrs. S. Masuda (President),
P R K S R N T - n A Y IMPRESSIONS O !• JAPAN
531
M. Masuila
Auditor, Mr.
Uyesugi.
M
Hida, and T. Hayami;
llayami; Manaf;cr, Mr. S.
IIYOC.O PREFECTURAL HYPOTHEC BANK
Tm> bank was established under the laws
promulgated in 1896, whereby provision was
made by the Law for Hypothec Banks
(No. 83) and the Law for Subsidies to Hypo-
thec Banks (No. 84), to create funds for the
use of local agricultural and industrial people,
on long credit and at low rates of interest,
the objects being to promote improvement
and development in these departments of
national activity. Up to 1896 in Japan
there was no institution which gave assist-
ance to agriculturists and industrial con-
cerns, under the conditions stated, though
there were many banks to help mercantile
people generally. Hypothec banks were
established by the Government to make
good this deficiency, and they were endowed
with special facilities w'hile at the same
time remaining under Government sur-
veillance. It was in November, 1897, that
Mr. Shoichi Omori, Governor of Hyogo
Prefecture at that time, appointed a com-
mittee of twenty-eight to discuss ways and
means of providing an hypothec bank under
the new laws. This committee decided,
after several conferences, to raise the capital
stock necessary. Hyogo Prefecture had to
take up is>ooo shares, representing Yen
300,000, and the balance of 35,000 shares,
valued at Yen 700,000, was allotted to the
general public, irrespective of locality. The
subscription for the stock was much greater
than anticipated. The bank was formally
established at a general meeting held March
I, 1898, when the principal officers were
elected. Offices were taken at No. 60
Sakaye-machi, i-chome, Kob6, and business
was started from July 1st of that year. As
the business of the bank developed the
original premises were found quite inade-
quate, and after several changes, the bank
took up its quarters at No. 17, Shimoyamate-
dori, in July, 1907. Even this move was not
final and the directors have purchased a fine
site at Sakaye-machi, i-chome, Kob6, where
the erection of the new building (expected
to be completed early in 191 8) is now going
on. The capital of the institution has also
been increased several times, and finally, in
November, 1916, it was brought up to the
present figure of Yen 4,000,000. Although
for the first seven or eight years the Hyogo
Prefectural Hypothec Bank had a reserve
of only Yen 60,000, this sum has been steadily
added to, and the reserves now total Yen
1,900,000, to which the sum of Yen 110,000
was added at the last half-yearly meeting.
This is the largest reserve held by any of the
agricultural banks of Japan. The bank's
agricultural and industrial debentures have
been issued on thirty different occasions
and at present total Yen 11,300,000. The
issue has been popularised through the use
of the post offices, which raise the money
and pay principal and interest, as due, to
debenture holders. Loans to the public
since the commencement of operations total
12,840 transactions, involving Yen 40,600,-
000, of which Yen 18,800,000 has been paid
back, leaving a total on loan of Yen 21,800,-
000. As the loans are made on the basis
of half the value of the securities, there is
no apprehension of the standing of the
i\
MASVDA BILLBROKER BANK, LTD.: THE TOKYO BRANXH (aT M1N.\MI-KA\ \HAi II' >, MHi INHASHI-KU)
INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VIEWS OF THE HEAD OFFICE AT OSAKA
532
P R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
HE.\D OFFICE OF HYGGG-KEN NGKO GINKO (HYOGO PREFECTUR.\L HYPOTHEC BANK), KOBE
KoW; No. 13 Tamon-dori, Shichomc, Kob6,
No. I Mij-ukidori Rokuchome, Fukiyai,
KoW; No. 30 Kitanaka-cho, Kob^; No.
86 Mikawaguchi-cho, Kob6, and No. 166
.\ishi-nakasangc', Okayama. The Kishimoto
Bank, Ltd., is in correspondence with
about 225 banks in such centres as Tokyo,
Yokohama, Kyoto, Osaka, Nagoya, Gifu,
Kanazawa and other principal cities and
towns throughout Japan. The Directors
are pursuing a very steady policy, and are
placing a large proportion of the profits to
reserve with a view to future expansion.
The reserves on June 30, 191 7, totalled Yen
216,000, and since then another Yen 40,000
has been added. From the balance sheet at
the foot of this page for June 30, 1917, the
financial position of the bank can be seen.
The net profit of Yen 83,071.18 was dis-
tributed as follows: To reserve funds, Yen
40,000; to redemption of properties account,
Yen 4,000; dividend at 5 per cent per annum,
Yen 25,000; bonus. Yen 5,000; staflf pension
fund. Yen 4,000; and carried forward to
next term, Yen 5,071.18.
bank being affected by any economic crisis
that may arise. Loans are of various classes,
made under the regulations governing the
hypothec banks of Japan. To meet the
overwhelming demand for accommodation
from the bank's funds, branches have been
established at convenient centres, and there
are thirty-seven other banks acting as agents,
in addition to the post offices throughout
Japan. The directorate of the Hyogo Pre-
fectural Hypothec Bank comprises the
following: President, Mr. Ginyemon Ohtani;
Directors, Messrs. Chojiro Ito, Kenjiro Hori,
Gendayu Hirao, Yei-ichi Ito; and Auditors,
Messrs. Injiro Nakamura, Narakichi Hatsui,
and Shinyemon Konishi. The staff com-
prises Manager, Sub-Manager, 20 clerks,
6 sub-clerks, 14 assistants, and 5 servants.
The balance sheet for the half-year ending
June 30, 191 7, appears on this page.
THE KISHIMOTO BAXK, LI.MITED
Established in 1894 as a private concern,
the Kishimoto Bank of Kobe became a joint-
capital bank in October, 1913, its capital
being fixed at Yen 1,000,000. The bank
has developed a large business in proportion
to its capital, and has become a popular
institution in business circles, a good part
of its operations being associated with the
financing of shipments, acceptances of drafts,
etc. Mr. N. Kishimoto is the President,
and the other directors are Messrs. K. Kishi-
moto, J. Kishimoto, R. Tanaka, and Audi-
tors, Messrs. B. Kinoshita and H. Hirano.
The head office is at No. 14 Minatocho,
Nichome, Kob^, and there are the following
branches: No. 48 Motomachi-dori, Shichome,
Balanxe Sheet of the Hvggg Prefectckal Hypothec Bank
Debit
Credit
1 ,500,000.00
11,720,282.75
2,120,241.71
7,978,001.90
13,435.00
3,607,032.71
169,340.51
89,395-11
187,953-00
580,610.41
38,055.82
131,350.00
125,602.21
85,918.43
121,466.76
28,468,686.32
Capital
Reserve against losses
Reserve to equalise dividends .
4,000,000.00
Loans on yearly installments. .
Loans on fixed period
Loans as agents for the In-
dustrial Bank of Japan....
715,000.00
180,000.00
410,000.00
6,230.85
10,144.630.00
Fixed deposits
Current accounts
Post Office transfer savings . . .
National Loan Bonds
Foreign loan bonds
2,670,980.32
Current deposits
Guarantee for loans as agents.
Fund for payment for Indus-
trial Bank of Japan
Money to be collected for In-
dustrial Bank of Japan
Money temporarily received . .
Balance from previous term. . .
1. 305. 765-51
7,978,001.90
■^.70^.00
Funds in agents' hands
Real estate, furniture, etc
Other properties
Money temporarily paid out . .
4,427.28
234.55596
120,249.32
695,052.18
Total Yen
Tola! Yen
28,468,686.32
Balance Sheet of the Kishimoto Bank, Ltd.
Liabilities
Capital 1,000,000.00
Reserves 216,000.00
Deposits 12,478,632.10
Loans on drafts 451,738.46
Acceptances for payments. . . . 163,156.00
Sundry accounts 302.00
Staff pension fund 7,232.73
Interest and discounts unpaid 92,635.10
Net profit for half-year in-
cluding amount brought for-
ward 83,071.18
Total Yen 14,492,767.57
Assets
Sundry credits 10,120,242.73
Credit by drafts 392,507.24
Acceptances countermanded. . 163,156.00
Bonds and shares 919,508.00
Land, buildings, and furniture. 265,956.64
Immovable properties 49.581-44
Guarantee money for accept-
ance of shares 125.00
Deposits and cash on hand. . . 2,581,690.52
Total Yen 14,492,767.57
"S
k
\'A
1}
l&
35
534
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
INTERNATIONAL BANKING
CORPORATION
The Kobe branch of the International
Banking Corporation was established in
1904 and is located in a handsome red brick
structure at No. 38 Akashi-machi, in the
centre of the business quarter. The staff
comprises four foreigners and twenty assist-
ants. The International Banking Corpora-
tion has branches in all the important busi-
ness centres of the Far East, and it has made
great progress of recent years, particularly
since marked increase has taken place in
the business transacted between the United
States and Japan and China.
The Kobe branch of the bank has been
under the direction of Mr. A. E. Irving
since September, 1914, that gentleman hav-
ing been in the company's ser\-ice for over
thirteen years.
(See Section IX, page 90, for the notices
of other Banks and Insurance Companies.)
INSURANCE
COMPANIES
HOKOKU FIRE INSVRANCE CO.,
LIMITED
This company was founded in February,
19 1 2, by a number of the wealthy and
influential business men of Osaka, and
in common with most new enterprises,
the Hokoku Fire Insurance Co., Ltd.,
had some obstacles in doing business at
first. But after six 3^ears of ceaseless plan-
ning, surmounting all difficulty since it had
commenced business, it has outgrown that
stage, and its development leaves nothing
to be desired by its founders. A steady
policy has been pursued all along, and the
confidence which the company has created
with the public is best evidenced by the
fact that the amount of insurance now con-
tracted for exceeds Yen 200,000,000. The
directors came to a working agreement with
the Tokyo Marine Insurance Co., Ltd.,
which is undoubtedly the leader in marine
insurance business in Japan, and from July,
19 17, this class of insurance, as well as general
transportation insurance, was entered upon.
This development is a highly important one
for a company located in such an important
industrial and shipping centre as Osaka, and
the future of the Hokoku concern should be
well worth watching. The capital of the
company is Yen 3,000,000. Its head office is
at No. 53, 3 chome, Sonezaki Shinchi, Kita-
ku, Osaka, and there are branches at Tokyo,
Yokohama, Nagoya, Kyoto, Kob^, Hiro-
shima, and Fukuoka. The head office is
established in a splendid new building at
the comer of the electric railway crossing
point at Sakurabashi.
Mr. J. Otani is the President-Director of
the Hokoku Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. Other
members of the Board are Messrs. T. Shima,
I. Amagasaki, H. Abe, S. Shikata, S. Ota,
and W. Mayijima. The Auditors are Messrs.
K. Hamazaki and R. Kobayashi.
THE TOKYO MARINE INSURANCE CO.,
LI.MITED
In the Tokyo section of this work full
reference is made to the history and develop-
ment of the Tokyo Marine Insurance Co.,
Ltd., one of the acknowledged leaders of
insurance in Japan, and certainly one of
the greatest companies of its kind in the
world. Unquestionably the company owes
a great deal of its prestige to the strong
position which it has assumed in Osaka,
where, as might be expected, in such a great
commercial and shipping centre, a large
volume of business is being done. The
Osaka branch of the Tokyo Marine Insur-
ance Co., Ltd., was opened in June, 1895,
but as the company then had neither busi-
ness connections nor shareholders in Osaka
to assist in developing its interests, the
business done was very small, the annual
insured amount not exceeding about Yen
30,000,000 for the first two or three years.
When, however, the wonderful development
in commerce and industrj' took place in
Osaka, the company's business began to
improve. Full advantage was taken of the
activity, especially in foreign trade, and the
company was fortunate in having in charge
of its interests such an energetic and sound
insurance man as Mr. H. Hirao. This
gentleman, who founded the Osaka branch,
and is now the Resident Managing Director
there, with the assistance of a loyal and
competent staff, has placed his company in
a position that is not rivalled by the old or
new concerns handling insurance in Osaka.
The total volume of insurance contracted by
HEAD OFFICE OF KISHIMOTO GINKO, KOBfe
P R E S E N T - D A \ I M P K 1^: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
535
the Osaka office during 191 7 was over Yen
300,000,000, or ten times the amount written
in the first years. Such a record is one to
be proud of, and it testifies to the high regard
in which the Tokyo Marine Insurance Co.,
Ltd., is held in business and commercial
circles generally. While it is admitted that
ness that was started about a quarter of a
century ago in Osaka. The establishment
of the Osaka Insurance Co. can be traced
back to 1893. The corporation has since
altered its name twice, such as. The Osaka
Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., and The Osaka
Fire, Marine & Transport Insurance Co.,
THE SPLENDID NEW BUILDING OF THE TOKYO M.\RINE INSURANCE COMPANY, LTD., AT OSAKA
much of this increase is due to the marvel-
lous growth of Osaka's foreign trade, and
the increase in the number of local ship-
owners, it is also a tribute to the vigourous
management of the branch by Mr. Hirao.
(See also page 135.)
THE OSAKA M.\RINE AND FIRE INSUR-
ANCE CO., LIMITED
This influential corporation, which trans-
acts a large volume of the marine insurance
effected abroad, is the development of a busi-
Ltd., respectively. The latter name was
held until March, 1916, when a great change
took place in the insurance situation. The
reorganised company was given the name of
The Osaka Marine & Fire Insurance Co.,
Ltd., and its last capital of Yen 1,000,000
was increased to Yen 5,000,000.
The personnel of the shareholders was
changed to include some of the most influen-
tial ship-owners, merchants, and manufactur-
ers. New staffs were appointed, properties
were adjusted, and the losses incurred up to
that time were regulated. An entire change
in the policy of the company took jilacc under
expert direction, a special effort being made
to concentrate on marine insurance, and to
change the methods under which the busi-
ness had been conducted in the past. The
Directors gave' their attention to the foreign
situation, and appointed many agents abroad,
one of the most effective moves being the
appointment as sole agents for the United
Kingdom, France, and Norway of Messrs.
Sedgwick, Collins & Co., Ltd., of No. 7
Gracechurch St., London, E. C. This
company is one of the best and most experi-
enced of insurance brokers in the world, and
the special contract entered into with Messrs.
Sedgwick, Collins & Co., Ltd., by the
Osaka Marine and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd.,
gave insurers against marine and fire risks
many advantages that could not be offered
them previously.
This vigourous policy has resulted in
completely changing the company's position
in the insurance world. It is to-day doing
a very extensive business, and through its
foreign connections it is able to issue insur-
ance in any part of the world, members of
its own staff being attached to Messrs.
Sedgwick, Collins & Co.'s office in London.
Branches of the company have been estab-
lished at the following centres in Japan:
Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, Kanazawa,
Kyoto, Kobe, and Kyushu, and there are in
addition scores of agencies throughout the
Japanese Empire and abroad. So great
has been the development of the company's
L)usiness that the capital has been increased
to Yen 5,000,000, of which Yen 1,540,000
lias been paid up. The Board of Directors
of the Osaka Marine and Fire Insurance
Co., Ltd., comprises such well known com-
mercial men as Messrs. R. Hunter (Presi-
dent), G. Tarao (Managing Director), M.
Kita, and K. Kimiu-a. The Auditors are
Messrs. T. Inouye, S. Nango, and S. Naka-
yama. Mr. Y. Asai is the Manager. The
company has its head office at No. 10 Kawa-
guchicho, Nishi-ku, Osaka.
KOBE MARINE TRANSPORT AND FIRE
INSURANCE CO., LIMITED
The history of this powerful organisation
covers the period of Japan's greatest com-
mercial expansion, and its origin is to be
found in the determination of the Japanese
to be independent, as far as possible, of
foreign insurance. After the Russo-Japanese
War commerce and industry in Japan went
ahead by leaps and bounds, and the merchant
marine grew apace. Cargoes of goods were
plentiful, and the commercial community
began to feel the need of trustworthy com-
panies to accept insurance. At that time
OSAKA KAIJO KASAI HOKEN KAISHA (OSAKA MARINE AND FIRE INSURANCE CO., LDT.): THE TOKYO OFFICE-
A CORNER OF THE OSAKA OFFICE
W'''S^^^^P^>^'-&^--''i-4:&^'^i^^
KOBfe MARINE TRANSPORT AND FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, LTD : MARINE INSURANCE DEPARTMENT THE PICTURESQUE
KOBE OFFICE FIRE INSURANCE DEPARTMENT
538
PRESENT-DAY I M I' K i; S S I () N S OF JAPAN
PROMINENT KOBE AND OSAKA INSURANCE MEN
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. G. Tarao, Managing Direetor, Osaka Marine and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. J. Otani, President,
Hokoku Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. M. HiRAO, Managing Director, Tokyo Marine Insurance Co., Ltd. (Lower Row, Left to
Right) Mr. S. Tanaka, Managing Director, Kobe Marine Transport and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. Tokichi Okazaki, President,
Okazaki Bank, Ltd., Okazaki Steamship Co., Ltd., and KoM Marine Transport and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. — Mr. S. MiKi, Manager.
KoW Marine Transport and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd.
the business was affected by only two or
three Japanese companies, and it was felt
that the bulk of the business, which was
left to the foreign companies, could more
advantageously be handled by powerful
local organisations, if such could be brought
into existence. It was to carry out this
mission that the Kob^ Marine Transport
and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., was formed,
the promoters being almost all the ship-
owners belonging to the Japan Shipowners
Union, excluding the Nippon Yusen Kaisha
and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha; the big
shippers or consignors, wealthy commercial
magnates, and foreign residents in Japan,
influential in commercial and industrial
circles. The company was formally estab-
lished in May, 1907, with a capital of Yen
5,000,000, and with Mr. Tokichi Okazaki
as its President. The promoters wisely
decided to make Koh6 their base of opera-
tions, instead of Tokyo, the former being
the more important shipping and com-
mercial centre for oversea trade. Further,
with a view to facilitating business, the
shareholders were sought among the ship-
owners and consignors, foreigners and Japa-
nese jointly, and the shareholders were the
first to be insured. Putting aside all specula-
tive tendencies, such as are found among
most newly formed concerns of this nature,
the company adopted a slow-but-sure policy,
as a result of which the insurance in this
company won the public confidence and
made steady advancement. In the first
year of operations the company covered
insurance of only Yen 60,089,806. Its
income was Yen 238,050, and it sustained
losses totalling Yen 133,938. In 1916,
however, the insurances affected reached
the enormous total of Y'en 805,564,150, and
the income from premiums amounted to
Yen 3,243,880, from which Yen 1,681,587
was paid for losses. The statistics for
191 7 are not available at the time of writ-
ing, but it is confidently expected that
further increases will be shown, as the year
was more brisk than was 1916.
The head office of the company is at No.
19 Akashicho, Kobe, and branches are
maintained at Tokyo, Osaka, Yokohama,
Kob6, Otaru, Nagoya, Kyoto, and Fukuoka.
In addition, there are over a thousand agents
throughout the principal towns in Japan,
as well as in foreign ports. On the Board of
Directors of the Kobe Marine Transport and
Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., are some of the best
known men in business circles in Japan. The
Directors are: Messrs. Tokichi Okazaki (Presi-
dent), Seizo Tanaka, Chojiro Ito, Kichizaye-
mon Tatsuma, Kanetaro Kishimoto, Toshio
Momozaki, and Chokei Yoshida. The Aud-
itors are Messrs. Kiichiro Osone, Miyakichi
Itaya, and Tashiro Tsuchihashi. Mr. Saburo
Miki is General Manager and Mr. Toyotoshi
Kojima is Chief of the Business Department.
A FACTORY GIRLS PICNIC
XXXV. Labour Conditions
Sudden Transformation— Phenomenal Growth of Cities— Japan Necessarily Industrial-
Serious Aspects of the Situation— Unhealthy Conditions- Moral Dangers
— Rkjhts of Labour— Labour Unions Barred— Strikes Frequent-
Wages IN Japan— Future of Japanese Labour
THE same process by which such coun-
tries as England, Germany, and Italy
have been transformed from an agri-
cultural to an industrial basis is now going
on in Japan, but at a rate so rapid that the
country is unprepared to deal with it, result-
ing in serious evils to labour and industry.
The more extensive and insistent markets
opened up to Japan by the wars with China,
Russia, and Germany have greatly expanded
the nation's industries, shifting them from
the home to the factory, creating crowded
centres of activity with their consequent
questions of labour.
SUDDEN TR.\NSFORMATION
Notwithstanding that she is primarily
an agricultural nation, Japan is now forced
to lay increasing emphasis on commerce
and industry, to the comparative neglect
of agrarian interests, for the sake of supply-
ing the revenue necessary to maintain her
vast armamental programme, and the out-
come is an abnormal rush of population to
the cities, with social conditions anything
but favourable. Thus the changes that
took a hundred years for accomplishment
in Europe, Japan has undergone in the
memory of people now living, and the
phenomenal celerity of the revolution has
naturally given rise to problems still more
intensive and acute, commanding a place
in the councils of her statesmen and all
who are interested in the labour movement.
PHENOMENAL GROWTH OF CITIES
As in other countries, so in Japan the
dominant characteristic of the new indus-
trialism is the trend of population from the
country to the city, always the main sphere
of industrial activity. This abnormal ex-
pansion of urban population is almost revolu-
tionary in its effect on Japanese society.
In the case of Tokyo, the capital, population
during the last twenty-five years has in-
creased from 857,780 to 2,500,000, while
Osaka, the greatest industrial centre of the
Empire, during the same period has grown
from 500,000 to over 1,500,000, Nagoya from
200,000 to 450,000, Yokohama has increased
fourfold and Kob^ fivefold. The five great
industrial centres above mentioned have
thus increased 325 per cent, or 300 per
cent more than the nation as a whole. For
Tokyo alone the growth of industrial popu-
lation has been about 415 per cent in the
last decade or more. The transformation
has, indeed, been nothing short of marvel-
lous. Great areas which ten years ago were
taken up with rice fields or marshes are now
reclaimed and covered with factories or
labour tenements, and property values at the
same time have gone up more than 1,000
per cent. Osaka, Kobe, and Yokohama have
had much the same experience. These cities
may be justly taken as focal points to reveal
the metamorphosis of Japan from a feudal
to an agricultural country, and now to the
age of steam, electricity, and steel.
japan necessarily industrial
The extraordinary development of indus-
trialism in Japan is neither accidental nor
temporary. Situated like Great Britain, on
the shoulders of a continent, Japan occupies
a position of unique commercial advantage.
In her own ships she can move the products
of her own factories to any port of the exten-
540
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
sive coast-line of China, and up that coun-
try's endless waterways, at lower rates and
with greater expedition than any of her com-
petitors. Without sufficient resources of
her own in iron and other raw materials,
Japan early realised in her contact with
modern nations, that to keep up a balance
of trade she must vastly increase her indus-
trial capacity and lay hold of the markets
of China, where the iron resources of East
Asia lie unexploited, and now she has been
drawn so far into the race for industrial
supremacy in the Far East that her system
has invaded every country and her merchant
marine is placing her products in every
market. Japan believes that her future as
a world-empire depends on her ability to
hold and increase the markets she has won.
She has entered on a path of empire from
which she can not draw back. To her, the
expansion of commerce and industry is not
an academic but the most vital of all ques-
tions. The future of Japan depends not
on her statesmen nor her commercial mag-
nates, nor even on her naval and military
strength, but on her factorj' workers.
SERIOUS ASPECTS OF THE SITUATION
Japan's sudden leap from feudalism to
labour and then from a rural to an urban
population has created contrasts that gravely
menace each other. The transformed, over-
grown cities are like separate nations in the
midst of a rural population that has not
changed with the times at all. There is a
great gulf between the life and environment
of the peasant villager and the denizen of a
congested commercial and industrial centre.
The thousands of workers that pour into the
cities every year find themselves in a wholly
new world. In the space of one day the old
restraints of family, religion, and society,
that hitherto molded and steadied the life of
the villager, are all removed, and the individ-
ual is up against a huge and soulless machine
where the forces of capital and greed hold
the whip hand. Into this machine, more mer-
ciless than any now to be found in Occidental
lands, the labourer must merge or be crushed.
Yet in Japan his power to understand his new
environment or to adjust himself to his new-
social order is extremely limited. But whether
he understands or not, he must be prepared
to have himself, as a unit, assessed at less
value than the material product.
The difficulty of the situation will be more
fully appreciated if the nature of the society
from which the Japanese labourer is drawn
be kept carefully in view. The labourer
comes from the country, which has changed
but little since the days of feudalism. Feu-
dalism but poorly prepared the individual
to face the demands of modem industrialism.
Customs of centuries get into the blood and
become second nature. The feudal habit
of the vassal depending on the lord, the
servant on the master, the inferior on the
superior, created ties which modem con-
ditions have suddenly snapped, while the
herding of great masses of people, thus
left masterless, in congested cities means,
to most of them, social and economic demor-
alisation. In a period of such violent transi-
tion a nation's social liabilities are always
greater than its assets. The great cities of
Japan, already overburdened with their own
poor, and harassed by complex civic problems,
are quite unable to assimilate or care for the
large annual additions to their population.
GROUP PHOTOGRAPHED ON THE OCCASION OK THE VISIT OF PREMIER TERAUCHI TO THE F.\CTORV OF THE TOVO .MUSLIN KABU^HIKI KAISHA.
PREMIER TERAUCHI TAKES A KEEN INTEREST IN QUESTIONS OF INDUSTRY AND LABOUR
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
541
UNHEALTHY CONDITIONS
Of course time is needed to allow the new
population flowing into the cities to find itself
socially and economically, as well as to allow
the upper classes to realise their responsibility
for the needs of their expanding cities. As
yet there is in Japan no [lublic conscience able
to perceive any close connection between the
uplift and conservation of the labour class
and the permanence of the nation's industrial
power. Even factory owners yet fail to see
that there is a direct relation between the care
accorded the human machine and its working
output. Young men and women suddenly
removed from the fresh air and healthful
.surroundings of country life to the foul atmos-
phere of factories and the low, damp beds and
poor food of the industrial centres, soon
undergo physical deterioration. Long hours
of toil amid unsanitary conditions lead to
contagion and disease. Few constitutions are
able to endure the strain of standing from 12
to 16 hours a day at high-powered machines.
The unhygienic conditions in which Japanese
factory girls have to work and live are espe-
cially bad, while the over-crowding of
dormitories and the use of child labour but
increase the danger. Nearly half a million
workers recruited from the best blood of the
country annually pour themselves into the
polluted conditions of factory life, most cf
them never to return.
The results are particularly disastrous to
women and children. Of the more than
500,000 female workers in Japanese factories
some 300,000 are under 20 years of age. In
the spinning, weaving, and dyeing industries
over 400,000 girls and children are engaged,
70 per cent of whom live in factory quarters
where they are subject to restrictions border-
ing on confinement. In the raw silk mills
work lasts from 13 to 14 hours a day on an
average, and in the weaving mills from 14 to
16 hours a day. The hands in the spinning
mills have to take night work every other
week. The week ending the night shift
always shows a loss of weight in the girls, and
ultimately wrecks their health. Few can go
on longer than a year, when desertion, illness,
or death affords relief. Statistics show that
some 80 per cent of the workers leave the mills
every year, their places being taken by new
recruits collected by agents going through the
country. Women on the night shift sleep in
the same beds as those on day work, the beds
thus never getting a chance to be aired or
cleaned, and consequently are nests of
bacteria for the spread of disease. More than
200,000 girls are recruited for the factories
every year, of whom more than 120,000
never return to the parental roof. Some die,
some find refuge in places of questionable
resort, and some openly adopt an ill life. Of
the 80,000 who find their way home again
13,000 are sick, 25 per cent of them with
consumption.
MORAL DANGERS
Nor are the moral dangers of the Japanese
worker more hopeful than those menacing his
physical condition. Housing is congestive
in the extreme, leading to moral as well as
bodily deterioration. The houses are too
small, and the smallest often contains more
than one family of five or more persons each,
all jumbled together in one room where
decency of life is impossible. Many of the
poor families take lodgers who sleep with the
family on the same floor. In the factory
dormitories for girls unscrupulous managers
are reported to hold the victims in virtual
moral slavery. One Japanese expert on
factory conditions avers that it is not uncom-
mon for more than half the girls in a factory
to lose their virtue in a year. The long hours
leave the workers so weary that any sort of
excitement is welcome and tempting, and
consequently vicious pleasures and pastimes
are encouraged and common. The most
usual amusements are drinking, gambling,
and sensuality. Thus the youths and maid-
ens from wholesome country homes are
suddenly separated from the moral restric-
tions of innocency and childhood and are
plunged into immoral conditions where they
lose self-respect and health, and where death
is often a happy relief.
Much might also be said of the moral effects
of turning away from hand-made products to
machinery, from art to artificiality, from
conscience and idealism to expediency and
wages, with a consequent stunting of individ-
uality and ideals. Moreover the constant
shifting of hands on account of illness or
injustice or breach of contract renders main-
tenance of highly skilled labour difficult.
In some factories when a worker becomes too
familiar with skilled processes he is considered
dangerous and removed to another depart-
ment
RIGHTS OF LABOUR
The Japanese labourer enjoys no political
rights, and of others he possesses but few.
He has no vote and therefore no way of con-
trolling or improving the conditions under
which he has to live and work. He has to
accept the decision of his employer as to
hours, safety devices, health provision, wages
and all the usual details of labour, without
question, though a factory act recently put
into operation may slightly modify this state-
ment in respect to hours and safety. At
present no more than eight per cent of the
men of Japan have the right of franchise, and
of this proportion, numbering in all a little
over 1,600,000, only 153,768 live in cities and
have any chance to experience or influence
in<lustrial life. As labour organisations are
prohibited the labourer has no way of appeal-
ing to public opinion except by strikes, which
also are prohibited and severely dealt with
when they occur. In Japan, therefore,
labour is placed almost wholly at the mercy
of the priviliged classes, and has to submit to
increased cost of living without a correspond-
ing rise in wages.
Conditions seem all the harsher seeing that
the Japanese worker is not illiterate, more
than 80 per cent being able to read and write,
and over 90 per cent of the children of
labourers are at school. The Japanese
worker not only reads the newspapers but
takes considerable interest in the public
questions of the day. The sources of knowl-
edge being thus open to him he is not likely
to submit much longer to the contrasts that
exist between his lot and that of his fellow-
workman in other countries. It is, therefore,
quite improbable that the labourers of Japan
will continue content to create the nation's
wealth without receiving a larger share of the
opportunities of Hfe and the benefits of civili-
sation. Education without rights, knowledge
without opportunity, is like generating steam
in a flask — a dangerous experiment!
For what interest has been created in the
rights of labour in Japan the labourer is
largely indebted to Occidental organisations.
In the past Japan has not figured as a very
important factor in the labour movement in
foreign eyes. To the average economist as
well as worker, in Western lands, Japanese
labour has seemed a thing apart, deser\-ing
perhaps a degree of consideration but unappre-
ciably affecting the great labour world as a
whole. This attitude no doubt has been due
to a prevailing conviction as to the cheapness
and inefficiency of the Japanese workman as
eornpared with his Occidental contemporary,
and to the isolation of Japanese labour from
Western labour unions. But the recent pro-
gress of Japanese industry, having begun to
affect the world's supply and demand, is
arousing interest abroad and already repre-
sentatives of Japanese labour have been
conferring with labour organisations in
America.
LABOUR UNIONS BARRED
It is Japan's unique distinction to have no
labour unions, but from what has already
been said it is clear that this is not because
labour needs no amelioration in Japan.
While labour unions are strictly prohibited
by the authorities, a society known as theYuai-
kai, or Labourers' Friendly Society, has been
tolerated and is doing what it can to improve
the conditions of the workingman. Founded
542
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
"^v^V
'& '»
■i(«Secf.;^
"'■SB*..
■%:-y<i^'
v:,?^
WORKMEN S QUARTERS AT HIOGO MILL, KANEGAFUCHI SPINNING CO., LTD.
in 1912 it already has a membership of some
30,000, most of whom are in Tokyo. For a
monthly fee of i o sen members receive legal and
medicinal advice, may hear lectures on social
questions, personal hygiene, and domestic
economy, secure participation in a cooperative
supply union, and also find an authorised
medium to air grievances. Speaking gener-
ally, Japan has no social settlements for the
improvement of conditions among the poorer
classes of the city, but a few under missionary
auspices have been started and are doing good
work. What the Japanese labourer W'ants,
however, is not charity but his rights, such as
are enjoyed in all free and progressive coun-
tries. Given these, he is as well able to take
care of himself as the worker of any other
country.
It must be admitted with disappointment
that so far the labour movement in Japan has
not met with much encouragement. With
the diffusion of liberal and philanthropic ideas
following the introduction of Western civili-
sation and intercourse with Occidental
nations, it was hoped that labour would
receive due attention and be accorded its
rights. Leaders like Count Itagaki endeav-
oured to circulate newer ideas of freedom, but
his propaganda was checked by an attempt
to assassinate him. Later, the labour move-
ment in England and the United States began
to. find echoes in Japan under the leadership
of Mr. Sen Katayama, Professor Ab^, and
others, who had studied abroad and on their
return started a crusade for the reform of
labour conditions at home. Books like
Bellamy's "Looking Backward," Henry
George's "Progress and Poverty," and
Booth's "Darkest England" were eagerly read
and labour unions after the Western fashion
were talked of, but in their zeal the leaders
made the mistake of attempting to graft
Occidental institutions unmodified into the
radically different social body of Japan. As
time went on the movement divided into
what might be called an evolutionary and
revolutionary trend that proved fatal, for the
evolutionists sided with socialism and the
revolutionists with anarchy. Through books,
papers, and public speeches Katayama led in
an aggressive propaganda for socialism, while
the other wing, led by Kotoku, under guise
of a party called the Social Democrats, urged
the most radical and alarming measures. On
his return from America Kotoku finally
became an advocate of anarchist doctrines,
and in 1910 he, with twenty-six others, was
involved in a conspiracy to assassinate the
Emperor, whereupon the whole twenty-six
were condemned to execution. Of the con-
spirators, thirteen had their sentences com-
muted to imprisonment for life, and Kotoku
and his wife and the remaining eleven were
executed. This was a tremendous blow to
the labour movement, as subsequently it
became associated with disloyalty and
thoughts dangerous to the nation, which was
just what its opponents wanted for its over-
throw.
Since the above unfortunate episode, w-hich
really had nothing to do with any genuine
labour movement, the regulations concern-
ing socialism and anarchy have been made
unprecedentedly rigourous. All the author-
ities have to do in order to destroy any new
movement at present is to brand it with the
hated name of socialism. Even a hint in this
direction is sufficient to make everj' Japanese
PRESENT-DAY IMJ'RESSIONS OF JAPAN
543
fly from it in tfrror. I.aljour unions are
inchidcd in the regulations against socialism
and anarchy, which is sufficient to give them
the quietus. There are many socialists still
among the Japanese labour classes as well as
among the young men of the middle class,
but they can find no vent for expression.
Thus all the work which Katayama did in
organising labour unions among the iron-
workers, typographers, street-car men, ship-
builders, miners, and railway men seems to
have melted into nothing.
For some years now Japanese labour has
been left without any resource except the
strike, and strikes have marked the annual
progress of labour ever since, in spite of the
stern regulations against them. In Japan a
factory legislation became rife, and in 1898 a
factory law was drafted and approved by the
Department of Agriculture and Commerce.
There it rested, however, and other bills were
brought forward, modelled after American or
European precedents, and providing for the
organisation of cooperative industrial soci-
eties, for manhood suffrage without property
qualification, for building and loan associa-
tions, and for housing reform, going even so
far as to suggest that Labour should have a
special representative in parliament. Parallel
with these efforts after political and economic
reform the labour leaders were doing all they
could in a quiet way to further the spirit of
brotherhood and mutual aid among the
workmen themselves. Labour clubs were
ROOM M.\INTAINED FOR THE EMPLOYEES OF THE NIPPON HEIKI SEIZO K.\BUSHIKI
K.\ISHA (j.\P.\N ARMS AND MACHINERY MANUF.WTURING CO., LTD.)
strike is not quite tlic same thing that it is
abroad, for it is often the result of ill treat-
ment as well as of economic reasons, and
when a company of Japanese workmen re-
solves on a strike the employer may always
prepare for violence. The first strike of
any serious importance in Japan was that
of the Takashima coal-mine workers at
Nagasaki in 1888, and shortly afterwards
this was followed by a strike of the tea-curers
at Yokohama. In 1891 the bootmakers'
union caused a strike on the business being
taken over by the Army. In the decade
between 1891 and 1900 the question of labour
and social conditions generally attracted wide
public attention, the leading newspapers
showing a sympathetic interest. Agitation
for the lowering of taxes and the enactment of
opened at various centres, especially among
railway men. The educated classes began to
evince some intelligent interest in social and
labour problems. The largest and most
influential of the . unions was that of the
engineers and firemen, which had a member-
ship of over a thousand and a fund of 48,000
yen. The climax of the movement was
reached in 1899 when the Engineers and
Firemen's Union declared a strike against the
Japan Railway Company. The railway
officials immediately set to work promoting
measures for the destruction of labour unions.
Within the succeeding five or six years most
of the labour unions were suppressed. The
process of abolition was hastened by schism
among the labourers themselves, who lacked
efficient and intelligent leadership, and
funds wi-re not infrequently misappropriated.
Finally the day arrived when not a single
labour union remained.
At present the general attitude of state
authority in Japan is firmly opposed to labour
unions, and this may be taken as a reflection
of the attitude of capitalism in Japan gener-
ally. The majority of Japanese employers
hold tenaciously to the feudal conception of
the right of the master to force his will on the
labourer without conference. To recognise
the rights of labour is regarded as both incon-
venient and unprofitable. There are a few
capitalists, however, who realise that the
rights of labour to consideration must inevit-
ably be recognised, and that such a day should
be warded oflf by compromise. Not a few
capitalists also are beginning to take an
interest in promoting the comfort and welfare
of labour as the best way to hasten the pro-
gress of industry, though some of the mutual
benefit associations and insurance schemes
fostered by capitalism are obviously only a
means of holding the ser\'ices of the workers
who would suffer economically by cutting
loose. As a rule, however, the Japanese
capitalists as a class, having the reins in their
own hands, are indifferent to labour questions,
while the universities are more concerned
with the economic than the human aspect of
laljur.
STRIKES FREQUENT
Meanwhile strikes and labour disputes
are remarkably on the increase. With the
mounting inequality of distribution, the
unrest of labour is becoming yearly more
serious and never more so than at present.
The capitalists can no longer depend on the
canine submissiveness of the masses nor
suppress complaints against injustice by mere
intimidation, for it is apparent now to all that
the struggle between capital and labour in
Japan has at last begun. In the last few
years serious strikes have occurred in such
industries as steel, iron, shipbuilding, weaving,
and spinning, and in some instances con-
ditions were so grave as to require the calling
out of the troops to restore order. In most
of these conflicts between labour and capital,
however, the latter comes out victorious,
concession, where it occurs, being in almost
every case due to the magnanimity of the
employer. But circumstances at present
point to a more hopeful development of the
labour movement in future. Between 1897
and 1902 Japan had 127 strikes involving
more than 20,000 workers, of which 57,
representing some 8,000 labourers, were par-
tially successful. Between 1908 and 1911
there were 68 strikes more or less futile, and
the story of unameliorated disaffection of
labour still continues. Between 1912 and 1915
544
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
there were 146 strikes involving about 20,000
hands, without much satisfaction. The num-
ber of strikes in 1916 was 108, reprcsentiiif;
some g.ooo men, while in 1917 strikes num-
bered 31, affecting over 30,000 workmen.
Thus it is evident that every year the
number of strikes and of hands involved is
increasing. The most serious strikes in 19 1 7
were 12,000 men at the Mitsubishi Dock-
yard at Nagasaki, 2,000 men at the Osaka
Iron Works, 4,000 hands at the Tohata Glass
Works, 2,200 at the Fuji Spinning Company's
mills, 1,920 at the Japan Steel Works, and
4,000 men at the Mitsubishi mines. The
cause of these strikes was in most cases for a
rise of from 15 to 20 per cent in wages and
better treatment of workers, which is doubt-
less an echo of the greatly increased cost of
living without a corresponding rise in wages.
It is the general belief in economic and
industrial circles that strikes will become an
increasing feature of Japanese labour until
such time as it receives due recognition.
WAGES IN JAPAN
To arrive at any degree of accuracy as
to wages in Japan is not easy, as such
terms are usually secret. On the whole
it may safely be said that the wage scale
in Japan is far below what it is in West-
ern countries. Taking cotton mills as an
example, the wage per thousand spindles
managed by one operative in the United
States is Yen 3.53; England by two opera-
tives. Yen 2.78; Japan by five operatives.
Yen 1 . 67. If the same material be worked
upon, the output in Japan would be much
cheaper than in either England or America.
Again, if the weekly wages of five common
trades in five other countries be compared
with the wage prevailing in Japan, the
latter seems remarkably low.
The average Japanese family is supposed
to require Yen 22.64 per month to live
upon. As large numbers of the principal
wage earners get only from 10 to 15 yen per
month it is difficult to understand how they
make ends meet, but no doubt it is done
by the assistance of wife and children, or
else the family is underfed. Judging from
the emaciated faces of the poor one must
assume that lack of sufficient nourishment
is only too common. The average wage
earner in Japan gets no more than 21 yen a
month, which is clearly below the require-
ments of the average family. The average
annual income of the Japanese labourer is
about 252 yen, which is miserably inade-
quate compared with the 1,121.77 in Eng-
land, 1,409.78 in America, 669.84 in Ger-
many, and 933.34 in France. The accompa-
nying table illustrates the daily wagesforlead-
ing occupations in Japan before the war in
Europe, since which wages have largely
increased.
Prior to the European war the average
daily wage of Japanese labour had risen to
45 sen. There was an increase of 4 per
cent in 1915, of 11 per cent in 1916, and of
16 per cent in 1917, but this has not kept
pace at all with the ratio of increase in
Country
England
Germany. . . .
France
Belgium
United States
Japan
Brickl.wer
Yen
19.70
15.20
14.04
II .68
60.84
7.07
C.\RPKNTER
Yen
i.S
14
12
4,S
20
72
28
80
60
P.A INTER
Yen
18
U
12
10
41
.3
24
44
86
50
36
26
S.MITH
Yen
16
15
1 1
41
4
■S2
.06
.46
.92
.S2
,69
Compositor
Yen
1 6 06
12.62
14.04
1 1 . 12
39- 14
3 57
Class
Textile factories
Chemical works
Food and drink
Paper and publishing .
Electricity, gas, etc. . .
Mining
Agriculture, silk ,
Tailors, etc
Brewers
Adlxts
Male
Sen
39-64
44-58
43-71
50-62
56-61
56-61
30-83
29-84
41-70
Female
Sen
28-36
22-39
20-33
25-29
21-25
21-25
28-35
Children
Male
Sen
17-35
19-28
18-22
15-24
17-20
17-20
Female
Sen
9-23
15-21
13-18
12-16
10-00
10-00
Domestics, 4.60, with food, per month. Women ser\-ants, 2.95 per month, with food.
Trade
Weaver, male
Tailor, native
Tailor, European
Shoemaker
Confectioner
Tobacco-cutter
Carpenter
Plasterer
Stone cutter
Sawyer
Tile-roofer
Bricklayer
Shipwright
Cabinet-maker
Carriage-maker
Harness-maker
Lacquerer
Gold and silver smith . .
Blacksmith
Potter
Silk spinner, female. . .
Gardener
Fisherman
Farm labourer, male . . .
Paper-maker
Printer
Day labourer
Male servant, monthly
Maid sen.'ant, monthly
(including food)
I9I0
191 1
igi2
1913
Sen
Sen
Sen
Sen
49
43
43
45
57
58
60
64
81
85
89
88
67
65
69
71
43
45
44
44
61
62
64
66
80
83
87
88
83
86
89
93
93
94
100
lOI
80
-8
85
85
95
100
103
105
104
106
106
109
S3
86
91
93
76
79
83
84
67
69
73
77
70
70
7"
75
63
68
70
72
63
66
67
67
69
70
71
73
62
63
63
68
31
30
31
33
/ /
83
85
85
54
59
62
59
39
42
44
46
41
44
46
48
50
50
52
53
53
56
58
59
4-56
4 65
4-73
4.68
2.96
3- 12
3 66
2.99
I9I4
Sen
46
63
84
72
46
70
86
89
lOI
84
104
105
92
80
73
75
71
65
74
64
35
83
60
47
45
55
56
4.60
2-95
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
545
commodity prices, the average daily wage
in igi7 Inking only 52 sen.
If the matter of wages be looked at more
in detail it will be seen that for the five
years previous to the Eurojiean war the
wages of the principal occupations did not
show much advance, in spite of the increased
cost of living.
If the year 1900 be taken as a basis of
100, the index numbers for the above occu-
pations during the fifteen years, taken every
five years, will show the ratio of increase
in wages, as follows:
a master, and capital easily has its own way.
Another reason that retards the progress
of the labour movement in Japan is that
in spite of the increa.sing urban jjopulation,
the country is still for the most part a land
of small industries, the concentration of
factories being yet comparatively at a nas-
cent stage. Of 33,000 factories in Japan
employing a total of over 1,000,000 opera-
tives, the vast majority are concerns having
from five to ten hands engaged in domestic
industry. Nearly all the silk factories are
thus run on a small scale, cotton mills being
TRADE
Weaver, male
Tailor, native dress
Tailor, European dress
Shoemaker
Confectioner
Tobacco-cutter
Carpenter
Plasterer
Stone-cutter
Sawyer
Tile-roofer
Bricklayer
Shipwright
Cabinet-maker
Carriage-maker
Harness-maker
Lacquerer
Gold and silver smith
Blacksmith
Potter
Silk spinner
Gardener
Fisherman
Farm labourer, male
Paper-maker
Printer
Day labourer
Male servant
Maid seri'ant
1905
103.0
■23 7
108.5
121.3
1 13.3
1 23 6
1 1 1 I
1 1 1 . I
10X2
1113
11(1.2
112,7
114 3
1 10 0
108.5
131 9
104 3
1 23 . 8
1 1 4 6
121 . 1
1 10.0
107. 8
107.7
106.7
100. o
111,8
I 10 8
119.3
114.7
I9IO
I4«.5
146,2
137 3
142.6
•43 3
141. 9
14S. 1
153 7
i,S2,5
1 ,S0 , c;
I6l .0
165. 1
148.2
152 .0
•44 7
148,9
1 50 . o
i43.«
1 63 . 2
•3,S o
151 ,11
130.0
128. 1
•47 I
143 -'
168,9
189,7
•915
139.4
1 6 1 . 5
142.4
■53-2
•53-3
162.7
•39-3
164.8
165.6
• 76 . 3
166.7
•64 3
1 60 , o
155-3
•59-6
151. 1
•54 7
134- 2
168,4
1750
162,7
•53
•56.7
140.6
161 ,8
131 4
170,4
1 89 . I
8
FUTURE OF JAPANESE LABOUR
In forecasting the future of labour in
Japan, the extent to which the female
element enters into it must be taken strictly
into account. Female labour constitutes
the main princ'ple of factory economy at
present. Taking 17,062 of the more impor-
tant factories it will be found that 37 per
cent of the labour is male and the remaining
percentage female. Of the total number of
child workers under fourteen years of age,
81 per cent are girls. Nearly half the opera-
tives in Japanese factories are under twenty
years of age. It is this predominance of
youth and female labour that not only
cheapens the factory products of Japan but
renders the progress of improvement in
labour conditions so slow, for the Japanese
female is practically non-assertive under
practically the only ones employing large
numbers of workers in one place. Domestic
industries and small manufactures pre-
dominate. So long, therefore, as female
labour continues to dominate the industrial
life of the nation and industry remains
distributed in small factories, labour will
fail to exercise any potent influence on public
opinion. It has already been shown, how-
ever, that in the centres where industry
has begun to concentrate, the disaflection
of labour is so pronounced as to cause in-
creasing strikes and other forms of labour
disturbance, and the question of ameliora-
tion is bound to become one demanding a
solution.
The rapid development now going on in
all spheres of economic activity, and espe-
cially in the manufacturing industries, must
soon cause a still greater concentration of
industry as well as a more menacing con-
gestion of city life, forcing Japan to face
her social problems, including the problem
of labour. As conflicts between capital
and labour acquire intensity with the increase
of male over female labour, Japanese law
will be obliged to allow greater freedom
to labour associations, and admit the sacred
right of revolution. With the necessities
of life rising out of all proportion to the
increase of wages and the relentless attitude
of severity toward labourers, the voice of
discontent can not but rise against capitalism
until authority is compelled to heed. In
speaking of the attitude of the Government
toward labour organisations a leading Japa-
nese professor says: "The Government is
stupidly shortsighted in keeping the labour-
ers crippled by refusing to let them organise,
and trying to make amends by giving them
crutches in the form of insurance and fac-
tory law." The relatively large number
of people employed in Government factories,
bureaux, and monopoly undertakings further
militates against freedom of labour, while
the persistence of the apprentice system in
trades still tends to restrict the freedom of
workers.
Owing to the aggressive disquietude of
Japanese labour the authorities have recently
been forced to adopt some measures of
remedial legislation, which, though late and
decidedly defective, are yet better than
nothing. The factory act passed in 1911
was not enforced until the Government
was compelled by conditions to do so in
1916. The act is palpably imperfect and
must be improved, as it seems to favour
the employer at the expense of the worker.
As the factory law applies only to factories
of 15 hands or over, a great many establish-
ments will escape its remedial provisions.
In jjrineiple the act prohibits the employ-
ment of children under twelve years of age
in factories, but exceptions are easy. Per-
sons under twelve years of age and women
are regarded as protected workers and not
allowed to work over twelve hours a day,
and not between 10 p. m. and 4 A. M. These
protected workers must also be allowed
regular holidays and proper rest, and must
not be employed on any work involving
danger to life and health, decision as to
which being apparently left to agreement
between employers and factory inspectors.
Sick persons and prospective mothers can
be employed only under restrictions. The
Government enacts the right of the author-
ities to inter "ere where factories or portions
of them threaten to menace public interest
or their employees. Factory owners are
obliged to assist the dependents of those
546
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
killed in factories. The act further makes
provision for the proper dismissal of emjiloy-
ees and apprentices and for the appointment
of factory superintendents. The governors
of prefectures are made responsible for the
enforcement of the act within their terri-
tories, and twenty-one factory inspectors
are to assist them in seeing to a proper
enforcement of the law. An insurance
scheme for labourers at Government factories
is proving beneficial, but is hardly compre-
hensive enough. Various cooperative socie-
ties which chiefly benefit the rural population
have been organised, and there are also
charity associations, but, as has been said
before, what the Japanese labourer wants
is not coddling or charity but a chance to
demand the value of his labour and freedom
to maintain his independence and self-respect.
But for this he has yet to fight the battle
that has been fought and won in Occidental
countries. That the authorities do not yet
clearly see the issue may be inferred from
the fact that after the Kotoku affair, when
thirteen Socialists were executed, 1,500,000
yen was given from the imperial purse to
found a charity association, and the 408
millionaires of Japan were thereby moved
to add liberal subscriptions to endow charity.
But the wealth of Japan is in the hands of
the mercantile and manufacturing classes,
who had much better pay a living wage
than engage in endowing charity. From
what has been said it is evident that all
efforts at amelioration of labour in Japan
are futile until the worker is accorded
the freedom to organise and demand his
rights, the same as he does in Europe and
America.
NAGARA RIVER, NEAR GIFU
XXXVI. The Patent System
By MOKIO NAKAMATSU, Ex-Director of the Imperial Japanese Patent Office
THERE were in Japan before the
Restoration of Meiji, regulations,
or rather customs, governing the
granting to individuals of certain privileges
regarding traffic and trade, something like
the monopolies of Europe, but there was no
system for protecting industrial property in
any form. Persons who discovered or
invented new arts, therefore, used to keep
them secret, bequeathing them only to their
successors or their special pupils. With the
fall of the shogunate and the abolition of
the feudal system, however, the new Gov-
ernment of the Meiji era adopted the poHcy
of the "Open door and progress," and
strenuously introduced into the country in-
stitutions of the Occident. Among other
things, the Government framed and promul-
gated what was called "Previsional Rules
Governing Patents." According to these
rules, patents were given only to new articles
of art for seven, ten, or fifteen years, and these
periods might be extended according to
circumstances. The time was not, however,
yet ripe for such legislation, and the ne.Nt year
the Government revoked the rules until
further notice. At the same time the Govern-
ment instructed local authorities to report to
the Department of the Interior detailed
accoimts of inventions made within their
respective jurisdictions, and thus announced
its intention to protect inventions. Since
then the Government has had to face many
difficult problems of great moment, and at
one time it had even the great task of quelling
a civil war of a serious nature. Thus, for
more than ten years the Government had no
leisure to turn its attention to the protection
of industrial property. The internal dis-
turbances were at last subdued and measures
have been taken by the Government since the
Restoration for the development of the
country, which, since they have begun to
work, have resulted in commerce and industry
making steady progress.
The first subject which attracted the
attention of the Government in the way of
protection of industrial property was the pro-
tection of trade marks, and in the seventeenth
year of Meiji (1884), Regulations Governing
Trade Marks were promulgated and enforced.
These were followed by Regulations Govern-
ing Patents, which were promulgated in April
of the eighteenth year of Meiji (1885), and
took effect from July of the same year.
Viewed from to-day these trade mark and
patent regulations were very imperfect, but
in protecting new inventions and legitimate
trade marks they were just as good as similar
legislation of Europe and America.
The Government was not, of course, satis-
fied with these regulations, and sent officials
abroad to study the subject of the protection
of industrial property. Taking the reports
of these officials into consideration, in the
twenty-first year of Meiji (1889), the Govern-
ment promulgated new patent regulations
and also designs regulations, and amended
trade mark regulations, enforcing them from
February of the ne.xt year. By these regula-
tive enactments applications and requests
relating to patents, designs- and trade marks,
which under former regulations had been filed
through local authorities, were now filed
direct at the Patent Office, and examiners of
that department investigated them and
decided whether they should be granted or
not. Persons not satisfied with the decision
of first instance could request re-examination,
from which there was appeal to judges of the
Patent Office. The above mentioned three
regulations form the basis of the present
system for the protection of industrial prop-
erty, the laws and rules now in force being
compiled from them by introducing thereto
amendments and additions required by
necessity or suggested by experience.
One thing to be noted here is the fact that
when the three regulations referred to were
promulgated, the foreigners in Japan enjoyed
the privilege of exterritoriality and were not
amenable to the Japanese law. At the same
time, they could not benefit themselves
through the protection given by the regula-
tions, and if their industrial property was
infringed by the Japanese, there was no way
for them to obtain satisfaction from the
infringers. When, however, the Treaty of
Commerce between Japan and Great Britain
548
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
was revised, the Japanese Government
promised to extend to the British subjects
the protection with regard to patents, designs,
and trade marks, and also to join the Inter-
national Union for the protection of indus-
trial property, and at the same time the
British Government waived the privilege of
exterritoriality. The other powers followed
the British Government in revising their
treaties. Now, in order to meet the altered
conditions caused by the revision of the
treaties of commerce, the Patent, Designs, and
Trade Marks Laws and Rules were amended,
but these amendments were introduced so as
to make the laws applicable to foreigners
as well as to Japanese, in other respects
remaining practically the same as before.
In Japan there is a special kind of inven-
tion, called "Utility Models," protected by
a special law. Utility models are new
industrial devices of practical use pertaining
to the form, construction, or combination of
articles, which though new and useful, are not
dignified enough to be protected with patents.
The law protecting such models was first
promulgated in the thirty-eighth year of
Meiji (1905), taking effect from July i . In the
forty-second year of Meiji (1909) all the four
laws and rules were amended and brought to
the form in which they are now in force,
although some minor changes have been made
since then, being necessitated by treaty with
other powers, etc.
The above is a short history of the legisla-
tion in relation to industrial property in
Japan. There will follow a summary of the
Japanese Patent Office practice.
PATENTS
A PATENT is granted for any novel indus-
trial invention, and any foreigner who is a
subject or citizen of a country with which
Japan has a reciprocal arrangement for the
mutual protection of industrial property, or
any person of any nationality residing, or
having a place of business in Japan, or in a
country where Japanese industrial property
is protected, can apply for a patent for an
invention in his possession. The duration
of a patent right is fifteen years from the date
of registration, which can be extended in some
rare instances for a period of not less than
three years, and not more than ten, if the
invention is of great importance and the
patentee has not realised, for good reasons,
adequate profit from the patent during its
existence.
Persons not in Japan are not allowed to
make an application or request, or take any
other step with regard to a patent, except
through an agent residing in Japan, and the
documents which must accompany applica-
tions by foreigners are power of attorney and
certificate of nationality given by a notary
public or any other competent authority,
and the signature of the applicant affixed to
them must be legalised.
The Examiners of the Patent Office examine
applications as to their novelty and give a
decision as to whether the patent should be
granted or not. Against the decision of an
examiner, re-examination may be requested.
In order to have a patent invalidated, or to
have the limits of a patent right determined,
trial may be requested. Against a decision
on re-examination, a decision of an Inter-
ference Examiner or a judgment on trial,
recourse may be had to trial-on-appeal, from
which appeal may be made to the Court of
Cassation, but only on questions of law and
with regard to cases appealed from trial, or
from a decision of an Interference Examiner.
A patent is liable to cancellation for non-
working, or discontinuation of working, of
three years, unless sufficient reasons be given
therefor.
TRADE MARKS
Tr.\de marks must consist of letters,
devices, or signs, or their combination, and
must be distinctive and conspicuous. They
may also be registered with designation
of colours. A mark similar to one's own
trade mark, and to be used with the same
kind of articles, may be registered as an
associated mark.
A mark coming under one of the following
items may not be registered:
(i) One containing a device identical with,
or similar to, the Imperial Chrysanthemum
Crest.
(2) One identical with, or similar to, the
national flag, the army or navy ensign, a
decoration, a medal of merit or a badge, or
the national flag of a foreign country.
(3) One liable to disturb public order or
morals, or to deceive the public.
(4) One identical with, or similar to, a mark
commonly used on the same kind of goods.
(5) One identical with, or similar to, a
mark known to the public to belong to
another person and to be used on the same
kind of goods.
(6) One identical with, or similar to, the
device of the Red Cross on a white ground,
or the name of or characters for Red Cross
or Geneva Cross.
(7) One containing a device identical with,
or similar to, a prize medal, a diploma of
honour, or a certificate of merit, of an expo-
sition or competitive exhibition held by or
with the permission of the Government, or
of an exposition held in a foreign country
by the Government thereof, or an inter-
national exposition held in a foreign country
with the permission of the Government
thereof, not obtained bj^ the party using
it in his trade mark.
(8) One containing a likeness, the per-
sonal name, or the fiim name, of another
person, or the title of a juridical person or
partnership, unless with jsermission.
(9) One identical with, or similar to, a
trade mark of another person, in the case of
which one year has not elapsed since the
loss of validity of the registration thereof,
unless it has remained unused for more than
one year previous to the loss of validity of
registration.
However, marks used with good faith
from before July I, 1899, can be registered
notwithstanding the Item 5 above.
To apply for registration of trade marks,
one application for one trade mark must
be filed with respect to one class of articles,
according to the Patent Office classification.
Documents to accompany application are
five copies of specimen marks, power of
attorney, and certificate of nationality, the
latter two documents to be executed as in
the case of a patent application. When there
are two more similar applications, all appli-
cants being entitled to obtain registration,
the first application will be registered, and
if they are made at the same time, none of
them will be registered, unless the applicants
make arrangements among themselves. As
to examination, re-examination, trial, and
trial-appeal, they are the same as in the case
of patents. The duration of registration is
twenty years, and is renewable.
DESIGNS
New industrial designs with reference to
form, pattern, colouring, or their combina-
tion, applicable to articles of artistic worth,
are registered. One application for one
device must be filed with respect to one class
of articles, according to the Patent Office
classification. The application must be
accompanied by three copies of the draw-
mg and power of attorney and certificate
of nationality. The treatment of a design
application is the same as that of a patent
application, except that in the case of a
design application the decision on re-exami-
nation is final, there being no appeal there-
from.
The duration of design rights is ten years.
UTILITY MODELS
Utility models are new industrial devices
of iiractical use pertaining to the form, con-
struction, or combination of articles. The
treatment of utility model applications is
the same as with patent applications, except
that with utility models the decision on re-
examination is final, there being no appeal.
The duration of a utility model right is
three years, which term can be renewed
twice, first for three years and then for
lour, the total duration being, thus, ten years.
DISTANT VIEW OF YODOYABASHI BRIDGE, OSAKA, SHOWING OFFICES OF BANK OF JAPAN, JAPAN COTTON TRADING COMPANY,
AND MESSRS. TAKATA & CO. ON THE LEFT, AND NEW TOWN HALL IN THE DISTANCE
XXXVII. Manufacturing Industries
Industry in Old Japan — Forms of Industry— Operatives— The Cotton Industry —
The Woollen Industry — The Brewing Industry — Machine-making — Ceramics —
The Lacquer Industry— The Silk Industry— Other Industries
THE progress of Japanese manufac-
turing industry forms one of the
romances of modem enterprise. In
1868, when the Meiji era opened, there
was but one factory in the country, and the
only articles of domestic industry and com-
merce were woven goods, earthenware,
copper ware, and lacquer. Industry was
wholly manual, and satisfied if it met the
demands of the local community. During
the fifty years since then the progress of
Japanese industry has been nothing short
of phenomenal. Even as late as 1872 all
industry was still domestic, carried on by
the families of individual households. But
by 1883 no less than eighty-four factories
had appeared, with machinery aggregating
1,382 horse-power in steam, and 365 horse-
power in water. Ten years later the number
of factories had grown to 1,163, the steam
horse-power totalling 31,165 and the water
horse-power 4.122. By 1909 all factories,
including those in homes, numbered 33,000
with total horse-power in steam, gas, water,
and electricity amounting to 419,657. As
far back as 1872 there were no imports of
raw materials; in 1895 imports of such
materials were valued at 40,000,000 yen,
and in 1910 imports of raw cotton alone
exceeded 158,000,000 yen in value. Omit-
ting government factories and insignificant
domestic undertakings, the number of
legitimate factories is now about 20,000,
using 21,145 engines or motors, representing
a horse-power of 1,321,320, having a paid-
up capital of over 1,000,000,000 yen, and
employing about a million operatives.
INDUSTRY IN OLD JAPAN
Prior to the opening of Japan to the
world there was no system of technical
education. Industry, so far as it existed, was
local, not national, the various daimyo
keeping their hereditary mechanics and
craftsmen, who transmitted their knowledge
to the next generation by means of appren-
tices. The craftsman or artisan made
utensils, swords, and arms, or wove cloth,
for the livelihood afforded by his master,
and he and his were usually held in contempt
by their military superiors. Nevertheless
there were many who developed remarkable
skill in handicraft and showed an intuitive
love of art and achievement for their own
sake, making for themselves names that are
still honoured in the annals of art and indus-
try. The arrival of Portuguese and Spanish
merchants with manufactures from Europe
lent some measure of impetus to industry,
and with the downfall of feudalism and the
establishment of schools began a period of
technical education in science, engineering,
chemistry, mining, and metallurgy, while
many students were sent abroad to acquire
the rudiments of knowledge of manufactur-
ing industry. To this poUcy the Govern-
ment has devoted its untiring attention, with
the result that Japan is to-day enabled to
sell more goods than she buys. In fact,
many of the nation's industries which but
a few years ago were in a nascent stage and
are now prominent, owe their rapid develop-
ment largelj' to Government assistance and
encouragement. Cotton and silk spinning,
shipbuilding, cement-making, glass-making,
match-making, gas works, brick-making,
loom- weaving, — none of these now profitable
enterprises could have attained their present
development so quickly had it not been for
Government help. Many of the national
industries were started by the Government
itself. After reaching a paying basis they
were handed over to private enterprise, the
only ones still under Government auspices
being the Senju Woolen Mills, the Waka-
matsu Steel Works, and the Government
Printing Bureau, as well as the Imperial
Mint.
The new industries are purely utilitarian
in contrast to the old, which were so largely
Eesthetic. So long as Japan was proud to
be distinctive in art she had Uttle difficulty
in holding her own against the cruder
36
550
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
artistic productions of the West, but she
can hardly expect to surpass the West in
the realms of shipbuilding and shoemaking!
In the course of her rise as an industrial
nation Japan has discovered, however, that
the profits from the minor arts and crafts,
for which she was so duly celebrated, were
insixfficient to support her army and navy
and to make her the leading power of the
East. Only b}' manufacturing staple com-
modities on a large scale could she hope to
become a first-class power. Consequently,
the antiquated industrial system of the nation
has been almost completely transformed
after the Occidental manner. The result
is a deterioration of the old arts and crafts
and a remarkable expansion of modem
industry.
FORMS OF INDUSTRY
Bro.adly speaking, as has been already
suggested, Japanese industry is divided into
factory operations conducted according to
the Western system, and the domestic in-
dustries long indigenous to the country and
carried on in the homes of the people. The
factories of Japan simply aim at supplying
the manufactures formerly imported from
abroad, or those especially demanded by
East Asia. One reason why, in certain lines
of industry, efficiency is so difficult to achieve
is because the operatives are engaged in
making that of which they do not know the
use, and in which they take no personal
interest. It stands to reason that the
artisan can not do so well on an article of
which he does not know the use as he can
on an object such as is used everywhere
around him. Over the factories and their
output the Government has to exercise care-
ful supervision, in spite of which the results
are still not always satisfactory to the
consumer, while the attitude of the authori-
ties towards domestic industry, on the other
hand, is merely one of encouragement and
protection by accommodation in loans and
the supplying of machinery. Many of the
larger manufacturers, in order to hasten
completion of contracts from abroad, sublet
in part to domestic concerns, which accounts
for the lack of uniformity in quaUty often
complained of by foreign consumers. The
silk industry, especially, is in a transition
stage from manual weaving to machine-
made goods, but most of the spinning in
silk and cotton is now done on modem
machines. As to chemical industry, the
results of modem science are being skilfully
applied in every branch. The making of
machinery has not yet made much progress,
though parts are supplied in increasing
quantity. At present the most important
of Japan's industries are silk and cotton
spinning and weaving, sugar, matches,
plaits, porcelain, matting, to say nothing
of her mining and agricultural industries,
which are duly treated elsewhere in this
volume.
OPERATIVES
In regard to the character and efficiency of
its operatives, Japanese industry stands out
in marked contrast to the great industrial
undertakings of Occidental countries. This
is especially so in the absence of any great
number of skilled artisans and labourers, as
the term is understood abroad. Another
feature in which the Eastern and Western
systems appear in striking contrast is in the
predominance of female operatives in Japan.
As most of the factories in this country date
from a period subsequent to the war with
China in 1895, the lack of skilled labour is not
to be wondered at. Even in the Government
arsenals, steel mills, and shipyards, where the
labourers are at their best, all work is more or
less characterised by inefficiency, being capable
of a much less daUy output, man for man,
than is the case with the Occidental artisan.
Female operatives, on the other hand, are
usually more deft in factory labour than the
women workers in Western countries, which
contributes materially to the success of many
leading Japanese industries, like cotton, tea,
and silk. In silk-reeling, w-omen do 90 per
cent of the work; in weaving, cigarette mak-
ing, network, and cord making they do 80 per
cent; while in drawn work, mat making, and
straw plaiting they do 70 per cent. Over 60
per cent of the cotton mill hands are women,
a similar percentage of females prevailing in
such industries as paper making, meat pack-
ing and canning, and fruit canning. In short,
Japanese industry is as yet in the hands of
w'omen, in contrast to Western industry,
which is for the most part man's work. The
Japanese are beginning to discover,_ however,
that women are more adapted to domestic
industry than to the factory system, and as
time goes on skilled male citizens will come
more and more into prominence.
Of some forty forms of industrial activity
now prevailing in Japan the cotton spinning
business easily absorbs the largest share of
capital, followed by mining, electricity, and
shipbuilding. Agriculture absorbs a greater
aggregate of capital than trade, manufactures,
or transportation.
COTTON INDUSTRY
No department of Japanese industry has
made more phenomenal progress than that
of cotton. The first cotton mill in Japan
was established at Kagoshima in 1862, but,
although the main imports of the time were of
this fabric, no serious attention was devoted
to domestic production until mills began to
rise in Osaka between 1886 and 1889, when
some 215,000 spindles were registered. By
1900 this number had jumped to one million.
At the end of 1913 the number of spindles had
grown to 3,162,832, with 181 mills in opera-
tion and many more in course of construction.
Such progress, of coarse, is not greatly to be
wondered at in the foremost of Oriental
countries, where cotton is the main article of
clothing, and the particulars of Japan's pro-
gress in the cotton industry must be taken in
some measure as representing her general
industrial advance in recent years, because it
was largely on account of her success in cotton
manufactures that she w'as emboldened to
launch out in so many other lines. Japan is
not in any important sense a cotton-growing
country, since she harvests only from 7,000 to
10,000 bales annually in the south, and that a
short fibre like Chinese cotton, and used only
for inferior purposes. In Korea, however,
serious efforts are being made to cultivate
superior raw cotton from American seed, but it
is not yet produced in marketable quantities.
Japan gets about 60 per cent of her cotton
from India, 25 per cent from the United
States, eight per cent from China, and about
two per cent from Egypt, the total imports
being valued at some 270,000,000 yen.
Owing to the demand for coarser counts the
raw cottons are usually mixed in Japanese
mills, especially for the use of hand looms.
But the Japanese are turning more and more
to finer qualities, and by combing are success-
fulh' producing yams up to 6o's counts on
ring frames, though most of this work is still
confined to thick numbers. The average is
probably growing finer, for it appears that in
1913, for example, Japanese mills consumed
690 bales per thousand spindles. In 1914,
however, the ratio fell to no more than 511
bales per thousand spindles, which is still
large as compared with Indian spindles, which
consume 398 bales per thousand spindles, and
British, which consume only 77. Japanese
mills still suffer from inability to produce
uniformity of quality, yams of the same count
often differing seriously in size of filament,
though such defects do not apply to all the
mills, but chiefly to those without skilled
operators, where the machinery is overworked
and hygienic conditions are bad. The
average monthly output is about 170,000
bundles of yam, about 100,000 of which
are consumed at home, the balance going
chiefly to China. Exports of Japanese cotton
yam to China began in 1890, when 31
bundles were sent as samples. In ten years
China was taking 340,000 bales a year,
and now she takes an aggregate amount-
ing to more than 360,000 bundles annually.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
551
MEN PROMINENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Messrs. Y. Kinbara, Managing Director, Mousseline Boshoku K. K. — Katsutaro Inabata, President and Director, Mousseline
Boshoku K. K. — S. Kawasaki, Director, Mousseline Boshoku K. K. — T. Wada, President, Fujigasu Spinning Co., Ltd. — ^Dr.
Kyozo Kikuchi, President, Amagasaki Spinning Co., Ltd. — Denshichi Ito, President, Toyo Boseki Kabushiki Kaisha — ^Hisao Matsuo,
Managing Director, Jomo Muslin Co., Ltd. — M. Kita, President, Japan Cotton Trading Co., Ltd. — A. Yamada, Managing Director,
Japan Cotton Trading Co., Ltd.
Cotton weaving is of a still later develop-
ment than spinning in Japanese industry.
Ten years ago the number of looms was 9,225,
with an annual output of about 135,000,000
yards. In 1910 looms numbered 17,072, and
in 1916 they were over 30,000 in number,
which, of course, is still nothing compared
with the 800,000 of Lancashire. For the
most part, it is only possible as yet for Japan
to compete in markets demanding coarser
goods, and therefore her rivals in this line are
Oriental rather than Occidental. Even the
finer goods that Japan is sending to India are
inferior to those produced in Lancashire,
which they vain would emulate. In the final
issue successful competition depends on skill,
and in this respect it will take Japan some
time to overtake the more advanced weaving
centres of the West. The most significant
feature of the situation at present is that
Japan is now able to meet the domestic
demand for cotton piece goods, which may be
seen from the fact that while imports of such
goods totalled in value 25,000,000 yen in 1906,
they fell to 10,000,000 yen in 19 1 3 and to
5,000,000 in 1916. Most of Japan's cotton
imports now are among those difficult for the
country to manufacture, such as satins,
Italians, umbrella cloths, cotton velvets,
Victoria lawns, and so on. On the other
hand, Japan exports chiefly coarse qualities
like jeans, T-cloths, shirtings, sheetings, and
cotton flannels of low grade, and as flimsy in
quality as they are low in price, the demand
being for the most part in India, China, the
South Sea regions, and Australia. The value
of the total output from Japan's cotton looms
is now about 250,000,000 yen annually, of
which about 125,000,000 yens' worth is con-
sumed at home.
WOOLLEN INDUSTRY
The woollen industry, unlike silk, is not
indigenous to Japan, and, therefore, the
output is not yet of a quality and price able
to pass the goods in all markets. Even wool
would have remained more or less of an exotic
but for its conversion into mousseline de laine,
a light fabric which the Japanese have made
their distinctive specialty and incorporated
into their national dress. The manufacture
of this wool muslin, first for the home trade
and more recently for export, forms the chief
part of Japan's wool-using industry. In
recent years the use of Western clothing has
been greatly extended in Japan, especially in
banks and business offices, and for a few years
Japanese mills have been weaving union
worsted coatings, made with worsted across
a cotton warp. However, the best cloth for
552
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
foreign suits still comes from British mills.
Before the war Japan's muslin looms were
dependent on Germany, England, and
Australia for their tops, but when supplies
were suddenly cut off by the war they began
installing more machine combs, and are now
better able to handle raw wool. Wool-raising
is impossible in Japan to any great extent
owing to lack of pasture, the coarse bamboo
grass of the country being fatal to sheep, and
consequently the country must always look
abroad for its raw material. The war also
lent impetus to worsted spinning, the Japa
nese mills having hitherto been accustomed to
weave more than they spun of worsted yam.
Japan's first woollen factory started in 1877,
as a Government experiment, and another
one, the Tokj'o Woolen Company, began in
1895 with a paid-up capital of 1,250,000 yen.
The Nippon Woolen Company was organised
in 1896, with a paid-up capital of 2,625,000
yen, and other companies started later. The
Government mill makes army cloth, and the
others for the most part muslins, blankets,
and serges. Owing to technical difficulties
of blending and mixing, as well as scarcity of
noils and wastes, other kinds of cloth are still
in an undeveloped stage, while the figured
cloths produced are yet also of an inferior
quality. The number of spindles working
on carded wool in Japan is about 50,000, and
the two arms of the industry have a capital of
some 20,000,000 yen. Most of the imports
from England are of the type generally known
as army cloths, consisting chiefly of black or
blue overcoatings, about seven and one-half
million yards being imported annually be-
fore the war, worth about 2 shillings a yard,
but recently the volume has fallen to one-
third that yardage. English worsted coatings
and light worsted stuffs to the amount of
3,500,000 yards a year, averaging 2 shillings
to 3 shillings a yard, come to Japan. A good
deal of this trade was through German agents,
but the war did away with that, and if British
firms would take up the matter in earnest no
doubt extensive business could be done, as,
for years to come, Japan will continue to
depend on Western countries for her best
cloths. The total output of Japan's woollen
mills is valued at about 40,500,000 yen a year.
The annual value of Japan's textile industries
reaches over 381 ,000,000 yen.
THE ORIENTAL MUSLIN COMPANY,
LIMITED
This important manufacturing enterprise,
known under its Japanese title as the Toyo
Muslin Kabushiki Kaisha, is among the
leading industrial concerns of Japan, and
during the past year or two has made re-
markable progress. So pronounced has been
its success that it has doubled its capital in
ten years, and its output has been enormously
increased. Nevertheless, so great has been
the demand for cotton goods and muslins
for export, that it has been found quite
impossible for the company to meet it. This
condition has faced all the leading cotton
mills of Japan, and a veritable boom has
been created.
JAPANESE HOUSES ALONG A RIVER IN TOKYO
TOYO MUSLIN KAHUSHIKI KAISHA (THE ORIENTAL MUSLIN CO., LTD.): GENERAL VIEWS OF FIRST AND SECOND F.\CTORIES — SPINNING
SHED TWO VIEWS OF THE WEAVING SHED — PACKING ROOM
554
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The Toyo Muslin Kabushiki Kaisha was
organised in January, 1907, with a capital
of Yen 2,000,000, to weave muslin. An
excellent factory- site was secured at Kameido,
in the suburbs of Tokyo, and a modern
plant was installed. Almost at once the
products of the company sprang into favour
among the manufacturers and wholesalers
of piece goods. The quality of the product
was very high, and thanks to the develop-
ment of trade generally a strong demand
existed for all that could be turned out.
Subsequently a second factory had to be
established, and the capital of the company
was increased to Yen 4,000,000. In view
of the changed conditions of the local and
foreign markets, the company is now con-
templating the installation of another plant
to weave satins, fifty-four inches wide.
That such a new branch can be added to its
already widely ramified business, indicates
what progress the Toyo Muslin Kabushiki
Kaisha has made. It is producing cottons
and muslins of an excellent quality, and
the directors are keenly alert to the urgency
of still widening the scope of the operations
and increasing the output. They have
already completed the annex to the factories,
and the new plant will have been installed
before this volume goes to press. With
this additional weaving and spinning ma-
chinery it is the hope of the company that
they will be able to give full satisfaction to
their domestic and foreign customers.
The factories of the company have a total
floor space of 7,871 Isubo, and the offices and
warehouses cover in addition 26,304 tsiibo,
the entire plant being one of the largest
in the country. The factories are single-
story brick buildings of modem and sound
design. The offices and dormitories for the
workpeople are of wood, and are two stories
high. Employment is found in the factories
for 180 boys and men, and 1,500 girls, and
the annual wages bill is Yen 337,550. The
annual output is 6,734,900 yards of muslin
and 3,439,800 yards of cotton goods, this
great production being absorbed by the
wholesale dealers in Tokyo, Osaka, and
other centres, and by foreign buyers in
China, India, the South Sea Islands, and
elsewhere. The export business of the
company is increasing rapidly.
The officers of the Toyo Muslin Kabushiki
Kaisha are: President, Mr. Tahei Mayekawa;
Managing Director, Mr. Kyoichi Kanbe;
Manager, Mr. K. Tanaka; Directors,
Messrs. Y. Owaki, C. Kikuchi, F. Watanabe,
T. Yamahoshi, and I. Wakao; Inspectors,
Messrs. T. Yoshida, G. Yasuda, and K.
Watanabe. A very high compliment was
paid the company in April, 1917, when the
Premier of Japan, Count General Terauchi,
visited the works, and was shown over them
by the President and other officers. Count
Terauchi, who is very desirous of encourag-
ing Japanese industry, set a precedent by
this visit, as no Premier had ever before
made such a visit of inspection, and the
great honour paid to the model works of
the company was highly appreciated. The
occasion of this distinguished visit is the
subject of one of the illustrations pub-
lished on another page of this work. (See
page 540.)
THE TOYO BOSEKI KABUSHIKI KAISH.\
(the oriental SPINNING COM-
PANY, limited)
SiNXE the outbreak of the war the textile
industries of Japan have been developed
to a remarkable extent, but it must not be
thought that the weaving and spinning of
fabrics in Japan is only of recent growth.
In the case of the Toyo Boseki Kabushiki
Kaisha, or the Oriental Spinning Co., Ltd.,
we have an organisation that dates back,
in its origin, over forty years, for the present
concern is only an enlargement by amal-
gamation of two of the first spinning com-
panies to be established in Japan. These
were the Miye Spinning Co., Ltd., and the
Osaka Spinning Co., Ltd. The latter was
founded at Osaka in 1879 with a capital of
Yen 280,000, and at the time of the amalga-
mation was a flourishing enterprise with a
capital of Yen 5,000,000. The Miye Spinning
Co., Ltd., was started in July, 1886, with a
factory at Yokkaichi. Its initial capital
was only Yen 220,000, but when it became
absorbed in the Oriental Spinning Co., Ltd.,
it had a capital of Yen 10,250,000, and
operated 269,100 spindles and 5,330 looms.
So it may be seen that the industrial strength
taken over by the Oriental Spinning Co.,
Ltd., when the amalgamation took place
in 19 1 4, antedated the war, and represented
a vast amount of pioneering work, and a
flourishing enterprise, which only needed
the extra stimulus of the war to make it
one of the greatest in the world. As a
matter of fact, the Oriental Spinning Co.,
Ltd., is to-day one of the two largest spinning
concerns La Japan, the other being the Kane-
gafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd.
The capital of the amalgamated concern
was originally Yen 14,250,000, but since that
time the business has developed to such an
extent, and the producing capacity of the
various mills has been so increased, that the
capital has been augmented to the present
figure of Yen 25,000,000, which was fixed
in September, 1916. The Oriental Spinning
Co., Ltd., has an annual production of
220,000,000 yards of textile fabrics of all
kinds, and its capacity is said to be the
third greatest in the world. It operates
486,376 spindles and 11,353 looms in sixteen
different mills, situated in Tokyo, Kyoto,
Osaka, Miye, Aichi, Eechime and Saitama
Prefectures. It may be added that the
spindles operated by the company represent
16 per cent of the total number in Japan,
and the looms 37 per cent. The amount of
cotton yarn spun annually is 356,000 bales,
and the textiles woven constitute the 220,-
000,000 yards mentioned above. Cotton
yam and textiles for domestic consumption
are valued at Yen 48,300,000 per annum,
and for export the production is valued at
Yen 16,800,000 per annum. The principal
articles of production are cotton yam (Nos.
8 to 43), twisted yam (Nos. 20 to 43), rough
sheetings, drills, thick sheetings, T-cIoth,
calico, white shirtings, etc. In the different
mills 5,500 men and 25,000 women are
employed day by day, the annual pay bill
being approximately Yen 3,620,000. That
such a gigantic enterprise is a big financial
success goes without saying. The last
dividend declared was 35 per cent, and even
then Yen 2,760,000 was carried forward to
the next period. The reserves total Yen
11,100,000.
The directorate of the Oriental Spinning
Co., Ltd., comprises: Messrs. D. Ito (Presi-
dent), Dr. T. Saito (Professor of Technology),
F. Abe, Dr. S. Hattori (Professor of Tech-
nology), T. Oka, A. Matono, and O. Shoji.
The Auditors are Messrs. M. Kuki, S. Kawa-
kita, K. Kamino, T. Kumagai, K. Seo, and
H. Abe.
THE FUJIGASU SPINNING CO., LIMITED
The services rendered to the spinning
industry in Japan by Mr. Toyoji Wada,
President of the Fujigasu Spinning Co.,
Ltd., are very well known, and it may not
be out of place to record them as an intro-
duction to a description of the operations
of the company.
The Fujigasu business was established in
1896, the company starting with a capital
of Yen 2,000,000. With such a capital and
a strong plant, the outlook seemed favour-
able enough for the company, although the
industry was then in its infancy, and it was
realised that many initial difficulties had to
be surmounted. The plant comprised 28,-
256 spindles for cotton yam, 5,104 spindles
for cotton twists, and 5,940 spindles for silk
spinning, with water motors developing
1,196 horse-power. But from the start the
company appeared to be in difficulties.
Apart from mishaps in the mills, and other
difficulties, the economic situation following
on the China- Japan War was very serious,
and before the effects of this condition had
disappeared, the Boxer Rebellion in China
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
557
arose, and furlht-r complicated affairs.
Monetary circulation almost ceased, loss
after loss was incurred in the trading opera-
tions, and the company's products lay
unsold in vast quantities. So bad was the
condition of the Fujigasu that the Yen 50
shares fell to Yen 15 or less. The directors
were faced with the serious question of
calling in somebody to reorganise the entire
business, or letting the grass grow in the mill
yards, and the machinery rust out. It was
at this juncture that the services of Mr.
Wada were sought. Mr. Wada was at that
time abroad in the interests of the Mitsui
family, investigating spinning and weaving
in Europe. His position was a very lucra-
ti\'e one, but when he was urged to take
the Presidency of the Fujigasu Company,
and to endeavour to save an important
section of the Japanese textile industry from
ruin, he agreed. That was in January, 1901.
Since tnen Mr. Wada has devoted all his
energies to the service of the Fujigasu Com-
pany, and incidentally to the betterment
of conditions throughout the spinning and
weaving industries of Japan, and his efforts
have proved extraordinarily successful. IVIr.
Wada made some drastic changes in the
organisation of the company, and in its
methods of doing business, and the result
was quickly visible in the improved financial
condition of the company. At the settle-
ment of accounts for the second half of 1902,
the company's losses were entirely made good,
and the shareholders received their first
dividend since the formation of the company
eight years before From that time onward
the affairs of the Fujigasu have been always
prosperous, and dividends maintained at
an average of 13K0 per cent per annum.
From 1902 down to the time of writing the
company has developed in all directions.
Its capital to-day is Yen 18,000,000, of
which Yen 13,000,000 is paid up. This
means that the paid-up capital has been
increased six and one-half times since Mr.
Wada took charge. Loans of Yen 3,240,000
have been paid off out of revenue, the re-
serves have been built up to Yen 7,156,235,
and the sales of products have risen to twenty-
one times what they were in 1901. Mean-
while the shareholders have received hand-
some dividends, that for 19 16 being at the
rate of 16 per cent. Such a change in the
company's affairs is recognised to be almost
entirely due to Mr. Wada, and it is gratify-
ing to learn that in 19 16, the shareholders,
represented by Baron Morimura and Mr.
H. Hibiya, presented Mr. Wada with their
thanks and a cheque for Yen 100,000.
It must not be forgotten either that Mr.
Wada, in promoting the interests of the
Fujigasu Company has done a great service
TENGU MASKED, IN PROCESSION OF
SHINTO TEMPLE FESTIVAL
to the entire spinning and w'eaving industry.
He introduced new methods, improved the
quality and quantity of the outputs, and
took as active a part as any man, in making
the industries stable and of first rate national
importance. To-day the Fujigasu Spinning
Co., Ltd., operates ten mills. There are
five at Oyama and two at Kawasaki, in
addition to one each at Onagigawa, Oshiage,
and Hodogaya. The number of spindles
has increased far beyond any conception
of the magnitude of the business that the
original founders might have had. There
are 292,168 cotton yam spinning spindles,
71,028 twist spindles, 62,040 silk spinning
spindles, and 1,774 silk and cotton weaving
looms. At the half-yearly meeting in June,
1917, the financial report disclosed a most
favourable state of affairs, and Mr. Wada
was able to speak in optimistic terms to
the shareholders regarding the future of the
company. It was then shown that the net
profit for the half-year was Yen 3,382,874,
which, with Yen 2,143,938, brought forward
from the previous term, was available for
distribution. A substantial increase in the
reserves was made, bonuses were paid, and
then a dividend of 28 per cent per annum
was declared. A big change from the
situation of seventeen years before!
SETTSU SPINNING AND WEAVING CO.,
LTD. (SETTSU AND AMAGASAKI
COTTON SPINNING CO.)
The history of these two companies which
are now amalgamated into one of the largest
concerns of its kind in the world, practically
embraces the whole period since cotton
spinning began in Japan. The origin of
the business now controlled by the Settsu
Spinning Co., Ltd., known by its Japanese
title as the Settsu Boseki Kabushiki Kaisha,
dates back to the time when the Hirano
Cotton Spinning Company was formed in
the year 1888, with a capital of Yen 250,000.
In the following year the first mill of the
company commenced operations in the town
of Hirano, near Osaka, with 5,000 spindles
of ring frames. In 190 1 the sphere of the
company's business was greatly enlarged by
the extension of the plant and by the pur-
chase of a mill which had been erected in
Osaka. These additions gave the com-
pany about 40,000 spindles of ring
frames.
One year after the establishment of the
Hirano Spinning Company, the Settsu Cot-
ton Spinning Company was formed, steady
progress being made year by year. The
Settsu Company amalgamated with the
Takata Cotton Spinning Company, and then
followed an amalgamation of the Hirano
and the Settsu companies, under the title
of the Settsu Cotton Spinning Company.
Following this amalgamation the new com-
pany erected two additional mills, and so
marked was the progress that by 1909 the
paid-up capital reached Yen 1,735,000, the
concern operating no fewer than 156,000
spindles. When the great development took
place in Japan's textile and other industries,
the Settsu Company considerably enlarged
its plant and took up several new lines of
business, such as weaving, in addition to
cotton spinning. In 1916 the paid-up capi-
tal of the company was Yen 2,100,000,
and there were 215,000 spindles for spinning
and doubling as w^ell as 560 sets of looms.
On the other hand, the Amagasaki Cotton
Spinning Company was established in 1889,
the mill being situated in the town of Ama-
gasaki, near Osaka. At that time the com-
pany had a capital of Yen 500,000 and
operated 10,000 spindles of ring frames, but
by 1894 the number of spindles had been
increased to 31,000. In the course of the
TAKATA AND SETTSU MILLS OF THE AMALGAMATED COMPANIES. SETTSU SPINNING AND WEAVING CO., LTD., AND SETTSU AND
AMAGASAKI COTTON SPINNING CO.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
559
TEMPORARY STAGE ERECTED IN THE STREET ON FESTIVAL DAY
years 1908 to igi6, amalgamations were
effected witli the Toyo Spinning and Weav-
ing Co., Tokyo Spinning and Weaving Co.,
and the Nippon Cotton Spinning Company.
While the amalgamations were proceeding
two new mills were added. In 1916 the
capital of the company was Yen 10,000,000,
and the total number of spindles was 343,500
for spinning and 130,500 for doubling, as well
as 2,775 sets of looms.
In the Summer of 1917 the amalgamation
of the Settsu and the Amagasaki Cotton
Spinning Companies was consented to at
general meetings of the shareholders in both
companies. The capital of the combined
concern was fixed at Yen 30,500,000, and
it was agreed to run the two businesses
separately till May, 1918, when the whole
business will be merged under the title of
the Settsu Spinning and Weaving Co., Ltd.
A FUNERAL PROCESSION READY TO SET OUT
The President of the combined company
is Dr. Kyozo Kikuchi, M. E., M. I., Mech.
E. (London). Dr. Kikuchi is a prominent
figure and one of the pioneers of the textile
industry in Japan. He was graduated from
the Imperial College of Engineering in
Japan, in 1884, and studied cotton spinning
and weaving at the Manchester Technical
School until 1888. On his return to Japan
he started the Hirano Cotton Spinning
Company, in 1889. After the establishment
of the Hirano, Settsu, Amagasaki, and
Nippon Cotton Spinning Companies, Dr.
Kikuchi devoted himself entirely to the
services of these concerns, which he has
served as superintending engineer, managing
director, and president for thirty years.
He was President of both the Settsu and
the Amagasaki Companies prior to the
amalgamation, and when the combination
comes into force in 191 8 he will be President
of the new organisation.
The present members of the Board of
Directors in these companies are as follows:
Messrs. J. Tashiro, T. Matsumura, S.
Matsumoto, S. Tsukaguchi, and M. Fuku-
moto. The variety of cotton manufactured
by the companies which are to form the
Settsu Spinning and Weaving Co., Ltd.,
ranges from 8's to 120's; the cotton cloth
is thin-grade shirting and calico, 36-50 inches
in reed space. Among the different varieties
of the yams turned out the principal ones
are i6's, 20's, 42's, 6o's, 8o's, and loo's,
the latter four kinds being usually doubled,
gassed, and mercerised.
The following table shows the number
and capacities, etc., of the different mills.
They are for the most part two-storied
modem buildings, in which the motive
power is steam or electricity. The amount
paid annually for salaries by the combina-
tion is Yen 427,700, and the wages total
Yen 4,680,000. The latest returns show the
annual output to be about 327,600 bales of
yam (about 410 pounds to the bale), of
which quantity about 50 per cent is consumed
in the home markets, the balance being
exported. Cloth piece goods are produced
to the extent of 1,153,100 pieces (average,
60 yards per piece), this production being
utilised in equal proportions for local do-
mestic requirements and exports. The total
value of the outputs of the miUs is Yen
56,565,200 per annum. The exports go
chiefly to India, China, and other countries
in the Far East. Principal imports of raw
materials comprise American, Chinese, Indian,
and Egyptian cotton.
The head office of the Settsu Spinning
and Weaving Co., Ltd., is at Bingo-machi,
3-chome, Higashiku, Osaka.
bird's-eye view of HIOGO MILL OF KANEGAFUCHI BOSEKI KAISHA (KANEGAFUCHI SPINNING CO., LTD.) — THE COMPANY'S
PRIVATE HOSPITAL AT HIOGO MILL
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
561
Mill
No. of
Spindles
No. OF
Looms
Dimensions
of Mill
(Tsubo*)
Dimensions of
Warehouses
and Other
Buildings
(Tsubo*)
Area of
Ground
(Tsubo*)
Situation
No. of
Labourers
30,720
46,000
79,78«
27,648
54,262
1 1,520
67,112
22,232
.^4.404
40,196
26,880
36,704
75,704
1,866
560
909
4,656
7,133
4,555
3,162
3,092
989
10,387
2,436
5,994
3,630
3,846
3.51 1
8,733
8,652
8,113
5,444
7,148
11,837
3,458
8,418
5,311
12,473
2,775
8,811
3,957
5,359
28,934
59,305
24,706
18,907
27,680
6,428
51,665
7,413
43,375
15,639
40,946
7,674
57,464
Hyogo
Prefecture
Hyogo
Prefecture
Osaka
Prefecture
Osaka
Prefecture
Osaka
Prefecture
Osaka
Prefecture
Osaka
Prefecture
Nara
Prefecture
Nara
Prefecture
Aichi
Prefecture
Gifu
Prefecture
Tokyo
Prefecture
Tokyo
Prefecture
1,677
2,548
2,956
1,294
2,755
615
4,094
1,045
1,898
1,514
i,559t
1,839
3,370
Amagasaki
Hirimo
Kizugawa
Noda
Koriyania . .
Takata ....
Ichinomiya
Ogaki
Fukagawa
Hashiba .
Total
553.170
3,335
62,124
91,756
390,136
27,164
* One tsubo equals 36 square feet, t Spinners work through day and night, looms run 12 hours per day.
KANEGAFUCHI SPINNING CO., LIMITED
The magnitude of the spinning and weav-
ing industry of Japan, and its rapid develop-
ment, constitute one of the marvels of Japan's
industrial growth. There are several large
companies, equal in production capacity to
any concerns in the world, and the amount
of capital invested in the industry can only
be figured by scores of millions of yen. An
example of the vigour and strength of this
trade is found in the famous Kanegafuchi
Spinning Co., Ltd., one of the greatest in
the world. Its capital is Yen 17,427,650.
The annual output runs close to Yen 100,-
000,000. The company's reserves are Yen
I ',585,367; annual profits are approximately
Yen 15,000,000, and it operates twenty-two
mills, etc. Ring spinning spindles for cot-
ton yarn number 533,084, spindles for spun
silk yarn, 62,632, and there are 7,814 power
looms. These figures are eloquent enough
evidence of the strength of the company, but
to appreciate the position occupied to-day
by the Kanegafuchi Co., Ltd., it is necessary
to understand that this development is the
result of barely thirty years' work, that the
company started with a nominal capital of
only Yen 1,000,000, and for some time
worked only one mill.
It was in 1887 that a spinning company was
established at Sumida-mura, in the suburbs
of Tokyo, the place being traditionally known
as "Kanegafuchi." The mill, now known as
"Tokyo, No. i," was equipped with 29,000
ring spindles. This was the cradle of the
Kanegafuchi's great enterprise, for from this
small beginning the company, from time to
time, either through amalgamation, by
purchase, or by extension, expanded into the
largest concern in the spinning and weaving
industry. In 1893 the construction and
equipment of No. 2 Mill was completed in the
same compound at Tok-yo, and two years
later there followed the Hiogo No. i Mill at
Kobe. During the succeeding 22 years the
company obtained control of nine spinning
and weaving companies in the Kansai,
Kiushu, and Chiugoku districts, either
through amalgamation or purchase, while, on
the other hand, it extended on its own initia-
tive and established 14 more spinning and
weaving mills, both for cotton and spun silk.
The company has spared no effort in pioneer-
ing the industry in new fields, and to this end
the Yodogawa Mill for bleaching, dyeing, and
finishing has been started on the right bank
of the Yodo River. Since its establishment
Year
Cotton Spinning
Spindles
Spun Silk Spinning
Spindles
Power Looms
1906
218,080
100
1907
251,792
13,560
100
1908
294,900
19,920
700
1909
301,860
19,920
1,934
1910
374,744
51,832
3,903
191 1
378,316
56,032
4,153
1912
414,076
56,032
4,884
1913
417,852
56,032
5,096
1914
446,308
56,032
6,766
1915
449,580
57.832
6,980
1916
533.084
62,632
7.814
562
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Name
Nature ok
Work
Location of Mill
Tokyo Head Mill
Cotton spinning
and
Suniida-mura, Minami-Katsushika-Gun,
weaving
Tokyo-Fu.
Hiogo Branch Mill ....
Cotton spinning
and
Higashi-shiriike, Hiogo, Kob6 City.
weaving
Judo Branch Mill
Spinning only
Judo-mura, Kita-kawachi-gun, Osaka-Fu.
Nakajima Branch Mill.
Spinning only
Nishi-Nakajima-mura, Nishinari-gun,
Osaka-Fu.
Sumoto Branch Mill . . .
Sjiinning and
weaving
Sumoto-cho, Tsuna-gun, Hiogo-ken.
Tak asago Branch Mill .
Spinning only
Takasago-cho, Kako-gun, Hiogo-ken.
Miike Branch Mill
Spinning only
Ohmuta-shi, Miike-gun, Fukuoka-ken.
Kiininie Branch Mill . .
Spinning only
Sasayama-cho, Kurume-shi, Fukuoka-ken.
Kumamoto Branch Mill
Spinning only
Kasuga-cho, Kumamoto-shigai.
Nakatsu Branch Mill. .
Spinning and
weaving
Toyota-mura, Shimoke-gun, Oita-ken.
Hakata Branch Mill. . .
Spinning and
weaving
Sumiyoshi-cho, Tsukushi-gun, Fukuoka-
ken.
Hanabatake, Okaj'ama-shi.
Okayama Branch Mill.
Spinning and
weaving
Bizen Branch Mill
Spinning only
Shimoishi, Okayama-shi.
Saidaiji Branch Mill . . .
Spinning only
Saidaiji-cho, Jodo-gun, Okayama-ken.
Wakayama Branch Mill
Spinning only
Nakanoshima-mura, Kaiso-gun, Wakaya-
ken.
Joto-mura, Higashinari-gun, Osaka-Fu.
Osaka Branch Mill ....
Spinning and
weaving
Kyoto Branch Mill
Silk spinning and
Tanaka-mura, Otagi-gun, Kyoto-Fu.
wea\'ing
Kamikyo Branch Mill. .
Silk spinning
Higashi-takeyacho, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto.
Shimokyo Branch Mill.
Silk spinning
Aburanokoji, Shimokyo-ku, Kyoto.
Okayama Kenshi Mill . .
Silk spinning
Kadotaoomichi, Okayama.
Shinmachi Branch Mill.
Silk spinning
Shinmachi, Tano-gun, Gunma-ken.
Yodogawa Branch Mill .
Bleaching, dyeing
, and
Tomobuchi, Johoku-mura, Higashi-Nari-
finishing
gun, Osaka-Fu.
the pursuance of a vigourous policy by the
Kanegafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd., has been
consistently followed, and through the ebb
and flow of business, the enterprise has
reached the highest position, not only in the
industry which it leads, but in industrialism
generally in Japan.
Remembering that the company originally
started with one mill and only 29,000 spindles,
the table on page 561, covering a period
of ten years, will demonstrate at a glance
the remarkable growth that has taken
place.
The Kanegafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd., pro-
duces all kinds of cotton fabrics, yam, etc., as
well as spun silk yam, and silk piece goods.
In the six months preceding June 25, 1917,
the total sales were Yen 44,317,044. This
means that the company is not only supplying
a large portion of the demand of the local
market, but it is exporting to a considerable
extent, foreign markets having learned to
appreciate the quality and the productive
capacity of the leading Japanese mills. The
head office of the company is at Sumida-mura,
near Tokyo, but the business headquarters
are at Hiogo, Kob^. Accompanying is a list
of the factories, showing their locations
and the work W'hich is done in each.
The principals of the Kanegafuchi Spin-
ning Co., Ltd., are: Chairman of the Board of
Directors, Mr. Heizaemon Hibiya; Managing
Director, Mr. Sanji Muto; Directors, Messrs.
Narazo Takatsuji, Riokichi Nagao, Junichi
Nagaye, Hachisou Yamaguchi, Masazumi
Fuji, Takeshi Yamaguchi, and Hisakichi
Maeyama. The Auditors are Messrs. Bin
Hiraga, Kuninosuke Kiyooka, Yoshibumi
Murota, Hirota Nozaki, and Zenzaburo
Yasuda. The report and balance sheet for
the six months ended June 25, 191 7, showed
a very healthy state of finances. The net
profit for the period, including Yen 2,977,-
885.97 brought forward from the previous
term, was Yen 7,781,672.64, compared with
Yen 6,222,880.47 for the preceding six
months. From this handsome profit Yen
1,000,000 was added to the reserves. Yen
100,000 was placed to the pension fund.
Yen 100,000 to the fund for the promotion
of welfare of operatives, Yen 150,000 to the
invalided work people and to the relatives of
those who had died dtunng the term, Yen
150,000 as a bonus to officials. From the
remainder, two dividends (ordinary 16 per
cent, extra 24 per cent) were paid, absorbing
Yen 2,993,326.90, and a splendid balance
of Yen 3,288,346.64 was carried forward.
Special mention should here be made that
the Kanegafuchi Company takes a keen in-
terest in welfare work amongst its operatives,
and has spared no expense to fit up hospitals,
sanatoria, conveniences at the mills, and
modem aids, for the improvement of the
conditions under which the many thousands
of hands work.
MOUSSELINE SPINNING & WE.^^VINr,
COMPANY, LLMITED
This company is the pioneer of the mousse-
line weaving industry in Japan, and is rightly
regarded as one of the leaders in the textile
trades of Japan to-day, its plant and factory
arrangements being modem in every sense,
and its poHcy one of the broadest and most
progressive. As the Mousseline Boshoku
Kabushiki Kaisha, the company was first
organised in December, 1895, and was incor-
porated in February of the following year,
operations actually beginning in October,
1898. Since that date, of course, the scope
of operations of the MousseUne Spinning &
Wea\'ing Co., Ltd., has been widely extended.
The capital of the company has been in-
creased, its plant and equipment added to
and improved, and its lines of manufactures
extended to include many products that were
not originally anticipated. To-day the com-
pany has an annual output valued at about
Yen 15,000,000, covering all manufactured
goods produced by carding, combing, bleach-
ing, weaving, and spinning machines, many
of which were first introduced to Japan by
this organisation. Among the products are
mousseline, cotton cloth, bunting (for flags),
cloth for ladies' "hakama," shalloon (for the
use of boxes for gunpowder and other explo-
sives), worsted, and woollen and cotton yams.
The head office and main factory are at
Koryuji, Nakatsucho, Nishinarigun, Osaka,
the buildings covering a large area, and being
constructed on modem lines. There is also
a branch factory at Tsukuda, Chifunemura,
Nishinarigun, Osaka. Some idea of the
capacity of the mills may be gathered from
the statement that the company operates
60,800 spindles and more than 1,700 looms.
There are over 3,000 mill hands, male and
female. The Mousseline Spinning & Weav-
ing Co., Ltd., has done a great deal to remove
the reproach against the textile companies
that they are indifferent to the conditions of
laboiu- in their plants. As a matter of fact,
this company has gone in for a great deal of
welfare work among its employees. The
large number of girls are accommodated in
the dormitories, and are brought up with
family sympathy at the company's expense.
As much as possible has been done to provide
proper equipment for sanitation, and there
are special arrangements for the education of
the girls, for giving them the necessary
attention that they would have in their
homes, for the development of character, and
for the encouragement of habits of thrift.
To carry out these broad ideas of improving
the condition of the workers, the company
has provided dormitories, shops for the pur-
chase of what the workers may require, dining
room, hair dressing room, laundry, kitchen
■ ■ ■"' ij.a-i -imj-gi
IM ^ImT
MOUSSELINE SPIINNNG AND WEAVING COMPANY: MILL AT NISHINARIGUN, OSAKA, SEEN FROM THE CANAL -
INTERIOR VIEW OF FACTORY
564
P R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
where the girls may cook their meals, hos-
pital, school, sewing room, room for instruc-
tion in manners and etiquette, play ground,
and nursing room. There is also a smoking
room. The fresh milk supply for the factory
hands is under the company's supervision,
a dairy being maintained for that purpose.
The Mousseline Spinning & Weaving Co.,
Ltd., has received many honours for the
excellence of its products, and in recognition
of its services to the Empire. During the war
of 1904-5 its organisation was largely devoted
to show what was being done for the care and
improved treatment of factory hands. This
exhibit attracted a great deal of attention
locally, and when the manufactured articles
were displayed in London at the exhibition,
the company received the highest awards.
Apart from the immense business done
for domestic needs, the Mousseline Spinning
& Weaving Co., Ltd., is engaged in a large
export trade, its goods being in strong
demand in foreign markets, where their
excellent quaUty is freely admitted. The
concerns of its kind, controlling and leading
the important secondary industries of Japan.
It is the oldest company in the muslin-
weaving business, and has been all along the
pioneer in developing the local and foreign
trades. The origin of the Jomo Company
dates back to 1894 when a small concern
was formed under the name of the Woollen
Goods Weaving Co., with a capital of only
Yen 20,000, the organisation taking place
under the auspices of the Tatebayashi
people, who were interested in starting such
KITA-KU, OSAK.\, NORTHWARD FROM ROOF OF MITSUKOSHI
to meeting the needs of the Imperial Army capital of the company at the time of writing an enterprise. For several years the
and Navy, and in recognition of the patriotic is Yen 7,500,000, of which Yen 6,250,000 is old company carried on, making slow
work then done, the company received a paid up. Reserves amount to Yen 875,000, progress and overcoming many initial
certificate of merit from the Bureau of and a further sign of the financial stability difficulties. It was reorganised in April,
Decorations. Various kinds of mousseline and sound policy of the company's manage- 1902, as a limited liability company under
and buntings have been sent as exhibits to ment is the fact that the large sum of Yen its present title, and some idea of its devel-
intemational expositions, where the highest 739,000 has been written off for depreciation. opment since that date may be gathered
awards have been gained. More than once The leaders of this important and highly from the following statement of its capital
these exhibits have been purchased by Their successful enterprise are Mr. Katsutaro movement :
Imperial Majesties, and on several occasions Inabata, President and Director; Mr. Suke- Yen
the Emperor and Empress have sent their taro Kawasaki, Director, and Mr. Yokichi ]une iqo-' Capital ^o 000
chamberlains to the mills to inspect the works, Kinbara, Managing Director. In addition, September iqo' 2S00O
and to make purchases for the Imperial there is a directorate of well known business September iqo" So 000
Palaces. In July, 1909, the Commissioners men, besides a strong and highly competent December iqo6 I 000 000
of the Anglo-Japanese Exhibition held in staff of experts, inspectors, etc. Tanuarv iqi'> •» 000 000
London, appointed the Mousseline Spinning Au<nist 191^ . 4000000
& Weaving Co., Ltd., to prepare a typical THE JOMO MUSLIN COMP.\Ny, limited
exhibit of the Japanese textile industries, and The Jomo Muslin Kabushiki Kaisha, or At the time of its reorganisation the Jomo
also to arrange for the display of a model mill Jomo Muslin Co.. Ltd., is one of the largest Mushn Co., Ltd., was manufacturing and
if
PRESENT-DAY lAfPRRSSIONS OF JAPAN
56:
GENERAL VIEW OF KOZUKE FACTORY OF JOMO MUSLIN KABUSHIKI KAISHA
marketing muslin only, but from December,
1906, it began to weave woollen and silk,
and cotton mixed goods, besides muslin.
Further extensions took place in the range
of manufactures, and in August, 1915, the
company commenced weaving all kinds of
materials, and also began the dyeing of its
own output. As the result of strenuous
efforts on the part of the President and
officers of the company, the career of the
Jomo concern has been conspicuously suc-
cessful. New buildings and great improve-
ments in the plant and equipment of the
mills have taken place year by year, follow-
ing on the increases in the capital outlined
above, and to-day the works are entirely
modem and complete in every detail. The
quality of the goods turned out has been
maintained at the highest standard, and it
is generally recognised that the muslin under
the well known brand of <^^JwS> is superior
to most on the market, even including the
best imported brands. This result is "due
to the use of the most approved machinery
known in the trade. The works of the
Jomo Muslin Co., Ltd., are situated at
Tatebayashimachi, Yurakugun, Gumma Ken,
and there is a business office at Sumiyoshicho,
Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. The total area of
land occupied by the company is 30,000
tsubo. The buildings cover 5,500 Isubo
and are of the most modem construction of
brick and stone (brick and wood in the case
of the offices), the factories and godowns
being one- or two-storied as conditions re-
quire. The plant comprises several hundred
machines, and power is supplied from electric
dynamos and a Cornish boiler. Employ-
ment is found in the mills for 250 men and
1,250 girls, the annual wages bill running
over Yen 200,000. An idea of the magni-
tude of the operations of the Jomo Mushn
Co., Ltd., may be gathered from the state-
ment that its mills turn out 10,000,000
yards of muslin per annum, worth Yen 8,000,-
000, and approximately 1,500,000 pounds
weight of woollen and other fabrics, valued
at Yen 6,000,000. Woollen tops and other
raw material are imported from Australia
and the machinery comes from Europe or
America. The principal buyers of the Jomo
products are the piece goods manufacturers
of Tokyo and Osaka, and a large export
trade is done with Europe, India, and the
South Sea Islands. The principal lines of
exports are muslin under the two brands
-<37io5>- and -cCSTo^- Nos. 40 to 80.
Mr. Hisao Matsuo, Managing Director of
the Jomo Muslin Co., Ltd., is a graduate of
Keio University. After some time spent as
a journalist with the "Jiji Shimpo" Sha, he
accepted a managerial position with Messrs.
Murai Brothers, and subsequently became
Managing Director of the Osaka Muslin
Boseki Kabushiki Kaisha, in which position
he was recognised as an able and excellent
executive. In January, 1915, he joined the
Jomo Muslin Co., Ltd., as Managing
Director. Mr. Matsuo encountered a serious
difficulty soon after his connection with the
company. As a result of the European War
the importation of English tops was pro-
hibited, and raw material could scarcely be
olitaincd because of its exorbitant price.
All the mushn companies were seriously
affected by this sudden check on importation,
but the Jomo Company, which had been
using English tops exclusively, was handi-
capped to such an extent that its miUs had
to stop working for a while. At this time of
difficulty, Mr. Matsuo perceived the immense
possibihties underlying the industry, on
account of shortages of material in Europe
and the markets which had hitherto been
dependent upon the continental mills, and
with unusual energy he developed new sources
of raw suppUes, and pushed on with the work
37
566
P R E S E N T - I) A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
in the face of many difficulties. It is ad-
mitted that Mr. Matsuo's strong handling
of a serious situation at that time saved the
Jomo Company from disaster and restored
A F.\RMER S HOME AND FAMILY
it to the prosperous condition in which it is
to-day. Supporting Mr. Matsuo are the
following Directors: Messrs. Tetsujiro Mat-
sumoto, Kiichiro Chikira, Shobei Nakatani,
Riichiro Kagami, and Kiichiro Wakatabi.
Mr. Eihachiro Arai is the General Manager
of the Jomo Muslin Co., Ltd.
THE IMPERIAL FLAX MANUFACTURING
CO., LIMITED
The Teikoku Seima Kabushiki Kaisha, or
Imperial Flax Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is
an amalgamation of four of the most impor-
tant flax manufacturing companies in the
Empire, and the origin of the business really
dates back to 1885, when the Omi Flax Co.
was formed This company, together with
the Shimotsuke Flax Manufacturing Co.,
and the Osaka Flax Manufacturing Co.,
joined forces in July, 1903, under the name
of the Nippon Flax Manufacturing Co. In
July, 1907, the Hokkaido Flax Manufactur-
ing Co. was amalgamated and the new
organisation became the Imperial Flax
Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Some idea of the
strength of this enterprise may be gathered
from the fact that its capital to-day is Yen
12,800,000, of which Yen 800,000 is paid up,
and (June, 1917) there are reserves totalling
Yen 1,400,000. Factories are operated at
Osaka, Otsu, Kanuma, Nikko, and Sapporo
and there are twenty-two flax mills in Hok-
kaido. All the factories are of modem con-
struction, built of stone or brick and equipped
with the latest machinery for the handling
of all classes of products such as flax canvas,
linen duck, hose, linen cloth, linen shirting,
table cloths, napkins, sheets, towels, elastic
canvas, linen yam, seaming twine, linen
thread for lace, fishing net, netting twine,
sewing thread, and all similar lines of hemp
and flax products and manufactures. The
annual capacity is 12,000,000 yards of linen
fabrics and 17,000,000 pounds of yams and
tw'ines. Arrangements are now being made
for the increase in the plant and manufactur-
ing capacity to take care of the rapidly
expanding business of the company.
In addition to its factories the Imperial
Flax Manufacturing Co., Ltd., maintains an
experimental farm for the production of
linseed. The motive power of the different
plants is either steam or electricity, and a
total force of 3,200 horse-power is generated.
The different weaving and spinning machines
have mainly been imported from England
and France. Over 5,000 hands are emploj'ed
by the company. The output of their mills
PREMISES OF THE IMPERl.'VI, FLA.X MANUF.^CTURING CO., LTD., TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
567
bird's-eye view of HIGASHI-KU and NISHI-KU wards, OSAKA
is in great demand in Japan and abroad.
Much of the company's production is taken
by the Imperial Household Department, the
Army and Navy, the Railway Department,
and various other Government offices and the
local trade generally. A steady demand for
the output is recorded, and it is now on the
increase. The export trade has naturally
increased during the war, and the Imperial
Flax Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is now ex-
porting regularly to Great Britain, the United
States, Russia, France, Australia, India,
China, the South Sea Islands, etc., etc.
The principal officers of the company are:
President, Mr. Zenzaburo Yasuda; Manag-
ing Directors, Messrs. Takeshi Doki and
Ryozaburo Saiga; Directors, Baron Kiha-
chiro Okura, Messrs. Gentaro Tanaka and
Shintaro Ohashi; Auditors, Messrs. Shichibei
Ozawa and Zennosuke Yasuda. Mr. Rcnzo
Ejiri is private secretary and Messrs. Jiro
Sakamoto and Suguma Suzuki are Chief
Experts. The head office of the Imperial
Flax Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is at Uragashi,
Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. This company is also
sole agent for the Taiwan Seima Kabushiki
Kaisha of Coroton, Formosa, manufacturers
of jute canvas, gunny bags, Hessian cloth, etc.
SCENE IN UYENO PARK, TOKYO
lELv^
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
569
NIPPON MENKWA K.\BUSHIKI KAISHA
(THE JAPAN COTTON TRADING
CO., LTD.)
Before the cotton spinning industry of
Japan had been long in existence it was
realised by a number of Osaka business men
that there was ample scope for the operations
of a company that would handle raw materials
and keep the mills well supplied from distant
markets, as well as export the products of
extent of the operations of the company is
obtainable from the statement that the
yearly trade in all lines exceeds Yen 200,000,-
000 in value. The present capital stands at
Yen 5,000,000, subscribed, of which Yen
3,500,000 has been paid up. The reserve
funds total Yen 2,750,000. For the half-
year ended March 31, 1917, the profit was
Yen 1,075,755, to which was added the sum
of Yen 196,985 brought forward from the
WAKINOHAMA, KOBfe
the mills to foreign markets. To this end,
the late Mr. Tsuneki Sano of Osaka organ-
ised a meeting of promoters to the number
of twenty-four, and on November 10, 1892,
the Nippon Menkwa Kabushiki Kaisha
came into existence, with a capital of Yen
200,000. With the phenomenal development
of the Japanese spinning industry during
the last decade, the business of the Japan
Cotton Trading Company has grown year
by year, and the capital has had to be in-
creased several times.
Besides raw cotton and cotton yarn, the
company does an extensive business in piece
goods and has recently added the trade in
wool and silk. The company has branches
and agencies at Shanghai, Hankow, I3airen,
Tientsin, Tsingtau, Hongkong, Bombay,
Calcutta, New York, Fort Worth, Moppo,
Tokyo, and Kobe, and operates a cotton-
pressing factory at Hankow. The company
has also good connections at Rangoon,
Alexandria, Liverpool, Buenos Aires, Sydney,
and other trading centres. Some idea of the
previous term. Of the gross sum Yen 500,000
was then added to the reserves, and after
paying directors' fees, and an ordinary divi-
dend of 18 per cent and a special dividend of
12 per cent. Yen 285,240 was carried forward.
The directorate of this important trading
concern comprises Messrs. M. Kita (Presi-
dent), A. Yamada (Managing Director),
K. Suyeyoshi, Y. Baba, and H. Ohka.
BREWING INDUSTRY
This industry is chiefly occupied with the
production of sake, beer, and soy, as wine-
making is still in its infancy, and the distilling
of such spirits as whiskey is hardly yet begun.
It is probable, however, that in the near
future Japan will have her own distilleries and
come into close competition with imported
whiskey, especially among those whose taste
in beverages is not cultivated. Sake and soy,
or shoyu, have been made in Japan for cen-
turies and have naturally reached a state of
development bordering on perfection, though
usually adhering to primitive processes.
Recently, however, the Government has
established a brewing laboratory on scientific
principles, to promote the introduction of
modern methods. Sake, the national liquor,
is brewed from rice, the greatest centre of
manufacture being the region between Kob6
and Osaka. The quality and flavour of sak6
is attributed by the Japanese to the quality of
the water used in its preparation, and the
districts named are regarded as having the
best water for the purpose. The peculiar
merit of this water is said to come from its
possession of a species of bacilli imparting an
agreeable flavour to the finished sak^. A
great difficulty of the sak6 industry is the
inability to keep the liquor unimpaired for
more than a few months, and of not being able
to brew it successfully at all seasons. To
remedy the former defect salicylic acid is used,
while the Government laboratory already
mentioned is introducing methods that are
successful at all seasons, as well as hastening
the slow process which was a great drawback
to the old ways. The annual production of
sak6 is nearly 180,000,000 gallons, worth
about Yen 220,000,000, on which a tax of
some Yen 90,000,000 is imposed annually.
The export of sak^ is about 240,000 gallons,
valued at Yen 4,000,000, going chiefly to
Japanese settlements abroad.
The chief centre of soy brewing is Chiba,
near Tokyo. The most important ingredi-
ents used are parched wheat and salted beans,
and the liquid requires about twelve months
to mature. The new Government laboratory
is trying to introduce more scientific and
expeditious methods, encouraged by the
growing demand for Japanese soy abroad.
The output is about 100,000,000 gallons a
year, which pays a tax of some Yen 5,000,000,
and the value of the export is about Yen
4,000,000 a year.
Beer brewing started in Japan in 1 87 1
under German experts, and has made rather
phenomenal progress in recent years, being
now under native supervision only. The
barley is grown in Hokkaido from imported
seed. The five large breweries in operation
produce about 10,000,000 gallons, of which
there is an increasing consumption at home
and an increasing export abroad, especially
to Oriental countries. Beer halls and bars
are now common in Japanese towns, and the
people have quite taken to the beer habit.
THE KIRIN BREWERY CO., LIMITED
For nearlj' a generation, beer has been
produced in Japan, and the name of "Kirin"
has been prominent in connection writh this
agreeable, beneficial, highly popular beverage.
The history of this famous brewerj' is insepa-
rably connected with that of the growth and
570
PRESENT-nAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
FACTORY GIRLS ENJOYING A CHERRY BLOSSOM PARTY
development of one of Japan's greatest
industrial interests. The company was
originally registered in Hongkong in 1885
under the style of the Japan Brewery Com-
pany. Its capital amounted to some Yen
50,000, and its output was limited to 75,000
gallons per annum, which is even less than
the output of one month at the present time.
Before that, two or three breweries had been
started on a small scale. Their products,
though called beer, were scarcely recognised
as such, and were driven out by imported
beer. In 1888 the total import amounted in
value to some Yen 460,000, but once the
excellent quality of Kirin Beer became known
among customers (and the discriminating
public were not slow to recognise its sterling
value), the importation practically ceased,
and the road was paved for the forthcoming
of the Yebisu Brewerj' in Tokj'o and the
Asahi Brewerj' in Osaka. It is to the prestige
it has won that the company now owes the
privilege of having Kirin Beer consumed in
the Imperial Household and among the upper
classes of the Japanese in general.
In 1899 the company was registered in
Japan under the name of Japan Brewerj' Co.,
Ltd., and its capital increased to some Yen
600,000, which amount was doubled later on,
in 1906. In January, 1907, a technical
change was made in the style of the company,
which became the present Kirin Brewery
Company, Ltd., its capital amounting to Yen
2,500,000. In 1917 the capital was increased
to Yen 5,000,000, which is a hundred times the
original amount, while the works, when the
new brewery near Osaka is finished, will be
capable of producing, from the first year,
over 8,000,000 gallons, which is also over a
hundred times the original output.
These striking figures bear eloquent testi-
mony to the energy and ability of the Direc-
tors and shareholders. It would be unwise
to set bounds to the future ramifications of
the brewery's activity, or to the consump-
tion of the celebrated Kirin Beer. The
local and domestic trade of early days has
begun to conquer foreign markets. During
the past few years, the exportation of Kirin
Beer has developed enoiTnously, not only in
the dominions and colonies — Formosa,
Korea, and Manchuria — but also in China,
Hongkong, the Straits Settlements, Siam,
Annan, British and Dutch Indies, the Philip-
pines, and even British East Africa. Kirin
Beer has a reputation and an increasing sale,
which indicate the universal esteem in which
the brand is held. And when the facts are
examined, this confidence in the genuineness
and high quality of Kirin Beer is found to
be well based. Indeed, the Kirin Beer is now,
and was from the first, prepared from the
best of materials and by a method and ap-
paratus highly scientific. What the future
will be is a closed book, but it looks as if
the company which produces the best beer
will hold the winning hand.
It is well worth mentioning here that the
ability and undivided attention of the com-
pany's sole agents, Kabushiki Kaisha Meidi-
Ya, have had a great deal to do with its
prosperous development, and with the
establishment of the beer in the favour and
confidence of the public.
The present Board of Directors of the
Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd., is as follows: Mr.
Genjiro Yonei (Managing Director) : Baron
Rempei Kondo, Mr. Furuu Wuriu, Mr.
Tsunenori Tanaka, and Mr. Seizo Ida
(Directors); Mr. Kotaro Mizutani and Mr.
Ryozo Hiranuma (Auditors).
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
571
KABUSHIKI KAISHA MEIDI-YA (THE
IIEIDI-YA CO., LTD.)
For over a quarter of a century, a posi-
tion of high repute and foremost importance
in the wine and provision trade in Japan
has consistently been held by the Meidi-Ya
Co., Ltd. The company's extensive busi-
ness, which is now conducted through ten
offices spread throughout the Empire, was
originally founded at Yokohama in 1885
by the late Mr. H. Isono Having been
graduated from the Tokyo Imperial Uni-
versity, he went over to England and entered
a firm to learn business practically. After
a few years, he returned to Japan full of
ambitious ideas, and in 1885, he opened a
store at Yokohama to deal in provisions and
liquors, while acting as purveyor to the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha. In 1887, Meidi-
Ya took up the sole agency for the sale of
Kirin Beer, which has since won a great
name throughout the Far East and is es-
teemed by the discriminating public as
comparing favourably with famous Euro-
pean beers.
Mr. Isono steadily developed his business,
but he died an early death in 1897, at the
age of thirty-nine years. Thereupon, Mr.
G. Yonei, a relative of the deceased who
had assisted Mr. Isono for a long time, con-
tinued the business of the Meidi-Ya in his
capacity as the guardian of the daughter of
the deceased. In 1903, Mr. Yonei, in con-
cert with Mr. C. Isono, the adopted son of
the late Mr. Isono, reorganised the firm as a
partnership company under the name of
Gomei Kaisha Meidi-Ya. In May, 191 1,
the firm became incorporated as a limited
company under the name of Kabushiki
Kaisha Meidi-Ya (The Meidi-Ya Co., Ltd.),
taking in the chief employees as shareholders,
the present directorate being constituted as
follows; President, Mr. G. Yonei; Vice-
President, Mr. C. Isono; Director and
Manager, Mr. M. Miyaji; Directors, Mr.
K. Sano and Mr. S. Mikami. The company
now has its general office in Tokyo, head
office in Yokohama, and branches in Tokyo,
Osaka, Kyoto, Kobe, Moji, Nagoya, Kana-
zawa, Fukuoka and Seoul. It deals in
Kirin Beer as well as in wines, liquors, pro-
visions, tablewares, tobacco, and toilet
articles, all imported from famous manu-
factories in Europe and America, for the
most of which the company acts as sole
agent. As to the reputation of the com-
pany, nothing could bear more eloquent
testimony than the fact that it has the
honour to hold the special warrant of Ap-
pointment to the Imperial Household. It
is also supplier to the Imperial Navj', and
contractor to prominent shipping com-
panies, such as Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Toyo
Kisen Kaisha, and Osaka Shosen Kaisha.
The Meidi-Ya Co., Ltd.. is sole agent for
Japan for the following firms:
The Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd., Yokohama
(Kirin Beer).
Nunobiki Mineral Water Co., Ltd., Kob6
(Mineral Water).
Suehiro Pasturage, Shimoosa (Hams and
Bacon).
Koiwai Pasturage, Morioka (Butter).
James Buchanan & Co., Ltd., and John
Brown & Co. (Whiskey).
MINATOGAW.A (THE THEATRE STREET), KOBE
m
w.
\m
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
573
Moet & Chandon, Epemay, France
(Champagne).
J. J. Mortier, Bordeaux (French Wines).
Otard Dupuy, Cognac (Brandy).
FUi Gancia & Cic, CancUi, Italy (Vermuthj.
B. Amhold & Co., San Francisco (Ameri-
can Wines).
G. H. Hammond Co., Chicago (Canned
Meats).
E. & J. Burke, Ltd., DubHn (Stout).
THE DAI NIPPON BREWERY COMPANY,
LIMITED
Among the many distinctions which Japan
can claim in connection with its remarkable
industrial progress, is that of possessing the
fourth largest brewing concern in the world.
The largest are Guinness & Co., of Dublin,
Ireland, and Anheuser-Busch of St. Louis,
U. S. A., and the fourth in point of size
and output is the Dai Nippon Brewery Co.,
Ltd., of Japan. The distinction is all the
more remarkable when it is remembered
that the brewing of beer is an industry that
was scarcely known in Japan a quarter of
a century ago, and that beer was introduced
to the Japanese only after the advent of
the foreigners. From about 1874 the quan-
tity of imported beer increased, as the taste
for the drink was acquired by the Japanese.
The importation of foreign beers, mostly
brought from Germany, Great Britain, and
the LTnited States, amounted in value to
about Yen 400,000 per annum for many
years, but since 1897 the quantity' imported
has rapidly decreased, owing to the opera-
tions of Japanese breweries, which have
turned out a high grade product which has
perfectly satisfied the domestic taste. That
this taste is a good one is evidenced by the
fact that foreigners, as a general rule, are
well satisfied with the better-class Japanese
beers, and, furthermore, a large export trade
is being done. Whereas Japan used to im-
port large quantities of beer, the Dai Nippon
Brewery Co., Ltd., alone is now exporting
over Yen 4,000,000 worth of beer per annum
to such countries as China, India, Persia,
Egypt, Australia, the South Seas, and even
to East Africa.
The Dai Nippon Brewery Co., Ltd., is
not only the largest brewing concern in
the Far East, and also the fourth largest in
the world, but it is one of the greatest of
Japanese industrial combines. It really
embraces several companies in one organisa-
tion. Originally the business was that of
the Nippon Brewery Company. In Janu-
ary, 1906, steps were taken to amalgamate
several breweries, and as a result the Nippon,
the Sapporo Brewing Company, and the
Osaka Brewing Company agreed to combine.
The combination was effected on March 26
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MEMORI.^L TOWER ERECTED FOR AN INDUS-
TRIAL E.XHIBITION AT UYENO PARK, TOKYO
of the same year, when a promoters' meet-
ing was held and the Dai Nippon Brewery
Company, Limited, was formed, with a
capital of Yen 5,600,000. With the expan-
sion of the local demand it was soon found
impossible to tvu-n out a sufficient supply
unless the company's plants were enlarged,
and accordingly, in January, 1908, the capital
of the combine was increased to Yen 12,-
000,000, and the whole of the property and
business of the Tokyo Brewery Company
was bought up. That company's brewery
then became known as the Hodogaya Works
of the Dai Nippon Brewery Company,
Limited, and the plant was exclusively
devoted to the manufacture of cordials and
other non-alcoholic beverages. Since then
the history of the Dai Nippon has been one
of constant increase in output and expansion
of capacity by the increase of plant and the
establishment of new breweries. Plants are
now in operation at Tokyo, Osaka, Yoko-
hama, Nagoya, Hakata, Sapporo, Seoul, and
Shanghai, and the capacity of the combine
is over 270,000 koku, or 16,125,000 gallons,
per annum. The great popularity of the
Dai Nippon products is undoubtedly due,
first, to the high quality, and, second, to the
variety of ales turned out. The company
produces the following well known brands:
"Ebisu," "Sapporo," "Asahi," "Sapporo
Black," "Peace," "Tokyo," and "Munche-
ner." In addition, it makes a diversified
line of non-alcoholic drinks such as "Ribbon
Citron," "Ribbon Raspberry," "Ribbon
Tansan," "Napolin," and malt coffee. The
beer is marketed in bottles and in draught
to the hotels and caf&.
The Sapporo Brewerj', controlled by the
Dai Nippon Company, is one of the oldest
in Japan, and has more than once been
singled out for distinction by the Imperial
Family. When the late Emperor Meiji
visited Hokkaido he paid a visit to the
Sapporo Brewery on August 31, 1 881, and
the present Emperor, then Heir Apparent,
also honoured the brewery with a visit in
August, 191 1, when travelling through
Hokkaido.
Some idea of the financial transactions
of the Dai Nippon Brewery Co., Ltd., may
be gathered from the fact that in the ten
years from its inception, to March 26, 1916,
dividends totalling Yen 11,822,447 were paid,
and in the same period the Government
taxes totalled Yen 14,356,574. This is an
average annual dividend and tax payment
of Yen 1,182,244 ^"d Yen 1,435,657 respec-
tively. The rate of dividend has been
maintained at from 12 to 15 per cent per
annum. The Dai Nippon Brewery Com-
pany, Limited, unlike some enterprises, has
never been subsidised by the Government.
On the other hand, it has contributed to the
Imperial Treasury Yen 2,530,000 more than
it has paid to its shareholders, and when the
value of such an industry to the country
directly, and indirectly through the wages it
pays and the money expended in the main-
tenance of its trade, is considered, it will be
recognised what a nationally important
enterprise it is. In the first ten years of
their existence the Dai Nippon breweries
turned out more than 365,000,000 bottles
of beer. The head office of the company
is at Meguro, Tokyo. The President of the
Dai Nippon is Mr. K. Makoshi.
THE IMPERIAL BREWERY CO., LIMITED
(the TEIKOKU BREWERY KABUSHIKI
kaisha)
The traveller in Japan, or, for that matter,
in the Far East, to-day seldom fails to remark
upon the excellence of the beer supplied by
all the leading hotels, and to express surprise
on learning that it is manufactured in Japan.
It is, however, a fact that the Japanese have
achieved wonders in this direction, as will
be noted by reference to the output and
exportation figures of the principal Japanese
breweries. The organisation of the Teikoku
Brewery took place in 1910, the majority of
the capital of Yen 2,000,000, 25 per cent
paid up, being subscribed by the firm of
Suzuki & Co. (described in connection with
a dozen different enterprises in this compila-
tion), but the company did not actually come
into existence until June, 1912. The con-
struction of the brewerj' was started in the
same month and completed in April, 19 13.
The product, which is labelled "Sakura Beer."
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TEIKOKU BREWERY CO., LTD.: CASKS IX WHICH THE FERMENTING PROCESS T.\KES PL.\CE — HUGE STOR.\GE VATS-
THE OFFICES AND MAIN BREWERY — BOILING PANS — ^THE BOTTLING DEPARTMENT
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
575
II
HIGASHI-KU AND KITA-KU WARDS, OSAKA
was first put on the market in July, 1913, and
very soon created a large demand, so great,
indeed, that it was found necessary to increase
the capacity of the brewery from 59,550
gallons to 202,470 gallons, a further 25 per
cent of the capital being called up for this
purpose.
The outbreak of hostilities in Europe had
a depressing effect on the company's busi-
ness, but during 191 5 the demand became
greater than ever. A considerable part of
the Indian trade formerly supplied by
Great Britain and Germany, principally the
latter, came into the company's hands,
necessitating a yet further extension of the
plant, adding 59,550 gallons to the annual
output, and also increasing the storage
capacity very considerably. Permission was
obtained from the Government to open a
private bonded warehouse in April, 1916, to
afford additional facilities for the importation
of the raw materials and the export of the
product. Domestic sales continued to in-
crease as well as the overseas demand, so
that the plant was again extended in 1916,
and the capacity to-day stands at 2,954,400
gallons annually. The malt works were
enlarged in 1917, and now produce 1,958,000
gallons of malt.
The brewery, located at Dairi, near Moji,
occupies an area of 2,300 tsubo, and is oper-
ated by combined electrical and steam power,
representing a total of 725 H. P. Nearly
300 workmen are employed.
A number of gold and silver medals have
been awarded to the company at both
Japanese and foreign exhibitions, but more
important is the patronage and encourage-
ment received from H. I. M. the Emperor,
who sent his special envoy in the person of
Viscount Kaiyeda to personally inspect the
brewery in November, 1916. The company
took advantage of the opportunity to present
the Imperial Household with a number of
photographs in a beautifully prepared album,
some of which views, eloquent of the excel-
lence and modernity of the plant, we have
pleasure in reproducing.
The officers of the company are Messrs.
Masajiro Miyamoto, Torataro Hiraoka,
Fukutaro Sekiya, Kozaburo Kishi, Ushi-
matsu Sakai (Directors), and (Auditors) Jiro
Fukunaga, Yoshio Kawai, Kawaichi Ishida,
Sozabiu:o Hirano. whilst Mr. Igahiko Sumida
very ably directs the affairs of the company
in the combined capacity of President and
Manager.
Besides exporting to India, the company
exports to China, the Straits Settlements,
and the South Sea islands.
MACHINE MAKING
Japan's great engineering works are
dealt with under a separate heading. Here
it will be sufficient to indicate the progress
made in machine-making, which has been
fair, though still slow owing to lack of skilled
mechanics. Most of the hea\'ier machinery
has still to be imported, such as locomotives,
turbines, engines, electric generators, and
hea%'y railway materials, as well as weaving,
spinning, and printing machines, though
attempts are being made at producing some
of these. Japanese machine shops are con-
fined chiefly to turning out boilers, railway
carriages, lathes, cranes, electric and tele-
phone apparatus. As heavier machines can
nearly all be purchased abroad cheaper than
they can be made in Japan, this side of the
industry suffers a handicap which is not
NIPPON REIKI SEIZO KABUSHIKI KAISHA (jAPAN ARMS AND MACHINERY MAM 1 ACTURING CO., LTD.); GENERAL VIEW OF THE
WORKS AT OSAKA — PUMP-MAKING SHOP — MAKING AUXILIARY PARTS FOR NAVAL USE — -TURNING OUT SHELL FUSES
SEIKO SHOKAI, REPRESENTING THE JAPAN STEEL WORKS, LTD. (KAUUSHIKI KAISHA NIHON SElKOSHOj: 75-TON INGOT ON PRESS —
4,000-TON HYDRAULIC PRESS — THE GUN SHOP — I4-INCH GUN JACKET — 12-INCH GUN
578
PRESENT-DA \- IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
easy to surmount. Many of the factories
still import the smaller parts of the cars they
make, such as wheels, axles, sole-bars, springs,
etc. The Japanese are making their most
conspicuous progress in the . production of
electrical machinery, fixings, and apparatus.
Sewing machines have still to be wholly
imported. The war lent tremendous impetus
to the increase of machine shops in Japan
and to better technical education along
this line. The making of gas and oil engines,
machines used in the fibre industry, and
various kinds of tools and implements is
making gradual progress. The total out-
put of tools and machinery is now about
20,000,000 yen in value annually. Imports of
machinery are still annually over 40,000,000
yen as against only 3,000,000 yen in exports.
Most of the imports in spinning and weaving
machines, motors, electric machines, tools
and implements come from England, Ger-
many, and the United States, England fur-
nishing about one-half of the total. The
more important companies turning out
machinery are shown in the table below.
THE J.\P.\N ARMS AND MACHINERY
MANUFACTURING COMPANY, LIMITED
Up to the outbreak of the European war
the manufacture of arms and munitions in
Japan was confined entirely to the Govern-
ment arsenals, but here again Japan has
profited by the lessons taught by the great
conflict, and the development of such a huge
plant as that of the Japan Arms and Machin-
ery Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is one of the
consequences. This concern, known in Japa-
nese as the Nippon Heiki Seizo Kabushiki
Kaisha, is indeed one of the interesting
developments in the industrial activity of
Japan. It was originally founded as a small
joint partnership company at a time when
Company
Shibaura Engine Works .
Niigata Iron Works
Tokyo Electric Company
Toyoda Machine Works.
CAPITAL
Receipts
Expenses
Dividend
Yen
Yen
Yen
Per Cent
2,750,000
5,347,000
5,082,000
9
1,200,000
1,986,000
1,702,000
10
2,600,000
5,554.000
4,765,000
20
300,000
313,000
208,000
6-5
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. T. Watanabe, Managing Director, Great Japan Petroleum Mining Co., Ltd. — M.. K. Konishi, Pre-
sident, Japan Arms and Machinery Mfg. Co. — Mr. Y. KsTWakita, Piesident, Kawakita Electrical Co., Ltd. (Middle Row) Mr.
Terugoro Fujii, Director, Fuji Steel Co., Ltd. — Mr. S. Hoshino, President, Fuji Steel Co., Ltd. — Mr. Shigeta Fujii, Vice-
President and Director, Fuji Steel Co., Ltd. — Mr. N. Tajima. Member Board of Directors, Great Japan Mining Co., Ltd. (Lower Row)
Admiral Baron Y. Ito, President, Great Japan Petroleum Mining Co., Ltd. — Mr. T. Sakano, Managing Director, Osaka Electric Light
Co., Ltd. — Mr. K. Tsuda, President, Osaka Steel Mfg. Co., Ltd. — Mr. A. Nakagawa, Managing Director, Ujigawa Electric Co., Ltd.
OSAKA STEEL MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.: THE STEEL PLANT — 4OO H. P. MOTOR FOR SMALL BAR MILL - THE SMALL BAR MILL —
THE LATHE SHOP— I5-TON OPEN HEARTH FURN.\CE
58o
P R F, S E N T - D A Y I M P R F, S S I O N S OF JAPAN
the Government and people of Japan began
to realise that they must have private muni-
tion-making plants similar to those in opera-
tion in the foremost countries of Europe, and
in the United States. For a time the com-
pany operated a small plant, but in 1915,
when an order came from Russia for 4,000,-
000 fuses for 3-inch shrapnel shells, a big
opportunity was presented, which the direct-
ors of the company eagerly seized. The
Government arsenals were not in a position
to carry out the order, and it was about to
lapse, owing to there being no private con-
cerns of sufficient experience or strength of
plant to carry it through, when the Japan
Arms Company undertook to fulfil the order.
With such a contract before them the
directors found it necessary to have addi-
tional capital and to reorganise their works.
Consequently, the joint partnership concern
was turned into a limited liability company
with a sufficiency of capital, and the Nippon
Heiki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha was started.
Incidentally it may be said that of the big
Russian order placed with the company
over 2,4.50,000 fuses were made and delivery
given before the end of July, 1917-
At the same time that this large order was
accepted the company was successful in
securing Government orders for machine
parts, pumps, etc., for the Imperial Army
and Navy, work that could conveniently "be
carried on with the part of the plant not
required for work on the Russian order.
These and other contracts have kept the
company's works fully occupied and have
enabled the concern to pay a dividend of 50
per cent every half-year. However, it is
recognised that such a large profit is only a
momentary phenomenon, and it can not be
expected in ordinary times. The directors
have therefore made all arrangements to alter
the plant, as occasion may arise, to enable the
company to manufacture articles for which
there is always a demand in peace time,
though the works will be maintained primarily
for the manufacture of rifles, machine guns,
and other munitionment. It may take some
time to readjust the plant to peace conditions,
but the work is under way and the company
has already carried out the manufacture of
machine parts, pumps, and other requisites.
It is hoped also to make machinery' for silk
and cotton spinning, small machines, and
parts for ships, water and other metres, and
sundry other articles. In this connection the
future of the company should be very bright,
because the industrial development in Japan
is so pronounced, and the demand for machin-
ery can not be met from the countries to
which the industrial concerns looked before
the war. The Japan Arms and Machinery
Manufacturing Company, Limited, fully
FUJ1V.\M.\, FROM SHIRAITO \V.\TERF.\LL
recognises that if the local requirements are
properly filled at the right prices, there will
be no dearth of orders. Having been estab-
hshed scarcely two years, the plant has not
yet been developed as fully as the directors
hope for, but this will be reached in the course
of another year. The capital of the company
to-day is Yen 5,000,000, but under the scheme
of future development it is planned to
increase this largely, and in other ways make
the undertaking the greatest enterprise of its
kind in the Far East. The works of the
Japan Arms and Machinery Manufacturing
Company, Limited, are at Minamihama,
Toyozakicho, in the suburbs of Osaka City.
At present over 1,000 men are employed in
the factory, which is an entirely new building
of most modem design. The plant and
machinery is automatic and designed to per-
mit the greatest output at a minimum cost.
When the works are enlarged as forecasted,
it is expected that from 2,500 to 3,000 men
will be engaged. The President of the
company is Mr. Kiyomatsu Konishi.
THE SEIKO SHOK.A.I
This firm deals extensively in metals,
machinery, shipbuilding material, and elec-
trical appliances, and is under the expert
direction of Mr. Masayuki Naruse, who is the
sole proprietor. Mr. Naruse is particularly
well qualified for the business he conducts,
and his record has estabhshed a confidence in
the Seiko Shokai which largely accounts for
the prosperity which the firm enjoys. Mr.
Naruse, who, by the way, is a brother of Mr.
Masayasu Naruse, President of the Fifteenth
Bank, Ltd., was bom in Kagawa Prefecture,
forty-two years ago. He was graduated
from the Keio College, and won the travelling
scholarship awarded by the Department of
Agriculture and Commerce, entitling him to
proceed to America for five years' business
training. Mr. Naruse closely studied the
subjects of iron works and shipbuilding in the
United States, and on his return to Japan
entered the service of the Kawasaki Dock-
yard Co., Ltd. In this famous company's
employment he spent twelve years, and was
promoted to be Chief of the Godown Depart-
ment. During the Russo-Japanese War he
did valuable service for the Empire and was
awarded the Sixth Rank and the Zuiho
Decoration. Mr. Naruse resigned from the
Kawasaki Company and entered upon busi-
ness on his own account, founding the firm of
which he is now principal.
When the war broke out in 1914 Mr.
Naruse realised the value of large ships, and
to the great siu-prise of his business friends he
was one of the first to invest in shipping,
purchasing five or six vessels, at advantageous
prices. Throughout his business career Mr.
Naruse has shown independent and progres-
sive tendencies. He studies various problems
closely and then acts on his own judgment,
which is sound and safe. In this way he has
made his business very prosperous and he is
regarded as one of the shrewdest of modem
commercial men. The head office of the
Seiko Shokai is at No. 2 Kaigan-dori, 3rd
Street, Kob^, and there are branches at Tokyo
and Hakata. The Tok>-o branch engages in
the direct importation of steel plate, pig iron,
motor cars, machiner}', etc. The Hakata
branch acts as agent for the Kuhara Mining
Company's Hidachi Factory in the sale of
electrical manufactures. The Kobe branch
of the Seiko Shokai trades in shipbuilding
materials, engines, boilers, and machinery
generally, and has special contracts with the
following well known companies: The Japan
Steel Works, Ltd., Shinagawa Fire Brick Co.,
Ltd., the Japan Paint Co., Ltd., the Furu-
kawa Gomel Kaisha, and the S. K. F. Ball-
bearing Manufacturing Co.
THE OSAK.\ STEEL M.\NaT.\CTrRIXG
CO., LIMITED
One of the problems before Japan is the
production of iron and steel. It is largely a
question of getting the supplies of iron ore,
because there are a number of first-class
plants for the treatment of the raw material,
and already in the works of the Osaka Steel
Manufacturing Co.. Ltd., iron and steel ingots
■r-tf:-^.^^'j:iAiy.jLX^:iir3zrr ^
NO'lfj
38
582
PRKSE NT-DAY lAfPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
VIEW OF KOBE HILL
and bars arc being turned out in large quan-
tities. It is confidently expected that these
works will start the production of pig iron
from the ore, a few months hence, and
plans are already nearing completion to
effect that purpose, one proposal being that
the capital of the concern shall be increased
to the sum of Yen 15,000,000.
The Osaka Steel Manufacturing Co., Ltd.,
is the only company of its kind in Osaka,
W'hich is one of the most active centres of
manufacturing industries in the entire Orient.
It was established in 191 5, with a capital of
Yen 5,000,000. Mr. K. Tsuda, the President
of the company, is perhaps the leading iron
merchant in Japan. Mr. Y. Kurimoto is
Managing Director. He is a Master of Laws,
graduated from the Imperial University, and
is, moreover, a thoroughly scientific and highly
experienced iron-master. Mr. Kurimoto is
the owner of the Kurimoto Iron Works, a
member of the Osaka Chamber of Commerce,
and a Director of the Osaka Industrial
Society. The Chief Engineer, and also a
director, Mr. U. Hayakawa, was at one time
Chief of the Engineering Department of the
Yawata Iron Works. These three gentlemen
are well known authorities on the iron
industry of Japan, and vmder their direction
it is confidently expected that the corripany
will have a bright future, and prove of great
service in overcoming Japan's industrial
problem, so far as the production of iron is
concerned.
The head office of the Osaka Steel Manu-
facturing Co., Ltd., and its works are situated
on the western bank of the River Kizu,
Minami-Okajimacho, Nishi-ku, Osaka. They
are connected with the Osaka harbour by the
River Kizu, and the harbour canal, so that
large vessels, bringing raw materials and
other supplies, can be moored directly in
front of the works, thus facilitating and
cheapening the cost of handling cargoes. In
area, the site is about 30,000 tsubo, and the
arrangement and capacity of the plant is as
follows: Two 15-ton open hearth furnaces;
two 25-ton open hearth furnaces; one small
bar mill and one plate mill; annual productive
capacity, 43,000 kilo tons of steel ingots.
12,000 kilo tons of small sized steel bars, and
'7..S50 tons of steel plates. When the plant
is entirely completed it is expected to turn
out 27,000 kilo tons of steel ingots and 20,250
kilo tons of medium sized steel bars and
shapes per annum, in addition to the quan-
tities mentioned above. The importance of
such a production can not be over-estimated,
and when the treatment of iron ore and the
manufacture of pig iron is realised, there will
no doubt be a general feeling of appreciation
of the enterprise which the Directors of the
company have shown.
THE FUJI STEEL CO., LIMITED
The rapid expansion of all industries in
Japan, and especially of such great enter-
prises as shipbuilding and machinery con-
struction, have made Japan a great consumer
of steel, and has disclosed to many of her
best business men the urgent necessity for
making her as far as possible self-reliant in
this direction. There can be no doubt that
the ban on the export of steel from the
United States brought the question more
prominently than ever before Japanese iron-
masters and engineers, and gave impetus to
the movement to provide steel works in the
country, and to open up local or nearby
sources of iron ore. These are among the
reasons which have brought about the
establishment of such a powerful concern
as the Fuji Seiko Kabushiki Kaisha, or Fuji
Steel Co., Ltd.
This company was formally incorporated
on December 5, 19 17, with a registered capi-
tal of Yen 6,000,000, the promoters being
Messrs. Seki Hoshino, Shigeta Fujii, Shinichi
Hara, Shinkichi Tamura, Tcrugoro Fujii,
Katsusaburo Watanabe, Fukusaburo Watan-
abe, Yoshifumi Murota, Ryosaku Kume,
Raita Fujiyama, Shohachi Wakao, Masa-
goro Satow, and others, all well known in
commerce and industrial circles in Japan.
The company plans to manufacture the best
quality of steel castings and forgings, and
special lines of cast iron, steel, gun metal,
etc., as well as many manufactures. An
excellent factory site of 35,000 tsubo has been
secured at Kawasaki, a suburb of Tokyo,
about twelve miles from the metropolis, and
about eight from Yokohama. No better
position could be secured for convenience of
traffic, etc. It is in close contact with the
railways, rivers, and harbours through which
all raw material must come and manufac-
tured products pass. Close by are several
large shipbuilding and engineering plants
which are already large consumers of steel
and iron, and electrical power can readily
be obtained either from the adjacent works
of the Keihin Electric Co., Ltd., or from
hydro-electric sources at a reasonable price.
Now if we turn to examine what this power-
ful company has already done in the brief
time it has been in existence we find that
it has under construction for completion by
the end of March, 1918, a great modem
steel plant on the Kawasaki site described
above. This factory will cover an area of
2,500 tsubo, or go, 000 square feet, and will
be the last word in modern construction and
■t
I
J.\PANESE JUNKS IN KOBE H.\RBOUR
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
583
equipment, the main buildings being of
reinforced concrete, with secondary build-
ings constructed of wood. The foundry is
equipped with Siemens furnaces of 25, 15,
and 10 tons capacity. Besides the above,
a 600-ton press and 200 different kinds of
machines, comprising smaller ]]resses, steam
hammers, large and small lathes, drilling
machines, etc., are installed. As early as
post^ible a 1,000-ton press will be added, and
two 45-ton furnaces, the determination of
the directors being to leave nothing undone
that will make the plant equal to any-
thing in Japan, and capalile of carrying
out any orders that come in. The products
of the works already provided for will be:
(i) All kinds of castings (brass, bronze, iron,
semi-steel, and steel), malleable castings,
chilled castings, etc. (2) Ingots; all kinds
of forgings, such as piston rods, connecting
rods, crank shafts, rudder frames, turbine
rotaries, etc. (3) Special steel, shells, springs,
etc. (4) Special materials for dynamos,
internal combustion engines, aeroplanes, etc.
In addition, the company will undertake the
erection and repairing of any class of land
or marine machinery, and generally will be
in a position to carry out all those under-
takings, great or small, which we usually
associate with a fully equipped iron and
steel establishment. Provision is already
made for the employment of some 1,500
hands, all of whom will be the most
skilled mechanics the company can procure.
It may readily be seen what an important
undertaking this is, and how materially it
will help to solve the serious problem of
making Japan less dependent upon foreign
sources of supply for many of her steel and
iron requirements. A number of these re-
quirements, it is considered in some quarters,
Japan can not possibly manufacture, but in
the case of Fuji Steel Co., Ltd., there is
unbounded confidence on the part of the
directors that they can develop an industry
of a substantial nature, because they have
at their command all the necessary experi-
ence and skilled workmanship. It is hoped
that the new works will be able to
supply the Allies with the best quality
of steel castings and forgings, and after
the war they will be able to meet the
local demand and also export to China,
India and elsewhere. It is claimed that
such raw material as pig iron, etc., can
readily be obtained from local sources, as
well as from Korea, Manchuria, and China,
while the great amount of scrap iron
and steel that is still available in Japan
will make the cost of products moderate.
The company certainly does not lack
influential support. Among the promoters
are the following well known men: Messrs.
Tadasaburo Yamamoto, ship-owner; Fuku-
saburo Watanabe, President of the Watanabe
Bank, Yokohama; Shinkichi Tamura, Presi-
dent of Tamura & Co. and President of the
Kob6 Chamber of Commerce; Seki Hoshino,
President of United Society of Commercers
in Tokyo and member of the Tokyo Chamber
of Commerce; Shohachi Wakao, Director of
the Wakao Bank of Tokyo; Tosuke Yama-
moto, iron and copper merchant, Osaka;
Masanosuke Naoki, match manufacturer,
Kobe; Raita Fujiyama, President of the
Tokyo Chamber of Commerce; Masagoro
Satow, iron and copper merchant, Yokohama;
Keizo Oaki, President of the Oaki Steamship
A FAMOUS TEMPLE ON MIYAJIMA ISLAND
'^^W'' ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^1
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4
TOKYO STEEL AND SPRING WORKS CO., LTD.: THE LABORATORY — THE SPRING TESTING ROOM — -THE ROLLING MILL —
THE SPRING BANDING ROOM — DRAWING OFF THE METAL FROM THE SIEMENS FURN.\CE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
585
Co., Tokyo; Ryosaku Kunic, President of the
Tokyo Gas Co.; Shigeta Fujii, Lieutenant-
General (Reserve) of the Imperial Japanese
Army; Yoshifumi Murota, Auditor of the
Kanegafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd., and Manji
Yotsumoto, ship-owner, KoW.
The head office of the Fuji Steel Co., Ltd.,
is at No. 15 Hiyoshi-cho, Kyobashiku, Tokyo.
The Board of Directors is as follows: Messrs.
Seki Hoshino (President), Shigeta Fujii
(Vice-President), Shinichi Hara, Shinkichi
Tamura, Tadasaburo Yamamoto, Terugoro
Fujii, and Katsusaburo Watanabe. Audit-
ors are Messrs. Yoshifumi Murota, Mohei
Suzuki, and Masagoro Satow.
TOKYO STEEL AND SPRING WORKS CO.,
LIMITED
Although the iron and steel and asso-
ciated industries of Japan have made wonder-
ful strides during the past few years, it is
quite evident that in certain special lines the
country will not be able to supply its own
needs for some years to come. The defi-
ciency in this respect has been most marked
since the outbreak of war, when the normal
importation of such articles as special steels,
springs, tool steel and so on, was seriously
interfered with. The position became worse
when Britain and the United States placed
further restrictions on the export of such
lines. It can, therefore, be readily imagined
what interest attaches to the enterprise
which has been started by the Tokyo Steel
and Spring Works Co., Ltd.
This company came into existence on
April 14, 1917, having been organised by
Mr. Kiyoshi Toh, with an initial capital of
Yen 1,000,000, which has been fully paid up.
It may be well to point out, however, that
the programme before the company is such
a large one, that this initial capital will not
suffice, and accordingly the shareholders
decided at a meeting held in October, 1917,
to authorise a new capitalisation of Yen
3,000,000. The new concern, known by its
Japanese title of the Tokyo Kozai Kabushiki
Kaisha, bought out the Tokyo Steel Ma-
terials Engineering Works in Oshima-machi,
in the suburbs of Tokyo, establishing there
a larger and much better equipped factory,
specially designed for the production of
special steels, springs, etc., so largely in
demand by the various general engineering
works all over Japan. The need for a
standardisation in this class of manufacture
had long been realised by the steel and iron
masters of the country. Mr. Toh has had
a lengthy experience in mechanical engineer-
ing, and he was the right man to undertake
the installation of the new plant.
Mr. Toh was bom in 1872, the second
son of Mr. Y. Wakaizumi, a Samurai, but
was adopted into the Toh family when a
child. He studied in the Higher Technical
College, being graduated from the Engineer-
ing Department in 1894. For ten years he
served as an expert, or expert chief, in the
Kanegafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd., the Ajini
Spinning Company, the Japan Woollen
Spinning Company, and the Fuji Gas Spin-
ning Company. In 1904 he opened his own
engineering works, his mind being fixed on
meeting certain deficiencies which he had
recognised during his experience with the
various concerns mentioned. When with
the Onagi and Fuji companies, fire destroyed
the factories. Repairs to the machinery
were all effected in Japan with the exception
of the replacement of springs, and this gave
Mr. Toh the idea to concentrate on their
production. He opened his own factory,
under the name of the Tokyo Spring Engi-
neering Works, and despite many initial
difficulties made a success of it, his plant
being patronised by the Railway and Naval
Departments. Later on Mr. Toh went
thoroughly into the problem of producing
spring steel, and his works became known
as the Tokyo Steel Materials Engineering
Factory. So that in both of these depart-
ments Mr. Toh was the pioneer, his works
finally being reorganised in the new company
with which we are now dealing.
The steel material department of the Tokyo
Steel and Spring Works Co., Ltd., is equipped
with two Siemens basic open furnaces, with
a capacity of ten tons in one charge, using
scrap or cast iron mixed with ferro-man-
ganese ores, ferro-manganese, and ferro-
silicon. Steel is also produced by the crucible
furnace and electric furnace methods, in
each case the highest quality of material
being obtained at a low cost. The crucible
and electric furnace steels are known in
the trade as high speed steels. Their quality
is so good that the company's product is in
great demand for the same purposes as the
material turned out at the Government
Steel Works, and among the customers of
the new industry are the Imperial Japanese
Railways, the Department of Communica-
tions, and the Navy Department. The
annual output of these various high grade
steels is about 12,000 tons. At the spring-
making shop the Tokyo Steel and Spring
Works Co., Ltd., makes bearings springs,
buffer springs, large helical springs and
others, suitable for the requirements of
railways, military armament, and general
machinery.
It is unnecessary to go farther into the
detail of the important industry conducted by
the Tokyo Steel and Spring Works Co., Ltd.
That such an industry is a natural develop-
ment of manufacturing in Japan is obvious.
and the success which the company has
realised is evidence alike to the soundness of
its enterprise and the appreciation shown by
manufacturers. The direction of the com-
pany is wise and progressive. Not only are the
works and the equipment modern in every
sense, but the welfare and training of the
employees is being attended to in order to
promote the interests of the workmen at the
same time that the general standard of
efficiency is raised. The head office and steel
material shop of the company is located at
No. 50 Oshima-machi, Rokuchome, Minami
Katsushika-gori, Tokyo-fu. The spring shop
is at No. 6,58 Oshima-machi, Nichome.
There are sub-branches at No. 30 Nakano-
shima, Gochome, Osaka, and at Yeiraku-cho,
Seoul, Chosen. Factories and offices cover
about 2,202 tsubo. New two-story buildings
are under construction and will be completed
in February, 1918. The Board of Directors
of the Tokyo Steel and Spring Works Co.,
Ltd., is as follows: President, Mr. Kiyoshi
Toh; Managing Director, Mr. Tomojiro
Hayashiya; Directors, Messrs. Y. Wakaizumi,
Dr. S. Ishimaru and K. Hanai; Auditors,
Messrs. Y. Yamamoto and J. Hayashiya;
Chief Engineer, Mr. R. Endo.
THE KOBE STEEL WORKS, MOJI
BR.\NCH (kabushiki KAISHA KOBE
SEIKOSHO MOJI KOJO)
This concern is but a further example of
the never flagging enterprise of the firm of
Suzuki & Co., the sole proprietors. July 13,
of 191 7, will remain memorable in its history
as the day upon which the construction of
the works was commenced. The inaugura-
tion ceremony took place less than six months
later and work was actually started in March,
19 1 8, in other words, in less than eight months
from the turning of the first sod. A further
section of the works, at present under con-
struction, will be completed with all installa-
tions by August of this year (1918), and will
be ready to operate in September.
It may be observed that there is little to
be said of the achievements of so youthful
an enterprise, but as a branch of the famous
Kobe Steel Works, although working inde-
pendently, it will be admitted that a special
significance attaches.
The new works are located at Dairi, form-
ing one of the imposing group of industries
referred to in the description of the Dairi
Flour MiU, and command a view of the
port of Shimonoseki across the bay. The
buildings, of solid stone and brick, have a
superficies of 5,425 tsubo and are installed
with one 500 H. P., two 450 H. P., four 50
H. P., and two 5 H. P. electrical motors; one
50 H. P. vertical steam boiler, and one
horizontal water-tube steam boiler.
w
B
m
If- i
THE Konii STEEL WORKS: VIEWS OF THE WORKS AT DAIRI, MOJl
PRESENT-DAY I M 1' R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
587
The output takes the form of copper anti
brass pipes and bars, high speed or tool
steel, copper and brass plates, for the pro-
duction of which the works are adequately
installed, the plant including the follow-
ing: Mannesman tube piercing machines,
grooved rolling mills, hydraulic pipe and
bar machines, cranes, etc.
From all reliable indications the annual
output can safely be estimated as follows:
pipes and tubes, 2,500 tons; bars, 2,500
tons; plates, 500 tons, and tool steel, 500
tons. No export is yet undertaken, the
whole of the production being supplied to
the naval and military arsenals of Japan.
The following gentlemen form the Board
of Directors: Iwajiro Suzuki, Esq., Presi-
dent; Shosuke Yorioka, Managing Director
(Kob^) ; Sakamitsu Morito, Managing Direc-
tor (Dairi); Messrs. Kasinon Tamiya,
Mantaro Matsuda, and Chujiro Matsuo,
Directors, and Messrs. Koro Yoshii and
Fujimatsu Yanagida, Auditors.
HAKODATE FISH NET MANUFACTURING
AND shipbuilders' SUPPLY CO.,
LIMITED
This old established company practically
controls one of the important industries of
Japan, viz., that of making fishing nets, twine,
and many shipping supplies, such as chain
cable, rigging, etc. The business has been
brought to a state of high perfection, mainly
through the efforts of Mr. Yasutaro Okamoto,
the President, who has been connected with
the industry all his Hfe. Mr. Okamoto had
his own factory in operation more than
thirty years ago. It was in April, 1911, that
he formed the Hakodate Fish Net Co., which
was an amalgamation of the Okamoto Fish
Net Co. and the Hokkaido Machine Made
Net Co., Ltd.'s, business department. The
original capital was Yen 100,000. For one
year the new company conducted operations
on a moderate scale, but more recently great
extensions have taken place. In December,
1912, the capital was increased to Yen 200,-
000. The following year the company was
turned into a joint-stock concern, and the
title was altered to the Hakodate Seimosengu
Kabushiki Kaisha, at the same time as the
ship-chandlery business of Hidzume Shoten
was absorbed, and the capital was increased
to Yen 300,000. A further increase of the
capital by Yen 30,000 was made in November,
1916, when the whole of the interests of the
old Hokkaido Machine Made Net Co., Ltd.,
were purchased. Finally the capital of the
company was raised to Yen 1,000,000, on
September 20, 1917. Of this sum, Yen 497,-
500 is paid up, and the sundry reserves and
undistributed balances total Yen 656,473, a
very satisfactory financial position.
CABLE CHAIN WORKS OF HAKODATE FISH NET & SHIPBUILDERS' SUPPLY CO., LTD.,
AT FUKAGAWA, TOKYO
The head office of the Hakodate Fish Net
Manufacturing and Shipbuilders' Supply Co.,
Ltd., is at No. 84 Suyehiro-cho, Hakodate
City. A branch office is at No. 100 Suyehiro-
cho, Hakodate, under the management of Mr.
K. Suyetomi. The main Shipping Supplies
Department is at Nos. 31 and 32 Higashi-
hama-cho, Hakodate, under the management
of Mr. H. Hidzume. Through this depart-
ment the company deals extensively in
copper, iron, ship fittings and materials,
machinery, engineering requisites and so on.
The Tokyo branch office is at No. 14 Kita-
shimbori-cho, Nihonbashi-ku. Here the com-
pany does an extensive trade as importers
and salesmen of engineering plant and
machinery, steel and iron material for ship-
building, rails and other railway equipment,
and general import and export. The Manag-
ing Director of the compan)^, Mr. T. Hidzume,
is in charge of this important department.
There is also a Shipping Supplies Department
at Otaru, Hokkaido, under the management
of Mr. S. Yashiki, and a Fish Net and Fishing
Supplies Branch in the same port under Mr. Y.
Akio. It will therefore be seen how widely
spread throughout Japan the company is
The principal factories are located as
follows: No. I Factory, for the production of
cotton yarn, twisted thread, and machine
made fish nets, at No. 5 Goryokaku-dori,
Hakodate; No. 2 Hakodate Factory, for
cotton yarn, twisted thread, and machine and
hand made nets, at Kameda-mura, near
Hakodate; No. 3 Hakodate Factory, for
machine made nets, at Matsukaze-cho,
Hakodate; No. 4 Factory, for machine and
hand made nets, at Naibo-mura, near Sap-
poro; No. 5 Factory, for strong hemp thread
and machine made nets, at Sendai; No. 6
Factory, for strong hemp thread, at Tamachi,
Hamamatsu. Last, but not least, is the
modern and well equipped chain cable making
factory at No. 116 Higashi, Hirai-cho,
Fukagawa-ku, Tokyo. Here the Hakodate
Fish Net Manufacturing and Shipbuilders'
Supply Co., Ltd., has established a very
important industry, turning out chain of all
sizes, and particularly hea'vj' cable for ships'
use. Some idea of the development of the
company's vast interests may be gathered
from the figures relative to the production of
various articles. The following tabulation
shows the annual production for the periods
mentioned:
Dec., 1914 — Nov., 1915 Yen 1,571,405
Dec, 1915 — Nov., 1916 " 1,981,871
Dec, 1916 — Sept., 1917 " 3,891,780
The total area covered by the company's
various factories is 3,860 tsiibo. Included
in the plant are 230 patented machines for
fishing net manufacture, etc., and the number
of hands engaged is over 1,250. Following
are the principal officers of the company:
President, Mr. Yasutaro Okamoto; Managing
Directors, Messrs. Kojiro Suyetomi and
Teitaro Hidzume: Director, Mr. Sanjiro
588
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
- f*
PORTABLE UNIVERSAL RADL\L DRILLING MACHINE, BUILT BY KISHA SEIZO KAISHA (LOCO-
MOTIVE MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.) — TYPE OF LOCOMOTIVE BUILT BY THE FIRM
kinds, and about 8,000 tons of bridge work,
otc.
The company's sites cover about 28,000
tsubo, and the buildings have a ground area
of 7,000 tsubo. Annual sales total Yen
4,580,000. Nearly 2,000 well trained work-
men are employed.
The Locomotive Manufacturing Co., Ltd.,
includes among its clients the Imperial Rail-
way Bureau, the Formosa Railways, the
South Manchuria Railway Co., Mitsubishi
Shipbuilding Yard at Nagasaki and Kob6,
Naval Arsenals, the Military Arsenals at
Osaka, Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Kob6,
Osaka Iron Works, Ltd., Okura & Co., and
Takata & Co., Alfred Herbert, Ltd., and
many customers in India, China, and the
South Seas. Agents for the company are
Takata & Co., Tokyo, and Alfred Herbert,
Ltd., Yokohama.
Following is a list of the principal lines of
this well equipped company: Railway loco-
motive, steam motor car, passenger car,
goods and steel coal car, steel bridge-work,
turntable, railway point and crossing, engi-
neering machinery and general structural
steel and iron work, etc.
The staffs of the Locomotive Manufactur-
ing Co., Ltd., includes Mr. Izuha, manager
and chief engineer at the Osaka works,
assisted by 84 technical experts, and Mr. S.
Murakami, manager and chief engineer at the
Tokyo branch works, assisted by 50 technical
experts.
Dr. S. Hasegawa (Doctor of Teclmology)
is the Managing Director. The Board of
Directors comprises Mr. R. Hiraoka as
Adviser. The Auditors are Messrs. T.
Tanabe and T. Hano. The company's main
workshops and head office are at Shimaya-
cho, Nishiku, Osaka, and the Tokj^o work-
sliops are at Kinshi-cho, Honjoku, Tokyo.
Sugino; Auditors, Messrs. Kunitaro Kamei
and Zenkichi Tachikawa; Advisor, Mr.
Koichiro Oguma.
LOCOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING CO.,
LIMITED
The Kisha Seizo Kaisha, or Locomotive
Manufacturing Co., came into existence in
September, 1896. It was promoted by the
late Viscount Inouye, who w'as a pioneer of
railways in Japan, and was originally a joint-
capital concern with a capital of Yen 640,000.
Since that time, of course, the industry has
developed rapidly, and the company has gone
from one stage of success to another, until
to-day it must be numbered among the very
large industrial manufacturing concerns of
the coimtr>'.
In July, 1 90 1, the Hiraoka Factory at
Tokyo w-as purchased by the company and
was made the Tokyo branch works. The
style of the company was altered in October,
1912, and it became a joint-stock liabiHty
organisation. The following month the
capital was increased to Yen 2,700,000, of
which sum Yen 975,300 has still to be called
up as the necessity arises. The company's
reserve fund amounted to Yen 674,051 in
August, 191 7.
The Locomotive Manufacturing Co., Ltd.,
builds locomotives and passenger and freight
cars for the Government or for pri\-ate rail-
ways. The number so far constructed is
over 10,000, and in addition, the company
has built about 45,000 tons of steel work for
bridges. An idea of the manufacturing
capacity of the company's plants may be
gathered from the statement that the annual
output is 100 locomotives, 200 bogie cars,
3,500 freight cars, 500 machines of different
NIIGATA TEKKOSHO
The remarkable development which has
taken place in the industrial life of Japan is
in no direction more pronoimced than in
mechanical engineering, and in the manu-
facture of machinery. Japan possesses to-
A&y some of the greatest engineering and
construction plants in the world, and their
services have been of immeasurable value to
the Allied cause in this war. We have only
to consider the shipbuilding plants, and the
works that have been placed on munition
making to recognise this fact. In no way
secondary to these large enterprises are the
machine shops and engineering works, from
which a steadily increasing output of mechan-
ical appliances, necessary to the various
industries and construction concerns, is
being recorded. In this category of impor-
tant enterprises is the name of the Niigata
OSAKA ELECTRIC LIGHT CO., LTD.: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VIEWS OF THE WORKS AND THE POWER STATION
590
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Tekkosho, or the Niigata Engineering Works,
Ltd. This company has been engaged for
years in the manufacture of all kinds of
plant for industrial and public utility work.
In its works and yards, perfectly equipped
to handle any orders, the company is engaged
in the building of oil engines, for stationary
and marine use, and several kinds of machine
for over 1,500 persons, and the annual
salaries and wages bill exceeds Yen 470,000.
At the present the Niigata Engineering
Works, Ltd., has an average annual output
of work of the value of Yen 3,500,000, and
its capacity is being increased to take care
of any future orders. The products of the
plants are, of course, largely destined for
GENER.'iL VIEW OF F.\CTORY .^ND MACHINE SHOP OF K.^BUSHIKI K.\ISH.\ XIIG-\TA TEKKOSHO
(niigata engineering works, LTD.)
tools, especially in their Tokyo works; the
manufacture of many classes of pumps, and
hea\'y pumping machinery for big under-
takings; oil well machinery, steam engines,
boilers, and also the building of ships of wood
and iron.
The business was founded in 1895 by the
late Mr. Gonzaburo Yamaguchi, and Mr.
Hisahiro Naito, who is now President of the
Japan Oil Co., Ltd. The original capital
w-as Yen 100,000, but with the grow'th of
the business this w-as extended and increased
on several occasions until to-day its stands
at Yen 2,000,000. The head office of the
Niigata Engineering W^orks, Ltd., is at
No. 5, Sanchome, Yurakucho, Kojimachi-
ku, Tokyo. At Tokyo the works cover an
area of two acres; at Kashiwazaki, one acre;
at Nagaoka, 0.7 acre; at Tsuchizaki, 15
acres. The principal works are at Niigata,
where the company's property extends over
forty acres. All the plants are modem in
every sense, the most accurate machines and
labour-saving appliances being utilised. The
buildings are of brick, steel, and reinforced
concrete, constructed on up-to-date lines,
and specially designed for the work which
the company carries on. In the various
plants and the offices employment is found
use in Japan, but the company also manu-
factures for the foreign markets and is now
exporting to Russia, China, Australia, and
India. The President of the company is
Mr. Tatsutaro Yamaguchi. Mr, Kichiro
Sasamura is the Managing Director, and the
Directors are as follows: Messrs. Hisahiro
Naito, Shinsaku Homma, and Sansaku
Kagitomi. The principal officers are: Audi-
tors, Messrs. Hidesaburo Kusumi, Chutaro
Nakano, and Kuranosuke Saito; General
Manager, Mr. Kichijiro Nagashima: Super-
intendent of Sales Department, Mr. Sataro
Kumazaki; W^orks Manager (Tokyo), Mr.
Tadashi Motogi; Works Manager (Niigata),
Mr. Kozo Kigawa.
OSAKA ELECTRIC LIGHT CO., LI.MITED
This great company, which has a capital
of Yen 21,600,000 fully paid up, was estab-
lished in 1888, the promoters being Mr. Z.
Konoike and nineteen others, who sub-
scribed the original capital of Yen 400,000.
Business was actually started in May, 1889,
with a small generating station at Ajikawa
in Osaka. Generally speaking, the company
experienced a successful career in its initial
stages, and the business expanded steadily,
calling for increase in capital and the erec-
tion of new plants at such places as Saiwacho
and Honden. Furthermore, the Osaka Elec-
tric Light Co., Ltd., established power
stations in W'estern Japan at such centres
as Moji, Sakai, Saseho, and Maizuru, but
these outlying stations and plants were sub-
sequently sold to other concerns and the
company concentrated attention on the
growing demands of the rapidly developing
great commercial and industrial centre of
Osaka. In 1906 a contract was entered
into with the city authorities for the lighting
of Osaka, and that arrangement has con-
tinued ever since, the contract leaving the
company a fair margin of profit above instal-
lation and running expenses. Up to 1897
the sole business done was in the sale of
electric current for lighting purposes, but
after that date the Osaka Electric Light Co.,
Ltd., generated current for power purposes,
and it is now disposing of over 5,500 horse-
power for industrial purposes. A large
generating plant was installed at the Ajikawa
station in 1908, and the stations at Saiwacho
and Honden were then aboUshed, further
pow'er being obtained under contract with
the Ujigawa Electric Co., Ltd., from the
latter's water-driven plant at Ujimachi.
The demand on the company's generating
capacity rapidly increased as Osaka rose in
commercial and industrial importance, and
two new stations had to be provided, one at
East Ajikawa and the other at West Ajikaw'a,
a combined capacity for 25,000 kilowatts.
With this system installed, and the supply
from the Ujigawa Electric Co., Ltd., in
operation, the old station at Ajikawa was
abolished. Since the war, however, the
development in Osaka has been so rapid
and phenomenal, that the Osaka Electric
Co., Ltd., has been forced to make further
large extensions in its plant. To this end a
new station has been opened at Kasugade,
and the following generating force is being
installed: West Ajikawa, 5 turbo-generators,
made by Westinghouse, each of 3,000 k. w.,
1 ,800 r. p m. ; East Ajikawa, 2 turbo-genera-
tors (Westinghouse), each of 5,000 k. w. ,
1,800 r. p. m. ; I turbo-generator, made by
the Mitsubishi Co. at Nagasaki, 12,500,
1,800 r. p. m.; and 2 generators of 25,000
k. w., each 1,000 r. p. m.
In addition to the supply of current for
lighting and power purposes, the Osaka
Electric Light Co., Ltd., manufactures and
sells electrical machinery and instruments,
and is the owner of several investments in
electrical undertakings. A factor^' was es-
tablished in 1894 at Nakanoshima, Kitaku,
Osaka, for the manufacture and repair of
machinery and instruments used by the
company, and for the public. Since that
time several new factories have been built.
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UJIGAWA ELECTRIC CO., LTD.: THE OVERFLOW — THE OS.\K.\ OFFICES — THE REGULATOR GATES — UJI POWER HOUSE
592
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
and the manufacturing side of the company's
enterprise has been widely extended, one
particular line being the production of cotton-
coated copper wire for general installation.
Factories were established at Nakanoshima,
Sakai, and Nishinoda. hut the latter was
in its various plants, factories, and offices.
The head office of the company is at No.
60 Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, O.saka. The
Directors are Messrs. T. Sakano, J. Tcrada,
B. Hiraga, T. Shima, and the Auditors are
Messrs. T. Fujita, N. Nagata, and S. Gion.
A TEMPLE AT NIKKO
destroyed by fire in 19 17. Thereupon the
company purchased a site belonging to the
Osaka Iron Works, and another factory was
erected there. When the works are fully
equipped and organised according to present
plans, it is expected that the output of
electrical machines, appliances, wire, etc.,
and repairs will amount in value to over
Yen 4,000,000 per annum. Viewed from the
financial point, the business of the Osaka
Electric Light Co., Ltd., has been highly
successful. From the first half of 19 10 a
sound system of distributing profits has
been followed, and this has had the result
of equahsing dividends and strengthening
the position of the company. For the half-
year ended June 30, 191 7, the gross revenue,
including the balance brought forward from
the previous term, was Yen 4,278,137.05,
which latter, deducting gross expenses of
Yen 2,738,730.40, resulted in a net divisible
profit of Yen 1,559,406.64. From this sum
a dividend of 12 per cent was paid, absorbing
Yen 1,152,000; Yen 255,000 was placed to
reserve; a bonus of Yen 55,000 was distrib-
uted, and Yen 87,406 was carried forward.
The dividend of 12 per cent has been paid
regularly every half-year since 191 5. In-
cluding the technical stafl, the Osaka Elec-
tric Light Co., Ltd., employs 2,401 persons
UJIGAWA ELECTRIC COMPANY,
LIMITED
Japan is fortunate in the possession of
ample sources of water power, the value of
which has been recognised by several enter-
prises, such as the Ujigawa Electric Company,
Limited. This company furnishes the busy
industrial and commercial city of Osaka with
an immense volume of electrical current for
light and power, at a price that for cheapness
can hardly be outdone, and it is indeed
questionable whether this fortunate state of
affairs is not largely responsible for the
remarkable growth and prosperity of the
important industries located in that city. As
an engineering enterprise, the work of the
Ujigawa Electric Co., Ltd., is one of the
largest in Japan. The company was organ-
ised in October, 1906, and the following month
obtained authority to develop its plans and
enter upon the supply of electrical current.
Preliminary surveys and other works occupied
the company till December, 1908, when it
started on the installation of its power plant.
The construction of channels, tunnels and
other works occupied several years, and
business with the public was not actually
entered upon till August i, 1913, when Osaka
found herself in possession of one of the best
power systems yet devised. The Ujigawa
Company's scheme comprises the tapping of
the River Seta at Ishiyama Village in the
Province of Omi; a power station at Ujimachi,
and several substations in Osaka and its
environs. At Ishiyama an inlet was made on
the right bank of the River Seta, which flows
out strongly from Lake Biwa. The water is
taken into the company's channel at the rate
of 2,200 cubic feet per second, and is then
conducted by channels and tunnels 36,790
feet long, with a slope of i in 2,000, to the
electrical power station at Ujimachi. The
water reaches the turbines through six iron
pipes of 8 feet inside diameter, having a fall
of 203.77. The turbines, of spiral type,
mo\'e at 360 revolutions per minute, and
develop 8,100 horsepower. The turbines and
generators are installed in a brick building
which covers 626 Isubo. There are six
generators, each having a capacity of three
phases, '60 cycles, and 12,000 volts, 7,000 kilo
volt amperes. The total volume of electricity
generated by this plant is 48,600 horsepower.
A part of this power is sent to the Toji sub-
station of the Kyoto Electric Light Co., at
Higashi Kujo Village, Kyoto, the main line
being about 8 miles in length and carrying a
load of 12,000 volts. The other part of the
power (raised to 55,000 volts) generated at
Ujimachi goes by wire, a distance of 22 miles,
to the Noye substation, Osaka. There the
current is reduced to 11,000 volts, and is sent
to the two substations of the company at
Yebiye and Dotombori, in which the current,
being once more reduced to 3,500 volts, is
distributed to Osaka and its environs. Other
substations are now being constructed for the
further supply of current. Since the business
was opened in 19 13 the demands on the
Ujigawa Electric Company's service have
steadily increased, and at the end of August,
191 7, the total horsepower employed was
43,268, covering 4,191 factories and works.
The company is also supplying 20,000 kilo-
watts to the Osaka Electric Light Co., 4,000
kilowatts to the Kyoto Electric Light Co.,
and 2,000 kilowatts to the Osaka Electric
Tramway. So rapid has been the advance
of industrial enterprise at Osaka, however,
that the Ujigawa Electric Company's service
is likely to prove insufficient in the near
future. An extension is contemplated and
the company has already lodged an applica-
tion with the authorities for permission to
install another water power generating plant
to produce 25,000 kilowatts, and a fire power
plant for 30,000 kilowatts. As permission
for the latter has already been granted this
work will be put in hand.
THE KAWAKITA ELECTRICAL COMPANY,
LIMITED
A LARGE item in the foreign trade of Japan
is the export of electrical machinery, appli-
KAWAKITA DENKI KIGYOSHA KABUSHIKI KAISHA (KAWAKITA ELECTRICAL CO., LTD.): THE OSAKA OFFICES — GENERAL VIEW
OF THE WORKS — INTERIOR OF THE ELECTRIC WORK AT OSAKA
594
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
anccs, and parts, the manufacture of which
has developed to a remarkable extent within
the last few years. It is; indeed, a matter of
j!;reat surprise to all foreign students of the
industrial growth of Japan, to learn that a
country which about twenty-five years ago
imported its first electric motor, should
to-day be not only supplying the great
bulk of its own domestic requirements, but
exporting some millions of yens' worth of
regarded by other electrical concerns as good
profitable undertakings, tiut the Kawakita
Company made them successful. The com-
pany also reorganised some already existing
plants, and turned them into profitable
enterprises, by bringing to bear on the under-
takings sound business methods and proper
technical control, in place of bad administra-
tion and faulty engineering. As examples of
the company's success in this direction may
fan-motors and other ventilating appliances,
watt-hour meters, mine lamps, and other
electric installation apparatus and materials.
Some idea of the extent of the productive
capacity of the manufacturing plant may be
gathered from the statement that the works
turn out over Yen 3,800,000 worth of electri-
cal goods and appliances per annum, among
which are the following items: dynamos and
motors. Yen 2,000,000; pole transformers.
electrical manufactures annually. Electrical
manufacturing enterprises are not industries
that come naturally to any country. To be
successful they must have behind them large
organisations of capital and technical skill,
and the degree of importance to which such
enterprises have attained in Japan is evidence
of sound business knowledge, capable manage-
ment, and close study of electrical .science.
Amongst the greatest of the Japanese
concerns in this branch of industry is the
Kawakita Denki Kigyosha Kabushiki Kaisha,
or the Kawakita Electrical Company, Ltd.
This company is not a very old one, but it has
had a remarkably successful career, and is an
enterprise that bids fair to rival some of the
greatest electrical manufacturing organisa-
tions of the world.
The Kawakita Electrical Co., Ltd., was
organised in July, 1909, as an ordinary com-
pany, with a comparatively small capital, but
with plenty of financial support available
through the friends of the founder of the
enterprise. At first the company endeavoured ,
acting as promoters and financiers, to estab-
lish a few hydro-electric light and power plants
in the western part of Japan. Some of these
undertakings, for instance, were the Miye
Kyodo Denki Kaisha, the Ohmi Suiryoku
Denki Kaisha, the Hase Suiden Kaisha, and
others. These schemes had not hitherto been
VIEWS IN ARASHIYAM.\, KYOTO
be cited the Nagasaki Dento Kaisha, the
Hiroshima Dento Kaisha, and the Matzuye
Dento Kaisha. Attention was directed also
to the manufacture of certain lines that could
be produced locally in competition with
imported goods. In the meanwhile the
Kawakita Company was reorganised in April,
1913, into a joint-stock company, with a
capital of Yen 1,000,000. After achieving
good results as a manufacturing concern the
company extended its factory, as well as its
sales department, and at present is carrying
on business with a capital of Yen 3,000,000,
which is to be increased in the near future.
The company's branches to-day comprise:
The manufacture of electrical machines;
import and export of electrical appliances,
machinery, parts, etc. There is hardly a
branch of electrical manufacturing that is not
conducted in the extensive works of the
company. Moreover, the Kawakita Electri-
cal Company, Ltd., is interested very largely
in electrical engineering in its broader aspects,
operating as a general contracting company
for electric installations, plants, and projects,
carrying out public and civil undertakings,
and acting as promoters and financiers of
electric light and power schemes. The manu-
facturing side of the enterprise embraces the
making of every kind of electrical machinery,
dynamos, motors, transformers, switch-boards,
Yen 400,000; large transformers. Yen 500,000;
table and ceiling fans, Yen 600,000; watt-hour
meters. Yen 100,000; and other appliances,
Yen 200,000. The customers of the company
comprise practically all the electric Ught,
power, and railway companies in Japan,
mining, spinning, and industrial companies
generally, and factories where electricity is the
motive power. The bulk of the export trade
is done with China, India, and Australia, but
many new markets are being opened up
The Kawakita Electrical Co., Ltd., has an
exceptionally large and modem factory at
Imafuku near Osaka. The site is about
20,000 tsubo, with extensions now going on
to make the area 60,000 tsubo. In this
fine plant, which covers about 4,000 tsubo,
the best and most modem machinery in
Japan is installed, giving the company the
greatest productive capacity and ensuring
economy of manufacture, with the highest
quality of goods. A feature of the instal-
lation is the excellent testing machinery,
which ensures the highest standards of
accuracy in all manufactures. Electric pow-er
is employed throughout. Apart from the
technical experts and clerical staffs, totalling
300, in the various oflSces and at the works,
about 1,500 hands are employed regularly.
As importers and exporters of electrical
manufactures, or the materials thereof, the
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
595
TWO VIEWS OF THE PREMISES OF THE CHICHIBU ELECTRIC WIRE WORKS, LIMITED
company has a very wide range of operations.
Imported lines include electrical sheet iron,
magnets, insulation materials, and other
requisites for the manufacture of machines
and apparatus, as well as some imports of
completed manufactures. The imports come
from the United States, Great Britain,
Switzerland and other countries.
The head office of the Kawakita Electrical
Co., Ltd., is at No. 65 Itchome, Dojima-
Hamadori, Kita-ku, Osaka. A large stor-
age godown is maintained at Fukushima.
There are branches of the company at
Sonczaki in Osaka, and also at Tokyo,
Fukuoka, and Shanghai, and sub-branches at
Niigata, Sendai, Sapporo, Kyoto, Hiroshima,
Kokura, Ohita, Nakatsu, Taihoku (Formosa),
and Amoy (China). Agencies are estab-
lished at Moji, Nagoya, Nagasaki, Kuma-
moto, and Daircn, each having showrooms
and godowns of larger or smaller capacity.
Mr. Y. Kawakita, founder of the enter-
prise, is the President of the company, and
his co-directors are Messrs. J. Noguchi and
H. Koga. Mr. P. Raison is the Auditor
and Mr. K. Y'amura the Manager.
CHICHIBU ELECTRIC WIRE MANUFAC-
TURING CO., LIMITED
Electrical engineering has more than
kept pace with other industrial develop-
ments in Japan, and many highly important
associated industries have sprung up. One
of these is the manufacture of electric wire,
cables, etc., and in this work the Chichibu
Electric Wire Manufacturing Co., Ltd., has
taken a foremost position.
This company's business was originally
the private enterprise of Mr. Sadaharu
Chichibu, who began the manufacture of
wire for electrical engineering purposes in
1906, establishing a factory at Aoyama,
Tokyo, for that purpose. The work went
on satisfactorily, and Mr. Chichibu was
able to supply a large portion of the local
demand for wires and cables, so much so
that in 1911 he was compelled to erect a
new and larger factory at Shibuya, Tokj-o.
The output was considerably increased, in
keeping with the expansion of the industr\'
generally, and an export trade was entered
upon. With the outbreak of the European
war and the cutting off of a large portion of
foreign supplies, Mr. Chichibu's industry
developed at a very rapid pace. Capital was
required to enlarge the works and extend
the field of operations, and to this purpose the
private enterprise was reorganised in Septem-
ber, 1915, as a limited liability company.
Mr. Osuke Asano, Professor of Technology,
joined the company, and the plant was en-
larged and improved in various directions.
The company owns a number of patents
dealing with the manufacture of wire and
cable, as well as patents for devices for
testing insulations and so on, it being con-
ceded that some of the best and most modem
ideas are involved in the work. The princi-
pal items of manufacture by this company
are: magneto wire, signal wire, telephone
wire, military telegraphic wire, high power
electrical cables, electric lamp cord, insu-
lating compound and varnish and accessories
for cables, etc. "Chichibu" patented wire
is insulated with an elastic compound that
yields with the bending of the core wire,
instead of India rubber. This compound is
covered with a strong tape made from pure
Japanese paper, and is then covered with
Mi
i^S^5^i¥l
KYUSHU ELECTRIC WIRE MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.: BRAIDING WIRE IN THE WIRE DEPARTMENT — LEAD PLATE DEPARTMENT -
GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORKS AT DAIRI, MOJI
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
597
several layers of protective composition. By
this special process the (juality of the wire
does not deteriorate for a very long time,
and the efficiency of the cable is not aflfected
by moisture, acids, salts, gas, etc. It is
claimed for the wire turned out by the
Chichibu Electric Wire Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd., that it has the following special fea-
tures: It insulates well, stands high pressure
and lasts long; it can be used for electrical
installations at the seashore, hot springs,
mines, and in other cases where a special
class of wire is generally needed; contrary
to rubber insulated wire, the "Chichibu"
wire can be used in conjunction with metals
without any fear; it is light in weight, so
that the cost of transportation is not heavy;
the "Chichibu" wire can be repaired easily,
because the wire does not change into copper
sulphide, and even when the wire is dis-
carded and is cut into small pieces it can be
disposed of as "scrap" material at a high
price; and finally, as the raw material used
is not imported, the "Chichibu" wire can
be made and sold at a low price.
That the company is turning out a high-
class product may be judged from the fact
that testimonials have been received on no
less than six occasions from the Electric
E.xperimental Station of the Imperial Gov--
ernment, and also from the Shibaura Iron
Works, the Asano Cement Company, the
Kanto Sanso Chemical Co., Ltd., and from
the Dai-Nippon Artificial Fertihzer Co., Ltd.
The head office of the Chichibu Electric
Wire Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is at No. 934
Shimo Shibuya, Tokyo. Mr. C. Chichibu
is the President of the organisation.
KYUSHU ELECTRIC WIRE MANUFACTUR-
ING CO., LI.MITED. (KYUSHU DENSEN
SEIZO KABUSHIKI KAISHA)
It is almost impossible to avoid referring
continually to the enormous growth of
Japanese industry, especially since the War,
when entering upon a description of any
particular line of the country's activities,
and this remark has especial weight in con-
nection with the electrical manufacturing
industry. The number of huge companies
manufacturing electrical supplies to-day in
Japan is, to say the least, astonishing, and
although the country has not yet any con-
cern of Westinghouse dimensions, there are,
at least, enterprises with which the Westing-
house Company has thought it convenient
to form intimate connections.
The all-important problem at present
occupying the attention of business men in
connection with Japan is, how peace in
Europe will affect her. We put this ques-
tion, as far as it concerns the wire manu-
facturing industr)', to Mr, Shimpei Higasa,
the astute Managing Director of the Kyushu
Electric Wire Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
Mr. Higasa expressed the emphatic ojjinion
that this trade will be maintained, at least.
He pointed out that Japan ranks high among
the copper-producing countries of the world,
and that rubber is produced nearer to Japan
than to any other great manufacturing coun-
try. Japan produces both cotton and hemp,
and silk to a much more important degree,
which advantages, combined with an ample
supply of labour particularly suited to just
this kind of work, surely warrants an op-
timistic outlook. This gentleman's opinion
sheds an interesting light on the subject.
Moreover, it must be granted that such
observations apply equally to the manu-
facture of all electrical goods.
.\ further indication may be deduced
from the history of the electrical wire indus-
try in Japan.
It is not many years ago since the whole
consumption was imported, and could only
be purchased at very exorbitant rates.
The actual manufacture of electrical wire on
a small and primitive scale was commenced
in Japan in 1888, but made no headway
until about 1903-4, when, in the commercial
movement which followed the Russo-Japanese
War, it received a considerable impetus and
began to show promise of becoming a national
industry of great and increasing importance.
The following statistics referring to the
importation of insulating wire for a period
of five years are illuminating:
1910 Yen 3,232.404
191 1 " 4.076.533
1912 " 5.594.834
1913 " 2,062,519
1914 ■' 1,370,170
In the year 1912 the import will be seen
to have reached its zenith, but note what
was accomplished in two years following,
for in 19 1 4 the importation is seen to have
fallen to no less than 25 per cent of that of
191 2, a fact which becomes even more
significant if we glance at the items which
tell us that the telephone wires and sub-
marine cables imported represented Yen
926,489, and metal-covered wires Yen 374,-
225 of the total. In other words, practically
the whole sum represents the importation of
what must be regarded as specialties. On
the other hand," not only was the whole
consumption of ordinary wire produced in
the country, but the export figures for 1914
show that Japanese manufactured wire was
exported abroad to the value of Yen 393,855.
It is a somewhat difficult matter to obtain
correct figures regarding the total output of
wire in Japan, but manufacturers who may
be regarded as authorities upon the matter
place the figure at well over Yen 20,000,000
annually.
The follovving facts supplied ample and
sound reasons for the promotion of the
Kyushu Electric Wire Manufacturing Co.,
in July, 191 1, with a capital of Yen 250,000,
and Messrs. Shigeo Fujinami, Shimpei
Higasa, Tejiro Uyemura, Notoichi Akao,
Tadasu Uchimura, Yoichiro Ikegaki, and
two other gentlemen, the founders of the
company, have since had cause for satis-
faction in the soundness of their judgment.
The first dividend was declared at 10 per
cent per annum after the company had been
one year in operation. The capital was
later augmented to Yen 500,000, and various
important additions made to the plant and
buildings in order to keep pace with the de-
mands. A 10 per cent dividend was main-
tained until the latter half of 1915, when it
was increased to 15 per cent. One year later
25 per cent per annum was declared and has
been maintained up to the -present.
The factory is located at Dairi, within ten
minutes by electric car of the port of Moji.
The factory buildings are constructed of red
brick, covering 2,240 tsubo. The installa-
tions comprise one 100 H. P. steam engine,
one 200 H. P. steam boiler, one 200 H. P.
motor, one 100 H. P. motor, and various
smaller motors, the total force utilised being
about 480 H. P. With regard to wire
machines the factory is most up to date, the
installations including a 42-inch triple roller,
18 inches diameter; lo-inch twine roller, 36
inches diameter; 36-inch twine roller, 12 inches
diameter; 48-inch twine roller, 14 inches diam-
eter; 28-inch twine roUer, 12 inches diameter;
electrical cranes, water pressure testing
machinery, rubber covering, wrapping, and
cutting machines, rubber drying ovens, etc.
There are 115 workmen and 125 girls
employed, working under the supervision of
a chief engineer and six assistant engineers,
also there is an office stafif of 23, including
the Manager.
The recent movement in Japan towards
the installation of waterworks and other
sanitary arrangements, and the consequent
demand for lead pipes, caused the company
to increase its sphere of operation in this
direction; hence, it is interesting to note
that the factory is at present producing
about 500 tons annually of lead pipe and
about 3,000 tons of lead plate. The output
of wire represents 24,000,000 feet of rubber
insulated wire, 60,000,000 feet of cotton
covered wire, 6,000,000 feet of code wire,
7,200,000 feet of lead covered wire; 7,200,000
feet of twisted wire of all kinds, and 6,000
feet of miscellaneous wire.
The officers of the company are Mr.
Shigeo Fujinami, President; Mr. S. Hi-
39
598
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
VIEWS IN THE FACTORY OF THE JAPAN ELECTRIC WIRE AND CABLE CO., LTD.
gasa, Managing Director; Messrs. Teiji
Inouye, Notoichi Akao, and Tadasu Uchi-
mura. Directors.
THE JAPAN ELECTRIC WIRE & CABLE
CO., LTD. (the NIPPON DENSEN
ICAISHA, LTD.)
The Japan Electric Wire & Cable Co.,
Ltd., was founded in 1908 and is one of the
companies responsible for the surprising
transition that has taken place in this item of
trade. As stated elsewhere in this volume,
the import of v.'ire to Japan in 1912 repre-
sented Yen 5,594,834, a figure which in the
next three years was not only entirely elim-
inated, but exportation initiated to the value
of Yen 393,855 (1914). To the end of 1917
it is conservatively estimated that the wire
exported represented considerably over Yen
20,000,000, and it may be added there is
every indication that the figirre will be greatly
exceeded during 1918.
The works, as will be seen from the accom-
panying illustrations, are up to date in all
respects. They are located in Mukojima,
Tokyo, and the following varied list of wires
manufactured by the company will give a
further indication of the extent and modernity
of tlie plant installed: Bare wares and cables
(copper, steel, and aluminum), rubber insu-
lated wires and cables, lead covered wires
and cables, weather proof wires and cables,
armoured cables, cotton and silk braided
flexible cords, enamel wires, electric bell,
telephone, and telegraph wires and
cables, etc.
It is the boast of the company that although
for years past they have carried on a consider-
able and increasing export trade, filling many
Government orders in connection with
military and naval arsenals, railways and
big power plants in China, Australia, the
South Sea islands. North and South America,
England, Russia, South Africa and else-
where, they have up to date had no com-
plaints, or claim of any description — surely
an enviable record.
The present capital of the company is Yen
1,000,000, and the principal officers are Mr.
S. Ishikawa, President; Managing Director,
Mr. O. Otsuki; other Directors, Messrs. I.
Suzuki and T. Watanabe.
SHI.MADZU SEISAKUSHO, LI.MITED
Japan has rapidly come to the front as a
country in which close scientific research is
made, and it has also proved to be singularly
well adapted for the manufacture of instru-
ments, glassware, porcelain, and a score of
different necessities of medical and chemical
science. In the case of the Shimadzu
Seisakusho, Ltd., the progress made of recent
years is perhaps best displayed. This com-
pany is not only supplying a great portion
of the requirements of Japan, in many lines,
but is also exporting widely, its fame and
reputation having spread to foreign coun-
tries.
The business was established in 1875 by
Mr. Genzo Shimadzu, who is perhaps the
pioneer of the industry of which he is to-day
the acknowledged leader. For many years
it was conducted as a partnership firm, but
to-day the magnitude of the business is so
great tliat it is controlled by a limited
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OK JAPAN
599
t:
SHIMADZU SEISAKUSHO, LIMITED: A PART OK THE STOCK OF CHEMICAL GLASSWARE -
SHOP (brass works)
-THE MACHINE SHOP AND FINISHING
liability company having a capital of Yen
2,000,000, Mr. Shimadzu being President.
The company manufactures and sells physi-
cal and chemical instruments and apparatus,
chemicals and re-agents, precision instru-
ments for general measurements, storage
batteries, accumulators, X-Ray apparatus
and electrical instruments for medical pur-
poses, electrical and other appliances, electric,
gas, water and other devices. Furthermore,
a large business is done in the preparation of
specimens and models of natural history,
pathological, and sanitary models, ana-
tomical models, geographical and other
specimens, and models, medical and chemical
glassware and porcelain, etc., acid-resisting
iron vessels, etc. In fact, there is hardly
a line of such articles which is not handled
by the company, and what can not l)e pro-
duced locally is imported. The output of
the works of the Shimadzu Seisakusho, Ltd.,
is briskly exported to America, India,
Australia, • China, and Russia. There is a
particularly strong demand for the chemical
glassware of the "non-alkali" make, which
is produced under a special process, and has
won a high reputation abroad. The various
instruments are superior in quality and have
a ready sale abroad. A steadily expanding
demand is being experienced for the speci-
mens of natural history and anatomical
models made by the company. The acid-
resisting iron wares, sold under the name
of "Ariron," and the chemical porcelain
which is made under the brand of "S. C. P.,"
have created the most favourable impression
for their special qualities. The Shimadzu
Seisakusho, Ltd., has the selling agency for
the Japan Battery Co., Ltd., a sister com-
pany, and on that account handles the
famous "G. S." battery, the initials being
those of Mr. Genzo Shimadzu.
It may safely be said that the Shimadzu
Seisakusho, Ltd., is a high-class manufactur-
ing company which has done a great deal to
develop the particular business in which it
is engaged, and it is noteworthy that not
only has the company received the highest
awards for the excellence of its products,
when displayed at various expositions, but
Mr. Shimadzu himself has received the
Symbol of Merit with Blue Ribbon, granted
under Imperial Rescript for the conspicuous
services he has rendered to the industry, and
to the manufacturing interests of Japan.
The company over which he presides has
won a high reputation, and anything with
Mr. Shimadzu's name to it, commands the
respect due to his successful record and close
study. The head office of the Shimadzu
Seisakusho, Ltd., is at Nijo, Kawaramachi,
Kyoto, where the main works are established.
There are branches at No. i8 Nishikicho,
Itchome, Kanda, Tokyo; at Kitahama,
Nichome, Higashi-ku, Osaka, and at Nishina-
kasu, Fukuoka, Kyushu. A department for
specimens is also maintained at Kiyamachi,
Kyoto.
The principal officers of the Shimadzu
Seisakusho, Limited, are Mr. Genzo Shim-
adzu, President (also Managing Director
of the Japan Battery Co., Ltd.); Mr.
Genkichi Shimadzu, Managing Director;
Mr- Tsunesaburo Shimadzu, Managing
Director; Messrs. Zensuke Fujii, Seibei
Naiki, and Jinyemon Matsumura, Directors;
and Messrs. Katsutaro Inabata, Sukesaburo
Kawasaki, and Kohei Imu are the Auditors.
6oo
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF J A I' A N
illl
general view of first factory of NIPPON cement CO., LTD.
CERAMICS
Judging from archffiological research, the
making of pottery in Japan dates back, Hke
the silk industry, to prehistoric times, the
earliest examples, of course, being of rather a
crude type. Japan's growing intimacy with
Korea and China in the sixth, seventh, eighth,
and ninth centuries led to the early intro-
duction of finished ceramic art from these
countries, many skilled potters being brought
over from time to time. In the sixteenth
century, Hideyoshi Taiko, who was a great
lover and collector of the finest examples of
Chinese porcelain, encouraged the manu-
facture of finer and more beautiful ceramic
ware around Kyoto, the capital. Korean
potters discovered fine clay at Arita, and from
that time Arita ware became famous for its
beautiful porcelain, as it still is From there
the art spread to Seto and Kutani, which
wares are now admired and in demand the
world over. Most of the Seto ware is of
cheap quality. Nagoj'a has recently been
turning out a very good hard porcelain for
foreign export, as well as Gifu, but the latter
is rather gaudy and fancied only by the more
uneducated classes abroad. For elegance
and general artistic effect Kutani ware appeals
to foreigners and Japanese alike, but in blues,
the Arita ware is still unrivalled. In baking,
wood is still largely used in Japan, but the
old-fashioned method consumes about 20 per
cent of the cost of production and is, therefore,
a hindrance to the progress of the industry,
as well as causing that lack of hardness so
characteristic of much Japanese earthenware.
Coal is, however, finding its way into gradual
use, and with further utilisation of Western
methods Japanese pottery will doubtless be
cheaper and in a sense more durable, but
will, perhaps, not so well deserve to last, as
the use of printing for hand work in decora-
tion does away with that exquisite touch
characteristic of the best Japanese porcelain.
Porcelain forms the bulk of Japan's produc-
tion, but faience, stone-china, and terra-cotta
are finding increased output. In addition to
the usual tableware, fancy pieces, kitchen
ware, and toys, attention is also being given
to making insulators, and sanitary and
scientific appliances for medical and other
apparatus. The total annual production of
Japanese pottery is valued at about 17,000,-
000 yen, of which about 6,000,000 yen is
exported, chiefly to the United States, South
Africa, and Australia. The manufacture of
bricks and tiles is now also a large industry,
equal to about 12,000,000 yen annually.
The table given below will show the pro-
gress made since 19 12.
Year
Potteries
Exports
Enamel
Ware
E.xports
Fire
Brick
Ordinary
Brick
Tile
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1912
1913
1914
1915
16,544,000
17,676,000
15,656,000
17.532,000
6,637,000
5,913,000
6,952,000
5,913,000
247,000
152,000
134,000
228,000
86,000
74,000
3 1 ,000
71,000
1,551,000
1,410,000
1,015,000
1,723,000
4,900,000
4,824,000
4,196,000
3.353.000
11,751,000
1 1,838,000
9,940,000
9,014,000
ASANO PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY, LTD, : THE TAIWAN WORKS — THE HOKKAIDO WORKS — THE KAWASAKI WORKS-
THE MOJI WORKS — THE TOKYO WORKS
602
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The cement industry has been suffering
from over-production, the output equalling
about 5,000,000 barrels, with a home demand
of 2,800,000 and exports naturally increasing.
THE NIPPON CEMENT CO., LIMITED
The Nippon Cement Kabushiki Kaisha
was established in 1885, when the manufact-
ure of Portland cement was inaugurated at a
small factorj' at Tomigawacho, Fukagawa-ku,
though the business was not converted to a
joint-stock company till 1888. To-day this
concern is the largest of its kind in Japan and
has won an international reputation for the
quality of its products, the highest testimo-
nials having been received from directors of
government enterprises, private construction
companies, and general contractors. With
the organisation of the company in 1888 a new
factory was started at Gohonmatsu, and the
capacity of the concern was thereby largely
augmented. At this time there was a great
demand for Portland cement consequent on
the extension of public works and other
enterprises, and the Nippon Cement Com-
pany launched a plan for the extension of its
business in all directions. A suitable site was
obtained for a new factory at Yatsushiro-
machi, Higo Province in Kyushu, and with
the completion and setting in operation of
these works the company became the pioneer
of cement manufacture in Kyushu, which has
since become the centre of the Portland
cement industry in Japan. The factory was
completed in 1890. It has a most advan-
tageous position at the mouth of the River
Kuma, commanding convenient means of
transportation on land and water, and in its
neighbourhood lies the district noted for the
production of raw materials for the manu-
facture of cement, and fuel of excellent
quality. Between l8g6 and 1914 the Nippon
Cement Company carried out further exten-
sion and reconstruction of its factories and
introduced machinery of the latest make,
acknowledged by the cement manufacturers
of the world as the best. Throughout its
career the Nippon Cement Company has
always been abreast of the times in its
methods of manufacture and handling of its
products, and it now enjoys the reputation of
being the manufacturer of the best domestic
cement, and of A-i quality compared with
all other brands, local or imported. Besides
commanding a large portion of the trade
throughout Japan and Taiwan (Formosa),
the company has developed a big export
business with Manchuria, Russia, China, the
South Sea Isalnds, British India, the Dutch
Indies, French Indo-China, the Philippines,
and Austraha. To meet the fast-increasing
demand in various directions the company
has decided on further extension to its
STEPS AT MAYASAN, NEAR KOBE
factories and plant. The products have been
subjected to the most severe tests, not alone
in Japan, but abroad, and on every occasion
have emerged successful and up to the highest
known standards of excellence. Testimonials
have been received from almost every
Government department, and from num-
erous big contracting and construction
concerns.
It is not surprising, therefore, to learn that
the Nippon Cement Company numbers
practically every well known enterprise
among its customers. The share capital of
the Nippon Cement Kabushiki Kaisha is Yen
2,500,000. Its annual output is 1,000,000
barrels. The head office of this important
industrial company is at Nishiimagawacho,
Kanda, Tokyo, with a branch office at Yatsu-
shiro, Yatsushiro-gun, Kumamoto-ken. Sub-
branches are maintained at Osaka and Seoul.
The first factory is at Yalsushiro, the second
factory at Okawa.
ASANO PORTLAND CEMENT CO.,
LIMITED
The Agano Portland Cement Company,
Ltd., is one of the several highly important
Japanese enterprises controlled by Mr.
Soichiro Asano, perhaps the most active and
interesting figure in the history of Japan's
industrial development, with whose name is
associated such great undertakings as the
Toyo Kisen Kaisha and the Asano Ship-
building Company. To give the history of
the company is to write the story of the
development of the cement industry in Japan,
because the Asano Company is the oldest
Portland cement manufacturing concern in
the Empire.
The industry was actually founded by the
Japanese Government in 1871, when what is
now the Asano factory was started in Tokyo,
and was maintained as a State enterprise for
some years. In 1883 Mr. Soichiro Asano,
who is one of the pioneers of the industrial
independence of Japan, took over the factory
from the Government, he having recognised
the necessity, from the point of view of
national economy, of the manufacture of
cement, and he set himself the task of improv-
ing the methods of manufacture, and of
widely developing the industry. The very
latest methods were adobted in the Asano
factor>' and experts were sent abroad to study
the processes in different countries. The result
of this initial work was such that by 1892 the
factory was producing a far larger quantity
than ever before and the popularity of the
home-made article was so pronounced, both
locally and abroad, that in order to meet the
rapidly increasing demand for the Asano
product branch works were established at
Moji.
In 1898 the Asano factory was converted
into the Asano Cement Company, a partner-
ship concern, in order that the operations
might be further extended. This partnership
was reorganised into a joint-stock company in
1913, and Mr. Taijiro Asano, one of the
directors of the new concern, was, for the
fourth time, sent to Europe and America,
accompanied by a staff of experts, to investi-
gate the industry in those countries. In the
year 1914 the capital was increased to Yen
7,000,000 in order to build the works at
Kawasaki, and this move, following on
the erection of a factory in Taiwan, gave the
company a commanding position in the
cement business. A further development
took place in 1915, when the ever-increasing
demand for the company's products, and the
general prosperity of the big concern, led to
the amalgamation of the Hokkaido Cement
Works with the Asano Portland Cement
Company, the former works being continued
as a branch of the main company, after being
remodelled and improved to permit of them
turning out a larger quantity and better
quality of cement than before. The general
activity in the whole economic condition of
Japan, consequent upon an era of great pros-
perity, finally led to a further capitalisation
in 191 7, when the capital was fixed at Yen
15,000,000. This increase has enabled the
company to undertake the enlargement and
remodelling of its five works, and has also
given it a reserve of working capital with
which to exploit the market in all directions.
To-day the Asano Portland Cement Co., Ltd.,
is in a highly flourishing condition, and the
success achieved by Mr. Asano in his forty
years of hard work and enterprise is recog-
'W-
:«:-'-;!
It: &iJ.a
SUZl-KI CEMENT COMPANY: INTERIOR VIEW, SHOWING PART OF THE PLANT— ROTARY KILNS — GENERAL VIEW OF THE FACTORY
IHE SHINAGAWA FIRE BRU K cciMl'ANY, LTD.: GENERAL VIEWS OK TUl-: loKVcl AND OSAKA WORKS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
605
nised and appreciated liy all who understand
what it means to Japan.
The Asano Portland Cement is made from
the best of raw materials, and the consensus
of opinion in the trade is that it is of excellent
quality and liberally exceeds all standard
specifications. Its reputation is well estab-
lished and it is known as one of the highest
grades of Portland cement ever put on the
market, its quality being superior, though
its price is no higher than those of ordinary
cements.
As stated above, the company has five
large works, the head office and No. i factor}'
being at Fukagawa, Tokyo. The branch
offices and works are as follows: Shirakizaki,
Moji; Kamiiso, Toshima, Hokkaido; Takao,
Formosa (Taiwan); Kawasaki, Kanagawa
Ken. Sub-branch offices are maintained at
Satumabori, Osaka; A.sahimachi, Niigata;
Taihoku, Formosa; Seoul, Korea; and
Kiimachi, Dairen. The works of the com-
pany are most modern in their construction,
and the machinery is of the latest pattern,
constantly being improved, to enable the
company to manufacture under the most
economic and practical systems. Skilled
engineers and analysts are in charge, and
the marketing of the products is in the Iiands
of business experts whose experience of the
trade in all its branches is admitted to be
second to none. It is almost unnecessary
to say that such an enterprise has received
the fullest endorsement from the Govern-
ment and the big constructing and engineer-
ing concerns in Japan. The Asano brand
of cement is used by the Army, Na\'y, and
Railway Departments, and the various
harljour and water works, it being specially
recommended by engineers for sea water
constructions. The cement is used largely
throughout the entire East and is also
exported to the Philippines, India, Australia
and elsewhere. It may be interesting to
those in the trade to read the following
results of tests made of Asano Portland
Cement:
No. I. Fineness : Residue on a sieve of
5,776 meshes per square inch, 0.5 per cent;
residue on a sieve of 32,400 meshes per
square inch, 13.0 per cent.
No. 2. Time of setting: Initial setting,
not less than one hour; final setting, not
more than ten hours.
No. 3. Expansion oj neat cement: By
the Le Chatelier apparatus, 3 mm.
No. 4. Soundness: Normal, boiling, tests,
etc., no sign of cracking, crumbling, or
warping.
No. .=;. Specific gravity: 3.12.
No. 6. Tensile strength: Neat briquettes,
700 pounds per square inch (7 days); 800
pounds per square inch (28 days). Sand
briquettes (iC.-f-3S.), 270 pounds per square
inch (7 days); 350 pounds per square inch
(28 days).
CHKMICAI. ANALYSIS
Per cent
Loss on ignition 1 .50
Insoluble residue 0.20
Silica 22 . 20
Alumina 7 . 00
Ferric Oxide 3-50
Lime 62 . 50 .
Magnesia i . 00
Sulphuric anhydride i , 20
The annual output of the various works
of the A.sano Portland Cement Co., Ltd., is
over 6,700,000 barrels. The worthy founder
of this great enterprise is still actively at
the head of the concern as President, and the
General Manager is Mr. Taijiro Asano.
The staff comprises some of the best business
and manufacturing men in Japan, and as
may be gathered from the foregoing descrip-
tion of the enterprise, the activities of the
Asano Portland Cement Co., Ltd., furnish
employment for an enormous number of
hands. It is truly an undertaking of first
rate national importance.
SUZUKI CEMENT COMP.\NY
The Messrs. Suzuki Brothers have been
in the Portland Cement manufacturing indus-
try since 1890, and are well known through-
out Japan for the important part they have
played in the development of the trade.
Their works at Saruyecho, Fukagawa-ku,
in the outskirts of Tokyo, are among the
largest and best equipped in the country,
and the output of the plant ranks very high
in the estimation of engineers and con-
tractors. The business was founded by
Mr. Sahci Suzuki in 1890, when he bought
the Saruyecho factory from the Nippon
Cement Co., Ltd. This factory had been
established some time before Mr. .Suzuki
acquired it, but it was not very successful
until he made it his individual undertaking
and developed its plant and output along
modern lines. For some years Mr. Suzuki
conducted the factory as a private concern,
but in 1904 the business was transformed
into a joint-name company, under which
it is at present run. The company went
in for extensive improvements and wider
development, the machinery being brought
up to date in all respects. A complete
reorganisation took place during 191 5-1 91 6
when the company established the rotary
kiln system to meet the requirements of
the time, and changed the entire plant and
machinery in accordance with the latest
ideas. The Suzuki Cement Company now
has an annual production of 200,000 barrels
of cement, but with an enlargement of the
plant, which is under contemplation, it is
hoped to increase the annual output to
500,000 barrels.
The factory at Saruyecho produces Port-
land Cement by the most approved methods,
employing such plant as the rotary kiln, a
clinker cooler, three crushers, four edge-
runners, three ring roll mills, two vertical
bore mills, seven tube mill, a Kent mill
and four air-selectors, besides three New
Ago sieves and clay and coal dryers. In
addition to the cement factory, the company
has a plant for barrel-making, situated at
Higashi, Ogibashi-machi, Fukagawa-ku. The
area covered by the factories, godowns, etc.,
is 4,557 tstibo, and the buildings are all of
modern construction, consisting of steel
frame, brick, and wood, the main factory
being a three-story structure. The partners
in the company are: Messrs. Mosuke Suzuki,
Kozo Suzuki, Keizo Suzuki, Yasuo Suzuki,
and Seiemon Ayabe. Mr. Mosuke Suzuki
is the President and Messrs. Kozo and Keizo
Suzuki are the Managing Directors, while
Mr. Yoshii, Chief Engineer to the company,
conducts the whole process of manufacture.
The company's product is consumed in
Japan, and is in strong demand for public
works, for reinforced concrete specialties, and
for general engineering purposes.
THE SHINAGAWA FIRE BRICK CO.,
LIMITED
The manufacture of fire bricks is an
ancient industry in Japan, naturally arising
out of the many arts and crafts which are
dependent upon kilns for their completion,
as, for instance, in the case of porcelain and
pottery. But the credit for the introduc-
tion of the industry on a large scale, and
for purely commercial purposes belongs to
the Shinagawa Fire Brick Co., Ltd. It
was in 1875 that Mr. Katsuzo Nishimura
founded the business, and he had with him
at that time Mr. Masayoshi Yamanouchi,
who is to-day Managing Director of the
Shinagawa Fire Brick Co., Ltd. These
two gentlemen may be said to be among
the pioneers of what has now become an
enormous industry. For many years Mr.
Nishimura carried on his works as a private
concern, always adopting new ideas and
modernising his plant as necessity required.
Naturally the development of other indus-
tries, and the general expansion of Japan's
manufactures, offered every advantage to
the concern, but nevertheless the founders
of the business did not find conditions easy,
and it was their energy and determination
that made them so successful. Mr. Nishi-
mura's private interests were taken over
by a company in June, 1900, and three
years later the concern was made a limited
V -
\\^^<\
OSAKA BRICK AND CEMENT COMPANY, LIMITED: HEAD OFFICE — KISHIWADA FACTORY — GENERAL VIEW OF OHAMA WORKS, SAKAI CITY —
INTERIOR VIEW OF GRAPHITE CRUCIBLE WORKS AT SHIJO, KYOTO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
607
liability company with a cai)ital of Yen
2,000,000. Since that time the company
has been conspicuously successful, and its de-
velopment has been rapid. From its start
in a small way, the business has grown to
such an extent that no fewer than seven
factories are. now engaged under the com-
pany's direction in the manufacture of all
kinds of bricks. The head office and works
of the company are at Kitashinagawa,
Ebara-gori, Tokyo Prefecture. The follow-
ing are the branches and works: Osaka
Works, Kizumishima-machi, Minami-ku,
Osaka; Inbe Works, Inbe-machi, Wakegun,
Okayama Prefecture; Yumoto Works,
Yumoto-mura, Ishikigun, Fukushima Pre-
fecture; Taira No. i Works, and Taira
No. 2 Works, Tairamachi, Ishikigun, Fuku-
shima Prefecture, and Akai Works, Akai-
mura, Ishikigun, Fukushima Prefecture.
These works are all modern in every sense.
The buildings are of stone or wood, and the
plant is up to date, efficient, and economical.
Bricks are made from the best materials
and are produced in direct burning round
kilns, square kilns, and gas kilns. In this
connection it may be said that Japan has
a plentiful supply of the right kinds of fire
bricks for all purposes, and the product of
the Shinagawa Fire Brick Co., Ltd., is very
highly regarded by all experts. The com-
pany's works produce about 50,000,000
bricks of different kinds per annum, and
employment is given to 2,500 hands. In
recent years the demand for fire bricks has
greatly increased, and not only is the Shina-
gawa Fire Brick Co., Ltd., patronised locally
by the copper, iron, zinc, and steel works,
gas works and all kinds of chemical and
electrical works and general manufacturers,
but their foreign markets, in the past two
or three years, have been greatly extended
in China, Southern Islands, India, and
Australia. The company is continually in
receipt of large orders from abroad, which
shows how substantial the enterprise is, and
that the praise bestowed on the product as
being matchless in the Orient in name and
fact, is well founded. Mr. Yamanouchi,
Managing Director of this important con-
cern, has had over forty years' experience.
A few years after joining Mr. Nishimura
he was appointed Manager of the original
works, and his service with the company
has been devoted to improving the factories,
keeping the plant up to date, and develop-
ing sources of the very best material. Mr.
Yamanouchi's service to this important
branch of Japanese industry has been
recognised all over Japan, and on September
28, 191 1, he was rewarded by the Govern-
ment for his long service and skilful manage-
ment of the industry he controls. The
DETAIL OF CARVING ON A TEMPLE
principal officers of the Shinagawa Fire
Brick Company, Ltd., are: Managing
Director, Mr. M. M. Yamanouchi; Directors,
Messrs. Y. Fujimura, C. Yasojima, N. Nishi-
mura, E. Toyoshima, and T. Matsui; Audi-
tors, Messrs. S. Urushi and R. Takamatsu.
THE OSAKA BRICK AND CE.MENT CO.,
LIMITED
The history of industrial undertakings in
Japan is not only remarkably interestin<?, but
it is full of surprises to the student of the
country's phenomenal development. In the
case of the Osaka Yogyo Kabushiki Kaisha,
or Osaka Brick and Cement Co., Ltd., one
finds not only that a small concern, started
originally to make acid bottles, has increased
its capital seven hundred fold, and has
gone in for the manufacture of all classes of
articles that might be expected to fall within
the sphere of its activities, but it is also
engaged in cement manufacture and ship-
building on a large scale. In January, 1882,
this concern was known as the Sulphuric
Acid Bottle Co., the purpose for which it was
originally formed being to make earthenware
vessels, more or less on the old lines of manu-
facture. The capital then was Yen 10,000.
The change in the name took place in 1887,
when the capital was increased to Yen 40,000,
and the manufacture of bricks was the only
activity. From that date, however, the
company has never looked back. Factory
after factory was established as regular
increases in the capital took place. In the
one year from February', 1906, to February,
1907, the capital was raised from Yen 180,000
to Yen 860,000 and soon to Yen 1,000,000,
finally reaching Yen 7,000,000 in 1917, an
increase of seven hundred times the original
amount. Throughout this period the range
of operations of the company also extended.
It is to-day producing one-fourth of the total
number of common red bricks manufactured
in Japan, and has an output of 140,000,000
bricks per annum. The kilns operated by
this company are of their own device and have
been patented. The bricks are produced
entirely by machinery under a process which,
it is claimed, renders them less absorbent of
water, and far more durable than other bricks.
A great advantage enjoyed by this company
in the conduct of its factories is that each is
adjacent to a port or a railway and, therefore,
the cost of transportation on raw material
and the finished products is reduced. Brick-
making is only one of the acitivities of this
enterprising company. In the Okajima
factory, cement making is being carried on,
and when the plant is enlarged as planned the
works will have an annual output of 700,000
barrels. Crucibles are also being made at the
Shichijo and Mukomachi works, and when
the purchase of the Kyoto Graphite Crucible
Co., Ltd., is effected as arranged, the company
anticipates a production of 1,300,000 sets a
month, and expects to supply a large portion
of the requirements of the Imperial Army
and Nay>% as well as to carry on a large export
trade. Futhermore, the company makes
fire bricks (8,000,000 pieces per annum), all
classes of house tiles (7,000,000 pieces per
annum), and various other lines associated
w-ith earthenware products, such as terra cotta.
f"-
SAKUKA CKMENT CO., LTD.: LARGE REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEY OF SUITA HREWERY — OFFICES OF THE "OSAKA ASAHI SHIMBUN"-
PREMISES OF THE ORIENTAL SPINNING CO., LTD., OSAKA — BRIDGE IN MINOMO PARK.
ALL CONSTRUCTED WITH SAKURA CEMENT
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
609
To carry on its operations the company
already owns several ships, and it is now
laying down berths in the Kizugawa factory
to construct steamers of considerable freight
capacity. Three berths are already under
construction and it is expected to turn out
from this one yard about 20,000 tons of ships
before the end of 1918, the vessels designed
being of about 2,000 tons. When that pro-
gramme is completed this company will lay
down berths for ships up to 8,000 tons'
capacity each. Such a scheme, it may safely
be said, has never yet been carried out by any
other concern in this line of business, but as
the company is already a large designer of
engineering projects, and a contractor for civil
engineering, its plans for a big future as a ship-
builder should certainly prove successful. For
the first half of 1917 the Osaka Brick and
Cement Co., Ltd., realised a net profit of Yen
1,072,789. From this sum Yen 600,000 was
set aside as a special fund to carry out con-
templated extensions; Yen 292,500 was paid
in dividends, representing 30 per cent per
annum, a bonus of Yen 100,000 was paid to
the staff and workmen in commemoration of
the 35th anniversary of the company, and
other amounts were distributed, leaving Yen
20,016 to be carried forward. The head
office of the company is at Dojiraa, Kita-ku,
Osaka, and there are 11 factories or works.
The ground owned and occupied by the com-
pany is 228,404 tsubo, and the factory
buildings cover an area of 20,609 tsubo. The
principal officers of the company are: Direct-
ors, Messrs. R. Isono (President), K. Hirooka,
S. Otaka, J. Tabata, and T. Hiyoshi. The
Auditors are Messrs. T. Nagao, T. Naka, and
C. Tsuji. It is confidently expected by the
Directors that when the new works planned
are in full operation the profits will be for
each half-year, as follows: From cement-
making. Yen 700,000; from crucibles. Yen
161,000; and from shipbuilding, Yen 1,700,-
000, these figures being in addition to the
profits accruing from brick-making and other
activities.
SAKURA CEMENT CO., LI.MITED
The manufacture of Portland cement has
become a very important industry in Japan.
There are a number of large companies
producing an excellent quality of cement, and
not only is the local demand entirely supplied,
but a valuable export trade with foreign coun-
tries is being done. Occupying a prominent
position among the cement manufacturing
concerns is the Sakura Cement Co., Ltd. In
many respects this company is far ahead of
the others, particularly in its splendid mod-
em equipment of labour-saving appUances.
The Sakura Cement Co., Ltd., was estab-
lished in April, 1907, and a year later its first
factory was opened at the Osaka Constructed
Harbour, formerly known as Blockuard
Harbour. The manufacture and sale of
cement for the local market proved an
immediate success, which is not surprising
considering the rapid development of Osaka,
and in May, 191 3, the company opened its
export department, from which time the real
prosperity of the enterprise must be dated.
A vigourous policy of expansion and improve-
ment was entered upon. The most modern
type of rotary kiln, aero-pulverizer, self-
recording electrical pyrometer and similar
plant was installed, and by June, 1914, the
first factory had been entirely reorganised
and improved, the new plant being put in
ahead of any other cement factory in the
country. The company then established
other factories, and in No. 2 factory the
rotary kiln, 125 feet by 10 feet in diameter, is
said to be the largest of its kind in Japan.
There are other mechanical appliances, such
as the aero-pulverizer and self-recording
pyrometer, which are not to be found in any
other cement works. In May, 1916, a big
limestone field was purchased at Toku-ura,
Oita Prefecture. This field is over 140,000
tsubo in extent, where the lime has been
exposed. With such a valuable source of raw
material, the Sakura Cement Company lost
no time in establishing a second factory, right
on the spot, and equipped it in a manner by
no means inferior to the equipment at No. I
factory. The company's own patented raw
material crusher, and manufacttu'ed cement
crusher were installed, together with the huge
rotary kiln referred to above. Both factories
are most advantageously located for effective
and economical production of cement. No. i
being so close to the harbour permits of easy
transportation for incoming raw materials,
and enables the export operations of the
company to be carried on readily, while No. 2,
being in the centre of a great lime-producing
field, and also adjacent to the port of Moji,
also makes transportation and production
very cheap. The factories have an area
respectively of 15,587 tsubo and 5,000 tsubo.
Electricity and steam are employed at No. i
factory, and electricity at No. 2.
The limestone and clay used are produced
in lyo, Kii, Harima, Kwaji, and Bungo
provinces. The company's method of manu-
facture is to crush the clay and limestone in
stipulated quantities, pulverizing it in a Kent
mill, and then sending it on to a tube mill
where it is reduced to very fine powder. The
mixture is then treated in the rotarj' kilns.
Each factory is complete with all modern
machinery, and No. 2 factory has an aerial
tramway for the conveyance of raw material,
etc. Physical and chemical laboratories
are established at each factory for testing the
cement and for other purposes incidental to
the manufacture of a high-grade product of
uniform quality. Specialities in the Sakura
Cement Company's system of manufacture
are the use of a variable speed electric motor
for the operation of revolving the kilns; the
u.se of the aero-pulverizer for crushing the
limestone into powder as the process of
manufacture proceeds, thus obviating the
necessity for storing powdered limestone and
preventing the danger of fire arising from
such a source, and the use of the radiating
pyrometer which permits of burning the
mixture at a definite degree of heat, thus
rendering the product uniform throughout.
Further guarantees of the even quality of the
company's product are the tests which are
continually being made in the laboratories,
and which result in the maintenance of a
high standard which has won for the Sakura
Cement the highest reputation at home and
abroad. Among the awards won by the
Sakura Cement Co., Ltd., are the following:
Silver medal at the Third Domestic Products
Exhibition, May, 191 1 ; silver medal at the
Japan Furnace Products Exhibition, Septem-
ber, 191 1 ; silver medal at the Osaka Trades
Exhibition in 1916, and various other silver
and bronze medals.
The company employs a technical staff of
60, and about 260 workmen, the two factories
having a combined output at present of 450,-
000 casks per annum. Sakura Cement has
been used by the following enterprises or
companies: Imperial Theatre, Tokyo, Osaka
Asahi Shimbun, Mitsubishi Co. (Osaka
branch building), Sumitomo head office,
Kawasaki Bank (Kobe), Osaka Electric
Light Co. (Head office building), Toyo
Spinning Co., Ltd., Kyoto Electric Light Co.,
and many others. The Sakura Cement is
sold all over Japan and is largely exported to
British India, the Straits Settlements, the
Dutch Indies, the Philippines, Australia,
French India, Siam, China, South Africa,
Manchuria and elsewhere. The head office of
the Sakura Cement Co., Ltd., is at Constructed
Harbour, Nishiku, Osaka, and there are branch
business offices at No. 3 Funadaikumachi,
Dojima, Kitaku, Osaka, and at No. 6 Honzai-
mokucho, Nichome, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo.
The company has a capital of Yen 800,000,
with reserves of Yen 59,300. The President
is Mr. T. Hiraga. Other Directors are Mr.
M. Sakamoto (Managing Director) and Dr.
K. Watanabe. The Auditors are Messrs.
K. Hiro-Oka and K. Kakuma.
IVVAKI CEMENT KABUSHIKI KAISHA
(the IWAKI CEMENT CO., LTD.)
Owing to the boom in the Japanese market
as a consequence of the European war, the
cement manufacturing industry has also
6io
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
CAPTAINS OF INDUSTRY
d) W. H. Kendrick, Manager, Lycett Saddle Co. — (2) C. Amano, President, Japan Musical Instrument Manufacturing Co. — (3) K.
Hara, President, Takasago Life Insurance Co., Ltd.; President, Takasago Industry Co., Ltd., and President, Nippon Yusi K. K. —
(4) Tadahiro Tasaki, Partner, Mitatsuchi Rubber Manufacturing Co. — (5) Nagakuni Tasaki, Partner, Mitatsuchi Rubber Manu-
facturing Co. — (6) HiDET.^TSu TsucHiYA, Partner, Mitatsuchi Rubber Manufacturing Co. — (7) The Late Tada.\tsu Tasaki, One of
the Founders of the Mitatsuchi Rubber Manufacturing Co. — (8) Takuma Ito, Managing Director, Japan Hide and Leather Co., Ltd. —
(9) Taijiro Asano, Director and General Manager, Asano Portland Cement Co., Ltd. ^(10) Kintaro Hattori, Proprietor, K. Hattori
& Co., Tokyo, and President, Seikosha Watch and Clock Manufacturing Co., Tokyo — (11) G. Matsukata, President, Tokyo Gas and
Electric Industry Co. — (12) T. Otani, Managing Director, Tokyo Itagami Kaisha, Ltd. — (13) N. Haseg.\wa, Managing Director,
Takasago Industry Co., Ltd. — (14) M. Yamada, President, Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd. — (15) K. Makoshi, President, Denki
Kagaku Kogyo Kaisha, Ltd., and Dai Nippon Brewery Co., Ltd. — (16) T. Nomura, Managing Director, Oriental Timber Creosoting
Co., Ltd. — (17) T. Shoda, Managing Director, Nisshin Seifun K. K. — (18) G. Yonei, President, K. K. Meidi-ya— (19) S. Osawa,
President and Managing Director, Japan Shoe and Boot Manufacturing Co. — (21) T. Y.wawa, Proprietor, T. Yazawa & Co. —
(22) Clifford Wilkinson, Managing Director, The ClifTord-Wilkinson Tansan Mineral Water Co., Ltd.
I'RESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
6ll
shown an unprecedented activity within the
past year or so. The Iwaki Cement Co. is
one of the two, among many corporations
connected with the industry, which have
made most progress, especially in the eastern
and northeastern districts of Japan.
The Iwaki Cement Co., Ltd., was estab-
lished inNovember, 1907, andis comparatively
of new birth from the viewpoint of the cement
industry in Japan. It was organised at the
time when there took place a fundamental
reform in the method of cement manufacture
in Japan. The company installed the
machines most up-to-date in Europe and
America, and the two kilns now in use are of
the revolving system, "rotary kilns," one
being 100 feet in length and the other 125 feet.
Under the most systematic and scientific
method, the quality of the product is remark-
ably excellent and uniform. Moreover, the
increase in efficiency of work, as well as the
shortening of the process of labour, has
resulted in a considerable decrease in the
cost of production. The foundation of the
institution is getting more and more stable,
because of the rare capability of the manage-
ment. In these circumstances, even in the
time of depression in the cement industry
(1913-14), the company did not fail in adding
an apiiropriate amount to the reserve fund or
in paying dividends. The total sum of the
profit for the fiscal term ended June 30, 191 7,
amounted to 50 per cent of the paid-up
capital, a fact which could not be founil in tlie
record of any similar undertaking.
Since the revolving kiln was first introduced
by Mr. Ransom, the inventor, in England in
1885, an improved machine for use in manu-
facturing cement has been introduced in the
United States, where it has been in practical
use. And it must be noted that though at
present almost all the cement manufacturers
in Japan are profiting by the use of this epoch-
making machine, it was, in fact, the Iwaki
Cement Co. which first adopted it in Japan
and succeeded in its practical use.
In describing the process of industry of the
company in detail, the first thing done is to
crush the limestone, the raw material for the
manufacture of cement, with a crusher; then
it is made into powder by means of a "com-
minutor." The clay is crushed with a rotary
crusher before it is dried with a revolving
desiccator. After the clay is thus dried, and
made into powder by means of an emery mill,
it is mixed up with an automatic steelyard;
then it is reduced to finer powder with a tube
mill, and this i)Owder is poured into a rotary
kiln installed with a gentle gradient from the
top.
From the bottom of the rotary kiln jiure
VIEWS OF THE FACTORY OF THE IWAKI CEMENT CO., LTD.
Term
Paid-up
Capit.\l
Profit
Percentage
Yen
Yen
2nd half-year, 1915
1st half-year, 1916
2nd half-3-ear, 1916
1st half-year, 1917
646,000
646,000
646,000
850,000
54.53"
93.751
203,230
2 1 1 , 1 63
16.9
29.0
63.1
49-7
coal, which is first crushed with a roll-jaw
crusher and then made into powder by means
of a Griffin mill, a Fuller mill, and a selector,
is blown into the kiln with an electric blower.
The limestone and clay on the upper part of
the kiln gradually fall down through the tube.
When they reach the bottom they are melted
and the liquid is conveyed into a cooling
machine, where it is made into clinker. The
DisiPosAL OF Promt
Term
Amount
Brought
Over from
Preceding
Half-year
AND
Profit
Rede.mption
Reserve
Fund
Bonus
Dividends
Rate
Amount
Carried
Forward
TO Ne.xt
Half-year
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Per cent
Yen
2nd half-year, 1915
1st half-year, 1916
and half-year, 191 6
1st half-year, 191 7
'19.7.54
116,166
240,097
3"3.i-2i
10,000
20,000
50,000
50,000
7-500
20,000
28,000
28,500
4,000
7,000
12,000
12,000
25,840
32.300
58,140
85,000
.08
. 10
.18
.20
22,414
36,866
91,957
127,621
6l2
PRESENT-DAY I M I' K IC S S I O N S OF J A 1' A N
TENJINBASHI BRIDGE, FROM SHIN-NANIWA-BASHI BRIDGE, OSAKA
clinker is again reduced to powder with a
comminutor, tube mill. Fuller mill, and a
selector, and finally this powder is packed
into barrels.
The company's factory is situated in front
of the Yotsukura Station on the Joban Rail-
way Line in the northeastern part of Japan.
The capital is at present 850,000 yen, and
the company employs 600 workers. The
daily output is 1,000 barrels, totalling over
350,000 barrels per annum. Limestone, the
principal raw material, is transported from
the Yakuki copper mine, six miles away, and
clay from the neighboiu-hood of the factor\',
both by means of the Tamamura aerial cable
and a light railway. As the factory is located
near the Iwaki coal-pits, the supply of coal is
very convenient.
The quality of the cement produced from
the factory is far superior to w'hat is pre-
scribed by the Department of Agriculture and
Commerce, so that it is enjoying a high
reputation among consumers. The head-
quarters of the business is at No. 23 Yama-
shita-cho, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo, where Mr.
K. Omiya, one of the Directors, manages the
business, while the works is under the manage-
ment of . Mr. M. Okada. There is also a
branch office in Yokohama. The product of
the company is chiefly consumed in the
eastern, northeastern, and Shinyetsu districts,
for railway construction, harbour works,
hydraulic electrical undertakings, water-
works, and drainage, bridges, steel-framed
concrete buildings, etc. The works is said
to be a model one in Japan and is much
frequented by professional engineers.
The Board of Directors consists of Messrs.
N. Yoshinaga, K. Abe, S Iwasaki, R. Okano,
and K. Omiya, and Messrs. H. Muto, O. Kida,
and R. Ota are Auditors.
The tables on the preceding page show
the company's profit within the last two years.
Profit rate is compared with paid-up capital
LACQUER INDUSTRY
On account of its high excellence of form,
design, and execution Japanese lacquer may be
said to hokl first place among the art indus-
tries of the nation, and will be so treated under
the head of Arts and Crafts.
The manufacture of lacquer as an in-
dustry has suffered from excess of output
and decrease of export, the latter being due
chiefly to the use of cheap Chinese lacquer
and imperfect preparation of the wood, which
is fata! when the goods reach a drier climate.
Cardboard imitations from Germany have
also come into competition. About two-
thirds of the lacquer juice used in Japan comes
from China, and being obtained from wild
trees and crudely refined, is always inferior to
the Japanese variety. The most common
ohjccts in lacquer ware are rice and soup
bowls, traj's, cake boxes, glove boxes, and
various household utensils, as well as cabinet
and ornamental objects of exquisite finish
and design.
There are some thirty kinds of plain,
metallic, and coloured lacquer, each with
different names and slightlj' differing in
appearance, gold lacquer, plain and red or
brown being the more popular, and the
articles and designs are infinite in variety.
The beautiful deep red of the Luchu lacquer
is also famous. The great centres of the
nidustry are at Wajima and Yamashiro in
Ishikaw-a, which are famous for good work,
as are also Kuroe, Takamatsu, and Shizuoka.
Lacquer is now finding increased demand for
finishing cars and carriages, as well as for
coating bottoms of w'arships. The annual
output is valued at 10,000,000 yen, of which
about 1,000,000 yen represents exports.
(See also Arts and Crafts Section of this
volume.)
DOTO.NBORI RIVER AT OSAKA. THE VIEW FROM VEBISU-BASHI BRIDGE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
613
SILK INDUSTRY
Japan's natural advantage in having a
climate favourable to the mulberry tree and
the roaring of the silkworm marks her out for
a silk-producing country, while her long
experience in sericulture and silk weaving,
together with a native deftness for delicate
tasks on the part of the people, renders her
still further well adapted to this industry.
Having devoted her attention to silk for more
than fourteen centuries, the industry is
naturally Japan's largest and most important
enterprise. Japan is the largest exporter of
raw silk in the world. By raw silk is meant
the fibre unwound from the cocoons and reeled
into hanks. While the Japanese are experts
in reeling .silk they have made little attempt
at thrown silk, consequently most of the out-
put is exported raw. Spun silk, in contrast
with thrown silk, is made from silk waste,
much as yam is made from wool, and exported
from Japan to weavers in Europe and
America. The most important of Japan's
woven silks is known as habutai, an undyed
material used chiefly for ladies' blouses, and
turned out by Japan of a quality and at a
figure with which no other country can com-
pete. Handkerchiefs, taffetas, crepes and
other goods are also made, their market being
chiefly in the Orient. Among the more
lovely of Japan's silk productions is what is
known as brocade and silk tapestry, at which
Japanese artists are unrivalled. Notwith-
standing the stead)' increase of wages among
silk workers, Japan still produces silk goods
cheaper than any of her rivals. Although
the Government has inspectors and silk
conditioning houses the output is still often
irregular in both quantity and quality, but no
doubt in time a greater uniformity will be
attained. The, annual output of raw silk is
over 184,000,000 yen in value, and woven
goods have an annual value of 123,000,000.
The number of persons connected with the
production of siUc is well over one and a half
millions, and the chief centres of production
are in the districts of Shinshu and Koshu.
(The importance of this industry warrants
a separate article, to which the reader is
referred.)
OTHER INDUSTRIES
Matches first began to be made in Japan
in 1875. As the people had so long been
accustomed to producing fire from flint and
steel, there was considerable prejudice to be
overcome in introducing what was regarded
as "hell-fire," as they regarded the sulphur
match. After an indifferent historj' of ten
years there was a sudden revival in the
industry, with a rapid increase of factories
and an output of over 15,000,000 yen in
annual value. Tlie centre of the industrv is
around Osaka, [iroducing over go per cent of
the total, the varieties being chiefly safety
matches, phosphorus, sulphur, and phos-
phorus sulphide. More than 85 per cent of
the output is exported, chiefly to China,
Hongkong, British India, the Dutch Indies,
the Straits Settlements, Siam, and the United
States, the annual value being over 23,000,000
yen. Technically, Japanese matches need
improvement in some respects, the box and
splints being weak, while the heads are easily
affected by dampness. It is on the strength
of cheapness that Japanese matches compete
so well with Western products, being 45 per
cent cheaper in the markets of Asia.
The paper-making industry is making
remarkable progress of late. Two processes
are carried on, one by hand and the other
the regular machine-made paper. More than
150,000 people are engaged in turning out
paper by the old methods of hand filtering,
the annual output having a value of over
20,000,000 yen. The machine filtering pro-
cess started in 1872 with the establishment of
the Oji Paper Mill, and there are now several
companies, which produce a total valued at
over 44,000,000 yen annually, with an export
value of about 3,000,000 yen. For foreign
paper Japan has been accustomed to get pulp
from Norway and vSweden, but since the war
she has been creating wood pulp industries
in the forests of Saghalien with promise of
abundant supply. But imports of paper
still total over 3,000,000 yen a year.
Soap making is another industry that has
made remarkable progress in recent years.
The largest factories are the Marumiya and
Kwao works in Tokyo, and the Hagiwara and
Haruki factories in Osaka, with one large
foreign factory, that established by Messrs.
Lever Brothers of Port Sunlight, with a
capital of 3,000,000 yen, which has no equal
in Japan for completeness of equipment and
excellence in quality of output. The value
of the annual output of soap in Japan is about
4,500,000 yen for toilet and 2,500,000 for
other soaps, exports of both totalling some-
thing over 1,000,000 yen. Imports of soap
amount to about 200,000 yen a year, of which
more than half is laundry soap. Most of the
exports go to China and Manchuria, as well
as to the South Seas. There is a good deal of
complaint as to the abnormal percentage of
flour used in Japanese soaps, but the Govern-
ment is now exercising close supervision and
the amount of adulteration is to be limited.
Celluloid manufacture began in Japan in
1908 under the auspices of the Mitsu Bishi
Company, with a capital of 1,200,000, and
another factory, established by the Mitsui
Bussan Kaisha, with a capital of 2,000,000
yen. These concerns turn out about 5,000
pounds a year, but owing to technical defects
the results have not been quite satisfactory
in spite of unique advantages as to camphor
supply. Naturally the war lent great
impetus to the manufacture of this article in
Japan.
Artificial fertilizers have come to occupy an
important place in the national economy of
Japan. For centiunes the land was manured
with ordure from the cities and towns as well
as with composite, green manure, and fish
maniu-e, but in recent years artificial fertilizer
has come into use, the production having
trebled in the last ten years. The annual
production is now as follows: Animal origin,
10,562,000 yen; vegetable origin, 11,977,000
yen; mineral origin, 16,314,000 yen; com-
posite, 17,481,000 yen; or a total of 56,389,000
yen annually.
Fish oil is taken chiefly from the whale,
the herring, and the sardine and is used more
abroad than at home, where it is usually used
in cooking only. Methods of extraction are
still crude, foreign manufactures being able to
get almost twice as much oil from the same
quantity of fish meat as the Japanese do.
The annual output is about 48,000,000 gallons
of sardine oil, valued at over 1,000,000 yen;
3,500,000 gallons of herring oil, valued at
about 216,000 yen; 2,500,000 gallons of whale
oil, valued at about 255,000 yen; of other fish
oils, more than a million yen worth is pro-
duced, the total fish oil output for the year
representing a value of more than 2,000,000
yen.
Osaka is the centre of the glassware
industry, where the output is equal to about
6,000,000 yen a year, the chief manufactures
being bottles and sheet glass, the latter having
already driven imports out of the market, yet
the total import of glass of every description
is still over 5,000,000 yen annually.
The button industry is making great head-
way in Japan, the annual production being
now equal to over 2,000,000 yen a year,
exports going for the most part to England,
Germany, and France, especially shell
buttons, while for metal buttons China is the
principal customer. Most of the shells for
buttons come from southern Japan and from
the South Seas. (See the article on the Button
Industry, in Section XIII.)
Factories for making watches and clocks
first appeared in Japan as early as 1887, and
by 191 3 numbered as many as seventeen, the
chief establishments being the Seikosha, the
Ishiwara, and the Yamada, the latter two
making the cases and importing the works.
The Seikosha is by far the largest and most
important establishment, employing about a
thousand hands and turning out 200,000
standing clocks, 100,000 wall clocks, and
80,000 watches a year, at a total value of
about 900,000 yen. Those who formerly
40
6i4
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
purchased cheap timepieces from Germany
have recently turned their attention to Japan
as a source of supply.
Since the introduction of electricity the gas
industry in Japan has been suffering some
reverses but is still thriving, though stocks
have fallen below par. Efforts are being
made to push gas as a means of heating and
to increase the business in l^y-products. The
following are the gas statistics for the year
1914: Xumber of lamps, 1,833,610; heating
installations, 768,066; motor installations,
2,018; cubic feet produced, 5,644,854,000.
The gas industry is chiefly in private hands,
in contrast to electric enterprise, which tends
to become a municipal undertaking. In 1914
Japan had 75 gas works, representing a
capital of 68,521,000 yen, with about 6.000
miles of piping, the capital invested increasing
to over 80,000,000 in 191 7. The gas is
principally from coal, acetylene being still
negligible in amount.
No industry has made more rapid develop-
ment than that of electricity. During the
four years from 1910 to 19 14 the number of
plants increased from 164, with 125,731 kilo-
watts, to 290. with 411,017 kilowatts, while
1 22 new plants are under construction. TIic
above are for .supplying power only. Taking
all the electric undertakings into considera-
tion, there are 1,940 plants with a total of
715,969 kilowatts. About 5,614,000 horse-
power is being generated by water, supplying
2,330,000 kilowatts. This subject will be
found more fully treated under the head of
electric enterprises.
Tlie sugar industry is carried on for the
most part in the Luchu Islands and in For-
mosa, the latter island now producing about
one-quarter per acre that of Java. Sugar
refining with up-to-date equipment did not
begin in Japan until 1895, since when several
companies have been established, making fa-
vourable progress under rebate duties on raw
imports by government concession. The av-
erage consumption of sugar in Japan is about
,S, 500,000,000 pounds a year, a little over
ten pounds per head, while the annual pro-
duction is about 140,000,000 pounds in
Japan proper, with 484,000,000 pounds from
Formosa and 245,000,000 pounds from
abroad. The exports of sugar total over
132,000,000 pounds a year. (See separate
article on Sugar, Section LII.)
Flour milling started in Japan in 1878, but
did not acquire a position of importance
until 1897. The home supply of wheat is
deficient, amounting to no more than 25,-
000,000 bushels a year, of which some
10,000,000 are used for soy making, so that
the amount of wheat available for milling
is only about 15,000,000 bushels annually.
As no less than 20,000,000 bushels are
required to produce the 15,000,000 sacks
turned out from Japanese mills every year,
large imports have to be brought from the
United States, Canada, and Australia.
Most of the flour output is of second grade,
the best flour being still imported from the
United States, amounting in value to
over 1,500,000 yen annually. The total
annual production of flour is now about
SCENE IN THE SHOPPING DISTRICT OF OS.'VKA (HIRAN0-M.\CHI)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
615
600,000,000 pounds, valued at over 37,-
000,000 yen.
The production of peppermint has been
making progress of late, cultivation being
carried on chiefly in Hokkaido. The annual
output is about 170,000,000 pounds, valued
at about 2,500,000 yen, of which a quantity
worth about 1,500,000 yen is exported.
Rubber manufactures are limited to
tires, tubes, and piping, working on a capital
of some 3,500,000 yen, but competition is
keen and as yet the sujiply exceeds the
demand.
The vegetable wax industry has declined
in late years, but recently there have been
signs of recovery owing to a revival of the
demand from abroad. The total annual
output is valued at over 2,000,000 yen, the
value of exports being over 1,000,000 yen.
Vegetable oils are extracted chiefly from
rape seed, sesame, cotton, linseed, and
camillia, the total annual output being
worth about 16,500,000 yen.
Vegetable indigo, which before the war
with Russia amounted to 80,000,000 pounds
a year, was superseded by artificial indigo
from Germany. But the European war
having stopped imports, the natural indigo
crop has been revived, producing now about
12,000,000 pounds a year, valued at 1,232,-
223 yen.
Straw, chip, and hemp braids have in-
creasing demand both at home and abroad
for making hats, the principal centres of
the industry being at Okayama and Kagawa
for straw, and Tokyo and Yamaguchi for
chip braid. Tlie annual production of straw
and chip braid is about 1,650,000 yen in
value, of which some 1,000,000 yen' worth
is exported. Hemp braid has also witnessed
considerable development of late and the
annual exportation is now valued at over
11,000,000 yen.
The manufacture of figured and fancy
matting made great progress so long as it
was on the free list of imports in the United
States. After the imposition of duty in
1897 exports from Japan declined and now
amount in value to from three to five millions
a year. The matting is made from a reed,
with coarse cotton thread as a warp. Though
the exports to America have declined, they
appear to be increasing to England, the
European continent, and the South Seas.
The annual production is valued at about
8,000,000 yen.
The trade in hides, leather, and furs is
very prosperous in Japan, where the demand
for leather goods has abnormally increased
in recent years. The high protective tariff
of more thaii 15 yen per 100 kin on leather
has made the domestic manufacturer prac-
tically independent, assisted further by free
trade in hides. Most of the leather is con-
sumed in the making of trunks, bags, and
bo.xes, as well as boots. The chief furs are
those of seals, sea-otters, foxes, and weasels,
which are more exported than used at
home. The total leather output of Japan
BO.^RD OF DIRECTORS ASD .\UDITORS OF THE FUJI PAPER MILLS COMPANY, LIMITED
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. Y. Anamidzu, Director — Mr. N. Koyama. Director — Mr. Y. Hirose, Director. (Middle Row) Mr.
S. KuBOTA, Managing Director — Mr. R. Hara, President — Mr. T. Takahashi, Managing Director. (Lower Row) Mr. S. Yanai,
Auditor — Mr. H. Ishida, Auditor — Mr. H. Sato, Auditor.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
6l7
is now valued at about 9,000,000 yen a
year.
The making of hosiery is quite a new
Japanese industry, with its principal centre
at Osaka, and large exports to British India,
China, and the South Seas, amounting to
over 14,000,000 yen annually. For finer
goods, however, Japan has to depend on
England, from wliich she still imports goods
to the value of about 150,000 ven a vear.
e.xtent of some 4,000,000 yen a year, exports
amounting to over 1,000,000 yen annually,
going chiefly to the United States and
England.
Hair-brushes, nail-brushes, and tooth-
brushes are produced in increasing quanti-
ties in Osaka and vicinity, the output being
worth about 4,000,000 a year, of which some
3,500,000 yen' worth is exported, mostly to
the United States. The bristles come for
and munitions, while some of the more
important industries, like silk and cotton,
have witnessed considerable expansion. The
Government is at the same time carefully
investigating the possibilities of industrial
extension, and commissioners of trade are
sent abroad to supply information as to
markets. Having changed from a borrow-
ing to a lending country during the war,
Japan believes more than ever in her indus.
FUJI PAPER MILLS CO., LTD.: F.\CTORY .NO. 2, LOCATED AT SHIZUOK.\
Tinned goods consist chiefly of beef, crabs,
and fruit, \'alued at over 5,500,000 yen
annually, and are exported to the value of
about 3,500,000 yen.
Isinglass finds increasing export to Europe
and America for jam-making purposes, the
total production being some 4,500,000
pounds, valued at 1,833,000 yen, of which
about 2,500,000 pounds are exported, at
a value of some 1,150,000 yen.
There is an enormous output of umbrellas
in Japan, valued at 4,000,000 yen annually,
of which Osaka produces most. The exports
are chiefly to China, valued at over 1 ,500,000
a year, with handles to the value of about
120,000 yen.
Toy making is also a great industry in
Japan, toys being now produced to the
the most part from China, Germany, and
Australia, and the bone from America,
Australia, and Siam.
Munition works in the past have been
under Government auspices, but the demand
created by the European war caused the
establishment of numerous private enter-
prises of this nature, of which there are at
present about 1,260, employing some 80,000
hands. The great Japan Steel Works was
established at Muroran in 191 1, and this
and the Kur^ naval arsenal are the only
places in the Far East capable of casting
ordnance or shells of heavy calibre.
It will thus be seen that among the more
prosperous of Japan's minor industries are
those producing chemicals, electric apparatus,
sheet glass, toys, porcelain, matches, flour.
trial future. That her policy may create
keen competition with British industry need
not necessarily prove to be the case, especially
if Japan is encouraged in the direction of
taking the place formerly occupied by
Germany in the industrial world of East
Asia. Industrially Japan is still in her
youth, but it is youth of great vigour and
promise, and as she is heir to the world's
experience and has the untiring interest
and assistance of the Imperial Government,
she naturally anticipates a great future.
THE FUJI PAPER MILLS CO., LIMITED
The Fuji Paper Mills Co., Ltd., obtained
permission for the formation of the com-
pany in November, 1887, with a capital of
Yen 250,000. The head office was then
6i8
P R K S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PANORAMIC VIEW OF GENERAL FACTORY OF TOKYO ITAGAMI KAISHA,
located at No. i Sanjukkenbori, Itchome,
Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo, and the mill was
erected at Iriyamase, Takaoka-mura, Fuji-
gori, Shizuoka Prefecture, the site being
at the foot of the famous Mount Fuji. A
water turbine was installed at one of the
streams coming from the foot of the moun-
tain, and power was thus obtained for the
mill, the company being the first in Japan
to utilise w'ater power on a somewhat large
scale. The manufacture of paper was
started in January, 1890. At that time
the art of paper-making was still in its
infancy in Japan, and the market was
almost entirely supplied with foreign-made
paper, but with a regular output by the
Fuji Paper Mills, Ltd., the local demands
were gradually met. In March, 1 891, the
Takaoka Mill, which was the first to make
mechanical pulp in Japan, commenced the
manufacture of newsprint paper (zaragami),
this also being the first time it was produced
in the country. From this time, the prog-
ress of Western civilisation, and the develop-
ment of the printing art in Japan, enhanced
the demand for foreign paper, and to meet
this requirement the Fuji Paper Mills Co.,
Ltd., increased its capital to Yen 1,000,000
in 1894. This was followed by a further
increase to Yen 1,500,000 in 1896, and the
second and third mills were erected.
In 1899 the company began the export
of its products to China. Later on (in 1906)
a factory in Hokkaido was purchased to
constitute the company's fourth mill, but
work there has now been suspended. Then
the fifth and sixth factories were erected in
Hokkaido, and the eighth factory in Fuji-
gori was built. In March, 1907, the Nippon
Paper Manufacturing Co., Ltd., was amal-
gamated, and the capital was thus increased
to Yen 10,000,000. The Noda Paper Fac-
tory, in Hyogo Prefecture, was purchased
in November, 1915, and the Fuji Paper
Mills Co., Ltd., thus owned eight factories
in Japan. Further extensions of the com-
pany's operations followed. One important
step of the extensions was the amalgamation
of the Asaliigawa Hydro-electric Power Co.,
Ltd., Hokkaido, the capital being increased
to Yen 10,500,000, and the Fuji Paper Mills
Co., Ltd., then began the supply of electric
light and power to cities and villages, in
addition to its own activities.
Since the outbreak of war in Europe not
only has the supply of foreign paper been
stopped, but the demand for Japanese-made
paper has considerably increased at home
and abroad. To meet the increased demands
the company has eflfected improvements all
round in its machineries and installations, as
well as turning out a much better quality
of paper. In this connection there has
been an addition to the number of machines,
an enlargement of the motive power, and
a general increase in the productive capacity
of the mills. These developments necessi-
tated still further capital and in April, 191 7,
the sum was raised to Yen 21,000,000.
making the Fuji Paper Mills Co., Ltd., the
largest concern of its kind in Japan. The
company can turn out any kind of paper,
such as ordinary printing paper, newsprint
paper, packing paper, cardboard, prospec-
tus paper, white and coloured prints, etc.
The range of products and their quality
are excelled by none, and equalled by few.
The sulphide pulp factory and the 186-inch
paper-making machines — the biggest and the
newest machines in Japan — which are now
under construction, are to be in operation
by the latter half of 191 8, and in case the
hydro-electric power generating stations now
under constniction in Hokkaido be com-
pleted, power aggregating 20,000 horse-
power is expected to be available. A staff
of 600 experts and officials, as well as about
3,000 workmen, are employed by the Fuji
Paper Mills Co., Ltd. The yearly output
of the company's mills totals in value about
Yen 20,000,000, the products being sold not
only in Japan, but in Australia, India,
China, Korea and elsewhere. Following are
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
619
LIMITED (TOKYO STRAWBOARD CO., LTD.), AT SENJU-MACHI, TOKYO
the principal officials of tlie company:
Directors, Mr. R. Hara (President), Messrs.
S. Kubota and T. Takahashi (Managing
Directors), Y. Hirose, N. Koyama, and Y.
Anamidzu; Auditors, Messrs. S. Yanai,
H. Sato, and H. Ishida.
THE TOKYO ITAGAMI KAISHA, LIMITED
The Tokv'o Itagami Kabushiki Kaisha, or
Tokyo Strawboard Co., Ltd., is an old
established and well developed industrial
concern, holding a prominent position in
the important strawboard manufacturing
industry of Japan, and also catering largely
to the rapidly developing market for Japa-
nese products from pulp and other paper-
making materials. This joint-stock com-
pany was founded in 1886 for the purpose of
manufacturing strawboard, and was capital-
ised at Yen 170,000.00. At that time the
factory at Minami Senju-machi was equipped
with an 85-inch Fourdrinier paper machine,
with a capacity' of about 400 tons per month.
With this modest machine the Tokyo Itagami
Kaisha became the pioneer of the Japanese
strawboard industry, which has since reached
enomious proportions. From its inception
the enterprise was successful, and such prog-
ress was made that in 1896 the capital was
increased to Yen 500,000.00, and a new
Fourdrinier no-inch machine was added to
the plant, with a view to the manufacture
of printing papers. This machine gave the
factory a capacity in this particular product
of 600,000 pounds per month. Of more
recent years the development of the company
and the increase of its production have been
remarkable. In 1907 the capital was again
increased, this time to Yen 1,500,000.00, and
further developments of the plant followed.
A 70-inch cylinder machine for the making
of strawboard was installed, with a capacity
of 500 tons per month, and at the same time
the first machine was reconstructed to fit
it for the manufacture of printing paper, for
which the market was strong. In 1917 an
85-inch single cylinder machine was installed
for the making of tissue paper, and the
factory' output in this line was increased to
about 250,000 pounds per month. At the
time of writing the annual output of the
factory is 7,000 tons of strawboard and
approximately 15,000,000 pounds of print-
ing paper, tissue paper, etc. A steady
policy of expansion has been pursued all
along, and the management of the company
has always kept in mind the wisdom of
producing the very best goods. As a result
of this, a sound export business has been
built up. The Tokyo Itagami Kaisha ships
strawboard to Shanghai, Tientsin, and Hong-
kong, in China; Bombay, Calcutta, Sydney,
Melbourne, the United States and elsewhere,
besides supplying a large quantity for the
local market. The specialty of the company
in the manufacture of printing papers is the
production of a large output for books,
though writing papers and wrappings are
also turned out. These lines are sold locally
and are exported to Russia, China, India
and other foreign markets. The strawboard
is manufactured from the domestic rice
straw. Writing and other papers are made
from Scandinavian and Saghalien chemical
wood pulp, domestic cotton rags, and ground
pulp for different lines.
The works of the Tokyo Itagami Kaisha,
Ltd., cover a very large extent of ground
at Minami Senju-machi. The buildings are
for the most part of modern construction,
and are well equipped. Power is generated
for the various machines by steam engines
of 1,500 horsepower and electric motors
generating 500 horsepower in aU. The
staff consists of 40 experts, clerks, etc., and
m the factories 500 men and women find
employment. The officers of the company
are as follows: Managing Director, Mr.
Tokio Otani; Directors, Messrs. Soichiro
Asano, Rinnosuke Yamanaka, Tadashi Mi-
yama, and Ryosuke Suzuki; Auditors,
Messrs. Kwanichi Ito and Yasubei Konishi,
with Mr. Shichibei Ishikawa as Manager
THE DUNLOP RUBBER COMPANY (FAR EAST), LIMITED: THE KOBE WORKS AND EMPLOYEES — THE EUROPEAN STAFF AND
FAR EASTERN BRANCH MANAGERS
V ,V !i^i^rl^gf>^
NIPPONOPHONE COMPANY, LIMITED: THE KAWASAKI PREMISES- THE GENERAL OFFICE - SCENE IN THE PACKING AND SHIPPING
DEPARTMENT — WORKMEN AND THE SHOP
622
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
GENERAL VIEW OF THE FACTORY OF THE
The following is the balance sheet of the com-
pany for the half-year ended May 31, 19 17.
Included in the valuation of buildings is
the sum of Yen 50,000, which was redeemed
out of profits during the half-year under
review. A further sum of Yen 100,000
was paid off on machinery and utensils
account out of profits in the same period.
THE DUNLOP RUBBER CO., LIMITED
One of the greatest of British industrial
companies, the Dunlop Rubber Co., Ltd., is
Ll\bilities
Yen
Capital 1 ,500,000.00
Reserves 268,267.00
The Hypothec Bank of Japan. . . 231,743.30
Bills payable 151,094.72
Unpaid account 1 17,484.95
Brought from last account 40,905.84
Profit for the current half-year. . 189,495.48
Total 2,498,991.29
Assets
Yen
Uncalled capital 500,000.00
Land 67,774.95
Buildings 169,364.56
Machinery and utensils 709,542.17
Raw materials, etc., in store. . . . 435,139.40
Manufactures 82,291.53
Bills receivable and outstanding
accounts 477,301 .55
Deposits and cash in hand 29,721.00
Premium not yet expired 1,918.46
Temporary payment 25,937.67
Tola! 2,498,991.29
well represented in Japan, having established
a factory at Wakinohama, Kob6, some years
ago. The works and plant are readily ad-
mitted to be the most up-to-date and best
equipped in the Far East, and the operations
of the company are of corresponding mag-
nitude, over 1,000 Japanese work people
being employed under the superintendence
of a large staff of European experts. That
this is so, is in keeping with the history of
the famous Dunlop Company, which was the
pioneer of the pneumatic tyre industry,
the original patents having been granted to
Mr. Dunlop, the inventor, in 1888. The
record of the enterprise since that time is
one of the most interesting in the history
of British industrialism, huge amounts of
capital having been invested in the business
to give it the world-commanding position
it occupies to-day. Branches of the company
have been established throughout the world,
and it was only in July, 1917, that the
capital of the parent company was raised
from £3,000,000 to £6,000,000, to pemiit of
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
623
MITATSUCHI GUM SEIZO GOMEI KAISHA, TOKYO
further extensions, and to allow the company
to finance the purchase of the immense
stocks of material it must have on hand.
Some idea of the extent of the operations
of the Dunlop Rubber Co., Ltd., may be
gathered from the statement made by the
"Motor Export Trader," that in solid tyres
alone, the variation is so great that stocks
must be on hand to meet any sudden
demand for any one of between 250 and
300 different sorts. The Dunlop stock
was valued in July, 1917, at £2,250,-
000, most of it manufactured material.
The Kobe factory and office are the manu-
facturing and distributing centres respec-
tively for the Far East, and the organisation
to handle such a vast extent of territory is
a large and experienced staff. The company
acts as contractor to the Japanese Imperial
Military and Naval Arsenals, supplying
them with electric, marine, and general
rubber goods. The motor and cycle tyre
trade is growing yearly and the company's
goods in these lines enjoy a favourable
reputation in the Orient. There is also a
demand for Dunlop Solid Band tyres for
heavy commercial vehicles, carriage tyring,
pneumatic and solid rikisha tyres, and motor-
cycle tyres. The excellence of the company's
rubber goods for chemical and surgical
purposes is appreciated the world over, and
these lines enjoy a well-merited and ever-
increasing demand in Japan and elsewhere.
THE MITATSUCHI GU.\I SEIZO GOMEI
KAISHA
An old established and flourishing industry
is that controlled by the Mitatsuchi Rubber
iVlanufacturing Company, at Honjo-ku, To-
kyo. This company is perhaps the largest
manufacturer of rubber articles in Japan, and
its business is constantly expanding. The busi-
ness was founded on December 2, 1886, so that
with over thirty years' experience, it is not sur-
prising to learn that the Mitatsuchi Company
is producing goods of the highest quality, not
only in strong demand in the local markets,
but eagerly sought for abroad. The Mitat-
suchi Gum Seizo Gomei Kaisha was founded
by the late Mr. Tadaatsu Tasaki, associated
with the present partners, Messrs. Hidetatsu
Tsuchiya, Tadahiro Tasaki, and Nagakuni
Tasaki. Like most new industries in Japan,
this one had to encounter many difficulties
in the early days of its history, but the
partners persevered and have had the satis-
faction of seeing the business grow to a
high state of prosperity. To-day the two
factories of the Mitatsuchi Company are
turning out all classes of gum, ebonite, and
gutta percha manufactured goods. Among
the principal lines are rubber balls for tennis
and other games, rubber shoes, rubber dolls,
toys, hose, rubber plates for electrical apd
mechanical engineering, telephonic, railway
and marine use, rubber tyres, erasers, and
so forth, the output covering pretty well
every line for which there is any demand.
The company has exported some large
orders to England, Canada, Australia, India
and elsewhere, and the most favourable
reports have been received regarding the
quality and durability of the goods. The
company supplied all the requirements of
the East Indian Railway Co., Calcutta, and
624
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
received a highly complimentary report on
the satisfactory nature of the work done.
The works of the Mitatsuchi Gum Seizo
Gomei Kaisha incUide two factories, the main
works being at Narihiracho, Nakago, Honjo-
ku, Tokyo, and the branch factory at Shimo-
hiraimura, Komatsugawa-machi, Tokyo-fu.
These works cover an area of 3,919 tsuho,
and consist of brick, concrete, and wooden
buildings, the factory at Honjo-ku being a
modern four-storied building. The plant
installed at the works comprises the latest
and best machinery, including washing mills,
mixing mills, calendars, crackers, tubing
machines, vulcanisers and vulcanising presses,
patent rubber ball-making machines, hose-
making machines, etc. The motive power is
both steam and electricity. The factories
give emplojTTient to 430 men and 306 girls,
and the annual wages bill is well over Yen
170,000. The capital of the Mitatsuchi Gum
Seizo Gomei Kaisha is Yen 80,000.00 (full\'
paid up) and the reserves total Yen 1,050,000.
With an annual output valued at Yen 1,500,-
000.00, it can be seen that this company has
made a distinct success of the rubber-manu-
facturing business in Japan.
THE NIPPONOPHONE COMP.\NY, LLMITED
The history of the Nipponophone Com-
pany, Ltd., furnishes an interesting idea of
the growth and development of such enter-
prises as might be justly regarded as entirely
foreign to Japan in their origin, but which,
nevertheless, by foresight and energy, and a
sound judgment as to the needs and require-
ments of the country, can be established and
carried through to success. In this particular
case the opportunity to add such an industry
to the rapidly increasing number in Japan
was recognised and grasped by an American,
Mr. F. W. Home, of Yokohama. An investi-
t.f""'!'"'/!''
PREPARING THE HEMP FOR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF HEMP BRAID
gation of the phonograph and record business
revealed to him that little or nothing was
being done to popularise the invention among
the Japanese, although there was every
evidence that the people were as keen as those
of other countries to avail themselves of the
phonograph. Mr. Home accordingly founded
the Japan-American Phonograph Manu-
facturing Company in 1908, with a capital of
Yen 250,000, being assisted by a number of
American and British friends in Yokohama.
The manufacture of phonographs was entered
upon the following year. Up to this time
(1909), machines and records were imported
to the number of approximately 87,000 in the
year. The price was very high, and the
number of Japanese songs recorded was few,
owing to the large expense to foreign com-
panies of sending their experts to Japan to
make records. There was only one firm
dealing exclusively in records, and the number
of people deriving employment from the
business was only twenty-two. The records
could be enjoyed solely by the wealthier
classes, and this fact, combined with the
limited extent to which Japanese musical
tastes were being catered for, gave the Japan-
American Phonograph Manufacturing Com-
pany its great chance. During the first year
of operation 190,000 records were made,
giving employment to 150 people in the
manufacturing department, and 103 in the
sales. Next year the output increased to
340,000, and the factory employees numbered
210, while the sales department engaged the
services of 150. Due to the great reduction
in price of the locally made records, and the
recording of national songs and popular airs,
the development of the company's business
was very rapid. In 191 1, 530,000 records
were made, the manufacture giving work to
366 artisans, and the sales to 200, besides
which 1 06 shopkeepers in various parts of the
country were selhng the company's product.
During 191 1 the Copyright Bureau allowed
the registration of copyright to the authors of
records originally recorded in Japan. This
gave great impetus to the business, as by such
protection the manufacturers now con-
sidered it safe to invest large sums of money
in order to record the best known artists and
purchase the copyright. Accordingly a large
number of records was taken this year, the
result being that the national songs were
introduced throughout the length and breadth
of the land on the gramophone, recording the
voices of the leading artists for posterity, and
still further popularising the instrument.
The number of records turned out in 1912
jumped to the phenomenal figure of 1,300,000,
and 17,000 phonographs were manufactured.
During this year the manufacturing and
selling companies amalgamated, and the joint
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
625
THE JAPAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.: THE WORKSHOPS AND GENERAL VIEW OF THE FACTORY
enterprise became the Nipponophone Com-
pany, its capital being increased to Yen
1,000,000. At this time there were branches
throughout Japan, and the agencies opened
numbered 350.
The Nipponophone Company has its
executive office at 70-C, Yokohama. The
Directors are Mr. F. W. Home, President
(also President of the F. W. Home Co.) ; Mr.
J. R. Geary, Vice-President (Vice-President
of the Tokyo Ek'ctric Co.); Mr. H. A. Ens-
worth, Treasurer (Manager of The Standard
Oil Co. of New York); Mr. F. H. Bugbird
(Manager for Messrs Jardine, Matheson &
Co.); and Mr. R. F. Moss (Consulting
Engineer of American Trading Co., Tokyo).
The company has sent home aU of the original
foreign experts, and the operations are carried
on by the General Manager, Mr. J. A.
Rabbitt, while the works are managed by
the Japanese Engineer, Mr. K. Fukushima.
Shareholders number about 80, most of whom
are Europeans, though about 20 per cent are
the company's agents in the provinces.
The works are situated on the banks of the
Rokugo River, the area covered being 8,100
istibo. There are two groups of . buildings,
one for the factory and the second for the
reception of the finished products. In the
latter the offices of the Nipponophone Com-
pany are located. The motive power of
the works is steam, developed by two 125
horsepower boilers, serving one engine of 125
horsepower and two others of 45 horsepower
each. The buildings are brick, of the most
modern construction, with the latest fire
protection equipment. The machinery is
automatic, of the most recent American type.
The workmen at present number 310, but this
force will be shortly increased as the company
intends to bring out new phonographs for
o.\port to take the place of German goods,
which were formerly sold in the Oriental
markets. Many of the workmen are specially
skilled in their craft, having been in the com-
pany's service for years. Most of the raw
material is purchased abroad and is divided
into two classifications, one for machines, and
one for records. Materials for phonographs
comprise special rolled steel, sheet brass,
cedar, etc., and for records claj's are required,
as well as gum, glue, zinc, talcum and other
powders. Part of these requirements are now
being met in the local markets. The Nippono-
phone instrument is cased in a handsome
cabinet, constructed of selected wood, highly
finished and specially seasoned and treated to
stand climatic conditions. The motor mech-
anism is the spring motor, delicately adjusted,
and tested, all the mechanism being con-
structed in the company's works. The
records at present being made are mostly of
the double-face type with sound waves on
either side. The retail price is Yen 1.50. By
its liberal treatment of its agents, the company
has firmly estabUshed the keenest interest in
the handling of its high quality goods.
Phonograph machines range in price from
Yen 15.00 to yen 150.00, but the most popular
type is that retailing in the market for about
Yen 25.00. The Nipponophone Company
holds the original patent in Japan for the
hornless model, and popular taste is gradually
changing in favour of this machine. The
company is also engaged in the manufacture
of steel wood screws, electric insulation sup-
plies, machine tools and accessories, phono-
graph and other needles, ice cream freezers,
626
PRESENT-DAY l.MI'RKSSIONS OF JAPAN
etc. In addition to its branches in Japan
proper, the company also has branches in
Taiwan, Dairen, and China. Honours have
been won by the company at expositions
as follows: Gold medal from the Colonial
E.xposition; gold medal from the Summer
Fair of Yamato Shimbun; first prize from the
Summer Fair; gold medal from the Indus-
trial Exposition held at Kokugikwan; gold
medal from the Summer Fair at Osaka Nip-
posha; letter of thanks from the Katei Haku-
rankwai; gold medal from the Nihon Jitsugyo
Fair; gold medal from the Industrial Ex-
position at Yokohama; letter of thanks frorfi
the Children's Fair; copper medal from the
Taisho Exposition, and letter of thanks from
the Jido Hakurankwai.
THE JAPAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENT
MANUFACTURING CO.,
LIMITED
Before entering upon a description of
the operations of this important company,
which was the pioneer of a new industry'
for Japan, it will be interesting to recite
the history of the late Mr. Torakusu Yamaha,
the founder of the company. By doing so
one is enabled to present the reader with
the story of the introduction of foreign
musical instruments in Japan, and describe
the development of their use, leading up
to the establishment of the industry of the
manufacture in Japan of organs, pianos,
and other instruments.
The late Mr. Yamaha was a Samurai of
the Tokugawa Clan, born in the Province
of Kii. After the Restoration ho came to
Hamamatsu, and started in business as a
wood worker, watch, clock, and surgical
instrument maker, etc. From boyhood he
had a gift for music, and played most instru-
ments remarkably well, though he was never
tutored in music. He was a particularly
good player of samisen (the Japanese three-
stringed musical instrument), although he
always maintained that he could only play
those instnmients which he himself made.
About 1S84 Mr. Yamaha first became
acquainted with the intricacies of foreign
musical instruments. At that time there
was an organ at the Hamamatsu Elementary
School. The inst:Tjment got out of order,
and nobody could rectify the fault, all being
mystified at its complicated mechanism.
Mr. Higushi, a member of the Committee
for Education, consulted Mr. Yamaha and
invited him to try to put the organ in order,
an honour which the father of a new indus-
try duly appreciated. He tried his hand
at the foreign instrument, and succeeded
in effecting the necessary repairs and adjust-
ments. Mr. Yamaha then gave considerable
thought to the whole question of the manu-
facture and repair of foreign musical instru-
ments, rightly arguing in his own mind that
as the importance of such instruments and
music was recognised by the States, especially
for use in schools as an aid to education, it
was a most regrettable thing that Japan
was not able to manufacture for herself, or
even to repair, the instruments needed.
Mr. Yamaha was influenced by many con-
siderations to decide that the moment was
opportune for starting such an industry.
METHOD OF SUN-DRYING PAPER EMPLOYED IN A SMALL F.\CTORY
W'itli tills resolution before him Mr.
Yamaha started building an organ in 1885,
at which time he was thirty-five years of
age. It was an ambitious undertaking,
beset with difficulties, for there was no one
from whom he could receive instniction, no
materials to work on, and no tools to work
witli. He ■ received some assistance from
the late Mr. Kisaburo Kawai, and after
much trouble built an organ, following as
closely as he could models of similar instru-
ments which he had inspected. Mr. Yamaha
took his organ to the Musical Investigation
Committee of the Education Department,
which was the forerunner of the present
Tokyo Musical College. Mr. Shuji Izawa,
who was the Chairman of the Committee
at that time, had the Japanese-made organ
carefully examined by specialists and the
decision was that, though in all details as
to construction, shape, etc., the result of
Mr. Yamaha's work was the same as the
foreign instrument, the organ was all out
of tone, and could not be used at all. With
such a verdict Mr. Yamaha was not at all
discouraged. He entered himself as a
student of the musical school, and called on
many musicians to implore their advice and
assistance in the scheme that was ever in
his mind. As the pioneer of a new industry
his position was not a happy one. He had
no workmen, little or no experience, and
owing to the difficult economic conditions
he could not find any one to support him
financially in his work. His only friend and
backer was Mr. Kawai, who ga\-e him what
support and encouragement he could, so
that Mr. Yamaha could devote himself to
study and investigation.
Success came to Mr. Yamaha after some
time, when at last he produced an organ in
which the tones were right. This success
created some interest on the part of the
public, and in 1889 a jomt-stock company
was formed with a capital of Yen 30,000.
Even so, progress was slow. The company
had many ups and downs, and sometimes
the business passed into individual hands.
However, the determination of Mr. Yamaha
swept away all obstacles. Organs were
built in increasing number, each one better
in quality, and sales were made in China.
In 1894 some organs were exported to Eng-
land and there the intrinsic value of the
instrument was recognised. In 1897 the
concern was reorganised as a limited liability
company with a capital of Yen 120,000,
under the name of the Japan Mu.sical Instru-
ment Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Subsequently
the capital was several times increased and
to-day it stands at Yen 1,200,000. Mean-
while, in 1900, the manufacture of pianos
was begun. In 1903 the Woodwork Depart-
PLANT OF THE TOKYO ROPE MFG. CO., LTD.: (;ENER.\L VIEW OF THE FUKAGAWA FACTORY, TOKYO — THE KOKURA F.\CTORY-
POWER PLANT .\T KOKURA FACTORY — GENERAL VIEW OF THE TSUKIJIMA F.-^CTORY. TOKYO
628
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
nicnt was greatly enlarged and two years
later the company, which up to now had
always imported the parts of the organs and
pianos known as the "action," began manu-
facturing for its own requirements. The
process of veneering was started in 191 1, and
in the same year the Accessories Department
was established, and the manufacture of
musical toys was entered upon.
The Russo-Japanese War produced an
economic crisis which badly affected the
company, and the Boxer Rebellion in China
in 1900 also meant a great loss of business,
which had been brisk up to this time. The
financial arrangements of the Japan Musical
Instrument Manufacturing Co., Ltd., did
not work smoothly, and conditions were
bad until Mr. Yamaha induced Mr. Chiyo-
maru Amano to join the company and
restore its financial standing. Mr. Amano
agreed, and devoted himself to the improve-
ment of the company's business affairs,
leaving Mr. Yamaha free to attend to im-
provements on the manufacturing side of
the company. By their joint exertions the
affairs of the company were again placed
on a sound and healthy basis. Mr. Yamaha
was obliged to resign in August, 1916, owing
to illness, which led to his demise some time
later. Since then Mr. Amano as President of
the Japan Musical Instnmient Manufacturing
Co., Ltd., has gone on with the work of im-
proving the quality of the company's manu-
factures, and enlarging the sales, at the same
time starting the manufacture of harmonicas,
machinery for which was invented by the
company's experts. This new industry is a
big thing for Japan. Formerly the manufac-
ture and sale of harmonicas for Japan was a
monopoly of Hohner, of Germany. Judging
by the recent bright conditions which have
attended the operations of the company,
its future is now assured.
About 65 per cent of the pianos made by
the company are sold in Japan and the
balance are exported, principally to Australia,
though they are also shipped to Singapore,
the South Seas, South America, and China.
The harmonicas are exported chiefly to
England, being for local use. The manu-
facture of organs represents only about 30
per cent of the operations of the company,
although this was the original industry.
The majority of the instruments are sold
in Japan, though there is a large export
business, chiefly to Australia and India.
The Woodwork and Musical Toys Depart-
ments manufacture principally for local
sales, though there is some degree of export
trade with Australia, America, and India.
The head office and factory are situated
at Hamamatsu. There are also branches
located at Tokyo and Dairen.
THE TOKYO ROPE MANUFACTURING CO.,
LIMITED
The Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Com-
pany, Limited, is the oldest manufacturer
in Japan, having started the industry of
hemp rope making by machinery in 1887.
Among the founders of this concern, which
may justly claim to be the pioneer of a new
industry in Japan, were such well known
business men as Messrs. E. Shibusawa,
S. Asano, T. Masuda, M. Yamada, and the
late O. Watanabe. With the small initial
capital of Yen 70,000, the company estab-
lished one small factory and entered upon
the production of hemp rope, later on develop-
ing the plant extensively and including in
the production such lines as steel wire rope,
etc. In this latter branch of industry the
company rightly claims to be the pioneer
manufacturer in the Far East. The steady
progress of the Tokyo Rope Manufacturing
Co., Ltd., necessitated new factories and
additional plant, and new works were erected
at Tokyo, Hyogo, and Kokura, the capital
being increased from time to time to admit
of these expansions. To-day the company
owns seven works, namely, two for hemp
rope making, three for wire rope, and two
for steel. The wire rope works are equipped
with wire drawing mills, patenting or temper-
ing furnaci', galvanising plants, and other
necessary machines and up-to-date appliances
for producing steel wires and laying them in
ropes. In these works there are also com-
plete equipments for the testing of wire and
ropes, and laboratories for making microscop-
ical and other examinations of the structure
of the steel employed. In order to be assured
that every coil of wire is fully up to the
highest standards, the most stringent tests
are made before the wire is used in the ropes.
The hemp rope works are replete with
machines of the most improved type for
making all kinds of hemp and cotton ropes
and cords. There are also rope works of
great length, so that if ropes made by that
method are preferred to those of ordinary
make, they can be turned out to order. At
the steel works, hea\'y steel castings are
made, as well as forgings, steel bars, wire
rods, rope fittings, etc. As proof of the
entirely modern methods under which the
Tolvyo Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is
working and as evidence of the quality
of its products, it is only necessary to say
that the company are rope and steel makers
approved by Lloyds, after the most severe
tests, and that they are also contractors on
the approved lists of the Imperial Army and
Navy.
The head office of the company is at
Sanjukkenbori, Kyobashi, Tokyo. The steel
wire rope works are situated at Fukagawa,
Tokyo, Susaki, Tokyo, and Yamagoshi-cho,
Kokura. The wire mill is at Oshima-cho,
Tokyo. The hemp rope works are estab-
lished at Tsukishima, Tokyo, and Hyogo,
Kobe, and the steel works are at Oshima-cho,
Tokyo, and Konomi-machi, Kokura. These
various plants and works cover a total area of
103,545 Isiibo, and employment is found for
about 4,400 hands. Apart from the large
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630
P R E S E N T - n A ^• IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
bird's-eye view of the factory of the south seas fibre industry CO., LTD., AT SAKAI
local trade which the company is doing,
especially since the great development in the
mercantile marine has taken place, a large
portion of the products are shipped abroad,
and in this connection the company will
always welcome trial orders, which are
assured of the best attention, and the earliest
delivery possible. The capital of the Tokyo
Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is now 6,000,-
000 yen, and the reserve fund is 2,225,000 yen.
The foreign business of the company is
handled by the many branches throughout
the world of the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha and
Okura & Co. Following are the principal
oflBcers of the company: Chairman of Direc-
tors, Mr. M. Yamada; Managing Directors,
Messrs. M. Tomura and H. Akamatsu;
Directors, Baron K. Okura and Messrs.
S. Asano, T. Miyama, and K. Fujikura;
Auditors, Messrs. S. Watanabe and S.
Makihara.
THE YOKOHAMA ROPE MANUFACTUR-
ING CO., LIMITED
The Yokohama Seiko Kabushiki Kaisha
was founded in March, 191 1, by Messrs.
Masao Onishi, President and Director,
Hikosuke Ishizuka, Managing Director, and
Kanematsu Enokishita, Director and General
Manager. Originally the capital was Yen
500,000, but this has since been increased to
Yen 1,000,000. From the outset there was a
strong demand for the company's products,
and as time passed the plant was adapted for
the manufacture of all classes of rope, for
ships and general use. Manila rope was first
made in March, 1912, and white hemp rope,
tarred rope, and wire rope, as well as ordinary
wire, were turned out from May, 19 14. The
Yokohama Rope Manufacturing Company's
jilant is established at No. 1408, Kanagawa-
machi, and there is a branch at No. 29,
Kitanom-machi, Satsuma-bori, Nishi-ku, Osa-
ka. The main factory site has an area of about
10,000 tsubo and the building covers about
7,500 tsubo. Brick, reinforced concrete, and
timber have been used in the construction,
and it is hardly necessary to say that the
machinery and plant is entirely modern.
Apart from the staff of 60 e.xperts and clerks,
the company employs about 1,200 workmen,
and pays annually in salaries and wages over
Yen 300,000. The output of the factory is
valued at Yen 8,000,000 per annum. It is
interesting to know that the Yokohama Rope
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., was included in the
approved list of manufacturers by the
Imperial Japanese Navy as far back as 1914,
when it had been in existence only a couple of
years. Furthermore, its product and manu-
facturing arrangements were recognised to be
excellent, and were approved by the world's
authority, Lloyds, who included the factory
in their approved list in 1917, after the
necessary severe tests. The quality of the
company's manufactures is admitted by all
engaged in shipping, mining, fishing and
similar industries, and it is not surprising to
learn that the factory is continuously working
at high pressure to supply orders, a. large
number of which have been received from the
Russian Government. The principal officers
of the Yokohama Rope Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd., are: Directors, Messrs. Masao Onishi,
(President); Hikosuke Ishizuka (Managing
Director), Baron Naotake Ando, Toji Maru-
oka, Tokunosake Takahashi, Kanematsu
Enokishita (General Manager), and Keizo
Nagamine. The Auditors are Messrs
Kuranosuke Kimura, Konosuke Otani, and
Heibei Sakazaki.
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THE JAPAN HIDE AND LEATHER CO., LTD.: OSAKA FACTORY — iOKVU F.M:T0RV — SHANGHAI F.\CTORV — TIENTSIN FACTORY
632
PRESENT-DAY IN[PRKSSIONS OF JAPAN
THE SOUTH SEAS FIBRE INDUSTRY
COMPANY, LIMITED
Mk. Matazo Kita, President of the Nanyo
Sen-i Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha (South Seas
Fibre Industry Company, Ltd.) has the dis-
tinction of having developed another addition
to the industrial enterprises of Japan, and
what he has done with the opening up of the
manufacturing business he now controls is
indicative of the energy with which some
Japanese business men readily exploit new
ideas.
The history of the Nanj'o Sen-i Kogyo
Kabushiki Kaisha dates from the time when
the Imperial Government took possession of
the Caroline Islands, which were wrested
from Germany shortly after Japan entered the
Alliance against the Central Powers. Investi-
gations were at once started to determine the
resources of the islands, and in October. 1915,
Mr. Kita despatched his representatives to
see what opportunities there might be for
trade. The island of Ponape in the East
Carolines was reported to be prolific in callao
trees, and experts under Mr Kita's direction
went thoroughly into the question of utilising
the fibre of these trees It may here be
remarked that the fibrous nature of the callao
tree was already well known to all those
interested in the manufacture of ropes and
strong textiles, and the plenitude of the trees
in the South Seaswas also common knowledge.
Up to the time experts went into the matter
for Mr. Kita it was not known, however, how
to treat the fibre, and consequently the callao
tree as a source of supply was disregarded.
Mr. Kita's investigations resulted in the
discovery and patenting of a process of a
chemical nature, for handling the callao tree
fibre, and preparing it for rope and cloth
making, to supersede hemp and flax. There-
upon Mr. Kita applied for and obtained a
lease of about 24,000,000 tsubo of land at
Ponape, and in the early part of 191 7 formed
the Nanyo Sen-i Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha,
with a capital of Yen 1,000,000. By this
action another very important industry was
established for Japan.
The company is now fully engaged in the
cultivation and production of callao and other
fibres, as well as in the purchase, sale, and
manufacture of raw materials obtained from
the leased land and other areas. The factory-
has been established in Japan, at Minato-cho,
a suburb of Sakai' City, near Osaka. Exten-
sive arrangements have been made at Ponape
for the gathering of the raw material, the
company having about 500 Japanese and
native employees at work, tending the trees,
stripping the bark, and in other ways hand-
ling the fibre product, which is then shipped
to Japan for treatment in the factories. In
the latter there are about 500 workmen
engaged in the manufacture of ropes and the
spinning and weaving of various kinds of
cloth. For these purposes spinning and rope-
making machines, built in Japan, or imported
from IDngland and the United States, arc used,
the motive power being electricity. It has
been demonstrated that the fibre makes
excellent ropes, and has the great and uncom-
mon advantage that when dipped in water it
becomes tougher. The rapid expanse of the
shij)])ing industry has brought about a general
condition of activity in the rope and sail
making trades, and it may be said that the
inauguration of the industry of the Nanyo
Sen-i Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha was a most
timely one. It has meant the opening up of a
hitherto neglected source of raw materials,
reasonably close to a large manufacturing
centre and the production of ropes and other
material at a much lower cost than is the case
with the use of other fibres, such as hemp, etc.
The factories are turning out about 30,000
pounds of rope and cloth fibre a day, and the
business is still in its infancy.
The head office of the company is at No. 2
Higashi Horikawacho, Kita-ku, Osaka. The
Board of Directors consists of Messrs M.
Kita (President), R. Hanta, S. Nango,
S. Tsukaguchi, and (Auditors) Messrs. A.
Yamada and T. Matsumura, and K. Hashi-
moto, Manager.
THE JAPAN HIDE AND LEATHER CO.,
LIMITED
This is the pioneer enterprise in the
tanning industr}' of Japan, and to it is due
a great deal of credit for having materially
helped to make the boot and shoe and
kindred trades in the country less dependent
upon foreign leather. The Japan Hide and
Leather Co., Ltd., was organised in 1907,
with a capital of Yen 2,500,000 (all of which
has been paid up), the promoters being well
known men in the boot and shoe industry,
or men equally well known in commercial
circles. The tanning of locally produced
and imported hides was at once entered
upon, and the company has now made such
progress that it is well able to compete in
all ways with imported prepared leather,
and to meet a large measure of the entire
domestic demand. The most of the com-
pany's products find their way to the Army
and Navy, but in addition, the reputation
of the company is so high that there is a
ready sale for its sole leather and beltings
throughout Japan. Moreover, since the
outbreak of the world war, the Japan Hide
and Leather Co., Ltd., has received a large
order from the Russian Government, and
an export trade in other directions appears
certain for the near future.
The company has two factories in Japan,
one at Senju-machi, in the suburbs of Tokyo,
and the other at Funadc-machi, Minami-ku,
Osaka, There is also a factory at Ikeda,
Tokachi Province, Hokkaido, where tannic
extract for the use of the tanning works is
exclusively manufactured. Now that the
business of the company has become so
solid, the company has found it an urgent
necessity to turn to China for an expansion
of enterprise, and a few years ago a new
tannery was opened at Shi-ka-wei on the
outskirts of Shanghai. Very recently the
Yu-Tsin Tannery Co. was established in
Tientsin, with a capital of Yen 1,000,000,
with the cooperation of Japanese and Chinese
business men. This new establishment is
practically a branch of the Japan Hide and
Leather Co., Ltd., the outlook for whose
trade in China is very prosperous. Specially
keen attention has been paid by the company
to preparing good leather for soles; and
beltings and kid leathers are also specialties
of the Japan Hide and Leather Co., Ltd.
The "Phcenix Brand" products of the com-
pany's tanneries enjoy a world-wide reputa-
tion for their strong and enduring quality.
This brand is claimed to be in no way inferior
to foreign goods, and orders from abroad
are regularly coming in, the foreign and
domestic demands causing the directors
some anxiety on account of the difficulty of
getting skilled labour. The demand for
beltings is showing a pronounced increase,
and special attention has been given to this
department of the industry, with the result
that the company has been able to produce
an abundant quantity of belting of excellent
quality for home consumption. Many tan-
ners in Japan have hitherto failed to produce
a good kid leather, but the Japan Hide and
Leather Co., Ltd., has overcome all diffi-
culties in this direction, and by its painstaking
efforts has been able to produce a kid leather
almost equal to any foreign article.
In the factories of the company a first-
class and thoroughly modern plant is in-
stalled, some seventy machines being in use.
The number of hands employed is over one
thousand, of both sexes, and the annual out-
put averages, under present conditions,
700,000 sides of leather for domestic con-
sumption alone. If the works could be
run at their full capacity, given a proper
supply of competent labour, this output
could be increased about ten times. The
Chairman of the Board of Directors of the
company is Baron K. Okura, and the Manag-
ing Director is Mr. T. Ito. Many other
prominent business men are interested in the
concern. Some idea of the financial stability
of the company may be gathered from the
fact that its reserve fund is over Yen 1,600,-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
633
THE JAPAN SHOE AND BOOT MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.: (lEFT) MAIN F.\CTORY, SENJU-M.\CHI, TOKYO — TSUKIJIMA F.ACTORY
000. Of the future of the company, there
is no reason to doubt that it is singularly
promising.
THE JAPAN SHOE AND BOOT MANU-
FACTURING CO., LIMITED
This company, which is known under its
Japanese title as the Nippon Seika Kaisha,
is one of the commercial enterprises of which
those who wish to see Japan's complete
economic independence of foreign imports
of the ordinary necessities of life, are justly
proud. It is a powerful company, and its
success is an evidence of the capacity for
organisation and handling of big enterprises
which the modern business men of Japan
exhibit. The company was formed in 1902
by the amalgamation of the four shoe works,
the Sakura-gumi, Okura-gumi, Fukushima
Gomei Kaisha, and the Tokyo Leather Manu-
facturing Company. The first of these four
works, the Sakura-gumi, had long been
known as the largest and most complete
factory of its kind, and had been regarded
as a model concern, such a reputation having
been earned by the skilful management of the
late Mr. Katsuzo Nishimura and Mr. Scizo
Osawa Up to the date of amalgamation
the four companies had been keen competi-
tors, the rivalry being almost of a suicidal
nature. The unwisdom of this competition,
when the industry in Japan needed all the
organisation and control it could receive, was
apparent to men like Messrs. Nishimura
and Osawa, and they induced the directorates
of the four companies to agree to an amalga-
mation, which was effected. The result
was satisfactory in the highest degree and
the development of the industry under the
control of the new Nippon Seika Kaisha was
remarkable. The company has now become
the first and most important enterprise of
its kind in the Orient, and its works are
producing shoes not inferior to any foreign
make, and certainly entirely satisfactory to
the shoe manufacturing world of Japan. In
point of durability the company's products
stand far above others, and for this reason,
during the Russo-Japanese War, the com-
pany received a very large order from the
Army and Navy, and after the war the
Government awarded to the enterprise a
letter of merit for its valuable services to
the Nation.
Apart from its wide local market, the
Nippon Seika Kaisha is now receiving large
orders for shoes from Russia, England, and
all other parts of the world, showing that
the article is at least the equal in point of
cheapness, workmanship, and durability, of
the shoes made elsewhere.
The Directors of the Japan Shoe and Boot
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., are always active
in the introduction of new machines, and
improved methods of manufacture. Prog-
ress, and the ready adoption of new ideas
are the order of the day in the works, and
the result is seen in the high quality of the
products of the plant. The equipment con-
sists of 500 German shoe-making machines
and 50 American machines, which give the
factories a daily output of 5,000 pairs of
shoes, the annual product of the works being
valued at Yen 2,000,000. Of this large
output a good portion goes to the Army and
Navy, but as stated above, the company is
now entering foreign markets. The Directors
are noted for their keen interest in making
634
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the Nippon Seika Kaisha the most successful
enterprise of its kind ever inaugurated in
Japan. They are not yet satisfied with the
success that has attended their work, al-
though the company has received every
evidence, in the shape of honours and awards
from expositions at home and abroad, of
its sound standing and the excellence of its
products. The driving force of the enter-
prise is Mr. Seizo Osawa, the President and
foimder of the company. This gentleman
was bom in 1850 in Chiba Prefecture. He
entered the service of the Sakura-gumi in
1872, and rose to be Vice-President of that
concern in 1897. For his services in bringing
about the amalgamation which resulted in
the present large company, Mr. Osawa was
made President of the group. In 1907 he
was appointed Chairman of the Shoemakers'
Union, and he is also Vice-President of the
Japan Leather Company. These honours
are fitting in the case of a man who has done
so much for the industry. At the time Mr.
Osawa became associated with it, shoe-
making was looked down upon as an occu-
pation somewhat inferior to others, but the
situation is now changed and the business
is one of the most lucrative in the country.
The Japan Shoe and Boot Manufacturing
Co., Ltd., is to be congratulated, as is also
the entire industrial circle of Japan, upon
having produced a business man of Mr.
Osawa's great ability. The President of
the company has very able assistance in
the person of the Managing Director, Mr.
Kakutaro Yamagishi. Mr. Osawa's un-
daunted spirit and his diligent fostering of
the business, and Mr. Yamagishi's executive
control of the organisation, together with
the skill he exercises in the management
of his large staff and many scores of work-
men, are undoubtedly the two principal
agencies contributing to the success of the
company.
Since its inauguration the company has
had to double its capital as the operations
extended. The amount now stands at Yen
600,000, all fully paid up, and there is a
legal reserve of Yen 150,000. In addition
to the two principal officers referred to
above, the officers of the company are
as follows: Directors, Messrs. Toyochiyo
Maehida, Kinzaburo Kata, and Takuma Ito;
Auditors are Messrs. Kihachiro Okura and
Naoshi Nishimura.
THE KUH.\R,\ .MINING COMPANY,
LIMITED
Elsewhere the history and the scope of
the operations of this powerful corporation
are given at some length, but it is necessary
here to make some reference to recent
developments in the company's enterprise,
mainly as they aflfect the rapidly develop-
ing shipping industrv' of Japan.
HEAD OII-ICE OF THE KUHAR.\ MINING COMPANY, LIMITED, OSAKA
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
635
'l"he Kuhara Company is famous for its
bold schemes, and it is not surprising, there-
fore, to learn that when the project of
shipbuilding was given attention, the Kuliara
interests should plan to launch out on the
industry on a very large scale. A subsidiary
corporation has been formed with a sub-
stantial capital, and a first-class site of close
on to one million Isiibo has been purchased
at Kudamatsu in Yamaguchi Prefecture,
near Shimonoscki. Mr. Fusanosuke Kuhara
intends to make the works a second Vickers
yard, after the model of the famous British
concern. Not only will shipbuilding be
carried on on a vigourous scale, but there
will also be steel and machine works, second
to none in Japan. As planned, the new
enterprise will give rise to a new industrial
town, and already all preparations have
been made to provide quarters for the work-
men, and to furnish various institutions for
their betterment.
It is generally recognised that such an
undertaking will create a new and very
valuable industrial asset for Japan. Mr.
Kuhara, though only thirty years of age, is
counted one of the wealthiest men in Japan.
He is well supijorted by a highly (|ualified
directorate and technical staff. Mr. Chozo
Koike, former director of the political bureau
in the Foreign Office, is General Manager for
the company. The Director at Osaka is
Mr. K. Takenouchi. The head office of
the Kuhara Company is at No. 14 Nakano-
shima, Nichome, Kita-ku, Osaka. (See
also page 470.)
FURUKAWA & CO., LIMITED, OSAKA
As Tokyo has been for more than three
hundred years the greatest political centre
of Japan, Osaka has been almost since time
immemorial the industrial and commercial
metropolis of the Island Empire. This
general statement applies equally to the
metal trade as to all other departments of
commerce and industry, and an examination
of a geological map of Japan demonstrates
at a glance the reason for this. Clustering
around Osaka we find the principal mines
of the country, and the ore derived from these
workings has always been sent into the
metropolis to be smelted and refined.
Thus in Osaka, in the shogunate era, many
small works sprang up. The situation has
not been materially altered with the progress
of time, for even at present Osaka contains
most of the big smelting and refining works,
and it is noted also as the centre of the lead-
ing metal and mining corporation of Japan,
namely, the Furukawa Co., Ltd., which has
its main offices in the city.
The Furukawa Gomei Kaisha, however,
was founded in Tokyo, because the famous
Ashio Copper Mine is situated near the
capital. The founder of the business was so
successful that he became known as the
"Copper King," and this appellation has
with all justification been applied to the
principals of the big corporation down to
the present time. Nevertheless, Furukawa
could not overlook the centre of the metal
trade in the south, and consequently in the
Spring of 1904 the Osaka branch was estab-
lished to meet the great demand for metal
which was stimulated by the Russo-Japanese
War. Favoured by time and geographical
situation, and directed by experienced men,
under a broad and progressive policy, Furu-
1^
.■■«
tURUKAVVA & CO., LTD.: S. S. " SANNO MARU " AND S. S. " KAIWO MARL'," OWNED BY THE COMPANY
636
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
kawa & Co., Ltd., Osaka, have developed
their business by leaps and bounds, as the
following figures relating to the proceeds of
sales from the date of foundation will show:
ments: (i) Metal Department; (2) Coal
Department; (3) Electric Wire Department;
(4) Ore Department, and (5) Department of
General Affairs.
THE IMPERIAL CUSTOM HOUSE, YOKOHAMA
Year
\'ai,ue of Product
Yen
1905
700,000
1906
900,000
1907
1 ,600,000
1908
1,700,000
1909
2,600,000
IQIO
3,700,000
191 I
4,700,000
iyi2
8,400,000
1913
8,600,000
1914
7,500,000
1913
11,000,000
1 9 1 6
28,000,000
IIH7
40,000,000
The Osaka branch of Furukawa & Co.,
Ltd.. is at present under the able manage-
ment of Mr. Reinosuke Suga, and everybody
under him is working in perfect unison to
produce the finest results for the corporation.
The trading territory of the branch extends
from Shizuoka and Toyama Prefectures in the
north, to Okayama and Tottori Prefectures
in the south, including the island of Shikoku.
Besides the domestic trade, the branch makes
purchases of every class of metal and metal
products for all branches, representatives,
and agents throughout the world, the most
important of which are at Shanghai, Hong-
kong, Dairen, London, Petrograd, Hankow,
Harbin, New York, Bombay, Calcutta, and
Moscow. The organisation of the corpora-
tion is divided into the five following depart-
The principal lines dealt with by the
Metal Department are every sort of metal,
such as Furukawa cathodes, electro ingots
"Marugata," best selected and other brands
of Japanese copper; copper, brass, and yellow
metal manufactures, as sheets, ribbon, rods,
bars; other metals and their by-products;
several kinds of bullion, pure silver, antimony,
lead, tin spelter, and sulphate of copper.
Besides dealing with all these metals, the
department makes purchases of crude copper
and ores for the Furukawa works at Amas-
gasaki. These w'orks are located about five
miles from Osaka at the city of Amagasaki,
and are under the management of Mr. Suga.
They cover an area of about four acres and
there are approximately two hundred and
twenty employees. The principal product
of the works is refined copper ingots, the
output being about 15,000,000 pounds per
annum. Besides copper refining, these works
carry out lead refining and copper and iron
wire drawing.
The Coal Department deals with the
products of the Furukawa collieries, such as
Shiogashira, Shakanoo, Dai-ni Shakanoo,
Shin Shakanoo, Shimoyaniada, and Yoshima.
It also represents as sole agent the Taisho
Mining Co., whose principal collieries are
Arate, Sensui, and Muda. In the course of
a year the department deals with over
2,000,000 tons of coal. Shiogashira and
Shakanoo coal is of a black, bituminous
nature, comparatively free of sulphur and
caking well. Therefore these coals have a
high reputation as the best for smithies,
locomotives, and iron works, their reputa-
tion having extended widely at home and
aliroad. Shin and Dai-ni Shakanoo and
Sensui coals are best adapted for the pro-
duction of gas and coke, while those of
Shimoyamada, Yoshima, Arate, and Naka-
zuru are highly combustible, and conse-
quently are reputed to be the best for various
uses in factories. As the principal collieries
owned by Furukawa are scattered over
Kyushu Island, the Furukawa Gomel Kaisha
founded a branch at Moji, one of the greatest
centres of the coal trade in Japan, to supply
coal to ships and to the factories around the
city The Moji branch, however, also deals
in all lines, the same as the Osaka branch.
The Electric Wire Department deals with
all classes of wires and cables produced by
the Furukawa Nikko Works and the Yoko-
hama Electric Wire Works. Furukawa &
Co., Ltd., were the first to establish copper
wire works in Japan, and by degrees the
superior quality of its products was recognised
throughout the domestic and foreign markets.
As the demand grew tremendously the wire
works, together with the copper refinery, had
to be removed from Tokyo to Nikko, where
a large factory was estabHshed and fitted
throughout with modern machinery and
appliances. Now the products of the Nikko
Works are claimed to be equal in appear-
ance and quality to those manufactured in
Europe and America. These works furnish
more than eighty per cent of the domestic
demand and export a considerable amount
to China and Europe. The principal articles
which are manufactured at the Nikko Works
are Furukawa bare wires and cables. The
works are especially famous at home and
abroad for their production of round and
grooved trolley wires. This department
also deals with the manufactures of the
Yokohama Electric Wire Works, for whom
Furukawa Gomel Kaisha act as sole agents.
The Yokohama Electric Wire Works are
the leading and pioneer maunfacturers of
insulated electric wires and cables in the
Far East. The articles manufactured at
these works are magnet wires, weatherproof
wire and cables, flexible cords, thin vulcan-
ised flexibles, standard vulcanised fiexibles,
rubber insulated wires and cables, lead
enclosed and armoured insulated wires and
cables, submarine cables, telephone and
telegraph wires and cables, paper insulated
cables, specially insulated wires and cables,
cable accessories, and lead tubing. They
are reputed to be of first grade quality and
moderate in price. The majority of insu-
lated wires used by the Japanese Army and
Navy, the Communication Department,
the Railway Board, and other public and
private establishments, are manufactured by
'it
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K. HATTORI & CO.; SCENE IN THE TOKYO FACTORY THE TOKYO SHOP — THE METAL PRESS DEPARTMENT
638
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the Yokohama Electric Wire and Calilc
Works.
The business of the Ore Department of
Furukawa, Osaka, may be divided into three
parts: that is, first, the selHng of the ore
produced in Furukawa's mines, such as
Innai gold and silver ore, Kune copper and
iron pyrite ore, Daira zinc ore, and Furokura
copper ore; second, the department acts
as a broker of ore produced in the mines
owned by other parts; third, the furnishing
of material to the Midzushima Smelting
Works. We must in this connection touch
briefly on the Midzushima Smelting Works.
These works were established on the island
off the port of Tamashima, Okayama Pre-
fecture, just after the Chino- Japanese War,
and passing through several hands, fell into
Furukawa's management in August, 1914.
The amount of copper ore consumed by the
works exceeds 200,000 tons per annum, and
after the extension, now going on, is com-
pleted, the ore consumed will reach 300,000
tons.
There is also the Furukawa Shipping
Office, Sakaye Machi, Kobe. This office
uses the ships owned and chartered by
Furukawa Gomel Kaisha, and assists in
facilitating the export trade of Tokyo and
Osaka.
As mentioned above, the market for
Furukawa Gomel Kaisha, Osaka, is extend-
ing all over the world, and consequently
the prospect of the concern is the brightest
possible. To meet the expected great
development, a new up-to-date building is
nearly completed on a site only a minute's
distance from Umcda Station.
K. HATTORI & CO.
Like other countries, Japan furnishes
many instances of the growth of large enter-
prises from very humble beginnings, and
the history of its industrial development
[jrovidcs niunerous examples of the rise to
fortune and fame of men of the right spirit.
Nevertheless, the story of Mr. Kintaro
Hattori's rise from__the position of an office
boy to the head of one of the greatest clock
and watch making concerns in the world,
is not easy to parallel. The business of
K. Hattori & Co. is well known to all visitors
to Jajmn, for there is no more attractive
place in the famous Ginza of Tokyo than
the great watch and jewellery shop which
occupies a commanding position. The name
of the firm is also well known throughout
the East, but the origin of the business, and
Mr. Hattori's own life story, are not so
familiar to those who see to-day only the
great success he has achieved. The famous
Hattori watch and clock works are the crea-
tion of one man. As a boy, Mr. Hattori
was so poor, and his father so helpless, that
the future man of business could not be
educated, and often went hungry, yet to-day
he controls an industry that represents a
fortune of Yen 12,000,000.
Mr. Hattori's father was a native of the
Province of Owari, and in the Kei-o era
came to Yedo, as Tokyo was then known.
He failed in business, and was compelled
to sell second-hand goods in the streets,
plying a precarious trade in front of the
spot where his son's famous shop now stands.
So poor was the family that the father had
to send his son out, without any education,
to earn his living when he was twelve years
VOliOHAMA VIEWED FROM THE MEMORI.iL TOWER, LOOKING TOWARD TIlE BLIJFF
TOKYO GAS AND ELECTRIC INDUSTRIAL CO., LTD.: THE FOUNDRY — THK MACHINE SHOP — niRD's-EYE VIEW OK THE FACTORY — A SCENE
IN THE LAMP-MAKING SHOP WORKMEN ENGAGED AT THE FINISHING AND SORTING OF LAMP PARTS
640
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
of age. The boy was sent as office boy, or
apprentice, to a foreign goods store at
Hachikan-cho. Young Kintaro Hattori de-
termined to improve his position and help
his father. Opposite where he worked as
office boy there was a watchmaker's shop.
The future successful business man realised
that it required a great deal of capital to
open a foreign goods store, but little was
required, beyond skill at his calling, for a
man to be a watch repairer. That he decided
to be, and he spent all his spare time with
Kobayashi, the watchmaker. At the age of
fifteen the boy left the foreign goods store
and entered the service of Kameda, a watch-
maker of Kamimaki-cho, Nihonbashi-ku.
There he was first ordered to act as a child's
nurse, and when he had leisure he was
allowed to learn to repair watches. At
night he studied Japanese, and endeavoiu-ed
to educate himself. He gradually made
some progress, but the difficulty of his
struggle may be imagined from the fact
that once, when he needed a book costing
about 25 sen, neither he nor his father
could provide such a paltry sum. The
intensity of the struggle only increased the
boy's determination to make headway.
He worked hard at repairing watches.
From the ages of eighteen to twenty-two he
saved by dint of hard work and self-denial
the small sum of Yen 150, and this he in-
vested in a small shop at Unemecho, Kyo-
bashi-ku. The store was tiny, the business
was new, the customers were few, and the
earnings small. Accordingly, Mr. Hattori
went round at night visiting the street
sellers at Kakigaracho and Ningyocho, and
such places, and bought broken old watches
which he repaired and sold. In this way
he worked night and day to save the sum of
Yen 1,200 in two years. Unfortunately a fire
broke out in the neighbourhood of Mr. Hat-
tori's store in 1 883, and it was destroyed. Not
discouraged by this he again started at Kobi-
kicho Gochome, and worked harder than ever.
In 1887 Mr. Hattori removed to Ginza, his
business having grown in a fairly satisfactory
manner. A temporary workshop was started
in May, 1892, at Ishiwaramachi, Honjo, and
the trade name of Seikosha was adopted, which
afterwards became famous. The locality
was, however, crowded with houses, and
Mr. Hattori was not permitted to install a
motor engine for his machinery, so the
follow-ing year the factory was removed to
Yanagishimacho. Here Mr. Hattori was
able to install an eight horse-power engine,
and went in for the manufacture of clocks.
The demand for the Hattori products began
to increase, and presently the factory was
making clocks and exporting to China.
More modem machinery being necessary,
Mr. Hattori imported an automatic plant
from Europe and America, and used it,
together with machines of his own design.
The manufacture of watches was commenced
in 1895, and the next development, a few
years later, was the making of nickel alarm
clocks.
To follow the history of the Hattori
Company farther is hardly necessary, because
it has been a continuous triumph of success,
the works expanding year by year in keep-
ing with the development of trade. Mr.
Hattori's enterprise has practically meant the
stoppage of the importation of foreign-made
clocks, especially the cheap German article.
He has made Japan patronise another home
industry b}' turning out clocks and watches
of the highest grade of workmanship, and
he has built up a considerable export trade
with India and China. In 1916 the number
of watches and clocks turned out at the
Hattori works was over 800,000. In 1899
Mr. Hattori visited Europe and America to
study the industry in which he is such a
prominent leader. This visit was repeated
in 1906 and as a result of it the most modern
machinery was imported and the works so
extended and improved as to permit of the
carrying out of the most delicate work on
the widest possible scale. More than 1,500
workmen are engaged, and the office and
sales staff comprises over 100 hands. Mr.
Hattori is now planning to maintain his
export trade after the declaration of peace.
Expansion while the war is on and while
the import of such materials as must come
from Europe and the United States is rather
difficult, but the Hattori watches and clocks
are so popular wherever they are known
that it is hardly likely that there will be
any falling off in the demand. There is
more likely to be an increase under the
easier conditions of peace time. Mr. Hattori
is now fifty-nine years of age, and all who
know the hard struggle he had in his early
days heartily congratulate him on the
success of his great enterprise.
TOKYO GAS AND ELECTRIC INDUSTRIAL
COMPANY, LIMITED
This enterprise is one that covers a far
wider field of industrial manxifactures than
the title of the company implies, the original
purpose of the Tokyo Gas and Electric
Industrial Co., Ltd., having been consider-
ably broadened in keeping with the remark-
able economic development of Japan since
the outbreak of the war. The company was
organised in August, 1910, by the late Mr.
T. Tokuhisa, formerly Governor of the Saga
Prefecture, assisted by some of the leading
financiers of Tokyo. At this time there was
a strong development in the gas industry
in Japan and the promoters of the company
had in view the manufacture of gas mantles,
fittings, and other apparatus, as well as
contracting for the erection of gas-making
plants and works, etc. Before the founda-
tion of the new enterprise could be consoli-
dated Mr. Tokuhisa died, and the under-
taking came to a standstill. Mr. G. Mat-
sukata, fifth son of the famous Genro Marquis
Matsukata, was unanimously elected Presi-
dent of the company in succession to Mr.
Tokuhisa, and devoting himself energetically
to the furtherance of the company's interests,
he overcame many difficulties and put the
industry on a sound basis. Mr. Matsukata
introduced new departments, such as, for
instance, the manufacture of enamelled iron-
ware, and proceeded to open up new markets
for the company's products, both at home
and abroad. From that time the company
has made slow but steady improvement.
Its operations have been widely extended, as
will be shown later. The quahty of its
products has been improved, and the excel-
lent reputation it has won has brought its
goods into great demand for home use and
also in the United Kingdom, America, China,
India, and the South Seas.
The Tokyo Gas and Electric Industrial
Co., Ltd., possesses five factories at Honjo-
ku, Tokyo. No. i, where gas mantles are
made, covers 192 tsubo. The power is
electricity, conveyed to 33 different machines.
Employment is given in this factory- to two
expert engineers and 166 hands, the majority
of them women. The second factory, or
machine shop, covers 531 tsubo. Motors
developing 122 horse-power operate no fewer
than 472 machines, and the staff comprises
27 engineers, supervising the work of 549 men
and 114 women. The enamelled ironware
factory extends over 377 tsubo and employs
94 men and 6 women. The fourth factory,
for finishing gas meters, covers 80 tsubo
and employs 2 engineers and 36 labourers.
In the fifth factory, which is used for gal-
vanising work, and covers 150 tsubo, I
engineer and 53 labourers are at work.
The gas mantles turned out by the company
have won high distinction in all the markets
of the world. The defect with most mantles
is that those for strong candle power con-
■ sume much gas and still are not durable,
while those that are comparatively durable
are not adaptable to high candle power.
This difficulty is claimed to have been over-
come by the company, which is turning out
a mantle that is not only durable, whether
made of silk, ramie, or cotton, but is adapt-
able for stronger candle power than those
of any other make. In the production of
enamelled ironware the Tokyo Gas and
Electric Industrial Co., Ltd., is without rival
P R E S E N T - U A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
641
GENERAL VIEW OF THE PLANT OF THE YASUDA NAIL WORKS (yASUDA SEITEI JO), AT YEDAMITSU, NEAR MOJI.
(notice the NUMBER OF INDUSTRIES SPRINGING UP IN THIS DISTRICT)
among the many makers of this ware in
Japan. The industry has been developed on
a very large scale by the company, which is
especially noted for its acid-proof and heat-
proof goods, and for its baths, tank-coils,
cast pans, etc. With the development of
the chemical industry of Japan this depart-
ment of the company's activities has a very
bright future. Gas meters are being made
in large quantity, and it is evidence of the
quality and accuracy of the company's
product that the Central Weights and
Measures Testing Bureau use the Tokyo
Company's meter as a standard. The
machine shop is among the best equipped
in Japan, as also its labour is among the
most skilled. Recently the Imperial mili-
tary authorities were astounded to find that
an order placed with the company for over
a thousand ammunition-testing appliances
was turned out in less than two months
The success which has been achieved by
the Tokyo Gas and Electric Industrial Co.,
Ltd., has led the directors to embark on a
much wider scheme of manufactures. The
capital of the company is to be increased,
and the plants extended to enable the factories
to turn out motor cars, meters, and measur-
ing appliances of various kinds, and military
ordnance requirements. The automobile
industry is to be taken up in diflferent stages,
the idea of the company being to turn out a
car suited to local needs, and to educate its
workmen along these lines: First, all parts
will be imported from abroad, and will be
assembled in the factory and sold as complete
cars; second, the raw materials for parts will
be imported and will be finished in the factory
and from them the cars will be constructed,
and third, all material will be produced in
Japan, so that a car will be made complete.
The first productions will be freight trucks
and military automobiles. There is urgent
need in Japan for freight trucks and military
machines, and it is certain that the company's
enterprise in supplying the deficiency will
meet with the hearty approval of the Govern-
ment and the Military Department. A
bright future also lies before the industry of
making various meters. Japan is so rapidly
developing her economic independence in
other lines, particularly in shipbuilding,
locomotive construction and so on, that the
company has decided that many accessory
parts, such as meters and gauges, now almost
entirely imported, can be manufactured
locally with profit. Already the ordnance
department of the company is in operation,
but no new capital has as yet been put into it.
.The company has merely taken advantage of
its surplus plant and power to enter upon
munition making, etc., as a side line. Orders
have been received from Russia and quite an
extensive trade has already been developed.
It is felt, after the lessons of the great war,
that Japan can very well do with some private
manufacturing plants to supplement the work
of the national arsenals, and the Tokyo Com-
pany has entered on this work with a view
to wide ex])ansion in the not distant future.
It is generally recognised that the enter-
prise of the Tokyo Gas and Electric Industrial
Co., Ltd., is a model one in many respects.
The aim of President Matsukata is to avoid
useless competition with other concerns, but
to supply deficiencies in the general industrial
field, or to support Government enterprise
with private plants. For this reason the
Tokyo Company will rarely be found dujili-
cating the products of other factories. The
whole plant is run with the idea of being
available for national needs at any time. So
far, the company has succeeded financially
to a satisfactory extent, and the directors
have no doubt of substantial development
after the war and the maintenance of divi-
dends at 20 per cent per annum. The head
office of the Tokyo Gas and Electric Indus-
trial Co., Ltd., is at Narihira-cho, Nakanogo,
Honjo-ku, Tok-yo. It is to remove presently
to Otemachi, Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo, and the
branch factory is to be built in Omori (a sub-
urb of Tokyo).
YASUDA NAIL WORKS
The history of the Yasuda Nail Works is
an interesting record of difficulties overcome,
and of success achieved in the face of most
discouraging conditions. The scheme first
occurred to Mr. Yasuda in 1894, when, as a
result of the Sino- Japanese War, the coun-
try's trade returns presented an unusually
unsatisfactory balance.
The situation, redundant with opportun-
ities to a far-sighted man, appealed at once
I
a'
^^ggyrj
.'.-"i:!: ,AiT"i
A
NISSHIN SEIFUN KABUSHIKI KAISHA (nISSHIN FLOUR MILLS, LIMITED): VIEW OF THE BIG MILLS AT TATEBAYASHI — SECOND FLOUR MILL
AT MITO— THE LABORATORY INTERIOR VIEW OF THE MILL AT TATEBAYASHI — THOUSANDS OF SACKS OF FLOUR IN ONE
OF THE CODOWNS— ANOTHER INTERIOR VIEW OF THE MILLING PLANT AT TATEBAYASHI
THE DAIRI FLOUR MILL CO., LTD.: VIEWS OF THE MILL AT DAIRI, NEAR MOJI — BUSY SCENE IN DAIRI OFFICE
644
P R E S E N T - I) A V
I M 1' R !■: S S I O N S
O F
J A 1' A N
to Mr. Yasuda both from a commercial and
patriotic point of view, since it was obvious
that whatever could be done to correct the
balance of trade, even to a small extent,
would be useful, and probably profitable.
Wire nails were at this time being imported
to Japan at an average rate of 220,000 kegs
per annum, there being no manufacturer of
this commodity in the country. Mr. Yasuda
decided to install a factory to produce at least
50 per cent of this quantity, and in 1895 des-
patched a representative to Europe to make
an exhaustive study of the industry. This
task did not, however, prove easy of accom-
plishment, as neither European nor American
manufacturers were at all attracted by the
possibility of foreign production and the
consequent loss of an important market ;
hence the representative found it impossible
to obtain admittance to the factories. Noth-
ing daunted, Mr. Yasuda purchased 4,000
tstibo of ground in 1896 and building opera-
tions proceeded with such celerity that in
September of the year following the factory
was complete. An American nail-specialist
was engaged to set up and install the machines,
which were completed under his direction by
November. In the vSpring of igo8 the first
products of the factory were placed on the
market, but it was only then that the real
obstacles began to accumulate. Consumers
long accustomed to the foreign product were
extremely skeptical and, no doubt with
reason, criticised the Yasuda Nail as not ujj
to the foreign standard. Again, residents in
the neighbourhood of the w'orks, unaccus-
tomed to the proximity of a big manufactur-
ing plant, and the natural disadvantages in
the form of noise, waste deposits, etc., were
quite naturally moved to very vigourous
opposition.
Despite this generally unsatisfactory situa-
tion— which, however, improved somewhat
with time — operations continued and an
addition was made to the works which
necessitated the installation of an additional
200 machines. Within a week of the com-
pletion of the extensions the factory caught
fire and was completely demolished. It
speaks wonders for the determined spirit
which actuated the founder that by May of
1 90 1 a new factory, complete in every respect,
stood upon the ruins of the old, and work
proceeded.
It was now that the foreign manufacturers
began to take a hand in the opposition. A
heavy duty was placed on all the raw material
exported to Japan for the manufacture of
nails, with the result that the factory was
quite unable to compete, and was forced to
close down in 1902. In 1906 the Government
made known its decision to manufacture wire-
rod for local consumption at reasonable rates.
WASHING D.\Y U.N IHE TU.Nli RIVER
and it may best be imagined with what
unmixed satisfaction this intelligence was
received by the company.
The plant was rapidly overhauled and in
July, 1907, abundantly supplied with wire-
rod, recommenced operations, and this time
with considerable success. In 191 1 a branch
factory was completed at Yedamitsu, Kyu-
shu, and within a year this was also working
hard to meet the ever-increasing demands.
Mr. Ma^-eda, the General Manager of the
works, was appointed in the dark days of
1897 to the position which he still holds, and
the fact that with Mr. Z. Yasuda, the Presi-
dent, he has successfully guided the industry
to its present prosperous condition, should
point to future development and success as a
foregone conclusion.
THE NISSHIN FLOUR MILLS, LIMITED
It is only of recent years that flour-milling
has been conducted on any large or modern
scale in Japan. Milling in the old days was
done in a crude way, water mills in the coun-
try turning out flour of an inferior quality,
and when the demand arose for white bread,
foreign flour was imported to the value of
some Yen 10,000,000 annually. In 1900 one
of the first modem mills was erected at
Tatebayashi town. Gumma Prefecture. The
initial capital was Yen 60,000, afterwards
increased to Yen 600,000. This mill was
owned by the Tatebayashi Flour Mill Com-
pany. In March, 1907, a company was
promoted in Yokohama, with a capital of Yen
1 ,000,000, and a mill was started at the port.
This was the inception of the present industry
of the Nisshin Flour Mills, Ltd., the biggest
concern of its kind in Japan. Work on the
Yokohama mill was completed in January,
1908, and 2,000 bags of flour were produced
daily. In the meantime, however, the Yoko-
hama company had bought out the Tatebay-
ashi Company, and the capital of the joint
concern was made Yen 1,600,000. At the
same time the head office of the company was
removed to Tokyo. A year or so later the
Dai Nippon Flour Milling Co., Ltd., was also
brought into the amalgamation, and its plant
at Utsunomiya was added to the productive
capacity. With these amalgamations the
Nisshin Flour Mills, Ltd., was fairly started
as a big industrial organisation, and since
then the company has extended in all direc-
tions, until to-day it owns mills at five centres,
and has a very large output. In December,
19 1 7, the capital of the concern w'as raised to
Yen 4,000,000. The factory at Xagoya was
completed in October, 1914, and the manu-
facture of flour under the German system was
started there, the other mills using the
American system. Since the outbreak of
the war, the business of the company has
increased to such an extent that the capital
had to be increased to Yen 4,000,000, as stated
above, and new plants were installed. At
present the Nisshin Flour Mills, Ltd., are
operating mills at Tatebayashi, Yokohama,
Utsunomiya, Nagoya, and Mito. These
plants are running day and night, and have a
production of 16,000 bags of flour a day.
All these plants are quite modem in con-
struction and in system of operation. The
mills are of the AUis-Chalmers pattern, and
are driven by electricity. In facilities for
handling and discharging of incoming wheat
shipments and outgoing flour and other
products, the Nisshin Flour Mills, Ltd., are
strictly up to date. The Mito Mill, for
instance, has railway tracks laid to the mill
doors, and the wheat is automatically weighed
as it leaves the trucks, and is handled by
electric cranes, making delivery ver\- rapid
and economical. This mill is in charge of
Mr. I. Morita. The mills, as a whole, are of
wood or stone, and generally are five stories
high, with large two-story godowns attached
for storage purposes. About 3C0 hands are
employed in addition to the technical staff,
chemists and others. The company pays
salaries amounting to Yen 155,619 per annum,
while the wages bill runs to Yen 103,192.
Working at full capacity the company can
turn out 5,200,000 bags of flour a year, and
1,200,000 bags of bran. Prior to the war the
wheat was mainly imported from America
and Australia, but that trade has now been
suspended and the company has had to
ASAHI GLASS COMPANY, LIMITED: NO. 3 FACTORY AT TSURUMI THE COMPANY'S PRIVATE FIRE BRICK FACTORY NO. 2 F.^CTORY,
NEAR MOJI, KYUSHU IMPORTANT MOND GAS- PRODUCING PLANT INSTALLED IN CONNECTION WITH THE COMPANY'S
WORKS AT KYUSHU — THE COMPANY'S PRIVATE SODA FACTORY
42
iNl
••4 i;l
ASAHI GLASS COMPANY, LIMITED: (LEFT TO RIGHT) BOX-MAKING DEPARTMENT RAW MATERIAL READY FOR THE FURNACE
TRANSFERRING GLASS CYLINDERS TO FLATTENING OVENS — -PACKING DEPARTMENT — BLOWING DEPARTMENT
— LADLING MOLTEN GLASS FROM FURNACES
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
647
develop other sources of supply. The output
of the mills goes a long way to meet the
domestic demand for flour, but in addition a
large export trade is being done with China,
Manchuria, the Straits Settlements, the Philip-
pines, and the South Sea Islands. The
company has been very successful from a
financial point of view. There was a tem-
porary set-back in the market when it was
rumoured that Germany was suing for peace,
but since then contracts for export have been
stronger than ever, and the supply of flour is
not equal to the demand. Prices of flour
rose in keeping with the increase in the price
of rice, and bran and other by-products
followed.
The balance sheet available shows that the
Nisshin Flour Mills, Ltd., realised a profit
for the half-year of Yen 234,170.10. This,
together with the sum of Yen 79,115.16,
brought forward from the previous term, was
distributed as follows: Added to reserve. Yen
15,000; to equalisation of dividends fund,
Yen 50,000; to staff pension fund. Yen 5,000;
bonus, Yen 23,000; dividend at 15 per cent
per annum, Yen 98,720; special dividend
(3 per cent). Yen 24,680; carried forward.
Yen 96,885.26. The head office of the
Nisshin Flour Mills, Ltd., is at Koamicho,
Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. The principal officers
of the company are: Directors, Messrs. K.
Nezu (President), T. Shoda (Managing
Director), K. Kimura, K. Matsushita, T.
Nagara, T. Ishijima; Auditors, Messrs. K.
Mogi, N. Aoki, and J. Muramatsu.
DAIRI FLOUR MILL, LIMITED (kABUS-
HIKI KAISHA DAIRI SEIFUNSHO)
Whatever the detractors of Japan and the
Japanese business man may assert, they can
not but recognise the universal spirit of enter-
prise which dominates the country to-day,
and which has done so much to enable the
Japanese to grasp the opportunity presented
by the Great War.
From the various articles descriptive of the
many huge undertakings of the firm of
Suzuki & Co., appearing in different sections
of this volume, it will be seen that there are
few departments of trade and industry in
which they have not important financial in-
terests.
The Dairi Mill is but one of similar enter-
prises operated by the company; but, since it
is the largest and perhaps the most successful
in Japan, some details will be of interest.
Located at Dairi, a few miles from the port of
Mogi, the fine six-story white brick main
structure of the mill, with its numerous well
constructed godowns, power station, macaroni
and vermicelli factory adjoining, looms up
imposingly on the shores of the Inland Sea,
where it narrows to approach the ports of
Mogi and Shimonoseki. Together with the
Kob^ Steel Works, the Dai-Nippon Seito
K. K., the Imperial Brewery, the Dairi
Electric Wire Works, and other adjoining
enterprises, it can not but symbolise for the
new arrival the Spirit of Modem Japan.
The Dairi Flour Mill was established in
191 1 and was successful from the inception
to such an extent that by 19 15 the demand
was well ahead of the output. Catastrophy
overtook the mil! at this time, however, in the
form of fire which practically gutted the
main building and a number of the ware-
houses. This was regarded more as a blessing
in disguise than any depressing misfortune,
for before the end of igi6 a new mill, in all
respects better and of greater capacity, stood
upon the ruins of the old. The present mill
covers an area of 350 tsubo and the numerous
warehouses 5,000 tsubo. There is a small
macaroni and vermicelli factory occupying
200 Isuho, whilst the power plant, boiler
house, etc., generating 1,500 horse -power,
and other miscellaneous structtu-es cover an
additional 500 tsubo. The machinery and
installations are all imported from England
and America and include all the latest devices
and most approved types of flour milling
machinery.
A considerable portion of the raw material
is of local production, but large quantities are
also imported from Manchuria and Chosen.
The total quantity of grain annually milled
represents 3,474,100 bushels, and the product
is 4,270,000 bags of flour, apart from by-pro-
ducts. The total value of the output,
including by-products, is valued at Yen
16,000,000.
It is an interesting fact that the Blue and
Red Diamond Flours, the special product of
the Dairi Mill, find a ready market through-
out the Far East and, also, so far afield as
Europe and South America.
If any further guarantee of quality repre-
sented by the demand is required, the
company can show many gold and silver
exhibition awards as a tangible proof of the
great and universal success achieved, but
they regard as more important the Imperial
command, with which they were honoured in
191 7, to supply the Japanese forces during
the annual manoeuvres.
ASAHI GLASS CO.,
TOKYO
LIMITED,
M.\NY attempts have been made to manu-
facture window glass in Japan, but prior to
the war with very little success. The Asahi
Glass Company, Ltd., was founded in 1907
with this object, and after a very consider-
able loss of time and heavy experimental
expenditure succeeded in manufacturing glass
of an inferior grade.
However, steady progress was made and
by 1 9 14 the company had succeeded in pro-
ducing a very good ciuality of window glass
which found a ready sale. As if to make
amends for the difficulties of the past, the
total importation from countries like Belgium,
whose previous hold on the trade almost
amounted to a monopoly, was completely
cut off, with the result that the Asahi Com-
pany was immediately inundated with orders
from all parts of the world.
The company has three factories located
at Tobata and Yedamitsu (Kyushu) and
Tsurumi, near Tokyo, each producing 240,-
000 cases annually, and a smaller factory at
Amagasaki, near Kobe, with an annual pro-
duction of 120,000 cases. Stated in other
terms, the foiu- factories combined at present
manufacture about 85,000,000 square feet
of window glass in five grades, as is the case
with the Belgian glass. The silica sand is
imported from Indo-China. Independence,
as far as raw materials are concerned, is
achieved by the company running its own
large factories for the supply of soda and
fire bricks.
Important experiments are now being
carried out, too, for the manufacture of
plate and show glass of every description.
A considerable export trade is at present
being done to China, India, Australia, South
America, and South Africa, through the
following firms: Tamate & Co. (Japan,
Formosa, Korea, and South Seas), Mitsubishi
Co. (China and Vladivostock, Europe and
Africa), Nosawa Gumi (Australia, India,
South America, Canada, and Siberia).
The President of the company is Toshiya
Iwasaki, Esq.
NIPPON PAINT MANUFACTURING CO.,
LIMITED
An exceedingly interesting story of the
origin and development of the paint manu-
facturing industry in Japan is to be found in
the history of the Nippon Company, which is
tile premier concern of its kind in the Empire.
Moreover, the story is indicative of the energy
and determination which so many of the
pioneers of Japan's secondary industries have
displayed in overcoming great difficulties, not
the least of which have been popular prejudice
in favoiu- of imported articles. The history
of the Nippon Paint Manufacturing Com-
pany, Limited, is practically the entire
historj' of the industry in Japan, and therefore
there is every justification for giving it at
fairly fuU length.
In 1874 two courses of working and refin-
ing were pro\'ided in the Kaisei-gakko, the
present Tokyo Imperial LTniversity, with a
view to the diffusion of the science of manu-
facturing throughout the country. Several
fea3i|:
r J' >:
MR. T. TASAKA, PRESIDENT, NIPPON PAINT MFG. CO., LTD.: TWO GENER.\L VIEWS OF FACTORY OF NIPPON PAINT MFG. CO., LTD.
AT MINAMI-SHINAGAWA, TOKYO
PRESENT-DAY I M P R I<: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
649
_*
VIEW OF OSAKA, SHOWINC. THE TOSABORI-UAWA KIVER WITH THE YODOYA BRIDGE IN THE FOREGROUND
foreigners were engaged as instructors.
Among the assistant professors was Mr.
Haruta Motegi, who, conceiving the idea
that paint manufacturing might be made a
native industry, established a private refin-
ery on a small scale, and in the intervals
of his official duties devoted himself to the
study of the subject. He was assisted by
his brother, Mr. Jujiro Motegi, who attended
to the preparation of zinc white and one or
two other useful pigments. In the course
of this work he had to make the chemicals
and provide the materials for furnace-
building, as these latter could not be pur-
chased in the market at the time. Despite
the difficulties with which the project he
had in mind was beset, he recognised the
commercial possibilities which lay before
him and his brother, if success should attend
their efforts. Mr. Haruta Motegi unfor-
tunately died at an early age, leaving his
scientific researches uncompleted. Nothing
daunted, Mr. Jujiro Motegi, with firm energy,
pushed on with his work, determined to
carry out his brother's will, until at last, in
1881, he succeeded, after seven years of
hard and at times discouraging effort, in
finishing his studies and in organising the
Komei-Sha. This small syndicate was
formed with the help of two or three persons
who were sufficiently interested in the work
to invest the necessary capital in the small
initial enterprise. A factory was established
at Mita, Tokj'o, and the manufacture of
paints was entered upon. In those days,
however, both the Government and the
people were under the fascination of imported
goods, and looked askance at any attempt
to meet needs by local effort, as they also
hesitated to buy local products, so that both
manufacturer and merchant experienced
many discouragements in trying to carry on
business. While the public in general took
no notice of the new industry which the
Komei-Sha, as the concern was then known,
had given to Japan, Mr. Heikichi Nakagawa,
painter-in-chief of the Na\'y Department,
realising the importance of the new enter-
prise, with the permission of Count Kawa-
mura, the then Minister of the Navy, every
day visited the works in his spare hours and
directed the process of paint manufacture.
At his suggestion the new factory turned out
a very useful kind of composite paint intended
for warships. By such friendly interest the
company was encouraged to proceed on its
precarious career as a manufacturer in a
new line of industry. Under such powerful
patronage some progress was being made,
when unfortunately, in June, 1885, the com-
pany's works were entirely destroyed by
fire. Not discouraged by this blow even,
the directors set to work to reestablish the
industrj'. In the following year they had
collected enough capital to make a fresh
start, this time with a good deal of experi-
ence to help them, with a new kind of furnace
and better methods. The work of the com-
pany had by now become better known and
with the demand increasing for paints, the
Komei-Sha turned out an annual production
worth Yen 30,000. This success so delighted
the directors that the occasion was celebrated
with a feast. In 1886, when the Imperial
Palace was rebuilt, the Komei-Sha presented
the Imperial Household Department with
its paints, and afterwards the gift was
acknowledged by the presentation of a
silver cup to the company. Then the
Komei-Sha went in for a good deal of propa-
ganda to popularise its goods, making dis-
plays at various exhibitions, and on every
occasion, in competition with similar goods,
the paints of the Komei-Sha were adjudged
to be the best of their kind, and certainly
not inferior to the imported article. The
long fight for public recognition was prac-
tically won, and the business showed a
sudden increase. In the war of 1894-5 the
demand for the paint was so great that,
though the plant was worked to its utmost
capacity, the demand could not be met, and
so the Komei-Goshi-Kaisha was organised,
with a capital of Yen 100,000. The works
were removed from Mita to Shinagawa-
machi, Ebara-gori, the general equipment
and plant being renewed at the same time.
With an increased capacity the company had
to look for new outlets for its paints, and
with the idea of enUsting the interest of the
Railway Board, in addition to the Navy
Department, an application was made for
the use of the locally made article for rail-
way work. This was refused, the fact being
that the railway authorities had not then
heard of the existence of the company and
its works. The railways were then asked
to use the paint for repair purposes, and this
met with the reply that the department
was not bound to test the Komei Gomel
Kaisha product at the risk of damaging the
650
PRESENT-DAY IMlMiESSIONS OF JAPAN
cars! This prejudice was broken down three
years later, after persistent effort, and the
paint was found to be quite satisfactory.
The same result was experienced in every
new direction w'here the company could
overcome the demand for the imported
article, and in all cases it was admitted after
fair trial that the locally manufactured
paint was in no way inferior to the foreign
products. Such a history will indicate what
a difficult task it was to establish and popu-
larise a local concern, but after the ground
had been well broken, the Komei Goshi
Kaisha found its path easy and progress was
rapid. In 1897, not long after the estab-
lishment of the gomei kaisha, or limited
partnership, the directors doubled the capital
to Yen 200,000, and organised a joint-stock
company under the present name of the
Nippon Paint Manufacturing Company,
Limited.
Further rapid progress was made and
honours and decorations came readily to
the company for the excellence of its prod-
ucts. The capital was again increased to
Yen 500,000 in 1905, and works were estab-
lished also at Osaka. During the war with
Russia the special services rendered by the
company were so highly thought of that a
certificate of merit was conferred on it by
the Bureau of Decorations. The press of
orders became so great that in 1907 the
capital was increased to Yen 1,500,000, and
the works were further enlarged. In 191 1
the founder of the company, Mr. Jugiro
Motcgi, had conferred upon him the Medal
for Merit with a green cordon, the Imperial
decree accompanying the award reciting at
length, and in the highest terms of praise,
the splendid work which he had done for
the manufacturing industries of Japan.
In 19 1 7 the company received the sanction
of its proprietary for its scheme of increas-
ing its capital from Yen 1,500,000 to Yen
5,000,000, by the issue of 60,000 new shares
to the original shareholders and the rest to
the company's employees or the general
public.
In conclusion, it need only be said that
the Nippon Paint Manufacturing Company,
Limited, is in a highly flourishing condition
to-day, and its annual production is always
on the increase. The works have a capacity
for an annual output valued at Yen 8,000,000,
and though the product was once thought
so little of in official circles, the company
is now supplying paints to the Navy, the
Government Railways, the South Manchuria
Railway, the Imperial Government arse-
nals, the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha, the Mitsubishi Dockyard,
the Kawasaki Dockyard, and to scores of
other great enterprises, all of which, it
may be taken for granted, have tested to
the full the quality of the product and
have found it to be all that is desired.
Not only are the ever-growing domestic
demands practically all met with the prod-
ucts of the company, but exports are
also made extensively to India, Russia,
Australia, and the South Sea Islands, in
addition to all Chinese and other Far
Eastern ports, from which points large or-
ders are received by the company, testi-
fying to the high qualities of its products.
The founder of the industry is now Director
of the great enterprise.
K. TAKEUCHI SAFE COMPANY
It would be surprising did not the Japanese
business community, along with their prog-
ress in all other directions, recognise the
necessity for the best class of protection
against theft and fire, and to that end sup-
port such an industry as that of the K.
Takeuchi Safe Company, which has earned
a high reputation for its safes and strong
rooms. This company is manufacturing on
an extensive scale, and has been principally
responsible for the entire installation of
safes and similar protection in most of the
large offices in Tokyo, and other important
business centres. The business was founded
in June, 1867, by Mr. Zenjiro Takeuchi, who
was, indeed, the first maker of modem safes
in Japan. With the remodelling of all
Japanese ideas of business, and the recon-
struction of offices, there was a steady de-
mand for strong rooms and safes, and Mr.
Takeuchi's enterprise found ready support,
so much so, that the plant w-as several times
increased, and finally, in 191 1, the business
was transformed into that of a joint-stock
company, with a capital of Yen 300,000.
Up to this stage attention had been mainly
ilr
PREMISES OF T.'iKElCHl SAFE COMPANY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
651
centred on the manufacture of safes by hand,
but the company, backed up by its lengthy
experience and its skilled workers, was now
able to import the best machinery, and the
manufacture of strong room doors and vaults
was entered upon, the demand increasing by
leaps and bounds. The Takeuchi model
safe combines the best features of the highest
class of product in England, America, and
Germany. The use of machinery and the
large output has enabled the Takeuchi Com-
pany to turn out much better and cheaper
safes than those which are made partly by
machinery and partly by manual labour.
In the Orient the Takeuchi Safe is considered
the ideal product. In Japan the number of
customers, or applicants for safes, is counted
by tens of thousands, and the company has
also developed a substantial export trade
with China, Siam, India, Australia, and the
South Sea islands. As a matter of fact, the
demand for the Takeuchi Safe always ex-
ceeds the supply. To give some idea of the
support which the Takeuchi Safe Company
has received from the big business enter-
prises of Japan, it may be stated that it
has supplied 142 safes to the Bank of Japan,
37 to the head office and branches of the
Yokohama Specie Bank, 59 to the Bank of
Taiwan, 57 to the First Bank, 46 to the
Sumitomo Bank, 46 to the Bank of Chosen,
and many safes to the Industrial, Hypothec,
Fifteenth, Mitsui, the Third Bank and oth-
ers. In addition, the company has supplied
safes to the palace of the Heir Apparent,
and to Prince Takeda. To give a complete
list of important customers of the company
is impossible in limited space. Business peo-
ple generally have expressed their approval of
the Takeuchi Safe, which is regarded as the
l^est article manufactured in Japan. The
Takeuchi Safe Company undoubtedly has
a bright future before it.
LEVER BROTHERS (jAPAN), LIMITED
Lever Brothers (Japan), Ltd., is an asso-
ciated company of Lever Brothers, Limited,
England, formed for the purpose of develop-
ing their trade in Japan. For many years
the English house exported to Japan, but in
191 1 it was decided to erect works in Japan,
and land was selected at Tori-Shinden, the
site of the present factory. The area of the
factory site is 49,599 tsiilio, situated near
the entrance to the Amagasaki River. The
capital of the Japan company is Yen 3,000,-
000. There are offices in Kob(5, Osaka, and
Tokyo. The company manufactures soaps
of all kinds, both laundry and toilet. It
also operates oil mills and produces soya
bean oil, and copra oil on a large scale, in
addition to being the largest producer and
refiner of glycerine in Japan.
At the works at Tori-Shinden, the average
number of employees is over 400, and there
is a large staff in connection with the office
and sales department. With the exception
of the directors and heads of departments,
the staff is entirely Japanese.
THE LYCETT SADDLE CO.
This company, which is an offshoot of
the Lycett Saddle and Motor Accessories
Co., Ltd., of Birmingham, England, was
established at Kobd, Japan, in 191 2 by Mr.
Edward Lycett, and in a comparatively
short space of time has built up a substantial
industry in the manufacture of cycle saddles.
The bicycle building industry itself is a fairly
large one in Japan, and that there is full
scope for the operations of such a concern
- .^^ .
LYCETT SADDLE CO.: BIRD's-EYE VIEW OF THE \V(iRKS .\T KOBE — INTERIOR VIEW OF THE WORKS
6.S2
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
TOTARO YAZAWA SHOTEN:
KOBE PREMISES AND GODOWXS — REAR VIEW OF MR. YAZAWA S FIXE \1LLA AT SHIOYA
THE HOKKAIDO BRANCH THE PRIVATE OFFICE
as the Lycett Saddle Company is seen in
the volume of that company's output, which
amounts to over 70,000 cycle saddles per
annum. The capital of the company • is
Yen 100,000. A modem factory has been
established at Xo. 158 Wakinohame, 2
chome, Kob6, covering an area of 650 tsuho.
The building contains a full equipment of
spring-making machinery, and plant of
various kinds for leather-working. The
motive power is electricity. About fifty
hands are employed. To carry on the work
much of the raw material, mainly sheet steel
and wire, is imported. The saddles are
sold principally in the local market to cycle
and motorcjxle builders, and an export
trade is also done with Australia, India,
China, Java, the Straits Settlements, and
the Philippines. The business is managed
by Mr. W. H. Kendrick. In Australia the
Lycett Saddle Company is represented by
Mr. James ThomeU, G. P. O. Box 882,
Sydney. The postal address of the company
is P. O. Box 217, Sannomiya, Kob6, Japan.
TOTARO YAZAWA & CO.
This firm is well known throughout Japan
and abroad for its important dealings in
menthol crystals and peppermint oil, the
manufacture and sale of which have been
specialties of Totaro Yazawa & Co. for
many years. The business was founded in
1893 by Mr. Totaro Yazawa, who is still
principal of the firm, and through his efforts
a large enterprise has been developed, not
only in the two special lines noted above,
but in general transactions in natural prod-
ucts of Japan for export to foreign countries.
Mr. Yazawa's trade operations represent
something like a total value of Yen 2,000,000
per annum, shipments being made to Europe,
the United States, China, and the South
Sea islands.
The firm has its own factory, which covers
an area of about 500 tstibo, the building being
a two-story brick structure, equipped with
modem plant, driven by steam. Employees
number 100. There are also branches at
Nokkeushi-machi, Kitami, Hokkaido, and
at Nayoromachi, Teshio Province, Hokkaido.
The head office and main godowns of the
firm are at No. 7 Hachimandori, Itchome,
Kobe. Totaro Yazawa & Co. have valuable
connections in many foreign countries.
KOBE, AS SEEN IN A PANORAMA
XXXVIII. The City of Kobe
10CATED on a natural harljour at
the head of the beautiful Inland
-^ Sea, the site running some five
miles along the sea front, and with a series
of fair green hills rising behind, Kobe is
superbly situated alike for residence, indus-
try, and trade. The city slopes up along
the plain between the hills and the sea, the
upper portion rising sufficiently high to
divide the town into what might be called
the Bluff, the houses descending in a row
of terraces to the Bund. Protected by the
highlands on the north and open to the sea
from the south, Kobe has a delightful
climate, seldom suffering from extremes of
heat or cold. The view from the summit
of the hills behind the city is delightful, with
the island of Awaji toward the Pacific, and
the blue mountains of Shikoku beyond.
The central line of the Imperial Govern-
ment Railway passes through Kobe, con-
necting it with all the important cities north
and south, while an electric tramway runs
to Osaka. Kobe is also a convenient start-
ing-point for Tsuruga, the port connecting
with Vladivostock and the Trans-Siberian
route, only eighteen days to London. All
the great steamship lines call at Kob^, with
passenger service to Europe, America, South
America, China, and Australia, while big
British freight carriers and native coasting
vessels are always to be seen in the
harbour.
In early days the chief centre was Hyogo,
Kobe being an insignificant hamlet in which
no one took any interest until it was desig-
nated as a settlement for foreigners. And
thus at the outset there were Hyogo and
Kob6, just as at the northern port there were
Kanagawa and Yokohama. Hyogo figures
in Japanese history until lost in the ages of
myth, the port having the distinction of
receiving imperial personages who are said
to have landed there, and even gods and
goddesses. In ancient times the numerous
embassies despatched from China to the
Court of Japan always landed at Hyogo.
In 1161 the famous Kiyomori constructed a
better harbour at Hyogo, with the idea of
promoting foreign commerce, and in 1 1 80
he endeavoured to have the national capital
removed to Fukuhara in the same vicinity.
In 1336, when Ashikaga Takauji came to
attack the imperial forces, he made Hyogo
his point of strategic advantage, defeating
Kusonoki Masashige, who died on the banks
of the Minatogawa. Hideyoshi made the
place his chief naval port, and in modem
times, when Japan was opened to foreign
intercourse, Hyogo was named as one of
the open ports With the advent of foreign-
ers, the centre of business gradually shifted
toward the foreign settlement at KobS, the
site being much better adapted to trade and
affording better harbour facilities than its
near neighbour, and soon the development
was such that the two places merged into
one. At the time when the first foreigners
came to Kobe it was a hamlet of a few
hundred people, while Hyogo was a place
of 20,000 persons as far back as 1 78 1, but
after the influx of foreigners began and
population gravitated toward Kob^, the
increase was so rapid that in fifty years it
had grown to over 400,000. To-day it is
■'^
FROM THE HILLS ABOVE THE PORT
not less than 450,000, of whom some 3,000
are foreigners, the British ninnbering some
500.
The city of Kobe, hke other municipalities
of modern Japan, has its mayor and city
council, who manage the affairs of the corpo-
ration. It is also the seat of the central
government of the prefecture, and some of
the more famous men of Japan have held
office there, including the late Prince Ito.
The annual revenue of the city is about
Yen 5,000,000, and the expenditure some-
thing over "Yen 4,500,000. Kobe has no
foreign debt, but liabilities contracted in
connection with the putting in of a modern
system of waterworks amount to over
Yen 22,500,000, which sum is to be paid off
by 1949. The water supply is the only city
undertaking, however, as electric lighting,
urban tramways, and gas works are all left
to private enterprise, while the reconstruc-
tion of the harbour now going on is under-
taken by the State. Thus the municipality
is relieved from burdens which at times seem
to lie heavily on cities like Kyoto and Osaka.
The water system is not adequate to the
needs of the rapidly growing population and
expensive extensions have been undertaken,
involving an outlay of over Yen 11,000,-
000, of which some 2,500,000 has been con-
tributed from the State treasury. Although
the harbour works have been undertaken by
the State the city has to contribute over
Yen 3,000,000 out of a total of Yen 12,740,000.
When the harbour works are completed
as they soon will be, Kobe will have one of
the finest harbours in the world. This
undertaking has been more fully described
in the article on Harbours and Shipping
(Section XI). Needless to say Kobe
harbour is one of the busiest in the Orient.
Most of the passengers reaching Japan from
the European route land at Kobe, and pro-
ceed northward by train. The total annual
tonnage for Kob^ is over 7,000,000, and the
number of ships calling at the port about
3,000. The chief shipping companies are
the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and the Osaka
Shoscn Kaisha, as well as the various foreign
companies.
The commerce of Kobe has also witnessed
marvellous development in recent years.
As a great part of the enormous manufactur-
ing output from Osaka is exported through
Kobe and a considerable portion of the raw
cotton imports for these manufactures comes
into Japan by way of Kobe, the volume of
foreign trade is increased to an extent that
is out of all proportion to Kobe's own impor-
tance as an industrial and commercial centre,
though in this respect the city's significance is
not small. While the largest item of export
from Yokohama is silk, the exports from Kobe
are of a greatly varied character Cotton
yarn is the largest and next comes copper.
Other important items are rice, camphor,
matting, tea, porcelain, sugar, and others
numerous beyond mention. Among the
more important imports are raw cotton,
woollen cloths, machinery, dyes, and kero-
sene. The significance of Kobe as a port in
foreign trade may be seen by a study of
the following table, showing the progress of
imports and exports in totals ever>' five
years since 1878.
Total Imports and Exports
Year
Yen
1878
12,531,500
1883
12,961,800
1888
42,972,000
1893
62,263,000
1898
198,253,000
1908
245.052,000
1913
449,482,000
1917
466,814,000
656
I' K K S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS O E J A PAN
Of the total of exports and imports Brit-
ish firms handled an increasing percentage,
in spite of the agitation for direct trade.
A great portion of the exports from
Kob^ goes to China, Hongkong, British
India, France, England, and the United
States.
As a manufacturing and industrial centre
Kobe is also fast coming into prominence.
Besides the great Mitsu Bishi and Kawa-
saki dock>-ards, employing between them
more than 4,000 mechanics, there is the large
cotton mill of the Kanegafuchi Company,
with over 3,000 hands, one of the model
factories of the Far East. In addition to
these great and prosperous establishments,
there are big flour mills with a capacity of
1,000 barrels and 4,000 sacks a day; and the
Kobe Steel Works, engaged in engineering
enterprises, as well as a sugar refinery of
considerable output. The manufacture of
matches has reached the height of its pros-
perity in Kobe, the factories employing over
5,000 hands. Of enterprises on a smaller
scale space does not permit us to speak, but
there are enough to show that Kobe is quite
as enterprising in industry as she is in
commerce and shipping.
THE BUND, KOBE
Educationally Kobe is well provided,
having some 32 primary schools, 15 kinder-
gartens, 5 girls' high schools, 6 commercial,
and 2 middle schools. There are also some
excellent mission schools, like the Kwansei
College, and the Kobe Ladies' College, under
the auspices of American mission boards.
There is a public library visited by some
5o,ooo persons annually. As to pleasure
resorts and places of interest Kob^ has the
SANNOMIYA STREET, KOBE
I> k R S E N T - I:) A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
657
usual quota apportioiu'd to the typical Japa-
nese city. The tram lines run out to Sunia,
a pretty watering place on the Inland Sea.
The Ikuta shrine marks the spot in Kob6
wh.ere fierce battles raged long ago, while a
famous monument at the Minatogawa shrine
shows where the noted loyalist, Kusonoki
Masashigd, fell in defence of the Imperial
House. Kobe has many fine parks and public
J. L. THO.MPSON & CO.
The business conducted under the trade
name of J. L. Thompson & Co. was estab-
lished soon after the opening of the port of
Kob6 to foreigners in 1868. With the de\-el-
opment of Kobe as a commercial centre, the
firm steadily grew, and to-day, besides its
retail chemists and druggist's store, has an
aerated water factory, and maintains import
magazines may be obtained. The jiroducts
of the firm's aerated water factory are well
known throughout Japan, and are supplied
to the leading clubs and hotels, as well as to
the dining cars on the Imperial Japanese
Government Railways, the railways of Korea,
and the South Manchuria line, and the steam-
ers of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha. In the
Import Department, J. L. Thompson & Co.
*ifi*A4^1.#^
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I
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^ijaaBega>',-f5iiC-j^ I i"wiiiiii~Mmi'wr>'.e.j..
J. L. THOMPSON & CO.: A CORNER IN THE WELL-STOCKED KOBE STORE-— THE KOBE PREMISES
gardens, from which beautiful views may be
had of the picturesque environs of the city.
The summering place known as Rokkosan is
only a short distance from the town up among
the hills, the trip being rather stiff. The
Nunobiki Waterfall at the upper end of the
city shows where the city water supply comes
from. Nearby is the famous bottling place,
known as Hirano Water, and another called
Tansan. In the Suwayama Park stands a
monument in memory of the French astrono-
mer who surveyed the transit of Venus from
this site in 1874, while southward along the
coast are the scenes of battles long ago
between the Heik^ and the Genji clans. At
Maiko is an imperial villa.
and export departments. The retail depart-
ment is always in charge of a fully qualified
chemist, who has passed the examinations of
the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain,
and prescriptions are dispensed only by
qualified men. A large and varied stock of
English, American, and Continental drugs,
medical preparations, perfumes, toilet articles,
etc., is carried, and the attractive store at
No. 3 Kaigan-dori, Itchome, . lacks nothing
requisite to make it one of the very best drug
stores to be found in the Orient. J. L.
Thompson & Co. also sell tobacco, pipes, and
all smokers' necessaries, and there is also a
book and stationery department where the
latest novels and English and American
handle their own imports of foreign drugs,
chemicals, and medical preparations, which
are supplied to Japanese hospitals and the
medical profession generally. The firm is
the agent for Japan for Genatosan, Ltd., the
purchasers and makers of "Sanatogen," and
for Messrs. Oppenheimer Son & Co., Ltd., of
London, and Messrs. Comar of Paris. Japan
has lately developed a flourishing industry in
high-grade glassware, surgical instruments,
chemicals, etc., and it is mainly these lines
which J. L. Thompson & Co. handle in their
Export Department. The firm exports glass
bottles, chemical glassware, and glass manu-
factures of all descriptions, also surgical
instruments, rubber goods, leather goods.
658
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SAKAVEMACHI, KOBE
Japanese chemicals, and all manufactures
connected with the chemist's and aerated
water trades.
The Senior Partner in the firm is Mr. T.W.
Franklin, who took over the business from
Mr. J. L. Thompson some years ago. The
Managing Partner is Mr. H. J. Griffiths, who
entered the service of the firm eleven years
ago, became Manager in 19 12, and was
admitted to partnership in 1915. J. L.
Thompson & Co. employ four European and
thirty-five Japanese assistants-
THE CLIFFORD-WILKINSON TANSAN
MINERAL WATER CO., LIMITED
"Tansan" is a word of mystic sound, heard
by travellers on their way to Japan, immedi-
ately they board the steamer that is to take
them to the Land of the Chrysanthemum.
The word ceases to mystify very quickly, for
it is discovered to be the name of a mineral
water, a popular favourite with every one who
has lived in, or has visited Japan, as indeed,
it is now almost as well known abroad.
Tansan is served on all vessels that call at
Japan, and throughout the Orient it is uni-
versally accepted as the mineral water for all
mixed drinks, just as in other parts of the
world one calls for Apollinaris, Perrier, or
similar waters. Though there are many
waters sold as Tansan, there is only one
genuine, and that is the product of the spring
at Takaradzuka, near Kobe, owned by the
Clifford-Wilkinson Tansan Mineral Water
Co., Ltd. The story of the discovery of this
spring by Mr. Clifford-Wilkinson, an English-
man, has been quaintly told by the "Japan
Aerated Water Trade Review," which relates
that Mr. Wilkinson was accustomed to go
hunting in the green wooded mountains,
"and to bathe in the bright and mild sun-light,
and to breathe his chestful, the pure and
sweet air." The historian of the paper
referred to goes on to say that one day, when
out hunting, Mr. Wilkinson felt a terrible
thirst. So he asked his follower to take out
the whiskey bottle, but the native follower,
not only could not produce a drop from the
bottle, but was also speechless from drunken-
ness. Then Mr. Wilkinson had to quench his
thirst from a nearby spring which gushed out
of a fissure of rocks. He was fairly surprised
with its deliciousness and cried unconsciously,
"Oh, this is the very Nature's own beverage,
pure, fresh, and sparkling, gushing out of the
depths of volcanic rock in the characteristic
strata of the Land of the Rising Siin." No
doubt this is poetic imagination, but it is quite
true that Mr. Wilkinson was deeply impressed
with the excellence of the mineral spring
water, and his discovery became the origin of
an enterprise which, to-day, is of immense
proportions, and of first rate importance in
the industries of Japan.
There was no question of the purity of the
supply, the Tansan spring issuing from the
mountainside at a source that could not be
contaminated, and the water filtering through
many strata of volcanic rock from which it
derives its mineral properties. By analysis
it was learned that the water was exception-
ally rich in all the mineral ingredients that
constitute a natural spa water of medicinal
value. The actual mineral properties of Tan-
san, disclosed by careful analyses conducted
in London, revealed the following: Chloride of
sodium, 14.26; chloride of potassium, 14.93;
sulphate of calcium, 0.95; carbonate of cal-
cium, 5.92; carbonate of magnesium, 0.64;
iron carbonate, 0.21; and silica, 2.86. Later
on it was discovered by Professor Kenzo
Hattori, of the Medical Department of the
Tokyo Imperial University, that Tansan was
also exceptionally rich in radium. Professor
Hattori confirmed the opinion, long held by
others, that the peculiar properties of Tansan
must be attributed to radio-activity, and he
demonstrated that the water gave a radium
emanation of 31 mache per litre at 17
A STREET SCENE, KOBE
\\,-
',-'■
iSi
66o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
KIYOMACHI, OR FOREIGN BUSINESS SECTION
centigrade. Xo other water of this class has
been found to give a greater emanation than
17 mache.
Long before these scientific evidences of the
high value of Tansan mineral water were made
known, the product of the spring discovered
by Mr. Wilkinson had been bottled and sold
throughout Japan, the public readily accept-
ing the water as one of the most palatable and
refreshing ever placed on the market. Mr.
Wilkinson put the bottling and sale of the
water on a commercial basis by forming a
company, many years ago, and since that
time Tansan has been sold in enormous
quantities, not only in Japan, but through-
out the world. The spring yields about
40,000,000 pints per annum, and the present
output of the bottling w'Orks is appro.xi-
mately 30,000 pint bottles daily. The bot-
tling works, close to the spring, cover
about 4 acres, and a large number of persons
are employed in handling the output and
despatching it to the warehouses of the com-
pany. On many occasions parties of medical
men and scientists have visited the works,
and Mr. Wilkinson has received many tributes
at their hands to the care and attention which
his company devotes to the handling and
bottUng of the water in order to ensure that
the public shall receive a wholesome and pure
mineral water. It is interesting to note, also,
that the value of Tansan has been appre-
ciated to such a high degree by the medical
fraternity of the United States, that in the
last few years a memorial, signed by over 200
physicians and surgeons, was presented to
the Sixty-first Congress, asking that the im-
port duty on Tansan should be removed, ow-
ing to its exceptional purity and its real value
in medical therapeutics.
Tansan is being sold in all parts of the world
through a large number of the best merchant
houses, selected as agents of the Clifford-
Wilkinson Tansan Mineral Water Co., Ltd.
The head office of the company is at Kobe,
Japan.
SUWAYAMA PARK, KOBE
XXXIX. Imports and Exports
(Kobe and Osaka Section*)
KOBE BUSINESS FIRMS
SUZUKI & CO.
THERE are certain great mercantile
houses in Japan which are organ-
ised on the Hnes of the most
prominent European or American trading
companies, being divided into a number of
departments, covering a vast variety
of interests, and having branches scattered
throughout the world. These Japanese
houses have done more than any other
agency not only to develop the foreign
trade of the Empire, but to promote and
foster great domestic industries, by utilising
their influence, and frequently their capital,
to develop natural resources and find out-
lets for the products. Such a house is that
of Messrs. Suzuki & Co., of Kobe. To
give in detail the activities of this firm is
hardly possible within limited scope, but it
is sufficient to say that it is associated in a
score of different ways with the commerce
and industrial interests of Japan. Messrs.
Suzuki & Co. are general merchants, im-
porters and exporters, manufacturers, ship
owners' agents, brokers, financiers, etc.
They have offices in New York and London,
as well as in many other centres of commercial
importance in difTerent parts of the world,
and there is hardly any department of
* See Page 20.3.
Japan's commerce which they do not include
in their widely diversified and skilfully
developed business.
The firm was established in 1887. Among
their imports are sugar, rice, wheat, flour,
cotton, wool, nitrate of soda, fertiUzers, iron,
steel, shijibuilding and railway materials,
machinery, metals, ores, timbers, chemicals,
etc. The main lines of export are sugar,
brown and polished rice, beans, peas and
other agricultural products, potato starch,
vegetable wax, isinglass, rape oil, peanut
oil, copper, antimony, spelter, sulphur, super-
phosphate, cement, coal, salt, timber, and
other Japanese produce, and manufactures
turned out in their own factories or by
subsidiary companies. The internal organ-
isation of Messrs. Suzuki & Co. consists of
many difTerent departments, each concen-
trating on a special branch of trade and com-
merce, or industrial activity. For instance,
the Industrial Department deals with the
firm's interests in camphor and menthol
refineries, fish and vegetable oil, and chemical
works, rice mills, an alcohol distillery, and
coal mines. The Shipping Department alone
is a most important and active branch. It
embraces the direction of such concerns as
the Teikoku Steamship Company, Ltd.,
which now has under construction nineteen
vessels of from 5,000 to 11,000 tons dead-
weight capacity, besides the Toba Ship-
building Co., Ltd., and the Harima Dock-
yard Company, Ltd., for both of which
Messrs. Suzuki & Co. are the Managing
Agents. Perhaps if there is set out the list
of concerns for which Messrs. Suzuki & Co.
stand largely responsible, either as Manag-
ing Agents or as the Selling Agents, or in
other capacities, some idea will be gained of
the enormous influence which the firm wields
in the realm of Japan's commerce and indus-
try. Apart from the shipping interests
mentioned above, Messrs. Suzuki & Co. are
Managing Agents for the following: Kobe
Steel Works, Ltd., which manufactures steel
castings and forgings to Admiralty and
Lloyd's requirements, rolling mills, plates,
angles, bars, twist drills, machine tools,
steam engines, pumps and other machine
plants; the South Manchuria Produce Com-
pany, Ltd., largest and most up-to-date bean
oil mills; the Nippon Metals Company,
Ltd., which produces zinc, electrolytic copper,
antimony, etc.; the Teikoku Brewery Co.,
Ltd.; the Dairi Flour Mills Co., Ltd.; Sapporo
Flour Mills Co., Ltd.; Wood DistilUng Co.,
Ltd.; Giran Colonization Co., Ltd.; Nippon
Alcohol Distilling Co., Ltd.; Formosa Salt
Co., Ltd.; Sanyo Iron Works, Osaka;
Taisho Life Insurance Co., Ltd.; Toyo
Marine Insurance Co., Ltd.; Toyo Match
43
THE KOBfe OFFICES OF SUZUKI & COMPANY
' ' •[' '•■
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JARlUNh, MAIHESOX & CO., I, Til.: A CORNER OF THE KOUE OKFICE THE OKER hs .\.\1-) (..OLloWNS A 1 KUHE
A SCENE IN THE STRAWBKAID GODOWN
664
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Company, Ltd.; Nippon Celluloid and
Artificial Silk Company; Azuma Industrial
Co., Ltd., and the Saga Cotton Spinning
Company, Ltd. What such a formidable
list of enterprises means is perhaps best
imderstood by those who know Japan well,
and realise what a vast industrial field is
covered by Messrs. Suzuki & Co. Further-
more, they are the agents for the Arisan
Government Wood Mills, of Formosa, pro-
ducing the famous "Hinoki" and other
Formosan timbers; the Shantung Govern-
ment Mining Bureau, Tsingtau, which pro-
duces anthracite coal; the Dai-Xippon
Sugar Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Japan and
Formosa; the Toyo Sugar Manufacturing
Co., Ltd., and the Ensuiko Sugar Company,
Ltd.
Messrs. Suzuki & Company's business has
natiu-ally developed to a remarkable degree
during the war, seeing that they are in a
position, scarcely equalled bj' anj' one else,
to handle and ship any quantities of much
needed products, natural and manufactured,
that are called for by foreign countries. The
premises of the firm cover a large area at
Kob6, but the expansion of the business has
necessitated the construction of new offices
and warehouses. The site for these has been
secured in the foreign concession at Kobe,
and a magnificent building of huge propor-
tions is now being erected. The London
office of Messrs. Suzuki & Co. is at 29 Minc-
ing Lane, and the New York office is at 220
Broadway. Other branches are at Seattle,
Petrograd, Vladivostock. Singapore. Cal-
cutta, Bombay, Hanoi, Hongkong, Shanghai,
Tsingtau, Hankow, Dairen. Keijo and Fusan
(Korea), Taipeh, Tainan, and Takao (For-
mosa), Tokj-o, Osaka, Nagoj'a, Yokohama,
Dairi, Moji, Shimonoseki, Otaru, Hakodate,
Sapporo, and Asahigawa. The Senior Part-
ner of the firm is Madame Yone Suzuki and
it is a tribute to the magnificent work she
has done in the development of Japan's
foreign trade that she was recently decorated
by the Emperor with the Green Ribbon.
The Co-Partners of this great business are
Messrs. F. Yanajida and N. Kaneko. The
Managers are Messrs. B. Nishikawa and
S. Mori, (See index for other pages.)
JARDINE, M.\THESON & CO., LIMITED
This famous old merchant house has been
represented at Kobe since 1876, when a
branch was established there to handle the
ordinary' shipping and agency business of
the firm, and to deal in those special lines
for which Koh6 is the natural trading centre.
Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd., own
an excellent business site at No. 83 Kyo-
machi, Kob^. The premises comprise a
handsome two-story office building in which
KOBE OFFICES OWNED BY W. M. STRACHAN & CO., LTD.
there are fifteen commodious rooms, and
behind the office building are a four-story
godown and two two-storj' godowns, cover-
ing a total area of 600 tsiibo.
The company carries on the representation
at Kobe of a large number ■ of shipping
companies, insurance concerns, and Far
Eastern banks, and generally operates as
an import and export merchant. Among
the shipping companies for which Messrs.
Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd., are the
agents at Kobe are the Indo-China, the
Glen and the Waterhouse Steamship Lines.
Insurance agencies comprise those for the
Hongkong Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., the
Canton Insurance Co., Ltd., the Royal
Insurance Co., Ltd. Special lines of trade
comprise straw and hemp braids, hats, etc.,
these goods being handled in special depart-
ments. The company exports to all parts
of the world. Mr. C. Chicken is the Man-
ager of the Kobe branch. The staff consists
of seven Europeans and there are about
forty Japanese employees. (See index.)
\V. .M. STRACHAN & CO., LIMITED
In dealing with the foreign business houses
of Kobe mention must be made of the
activities in this important commercial centre
of Japan of the branch of Messrs. W. M.
Strachan & Co., Ltd. The history and
development of the company is fully given
in the Yokohama section of this work, and
reference is there made to the Kob6 branch,
which was established in 1884. A large
volume of the export trade of this house is
handled from Kobe, which is the natural base
for the assembl}- and despatch of many
natural and manufactured products which
come from such places as Kyoto, Nagoya,
and contiguous industrial districts. Kobe
is also the principal port, especially in view
of the proximity of such a great manufactur-
ing city as Osaka, for the import of raw
materials of different kinds intended for some
of the foremost Japanese textile and manu-
facturing concerns. W. M. Strachan &
Co., Ltd., therefore handle at the Kobe
branch such exports as buttons, brushes,
straw braid, hemp tagal, hats, mattings, etc.,
and import cotton, wool, metals, leather,
machiner\', essential oils, and products of
foreign countries.
The office of the company is at No. i
Kaigan-dori, Kobe, where an extensive
business site is occupied. On the com-
pound there are four godowns, of which
three are two-story modem buildings, accom-
modating a large and valuable stock, or
serv'ing for purposes of inspection, packing,
and so on. At Kobe an extensive insurance
business is also transacted, Strachan & Co.,
Ltd., being agents for the following fire
insurance companies: Northern Assurance
Co., Ltd., Queen Insurance Co., Ltd.,
Phoenix Assurance Co., Ltd., Guardian
Assurance Co., Ltd., and London and
Lancashire Insurance Co., Ltd. Marine
insurance agencies held by the company
are: London and Provincial Marine and
General Insurance Co., Ltd., Phoenix Marine
Assurance Co., Ltd., Sea Insurance Co., Ltd.,
Federal Insurance Co., Ltd., and the Royal
Exchange Assurance Corporation.
The Manager of the branch is Mr. E. B. S.
Edwards, and the heads of the various
departments are: Mr. R. F. Stephen, Act-
ing Manager Imports Department; Mr. W. G.
^^
DODWELL & CO., LTD.: THE KOb6 OFFICES AND TWO SCENES IN THE STRAWBRAID GODOWN
666
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Fox, Manager Exports Department; Mr.
W. \\niite, Imports Department, and Mr.
J. Y. Miller, Insurance Department. Apart
from the European staff which numbers
seven, there are four Chinese and twenty-
seven Japanese clerks and assistants. (Sec
also page 242.)
DODWELL & CO., LIMITED
The origin and history of the extensive
business now conducted throughout the
Orient by Messrs. Dodwell & Co., Ltd.,
whose headquarters are at St. Mary A.xe,
London, is given in full in the Yokohama
section of this W'ork. It is sufficient to say,
b}' way of introduction to the operations
conducted through the Kobe branch of the
company, that the business had its genesis
in the early days of the China trade when
it was under the control of Messrs. Adamson,
Bell & Co. That firm went out of business
in 1 89 1, and its interests were taken over
by Messrs. Dodwell, Carlill & Co., the part-
nership interests of those gentlemen being
merged in a limited liability company in
1899. Trade with Japan was started under
the old concern in 1K77, wht-n the Yokohama
branch was opened.
The Kob6 branch of Messrs. Dodwell &
Co., Ltd., transacts a large volume of busi-
ness as shippers, charterers, fire and marine
insurance brokers, and as coal contractors,
apart from an extensive import and export
trade. The company has the representation
of a number of well known manufacturers
in Great Britain and the United States, as
well as the agency for several shipping com-
panies and insurance organisations. Two of
the best known commercial lines are the sole
agencies for the Underwood Typewriter and
the Overland Motor Car. Imports and
exports comprise generally those lines which
are best handled at Kobe. Principal among
the imports are piece goods, metals, machin-
ery, shells, Underwood typewriters, anti-
fouling paints, cutch, resin, paints, varnishes
and oils, chemicals, leather, motor cars, as
well as a wide range of other general merchan-
dise. Exports comprise coals, strawbraid,
underwear, towels, produce, fertilizers, tea
and rubber chests, oils, matches, flour,
chemicals, gunny tares and bagging, bottles
and general glassware, straw en\-elopes, rugs,
electric fittings, bronze powder, earthen-
ware, and Japanese manufactured articles
and merchandise of all descriptions.
Messrs. Dodwell & Co., Ltd., trade with
practically all parts of the world. They
have their own offices at London, New York.
San Francisco, Seattle, Tacoma, Victoria,
Vancouver, Hongkong, Canton, Shanghai,
Hankow, and Foochow. The capital of the
company is £200,000, and the directorate
comprises: Messrs. George B. Dodwell,
A. J. H. Cariill, Fred Dodwell, Stanley
Dodwell, Alec Stewart, George J. Melhuish,
T. M. Dermer, F. D'lffanger, and H. A. J.
Macray. Mr. J. P. Warren is the Manager
of the Koh6 branch, which is located at No.
82 Kyo-machi. (See also page 243.)
FINDL.W, RICHARDSON & CO., LI.MITED
The commercial interests of Great Britain
have been well served in the Far East by a
number of substantial old mercantile houses,
whose records from the pioneering days
onward make interesting reading, and whose
steady growth and high reputation have
done more than anything else to impress on
FINDLAY, RICHARDSON & CO. LTD.. (aBOVE) THE EXPORT DEPOT — (LEFT) THE MAIN GODOWN — THE KOBE GODOWNS AND OFFICES
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
667
REPRESENTATIVE BRITISH RESIDENTS OF KOBE
(Upper Row, Left to Right) C. Chicken, KoW Agent for Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd. — J. McArthur, Acting Agent at Kobe for
the Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation. (Middle Row) J. B. Suttor, Trade Commissioner of New South Wales, in the Far
East — Ralph G. E. Forster, Esq., British Consul-General at Kobe — James Marshall, Resident Partner for Japan, Findlay,
Richardson & Co., Ltd. (Lower Row) E. B. S. Edwards, Manager of Kobe Branch, W. M. vStrachan & Co., Ltd. — The Late E. H.
Hunter, Founder of the Osaka Iron Works and of E. H. Hunter & Co. — Alf. Woolley, Chief Agent for Japan of the Peninsular &
Oriental Steam Navigation Co.
those with whom they have so long been
in trade relationship, what the dignity and
prestige of British commerce really means.
Such a house is that of Messrs. Findlay,
Richardson & Co., Ltd., which has passed
its jubilee as a trading concern in Japan.
This old business was originally established
in Glasgow, where the head office still is,
but the name has been so long associated
with the trade of the Far East that with all
justification it is regarded almost entirely
as a product of the adventurous and enter-
prising spirit of the early days, when the
foundations of so many houses in which the
British trading communities rightly take
pride, were well and truly laid. But Yoko-
hama was not the place of origin of Messrs.
Findlay, Richardson's Oriental business.
The first connection with the Far East took
place in the Philippines, over eighty years
ago, when the firm opened a branch at
Manila under the trade name of Findlay,
Richardson & Co., as distinguished from
Richardson, Findlay & Co., which was the
style in Glasgow up to 1909. In those days
the firm was engaged principally in the
import of Manchester cottons, and in the
export of hemp, sugar, indigo, coffee, cigars,
etc., to the United Kingdom and the L^nitcd
States.
In 1866 the firm turned its attention to
Japan, then in the first stages of the develop-
ment of its foreign trade, so that Messrs.
Findlay, Richardson & Co. may well be
regarded as pioneers in this field. They
opened a branch at No. 7 Bund, Yokohama,
and a few years later acquired the premises
which they now occupy at No. 6, where the
offices and extensive godowns are situated.
The gentlemen connected with the opening
in Japan were Messrs. R. V. Graham, Robert
Johnstone, and C. G. Buchanan-Dunlop,
whose names are still well remembered by
the older trading community. In the early
days of the Yokohama branch the principal
import trade was in Manchester j'ams and
cotton textiles, and later on it was interested
in the export of raw silk to the London and
Lyons markets, and in the shipment of tea
to the United States. The business in tea
was, however, taken over in 1883 by two of
the firm's assistants, Messrs. Bernard and
Wood, and later on the export of silk was
gradually discontinued, leaving the old firm
almost entirely an importing house. Its
transactions were of an extensive nature
among the private traders, and in more
4
668
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
recent years it has enjoyed a fair share of
Government business. The main lines of
import were Manchester and Bradford tex-
tiles, and Messrs. Findlay, Richardson &
Co.'s old established "chops" of the.se goods
are still to be seen in the domestic markets.
It is an interesting fact, also, that some of
the firm's standard qualities have been
adopted as models for the Japanese manu-
facturers to copy, which, although in a sense
a compliment, is not altogether a welcome
one, meaning as it does a gradually decreas-
ing demand for the imported genuine goods.
Throughout this long period the firm never
deviated from the old conservative ideas of
commercial integrity. The business was
extended steadily, and a reputation won and
maintained. In many lines, which have
since entirely disappeared owing to Japan's
rapid economic and industrial development,
Messrs. Findlay, Richardson & Co. were
the pioneers and the largest importers.
In 1909 the firm was transformed into a
private limited liability company with a
capital of £150,000. It was then arranged
that the company should trade as Findlay,
Richardson & Co., Ltd., at its head office.
No. 34 West George Street, Glasgow, and
at its branches at Manila and Iloilo, in the
Philippines, and at Yokohama and Kobi5.
The branch at Kob6 had been opened in
1889. A branch was also opened at Hankow,
China, in 1914. Up to a few years ago
Messrs. Findlay, Richardson & Co., Ltd.,
devoted themselves to the import side of
business in Japan, apart from insurance
agenc5^ but following the trend of the times,
which has been to lessen imports, the com-
pany opened an export department, and
this branch of the business, under special
attention, has been developed in a highly
satisfactory manner. The principal lines
of export are: Habutai, crepe de Chine, silk
shirtings, and every class of silk and cotton
piece goods; made-up articles of apparel,
consisting of silk, cotton, and wool; muslin
de laine and Japanese flannel; hats, caps,
and hosiery; boots, shoes, slippers, and
laces; shell, bone, and press buttons; para-
sols, umbrellas, and fittings thereof; leather
attache cases, suit cases, bags, etc.; Akebi
baskets, matting, screens. Thermos flasks,
fountain pens, pencils, antimony, enamel and
lacquer ware; manufactures of brass, bronze,
and copper, including gas and electrical
fittings of every description; gas radiators
and mantles, safes, cash boxes, surgical and
dental instruments, lead and tin foil; chem-
icals and chemical apparatus; peppermint
oil and menthol crystals; hemp and cotton
canvas and twines; hemp and wire ropes;
tea chests, momi chests, 3-ply boards;
writing, news, and printing paper and straw-
boards; hemp braid, glass, china, porce-
lain and cloisonne-ware; cement, tiles, bricks,
and fire clay, and all classes of Japanese
products and manufactures. The principal
countries of export are the United King-
dom, Australia, India, Burmah, China, the
Philippines, New Zealand, and the United
States.
Messrs. Findlay, Richardson & Co., Ltd.,
are agents for the North British and Mercan-
tile Insurance Company, and are settling
agents for the Standard, Union Marine,
Atlantic Mutual, and other marine insur-
ance companies. The present head of the
company is Mr. R. E. Findlay. Other
Directors are Mr. James Marshall, who is
the registered representative of the company,
residing at Kobe, and Mr. W. G. Crum.
Mr. Norman A. Black, one of the Directors,
was killed in France during the war. At
Yokohama, Mr. A. H. Cole Watson is the
representative of the company, having joined
the business in 1884 shortly after his arri\-al
in Yokohama.
Lt4,
PREMISES OF THE INTERNATIONAL TRADING CORPOR.^TION, LIMITED, AT KOBE
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
669
ENTERPRISING BUSINESS MEN OP KOBE AND OSAKA
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. M. Naruse, Sole Partner, Seiko Shokai — Mr. T. Owi, Proprietor, Owi & Co., Kob^. (Middle Row)
Mr. Chojiro Ito, Ex-Member House of Peers, Proprietor, Ito & Co., Kobe — Mr. S. Tamura, President of Kobe Chamber of Com-
merce— Mr. K. IwAi, President, Iwai & Co., Ltd. (Lower Row) Mr. M. HiRA, Manager, Owi & Co. — Mr. Motora Making, Presi-
dent, Shogyo Kos Hinsho (Mercantile Agency) — Mr. K. Hashimoto, Manager, Nanyoseni Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha
THE INTERNATIONAL TRADING CORPO-
RATION, LIMITED
The foreign trade of Japan has grown to
such enormous proportions in the last few
years as to require the formation of many
new organisations to handle it, and it is
interesting to note that some of these con-
cerns, such as the International Trading
Corporation, Ltd., are strongly capitalised,
in order that the foreign markets may be
properly developed along the lines that
have proved so successful. This particvilar
corporation came into existence on July i,
1917, establishing its head office at Osaka,
and at once opening branches in such impor-
tant centres of foreign trade as Kob^, Yoko-
hama, and Tokyo, while at the same time
forming extensive connections abroad.
The International Trading Corporation,
Ltd., conducts a general import and export
business. Specialties among its imports
are such lines as chemicals and drugs, dyes
and colours, lumber, machinery and tools,
motor cars, metals and metal goods of all
descriptions, nitrate of soda and other ferti-
lizers, paper mill supplies, paper and pulp,
wool, cotton, and linen goods, etc. The
principal exports are braids, brushes, buttons,
cement, chemicals and drugs, copper, cotton
goods, curios, drawn thread work, glassware,
hats, lumber, matches, metal manufactures
of various kinds, paper, general produce, raw
silk, silk piece goods, rice, sulphur, super-
phosphate, tinned goods, and so on.
The capital of the company is Yen 2,000,-
000. Mr. Matazo Kita is the President,
Mr. Kintaro Sugiyama, Managing Director,
and the other principal officers are Messrs.
D. H. Blake, Atsushi Yamada (Directors),
and Saburo Nango and Gisaku Takigawa
(Auditors). Mr. Jisaburo Nishimura is the
General Manager. Inquiries addressed to
the head office of the International Trading
Corporation, Ltd., at No. 2 Nichome, Dojima
Hamadori, Kita-ku, Osaka, or to the branches
at No. 122 Mayemachi-dori, Kobe, and No.
225 Yamashitacho, Yokohama, will receive
immediate attention.
AMERICAN TRADING CO.MPANY
Foremost among the large foreign mer-
cantile houses in Japan is the American
Trading Company, which has been estab-
lished a good many years, and transacts a
large volume of business as general merchants,
engineers, steamship and insurance agents,
etc. The head office for Japan is at No. 99
Kita-machi, Kobe, and branches are located
at Yokohama and Tokyo, with warehouses
at Ono. The President of the company is
Mr. James R. Morse, and the Vice-President
and General Manager for China, Japan, and
the Philippines is Mr. D. H. Blake. As is
670
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
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J. WITKOWSKI & CO., LTD.: (UPPER) THE INSPECTION" .\ND P.\CKING OF STRA\VBR.\ID — (LEFT TO RIGHT) THE BUTTON DEP.ARTMENT -
K VIEW OF THE STR.WVBR.MD GODOWN
well known, the American Trading Company
is a world-wide concern, having its head
office at Xew York, and branches in London,
San Francisco, Tacoma, Sydney, Buenos
Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Martinique, Havana,
Shanghai, Manila, and Port Elizabeth.
Among the agencies held by the company
for Japan are the following: Brunner Mond
& Company (Crescent Brand Chemicals);
Scott &• Browne, Ltd. (Scott's Emulsion);
George H. Morrill Co. (Inks); A. B. Flem-
ing & Co., Ltd. (Inks); C. B. Cottrell &
Sons Co. (Printing Pres.ses); Elliot & Co.,
Ltd. (Printing Presses); National Cash
Register Co., Dayton, Ohio; Remington
Typewriter Co.; Toledo Computing Scale
Co.; John Deere Plow Co.; AlHs-Chalmcrs
Co. (Electrical Power, Hydraulic, Flour
Mill, Saw Mill, Mining Machinery, etc.);
Alsop Process Co. (Electric Breeching Equip-
ment): Brown Portable Elevator Co. (Port-
able Elevators); Erie City Iron Works
(Steam Engines and Boilers); Herbert
Morris, Ltd. (Pulley Blocks, Cranes, etc.);
Ingersoll Rand Co. (Compressors, Rock
Drills, Pneumatic Tools); Link Belt Co.
(Conveying Machinery, etc.); McCronway
& Torley Co. (Janney Automatic Car Cou-
plings, etc.); Otis Elevator Co. (Freight
and Passenger Elevators) ; T. L. Smith Co.
(Concrete Mixers); Trussed Concrete Steel
Co. (Kahn System of Reinforced Concrete);
United Shoe Machine Co. (Shoe-making
Machinery) ; United Cigarette Machine Co.
(Cigarette-making Machinerj'); Henry R.
Worthington (Pumps, Condensers, etc.);
York Manufacturing Co. (Refrigerating and
Ice Plants) ; J. & C. Wilson Manufacturing
Co. (Steel Doors and Shutters); South
British Insurance Co., Ltd., Liverpool and
London and Globe Insurance Co., Ltd.
Shipping Agencies: American and Oriental
Line; Caldwell & Co., New York.
J. WITKOWSKI & CO., LIIIITED
Messrs. J. Witkowski & Co., Ltd., of
Kobe, Yokohama, Nagoya, and New York
have the representation for Japan of many
of the most famous manufacturing concerns
whose products are still imported to Japan
in very large quantities, despite the great
strides that the Japanese have undoubtedly
made of late 3'ears in their own productive
industries. While it is the experience of
most of the old foreign importing houses
that imports to Japan have been displaced
by the locally manufactured goods, this is
not the case with the lines handled by Wit-
kowski & Co., Ltd. They are still doing a
very large import business, their principal
agencies being the following: Borden's Con-
densed Milk Sales Co., Inc., of New York;
California . Packing Association, San Fran-
cisco; Schwob Freres & Co., Chaxix de
Fonds, Switzerland (watch manufacturers);
A. & F. Pears, Ltd., London; John Gosnell
& Co., Ltd., London; the Crown Perfumery
Co., London; Chas. Southwell & Co.,
London; J. S. Fry & Sons, Ltd., Bristol;
Maconochie Bros., Ltd., London; and G.
Preller & Co., Bordeaux. The products of
these companies of world-wide repute are
distributed all over Japan by Witkowski
& Co., Ltd., through their distributing
agencies.
As exporters this company occupies just
as prominent a position. From their Kob^
branch they ship matting, matches, china-
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PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
671
ware, glassware, brushes, curios, fancy goods,
toys, cotton towels, socks and underwear,
buttons, hem]), chip and straw braids, straw
and Panama hats, and general merchandise
and sundries. The main lines handled from
Yokohama are silks, drawn-thread work,
curios, toys, fancy goods, general produce,
etc. E.xtensive offices and godowns are
maintained at Kobd, Yokohama, and Nagoya,
which are the chief centres of the export
trade. The Managing Director of the com-
pany is Mr. Henri Blum, and the other
Directors are Messrs. L. Meyer and L.
Lazarus. (See also page 253.)
BIRCH, KIRBY & CO., Ll.MITED
The Japan branch of Messrs. Birch,
Kirby & Co., Ltd., the well known British
merchant house, was established at KobS
in 1899, and has since been developed to
large proportions, the company not only
dealing in their specialties of machinery
and hardware generally, but also operating
in most of the lines that comprise the import
and export trade of Japan. Principal among
the imports, which mainly come from the
United Kingdom and America, arc machin-
ery, mill accessories, navigational instru-
ments, ships' fittings, and all descriptions of
metals and metal manufactures, scientific
instruments, steam and hydraulic packings,
paints, oils, and varnishes, wire ropes and
miscellaneous goods. Exports comprise a
large variety of Japanese manufactures in
hardware, such as machine tools, electrical
supplies, produce, mill supplies, metal and
metal manufactures, chemicals, acids, plant-
ers' supplies, glassware, porcelain, paper,
brushware, engineers' supplies, packings,
oils and manufactured goods in general.
Messrs. Birch, Kirby & Co., Ltd., export to
the United Kingdom, the United States,
Russia, India, Java, Siam, China, the Philip-
pines, the Federated Malay Settlements, and
Australia.
The company's office and warehouses in
Japan are located at No. 31 Akashi-machi,
Kob^. Mr. S. F. Gillum is the Manager.
Messrs. Birch, Kirby & Co., Ltd., have their
head office in London under the manage-
ment of Mes.srs. John Birch & Co., Ltd., No.
2 London Wall Buildings, London E. C.
Tlie Directorate of the company comprises
Mr. Montagu Sharpe, Chairman; Mr. John
Stuart Horner, Managing Director; Mr
Maures Horner, Director, and Mr. Arthur
Hoare, London Manager.
STRONG & CO.
This British firm was established in
London in 1866, and opened business in
Japan in 1878, the length of its experience
in Eastern markets, and the extent of its
operations, making it one of the oldest and
best known foreign firms in Japan and
adjacent countries. Mr. Edwin Strong of
London is the Managing Director. Messrs.
Strong & Co. do a general export business,
shipping to all markets of the world, but
particularly to England and America. They
do not handle imports.
The main office is at No. 96 Higashi-machi,
Kobe, where the firm has a large, well built
brick building. The site is an excellent one,
facing the public recreation gardens in front,
THE PICTURESQUE KOB^ OFFICES OF BIRCH, KIRBY & CO., LTD.
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STRONG & COMPANY; SCENE IN A COTTON WASTE GODOWN — A MATTlNt. INSPECTION (.ODOUN — THE RITTON DEPARTMENT -
THE STRAWBRAID AND PANAMA HAT DEPARTMENT
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
673
and with spacious private gardens to tlie
side. It extends from Higashi-machi to
Yedo-machi, with a frontage of 85 feet and
a depth of 170 feet. The offices face Higashi-
machi, and this portion of the building is
two-storied w-ith a floor space of 7,200 square
feet. The building is in a typical Japanese
setting, but once inside the front door the
visitor enters an atmosphere that is Occi-
dental in every way, the rattle of typewriters,
the bustling of employees, and the general
air of activity giving every evidence of work
at high pressure. And such is the ca.se, for
the firm transacts a very large volume of
business, and the modern business problems
of the Orient are met with the same organisa-
tion, application, and general methods that
obtain in London or New York. The
foreign stafT includes ten Europeans and
Americans, supervising the native personnel
of nearly a hundred employees.
From the back of the offices to Yedo-
machi is the main warehouse, which is of
three stories, with a floor area of 17,000
square feet. There is also a glass-roofed
inspection compound of 15,000 square feet,
where goods are readily laid out and efTec-
tively inspected in any weather. At Ono,
three minutes' rikisha ride from the Foreign
Settlement, there is another spacious office
and twelve godowns, where Strong & Co.
handle their more bulky merchandise. The
floor space available here is nearly 50,000
square feet.
A glance at the illustrations will show the
Button Department of the firm. In this
line Strong & Co. are pioneers; originally it
was their main line of business, but with
the development of Japanese industries
generally the firm took up other departments
of trade. Nevertheless, they are still special-
ists in the button export business, and have
this article under their control from the time
the shells leave the islands of the South
Pacific, until the buttons are in the hands
of their consignees in London, New York,
and elsewhere
The Fine Arts and Curio Department of
Strong & Co. has the reputation of having
handled some of the greatest art treasures
that have left Japan, and so rich and
varied is the stock that the packing section
of this department looks more like an art
exhibition than an ordinary commercial
warehouse.
The firm are large shippers of hat plaits of
all kinds, including straw braid, chip braid,
and hemp braid. Their Panama Hat De-
partment is the subject of one of the interest-
ing illustrations, and the casual observer is
induced to wonder whether there are heads
enough in the Occident for all the hats show n
in the course of inspection and packing.
These hats come to Japan from parts as
remote as Formosa and the Loochoo Islands,
and as an instance of the detail work required
in the carrying on of this trade, it may be
mentioned that before being graded and
packed each separate hat passes through the
hands of a series of inspectors, who determine
its quality, dimensions, shape, etc. This
careful handling calls for the large inspecting
staff shown in the illustration.
Cotton waste is another article in which
Strong & Co. were pioneers. With the
growth of the spinning industry, which has
converted Osaka into a second Manchester,
and Kobe into another Liverpool, this line
has expanded considerabl)'. It takes seven
spacious godowns to accommodate the army
of women who pick and sort the waste
received by Strong & Co. from the mills.
The hydraulic press employed for baling the
waste is the most powerful of its kind in
Kob^. At present this department is work-
ing night and day, "doing its bit" in feeding
the munition w^orks of the Allies with the
basic ingredient of explosives.
In matting and floor coverings generally.
Strong & Co. claim to rank first, and they
may be justly proud of their splendid plant
for handling this article. The inspection
room, nearly 300 feet long and 20 feet wide,
is roofed with glass and curtained like an
artist's studio. Thousands of tons of floor
coverings go through this plant in the course
of a year. This department also handles
grass rugs, which have become such a pop-
ular floor covering. Many looms turn out
grass rugs in various parts of Japan, but the
articles handled by Strong & Co., who are
not satisfied with anything but the best, are
grass rugs made from the only power looms
in Japan, and are not the uneven product
of the hand looms, which turn out the
bulk of the rugs shipped.
In their Hosiery Department, Strong &
Co. have paid special attention to gloves,
and have organised their own plant for
cutting and finishing according to the latest
Western factory practice. It is the boast of
the firm that the gloves they ship are not
inferior to the products of England and
America. This excellence prasupposes special-
ists. Strong & Co.'s glove superintendent,
for instance, has been in this trade since a
boy, having worked at the industry in
practically every glove-making country in
the world.
In Soft Goods, Strong & Co.'s growing
capacity has more than kept pace with the
growth of the textile industries in Japan.
Their inspecting rooms show the variety in
the output of the Japanese mills, for side
by side, ready for packing, may be found
high grade underwear for the English market.
next to the brilliant colours and bright
stripes for the South Sea Islands. The bulk
of the porcelain shipped from Japan comes
from the Nagoya district, and with their
usual enterprise, Strong & Co. have their own
office in that porcelain centre, thus bringing
their connections abroad one step nearer
the producing market.
The General Manager for Japan is Mr.
H. O. Hereford, stationed at Kob6. Mr.
Hereford has had seventeen years' experience
in Japan, and has been in general charge of
the interests of Strong & Co. for over ten
years. A firm believer in modern business
methods, he has built up an organisation to
be proud of. Though a busy man, Mr.
Hereford still finds time for many civic
interests, and has served as hospital director,
and on important Kobe committees at
various times.
SHEWAN, TOMES & CO.
The firm of Shewan, Tomes & Co., of
Hongkong, Canton, Shanghai, Tientsin,
Kob^, Yunnanfu, London, and New York,
is an example of the widespread nature of
the business in which the large modern
houses operating throughout the Orient are
engaged. The head office organisation not
only represents important shipping interests,
and acts as agent for several insurance
companies, but conducts a number of indus-
trial enterprises, besides transacting a general
business as import and export merchants.
The Japan branch of the business has been
established many years, with headquarters
at Kob^. Under the control of the local
manager are not only the general agencies
for shipping and insurance, which the firm
holds, but a multiplicity of other enter-
prises peculiar to Japan. One important
branch of business in which they special-
ise is the manufacture of white morai
pine boxes for packing case-oil, tea, and
rubber.
Messrs. Shewan, Tomes & Co. are im-
porters of machinery and mill supplies,
piece goods, etc., and they handle for export
such lines as mats, matting, jute, cotton,
and wool rugs, matches, match splints, oil,
tea and rubber box shooks, chemicals, elec-
trical supplies, curios, and general produce.
Imports are derived mainly from the United
Kingdom, the United States, -Australia, and
China, and the exports go to the United
Kingdom, the United States, Canada, South
America, Australia, South Africa, India,
Egypt, China, and elsewhere.
Mr. J. A. Young is Manager of the
Kobe branch, which is located at No. 74.-A
Kyomachi, Kobe, and Mr. C. J. Williams
is the Manager of the Export Department.
sHbWAN, iuMK> i: LO.: IHh KUlU', I'KliMIM-.^ MAILIM. IN sl'liL 1 ION IN IHh (..IJUUW N
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
675
WEI.l.-KNOWN FOREIGN MERCHANTS OF KOBE
(Left to Right, Upper Row) R. F. Stephen, Acting Manager, Imports Dept., W. M. Strachan & Co., Ltd. — Peter Fr.aser, Sole
Partner, Peter Fraser & Co. — S. E. Giles — H. O. Hereford, Manager, Strong & Co. — W. G. Fox, Manager, Exports Dept., W. M.
Strachan & Co., Ltd. (Middle Row) P. H. McKay, Sole Partner, McKay & Co. — L. L.\zarus, Director, J. Witkowski & Co., Ltd. —
L. Meyer, Director, J. Witkowski & Co., Ltd. — Douglas Cox, Resident Partner in Japan for Land & Cox. (Lower Centre) Henri
Blum, President, J. Witkowski & Co., Ltd. (Lower Row) G. Lazzara, Managing Partner, Lazzara, Homberg & Co. — M. Thieck, Managing
Partner, Lazzara, Homberg & Co. — E. Homberg, Managing Partner, Lazzara, Homberg & Co. — E. A. Herrera, Partner, Lazzara,
Homberg & Co.; also Consul-General for Spain and Vicc-Consul for Italy.
WINKEL & GEDDE, LIMITED
A HIGHLY important development of
modern commerce has been the organisa-
tion of what are known as associated houses,
that is, concerns whose operations link up,
the one with the other, to cover practically
the whole world, and to act for each other.
Those houses place their entire buying and
selling organisations at the disposal of the
members of the combination, and when the
necessity arises the combined capital is
available. The advantages of such a system
are apparent, and business association
with one member house, necessarily means
for the customer that he is Unked up with
any market in which he desires his principal
to operate for him. The Danish firm of
Messrs. Winkel & Gedde, Ltd., is the first
house in the East, established by this com-
bination of export and import companies.
The headquarters of the association are in
Copenhagen, which is also the headquarters
of Messrs. Winkel & Gedde, Ltd. At the
back of this association is a very considerable
capital, and its member, or associate, houses
are located as follows: London, Paris, Genoa,
Moscow, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Chris-
tiania, Cairo, New York, Buenos Ayres,
Rio de Janeiro, and other commercial centres
of importance. Each associate house, in its
turn, has its branches scattered throughout
the countries in which it specially operates.
Winkel & Gedde, Ltd., were established
in Japan in 19 16, not to participate in what
may be called "war business," but as a per-
manent trading concern. The)' are general
exporters and importers, handling all classes
of goods, raw material, as well as the manu-
factured articles. They have unique con-
nections aU over the world and through their
associate houses they can either sell Japanese
products to any country, or purchase for
this market any goods that may be called
for. The head office for Japan is at Kobe,
where the business is under the management
of Mr. O. Gedde.
E. H. HUNTER & CO.
In the earh" seventies, Mr. E. H. Hunter,
a native of Londonderry, Ireland, established
the business which bears his name, and which
has grown into one of the largest foreign
concerns in Japan. Mr. Hunter arrived in
Yokohama from Australia in 1867, and went
THE MOSCOW OFFICES OF THE ASSOCIATE RUSSIAN COMPANY OF WINKEL & GEDDE, LIMITED
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44
678
P R E S E N T - n A \' IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
to Kob6 the following year, at the time of the
opening of that port to foreign trade. He
was not in Kob^ very long before he became
interested in the shipbuilding industry, which
gave promise of considerable development,
and some years later he established the
Osaka Iron Works, which has grown into
one of Japan's most important shipbuilding
concerns. This enterprise remained the sole
property of the Hunter family until it was
converted into a limited liability company
in 1914. Mr. Hunter was also the pioneer
of the foreign rice trade, and himself erected
the Nippon Seimai Mills at Hyogo, with
which the firm of E. H. Hunter & Co. still
has a close connection.
The firm's many activities include those
of import and export merchants. They
handle general lines, especially -materials
for shipbuilding, cotton spinning and other
machinery, and, furthermore, are largely
interested in the Indian cotton trade, seUing
direct to the principal mills. They are
large importers of timber, mainly Oregon
pine, and teak, and have their own yard
and basin at Sangenya, Osaka. E. H.
Hunter & Co. are also exporters of rice, both
polished and raw, and "Hunter's No. i
Polished" commands a premium on the
London market. Produce of all kinds, and
general merchandise is shipped by the firm
to all parts of the world.
Mr. E. H. Hunter retired from business
in 1 91 6, but the operations of the firm are
directed by his son, Mr. R. Hunter, who had
been his partner for many years. Mr. R.
Hunter's business interests are varied and
widespread. He is the President of the
Osaka Marine & Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., a
Director of the Osaka Iron Works, is on the
Board of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, and is
associated generally with the commerce and
industry of Japan.
As stated above, Mr. E. H. Hunter was
the founder of the Osaka Iron Works. In
addition, he was the pioneer of many other
enterprises, and has always been a good
friend of the Japanese. To show apprecia-
tion of Mr. Hunter's energy and enterprise,
the Directorate of the Osaka Iron Works,
with the approval of the shareholders, have
erected a statue to Mr. Hunter. The
unveiling took place in 191 5. The hand-
some bronze figure of the pioneer of ship-
building, stands appropriately in the grounds
of the Osaka Iron Works Company's new
works at Sakurajima. It was executed by
Mr. Sotokichi Aoki, teacher at the Technical
School at Ishikawa-ken, with the assistance
of Mr. Saburo Yoshida, a graduate of the
Tokyo Fine Arts Academy. This statue is
the only one ever erected in honour of a
foreigner of the present day.
CHINA AND JAPAN TRADING COMPANY.
LIMITED
To treat fully of the development and
extent of the operations of the China and
Japan Trading Company, Limited, would
necessitate going far back into the history
of foreign trade in the Far East. This
company has been established in the trade
between the Orient and America and Europe
for over fifty years, and was incorporated
in the State of New York in 1876. The
name frequently occurs in the early history
of trade with Japan, the company having
been among the pioneer importing and
exporting concerns in Yokohama and other
ports, at a time when little or no idea
was held of the subsequent development of
Japan as a great commercial country. The
company was one of the first and largest
importers of American cotton, and still
carries on this business, though necessarily
on a smaller scale since the introduction of
large quantities of Indian and other cotton.
It was originally agent for the Standard Oil
Company and established the business of
that concern in Japan before the Standard
Oil people opened their own offices. The
China and Japan Trading Company, Limited,
is also one of the best known houses on the
Osaka and Kobe markets for metals of all
descriptions. It is sole ageirt for the Selby
Smelting and Lead Co., of San Francisco,
California, and for the Consolidated Mining
& Smelting Co., of Canada, Ltd., Traill,
B. C, whose pig lead is handled exclusively
by the company in the Japanese market.
Other sole agencies are those of the Northern
Aluminium Co., Ltd., of Canada, and the
Aluminium Company of America, two of
the largest producers of this metal in the
world. Large yearly sales of aluminium
ingots are made to the Japanese factories,
which in turn make up the metal in various
articles for export to India, the Dutch East
Indies, AustraUa, the South Sea Islands, etc.
The business has grown enormously since
the commencement of the war, owing to
the stoppage of supplies of utensils from
Europe. A large quantity of aluminium is
also used for the manufacture of shell fuses
for the Russian armies. Aluminium foils
for cards on which buttons are mounted, is
another well developed branch of the trade,
the consumption having largely increased in
consequence of the difficulty of obtaining
tin foil, etc. The company imports nickel
in cakes, cubes, shot, etc.; pig iron, pig tin,
and spelter. Business in the latter line
largely died out after the stoppage of imports
from Europe, and smelting is now being done
in Japan from Australian, Chinese, and local
ores. Heavy quantities of steel and iron,
steel plates, sheets, galvanized sheets, wire.
nails, etc., and all sorts of construction
material, are handled, and the company is
licensed by the Japanese Government to
import and deal in high explosives, ammuni-
tion, and fire arms. Dynamite, gelignite,
gelatin, blasting powder, and gunpowder,
used for mining and for railroad construc-
tion through the mountainous districts, are
imported under this license, and the company
has its own special magazines for the storage
of such explosives. Extensive connections
have been formed by the China and Japan
Trading Company, Limited, with all the
tanneries and leather factories in the various
districts. These factories are supplied
through the agency of the company with
machinery and plant for tanning and leather
working, and also with tannin preparations
such as cutch, Argentine quebracho, sumac,
chestnut extracts, and so on. Owing to
the large orders placed in Japan by Russia
for boots and leather articles of various
kinds, this trade has increased tremendously,
and the quality of Japanese tanned leather
has improved very greatly of late years.
The company is the sole agent for Turner
Bros., Ltd., of Rochdale, Lancashire, England,
War Office and Admiralty contractors, sup-
pliers of asbestos goods of every description.
A large import of crude asbestos, asbestos
fibre and yarns for manufacture in Japan of
asbestos packings and materials is handled
by the company.
To mention some other lines of activity
on the part of this old established concern ,
it may be said that the China and Japan
Trading Company, Limited, is an importer
of sago flour from the Straits Settlements
and corn starches from America for supply-
ing to the various textile mills in Japan for
sizing purposes. There is also a special
department for handling paints, varnishes,
insulating varnishes, ships' paints, and anti-
fouling compositions, the company holding
the exclusive agencies for the Continental
Varnish Co., of Newark, New Jersey, and
the Woolsey Paint & Colour Co., of Jersey
City, specialising in copper paints for the
bottoms of wooden ships and wooden craft
of all descriptions. The company is also
sole agent for the Anglo-French Nickel Co.,
of Swansea, Wales, manufacturers of pre-
pared oxide of cobalt, grey and black, which
is imported in large quantities and supplied
to the manufacturers of porcelain and enamel
ware all over Japan. Liquid gold, enamels,
and colours of all kinds for the ceramic
industry are another important line The
company is the sole selling agent for the
New York and New Jersey Lubricant Co.'s
well known "Gear Brand" of non-fluid oils,
only introduced into Japan within the last
four years, and in spite of the competition
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CHINA AND JAi-AN IKADiNC COMPANY. LIU.: IHh KiiUh l.i JlmW N.-. — THE K(lHb iiilUh--. IIU, ulllLb--> AM) i.uljuU.Nn Al usAKA
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P R K S K N T - n A V I M T R E S S I O N S
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of long-established lubricants, these lines
have made immense strides in the favour
of the Japanese works and mills engineers.
A special department exists for the handling
of drugs and chemicals and essential oils,
and the company imports practically every
drug that has ever been marketed from all
parts of the world, wherever produced.
Chemicals are also imported for the labora-
tories and dispensaries, as well as for com-
mercial purposes, the main lines of the latter
being clilorate of potash and phosphorus
for the match trade, cyanide for mining
purposes, caustic soda, bichromate of potash
and soda. The China and Japan Trading
Company, Limited, also markets the well
known products of the Fellows Medical Co.,
of New York, and Lanman & Kemps Florida
water. Other imports are general lines such
as tools, ropes, and shipchandlers' stores.
Among the exports of the company are
refined antimony, copper, potato starch, rice
starch, wheaten starch, cotton \fam waste,
vegetable and fish oils of all kinds, matches,
sulphur, and sundry Japanese manufactures.
These are shipped to Europe, America, and
other parts of the world. Cotton yams and
textiles manufactured in Japan are exported
to China. Since the reduction in supphes
from Europe, owing to the war, Japan is
manufacturing many drugs which were pre-
viousl}' imported and is not only supplying her
own domestic requirements, but is also export-
ing largely such items as iodides, iodoform,
naphthalene, acetic acid, cafi'eine, copper sul-
phate and chlorate of potash, all of which the
China and Japan Trading Comj^anv, Limited,
ships.
A further department of activity on the
part of this company is insurance, agencies
being held for the Sun Insurance Office of
London (established 1710), and the Phoenix
Assurance Company, Ltd., of London, (or
both fire and marine business. The busi-
ness of this v/ell organised company is
extending year by year. There has been a
dropping off in certain lines, owing to the
war, and the changes in the industrial and
economic situation of Japan, but other
avenues of trade have been opened up in
their place, and bid fair to develop satis-
factorily and remain permanent.
The head office and directorate of the
China and Japan Trading Company, Limited,
is at No. 80 Maiden Lane, New York, and
branches are maintained at London and
Manchester, England; Shanghai, China;
Yokohama, Kob6, and Osaka, Japan. The
Kobe branch of the company, with extensive
offices and godowns, is at No. 88 Naka
Machi in the former foreign concession of
Kobe, and at No. 20 Nakanoshima, Osaka.
'J'he Koh6 branch operates through the
south of Japan, that is, all the business south
of Nagoya, and in the Hondo Islands, and
also Kyushu and Shikoku. Business in the
districts north of Nagoya is cared for by the
Yokohama branch of the company. Mr.
Darwin R. Aldridge is the President of the
company.
IWAI & CO., LI.MITED
This import and export business was
established in 1898 as a personal proprietary,
the founder being Mr. Katsujiro Iwai, who
was one of the originators of direct foreign
trade from Osaka. Mr. Iwai had had con-
siderable experience in all lines of Japa-
nese produce and manufactured goods, and
though the capital employed to start with
was the comparatively small sum of Yen
20,000, the business was almost immediately
successful, and since then had grown to verj'
large proportions. From a private firm, the
enterprise was changed into a limited lia-
bilit\' company some years ago, the present
capital being Yen 2,000,000, and the reserv^es
Yen 925,000. Iwai & Co., Ltd., carry on a
varied business as importers, exporters, and
general merchants. The head office is at
No. 43, 4-chome, Kitahama, Higashi-ku,
Osaka. There are branches and factories
at Osaka, Kobe, Tokyo, Yokohama, and
VIEW OF OSAK.A SOlTHW.\RD IKOM THE ROOF OF MITSUKOSHI, SHOWING HIG.ASHI-KU .AND MIN.\MI-Kr IN THE DIST.\NCE
P R K S E N T - i:) A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
68 1
THE FINE KOBE OFFICES AND GODOWNS OF IWAI & CO., LTD.
Fukin in Japan, and foreign branches at
New York, Shanghai, and Hankow, with an
agency in London. Among the principal
imports are sheet steel, bars, angles, joists,
and similar metal manufactures for ship-
building or general construction work, sheet
zinc, tin plates, lead, iron scrap and billets,
sheet tin and tin ingots, glass, wool, wool
tops, pulp, paper and general textiles,
chernicals, drugs, and dyes. Exports com-
prise general produce, such as peas, beans,
rice, vegetable oils, manufactured metals and
hardware (galvanized sheet steel, zinc slabs,
antimony, etc.), straw, chip and hemp braids,
Panama hats, habutai (piece goods and hand-
kerchiefs), raw silk, cotton piece goods, cel-
luloid and celluloid articles, matches, acetic
acid, window glass, timber, and a host of other
lines. Raw materials required for the com-
pany's factories are imported from America,
Europe, and China, and the export trade is
mainly directed to America, Europe, China,
AustraKa, British India, Java and other
islands in the South Seas.
When the company was formed, the
stock was mainly taken up by Mr. Iwai
and his relatives, and the interest of the
employees was cared for by the distribution of
a quantity of the shares among the heads
of the various departments. The principal
officers of Iwai & Co., Ltd., are: President
Director, Mr. Katsujiro Iwai; Chief Manag-
ing Director, Mr. Yuzuru Yasuno; Managing
Directors, Messrs. Toyoji Iwai and Yaichiro
Fukuzawa: Director, Mr. Umetaro Iwai,
and Auditors, Messrs. Washitaro Naga-
shima and Tametaro Imoto. The head office
building is a fine brick and stone edifice.
Iwai & Co., Ltd., give employment to about
two hundred assistants and workmen.
CHO. ITO & CO.
Despite the fact that this firm was only
established in May, 19 1 6, it has already
attained to a commanding position in busi-
ness circles in the west of Japan, and ranks
in financial importance with such large
concerns as Suzuki & Co. and others. Not
only does the firm do a considerable foreign
trade in imports and exports, but it has been
developed along the right lines, embracing
in its operations such important interests
as mining, shipping, manufacturing, and
financing.
The founder of the firm is Mr Chozo Ito,
brother of Mr. Chojiro Ito, ex-member of
the House of Peers, and one of the richest
landowners and highest taxpayers in Japan.
Through the family connections Messrs.
Cho. Ito iS: Co. therefore have unlimited
financial backing and influence, and it is
not surprising that they have developed
such a remarkably strong position in the
course of two years. Mr. Chozo Ito was
bom in 1887, at Imaichi, Harima. He was
graduated from the Kobe Commercial Col-
lege in 191 o and -took the professional course
of the Tokv'O Commercial College, from
which he was graduated in 191 2. From
1913 to 19 1 5 he served in the Army and
obtained his commission as sub-lieutenant.
Shortly after leaving military service he
THE PICTURESQUE RESIMENCK I >i- MR. C. ITO, PRESIDENT OF CHO. ITO & CO. — THE l'KI\AIl' UFllCK <-lF MK, CHO. ITU
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
683
started on his business career, and soon
attracted attention as one of the most
brilliant of the modern younger commercial
men. When he founded Cho. Ito & Co. it
was realised that Mr. Ito had realised his
great opportunity. His keen observation
had noted the effects of the world war, and
he saw many lines in which business enter-
prise could be profitably directed. In form-
ing Cho. Ito & Co., he called a number of
capable and experienced business men around
him, and within one year he had placed the
firm in a very proud position as the leading
trading concern in Kob^. Mr. Chozo Ito is
also the Managing Partner of the Ito Trust
and Finance Company, a director of the Tai-
sho Steamship Company, director of the Ocean
Transport Company, director of the Japan
Spun Silk Mill, and director of the Japan Oil
Manufacturing Co., of the Japan Asbestos
Slate Manufacturing Co., of the Peninsular
Rubber Estate and Finance Co., and of the
Sanjuhachi Bank. Furthermore, he is one
of the principal stockholders of the Toa Cru-
cible and Graphite Company and also the
owner of a number of copper, tungsten, and
graphite mines. Even if it be admitted that
Mr. Ito has had a splendid training in the
science of modern business, it must be realised
that for a man scarcely thirty years of age
to hold so many responsible positions, while
at the same time directing a vast enter-
prise like Cho. Ito & Co., speaks volumes
for the capability and business acumen of
the man.
Messrs. Cho. Ito & Co.'s business is
divided into well organised departments.
The Trade Department principally engages
in the direct import and export of general
merchandise, manufactures, and produce.
The main lines are mineral ores, metals, and
metal wares, cereals and other natural
produce, oils, chemicals, camphor, skins,
hides and leather, cotton yarn and cotton
piece goods, woollen goods, raw silk, silk
goods, sugar, gunny bags, and curios. The
monthly value of the goods handled by this
department reaches over Yen 3,000,000.
Trade is conducted through direct branches
in Russia, China, the South Seas, and America
and through despatch offices which are
situated at Tientsin, Shanghai, Harbin,
Changchun, Osaka, and Seoul. Arrange-
ments are now being made to establish
branches at London and New York.
Mining Dep.\rtment. Through this de-
partment such Unes as copper, graphite,
tungsten, molybden, and coal are handled.
The department also has under its control
the firm's own mine at Kaina, Tokushima
Prefecture, and also some fifty or sixty
properties in which Messrs. Cho. Ito & Co.
have the mining rights.
Shipping Department. In this section of
the business, the sale, purchase, and charter-
ing of ships is conducted. Messrs. Cho.
Ito & Co. have three vessels of a tonnage
of 7,000 under construction, and have
charters over six vessels of a total of 27,000
tons, which are engaged in the trade with
North America. It is planned to establish
a Machinery Department at an early date.
Messrs. Cho. Ita &■ Co. also own the follow-
with other countries. The business was
founded by Mr. S. E. Giles, an Englishman,
who came to Japan over sixteen years ago
to join a British firm, of whose Kobd office
he subsequently took entire charge. In
1908 Mr. Giles started as a merchant on
his own account, and, with considerable
experience at his command, as well as a
wide knowledge of the requirements of
foreign buyers, he quickly realised a large
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scenes on the JOHORE estate of the peninsular rubber & FINANCE CO., LTD.
(cho. ito & CO.)
ing concerns: (A) The Ito Kigyo Goshi
Kaisha, with a capital of Yen 1,000,000,
which is a financial organisation for the
accommodation of industries and businesses
with funds, and for the sale, purchase, and
acceptance of bonds, etc., as well as for
investment in business. (B) The Toa
Crucible and Graphite Co., Ltd., with a
capital of Yen 500,000, engaged in mining
graphite and the manufacture of crucibles.
This company has an extensive graphite
field at Heiando, Korea, and a big factory
at Imamiya, Osaka. (C) The Hanto Gomu
Kigyo Kabushiki Kaisha, with a capital of
Yen 1,000,000, which has a rubber planta-
tion of 2,000 acres in Johore, Federated
Malay Settlements. (D) The Takuma Sys-
tem Boiler Manufacturing Co., which manu-
factures boilers under the Takuma system.
The head office of Messrs. Cho. Ito & Co.
is at No. 33 Kitanagasa-dori, 4-chome, Kobe.
S. E. GILES
This firm was established in 1908 in the
business of import and export merchants,
and has steadily expanded its operations
measure of success. In 1913 the present
premises at No. 58 Naniwa Machi, Kob^,
were acquired, and were considerably en-
larged to meet requirements. At present
the business occupies the whole of the
three-storied building (with a newly built
three-storied brick godown at the rear), in
addition to which a separate department
is accommodated at No. 4 Isogamidori,
i-chome, Kobe, where the firm has a two-
storied building with spacious brick godowns
for the transaction of the Australasian busi-
ness. In 1916 Mr. Giles took over the busi-
ness (of about twenty years' standing) of
the late Mr. John F. Duff, including the
entire staff and the premises at Isogamidori,
Ono, where the Australasian import and
export department is conducted. Mr. Giles
is one of the largest shippers to South Africa
and Australasia, and has also been shipping
to Europe. He is now paying attention to
America, Russia, India, China, and, in fact,
every part of the world where a market is
likely to be found for the various lines he
handles. Each of the departments in this
business is managed by a foreigner, who is
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S. E. GILES; KOBE STAI-r AND OFFICES — INSPECTION OF MATTING — EXAMINATION OF BLANKETS FOR EXPORT — BRANCH OFFICE
AT ISOGAMIDORI, KOBE — -A CORNER IN THE STRAWBRAID GODOWN
P R E S E N r - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
68.S
OWI & CO.: GENERAL VIEW ol- THE lAClOKY AT SAKAI, OSAKA-FU — VIEWS OK THE HEAD OFFICE AND CODoWNS, KOBE
ably assisted by an expert native staff, in
close touch with the market. All goods are
subjected to a rigourous examination by
Japanese inspectors and the foreigner in
charge of the department before shipment.
The Floor Coverings Department of the
firm handles matting and matting rugs,
straw, rush and grass mats, cotton, woollen,
and jute carpets and rugs, rag rugs, and
every description of Japanese-made floor
coverings, stencilled and woven. The men
in this department specialise in their own
lines, and complete satisfaction to customers
is therefore assured.
In the Braid and Hat Department Mr.
Giles is specially fortunate in having at
his service men who have been thoroughly
trained — nay, born — in the business. Man
being only human is liable to make mistakes
occasionally in the selection and inspection
of goods, but thanks to the skill and experi-
ence of the staff in this department, such
risks are reduced to a minimum. As the
name suggests, the department deals in
straw, chip and hemp braids, and all kinds
of hats such as imitation Panama, straw, etc.
In the Cotton Goods Department some of
the lines handled are: singlets, underpants,
socks, gloves, table cloths, serviettes, doyleys,
towels, sheetings, counterpanes, bedspreads,
drawn thread work, crepe piece and made-up
goods, shirts, pyjamas, kimonos, jackets,
gowns, suits, dress material, curtains, thread,
crochet cotton, yarn, waste, and all kinds
of hosiery goods.
The Silk Department handles silk in piece
and made-up goods, such as handkerchiefs,
shirts, pyjamas, suits, dress goods, kimonos,
gowns, ladies' underwear, silk socks and
stockings, yarn, and every description of
manufactured goods.
Exports through the Produce Department
include timber, rice, beans, peanuts, peas,
superphosphates, camphor, bamboo poles,
straw envelopes, ginger, broom rushes, rope,
twine, chemicals, etc.
Besides the lines already mentioned Mr.
Giles has a department for handling sundry
goods such as baskets, suit cases, blinds,
brushes, porcelain, glassware, paper goods,
toys, screens, furniture, vacuum flasks,
leather bags and purses, cotton and jute
webbing, umbrellas, sunshades, walking
sticks, gas mantles, tennis racquets, station-
ery, penknives, pencils, penholders, lacquer
ware, antimony ware, brassware, bronze
ware, enamel ware, cutlery, window glass,
art curios, wire and wire nails, electric light
fittings, chemicals and chemists' supplies,
medical an(;l surgical instruments, metal
goods, bicycle accessories, buttons and press
studs, and every description of Japanese
manufactures.
The Australasian Department deals with
ail export and import business with AustraUa,
New Zealand, etc., and the Russian Depart-
ment is worked in conjunction with Mr.
G. K. Kahn of Vladivostock, Dairen, Harbin,
and Moscow, transacting all classes of export
and import business with Russia and Man-
churia.
Besides the export business, Mr. Giles is
interested in the import into Japan of
asbestos, wool, rice, Manchurian produce,
beans, bean cake, metals, waste rubber,
bones, bristles, horns, hoofs, skins, etc., and
in addition to these he is prepared to take
up any new lines on receipt of enquiries. As
686
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PRESENT-DAV IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
LAND & cox: SCENE IN THE STRAW HAT GODOWN — PREPARING GOODS FOR EXPORT IN THE GENERAL FANCY GOODS DEPARTMENT
may be gathered from the above Mr. Giles
transacts a widely varied business, calling
for experience and close study of the different
markets and commercial conditions generally,
for its successful operation. That Mr. Giles
possesses the confidence of tlie Japanese, and
is regarded as a sound business man, is
illustrated by the fact that he was for some
time Honorary Adviser to the Mayor of
Kob^. The post office address of the firm
is P. O. Box No. 192, Kobe; telegraphic
address "Giles" Kobe, codes, A. B. C. 5th,
Western Union and Bentley's. Reference,
the Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corpo-
ration.
McKAY & CO.
McKay & Co. of Kob6, Japan, was
started as a merchant commission house
in 1897, the business originally being mainly
confined to the export of mattings, porce-
lains, and toys to the American market.
As the industries of Japan developed to
permit of the export of other lines of produce
and manufacture, Messrs. McKay & Co.
extended their markets to Europe, Australia,
New Zealand and elsewhere. To-day they
ship to practically any point in the world
where Japanese goods are in demand, and
handle such lines as mattings, rugs of ever}'
description, toys, curios, glassware, silks,
cotton goods, porcelains, aU kinds of natural
produce, drugs (both crude and manufac-
tured), and in fact, every manufacture of
the manj' Japanese industries which the
outer world needs. The firm executes
orders on a commission basis, buying to
the best advantage in the centres of pro-
duction, shipping under the best conditions,
and conducting a thorough inspection of all
articles before shipment, thus giving com-
plete satisfaction to the buyer. McKay &
Co. have special facilities for handling many
varieties of mattings, and employ a number
of expert workmen in this department of
native industry. They have extensive go-
downs and inspection compounds adjacent
to the head office which is at No. 49 Harima-
machi, Kob6. Sample offices are maintained
by the fimi at No 1 170 Broadway, New
York. Intending purchasers are invited to
write for samples and prices.
OWI & CO., OSAKA AND KOBE
Since the time of the predecessor of Mr.
T. Owi, Owi & Co., Osaka, have been large
manufacturers of all kinds of glassware,
especially of glass bangles, on an enormous
scale. Mr. T. Owi entered upon export
business in September, 191 3, when he estab-
lished Owi & Co., Kobe, under the super-
vision of his partner and the general manager,
Mr. M. Hira, who has over thirty years'
experience in the export trade of Japan,
particularly in manufactured goods and
natural produce. Owi & Co. have offices
and godowns in Kob6, and their factories
are at Sakai, Osaka-fu. The land and
buildings, which cover 156 tstibo in Kob^,
are their own property, and on the site of
the Kobe office, at 59 Naniwa-Machi, Kobe,
a handsome three-storied building has been
erected. Owi & Co. confine their business
almost entirely to exports, handling a large
volume of trade, including the products of
their own factories. Their main lines are
agricultural produce, metals, fish oils, isin-
glass, starch, ginger, peanuts, bleaching
powder, caustic soda, camphor, menthol,
: m ii II nr II rrii n n !i rr rr i r i i
I
m--M>.
MCKAY & CO.: A IlNi: IIIM'IW UF PORCELAIN FROM THE FIRM's NAGOYA SHOWROOMS — A SCENE IN THE MATTING GODOWN-
STENCILLING IN THE MATTING GODOWN — PACKING PORCELAIN WARE AT THE NAGOYA GODOWNS
688
PRESENT- n A V 1 M P K i; S S I O N S OF JAPAN
vegetable wax, sulphur, and chemicals.
The manufactured goods dealt in for export
are cotton piece goods, singlets, towels,
socks, blankets, and sundries such as but-
tons, brushes, electric w'are, glassware,
mattings, matches, porcelain, writing and
printing papers, rugs, straw and chip braids,
tea chests and so on. A competent staff of
departmental heads is employed, and the
general employees number thirty. An exten-
special attention to one or two branches of
the export trade, in which they have been
conspicuously successful. These are the hat
and button industries. Since the founda-
tion of the firm they have been among the
three largest shippers of hats made in Japan
under their own direction, and they are
probably the largest shippers of buttons, a
trade which has developed to a remarkable
extent in the last few years. Messrs. Land
tageous position for obtaining the highest
prices for the dealers in, and users of the
shell. The large and experienced staff of
the firm enables them to handle any volume
of business, and the extent of their opera-
tions permits them to quote the lowest prices
available for goods for export abroad. It
has always been the policy of the firm to
pay cash immediately on delivery of goods
by the various suppliers, thus instilling con-
KOBli OFFICES AND GODOWNS OK PETER FRASER & CO.
sive overseas trade is done with British
India, Australia, South Africa, the United
States, and Canada. Mr. T. Owi is the
principal of the firm. This firm has developed
a healthy business in less than five years
and enjoys a commendably high reputation
in the trading community.
LAND & COX
This firm of commission agents, and
import and export merchants, was formed
on January I, 19 15, and with a lengthy
experience of trade in Japan, and the require-
ments of foreign markets, on the part of its
principals, it has developed an extensive
business. Messrs. Land & Cox have given
& Cox handle annually an enormous quan-
tity of buttons of all kinds, shipping them
extensively to all parts of the world, but
principally to the United States, which is
also the largest market for hats. In general
export lines the firm handles extensively
such items as brushes, toys, glassware,
porcelain, copper and brass ware, leather
goods, straw, chip, and hemp braids, and
general produce.
Messrs. Land & Cox are also interested
in imports to Japan, the principal line being
Trocas shell, used for making buttons.
They are particularly well placed for hand-
ling consignments of shell, as their large
button business gives them the most advan-
fidence in the stability of the concern, and
inducing dealers to quote the lowest prices
for their products.
Included in the various business opera-
tions of Messrs. Land & Cox is the agency
for the Palatine Insurance Co., Ltd.
Mr. Douglas Cox, Managing Partner of
the firm's business in Japan, was bom at
Luton, England, in 1881. He came to Japan
in 1903 and entered the ser\-ice of Messrs.
Strome & Co. of Yokohama and Kobe. He
was Manager for that firm, and later for
Messrs. Strome & Co., Ltd., from January,
1906, until he formed a partnership with
Mr. David Land in January, 1915. The
new firm took over the business of Messrs.
!• U K S E N T - D A V
I M P k K S S I O N S
O \-
1 A \> A N
689
J. M. MACDONALD & CO.: THE HAT DEPARTMENT — VIEW IN THE COMPOUND
Strome & Co., Ltd., at Kobe. It may be
said that Mr. Cox was brought up in the
straw braid and hat business, and his general
knowledge of the export trade of Japan is
extensive and sound. Mr. David Land is
in charge of the firm's office in New York.
The address of Messrs. Land & Cox is P. O.
Box 112, Kobe. Their bankers are the
Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation
and the Chartered Bank of India, AustraHa,
and China.
PETER FRASER & CO.
The business of Messrs. Peter Fraser &
Co. of Kobe has been established about ten
years, and was founded by Mr. Fraser, who
has had twenty years' experience of the
Japanese export trade, and the different
manufacturing industries in whose products
his firm specialises. In addition to the
regular lines which are generally handled
by the foreign export merchants, this firm
has several departments, under expert buyers,
dealing exclusively in such manufactures and
products as the following: (.4) Engineers'
supplies in brass, copper, and zinc rods,
tubes, sheets, etc.; valves, fittings, castings,
sheet lead, lead pipes, cotton waste, crucibles,
machine-tools, brass-foundry, electrical fit-
tings, wires, cables, etc. (B) Rubber estates'
supplies such as tapping knives, latex cups,
latex coagulating pans, porcelain coagulating-
tank fittings, acetic acid, rubber machines,
momi and veneer cases. (C) Porcelain, glass-
ware, and enamelled ware of all kinds, gas
and electric-light fittings and industrial
chemicals. {D} Cotton blankets, counter-
panes, towels, underwear, crepes, etc. There
is also a department entirely devoted to
floor coverings in jute, cotton, wool, and
rush material. Peter Fraser & Co. are the
sole selling-agents for the celebrated "Dixie"
(seagrass) rugs and runners, which are the
most artistic, hygienic, and economical rugs
on the market. For many years the firm
has devoted special attention to the brush
business, and Peter Fraser & Co. export in
large quantities tooth and hair brushes,
military and cloth brushes, and numerous
household lines in brushware generally.
The firm has extensive offices and godowiis
at No. 1 13 Kita-machi, Kobe, the premises
being among the finest and most commodious
in the former Foreign Settlement, neverthe-
less the business has expanded to such an
extent that to meet the steadily increasing
requirements of their connections, they are
now increasing their personnel and securing
additional office and warehouse accommo-
dation. The firm's bankers are the Hong-
kong & Shanghai Banking Corporation.
J. M. MACDONALD & CO.
This company was established on January
I, 1916, and took over at that time the entire
organisation and general export business of
Messrs. Smith, Baker Company, who with
their predecessors, Messrs. Smith, Baker &
Co., had been established in Japan as far
back as 1868. Mr. J. M. Macdonald, the
proprietor of J. M. Macdonald & Co., was
connected with the earlier companies for
more than thirteen years and was their
Manager for Japan.
Messrs. J. M. Macdonald & Co. maintain
offices and godowns at Kob^, Osaka, and
Yokohama, and carry on a large general
export business from Japan, maintaining a
690
PBESENT-DAY
1 M
k !<: S S I O N S O V JAPAN
competent staff of inspectors in their various
lines of mercliandise
In addition, the firm are agents at Osaka
and Kob6 for the South British Insurance
Co., Ltd., both Fire and Marine Depart-
ments, and for the Guardian Assurance Co.,
Ltd., Fire Department. They also act as
marine settling agents for the Guardian
Assurance Co., Ltd., Marine Department,
the Eastern United Assurance Corporation,
and the Farmers Co-operative Insurance
Association of New Zealand, Ltd.
ISRAEL & OPPENHEIMER, LIMITED
This is one of the important and active
foreign companies that have realised the
strength of Japan as a field for investment
in manirfacturing enterprise, and have con-
tributed largely to the development of indus-
tries that may be considered natural to the
country, but only requiring foreign direction
and modem methods to put them on a proper
footing. Messrs. Israel & Oppenheimer,
Ltd., are known in commercial circles as
general merchants and commission agents
in Japanese goods, but apart from their
activities as merchants, they also direct very
valuable industrial enterprises covering the
manufacture of buttons, hosiery, brushes,
etc. The company is a London organisa-
tion of many years' standing. It was
formed into a limited liability concern on
February 26, 1912, with a capital of £51,250,
and formally registered in Japan the same
year, establishing its head office for Japan
at Kob^, and forming a branch at Yokohama,
with foreign branches and agencies scattered
throughout the world. The company turned
its attention specially to certain lines for
which there was a strong foreign demand,
and among these may be mentioned its
development of the button-making trade,
and the glove and hosiery industries. Apart
from these special features of the company's
operations, Messrs. Israel & Oppenheimer,
Ltd., handle practically all lines of Japanese
products and manufactures for which there
is a foreign demand. They are kept closely
in touch with overseas requirements through
their representatives abroad, and it is hardly-
necessary to add that the business has been
developed in a highly satisfactory manner.
The company exports large quantities of
buttons, gloves, brushes, hosiery, silks,
chinaware, lacquer ware, fancy goods, etc.
Shipments are regularly made to England,
France, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Holland,
Russia, the United States, Canada, New
Zealand, AustraUa, South Africa, Egypt and
elsewhere. The head office for Japan of
Messrs. Israel & Oppenheimer, Ltd., is at
98 Yedo Machi, Kobe, where the offices
and godowns are situated. The godowns
cover an area of 9,000 square feet, and the
ofiices, 2,000 square feet. Godowns and
offices at Yokohama are at No. 242 and
No. 75 D, respectively. All the buildings
are of stone. The Kob6 staff comprises
ninety hands, and that at Yokohama, twenty.
Mr. E. Ott is the General Manager for
Japan. The foreign branches of the com-
pany are: London (head office); No. 314
Notre Dame West, Montreal, Canada; No. 37
WelHngton St. West, Toronto, Canada, and
New York City. Agents for Messrs. Israel &■
Oppenheimer, Ltd., are: Zurich (Switzerland),
Mr. E. F. Koch; Milan (Italy), Mr. E.
Pfau, and Paris, Mr. E. Rosenberg.
The principals of the company are the
following Directors: Messrs. A. Israel,
R. Oppenheimer, B. S. Godfrey, and E. A.
Baines (London head office), H. Fiedler
(Canada head office, Montreal), F. F. Bowe
(United States head office, New York), and
E. Ott (Japan head office, Kob^).
LAZZAR.\, ROMBERG & CO.
The business of this well known firm
comprises the amalgamation, as from the
beginning of 1918, of the interests of two old
established concerns, and the combination
of operations formerly very closely allied by
friendly relations. Messrs. Lazzara, Rom-
berg & Co. trade as manufacturers, general
merchants, importers, and exporters.
The former firm of G. Lazzara & Co.
(Italian) was established ten years ago by
Messrs. G. Lazzara and E. A. Herrera.
Mr. Lazzara came from Italy in 1905 to
develop the coral trade. He established
himself in business with the aid of his friend,
Mr. Herrera (a brother of Colonel Herrera,
Military Attache to the Spanish Embassy
in Tokyo). The firm of E. Homberg & Co.
(French) was estabhshed first by Mr. M.
Thieck, head accountant from 1906 of an
important French firm, which closed in 1911,
owing to the general depression of trade at
that period. Mr. E. Homberg came to Japan
in 1913. He is related to the French family
of financiers, so well known in America since
the floating of the French-American Loan,
when Mr. O. Homberg went to the United
States to conduct the negotiations for that
undertaking. Messrs. Thieck and Homberg
entered into partnership, but had scarcely
developed a prosperous business when the
war broke out, and both partners were called
to the colours and left Kob^ for France at
once, entrusting their interests and the full
management of their business to their friends,
Messrs. G. Lazzara & Co., with whom they
had had the most intimate relations. A few
months later, as Mr. Lazzara had to leave
for Italy on business, and in response to
his country's call, the whole burden of the
combined interests fell on Mr. Herrera.
After three years' strenuous efforts and hard
work for both firms, the relationship of the
two concerns became so close that it was
decided (on the return of Messrs. Thieck
and Homberg, both wounded and unfit for
further military service) to amalgamate the
two businesses under the present name of
Lazzara, Homberg & Co., the partners being
Messrs. G. Lazzara, E. A. Herrera, E. Hom-
berg, and M. Thieck. Mr. Homberg served
in the French Army as a sergeant in the
Black Troops, and Mr. Thieck, who was
twice seriously wounded in action, was pro-
moted to officer's rank in the Dare-Devils
Battalion.
The amalgamation of the two concerns
is the result of the unity of management of
Mr. Herrera for nearly four years, during
which period were developed the valuable
interests so closely connecting both firms.
The capital of the combined firm is Yen
1,000,000. They have godowns and factories
at Kob^, Osaka, Tokyo, and Aomori, and
branches in Manila, New York, Milan, Paris,
and Shanghai. Principal Unes of imports
are chemicals, coffee, hemp, copra, old iron,
rape-seed, linseed, ivory, cotton, elemi gum,
gum olibanum, pepper, lumber, cotton seeds,
wax hides, old rubber, gum tragacanth,
cloves Phembo, cloves Zanzibar, casein, senna
leaves, nux vomica, gingeli seed, castor seed,
ground nuts, oils, tin plates, machinery,
etc. Exports comprise all classes of Japa-
nese metal manufactures such as copper and
brass ingots, electrolytic copper, copper wire,
brass and iron wire, and aluminium ware;
glassware, enamelled ware, brass ware,
nickel ware, camphor, chemicals, caustic
soda, copper sulphate, iron sulphate, resin,
starches of all sorts, bleaching powder,
fertilizers, sulphate of ammonia, and super-
phosphates. Other lines are cotton piece
goods, silk goods, raw silk, silk yam, cotton
yarn, hosiery, matches, celluloid goods,
porcelain, hemp ropes, rubber goods, cement,
tea chests, leather goods, paper strawboard,
toys, bent wood furniture, dried ginger,
and a whole host of sundry lines. These
exports go principall)' to France, Italy, the
Philippines, Indo-China, Russia, Africa,
Egypt, America, China, the Straits Settle-
ments, Java and elsewhere.
Besides their business in Japan, Messrs.
Lazzara, Homberg & Co. are carrying on
various departmental concerns in India and
other countries, under various firm names,
which establishments afford them ready
facilities for business in other markets. The
firm cultivates first-class connections only,
amongst which is included the O'Brien
Trading Co. of New York. Their agents in
other countries are as follows: Bombay,
( ■
! i" "i
Ll ly
'' ill +;
II i
■\ 11 *
/ X//
MESSRS. ISRAEL \- ( IPPENHKIMEK, I.TU.: A SCENE IN IHE oLuVb Uht'AK IME.NT — WORKERS IN lllE IIIITUN UEPARTMENI
VIEW OF THE KOBfe OFFICES
SfPliiiPiiiliiliiiili^^
1.A//AKA, HOMBERG & CO.: THE KCiHl'. iilinl.^ AMi MAI-
P It K S E N T - n A ^• IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
693
Messrs. Mithabhoy Nathoo; Calcutta, Messrs.
Singh, Sarkar & Co.; Colombo, Messrs. E. G.
Adamally & Co., and Rangoon, Messrs. Y.
A. Gany & Co. A clerical staff of over a
hundred is employed by Messrs. Lazzara,
Romberg & Co. Their present offices having
become too small for the rapidly developed
business, arrangements are being made for
erection of a four- storied building, with
underground warehouse, on a piece of land
measuring 200 tsubo. This land is the prop-
erty of the firm and is located in the most
central part of the business area of Kobe.
The firm banks with, and conducts most of
its foreign operations through, the Yokohama
Specie Bank. In the business world the
trade mark "309," on the exports of Messrs.
Lazzara, Romberg & Co., is generally well
known as a brand of quality. The postal
address of the firm is No. 309 Sannomiyacho,
Ichome, Kobe.
THE UNION IMPORTING & EXPORT-
ING CO., LIMITED
This company conducts an extensive im-
port and export business from its head office
at 26 Naniwa-Machi, Kob^, and through its
various branches and agencies throughout
Japan and abroad, besides being closely
associated through a sister company with
the shipping interests of Japan. The staple
lines of the Union Importing & Exporting
Co., Ltd., are iron and steel, machinery,
chemic.'xls, crucibles, silk and cotton goods,
natural products, animal and vegetable oils,
ores and all kinds of industrial materials.
Associated with the Toyo Shosen S. S. Co.,
this enterprising concern runs the steamers
Snelnro-maru, Nawa-mani, and Nireiian-
maru in home waters.
The Union Importing & Exporting Co.,
Ltd., has its own warehouses at Tokyo,
Yokohama, Kobe, Changchun, Vladivostock,
and San Francisco. Its branches and
agencies are established at Tokyo, Osaka,
Dairen, Hongkong, Shanghai, Harbin, Chang-
chun, Vladivostock, Moscow, Petrograd,
Odessa, Bombay, Calcutta, Marseilles, New-
York, Chicago, San Francisco, Seattle,
Vancouver, Manila, Sydney, and Melbourne.
MIYABE & SUYETAKA
Although of comparatively recent origin
the gomei kaisha, or partnership firm of
Miyabe & Suyetaka, has rapidly taken its
place among the important importing and
exporting concerns of Kobd, and its name
is well known in the foreign business com-
munity. The partnership was established
in 1 91 6 by Messrs. S. Miyabe, of Yokohama,
and K. Suyetaka and N. Imamura of Kob6.
The head office is in Yokohama, and branch
offices have been opened at Kob6 and Nagoya.
Practically all lines of imports and exports
are handled, principal among the exported
items being the following: porcelains, shell
buttons, brushes, paper, cotton yarn waste,
carpets, fans, silk goods, straw and chip
braids, hemp braids, Panama hats, pepper-
mint crystals and oil, camphor, vegetable
wax, isinglass, Japanese furs, all kinds of
Japanese curios and art goods, and general
produce. These lines are shipped to the
United States, Great Britain and her colonies
and elsewhere, the firm having connections
and representatives throughout the principal
foreign countries. In return, Messrs. Miyabe
and Suyetaka import iron, steel, and general
merchandise.
The management of the business is in
capable and experienced hands, the selection
THE UNION IMPORTING AND EXPORTING CO., LTD.: A CORNER IN THE KODE OFFICES — THE SIAFF .\T KOHE
45
694
PRESENT-DAY I M 1> R l". S S I O N S OF JAPAN
KOBE OFFICES AND GODOWNS OF MIVABE & SLVETAKA
and jjurchase of goods for customers
being made in the different centres by
the partners, who give their personal atten-
tion to all details. A large trade is being
done, and the future of the firm is con-
sidered very bright.
KYOSHIN-YOKO
A LARGE volume of the export trade of
Japan in cereals and general produce is
done by this firm of importers and exporters,
and in the course of the last few years their
operations have been extended very widely
throughout Siberia and Russia. The Kyoshin-
Yoko was established at Kobe in 1901 by
Air. Kisaku Daiko, who is now President of
the concern. Among the imports handled
by the firm are chemicals, steel, iron, metal
ware generallj', hides, leather, fats, and other
raw products brought from Russia, America,
and other countries. The exports comprise
rice, beans, peas, seeds, oils, bean cake and
all kinds of grain. A rice mill has been
established at Vladivostock, and there is
also a warehouse and branch office at that
centre. Other branches are at Harbin,
KYOSHIN-YOKO: THE KOBE OFFICE — GIRLS ENGAGED IN PICKING BEANS
PRESENT- i:) AY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
695
IManchuria; Fusan, Korea; Moscow, Russia,
and at Blagowcschcnsk and Habarousk,
Siberia. Russia and Siberia are perhaps
the best markets for the Kyoshin-Yoko, but
the firm also exports largely to the United
States, Canada, and elsewhere. The head
office of the firm is at 4-chome, Sakae-machi,
Kobe, Japan. Mr. Konosuke Iwahashi is
the General Manager.
E. YOSHID.\
This firm was established in the Sjiring
of 1917 by Mr. E. Yoshida, at Isobedori,
in the eastern part of Kob^ City. Mr.
Yoshida has had a lengthy experience in
the export and import business, and his
knowledge of the trade in certain special
lines, particularly Japanese produce, is
admitted to be wide and extensive. Not-
withstanding the short time the concern
has been in business the results of its opera-
tions have exceeded even Mr. Yoshida's
anticipations, and its operations have been
developed in a remarkable degree. Branches
have been opened at Yokohama and Otaru,
and relations have been established with the
principal countries to which Japanese goods
are exported. Mr. Yoshida exports rice,
bean, animal and vegetable oils, antimony,
copper, cotton waste, straw, chip, and hemp
braids, and curios, and imports iron and steel,
bones, copra, coconut oil, tin, chemicals,
drugs, dyestuffs, etc. Exports go principally
to the United States, but Mr. Yoshida is
now opening up business with sundry goods
to South Africa, South America, and Scandi-
navia. Raw products, such as rubber, are
being imported from the Straits Settlements
and the South Seas, and an extensive trade
in Japanese produce is done with London.
The extent of these transactions is steadily
on the increase. In all these lines Mr.
Yoshida is thoroughly experienced, and is
noteworthy for his careful handling of such
items as chemicals, dyestuffs, and piece goods.
Another special feature of the firm's opera-
tions is that in cases where it receives offers
for lines it has not previously handled, it
gives the closest attention to the trade so
affected, and when the intricacies of the
business arc thoroughly mastered, the order
is accepted and carried through with the
most scrupulous care. It speaks well for
the thorough methods of Mr. Yoshida that
he has established the best of relations with
the various dealers. The head office of this
enterprising firm is at No. 3 Isobedori,
Ichome, Kob6, Japan.
THE SHIMIDZU GOMEI KAISHA
Operating largely in the foreign export
trade of Japan is the Shimidzu Gomel
Kaisha, one of the oldest importing and
THE PICTURESQUE KOBE OFFICES OF E. YOSHIDA
exporting firms of Kobe. The business was
established in 1884 by Mr. A. Greppi,
and was maintained under the trade name
of A. Greppi & Co. for a number of years
prior to its reorganisation as a gomei kaisha
under Japanese law. Mr. Greppi is still
associated with the concern as its principal,
and the partners are Messrs. Shimidzu Masu
and O. Bruell. The General Managers are
Messrs. S. Tedzuka and H. Maeda. With
a capital of Yen 150,000, the Shimidzu
Gomei Kaisha is a sound and stable con-
cern, well able to carry on a general import
and export business covering the markets of
the world. The special lines dealt in for ex-
port to such countries as England, France, the
United States, Australia, South Africa and
elsewhere, are: hosiery, underwear, blankets,
shawls, towels, silks, crockery, chemicals,
hardware, brushes, carpets, matting, glass-
ware, buttons, beads, basketware, curios and
fancy goods of every description. The head
office of the Shimidzu Gomei Kaisha is at
Isogamidori Itchome, Kobe, where the
offices and godowns cover an area of 350
Isubo. From fifty to a hundred hands are
employed, according to the season of the
trade.
TSURUTANI GOMEI KAISHA
Mr. Chugoro Tsurutani, founder and
principal of the firm which bears his name,
is one of the business men of Kobe who may
rightly claim to ha\-e taken a large part in
the development of the foreign trade of
Japan. He entered into business on his
own account in June, 1898, as an exporter,
and was not satisfied merely to receive
reports of conditions in foreign markets, but
has made several trips abroad to study trade
requirements, and get closely in touch with
the ideas of his foreign customers. The
696
P R E S E N T - D A ^ IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PAINTING THE PORCELAIN
result of this special effort to catei for the
trade between Japan and other countries,
has given Mr. Tsurutani an experience
second to none in the export business, and
as a consequence tlie firm's connections are
extensive and vakiable. There is hardly an
order of any kind that can not be carried
out with entire satisfaction, and the Tsurutani
Gomei Kaisha, by speciahsing in certain
lines, has built up a high reputation abroad.
This is particularly so with porcelain. Mr.
Tsurutani has arranged contracts with such
well known manufacturers as the Shofu
Porcelain Co. of Nagoya and the Nippon
Ironstone China Co. of Kanazawa, for their
output. This is shipped in large quantities
under the firm's own guarantee of the highest
quality, low price, and prompt delivery.
Messrs. Tsurutani & Co. have their own
factory for the jjroduction of silk goods,
embroideries and similar lines, and the lines
liandled are noted for their special qualities.
Electrical instruments, insulators, etc., are
manufactured and handled by the firm under
contract with the Shofu Porcelain Co. and
the Osaka Electrical Machine Manufactur-
ing Co. of Osaka. The principal exports of
Tsurutani & Co. are as follows: cotton and
silk goods, porcelains, metal wares, matches,
electric manufactures of all descriptions,
enamel wares, hardware generally, and all
KOBE PREMISES OK SHIMIDZU GOMEI KAISHA
I' R K S !•: N T - I) A Y I M I' I< K S S I O N S O F J A P A N
697
kinds of natural produce. These are shipped
extensively to the United States, Canada,
France, Australia, India, the Straits Settle-
ments, and China. The head office of the
Tsuriitani Gomci Kaisha is at No. 33 Naka-
machi, Kob6. There are branch offices at
Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong. The
capital of the firm is Yen 50,000 at present,
but it is proposcti to increase this sum
to Yen 250,000 in June, 191S.
C. CROWTHER & CO.
In classifying the export trade of Japan,
it has been customary to distinguish the
various trades as Silk, Tea, Matting, and
Curios. The appellation of "Curio" shipper
docs not of necessity indicate that only
antiques and art curios are being handled —
the term is applied to shippers of almost
every conceivable class of manufactured
goods.
The firm of Messrs. C. Crowther & Com-
pany have been working as "Curio" shippers
for twenty years, during which period they
have built up a very wide connection —
their shipments going to Great Britain,
France, the United States, Australia, New
CARRYING PORCELAIN TO THE KILN
Zealand, British India, the Straits Settle-
ments, and the Netherlands Indies. Mr.
C. Crowther, who had been engaged in art
work, including stained-glass and other
THE KOBE OFFICE OF B. ORNSTEIN & CO.
698
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
decorative materials, came to Japan in 1894
as art and curio buyer for Messrs. A. A.
Vantine & Company, and after a period of
work for this well-known New York firm,
opened in his own name and interest a
general export and import business. Asso-
ciated with Mr. C. Crowther is his son,
Mr. J. P. Crowther.
This firm is shipping to a group of the
principal department stores in the largest
cities of the United States (including Messrs.
Gimbel Brothers, New York, Philadelphia,
and Milwaukee; The Emporium, San
Francisco; The Joseph Home Company,
Pittsburgh; The J. L. Hudson Company,
Detroit; B. Nugent & Brother, St. Louis;
William Taylor, Son & Company, Cleveland;
The R. H. White Company, Boston), as also
to several wholesale importers in New
York, St. Louis, Chicago, and other centres.
This firm are also agents for Messrs.
Selfridge & Company, Limited, London.
Shipments to the States include silk,
mattings, carpets, Panama hats, straw
braids, fans, brushes, baskets, metal ware,
toys, and several lines of natural produce;
to British India, cotton goods (such as
singlets, towels, etc.) are shipped in large
quantities; to Great Britain, straw braids,
hats, baskets, etc.; to Australia, shipments
include electrical goods and a very wide
range of manufactured lines; to France,
straw braids, and novelties; to Java, cotton
goods, hardware, etc.
In addition to the manufactured goods
generally classed as curios, Messrs. C.
Crowther & Co. are also called upon for
examples of modern and antique Japanese
f ii^: :'■' v»-T^
TSURUTANI & CO.:
PREPARING CURIOS FOR EXPORT IN THE FIRM S GODOWN-
THE KOBE OFFICE
art productions — in which both senior and
junior members of the firm are particularly
interested and well informed.
In addition to exporting, this firm does a
considerable business in imports. For many
4 ^^sm^.
i*i
PORCELAIN AS IT COMES FROM THE KILN
years the interests of Messrs. Lever Brothers,
Limited, were in their care, and during the
erection of the Lever Works in Japan Mr.
C. Crowther's services were retained as
adviser.
The firm has an influential position in
Japan as Resident Representative for several
prominent manufacturers, including Messrs.
Johnson & Sons, Limited, Manufacturing
Chemists, London; John J. Griffin & Sons,
Limited; The Gem Dr>' Plate Company,
Limited, London; Cadbury Brothers, Lim-
ited, Bournville; The Frasmic Company,
Limited, Warrington; Yardley & Company,
Limited, London; Marks & Cohn, Birming-
ham; Robert H. Foerderer, Incorporated,
Philadelphia; Swallow' & Ariell, Limited,
Melbourne, and others.
As a long-time resident of Kobe, Mr. C.
Crowther takes considerable interest in local
institutions, being especially active on the
committees of the International Hospital,
of the Kobe Regatta and Athletic Club,
and of the Kobe Amateur Dramatic Club,
of which latter he is President.
Photography is Mr. C. Crowther's hobby
and he uses his skill in this art for the raising
of funds for charitable institutions, and has
sent good donations to the British National
Relief Fund. His attention is at present
PRESENT-DAY I M 1' R IC S S I O N S OF JAPAN
699
OKURA & CO., LTD.: THE OS.\K.\ OFFICE — THE KOBE PREMISES
given to the St. Dunstan's Hospital for
Blinded Soldiers and to the American Red
Cross Society. Mr. Crowther's work is
recognised as of the advanced school of
photography, and among the honours con-
ferred have been a Fellowship of The Royal
Photographic Society of Great Britain and
the highest award for portraiture in the
Toronto (1917) Salon.
OSAKA BUSINESS
FIRMS
OKURA & CO., LIMITED
A FULL description of the business of
Messrs. Okura & Co., Ltd., is given in the
Tokyo section of this work. The Osaka
branch is an important part of the company,
and it transacts a large volume of business
in all lines. These comprise the sale of
merchandise generally, commission agencies,
management of godowns, investments, manu-
facturing, mining and other industrial opera-
tions, and general finance. Okura & Co.,
Ltd., import electrical and other machinery
and implements, metal manufactures, wool,
skins and hides, fertilizers, cotton, etc., from
Europe, America, Australia, South Africa,
and elsewhere, for domestic consumption.
Exports consist of general merchandise,
produce, and manufactures from Japanese
factories. The company owns the Numazu
Plank Mill at Jamatsu, Numazu, Shizuoka
Prefecture, and the Sanyo Iron Works at
Otake village, Hiroshima Prefecture. The
Osaka branch office and godowns comprise
a two-storied building at No. 28 Tsuriganecho
Nichome, Higashi-ku. Other main, branches
are London, New York, Sydney, Shanghai,
and Tientsin. Sixty employees are stationed
at Osaka. (See also pages 211 and 799.)
T.\K.\T.\ & CO.
The Osaka branch of the Takata Shokai,
or Takata & Co., is responsible for the
transaction of a large volume of business
conducted by this well known firm. Under
the direction of Mr. Shin-ichi Ishikawa,
General Manager at Osaka, the firm imports
and exports all kinds of merchandise, and
particularly handles the products of its own
factories. Takata & Co.'s business was
originally established in 1869 by Mr. Shinzo
Takata, who was one of the pioneer importers
and exporters in Japan. After fighting a
way through many early difficulties, the
firm developed an extensive business, and
to-day Takata & Co. rank with the foremost
houses as general merchants and Govern-
ment contractors. During the Sino-Japanese
and Russo-Japanese wars, Takata & Co.
rendered invaluable services to the Govern-
ment, for which Mr. Takata, President of
the concern, was awarded the Third Order
of the Rising Sun. In 1909, owing to the
great expansion that had taken place, the
firm was transformed into a semi-partner-
ship company, the principals being Mr.
Shinzo Takata and his two sons, Messrs.
Kamakichi and Nobujiro, the former being
Vice-President of the company. Factories
and works directed and managed by Takata
& Co. comprise the Takata Ship Paint
Factory at Ohsakimura, Tok>'0-fu; the
Yanagishima Iron Works, Tokyo; the
Ohdera Zinc Refining Works, Fukushima-
ken, and the following among other mines:
Takata Mine (zinc and lead), Miyagi-ken;
700
PRESENT-DAY I At P R E S S I O X S
n F
J A PAN
Hiroo Zinc Mine, Hokkaido; Takakoshi
Copper Mine, Tokushima-ken; Hiyoshi
Copper Mine, Okayama-ken, and the Kat-
suura Copper Mine, Hyogo-ken.
The head office of Messrs. Takata & Co.
is situated at Eiraku-cho, Nichome, Koji-
machi-ku, Tokj'o. Branch offices are estab-
lished in Osaka at Nakanoshima. Nichome,
Kita-ku, and also at London, New York,
Shanghai, Hankow, Dalny, Keijo, Taihoku,
Yokosuka, Yokohama, Kobe, Maizuru, Kure,
Moji, and Sasebo. (See also page 213.)
T. MASrD.\ SHOTEN
This business, which is an important
branch of the Masuda family interests, has
been in existence for many years, and is
very well known all over Japan and abroad.
Particular attention has been paid to flour
milling, in which the Masudas have been
prominent for nearly half a century, and the
firm to-day is doing an immense trade, not
only locally, but for export. The Masuda
Shoten, which is under the direction of Mr.
Tasaburo Masuda, has the selling rights for
several large mills, apart from its own plant,
and handles about 300,000 bushels of flour
per annum, representing a value of approx-
imately Yen 3,500,000 in this line alone.
The factory and godowns cover an area of
13,000 tsiibo, the buildings being of four
storys. Allis-Chalmers plant and machinery
is employed, the motive power being 200
horse-power. There is an expert staff of
53, and in addition 150 workmen are em-
ployed in various capacities.
As general merchants, importers and
exporters, and manufacturers' agents, T.
Masuda Shoten handle such import special-
ties as cereals, wheat, beans, rice, sugar,
chemicals, drugs, pulp, hemp, jute, wool tops,
raw cotton, woollen and linen yams, metals,
machinery, tools, hides and skins and tanned
leather, various fertilizers, tallow, copra,
rubber and so on, importing from Great
Britain, America, India, China, and the
pS.^K.\ BR.\NCH OF T.^K.\TA & CO.
South Seas. They export rice, wheat, flour
and all classes of raw products, oils and wax,
cotton goods, matches, minerals, chemicals
and drugs, timber and boxes, Portland
cement, fire bricks and tiles, beers, mineral
waters, hemp, chip and straw braids, and
general sundries. It is indeed hard to say
what T. Masuda Shoten do not handle in
the way of imports and exports. Their
trade has developed to a large extent in the
course of the last few years, and they are
continually expanding their operations in all
directions. Through other branches of the
Masuda family organisation, which is one
of the most influential comjnercial concerns
in Japan, the T. Masuda Shoten is closely
in touch with every development of industry-
and commerce, and enjoys a high reputation.
The head office of the firm is at Xo. 5
Iwasaki-cho, Nishi-ku, Osaka. A warehouse
is established at Nishino-machi, Satsuma-
bori, Nishi-ku, Osaka, and there are other
branches at Tokyo and Kobe.
SHIM.\DA & CO., LIMITED
There are many lines of chemicals and
drugs which are now being exported from
Japan, and generally, it may be said, that
since the outbreak of the war and the shut-
ting off of European supplies, either of the
raw materials or the finished articles, the
Japanese manufacturers have developed
their business to a remarkable extent.
Prominent among the concerns particularly
interested in this trade is Shimada & Co.,
Ltd., known in Japanese business circles as
the Kabushiki Kaisha Shimada Shokai. The
head office of this company is at No. 27,
2-chQme, Koraibashi, Higashi-ku, Osaka,
with an important branch at No. 6 Nichome,
Honcho, Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo. The com-
pany has its own factories and warehouses,
and handles a wide range of products. Im-
ports come from England, Sweden, Norway,
the United States, Canada, and South
America. Imported lines comprise paper
pulp, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia,
caustic soda, soda ash and chemical stuffs
generally. Messrs. Shimada & Co., Ltd.,
export such lines as foreign and Japanese
paper, and material for paper-making, alum,
alumina (chemically prepared), gum, resin,
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric
acid, cubic nitre, calcium carbide, artificial
fertilizers, veneer chests, and "Star Brand"
farming extracts.
Shimada & Co., Ltd., have an extensive
foreign connection, and their customers are
to be found in England, Australia, India, the
Malay Peninsula, China, and Russia. The
company was originally established in 1900,
with a capital of Yen 250,000, but this has
since been increased to Yen 500,000. Mr.
^•mm M
*
1
1 ■
1 ;
702
PRESENT-DAY I M 1' IM: S S I () N S O K J A I' A N
OFFICE PREMISES OF SHIMADA & CO., LIMITED
Rintaro Shimada is President of the com-
pany and the other Directors are Messrs. Sei-
zaburo Yoshitomi, Kiichi Yoshitomi, Manjiro
Orihara, and Tadawo Sonoda. The com-
pany employs a staff of about fifty hands.
THE EAST INDIES TRADING COMPANY
This company, known in Japanese as the
To-indo Boyeki Kabushiki Kaisha, is, as its
name implies, engaged in all classes of trade
with the East Indies, and controls a very
large business of a varied nature. The
company took over the entire interests of
the East Indies Trading Company, Limited,
some time ago, and at once enlarged the
capital to Yen 500,000, and extended the
operations of the old concern. The com-
pany's head office is at No. 55 Hamadori,
Dojima, Kita-ku, Osaka, and among the
various interests controlled are the trans-
action of insurance on buildings and the
export of cargoes for well-known manu-
facturing concerns. Sole agencies are held
for the Imperial Marine, Fire, and Transport
In.surance Co., Ltd., and for the Asahi Glass
Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Connections of
the East Indies Trading Company have been
formed in Java at Semarang, Cheribon,
Bandoeng, Garoet, Blora, Solo, and Djocdja;
in Borneo at Jesselton, Bandjermassin and
Pontianak; in the Celebes at Macassar,
Menado; in Sumatra at Padang and
Medan; in the Straits Settlements at Singa-
pore and Penang, and at Kuala Lumpur.
The company exports monthly about 600
tons of goods, valued at about Yen 200,000,
the principal articles of trade being cotton
yam, cotton piece goods, metal wares, porce-
lain, paper, cement, glassware, and rubber
goods.
The principal officers of the company are:
President, Mr. T. Hamazaki; Directors
Messrs. B. Ashimori, A. Watanabe, and
S. Sakagami; Manager, Mr. I. Kitoh;
Auditors, Messrs. H. Mori and M. Iwao;
Advisers, Messrs. M. Doi and T. Takakura.
The President, Mr. T. Hamazaki, is also
President of the Southern India Rubber
Cultivation Co., Ltd., and several other
industrial enterprises. The other principal
officials are members of the. Osaka Chamber
of Commerce, or of the Municipal Assembly.
Further, Mr. M Doi, who is the President
of the Osaka Chamber of Commerce, and
Mr. T. Takakiu-a, who is President of the
Kitahama Bank, who are acting as advisers
to the East Indies Trading Company, are
both noted for their wide commercial in-
fluence and their business acumen. The
present paid-up capital of the company is
Yen 125,000, and the profitable nature of
the operations may be gauged from the
fact that the dividend paid for the period
ended June 30, 191 7, was 20 per csnt, despite
the fact that this covered only four months'
operations. -
Prior to March, 191 7, when the trade with
the South Seas was opened, the export of
articles to the East Indies had been very
brisk, and as a result cargoes were accumu-
lated there. At this juncture the question
of the black list arose, and Japan's trade
with the East Indies was in a state of in-
decision for some time. The condition of
affairs in this field underwent a change
however, in March, and a brighter period
dawned. The company's Manager made a
tour of the East Indies, and investigated the
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
703
it.
THE OSAKA OFFICE STAFF OF THE EAST INDIES TRADIN'G COMPANY
situation thoroughly. A new field of trad-
ing operations was opened, and since then
the company has received such a press of
orders that it has had to deplore the lack
of cargo space available. Nevertheless, the
East Indies Trading Company established
another branch at Batavia, in addition to
the base of operations at Sourabaya, and is
now trading w'ith Singapore and Sumatra.
The import of rubber from these latter cen-
tres was started, and this means a large
future development. The Managing Direc-
tor of the company has made a personal
tour throughout the territory covered by
the operations, and as a consequence of his
report on the bright outlook it is anticipated,
at the time of writing, that the company will
make a further issue of capital stock in order
to extend its influence. At the head office
of the East Indies Trading Company a staff
of eighteen clerks is engaged. In the des-
patch office at Sourabaya there are ten
employees, and three are engaged in the new
branch at Batavia. Godowns are main-
tained at Osaka and Kobe, and cover an
area of 135 liiiha.
NIPPON TR.\DING SOCIETY, LIMITED
This concern was established in rgo8, and
originally dealt in cotton, cotton yarn, cotton
piece goods, metals, wool, and chemicals,
but an alteration in its internal organisation
was made, and at present the concern
principally handles camphor, rice, cotton,
cotton yarn, cotton piece goods, and wool.
The company enjoys a very large trade in
camphor for military and industrial purposes,
and the export of this commodity reached a
value of Yen 2,600,000 in 1916. Next in
demand among the lines handled by the
company is rice, both export and import,
the quantity dealt in being very large.
Trading in cotton is notoriously risky, owing
to the violent fluctuations in price, but The
Nippon Trading Society, Limited, handles
annually about 10,000,000 yen worth, and
its experience and skilfulness in the transac-
tions has led to regular profits. Generally,
American, Indian, Korean, and Chinese
cotton is imported, with some quantity of
Egyptian, and the company now has before
it a plan to cultivate some portion of its
OSAKA PREMISES OF NIPPON SHOGYO KAISHA (THE NIPPON TRADING SOCIETY, LTD.)
704
PRESENT-DAY I M !' K !•: S S I () N S OF JAPAN
requirements in Korea. In cotton piece
goods, too, which are also subject to serious
market changes and to involve traders in
loss, this company is making regular profits
by close attention to the trade.
The Nippon Trading Society, Limited, has
agencies at London, New York, Hankow,
Shanghai, Hongkong, Dairen, Tsingtao,
Chefoo, and Tientsin, and is now extending
its sphere of operations to Manila and India.
Not only ordinary cotton yam and piece
goods, but silks, drill, jeans, printings, etc.,
are also dealt in. The company handles
to a considerable extent Australian, African,
American, and Chinese wool, woollen yarn,
waste, woollen cloth, etc., and the trade
is improving despite the great difficulties
induced by the war, in the way of obtaining
supplies from some of the foreign sources.
The head office of The Nippon Trading
Society, Limited, is at No. 3 Suyeyoshibashi-
dori, 2-chome, Minami-ku, Osaka.
TATA, SONS & CO.
An interesting phase of the development
of the present large volume of trade between
India and Japan is found in the history of
the well-known firm of Messrs. Tata, Sons
& Co., the prominent Indian merchants of
whose business Sir Dorab J. Tata, Sir Ratan
J. Tata, and Mr. R. D. Tata, are the princi-
pals. The head office of the firm is at
Bombay, India, where a large business has
been built up over a long period of pro-
gressive enterprise. The Japan branch office
of the firm was opened at Kob6 in 1892,
with the object of promoting the trade
between Japan and India, particularly in
the direction of importing Indian cotton to
supply the cotton spinning mills in Japan,
then just coming into prominence. At this
stage of Japan's industrial development only
a limited quantity of cotton was imported,
and practically the entire supply, small as
it was, came from China. The late Mr.
J. N. Tata took a personal interest in the
development of his firm's business in Japan,
and worked assiduously to introduce Indian
cotton to the promising market of this
country. Close attention was given to the
cotton business and once the quality of
Indian cotton was seen, a steady increase
in its importation took place. The late
Mr. Tata was instrumental in bringing about
a combine of the Japan Cotton Spinners'
Association and the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, for
an exclusive transportation of Indian cotton to
Japan, and under this arrangement it was
agreed that no Indian cotton imported by
those outside the combine could be used in
the Japanese mills. This move proved more
than a success, justifying the most sanguine
STAFF OF THE OSAKA BRANCH OF T.\TA, SONS & CO.
expectations of its effect upon the Indian
cotton trade, and the nucleus of the highly
important services of the Nippon Yusen
Kaisha between India and Japan was laid
in 1895. To-day the N. Y. K., and the
conference liners are transporting nearly
1,800,000 bales of Indian cotton per annum.
Subsequently steps were taken for the
importation of Egyptian and American
cotton, and this also proved a success.
Messrs. Tata, Sons & Co. therefore have the
credit of being the pioneers in the develop-
ment of more than one source of supply,
other than China, for the cotton trade of
Japan.
The firm was also equally interested in
the exports of coal, copper, camphor, and
matches at the time of the combine, but
lately Messrs. Tata & Sons have confined
their export operations to Japanese cotton
yarns, piece goods, and sundries, which are
shipped in large quantities to China and
India. In 1912 the Japan head office of
the firm was removed from Kobe to the
commercially more important centre of
Osaka, from whence a general import and
export business is now being done, chiefly
in the lines mentioned above, including rice.
Messrs. Tata, Sons & Co. also transact an
extensive commission business. The Osaka
office is located at No. 17, Kitahama San-
chome. The head office of the firm is at
Bombay, and important branch offices are
maintained at London, New York, Paris,
Lyons, Calcutta, Rangoon, Shanghai, Kobe,
and Tokyo.
The partners of this enterprising firm are
Sir Dorab J. Tata at Bombay, Sir Ratan J.
Tata, London, and Mr. R. D. Tata, Paris.
Mr. K. Yokoo is the General Manager for
Japan.
THE NANYO RUBBER PLANTATION CO.,
LIMITED
This company, known by its Japanese
title as the Nanyo Gomu Takoshoku Ka-
bushiki Kaisha. owns the Langsat Rubber
Estate in the Sultanate of Johore, Federated
Malay States. It was founded at Osaka in
May, 1916, with the object of carrying on a
rubber and coconut plantation, and similar
enterprises in the Malay States and the
South Sea Islands. The authorised capital
of the concern is Yen 2,000,000 of which
Yen 700,000 is fully paid up. The company's
estate at Tanjong Langsat, near Singapore,
covers 2,000 acres. Of this area the greater
part is already planted, and tapping has
started over 500 acres, the present output
of the estate being about 80,000 pounds of
rubber per annum. When the estate is
fully developed it will be a big producer
and a highly valuable property. The
principal officers of the Nanyo Rubber
Plantation Co., Ltd., are: Mr. K. Yokoo,
President; Messrs. M. Kita, Y. Ueda, M. P.,
T. Hamasaki, and R. Harada, Directors;
Messrs. T. Inouye, G. Takigama, and N.
Nomura, Auditors. The company's bankers
arc the Bank of Taiwan and the Mitsui
Bank. The head office of the concern is at
No. 59 Nakanoshima, Gochome, Osaka.
PRESnNT-DAY
IMPRESSIONS
OF JAPAN
705
TKADIXC, DI'PART.MENT, MITSlUilSHl
GOSHI KAISHA, OSAKA
Bkanciihs of the famous house of Mitsu-
bishi operate to a great extent as separate
enterprises, with a distinct profit and loss
account, as do branches of important Euro-
pean and American enterprises; hence these
details in addition to those supplied in the
Tokyo section of this volume.
The Trading Department disposes of the
products of the Osaka Metallurgical Works
to the following extent: gold, 2 tons; silver,
30 tons; electric-copper ingots, 20,000 tons,
and copper vitriol, 12,000 tons annually.
The annual sales include the products of
the Mitsuljishi Iron and Steel Foundry in
copper and brass goods, 100,000 tons of pig
iron and steel, and the machinery manu-
factured by the Kobe branch of the Mitsu-
bishi Shipbuilding Co.
This ollice also liolds the sole agency for
the Kyoto Kabushiki Kaisha (carbide), the
Nippon Tsussohiryo Kaisha (cement), and
the Daide Needle Co., whose products, in
addition to the above, they export through
the medium of the company's branches in
Europe, America, India, Australia, and the
Far East. The firm of Dalgety & Co., Ltd.,
of Melbourne, Australia, and Messrs. Leon
Ilayhoe, Ltd., of Johannesburg, South
Africa, are special agents of the Osaka
branch.
About half a million tons of coal for
factory use is sold through this branch
annually. Other lines handled are cereals,
fertilizers, cotton and cotton goods, drugs,
all kinds of oil, paper, and glass, etc.
The Trading Department is under the
management of Mr. Kyohei Kato, employ-
ing a staff of 66 clerks.
UANKINi; DEPARTMENT, MITSUBISHI
C.OSHI KAISHA, OSAKA
FURTHICR details of this bank, which is,
as the title suggests, but a department of
the Mitsubishi, and consequently one of the
soundest financial institutions in Japan, will
be found in the Tokyo section of this com-
pilation.
The Osaka branch is located in tlic same
building as the Mitsubishi Trading Depart-
ment, occupying the ground floor, and carries
a staff of 42 clerks, under the management
of Mr. Toeo Kato.
All departments of modern banking are
represented, the bank being fortunate in
first class agents in all parts of the world
where they have not as yet established
branches of their own. The capital of the
bank is Yen 15,000,000.
^'"-—m
OSAKA PRF.MISES OF MITSUBISHI GOSHI KAISHA, BANKING AND TRADING DEPARTMENT
•I *.
AX-,
GRAND STAND, NEGISHI IYOKOHAMA) RACE COURSE
XL. Sports and Recreations in Japan
Golf— Yachting— Rowing— Horse Racing— Dk am atics_ Music
THROUGHOUT the Far East, where-
ever the white man has settled,
with the growth of cities and towns
and the building up of vast commercial en-
terprises, a feature of life among the for-
eigners that has never been allowed to
rusticate, has been Sports and Recreations.
In the line of progression a small plot of
groimd and a hut have developed, in later
years, to a modem field and club house, and
if this is true of the Far East generally,
the country of Japan has been no exception
to the rule. Fifty years ago in Yokohama
sport in varied form was indulged in, but
it was not until the formation of the Yoko-
hama Cricket and Athletic Club that Sport
in its many branches was started on an ex-
tensive scale. A fine plot of grotmd was
acquired in what is now Yokohama Park,
and for many years cricket, baseball, foot-
ball, hockey, etc., were played in their
proper seasons, a fine club house afford-
ing excellent accommodation. In igio
the Japanese Government took away this
ground and the foreign community, in spite
of protest, was obliged to look for another
field. At Yaguchidai, in the hills about
fifteen minutes from the Bluff (the residential
quarter of foreigners), several acres were
purchased through subscription and trans-
formed into a large athletic field that would
be a credit to any city in the United States
or Europe. A fine club house of reinforced
concrete, with all modem conveniences, was
built, the club membership being over 250.
From May until October of each year,
cricket, baseball, and tennis matches are
held continuously diuing the week-ends,
followed in the autumn and winter by
Rugby and association football and hockey.
A feature of club sport throughout Japan is
the spirit permeating intertown and inter-
port contests in practically everj- branch of
sport, and matches are also held in baseball,
football, rowing, and hockey with Japanese
university and school teams. A similar
organisation exists in Kobe, the Kobe Row-
ing and Athletic Club and the Kobe Cricket
Club being the two important clubs of this
nature in the southem port. Yachting also
comes under the activities of the former as
well as tennis, though there is a distinctive
club for tennis, as in Yokohama and Kobe.
The Ladies' Lawn Tennis and Croquet
Club is situated in beautiful gardens, com-
monly termed the "Bluff Gardens," Yoko-
hama, and the Tokj'O Tennis Club is about
fifteen minutes from the station.
GOLF
Golf is a branch of sport that has a large
number of enthusiasts among foreigners in
Japan. At Yokohama there is a nine-hole
course in the hollow formed by the one-mile
track of the Nippon Race Club, and members
desiring to join the N. R. C. Golfing Asso-
ciation must first become members of the
Race Club. Kobe golfers journey to Rok-
kusan, an elevated resort some three hours
away, where a course of thirty-six holes is
played upon except during the winter months.
The course is one of great variety and beauty,
but owing to the difficulty of growing grass
at Rokkusan the "greens" are of dirt backed
by banks, and it takes the stranger some
time to become accustomed to this peculiarity
of an otherwise interesting course. During
the last four or five years a 36-hole course
has been built on the outskirts of Tokj'O,
called the Tokyo Golf Club, and this is
without doubt the best course in Japan,
with plenty of green fairway and variety of
interest. A small golf course is now in proc-
ess of construction near Miyanoshita that
promises to supply a long-felt want to golfers
visiting this resort.
Y.iCHTING
The Treaty Ports forming the overseas
centres of Japanese commerce w-ere naturally
on the seacoast, and, being selected for their
safe anchorages, it was but natural that
yachtsmen and their boating comrades made
the best use of the favourable conditions,
especiall)' those existing in Yokohama, w'here
a deep-water bay over one hundred square
miles in extent, with several charming inlets,
sheltered harbours, free from rocks (isolated
or in reefs), without treacherous shoals, and
P R E S E N T - n A V I M I' R !•: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
707
1. H. PRINCE NAEUHISA, KITA-SHIRAKAWA-NO-MIYA, ACCOMPANIED BY H. B. M. AMBASSADOR THE RT. HON. SIR CONVNGHAM
liREENE, O. C. M. G., K. C. B., ON THE NEGISHI RACE COURSE, MAY I6, I9IS
untroiibU'il by stn'orc tide races, currents, or
ocean swi'll, invited amateur wind-jarnmers
to establish and develoji one or more yachting
clubs. The present (1918) American Consul-
General is himself an enthusiastic devotee of
yachting, having been for several years
Commodore of the Yokohama Yacht Club,
in which capacity he commanded a composite
fleet of some twenty to thirty craft — from
the comfortable "cruisers" of 40 1. \v. 1.
and various rigs down to the less pretentious
but perhaps more exciting 'larks" and
dinghies. Throughout the summer months,
weekly or more frequent contests take place
in the different classes, while occasional
holiday cruises for the larger cabined craft
sweep a wider field, even into the "open"
and along the neighbouring Pacific inlets.
The Japanese can not understand these
eccentric foreigners, who seem to find genu-
ine enjoyment in dashing about in small
half-capsising boats. It seems inconceivable
that otherwise respectable and sane gentle-
men should deliberately do such uncom-
fortable and undignified things, and although
baseball, tennis, and other activities have
been adopted by Japanese college youths
and the like, so far all efforts to arouse or
create interest in yachting in the sons of
Japan have been unsuccessful. No Cup
Challenger or Defender has yet arisen in the
Far East, neither can expensive, luxurious,
speedy record-breaking pleasure craft be
constructed in this part of the world, but
Yokohama and Kobe have a good seasoning of
more or less amateur designers and builders,
who at times even venture to deviate from
the lines of yacht-building classics. Ample
scope for originality arises in the unfortunate
fact that a typhoon of almost annual occur-
rence takes serious toll of lighter pleasure
craft, and several new keels have, therefore,
to be laid for each sailing season.
ROWING
In the early seventies the Yokohama
Amateur Rowing Club was started on a small
scale. At the present time, with a member-
ship of over two hundred and a modest but
serviceable club house on the waterfront
next to the French Hatoba, the Y. A. R. C.
has contributed a great deal to healthy
exercise, particularly among the younger
generation. The club also serves as head-
quarters for the Yokohama Yacht Club as it
did in former years for the Mosquito Yacht
Club. Interport contests are held annually
with the K. R. and A. C, Kobe, which is a
similar organisation, on a slightly larger scale,
with a fine club house and tennis courts at
Mirume, not far from the port itself.
HORSE RACING
HoRSE racing was first started on May 2,
1862, under the auspices of the Yokohama
Race Club, but the present Nippon Race
Club course at Negishi was not granted to
the community until 1866, through the ef-
forts of Sir Harry Parkes, the first races being
run in 1867. The membership started with
ninety-two, and though affairs were con-
ducted in more or less haphazard manner for
the first few years, proper management later
made itself felt. The Japanese Government
took an interest in and assisted the club
7o8
P R F. S E X T - n A V
IMPRESSIONS O E
J A P A X
ill
^•^-f^^*
r»|^^>::
.W^J -^
;:s*«*-'
THE IXTERPORT GOLF TEAMS (KOBE AND YOKOHAMA) ON ROKKO MOUNT
with money contributions. Originally the
horses used for racing or gj'mkhana piu'poses
were hacks or service animals, but later
different classes were established and China
ponies for a while practically superseded the
Japanese pony. In 1878 the former name
was abandoned and the Nippon Race Club,
in its present form, was founded, Messrs.
J. J. Keswick, Kennedy, Kirkwood, and
General Saigo being the principal promoters.
With the building of a grand stand and stable
accommodations and the starting of licensed
Japanese riders, racing at Yokohama took a
huge stride forward, and in April, 1886, the
late Emperor Meiji attended in person.
Ever since, either the late Emperor, the
present Emperor (when Crown Prince), or,
as in recent years, an Imperial Representa-
tive, has attended the various meetings held
each spring and autumn, the "Emperor's
Cup" being a trophy regularly presented,
much valued, and keenly contested. The
year 1888 was a memorable one as it marked
the introduction of the Pari Mutuel in
Japan, which was responsible for placing
the club on a firm financial basis. Through
dissatisfaction in the class of ponies, Aus-
tralian horses were first imported in 1895,
but it was not until 1899 that this was con-
tinued successfully. Owing to abuses in
gambling, sweepstakes and lotteries were
abandoned in 1907, and w'ith the Nippon
Race Club at the zenith of its career it came
as a great shock in 1908 when the Baseiky-oku
(Horse Breeding Association) ordered the
total prohibition of the Pari Mutuel, and
this step, taking the main interest out of
racing in Japan (there being several Japanese
clubs at Kaw'asaki, Meguro, and Naruo),
threatened to be the death blow to any
further activities. Subsidies were received,
however, from the Baseikyoku, and in this
way racing has been held each spring and
autumn, but without the great interest that
marked the earlier periods when gambling
was permitted. During the last thirty years
the Nippon Race Club has done more than
any other in Japan to improve the breed of
the native horse. Within this period it has
taken no less than 475 Country Breds and
imported well over 500 Australians. To-day
visitors to a race meeting in Japan will find
horses running which are the progeny of
these imported animals, and the club may
well be proud of the result achieved.
DRAMATICS
There are several amateur dramatic
organisations among foreigners in Japan,
notably the Amateur Dramatic Clubs of
Yokohama, Tokyo, and Kobe, numerous
performances being given each year, particu-
larly at Yokohama and Tokj-o. As early
as 1 88 1 an Amateur Dramatic Association
was started in Yokohama, finally amalga-
mating with a similar society a few years
later. The activities of the present Amateur
Dramatic Club date from 1900, and during
the last eighteen j'ears this organisation
has given thirty-six productions, including
several musical comedies, comedies, farces,
etc. Notable among past productions pre-
sented at the Gaiety Theatre are "San Toy,"
"Les Cloches de Comeville," and "La
Mascotte," all musical pieces, while "Niobe,"
"Dandy Dick," "Beauty and the Barge,"
"Dr. Wake's Patient," three Barrie plays,
and "Mrs. Gorringe's Necklace" are but a
few of many successful plays that have been
given. The Alliance Frangaise, although a
society for the extension of the French
language, has given many dramatic per-
formances of the greatest merit, of which
the following may be mentioned: "Le Petit
Caf^," "Une Soiree chez MoUere," and
"Triplepatte." Outside the acti\'ities of
the various clubs, equally successful plays,
extravaganzas, musical revues, etc., some of
them original, have been presented bj' local
residents. Among the many amateur per-
formers mention should perhaps be made
of Mr. G. G. Brady, an actor of unusual
gifts, whose latest piece of work was the
leading role in "Kismet" in 191 7, the biggest
and most spectacular production of the
Tokyo Amateur Dramatic Club.
MUSIC
Music among the foreign communities
of Japan has held an important place in
social life, as is usually the case in all Far
Eastern cities, though it would seem that
keenness for the classical and appreciation of
music is relegated to a comparative few, the
Japanese themselves, among the better classes,
showing a greater desire for learning music
and giving expression to their knowledge on
instruments of the West. At Yokohama,
some fifteen years ago, the Beethoven Society
held numerous concerts of classical and cham-
ber music, and even before this time the
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
709
A KOBE MINSTRKL TROUPE, I916
Philharmonic and Choral Societies occupied
an important place in the community's
activities. Unfortunately their existence did
not cover many years, and though there
have been attempts to revive the interest
that previously existed, little or no success
has attended the efforts of a few enthusiasts.
At Yokohama numerous concerts are given
at which local talent contributes almost
entirely, and since 19 15 an amateur organisa-
tion, the Yokohama Orchestral vSociety,
assisted by Japanese professionals, has given
an annual orchestral concert with marked
success, and promises to be a permanent
institution. At Kobe there is a similar but
smaller organisation, the Kobe Amateur
Orchestra, that gives frequent and exceed-
ingly fine concerts. The Tokyo Choral
Society has an active membership, and in
recent years has given several oratorios
both at Yokohama and Tokyo.
iS
TOMB OF KIYOMORI, KOBE
XLI. Press and Periodical Literature
News in Old Japan— Introduction of Modern Journalism— Make-up and Content
OF Leading Japanese Newspapers— "The Japan Chronicle"
—"The Japan Advertiser"—" The Japan Gazette"
JAPAN is as well supplied with news-
papers and magazines to-day as any
country of the West. In the capital
more than fifty daily papers are published,
while the number printed daily throughout
the Empire is more than eight hundred, mth
some eighteen hundred weekly and monthly
periodicals, making a total of more than
twenty-seven hundred. Indeed, there is
scarcely a town of more than 10,000 inhabi-
tants in the country that is without its local
journal, and the larger provincial towns and
cities are all well supplied with journals in
proportion to the commercial interests of
the place. In addition there are daily and
weekly publications dealing with finance,
commerce, naval and military matters,
science, literature, or religion, to say nothing
of the numerous monthlies covering a variety
of themes. There are illustrated and comic
papers, and papers for women and children,
some of which maintain a high standard but
many of which are anything save edifying,
filled as they are with shameless scandal
and gossip.
On the whole it may be said that the
Japanese press has kept pace with the gen-
eral progress of the country. Up to the
time of the war with China the daily press
was anything but prosperous, its readers
confined to the more intelligent classes and
scarcely including any of the lower orders
of society; but with the spread of education
and the growing activity of social, industrial,
and commercial enterprise, and the interest
in public affairs generally, even the poorest
Japanese is to-day a regular reader of the
daily paper. Thus within the present genera-
tion the nvunber of newspapers has greatly
increased, and some of them have consider-
ably improved, certainly in the enterprise
they display in news-gathering if not in the
character and accuracy of their contents.
Journals that twenty-five years ago were
profitless ventures are to-day enjojung a
large and profitable circulation and exercis-
ing an influence quite as powerful as corre-
sponding dailies in Occidental cities. It is
a question whether the daily paper has not
even a greater influence in Japan than in
other countries, since it is the sole source of
knowledge and opinion for the vast majority
of the population. The Japanese possess a
natural instinct for journalism, both in their
love of gossip and their picturesque way of
putting things, and the services of the daily
journal are pushed to the utmost by all
connected with its issue. In politics and
international aff'airs the influence of the
daily press is singularly potent, and the
profession of journalism is not infrequently
the preliminary to a political career. It
attracts many of the best intellects, including
some university graduates and leading states-
men, though the pecuniary rewards are
meagre, even from a native point of view;
nor is the social status of the Japanese
journalist on a par with that of leading
European newspaper men. On arriving
in Japan many years ago the writer was
somewhat overcome by a request from a
prominent journal to supply a daily column
at the rate of four shillings an issue.
Naturally the Japanese press has elicited
the services of women, even in journals
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
711
devotid to politics as well as thoso treat-
ing of social matters.
NEWS IN OLD JAPAN
Though journalism in Japan is essentially
an institution of Occidental origin, the idea
of a medium for the circulation of news
existed in old Japan, as it did in Europe,
long before the invention of the printing
press and the rise of modern journalism.
Just as in the .sixteenth century the Venetian
Republic had its gazzela, or treasuries of
news, which were written by hand or printed
from engraven blocks of wood, so the Japa-
nese authorities of the Tokugawa period
found means of keeping officialdom informed
of the chief events of the Empire and the
desires and intentions of the administration
by using scribes and reporters. Thus the
earliest form of newspaper in Japan had as
aristocratic an origin as the gazettes of old
Venice. Manuscript letters of daily events
were even tolerated for private circulation
as well as for sale. When the first of the
Tokugawa shoguns, lyeyasu, fought against
Isliida Matsunari in the famous battle of
Sckigahara in iGoo, the progress of the con-
flict was reported daily to the capital of
the shogun at Yedo by a kind of news post.
During the feudal days most of the daimyo
kept an official reporter in the capital, whose
duty it was to keep his master posted as to
the chief events of the day, and these rusui-
yaku, as the feudal reporters were called,
arranged with the boz, or petty officials of
the shogun's court, to keep them informed
of the attendance or non-attendance of the
ministers of the cabinet, and all other matters
of significance transpiring from day to day.
This was done on manuscript, and, indeed,
the service was not unlike that of the press
bureaux to be found at the various capitals
of the world in modem times. A digest of
all official proceedings and all official instruc-
tions was put into manuscript form and
circulated among those entitled to such
news. Feudal lords often despatched special
news collectors to the shogun's capital to
gather in detail the happenings of the day,
somewhat after the manner of our present-
day special correspondents. Such was the
method adopted for ascertaining or circu-
lating official news. But for general and
popular news the Japanese had their gazzetas,
or kawaraban, small news sheets duplicated
for sale. These sheets were printed from a
tile, or kawara, in which the impression had
been dried. Various other devices for
printing the news came into use later.
Often the daily news sheet was struck oflf
from a wooden block, and there was another
block made from hardened paste, known as
the mochiban. The main items of news on
these popular sheets seem to have been
much the same as they still are in the cheap
daily press — fires, murders, love-suicides,
and all the more extraordinary occurrences
of society. When Commodore Perry's fleet
of "black ships" appeared in Yedo Bay in
1853, a news extra was issued informing the
pulilic of the unprecedented event. The
results of a great earthquake were circulated
in a similar manner. It was a great advance
in the progress of these early attempts at
journalism when the authorities allowed the
\l
1 ''' r
OFFICE OF THE "aSAHI" ("tHE SUN"), HIGOBASHI BRIDGE IN THE FOREGROUND
712
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
publication of unofficial news sheets. These
were known as yomiuri, which means literally,
"read and sell": and they were hawked
about the streets like the modem newspaper
extra, the seller reading portions of the news
aloud and then inducing hearers to buy a
copy. The contents were as terse as they
were concise, no attempt being made at remark
or criticism — a mere statement of facts only,
without introduction or inference. Indeed,
these primitive sheets were as unlike "The
Spectator" and "The Tattler" as feuda
Japan was unlike constitutional England
INTRODUCTION OF iMODERN
JOURNALISM
It was not until the year 1861 that any-
thing at all resembling the form of a modern
newspaper appeared in Japan. Such was
the Batavia Shimbtin, so called because it
consisted mainly of translations from Dutch
papers published in Batavia. There was
also a sheet called the Chugai Shimbtin.
Both of these ventures, however, appeared
only at intervals and were more like a weekly
or monthly than a daily paper. Japanese
journalism in the more real sense of the word
may be said to date from 1864, when a
Japanese named Hikozo, who had been cast
ashore on the American coast, returned and
issued a news sheet at Yokohama, and though
this news letter improved in collaboration
with an assistant named Kisida Ginko, it
soon ceased to appear. This publication,
however, was printed on Japanese paper and
had ten pages, being issued tri-monthly, and
it paved the way for a more practical
enterprise in the same direction. In 1867
Fukuchi Genichiro started a newspaper
called the Koko SInmbun, which was followed
by the Banshoku Shimbun and others, all
printed from wooden blocks on native paper
and coming out two or three times a week.
The new Government, anxious to justify
itself in the eyes of the samurai, who con-
stituted a powerful political factor in those
days, began the regular pubUcation of a
gazette, called the Daijokwan Nishi, or
Daily Record of the Council of State, which
was printed in a language too dignified for
comprehension by the common people. This
publication still continues in the form of the
Official Gazette, which contains not only every-
thing that appears in the paper of the same
name in England, but also verbatim reports
of parliamentary proceedings and full details
of government measures and actions. In
1868 the Koho Shimbun took the side of the
shogun and engaged in a spirited campaign
against the Imperiahsts, when Fukuchi was
arrested and brought to trial, from which
he extricated himself with good grace and
was acquitted; but the new Government
after this ordered the suppression of all new's-
papers, and journalism was at one stroke
wiped off the face of the Empire.
The Government alone now had authority
to issue news. The first newspaper under
such auspices was started by Kido, the great
statesman of the Restoration, in 1871, called
the Shimbun Zasshi, or News Journal, in
which was printed everything thought proper
by the officials. It gave an account of a
journey made by the Emperor through the
streets of the capital, impressing the sim-
plicity of the Imperial entourage in compari-
son with the imposing grandeur of that of
the shogun and its inconvenience to the
people. In 1869 a memorial was presented
to the Government by Hosokawa Junjiro,
later Marquis Hosokawa and Imperial
Chamberlain, pointing out the importance
of the press as a factor in the life of all
progressive nations, and explaining the ways
of journalism abroad. This had the desired
effect. In a few months the ban against
unof^cial newspapers was withdrawn and
their publication freely encouraged. There-
upon appeared the first bona fide daily news-
paper in Japan, the Mainichi Shimbun,
still one of the leading dailies of the Empire.
In quick succession followed the Nichinichi
and the Hochi. The true journalist is an
artist as really as the poet or the painter,
and is devoted to his art with a passion that
neither ill-luck nor money can sway; and
this is seen to be as true in Japan as else-
where, for the names connected with the
new dailies of Tokyo were the same that
made the earliest ventures in journalism,
Fukuchi and Dempei of the suppressed Koko
Shimbun. Both the new dailies were issued
with the encouragement of the Government,
and were followed by others in Tokyo, which
were established not only with the advice
and assistance of officials, but with capital
provided by prominent members of the
Government. None of these early pajiers
entered upon political discussion, nor tried
to exercise any political influence. They
were mere disseminators of news, sometimes
of rather a crude type, and they only ap-
proached politics sufficiently to publish now
and then an appeal or memorial to the
Government, addressed by men of impor-
tance, urging certain reforms. Such memo-
rials were always published without com-
ment of any kind.
A radical departure from this policy was
begun by a Scotchman named John Black
who established a newspaper called the
Nishin Shinjishi in Tokj^o. He already con-
ducted an English journal in Yokohama, but
foreseeing the possibilities of vernacular
journalism he started the new venture in the
capital with the assistance of competent
native scholars. Being a British subject
he enjoyed extraterritorial protection and
felt free to carry on his paper just as it
would be done in London. The journal
was soon seen to be sujierior in all its features
to the badly edited native sheets, containing
as it did, not only all the news but critical
leading articles that arrested the attention
of the public. The office of the Nishin
Shinjishi, or Reliable Daily News, became a
recruiting ground for daily journals wanting
competent newspaper men, and soon the
same policy was adopted by the leading
vernacular dailies of the capital. Thus the
Scotchman, John Black, had an influence
on Japanese journalism that has really been
the cause of its present progress. About
this time came into existence the Yomiuri
and the Choya and the Chugai. The great-
est Japanese newspapers had already been
bom, but journals of equal integrity and
influence were still to appear. Up to this
time party journalism did not exist. But
between 1870 and 1880 there had been a
tremendous development of public spirit
and of interest in political affairs. Many
of the large numbers of students sent abroad
for education were now returning saturated
with foreign ideas of constitutionalism and
freedom, determined to make Japan like
Europe and America. They engaged In the
impossible task of trying to bring about in
Japan, in the space of a few years, what it
had taken centuries to accomplish in Europe.
These agitators found the press their chief
organ of propaganda, and so aggressive did
the papers become that the Government was
obliged to issue stringent regulations to
curb the growing license. It was, however,
difficult to control the vernacular press while
the journal carried on by the Scotchman
was free under the laws of extraterritoriality,
and consequently the authorities descended
to a ruse to get rid of Blaclst He was offered
a tempting position as secretary to a parlia-
ment that did not exist as yet, and after he
had accepted it, the British Minister was
prevailed on to issue an Order in Council
forbidding British subjects to engage in
vernacular journalism, and then the Govern-
ment quietly dispensed with the services of
Black, his occupation now gone. A new law
was promulgated in 1875 rigidly circimi-
scribing the liberty of the press, violations
of which were punishable by fine imposed
on the editor and the writer and by suspension
of the journal itself. The editors at first did
not believe the Government w-ould enforce
the law, but they soon learned their mistake
when leading editors were promptly arrested
and sentenced to terms of imprisonment for
unfavourable criticism of the Government.
Between 1875 and 1877 there was almost a
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
713
constant procession of editors and journalists
to prison. Prevented from sjieaking out
freely, journalists now resorted to irony and
allegory and the authorities were greatly
put to it to know how to deal with writings
the interpretation of which was ambiguous.
The daily papers now also resorted to the
device of having dummy editors to go to
prison in place of the real editor who could
not be spared, a custom still retained in
Jajian. Some of these vicarious victims
received a higher salary than the editor
himself, as it was not a popular profession.
The authorities began to learn, too, the habit
of buying up newspapers as the easiest way
to control them.
With the rise of party politics and govern-
ment journals, came in a new press regime
and a new class of journalist. The journal-
istic camp became divided into what were
called the greater and lesser journals, the
former being devoted mainly to the dis-
cussion of politics, for or against the Govern-
ment, and the latter independent and popular,
with a very wide influence. The 0-shimhun,
or greater journals, had few readers because
they not only discussed abstruse political
theories, but they were printed in Chinese
ideographs which most of the common
people could not read. Among the more
important of them were the Tokyo Mainichi,
the Tokyo Nichinichi, and the Hochi. The
Ko-shimhnn, on the other hand, uieAfurigana
type to explain the ideographs, and printed
stories and fiction for the masses, as well as
woodcuts and spicy news items that appealed
to the every-day man. The leaders in this
new journalism were the Yomiuri and the
Miyako. Each class of journal in time began
to imitate the other, and this blending
resulted in greatly improving Japanese
journalism. Some of the leading scholars,
politicians, and publicists of the day began
to connect themselves with daily papers.
The leading joiunals of Tokyo began to
vie with one another in imitating foreign
papers like those of London and New York.
Men such as the late Mr. Fukuzawa, founder
of the Keiogijuku University, established the
Jiji Shimpo in 1882, which has ever since
been regarded as the greatest paper in Japan.
Many of the members of the Government
were now men who had suffered fine and
imprisonment in connection with journalism,
and knew how to sympathise with the press.
Press laws became more liberal and humane.
At present the press enjoys the same liberty
in Japan as in England, and unfortunately
it too often takes advantage of this to indulge
in the tactics of the yellow journalism of
the West. It was not until after the war
with China that the vernacular press of
Japan began to take much interest in foreign
affairs, and now the influence of vernacular
journalism on international affairs is very
great. Sometimes, it is true, this influence
is pernicious and seemingly wilful in deception
of the public for partisan or national reasons,
but usually it is potent in the right direction.
Special correspondents are maintained at
the leading capitals of the world, and com-
munications from them appear regularly in
the great dailies of the Empire. The larger
news associations have their agents in Japan,
who send and receive news from every part
of the world. The Kokusai News Agency
is a Japanese organisation which controls
most of the news leaving Japan, having
been especially organised for that purpose.
Japanese business men have learned the
value of advertising and the income from
that source is naturally the largest revenue
of the daily journal. The rates are much
higher than those prevailing in Occidental
countries, while the price of the papers is
much less, being usually about one sen to
two and a half. Extras are issued in case
of special news. The papers are printed
so as to appeal to the widest circle of readers,
the ideographs being accompanied by sylla-
bary interlineation rendering them easily
intelligible to the most unlearned of readers.
The common items of news are written in
the colloquial as far as possible, the classic
written language being reserved for the lead-
ing articles, or for philosophic or technical
subjects.
MAKE-UP AND CONTENT OF LEADING
JAPANESE JOURNALS
The modem Japanese daily paper is pro-
duced on a revolving press much after the
manner of the great metropolitan papers
abroad. Only in the more remote towns do
we notice now and then a news sheet struck
off from the old-time hand press. The
progress in this direction has been quite
remarkable, especially when it is remembered
that the first rotary press was imported by
the Government Printing Bureau only in
1890, and the first paper printed in this way
was the Official Gazette. The Tokyo A said
and the Jiji Shimpo were the next to install
rotary presses, and soon all the leading
journals adopted such machines. A great
drawback is the absence of any invention
in the way of a linotj'pe machine, which is
hardly possible on account of the numerous
ideographs. Illustration is a prominent
feature of the modem Japanese journalism,
woodcuts having mostly given way to
photographs, though there are still plenty
of sketches in caricature and burlesque.
The content of the Japanese daily is racy
of the native soil. Feature journaUsm is
practiced to an extent unknown elsewhere.
All the 'i'okyo dailies publish two serial
stories, one of present-day life and one of
old Japan. Some morning dailies subor-
dinate news and opinions to such features
as a ladies' page, or children's page, or chats
with readers, a magazine page, and so on.
The editorial views usually reflect the insta-
bility of public opinion. For security regard-
ing its opinions every Japanese newspaper
has to deposit with the Government a siffh
ranging from £200 downwards, according to
the size of the journal and the frequency of
its publication, the authorities drawing from
this fund whenever penalties are imposed.
Suppressions are frequent, there being 453
cases in 19 14, many of which related to
news of military and diplomatic affairs.
Some of the causes of fine or suppression are
ridiculous, such as printing a cut of foreign
nude statuary, or touching upon law cases
under examination. The dailies are delivered
at the door every morning by boys, running
with bells at their girdles.
The leading Tokyo dailies are the Asahi,
the Jiji, and the Nichinichi, which in English
would be The Sun, The Day's Events, and
Day by Day. These journals are larger
and sell at a higher price than the others, and
have their regular correspondents in London,
New York, and Petrograd. They devote
careful attention to foreign affairs and
exercise a far-reaching influence on public
opinion, being equal to the penny morning
papers of London. Taking them separately,
the Asahi is generally regarded as the greatest
paper in Japan, though the Jiji runs a close
second. It has the best cable service, lives
on its merits without resort to sensational
devices, and employs an erudite and cultured
staff of writers. The Jiji is noted for the
accuracy of its commercial and financial news
as well as for the ability and liberalism of its
leading articles. This paper has more pages
than any other Tokj'o daily and it has a
very large circulation, being regarded as
a clean family paper. The Nichinichi is a
solid, well-informed journal without any
distinctive features. It devotes its first page
to advertisements, the second to foreign
telegrams, three to leading articles, court
and political news, four to what it regards as
the serious news of the day, speeches and so
on, five to things notorious such as crimes,
catastrophes, and sensations. Pages six and
seven are given to serial stories, literary
articles, and dramatic criticisms, while page
eight contains many columns of financial and
stock exchange intelligence. There are no
sporting pages, though this paper devotes
space to reporting baseball games and
Japanese chess. The next most important
of the metropolitan dailies is, perhaps, the
Kokumin, or Nation, the distinguished editor
714
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
of which is Mr. Tokutomi, also a famous
novelist and member of the House of Peers.
The editor is the proprietor of the paper and
in its columns he wields a strenuous pen,
noted for its ardent nationalism appealing to
the youth of the Empire. Apart from the
editorial writings there is little of interest in
the Kokumin, popular appeal consisting of
exploitations of crime or baby contests.
Prizes are offered to those bringing to light
miscarriages of justice. Numerous editions
of the paper are printed and localised in the
provinces. The Yomiuri is distinctly a home
paper to which there is no exact parallel in
other countries. It is a literary newspaper
that appeals to women, and enjoys consider-
able popularity among students. While
giving the ordinary news of the day, home
and foreign, the paper leaves on one the im-
pression that news is only a disagreeable
necessity; and as soon as this can be got rid
of, the main attention is devoted to the
Woman's Page, the Literary Page, the Page
for Children, and the Literary Section.
There are Household Hints and articles for
young ladies, and a personal consultation
column, with stories such as are found in
foreign magazines. The Yomiuri is really a
daily magazine with an epitome of the news.
The HocJti, or Post, is a paper for the masses.
Its editor and proprietor, Mr. Zenhachi Miki,
is the W. R. Hearst of Japan. There are no
evening papers in Tokyo, but the Hochi pub-
lishes an evening edition, the four pages of
each edition being sold for a farthing, dupli-
cation being carefully avoided in the two
editions. The morning edition is devoted
chiefly to telegrams and the news of the day,
while the evening edition deals with late
cables and attempts to entertain the weary
business man with tales ancient and modem.
The Hochi is a party paper and now supports
the Kenseikai. The Yorozu Cholio, or Ten
Thousand Things, is a bright and well-made-
up paper dealing with all manner of subjects,
making a feature of competitions, the latter
mostly of a literary nature. The evening
edition has short comments instead of lead-
ing articles, and gives a valuable and concise
summary of the news. The Yainato, which
is rather a sensational sheet, publishes two
editions daily, and is mostly popular among
the lower classes. This paper makes a
feature of attacking foreign countries and
publishing shady geisha stories, giving the
names of real persons who have lost their
hearts to the fair dancers. Two other small
papers, the Miyako (Capital) and the
Maiyu (Every Evening), also devote much
space to the doings of the demimonde. Such
papers are used for advertising pleasure
resorts and theatres. The Chugai is a com-
mercial and economic journal which enjoys
a large circulation, while the Chuo is an organ
of the Seiyukai party. Other Tokyo dailies
are the Nippon and the Sekai which have no
very great influence. Osaka has some daily
journals equal to anything in Tokj^o, such as
the Osaka Asahi, the Osaka Mainichi, the
Osaka Nichinicht, which command a powerful
influence and clientele. Other Osaka papers
are the Osaka Jiji, the Osaka Nippo, and the
Osaka Shimpo.
A further feature of Japanese journalism is
the number of papers published by foreigners
in English, some of which date their establish-
ment before many of the leading vernacular
dailies. The circulation of papers printed in
English is necessarily limited and the prices
correspondingly high. The oldest foreign
journal is the Japan Mail, founded by the
late Captain Brinkley and edited by him for
more than 40 years; but since his death it
has descended to comparative insignificance.
The most important foreign daily now is the
Japan Chronicle, published in Kobe, Mr.
Robert Young being the editor and propri-
etor. Its leading articles are well written
and its attitude one of frank criticism. The
Japan Gazette, published in Yokohama, is
now the only English journal in Japan's
greatest port, while the Japan Advertiser,
published in Tokyo, by an American, Mr.
B. W. Fleisher, is the most modem foreign
paper in Japan. The Japan Times, also
published in Tokyo, is the only foreign paper
under Japanese auspices, the editor being
Mr. I. Takahashi and the management under
the International News Agency. The Kobe
Herald is a small paper and so is the Nagasaki
Press, while another paper in English is
published in Seoul by the Japanese, called
the Seoul Press. It may be said that most
of these foreign dailies are well edited and
conducted, and that, considering the high
cost of cable despatches, they peek their
readers fairly well informed in relation to
the outside world.
The publication of magazines, reviews, and
periodicals devoted to special subjects has
developed even to a greater degree than that
of daily newspapers, and there is scarcely
one department of scientific, industrial, com-
mercial, political, or social life that has not
an organ to represent it. The most promi-
nent of the weeklies and monthlies are de-
voted to commerce, finance, and politics,
followed by literature, art, medicine, army,
navy, education, religion, and the world of
woman. It is remarkable the number of
women's magazines that find support, and
most of them are high class, the product of
educated brains, and admirably illustrated
with photographs, lithographs, and colotypes
done in artistic style. The most prominent
financial organ is the Kezai Zasshi, or
"Economist," while the Taiyo, or "Sun,"
is one of the best of the monthly reviews,
corresponding to the "Fortnightly" or the
"Contemporary" in England. The Chuo
Choron, or "Central Review," deals with
general subjects and is a popular exponent
of public opinion of a radical trend. The
Shin Nippon, or "New Japan," is Marquis
Okuma's review and deals in a trenchant
manner with political questions and general
affairs, while the Nippon Oyobi Nipponjin
is a powerful political and literary fort-
nightly. The "Far East," is a weekly
published under foreign auspices in English,
as is the "New East," which is pubHshed
monthly, reviewing Oriental and Occidental
thought. The "Herald of Asia" is a weekly
in English under Japanese control, and the
"Japan Magazine," another monthly in
English under Japanese auspices, treating of
things Japanese. The most famous comic
publication is "Tokyo Puck," which is on
the whole rather a vulgar sheet. The police
entrusted with the inspection of periodicals
have an enormous task in dealing with the
hundreds of publications that see the light
from month to month. Those publishing
dangerous thoughts have to be duly warned
and if they persist they are promptly sup-
pressed.
"the j.\pan chronicle"
The Japan Chronicle, a morning journal
published at Kob^, was established in 1891.
Mr. Robert Young, the founder of the paper,
came out to Japan in 1888 to join the Hyogo
News, a journal established in 1868, when
the port of Kobe-Hyogo was opened to
foreign trade. He severed his connection
with this journal and started the Japan
Chronicle in October, 1891. This was the
month in which the great earthquake took
place in the neighbourhood of Gifu, when
some ten thousand lives were lost. The care
and promptitude with which the particulars
of this terrible calamity were reported did
much to give the new journal a standing
among its contemporaries. A few years
later — in 1894 — the war with China broke
out, and the Chronicle obtained further repu-
tation for the extent and accuracy of its war
news. It was the Chronicle that gave the
first intimation of the impending Japanese
attack on Formosa — news that was ridiculed
at the time, as it was thought the Japanese
would confine their operations to the north,
but news which was found in due course to
be based on accurate information. In 1898
the Hyogo News came into the market, and
was purchased by Mr. Young, when it was
converted into an afternoon journal. A few
months later a fire destroyed the office of
the Hyogo News, and it was then decided to
PRESENT-DAY I M I> I< E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
715
THE JAPAN CHRONICLE BUILDING, KOBE
incorporate the two papers. Hitherto the
new journal had been known as the Kobe
Chronicle, but shortly after the incorporation
the name was changed to the Japan Chronicle,
to indicate that it covered a wider field than
a mere local journal. Since then it has en-
joyed continued prosperity.
When the Chronicle was started extra-
territoriality still prevailed in Japan. The
Chronicle urged that as Japan had shown
such great progress in the Westernisation of
her institutions it was only just that extra-
territoriality should be surrendered, and that
foreigners should be brought under Japanese
law but with the necessary safeguards both
as regarded the administration of the law and
the protection of the interests already set up.
In 1894 the revised Anglo- Japanese Treaty
was signed, under which consular jurisdiction
was to be abandoned after five years. Un-
fortunately the new treaty, while it protected
the property in the foreign settlements from
heavier taxation than that already paid,
contained no safeguards as regards the ad-
ministration of the law or the improvement
of the prisons, the latter a matter of much
importance as the criminal law is very wide
in Japan and bail extremely difficult to
obtain. The Chronicle drew attention to
these defects, with the result that a memorial
was drawn up and presented to the British
Foreign Office setting forth the position,
which, though it had no diplomatic result,
had influence in indicating to the Japanese
authorities the necessity of tact and caution
in the transition years, while impelling the
British Government to keep a watchful eye
on the efTect of the changes. It was as the
result of articles in the Chronicle pointing
out that the imposition of a house-tax on
settlement property was an infraction of the
new treaties that the question was taken up
by the Governments concerned and ultimately
submitted for decision to The Hague, which
upheld the view originally advocated by
the Chronicle, that the so-called rents paid
on the properties concerned were really in
the nature of a commuted tax.
Throughout its career the Chronicle has
taken its stand as a representative of the
foreign community as a whole rather than of
any particular nationality, holding that in
Japan the interests of foreigners were in the
main identical; and when a few years ago a
decision in a libel suit was given against the
Chronicle in a case where the Chronicle had
been defending foreigners from the aspersions
of a foreign official, afterwards removed by
Iiis Government, the foreign community,
irrespective of nationality, subscribed a fund
sufficient to indemnify the paper against the
damages and costs.
Established at a time when Japan was
not the powerful nation recognised to-day,
and beginning as an advocate of an act of
justice to Japan in the matter of the sur-
render of extraterritoriality, the Chronicle has
become more critical as time has shown Japan
to be inclined to use her strength for the
extension of her political power instead of
developing her own resources and improving
the condition of her people, but, if its criti-
cisms are somewhat sharp, it endeavours to
be fair and just, and has not hesitated to
support Japan's legitimate claims in foreign
affairs, while the domestic reforms it has
advocated have been as much in the interests
of the Japanese people as of foreign residents.
"the japan advertiser"
The Japan Advertiser has been established
about a quarter of a century, but its greatest
progress has been made in the past ten years
since it came under the proprietorship and
management of Mr. B. W. Fleisher. It was
originally published in Yokohama, but under
its present management was moved to To-
k-j'o, where it occupies a commodious build-
ing, centrally located, and well installed for
newspaper production.
The Advertiser not unjustifiably claims to
be the leading and most influential foreign
paper published in Japan, and compares
more than favourably with any foreign daily
published in the Far East. Members of the
paper's foreign staff are all trained journalists
from abroad, and their high qualifications
are reflected in the excellent news service
which the Advertiser furnishes, and the
general vigour of the journal. The organisa-
tion represents the most up-to-date journal-
ism in the Far East, and the prestige of the
paper is heightened by the fact that the
members of the staff are also correspondents
of newspapers or press associations abroad.
'i6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The mechanical side of the Ailvcrliser is as
noteworthy as its Hterary quality. There
is no better printed newspaper in Japan, nor,
in fact, outside of the great newspaper centres
of the world.
The Japan Advertiser is about to publish
a financial and economic monthly covering
the whole of the Far East. Offices will be
established in Tokyo, Yokohama, Peking,
Shanghai, Manila and elsewhere, and there
will be representatives and correspondents
in other parts of the Orient. The head
office of the Advertiser is at No. iS, Yamas-
hita-cho, Tokyo.
"the japan gazette"
The Japan Gazette is the only foreign news-
paper W'ith its headquarters at Yokohama.
Its historj' goes back to October, 1867,
when the paper was started by the late
Mr. J. R. Black, one of the pioneer
foreign journalists of Japan. Mr. Black
had previously been editor of the old
Herald. The story of Mr. Black's diffi-
culties in getting his paper started would
form an interesting chapter of the history
of journalism abroad. There was then
only one newspaper press in town, and
this was secured by the Herald. Con-
sequently Mr. Black had to make shift to
get the Gazette printed. A fellow Scotsman
made a press for him. It took three men
to work it, but it did work, and for some
time the Gazette was printed on this machine
until a real press could be obtained from
China.
The Japan Gazette early established itself
in popularity with the commercial community
of Yokohama, it being the first evening paj^er
to publish daily shipping and market returns.
Its career has since been one of steady prog-
ress, and to-day it holds a firm place in the
estimation of the entire foreign community
of Yokohama. At various times the pro-
prietors have produced historical and other
publications of special interest. Associated
with the Gazette are also the "Japan Di-
rectory," a highly useful trade publication,
and "Commercial Japan," a monthly review
of trade, industries, and economics. Mr. L. D.
Adam is the Editor of the Gazette, Mr. A. W.
Sherriff being in charge of the mechanical
and business departments. The paper is pub-
lished at No. 10 Water Street, Yokohama.
XLII. Shipping
(Osaka and Kob6 Section*)
SHIPBUILDING
KAWASAKI DOCKYARD COMPANY,
LIMITED
THE student of the industrial and man-
ufacturing development of modern
Japan can not fail to be impressed
with the energj' and force, the courage and
enterprise, business capacity and organisation,
which have built up in the Empire such huge
concerns as the Kawasaki Dockyard Com-
pany, Limited. This is no phenomenon of war
times, but is the growth of many years,
during which a steady policy of expansion,
directed by the most capable business brains
of Japan, has been followed with a clear idea
in view to establish and maintain an industry
giving to the Empire a measure of economic
independence that can not be assessed even
in millions. The Kawasaki Works is some-
thing of which any country might well be
proud, as it is indeed something imrivalled
even in these days of business organisation,
except perhaps in the oldest shipbuilding
centres of Europe. And as a matter of fact,
the Kawasaki Company goes far beyond
many of the greatest shipbuilding concerns
of the Occident, because, though its first
and principal activity is that of shipbuilding,
it is also known throughout the Far East,
and abroad, as a huge general engineering
and constructing enterprise, engaging in a
score of industries, allied to iron and steel
W'ork. As, however, it is proposed in this
article to treat somewhat in detail of the
different directions in which the Kawasaki
Dockj'ard Company, Limited, operates
through its various departments, it is not
necessary at this stage to do more than
indicate the wide extent of its business.
The company has carried out some of the
largest shipbuilding contracts in Japan, and
the magnitude of its operations since the
war began, are more than likely to be ex-
ceeded as time passes. For instance, one
big deal in 191 7 was the sale of 12 cargo
ships, worth Yen 50,000,000 to Messrs.
Furncss, Withy and Company, and other
British shipping firms, and the laying down
of a programme for 20 liners of g.ooo tons
each, as one part of the company's under-
taking for 1918.
The original works at Kob6 were estab-
lished in May, 1870, and the Kawasaki
♦Seepage 108.
Dockyard Company, Limited, came into
being in October, 1896. The subsequent
history is one of rapid expansion in keeping
with the industrial development of Japan,
and the demand for the output of such a
modern works. The capital of the company
has been enlarged on several occasions, to
enable the plant and works to be extended,
and to-day it stands at the substantial sum
of Yen 20,000,000, of which Yen 17,500,000
has been paid up. An idea of the prosperity
of the company may be gathered from the
fact that it has accumulated reserves of
Yen 7,484,000, and that for the last term
the dividends were 10 per cent, with a
special dividend of 20 per cent per annum,
while the outstanding debentures bear inter-
est at 6 per cent. The business undertaken
by the Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Lim-
ited, may be broadly outlined as follows:
1. Construction of, and repairs to, all
kinds of warships, passenger and cargo
steamers, sailing ships, dredgers, trawlers,
floating docks, etc.
2. Construction of, and repairs to, all
kinds of marine and land machinery, such
as locomotives, boilers, dynamos, motors and
all descriptions of electrical apparatus,
machine tools, etc.
3. Casting and forging of iron, bronze,
and brass; bridge building, girders, etc., and
the manufacture of firearms and armament
generally.
4. Salvage, towing and marine trans-
portation.
The main offices and works are at Higashi
Kawasaki-cho, Kob^. The branches will be
dealt with later. The total area of the
works is 567,337 square yards and the build-
ing area is 164,793 square yards. At the
main works there are at present under con-
struction 12 steamers of 9,000 tons each,
and five warships. From this yard have
been turned out the battle cruiser Haruna
(27,600 tons) , the second class cruiser Hirado
(5,200 tons), and the despatch boat Yodo
(1,250 tons). Other warships, comprising
gun boats, submarines, destroyers, and
torpedo boats, were built and engined for
the Imperial Japanese Navy. Many gun
boats, destroyers, and torpedo boats have
also been constructed for the Chinese and
Siamese Governments, to say nothing of a
regular output of merchant vessels of all
kinds. From the same works a large number
of railway locomotives, electric trams, rail-
way carriages, brake vans, tenders, goods
vans, etc., bridges and bridge girders, have
been supplied to the Imperial Japanese Rail-
ways, the Kiang-se Railway, China, and to
various tramway companies.
The main works are divided into various
departments, as, for instance, the Ship-
building Department, which comprises join-
ers' shops, platers' machine shop, bending
slab shop, moulding loft, blacksmithy, fitters'
and mechanics' shop, plumbers' shop, rivet
and bolt making shop, boat shop, galvanis-
ing shop, saw mill, riggers' and sailmakers'
and painters' shop; Designing and Drafting
Department; Engine Department (model
shop, foundry, machine shop, erecting shop,
tool shop, brass shop and testing house);
Boiler Department (designing and drafting
rooms, construction shop, coppersmiths' shop
and forging shop); Electrical Department
(designing and drafting rooms, constructing
and repairing shops); Docking and Repair-
ing Department, general office, accountant's
office, purchasing office, and store department.
Some idea of the modem nature of the
plant and equipment of the works may be
gained from the following brief description
of the same. Electricity is the main motive
power employed, and steam, compressed air,
and hydraulic power are also used. The
total number of machines installed is above
2,500 including the most powerful and
up-to-date machines. There are two 125-
ton overhead cranes, and scores of overhead
cranes of over 2- ton lifting power. Three
floating cranes have a lifting power respec-
tively of 200 tons, 50 tons, and 15 tons, and
there are numerous locomotive cranes, and
private railway tracks for facilitating the
transportation of materials from the Govern-
ment lines. The main dock>'ard has six
shipbuilding berths with stocks to lay keels
of up to 35,000-ton vessels, besides several
temporary building stocks. A huge gantry
of 1,151 clear inside w-idth, 164 feet 6 inches
in height, and 1,016 feet working length, is
erected over the Number 4 building stocks.
One graving dock in Kobe and one floating
dock of over 35,000 tons lifting capacity are
planned for early construction.
At the Hiogo Works near Kobe, the follow-
ing is undertaken: Casting of steel and iron
KAWASAKI DOCKYARD COMPANY: H. M. S. "hARUNA" (27,600 TOXS) VIEW OF THE MAIN WORKS T. S. S. " VASAKA MARU '
(NIPPON YLSEN KAISHA LINE, l8,00G TONS). THE SHIPS WERE BlILT AT THE KAWASAKI DOCKYARD
KAWASAKI DOCKYARD COMPANY: T. S S. "\VAR SAILOR" (fI'RNESS, WITHY & CO. LINE), I0,300 TONS — A TYPE OF LOCOMOTIVE
BUILT I-OR THE IMPERIAL RAILWAYS — RAILWAY HRIDGE ON THE OIGAWA-TOKAIDO LINE
720
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
water and gas pipes; turning out of roinid,
flat, and square bars, angles, channels, etc. ;
construction and repairs of railway locomo-
tives, carriages, and other rolling stock,
electric tram cars, wheels, axles, and all
descriptions of railway accessories and min-
ing machinery ; construction of steel bridges
and gas tanks; manufacture of bridge girders,
and construction work of other natures for
all kinds of public works and similar under-
takings. Another branch exists at Dairen,
North China, where there is a dock with a
cajiacity for vessels of 5,500 tons, and yards
and machine shops for the construction and
repair of all kinds of vessels and land and
marine machinery. The number of foremen,
assistant foremen, contract mechanics, and
operatives employed daily is over 21,000.
The President and Managing Director of
the Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Limited,
is Mr. K. Matsukata, son of the famous
Marquis Matsukata. The Vice-President
and Managing Director is Mr. Y. Kawasaki,
and the other principal officers are: Directors,
Messrs. T. Nomoto, M. Hirose, T. Saka,
Y. Tanaka, and Auditor, Mr. T. Tanaka.
An interesting comment on the Kawasaki
Dockyard was contained in the "Journal
of Commerce" for August 23, 1917, which
said:
"Cramp's in Philadelphia recently put
overboard a ten-thousand-ton tanker in
slightly less than six months, and in a speech
made at the christening an official of the
company referred to it as a record in high-
speed construction. Cramp's record, how-
ever, did not include the time spent in
assembling the materials, and the clock was
stopped when the ship splashed into the
Delaware. An additional five weeks was
consumed in putting on the finishing touches.
According to the steel officials the two
months and twenty-nine days occupied in
building a ten-thousand-ton freighter at the
Kobe works include even,'thing connected
with the ship's construction except the
signing of the contracts. A freighter of
7,800 tons deadweight capacity was recently
launched on the Clyde four months and
eleven days from the time her keel was laid,
and this, so far as the records show, repre-
sents a record in British shipbuilding. The
ten-thousand-ton freighter built by the Kobe
concern (Kawasaki) in two months and
twenty-nine days is not a remarkable accom-
plishment for this particular yard, according
to the steel men. They declare that a ship
named the War Council, 9,000 tons dead-
weight capacity, was laid down, launched,
and completed in exactly three months.
This established the record that was broken
in the construction of the ten-thousand-ton
freighter. The latter vessel had not been
named when the steel men left Jajian. Both
these record-breaking vessels are for British
interests and there are nine others in various
stages of construction in the same yard."
OSAKA IRON WORKS, LIMITED
The industry which is now controlled by
the Osaka Iron Works, Ltd., originated in
1881 when Mr. E. H. Hunter, a British sub-
ject, started shipbuilding at Osaka. The
magnificent services which Mr. Hunter has
rendered to Japan, and especially to the
shipbuilding and steel industries, have been
cordially recognised, and it is not so long
ago that his great w-ork in organising one
of the largest shipbuilding concerns in the
world was duly honoured by the erection
of his statue in the new factory grounds at
Sakurajima. Mr. Hunter and his son
carried on the Osaka Tekkojo, or Osaka
Iron Works, as their private business, until
March 18, 1914, when the big concern was
transformed into a limited liability company
with a capital of Yen 12,000,000. Lender
the control of the Hunter family the Osaka
Iron Works attained a position of great
importance, its plant and productive capac-
ity being steadily increased as the years
went by. In 191 1 the Inno-Shima Dock
Co., Ltd., was purchased, and the Hunter
plant became one of the three largest ship-
building concerns in Japan. After the trans-
fer of the private interest to the joint-stock
company, the business of the Osaka Iron
Works increased at a greater pace than ever.
The outbreak of the war set up a big demand
for ships, and when the company was work-
ing to its fullest capacity with orders it was
soon found that the plant at Ajikawa was
too small to meet the demand. Those works
were sold, and a magnificent site was pur-
chased at Sakurajima, where one of the
finest shipbuilding plants in the world was
installed. By 1916 the capacity of the
yard was 200,000 tons of shipping per annum.
What the futvu-e output will be it is hard
to say. The company is working at the
highest pressure to fulfil orders, and its
production is steadily being increased. In
the Osaka Iron Works yards all classes of
vessels are built, including warships, freight-
ers, liners, dredgers, fishing trawlers, shallow
draft vessels, and steam and motor craft of
all dimensions. The works also turn out
locomotives, electric plant, engines and
boilers for land and marine use, and steel
joists, piers, and general structural steel
work. There is also a salvage plant avail-
able at quick notice for the relief of ships
in trouble.
The company are the purchasers of the
patents for Japan of the Isherwood system
of ship construction, and they hold the rights
for the manufacture of turbines under
European patents. The advantages of the
Isherwood system of construction are stout-
ness, capacity for carrying greater loads
than other ships, cheapness of building, and
the small maintenance expense. Up to date
twenty ships have been built under this
system and have been delivered, the total
tonnage being 65,000. Orders are in hand
for thirty-three more ships of a total of
190,000 tons, some of them being nearly
completed. At the big yards there are
berths for building seven vessels simultane-
ously. The smallest is 373 feet long by 50
feet wide, for ships of 4,000 tons, and the
largest is 560 feet long by 75 feet wide, for
vessels up to 10,000 tons. There are six
docks, three at Sakurajima and three at the
Inno-shima works. The smallest will accom-
modate ships of 500 tons and the largest will
take vessels up to 8,000 tons. Sites occupied
by the company total an area of 124,695
tsubo, and the buildings, offices, machine
shops, etc., cover 16,478 tsubo. In 1917
the Osaka Iron Works, Ltd., turned out
thirty-one ships of a total of 184,700 tons.
They are now under special contract with
the Nippon Kisen Kaisha and the O. S. K.
to build respectively 80,000 tons and 190,-
000 tons of ships annually up to the year
1921. Over 11,500 hands are employed at
the company's works.
The head office of the Osaka Iron Works,
Ltd., is at No. 30, Sakurajimacho, Nishi-ku,
Osaka. Mr. J. Yamaoka, Vice-President of
the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, is the President
of the company. The Managing Directors
are Messrs. T. Yamaguchi and R. Kiniura.
Mr. R. Hunter, son of the founder of the
works, is also a Director, and other members
of the Board are Messrs. M. Muraki and
S. Nakayama. The Auditors are Messrs.
V. Koga and Y. Takagi.
FUJI-NAGATA SHIPBUILDING YARD
Under its Japanese name of the Fuji-
nagata Zosenjo, this concern is known as
one of the oldest shipbuilders in Japan. The
yard was started in 1689, and little more is
known of its ancient history. Of course in
those far distant times the Fuji-nagata
dockyard turned out junks, built of wood,
and most probably launched warships of
the period. It is known that it was founded
by Sanjuro Hyogoya, who won Imperial
favour. The yard was not modernised, of
course, until the introduction of European
ideas of shipbuilding in the Meiji era, but
since then it has developed rapidly, and is
now a busy hive of industry, turning out
modern steel vessels of great tonnage. The
Fuji-nagata Zosenjo is one of the few yards
enjoying an Imperial subsidy, and though
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
723
this is small, it indicates the high esteem in
which this ancient enterprise is held. The
old dockyard is at No. 187, Shin-sumiya
machi, Nishiku, Osaka. Here the works
and the yard cover 9,513 tsubo. Modem
buildings of steel and wood arc erected and
the yard and works are complete with all
up-to-date plant, machinery, and launching
facilities. A branch yard and works, cover-
ing 16,770 Isubo, are located at Kitakagaya-
shinden, Shikitsumura, Nishinari-gori, Osaka-
fu. In September, 191 7, four ships of a
total tonnage of 12,800 were under construc-
tion in the Fu;i-nagata yards, and several
were launched during the year. The yards
turn out six ships per annum, and repairs
are affected to about one hundred craft of
different kinds, the total volume of business
for the machine shops and shipbuilding
yards being valued at Yen 22,000,000 per
annum. A staff and w'orkmen to the number
of about 1,200 are employed all the year
round, and the wages bill runs over Yen
600,000 per annum. In addition to the build-
ing and repairing of ships, the Fuji-nagata
Shipbuilding Yard constructs engines and
machinery of different kinds, and also makes
iron and steel bridges, and similar structures,
under contract. The principal imports of
the concern are steel plates, steel sections,
bars, tubes, pig iron, machines, and machine
tools, etc. These are mainly obtained from
England and the United States, though a
fair supply of raw material is derived locally
and from China.
Mr. Sanjuro Nagata is the proprietor of
the Fuji-nagata Zosenjo, which has a capital
of Yen 3,000,000.
ONO IRON WORKS AND SHIPBUILDING
YARD, LIMITED
There are very few shipbuilding )-ards
in Japan now left in private hands, but such
is the case with the Ono Tekko Zosenjo, or
Ono Iron Works and Shipbuilding Yard,
Ltd., which is the private concern of Mr.
Ono, one of the best known and oldest
iron-masters and builders in Osaka. The
plant is an extensive one, and comprises
three dry docks, machine shops, launching
ways, etc. All classes of iron and wooden
ships are constructed, and the plant also
turns out steam engines, boilers, all descrip-
tions of castings, and general steel and iron
work, besides undertaking the repair of
ships. The area occupied by the Ono Works
covers 15,000 Isubo. The buildings are of
wood and iron, and installed in the different
departments are machinery and appliances
of the latest type, to enable the concern to
carry out practically any kind of work.
Steam and electricity are employed for power
purposes. There are 1,500 employees under
the direction of highly qualified technical
experts, over whom is Mr. T. Ono, the
Oeneral Manager. Steel plates, material
for moulds, pig iron, Oregon pine, teak and
other requirements of the shipbuilding indus-
try are imported from Great Britain, the
United States, India and elsewhere, and
are utilised in the works for the construc-
tion and repair of vessels, etc. The annual
output of the plant is about 15,000 tons of
steel, iron and wooden ships, engines, boilers,
castings and so on. Work is principally
carried on for Japanese customers, but in
some cases the Ono Works have turned out
ships for Britain, France, Italy and other
countries.
The head office and yards of the Ono
Iron Works and Shipbuilding Yard are at
Nakaguchi-machi, Nishiku, Osaka.
MITSUBISHI ZOSEN KAISHA, LIMITED
(MITSUBISHI SHIPBUILDING CO., LTD.)
The building of ships has been, and is, of
such vital importance to the world of com-
merce, particularly during the last few years,
that a brief description of the Mitsubishi
Dockj'ard and Engine Works of Japan, this
country's oldest and largest shipbuilding
establishment, will be of peculiar interest.
Founded by the Shogun Government in
1856, a few Dutch engineers were employed,
work being carried on in a limited way for
the repairing of a few small steamers owned
by the shogun. After the Restoration the
works passed into the hands of the Public
Works Department and were largely ex-
tended. In 1879 a large dry dock, 426 feet
in length, was constructed at Tategami and
took over the establishment. It was in
1884, on the abolition of the Department of
Public Works, that the establishment and
subsidiary works connected with it were
leased by the Government to the Mitsubishi
Company, the entire ownership being ac-
quired three years later. With progressive
and rapid developments, a notable step was
taken in the opening of a shipyard at Tate-
gami. In 1889 the first iron steamer, of
about 206 tons gross, was built and named
the Yugawo Marti, followed shortly after by
three steel steamers of 700 tons each and in
1895 l)y one of 1,592 tons, establishing a new
record in Japan's shipbuilding industry.
Following the China-Japan War develop-
ments came rapidly. In 1896 a great stimu-
lus was given to the growth of shipping and
shipbuilding by the enactment of the Navi-
gation Encouragement Act and the Ship-
building Encouragement Act. It was at
this time that the Nippon Yusen Kaisha
first organised its European line and decided
to build six steamers of 6,000 tons each.
The construction of one of these steamers
was undertaken by the Mitsubishi Company
and completed in 1898. This was the first
steamer of such size ever built in Japan, and
from that time to the present day the history
of the company has shown remarkable results
and the building of vessels of ever-increasing
size, from coast steamers to turbine-driven
ocean liners of 13,500 tons, torpedo-boat
destroyers such as the Kirishima, 27,500
tons, completed in April, 1915, and the
Hyuga, 30,600. The following table will
give some idea of the work during fifteen
years from 1900.
Year
Vessels
Engines
Gross Tons
I. H. P.
I goo
13
9
11,617
13,519
1901
6
6
7.194
6,236
1902
9
6
15.807
13.336
1903
8
8
13.078
11.463
1904
7
5
ii.«59
12,082
1905
9
/
12,939
12,731
1906
13
II
10,031
22,735
1907
4
4
7.859
23.519
1908
4
4
23.332
36,417
1909
6
6
45.459
64.751
1910
4
4
21,635
16,879
1911
14
10
21,382
71.205
1912
8
8
12,233
38,365
1913
6
5
20,895
21,980
1914
3
3
22,964
23.835
called No. i Dock, but since that date it
has been considerably enlarged. In 1883 a
wooden steamer named the Kosuge Marti,
of 1,500 tons gross, was built, the forerunner
of the shipbuilding industry in the Island
Empire, though the real expansion dates
from the time when the Mitsubishi Company
The Mitsubishi Dockyard and Engine
Works, with dockyards and engineering
w^orks at Nagasaki, Kob^, and Hikoshima,
like those at Barrow or Clydebank in Great
Britain, are laid out with the object of doing
the maximum amount of work upon any
ship, purchasing from outside sources only
ONO IRON WORKS AND SHIPBUILDING YARD, LTD.: BIRD's-EYE VIEW OF THE SHIPBUILDING BERTHS — LAUNCHING OF THE S. S. ' ASAHI
MARU" (3,500 TONS), NOVEMBER I4, I917 — S. S. " KASUGA MARU " (2,035 TONS), BUILT BY THE FIRM —
S. S. "SAPPORO MARU NO. 6" (3,500 TONS), LAUNCHED APRIL, I9I7
j^^^.
MITSUBISHI SHIPBUILDING CO, LTD. (MITSUBISHI ZOSEN KAISHA, LTD.): SHIPBUILDING YARD AT NAGASAKI — ENGINE WORKS AND
MACHINE SHOPS IN CONNECTION WITH THE TATEGAMI SHIPBUILDING YARD AT NAGASAKI — SHIPBUILDING YARD AT KOSfe
47
726
PRESENT-DAY T ^r P R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
materials and proprietary or patented
articles. Independence of other establish-
ments in this respect frees the company
from danger of delay in shipbuilding, always
incidental to dependence upon others for the
prompt delivery of accessories as required.
It has been the constant effort of the company
to keep the works up-to-date in all respects,
as well as in the thorough efficiency of its
staff in technical knowledge and business
methods. To ensure efficiency in these
respects members of the staff, and workmen,
have been sent to European engineering
centres to study modem methods of con-
struction and organisation. The shipyard
at Tategami can now undertake the building
of the largest vessels and has six building
berths ranging from 480 feet to 767 feet
long, with an annual capacity of over 40,000
tons. There are three graving docks, all
constructed of granite, and one slip. No. 3
Dock was opened in 1905 and the enormous
quantity of 71,250 tons of water can be
pumped out in four hours at high tide; at
low water the work can be done in three
hours and twenty-five minutes. To accom-
modate the ever increasing size of ships an
e'itension of this dock is now under contem-
plation. Since the company obtained the
sole license for the East for Parson marine
steam turbines in 1904, the turbine shops
have been verj' much extended in consequence
of the increasing demand upon them. The
works have their own school on the
premises, a well-equipped hospital, club
houses, etc.
The works at Wada Point, Kob6, were
inaugurated in 1905. A floating dock of
7,000 tons' lifting capacity was built by the
Nagasaki l^ranch for use at Kobe, followed
later by another floating dock of 12,000 tons'
lifting capacity. In addition to the build-
ing, repairing, and equipment of vessels, the
works at Kobe are equipped for making the
following: water turbines, land and marine
boilers, dredgers, steel girders, steel build-
ings and various alloys. Located on the
western shore of Kobe harbour, the works
occupy an area of eighty-two acres, and there
is ample room for future extension. The
various workshops are splendidly equipped,
the largest, the machine shop, covering
59,436 square feet. The Salvage Depart-
ment at Kobe operates the steamer Arima
Mam, 312 tons, with powerful pumps of
3,500 tons' capacity.
Owing to the rapid growth of shipping
in the Straits of Shimonoseki, it became a
matter of necessity to meet the requirements
for docking facilities. For this purpose the
dockyard at Hikoshima was built and com-
pleted in 19 14. The dock is of concrete
and vessels up to 4,000 tons gross can be
docked, length over all being 382 feet.
Connected with the dock there is a steel
building containing pattern shop, foundries,
machine shops, etc. At present the yard is
chiefly occupied in the docking and repairs
of ships, machinery and tools, also electrical
machinery, but has a promising future in
building ships.
The Mitsubishi Dockyard and Engine
Works has been one of the big factors in
the development of the shipping industry
in Japan, and much of the maritime prom-
inence this country enjoys is due to those
responsible for the activities of this progres-
sive company. Its headciuarters are at
Tokyo, under the Presidency of Baron
Koyata Iwasaki, with Mr. K. Uyematsu
as Managing Director. Further details with
reference to the numerous other interests of
this great house will be found in the body
of this volume.
BIRD S-EYE VIEW OF THE BUILDING Y.\RDS OF THE OSAK.\ SHIPYARD COMPANY, LIMITED
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
727
OSAKA SHIPYARD COMPANY, LIMITED
This enterprise was established on August
I, 191 ", bj' Mr. U. Iwaki, a prominent
merchant of Osaka, whose name is well
known in connection with the Iwaki Shokai,
a business which is doing a large general
trade. The company has a capital of Yen
5,000,000, and is providing a new ship-
building yard of about 62,000 tsiibo, com-
plete with all modem machinery and plant
for turning out aliout 100,000 tons of new
ships per annum, or an estimated value of
Yen 60,000,000. The Osaka Shipbuilding
and Iron Works, Ltd., gives employment
to about 1,600 hands, and besides the con-
struction of ships, it is engaged in general
iron and steel structural work, machinery
making, coal operations, etc. The office
and yard are located at No. 72 Izumioeho,
Nishi-ku, Osaka. Mr. U. Iwaki is President
of the company.
THE IWAKI SHOKAI
This business, which embraces a number
of different industries, was founded by Mr.
Iwaki on October 19, 1899, and has proved
highly successful. The Iwaki Shokai is
engaged in the shipbuilding and iron trade,
as well as mining and coaling operations,
quite apart from the ordinary business of
importing and exporting. The lines of
business at present are as follows: (l) Ship-
owners; (2) Ship brokers; (3) Shipbuild-
ing (in Osaka); (4) Shipping agents; (5)
Copper mining; (6) Coal merchants; (7)
Exporters and importers of metals, ship-
building materials, cotton yarn, cotton piece
goods, Chinese peanuts, peanut oil, bean
cake, pongee silk, etc.; (8) Iron works
(in Osaka) .
The head and branch offices are located
as follows: Head office, Kob^; branches
in Japan, Osaka (Nishinagahori), Karatsu,
Wakamatsu; branches in China, Chef 00,
Dairen, Tsintau, Tsinanfu.
The firm pays in salaries and wages the
sum of over Yen 846,000 per annum.
AIZAWA SHIPYARD
When Mr. Iwakichi Aizawa opened his
shipyard in July, 191 1, he could not have
foreseen, even in his most optimistic moments,
the early and phenomenal, not to say surpris-
ing, success that has attended the venture,
since the present output is many times that
of the initial years, and the present capital of
Yen 3,500,000 represents an increase of just
seven hundred per cent.
The yard located at Nishi-ku on the out-
skirts of Osaka covers a total area of 11,500
tsubo and undertakes the construction and
repairs of all kinds of modern steamers, the
annual output at present being 12,500 tons,
though this is not by any means the limit,
and will doubtless be easily surpassed in the
coming years, especially in view of demands.
Another important section of the works is
devoted to machinery construction, prin-
cipally engines, the annual production being
equal to 16,500 H. p. Bridges, steel and iron
frames for other constructional purposes are
also built; in fact, from the success so far
achieved it will be seen that the policy
adopted by this firm is distinctively progres-
sive. They are prepared to undertake any
work that comes under the heading of
machinery. Only the raw products are
imported, and those principally from England
and the United States.
About 1,800 men are employed, 30 of that
number being fully qualified engineers and
shipbuilding experts. The plant comprises
all the modem machinery usual to such
undertakings; indeed, one would have no
difficulty in imagining the installation the
property of an enterprising Clyde firm.
The offices are located at the yard and are
Vi
BIRD S-EYE VIEW OF THE OSAKA WORKS OF THE AIZ.\W.\ SHIPV.^RD
MEMBERS OF THE FLEET OF THE OSAKA SHOSEN KAISHA: SOCIAL HALL ON THE "AMERICA MARU " S. S. " KASATO MARU "-
S. S. " KURENAI MARU"— S. S. "MANILA MARU " S. S. "HARBIN MARU " S. S. "SEATTLE MARU "
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
729
.vow PROMINENT IN SHIPPING
(Upper Row) Mr. T.\tsujiro H.\shimoto, President, Hashimoto Trading Co.; Mr. T.\d.\o Okaz.\ki, Managing Director, Okazaki Bank
and S. S. Co.; Mr. T. Yamamoto, President, Kabushiki Kaisha Shosho Yoko; Mr. Kizo Hashimoto, Head of Shipping Department,
Hashimoto Trading Co., Ltd.; Mr. K. Uyenishi, President, Uyenishi Showkai. (Middle Row) Mr. H. Kurasawa, Managing Director,
Uchida Trading Co.; Mr. S. Nango, President, Kob6 Pier Co., Ltd.; Mr. K. Yamashita, President, Yaraashita Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha; Mr.
G. Katsuda, President, Katsuda Shokai; Mr. Toraji Inouye, President, Kabushiki Kaisha Tomijima Gumi. (Lower Row) Mr. J. Oka.
President, Oriental Whaling Co., Ltd.; Mr. K. M.\tsuki, Vice-President, Yamashita Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha; Mr. Nobunari Uchida,
President, Uchida Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha; Mr. Kentaro Kaw.\chi, President, Goko Shokai; Mr. T0S.ATAR0 Yamaji, Managing Director,
the Meiji Bussan Co., Ltd., and the Meidai Kisen Kaisha, Ltd.
housed in a two-story European style build-
ing. The works occupy eleven galvanised
iron shops.
Mr. I. Aizawa, the proprietor, is himself
perhaps the best explanation of the success
achieved, inasmuch as he served fifteen years
in the Naval Shipyard at Yokosuka, and a
further three years at the Kur^ Naval Ship-
yard, from which place he resigned in 1906 to
to take charge of the shipbuilding department
for the now famous Osaka Iron Works, where
he remained until establishing his present
business. Mr. Daisuke Aizawa, the eldest
son of the proprietor, who assists in the
management, also contributes considerable
experience. This gentleman also served in
the Naval Shipyards and, further, served six-
teen years with the Harriman Electric Power
Plant of Chicago and six years with the
LInion Iron Works. Mr. Yahei Kanaya
assists in the management and has had a
wide experience in all kinds of machinery
and shipbuilding. It is, therefore, not sur-
prising that this firm can compete on equal
terms with European and American concerns.
SHIPPING INDUSTRY
THE OSAKA SHOSEN K.\ISHA
The history of the shipping world presents
no story of greater or more rapid progress
than that of the Osaka Shosen Kabushiki
Kaisha, more popularly known as the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha, or to give the English equiv-
alent, the Osaka Mercantile Steamship Com-
pany, Limited. When organised in 1884,
the company had a capital of Yen 1 ,200,000,
and a Reet of an aggregate tonnage of only
17,000, though the ships numbered 90,
most of them being small coasting vessels.
The services then in force (and they were
mainly confined to the Inland Sea) totalled
a mileage of only 8,500. To-day the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha has a fleet of 154 steamers of
a total tonnage of over 416,000, and its
services cover the wide world. The capital
to-day is Yen 50,000,000. In all respects
730
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the company is the greatest shipping enter-
prise of Japan, as also it is one of the most
prosperous. As a pioneer of new trade
routes, the "O. S. K." has always led its
competitors.
To go back through the history of the
Osaka Shosen Kaisha is to trace the entire
development of the shipping industry of
Japan. Osaka was always the commercial
centre of Japan, and with the opening of
the country to foreign trade and influence, a
water transport business sprang up early in
the Meiji era (1868-1912), the centre of
this activity being Osaka, which commanded
the great water-way through the Inland Sea.
The shipping trade was lively, and attracted
a great deal of enterprise, the business reach-
ing the height of its prosperity at the time
of the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877. Sub-
sequently the trade was overdone. There
was more shipping than the trade conditions
warranted, and the competing companies
waged a frenzied freight war, each striving
to drive out the other. A decline in freights
necessarily followed, while the reckless
nmning of the ships at sea brought about
so many accidents and other evils, that
public confidence in the shipping business
was entirely lost.
The situation became so serious that
the Government took the matter in hand,
convinced that the only remedy was to
effect a combination of all the competing
ship-owners and incorporate them in one
concern. To this end the formation of a
joint-stock steamship company was under-
taken, and after three years of strenuous
effort the late Mr. Hirose and other men of
note succeeded in bringing together a large
number of owners, and the Osaka Shosen
Kabushiki Kaisha was established on May I,
1884. But the great difficulties of the situ-
ation had still to be faced. Many owners
did not join the combination, but continued
the freight war. The steamers taken over
by the combine were for the most part badly
worn and scarcely seaworthy, and yet they
represented almost the whole of the paid-up
capital of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha. To put
the fleet in a proper condition, and to acquire
new steamers, wa;, the vital necessity of the
times, but the finances of the company hardly
allowed the completion of the work. The
Government was therefore appealed to for
assistance, but the appeal was not responded
to until 1887, when an annual subsidy, over
a period of eight years, of Yen 50,000 per
annum was granted. The improvement of
the company's fleet began in 1888, the old
vessels being gradually replaced by new ones,
while the services were developed and in-
creased, the progressive policy resulting in
more revenue and a consequent strengthen-
ing of the company's financial position.
In 1893 the capital of the O. S. K. was
increased to Yen 1,800,000, which was
increased by Yen 700,000 in the following
year, preparatory to a further expansion of
business, but the Sino-Japanese War inter-
posed. The company placed thirty of its
vessels at the disposal of the Japanese
Government for war purposes, as on all such
occasions of national need it has placed its
resources at the call of the Empire. The
conclusion of the war . and the annexation
of Formosa gave the Osaka Shosen Kaisha
a new sphere of operations. A service was
opened with Formosa, and at the same time
a coasting service round that island was
inaugurated. The capital of the company
was douliled in 1895 and was further in-
creased to Yen 10,000,000 in 1897, to meet
the requirements of the expansion which was
taking place. Oversea services had been
opened between Shanghai and Hankow in
1898, and between Formosa and South
China ports in 1899. Meanwhile, the com-
pany had been building up its fleet and now
possessed twenty-three newly built steamers
with a total tonnage of over 29,000. With
the exception of the trade depression which
followed the Sino-Japanese War boom, the
Osaka Shosen Kaisha has experienced an
almost uninterrupted run of prosperity since
its first difficulties were overcome. Year
by year the fleet has been improved and
strengthened, and the services have been
extended. Year by year the company's
financial position has improved, and, despite
powerful competition, the Osaka Shosen
Kaisha stands to-day as the most powerful
of Japanese shipping concerns. It has
bought up and absorbed several companies,
and while developing its overseas services
to the fullest extent has not neglected the
coastal trade of Japan. On several occasions
the capital of the big concern has been
increased to permit of extensions in various
directions, such as the building of new
vessels and the opening of new trade lines.
The most pronounced development has
taken place since the Russo-Japanese War.
By the way, it is interesting to note, as
indicating the great strength of the company
at that time, that it offered seventy-three
of its ships to the Japanese Government for
transport and auxiliary naval purposes in
that war. With the conclusion of peace the
Osaka Shosen Kaisha resumed its normal
services, and although in the reaction that
followed, there was a considerable depression
in the shipping business, consequent upon a
lowering of freights and an over-supply of
ships, the company maintained its progres-
sive policy and launched out on several new
routes, besides calling up new capital to
Yen 16,500,000 in 1906.
The outbreak of the great European War
saw no diminution of the prosperity of the
O.saka Shosen Kaisha. Its ships were
placed at the disposal of the Government
for the operations against Tsingtau, and
immediately that German possession fell,
the company inaugurated a service with the
new port. In the meantime two steamers
were despatched to Europe as trial ships of
the projected European line. The capital
of the company was further increased to
Yen 24,750,000 in 1914. In quite another
direction a new regular line was started.
Upon the withdrawal of the ships from the
San Francisco-Hongkong line by the Pacific
Mail Steamship Company, in the Summer
of 1915, the Osaka Shosen Kaisha inaugu-
rated a new monthly service between Japan
and San Francisco. The following year
three important overseas services were
started. The South Seas service was opened
early in the j'ear between Keelung and
Batavia. The service with Australia was
next established with Adelaide as the ter-
minal port. This monthly service is now
maintained with three vessels of 4,500 tons
type. In addition to these two new and
important lines, a further inauguration of a
deep-sea service took place at the end of
the year, when the O. S. K. despatched the
first steamer on the long ntn to Buenos
Aires, via Hongkong, Singapore, Durban,
Capetown, and Rio de Janeiro. In view of
the great prospects for trade between Japan
and South America, this new line promises
well. The serv'ice is a quarterly one, main-
tained by steamers of 6,000 tons, and offer-
ing the best facilities for traders, as well as
providing strong inducements for the wealthy
people of South America to visit Japan.
Surveying the history of the Osaka Shosen
Kaisha it can not be denied that the com-
pany has been remarkably successful, and
by its activities has placed the merchant
marine of Japan right in the forefront. The
O. S. K. fleet is already one of the largest
in the world, and is continually being im-
proved and strengthened, giving promise,
with the well known progressive policy of
the company, that before long the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha will have very few rivals.
And the success achieved is readily admitted
to be well deserved by the company that
first really put Japanese shipping on a sound
and businesslike basis. A few figures to
demonstrate the stability of this great con-
cern will not be out of place. The sub-
scribed capital of the O. S. K. is Yen 50,-
000,000, and the amount paid up is Yen
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
731
37,625,000. Debentures have been issued
for Yen 5,500,000 and the reserves amount
to Yen 15,800,000. The gross receipts of
the company for the half-year ended June
30, 1917, were Yen 30,793,696, and the profit
for the term was Yen 13,922,306, plus the
sum of Yen 1,203,645 brouglit forward from
dividend of 40 per cent per annum was paid,
absorbing Yen 4,681,050; Yen 2,000,000
was set aside for business extension and
dividend equalisation funds; Yen 400,000
was paid as an extra bonus to employees;
Yen 2,500,000 was further written off for
extra depreciation on the fleet, and a balance
Nomoto, Ryutaro llanta, and Genzaburo
Tarao.
THE PENINSULAR AND ORIENTAL STEAM
NAVIGATION COMPANY
The history of the Peninsular and Oriental
Steam Navigation Company, if written at
KOBE PREMISES OF PENINSULAR AND ORIENTAL STEAM NAVIGATION CO.
THE LUXURIOUS FURNISHINGS OF AN "m" CLASS P. S: O. LINER
P. & O. LINER OF THE M CLASS
THE COMPANIONWAY OF AN "m" CLASS P. & O. LINER
the last term. After setting aside Yen
2,371,000 to the Insurance and Repair
Funds, and writing off Yen 859,000 for
depreciation, placing Yen 535,000 to the
Reserve Funds and paying directors and
auditors' fees amounting to Yen 268,000,
there was available for distribution Yen
11,092,951. Of this handsome surplus a
of Yen 1,511,901 was carried forward. The
officers of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha are as
follows: President and Director, Mr. Keijiro
Hori; Vice-President and Director, Mr.
Juntaro Yamaoka; Managing Director, Mr.
Rikitaro Kafuku ; Directors, Messrs. Zenyemon
Toyoda, Seiki Teranishi, Ryuzo Tanaka,
and Hikotaro Abe; Auditors, Messrs. Gyo
due length, would form a large and impor-
tant chapter of the whole history of the
development of the entire Far East to foreign
trade and intercourse, for the two subjects
would be found inseparable. Indeed, it
would be hard to say where the share of
the great British shipping company, in the
opening up of the Orient, either to trade or
732
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the passenger traffic, ended, so closely have
its services been associated with the develop-
ment of all that vast extent of world surface
east of Suez. It is impossible to say where
the work began, because the history- of the P.
& C, like the history of many another great
enterprise, is one of phenomenal growth from
an easily envisaged humble concern, but
just what the expansion and enterprise of
the company has meant to British trade and
commerce, and the opening up of lands that
once were scarcely known to Europe, it is
difficult to define. The operations of one of
the greatest of British shipping enterprises
have unquestionably been a most vital factor
in the directions indicated, and if in the course
of nearly eighty years the P. & O. Company
has grown rich and powerful, and has become
a mighty instrument for the fiu-therance
of British commercial prestige, no one can
honestly begrudge its success, or deny that
it has also rendered incalculable services to
the British Empire and the manifold private
interests that are involved in the sum of our
Imperial grandeur.
The P. & O. Company was actually founded
in 1837 as the Peninsular Company, owning a
few small vessels which had been running for
a year or two previously between Falmouth
and Gibraltar. The avowed objects of the
Peninsular Company were to develop the
trade between the United Kingdom and
India, and in that plan lay the idea of all
that was to follow in the opening up of
traffic between England, and the Orient
and Australasia. In 1840 a Royal Charter
was granted to the newly reorganised con-
cern known as the Peninsular and Oriental
Steam Navigation Company. From that
date the extension of the company's services,
and its shipbuilding operations, may be said
to be typical of the development of the
British mercantile marine. Commencing its
operations with one or two vessels of small
tonnage, the P. & O. steadily enlarged its
fleet, increased its sailings, and opened new
services, until to-day it owns a fleet of
modem vessels, second to none in the world,
and aggregating a tonnage of close upon
500,000. Most of the ships of the ocean-
going class are liners ranging from 7,000 up
to over 16,000 tons, and providing as fine
a service for long voyages as any ships in
the world. Furthermore, the P. & O. Com-
pany joined forces in 1914 with the British
India Steam Navigation Company, the latter
possessing a tonnage of 750,000, and in 1916
with the New Zealand Shipping Company
and its subsidiary, the Federal Line, with a
tonnage of over 335,000. In 191 7 a further
increase of tonnage took place when the
Union S. S. Company of New Zealand came
nto this powerful group. These amalga-
mations, totalling over 1,800,000 tons, may
be said to be in keeping with the modem
trend of shipping, and in harmony with the
policy developed during the war and approved
b}' the British Government of organising great
cooperative combines to strengthen Britain's
mercantile shipping by standardising world
services, and in other ways eliminating all
the weaknesses of the old competitive system.
The capital of the Peninsular and Oriental
Steam Navigation Company at the close of
1916 was £5,743,694, paid up, and debenture
stock totalled £1,700,000. Substantial re-
serve funds have been built up, and on a
most conservative estimate the assets of
the company were calculated at £12,000,-
000. On the huge capital of the company
a dividend of two and one-half per cent for
the half-year was paid on the preferred stock,
and a dividend of six per cent with a bonus
of six per cent, on the deferred stock.
The principal services maintained by the
P. &• O. are a fortnightly mail service between
England and the Far East, and a fortnightly
service on the same route by intermediate
steamers; a fortnightly mail service to Aus-
tralia t'ia Colombo; a weekly service with
Bombay and Calcutta; a service between
England and Australia via the Cape, and
numerous subsidiary or connecting services.
It is to the credit of the P. & O. that through-
out the war, despite the fact that many of
its ships have been taken over by the British
Government for war service, and that others
have been sunk, it has maintained its sailings
with great regularity, and has continued to
give shippers and passengers the very best
service possible under most trying conditions.
In so far as its connection with Japan is
concerned the P. & O. took its share in the
pioneering of British trade interests, and
established an office at Yokohama as far
back as 1866. The old portion of the present
buildings at No. 15 Bund, is one of the land-
marks of the early history of the port. The
Kob6 office was opened in 1888. Previously
the company had been represented at what
was then an outport, by commercial agents,
but the growth of Kobe led to the opening
of a direct branch at No. 109 Ito Machi,
and in 1902, consequent upon the elevation
of Kob^ to the position of the most important
port of call in Japan, the P. & O. made the
Kobe branch its head office. The Chief
Agent for Japan, Mr. Alf WooUey, is sta-
tioned at Kobe, and has under his direction
the branch at Yokohama and the agencies
at Nagasaki and Moji. Mr. WooUey has
had a lengthy experience in the service of
the P. & O. Company. At the time of
writing the company's liners are not coming
on to Japan, owing to war conditions, but
are making Shanghai their terminal port in
the Far East. What the post-war arrange-
ments may be, rests, of course, with the
Directors and General Management, but it
is safe to say that the company, which in
the past has played so prominent a part in
the exploitation of the Eastern Hemisphere
in Britain's interests, will not be behind any
competitors in providing the most complete
services. The P. & O. policy is a far-sighted
one. Imperial in tone and vision, as may
readily be seen from a perusal of the Chair-
man's speeches at the annual meetings.
With the additional strength which the
company has gained by the absorption of
other shipping enterprises, it is fairly easy to
predict for the P. & O. a greater career of
prosperity after the war than it has even
reaUsed in its splendid past.
YAMASHITA STEAMSHIP COMPANY,
LIMITED
The rapid development of the Japanese
mercantile marine owes a great deal to men
like Mr. Kamesaburo Yamashita, who took
a vital interest in its upbuilding more than
twenty years ago, long before the war boom
started, and when to build and own ships
w'as a risky business. Since the war broke
out many fortunes have been made, and
while all industry and enterprise is entitled
to its full reward, there is an added satis-
faction in those cases where full success has
come to the pioneers of an industry. This
is so with Mr. Yamashita, who is now the
head of one of the most important and most
highly respected shipping concerns of Japan.
Mr. Yamashita originally started in busi-
ness as a coal merchant, and in 1894 es-
tablished the Yokohama Coal Company.
He was all along interested in shipping, but
it was not until 1903 that he was able to
start as a ship-owner. Even then his first
effort was a small one, one ship only, the
Kisagata Mani, being run as a freight vessel.
Steadil}', however, a fleet of ships was ob-
tained, and in 191 1 the business was ex-
tended by the formation of the Yamashita
Gomei Kaisha. The head office was then
in Tokyo, and the Kobe office was considered
as a branch. Regular progress was made,
the fleet being gradually extended, and the
operations increased till the great develop-
ment in Japanese shipping took place after
the outbreak of the European War. Then
the Yamashita Company realised the full
tide of success, and in May, 19 17, it was
transformed into a limited liability company,
known as the Yamashita Steamship Co., Ltd.,
with a capital of 10,000,000 yen. Even so,
the control and direction of affairs, as from
the inception of business in 1894, has re-
mained in the hands of the Yamashita family,
assisted by highly experienced and loyal
1
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YAMASHITA KISEN KABUSHIKI KAISHA: A SMALL SliCTION OF THE GENERAL OFFICE, KOBE— THE HANDSOME RECEPTION ROOM
IN THE KOb6 OFFICE THE MANAGER'S PRIVATE OFFICE, KOBE — THE HEAD OFFICE BUILDING, KOBE
734
PRESKNT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
staffs and some of the most capable shipping
men in Japan, as directors of the large in-
terests involved.
The Yamashita Sleamshi]i Co., I^td., is
engaged in general shipping business, com-
prising freight carriage on all ocean routes,
contracting for freight space, intermediary
operations for the sale, purchase, and charter-
ing of ships, and so on. The company is
the agent for Shaw, Adams & Co., London,
and does a large insiu-ance business in ordi-
nary and war risks, besides acting as agents
for ship-owners, arranging charter parties,
etc. Coaling operations are also carried out
on a large scale, the company being in a
position to supply fuel at any port at home
or abroad. The world-wide nature of the
Y'amashita operations may be gathered from
the fact that the company has its agents at
London, New York, vSeattle, San Francisco,
Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, Penang,
Calcutta, Colombo, Bombay, Port Said,
Sydney, Melbourne, and Paris. In London,
Paris, New York, Seattle, and Singapore,
the company maintains its own stafTs.
The Yamashita Steamship Co., Ltd., has
won a deservedly high reputation in shipping
circles, for its businesslike methods and for
its faithful handling of cargoes and chartered
vessels.. It also is accredited with being
one of the oldest and best experienced con-
cerns in marine transportation and insurance,
its connections abroad being of the highest
character. To-day the company's head
office is at No. 47 Sakayemachi, Nichome,
Kobe, that port being the centre of the
shipping industry in the Orient. The
Tokyo branch office is at No. 22 Cofukucho,
Nihonbashi-ku, and there is a despatch office
at No. 3114 Higashi Honmachi, Shichome,
Moji. Mr. Kamcsaburo Yamashita is Presi-
dent of the company and the other Directors
are Messrs. Kan-iehiro Matsuki (Vice-
President), Masasuke Itani, Shigeru Hata,
and Buhei Hayashi, with Mr. Toyochiyo
Machida as Auditor.
The company owns the following steamers:
Vessel Tons
Teikoku Maru 7, 300
Yoshida Maru No. 2 6,820
Yoshida Maru No. 3 6,800
Itsukushima Maru 4,800
Komagata Maru 4,320
Buyo Maru 4,200
Bushu Maru 4,ioo
Asahi Maru 4, 100
Olaro Maru No. 2 4,100
Otaru Maru No. 3 4, 100
Togo Maru 4,000
Canton Maru 3. 700
Yechigo Maru , 3,650
Akebono Maru 3,3^0
Vesski.
Tons
Toyolomi Maru 3,300
Fnsan Maru 3, 100
Poyo Maru 3,000
.Sodcgaura Maru 1,850
This makes a total of eighteen ships, with a
deadweight tonnage of 76,620. In addition,
there are three ships under constntction
which have a combined tonnage of 24,900
tons. Vessels chartered by the company
for various fixed periods are as follows:
Vessi-x Tons
Sliinko Maru
}]'ada Maru
Asahi Maru
SJwka Maru
Anyo Maru
Chiyoda Maru ....
Tomashima Maru.
Kiyo Maru
Takashima Maru.
Miyo Maru
Ilaryo Maru
Ilciwn Maru
Kinko Maru
Kalori Maru
Toio Maru
Ginsan Maru . .
Fukuju Maru . .
Kaiko Maru
Hirato Maru
Asozan Maru ....
Choko Maru
Masaki Maru . ,
Royclsu Maru . .
Jun Maru
Shinisu Maru. . . .
Yetsuyo Maru ....
Ten-un Maru ....
. 4,600
4.,Soo
3,,S00
3,,S00
■ 3,150
2,350
2,250
2,100
. 2,100
■ 3,3.So
. 3,000
. 3,000
. 2,700
2 , 700
. 2,050
• 2,500
■ 2,350
• 2,250
■ 2,150
.2,100
■ 1,900
. 1,600
• 1 ,580
■ 1 ,500
■ 1,500
. 1,000
gio
This makes a total of twenty-seven vessels,
of an aggregate tonnage of 66,590.
The telegraphic address of the Yamashita
Steamship Co., Ltd., is "Yamashita Kobe,"
the codes used being A. B. C. 5th Edition;
A. I. Code, Scott's 1906 Edition (1909
reprint); Watkin's code and appendix, and
Bentlcy's. (See also page 190.)
THE KATSUD.\ SHOKAI
Jap.-vn is justly proud of her magnificent
merchant marine, which in these strenuous
days bears her banner to the four corners of
the earth, and demonstrates to the world
the wonderful progress that the Empire has
made. But the national pride in the great
development that has taken place is merely
the expression of the individual pride of a
few far-seeing determined men, who years
ago began the hard struggle to build the
merchant marine of Japan, and who now
see the fulfilment of all their hopes and desires
in the remarkable prosperity of the shipping
industry, which by their efforts alone has
been made a source of national wealth and
honour. Among such men Mr. Ginjiro
Katsuda occupies a conspicuous and hon-
oured position. He is one of the few who
put his faith in the future of the shipping
business of Japan, and never lost it. Through
the early days, when to establish a merchant
marine that might do credit to the Empire
seemed only the hope of a dreamer; through
the dark times of depression, when all con-
nected with shipping seemed to be threatened
with bankruptcy, Mr. Katsuda has never
doubted the future of the industry. More-
over, he has never ceased to strive with
energy and determination to foster and
develop it, staking his fortune, and devoting
all his business genius to its advancement.
If to-day Mr. Katsuda is well rewarded by
his own success for his courage and his
devotion to his life work, then every one is
ready to congratulate and thank him, for
he has rendered as much service to his coun-
try as he has to his private interests. To-day
Mr. Katsuda stands a prominent figure in
the shipping and commercial world of Japan.
As the head of the Katsuda Shokai his name
is familiar, not only throughout Japan, but
overseas, as that of a patriotic, progressive,
and highly successful merchant prince.
Mr. Katsuda was graduated from the
Aoyama Mission School in Tokyo, and then
went through a hard apprenticeship in busi-
ness, making a special study of the shipping
industry as it existed at that time. Those
who knew him at that period of his career
speak of the diligence and self-sacrificing
energy with which he applied himself to the
study of what was to be his profession in
life. After considerable experience Mr.
Katsuda established himself in business on
his own account at Kobe, opening as the
Katsuda Shokai in 1900. At that time it
looked as though the shipping business would
prosper in a modest way, but scarcely was
Mr. Katsuda fairly started than the Russo-
Japanese War intervened. The trade de-
pression that followed that conflict is one
that will long be remembered by Japanese
business men, and especially by those who
had not had the opportunity to accumulate
reserves and strengthen themselves in a
business sense. Not a few of Mr. Katsuda's
fellow merchants went into bankruptcy, and
the outlook was generally a gloomy one, but
Mr. Katsuda maintained a cool and calm
attitude through the crisis, and actually
launched out in new directions. He chartered
a few ships, which laid the foundations of
the great business which he now controls.
"/'/"ryrrrrr'^. ^^.rr -' *^'*- '*-.^- .^^,T^..^^.^^ w>s^
KAISLDA SHOKAI: S. S. " SHINBU MARU" (5,243 TOXS GROSS)— S. S. " KOAN MARU " (3,383 TONS GROSS)S. S. " BANDAI MARU '
(4,600 TONS gross) S. S. "IDE MARU " (4,364 TONS GROSS)— S. S. " SAIKAI MARU " (3,750 TONS GROSS)
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UCHIDA STEAMSHIP COMPANY, LIMITED: S. S. " TAIYU MARU " — ELEVATION OF FINE NEW PREMISES NOW IN COURSE OF
CONSTRUCTION AT KOBE
PRESENT-DA^' IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
737
The country recovered its trade buoyancy,
and with the outbreak of the great war Mr.
Katsuda's shipping investments began to
realise for him all that he had hoped for.
From chartering ships, he went into the
business of owning them, and in this con-
nection he has carried through some record
deals. A recent transaction on the part of
Mr. Katsuda is typical of the man, and will
indicate with what confidence and courage
he operates. Seven steamers were ordered
from the Osaka Iron Works for the Nippon
S. S. Company, to be launched next year.
Mr. Katsuda approached the Nippon S. S.
Co with an offer of purchase. Their reply
was that if he bought the steamers one by
one the price would be Yen 750 per ton, but
if he would take the lot the price would be
Yen 700. Apparently the idea was that
Mr. Katsuda, though a rich man, would
hesitate to pay Yen 42,000,000 for the seven
ships, but he at once closed with the offer
and paid over the cheque for Yen 8,400,000,
the amount of the deposit. This is the
biggest deal in the histor>' of Japanese ship-
ping. The steamers in question comprise
two vessels of 5,000 tons and five of 10,000
tons, a total of 60,000 tons. They are to be
finished, one a month, from June to Decem-
ber, 191 8. This purchase will give the
Katsuda Shokai a total fleet of twenty
vessels, all of the highest class, aggregating
a deadweight of 144,435 tons. Of these
twenty vessels, there are the seven now
building at the Osaka Iron Works, and the
following in course of construction: 2,200
tons, to be completed October, 191 7; 8,700
tons, January, 1918; 8,700 tons, March,
1918; 8,400 tons, March, 1919; and 10,000
tons, to be finished in August, 1918. The
vessels in commission are: Skimbu Mani
(7.735 tons); Ide Maru (6,600 tons); Shikai
Maru (5,850 tons) ; Tosan Maru (5,800 tons) ;
Kaifuku Maru (5,100 tons); Koan Maru
(4,850 tons); Yeilai Maru (4,400 tons), and
Kolchira Maru (4,100 tons). In addition to
this formidable fleet, which is a huge growth
from a few years ago, the Katsuda Shokai
is now chartering about twenty vessels of a
total of close on 50,000 tons.
The Katsuda Shokai, besides being ship-
owners, are brokers for the sale, purchase,
construction, and chartering of steamers, and
in this connection their operations are very
large. Mr. Katsuda has established a great
reputation for himself as a successful business
man. His qualities are recognised as some-
what remarkable in this business age. He
is a man of strict probity, and strong will, as
may be gathered from the determined manner
in which he has forced his business to the
front despite so many difficulties and through
times when other people were failing in all
directions. Mr. Katsuda is also noted for
his generosity and his public spirit. He has
all sympathy for the weak and unfortunate,
and he is not a man to yield to what he con-
siders is not right or fair, no matter what
pressure may be attempted from the highest
parties in the land. He donated a new
building to his Alma Mater, the Aoyama
Mission School, when general contributions
for the development of that institution were
not so liberal as expected. Mr. Katsuda is
always ready to devote all the time he can
from a very busy life to the service of the
public, from whom he had earned gratitude
and respect. He is a member of the Munic-
ipal Council of Kob^ City, and no man is
better fitted for such a position, seeing that
he pays the national tax on his interests,
amounting to much more than Yen 1,000,000
per annum, in addition to being the biggest
tax-payer in the Hyogo Prefecture. Mr.
Katsuda is also President of the Katsuda
Steamship Company, Limited, of Kobe.
The Katsuda Shokai is one of the model
businesses of its kind and is a monu-
ment to its founder. The Manager of the
concern is Mr. Y. Murata, who is also a
Director of the Katsuda Steamship Com-
pany, Limited.
THE UCHIDA TRADING COMPANY,
LIMITED
This company was founded in February,
1917, by Mr. Nobuya Uchida, already well
known for his successful direction of the
Uchida Steamship Co., Ltd., which he es-
tablished. Mr. Uchida saw a splendid op-
portunity for general trade for a company,
and in association with business friends
he created the Uchida Trading Company,
Limited, with a capital of Yen 1,000,000, of
which Yen 250,000 was at once paid up.
The new company established its head office
at No. 14 Maye Machi, Kobe, and entered
upon the general business of importers and
exporters, commission merchants, ships'
agents, and brokers for the sale, purchase, or
chartering of vessels, insurance brokers, and
manufacturers. A vigourous policy was in-
augurated, and the rapid development of the
company's interests resulted in the paid-up
capital being raised in the course of a few
months to Yen 500,000. The LTchida Trad-
ing Company, Limited, handles all lines of
metals, steel manufactures, machinery, elec-
tric accessories, cereals, chemicals, coal, pot-
tery, porcelains, piece goods, semi-porcelains,
and general merchandise. The principal im-
ports are machinery, metals, steel, chemicals,
drugs, electric parts, natural products, Indian
goods, and general lines. The exports are
mainly coal, pottery, porcelain, etc., produce
and general lines. At the date of writing
the necessary buildings for the company's
godowns, offices, etc., are under construction.
Branches of the company are established
abroad as follows: The Uchida Trading Co.,
Ltd., 120 Broadway, New York City, U. S.
A.; Uchida & Co., Ltd., 463 Mills Building,
San Francisco, U. S. A., and the Uchida
Trading Co., Ltd., No. 6 Commercial Build-
ing, Calcutta, India. The branches in Japan
are at No. i, Yayesu-cho, i chome, Koji-
machi-ku, Tokyo, No. 40 Kitahama, 3 chome,
Higashi-ku, Osaka, and No. 3 Minami Ot-
sucho, Nakaku, Nagoya. Mr. Nobuya
Uchida is President of the company and
the other principal officers are Messrs.
Hironobu Kurasawa, and Kawazoye Tanei-
chiro, Managing Directors, and Mr. Naka-
mura Daizo, Director.
THE UCHIDA RISEN KABUSHIKI KAISHA
(the UCHIDA STEAMSHIP CO., LIMITEd)
The Uchida Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha
is the creation of Mr. Nobuya Uchida, who
is associated prominently with several large
and important enterprises centred in Kob^.
This shipping company came into existence
as lately as the end of 1914, but it has
developed rapidly, and now takes a promi-
nent place in the Japanese mercantile marine.
Originally the capital of the company was
only Yen 250,000, but owing to the rapid
expansion of the company's interests and
the necessity for a continual strengthening
of the fleet to take care of all the transporta-
tion offering, the capital has now been
increased to Yen 10,000,000. The Uchida
fleet, sailing under the blue and white house
flag that has become so well known all over
the East and farther abroad, comprises the
following ships: Unkai Maru II, 6,300 tons,
deadweight capacity; Fukui Maru, 5,950
tons; Aikoku Maru, 4,720 tons; Taisho
Maru, 4,500 tons; Tailo Maru, 4,500 tons;
Urusan Maru, 3,600 tons; Kyodo Maru No.
13, 2,800 tons, and Sorachi Maru, 2,150 tons.
In addition, the following vessels are now
under construction, some of them to be
completed at a very early date: Taiyu Maru,
8,700 tons; Taigi Maru, 7,000 tons; Taimei
Maru, 1,500 tons; Taishin Maru, 1,500 tons;
Tatki Maru, 1,200 tons, and five cargo
steamers of from 1,000 to 2,000. The total
of this fleet, in commission or building, is
62,820 tons.
Mr. Uchida, President of the Uchida
Steamship Co., Ltd., has as his co-directors
Messrs. Kasahara Taneji and Kawazoye
Taneichiro. The company's head office is
at No. 14 Maye-machi, Kobe. Through the
Uchida Trading Company, Limited, the
Uchida Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha is repre-
sented abroad at New York, San Francisco,
and Calcutta.
GOKO SHOKAI, LTD.: S. S. "TAIYO MARU"— THE KOBE PREMISES — A CORNER OF THE KODE OFFICES
PRRSENT-UAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
739
KOBE SHIPPIN'G OFFICE OF OKAZAKI STEAMSHIP CO., LTD. — S. S. NISSEI MARU, ONE OF THE COMPANY S SHIPS
GOKO SHOKAI, LIMITED
This business was founded in 1913 by
Mr. K. Kawachi and his partners for the
purpose of engaging in shipping enterprises
generally, and it is admitted to have been
strikingly successful, thanks to the efficient
management and long experience in mercan-
tile and shipping alTairs of the founder. The
head office of the partnership was estalilished
at Kobe, and the firm quickly demonstrated
its pro^iressive character and the vigour of
its operations by taking over the North
Korean Regular Service. In 191 5 two cargo
steamers of the a,ooo-ton class, one of 5,300
tons, and one of 5,800 tons, were purchased,
and the Goko Shokai further firmly estab-
lished itself as a strong shipping concern by-
disposing of three vessels at a favourable
price, and contracting for newer and better
types of steamers. Unceasing attention to
the shipping situation gave the concern a
high reputation, and no difficulty whatever
was experienced in 1916 in transforming the
partnership into a limited liability company.
The new company, under the direction of
Mr. Kawachi, continued the earlier policy
of expansion, and two new 5,500-ton class
steamers, two of ,^,000 tons, one of 1,800 tons,
and a coasting steamer of 820 tons were
acquired in 1916 and 191 7. These vessels
have been engaged all over the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian Oceans. One vessel was
lost in 1916. Besides the fleet actually in
commission at the end of October, 191 7, the
Goko Shokai, Limited, then had under con-
struction three steamers, one of which, a
vessel of 6,800 tons deadweight capacity,
built under the Isherwood System, was near
completion. The company's fleet consists
of the following vessels:
S. S. Ume Mara .
5,700 tons D.
W.
S. S. Taiyo Maru
5,500 tons D.
W.
vS. S. Komakata Maru ....
4,320 tons D.
W.
S. S. Satsuki Maru
3,200 tons D.
w.
S. S. Ckiyoda Maru 11.-.
1,850 tons D.
w.
S. S. Kotohira JII
1,899 tons D.
w.
S. S. Shinsei II
820 tons D.
w.
New steamer (building) . .
6,800 tons D.
w.
New steamer (building) . .
2,000 tons D.
\v.
New steamer (building) . .
2,000 tons D.
w.
Total deadweight capacity.
34,089 tons.
Mr. Kawachi, President of the Goko
Shokai, Limited, is a graduate of the Imperial
Japanese Mercantile Marine School. He
served for twenty- five years as Chief Engineer
and Superintendent Engineer of the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha, and was also Shipbuilding
Superintendent of the South Manchuria
Railway Co., Ltd. For his services during
the Sino- Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars,
when he was engaged in transport work,
Mr. Kawachi was decorated with the Order
of Merit of the fifth class. It was with this
experience at his command that Mr. Kawachi
decided to establish the Goko Shokai as
ship-owners, ship and freight brokers, and
engineering surveyors, etc.
THE OKAZAKI STEAMSHIP COMPANY,
LIMITED
This is one of the pioneer shipping com-
panies of Japan and was founded by
Mr. Tokichi Okazaki, w'ho has had over
thirty years' experience of the mercantile
marine, and may be regarded as one of the
[jioneers of the overseas transportation
interests of Japan. In the old days all his
%te
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FRONT ELEVATION OF NEW PREMISES OF HASHIMOTO SHOJI KAHLSHIKl KAISHA AT KOBE — S. S. "KURAMASAN MARU,
ONE OF THE COMPANY'S STEAMERS
I' R 1^ S K N T - D A ^' IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
741
ships had the prefix of "Nichi," so that they
could be readily distinguished from others,
and ships of the " Nichi Line," as it was
called, were well known in British waters,
long before the present war gave such a
stimulus to Japan's shipping in foreign fields.
Although doing a substantial business at
that time, the Okazaki Steamship Co., Ltd.,
has expanded its interests very widely since
the war broke out, its ocean freight services
including American as well as European
routes. Until a comparatively recent date
the company owned thirteen ships, but when
the great demand for hulls arose, the oldest
vessels were sold at good prices, and
the proceeds held for future investment.
At the time of writing the Okazaki
Company owns the following six vessels,
which have a tonnage of approximately
18,000: Tokai Maru, Nichizo Maru, Nissei
Maru, Nisshu Maru, Nichihoku Maru, and
Nichinan Maru.
The President of the company is Mr.
Tokichi Okazaki, and the Managing Director
is his son, Mr. Tadao Okazaki. The head
office of the company is No. 56 Naniwa
Machi, Kob^.
HASHIMOTO SHOJI KABUSHIKI KAISHA
A FEATURE of the industrial expansion of
Japan is the manner in which large com-
mercial combinations have sprung up, having
for their object the coordination of effort
between different departments of commerce.
At the head of this movement will be found
some of the principal men of the country,
such, for instance, as the Messrs. T. Hashi-
moto, Sr., and K. Hashimoto. The former
is a member of the House of Peers and the
latter, his brother, is a member of the House
of Representatives. These two gentlemen,
who are very closely associated with the
commercial affairs of Japan, are the principals
of the Hashimoto Steamship Co., Ltd., and
many other organisations. They founded
the Hashimoto Shoji Kabushiki Kaisha, or
Hashimoto Trading Co., I>td., by combining
the activities of two firms that had been
carrying on business for over forty years,
the one at Nagasaki and the other at Sasebo,
chiefly dealing in ships' supplies, machinery
and materials for mining, railways, etc.
Since the amalgamation of these interests
the Hashimoto Trading Co., Ltd., has
extended its operations in many directions.
in keeping with the expansion of the circle
of Japan's commercial influence. The com-
pany not only carries on the original bu.siness
of the two firms refererd to, but it has
established a shipping department, and also
a department for the import and export of
every class of commodity required in Japan,
or needed by other countries. The capital
of the company is Yen 5,000,000. Its
activities comprise the ownership and man-
agement of steamers, the manufacture of
electrical supplies and other lines, and deal-
ing in all kinds of metals, machinery, fire-
bricks, chemicals, graphite, etc., for export.
To mention a few of the export items, they
are, besides those just stated, rice and other
cereals, silk and silk goods, cotton goods,
camphor, natural produce, shell buttons,
porcelain, glassware, lacquer ware, hemp
and chip braids, matches, matting, wooden
and bamboo wares, etc. Mr. T. Hashimoto,
Sr.. President of the company, is also Presi-
dent of the Nagasaki Chamber of Commerce,
besides being on the directorate of several
other enterprises. His brother, Mr. K.
Hashimoto, is Managing Director, and is
also President of the Hashimoto Steamship
:~:3
-^smm^mB^am
S. S. "gEXMEI maru" and S. S. "sENKAI maru," of the fleet of UYENISHI SHOKWAI (UYENISHI SHIPPING CO.)
48
KOBfe TOWA STEAMSHIP CO., LTD.: TVl'E OK STKAMEK OWNED bV THE LOMTANV, s. s. ' lOTAI MARU " —
THE HEAD OFFICE — ANOTHER OF THE COMPANY'S STEAMERS, S. S. " ASAMA MARL"
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
743
Company, which has a capital of Yen lo,-
000,000. Members of both families are
shareholders in the Hashimoto Trading Co.,
Ltd.
The plans of the directorate of this pro-
gressive concern for further expansion are
by no means complete. Large though the
scale of the company's present-day opera-
tions are, it is intended to multiply the
company's activities and widen its circle
of business, as fast as the opportunity arises.
E.xpansion is the constant idea of the direc-
torate and the staffs of the various depart-
ments. Foreign trade is being vigourously
developed, and the aim of the Messrs.
Hashimoto is not only to extend their own
commercial influence, but to assist in the
expansion of Japan's interests generally.
Their cooperation in the country's progress
is already a valuable factor and is recognised
by the commercial community at large.
THE KOBE TOWA STEAMSHIP COMPANY
LIMITED
This company is a development of the
Tungho and Company concern, well known
for its widespread interests in Manchuria.
Tungho and Company was established in
1907 in Newchvvang, China, and started a
general business comprising shipping, the
_ maintenance of godowns and wharves, coal-
ing, the spinning of thread and cotton yarn,
and the export of special Manchurian
products. The business developed to a
considerable extent and branches were
established at Dairen, Lungkow, Tsingtao,
Kob^, and Osaka. In 1913 the shipping
interest of Tungho and Company w-as made
independent, a new organisation known as
the Kob^ Towa Steamship Co., Ltd., being
formed with a capital of Yen 1,000,000. At
the same time, the new concern purchased a
fleet of ships from the Gomel Kaisha Towa
Koshi, the fleet comprising the Asama Maru
(6,900 tons), Towa Maru (4,500 tons),
Tokei Maru (3,600 tons), Toryu Maru
(2,850 tons), Total Maru and Toyu Maru
(each 5,200 tons), Kissho Maru (3,200 tons),
and the Longyu Maru (2,500 tons). With
such a fleet of fine modern ships the Kobe
Towa S. S. Co., Ltd., entered upon the
freight transportation business on the high
seas and in waters adjacent to Japan, and
the rapid expansion of business led to the
increase of the capital to Yen 10,000,000,
and a further demand for ships. At the
present time the company has under con-
struction six freight carriers aggregating
20,000 tons. The entire capital has been
paid up, and the company is in a strong
financial position, being supported in its
directorate by some of the best known men
in Japanese business circles. The President
is Mr. K. Kikuchi, who is also President of
the Maizuru Coal Mining Co., Ltd., which
is capitalized at Yen 1,000,000. Other
Directors are Messrs. S. Tsuda and M. Toda.
The head office of the Kobd Towa Steamship
Co., Ltd., is at No. 26, Kaigan-dori, Kob^.
THE TAISHO STEAMSHIP COMPANY,
LIMITED
The prosperous nature of the Japanese
shipping industry is well illustrated in the
case of the Taisho Steamship Company,
Ltd., of Kob6, which has been established
less than two years, and yet is making such
profits as yield up to 60 per cent on the
paid-up capital. This company was founded
in March, 1916, with a view to trade in home
waters. Three small steamers of less than
1,000 tons each were purchased, but the
business turned out to be so successful that
larger ships were decided upon, and the
Bandai Maru and Ikoma Maru, each of
over 4,500 tons, were acquired. In April,
1917, the company's capital was increased
from the original Yen 500,000 to Yen i,-
500,000. The two large ships were leased
to a foreign Government on the most profit-
able terms, and the three small steamers with
which the company started its operations
were sold at a profit of Yen 580,000. With
the proceeds of this sale two new ships, each
of 2,000, were bought, and were chartered
to other owners for use on safe ocean routes.
The Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd., is now
having constructed by the Osaka Iron Works,
Ltd., a new freight steamer of 6,900 tons.
To carry out a further construction policy
the capita] is to be increased to Yen 5,000,000.
The main object of the company is to pur-
chase or build ships and charter them while
the present advantageous rates last. This
means that immediately ships are leased the
profits of the concern can be readily calcu-
lated. For the first two months of operation
the dividend was 15 per cent per annum.
In the second period, covering six months,
the dividend was increased jto 30 per cent.
The third period realised 40 per cent, and
it is anticipated that for the six months
ending November 30, 1917, the dividend
will reach 60 per cent, with still another
increase in the future. The company owns a
tonnage of 25,600, the value of tke' ships
being conservatively estimated at Yen
15,000,000, which is a large figure for a
concern with a capital of only Yen 1,500,000.
It is confidently anticipated on the basis
of present charters that the revenue of the
Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd., for the six
months ending May 31, 1918, will be Yen
3,064,755, and this will leave a net profit
of approximately Yen 2,088,000. From the
advances in prices alone, since the company
was formed, the ships owned show a profit
on the books of over Yen 3,000,000. The
prospects of the Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd.,
are exceedingly bright. Following are the
principal officials of the company: Managing
Directors, Messrs. Y. Fukuhara, S. Maye-
kawa, and Y. Tsujimura; Directors, Messrs.
C. Ito, M. Ishikawa, Y. Matsushiro, and
N. Kishimoto; Auditors, Messrs. C. Ito,
S. Kawanishi, and G. Takahi. The com-
pany's fleet to-day comprises the Bankoku
Maru (9,400 tons D. W.), Ikoma Maru
(4,600 tons D. W.), Taki Maru (1,900 tons
D. W.), Jun MarU. (1,600 tons D. W.),
Fukusan Maru (1,400 tons D. W.), and a new
steamer of 6,900 tons under construction. The
head office of the Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd.,
is at No. 49, Sakayemachi, Nichome, Kob6.
NISSHIN SHIPPING AGENCY COMPANY,
LIMITED
This company is closely associated with
the Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd., and trans-
acts a large business as brokers for the sale
and purchase of steamers, brokers for charter
and freight, and as general shipping agents,
etc. The Nisshin Shipping Agency Co.,
Ltd., was founded in 1902, and its capital
is Yen 50,000. Messrs. Y. Fukuhara, Y.
Tsujimura, and J. Tanaka were the founders,
and later on they were instrumental in form-
ing the Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd., which
has been a highly successful venture. These
gentlemen are Managing Directors of both
concerns. The Nisshin Shipping Agency
Co., Ltd., occupies a three-story stone and
brick building at No. 49 Sakayemachi,
Nichome, Kob6, the business employing a
staff of fifteen and being known to the
Japanese as the Nisshin Kaiun Shokai
Kabushiki Kaisha. Agents are appointed
in London, Christiania, Singapore, Hongkong,
Shanghai, San Francisco, Manila, Sydney,
and Melbourne.
AMASAKI HONTEN
The family name of Amasaki is very
prominent in all affairs of the Osaka and
Kob^ centres. It is to the fore in all busi-
ness and industrial projects, and is closely
associated with many successful under-
takings, and with enterprises of special
value to the Japanese Empire. Mr. Isaburo
Amasaki is the head of the family, and in
that capacity controls the various under-
takings which are so widely known under
his name. The Amasaki interests are purely
under private ownership. There is no com-
pany combination, but everything is directed
from the Amasaki Honten, or head office at
Osaka. The business may be divided into
four departments. From the head office
at No. 175 Shimofukushima, 3rd street,
744
1- R !•: S K N T - I) A Y
I M I' R H S S I O N S
O
J A P A \
i
NEW KOBE PREMISES OF TAISHO KISEN KAISHA (TAISHO STEAMSHIP CO., LTD.)
Kita-ku, Osaka, the other departments are
controlled. The head office also handles
the mining enterprises of the family, and
attends to the leasing and building of prop-
erties and general direction of the real
estate.
The Amasaki Steamship Department is
at No. 7 Tomiimaacho, Kita-ku, Osaka, and
has its branches at other centres in Osaka,
as well as at Kobe, Takamatsu, Shimonoseki,
W'akamatsu, Sasebo, Nagasaki, and Gunsan,
Korea, besides controlling about eighty
agents at various places. This department
has about thirty steamers regularly plying
between Japanese ports and Korea, and to
Vladivostock and ports in North China.
The Amasaki Steamship Line has been in
existence for very many years and has
rendered excellent service to Japan in main-
taining regular communication with Asia,
as well as serving the Empire in time of
need. In both the China- Japan and Russo-
Japanese wars, the department placed its
steamers at the disposal of the Government
for naval and military use. Again, in the
Japanese operations against Tsingtao in
1915, the steamers of this line were utilised
by the Imperial Navy and Army Depart-
ments, and some of them took part in the
engagements against the Germans. The
policy of the Amasaki Steamship Depart-
ment is specially directed toward the opening
up of Korea. Mails are carried between
Japan and Korea without any remuneration
to the department, and so valuable have
been the services rendered that Mr. Amasaki
was awarded the Taikyoku Decoration of
the Fourth Class by the ex-Emperor of
Korea.
A CORNER IN THE KOb6 OFFICES OF NISSHIN KAILN SHOK.\I (nISSHIN SHIPPING AGENCY CO., LTD.)
^ T^ ^V ^ y^r
AMASAKI HONTEN:
SHiri'ING OFFICE OF THE CO.Ml'AW AT OSAKA — S. S. AKAGI MARU, TYPE OF THE COMPANY S STEAMERS
(this ship WAS FORMERLY A CHINESE GUNBOAT, CAPTURED BY THE JAPANESE) —
MR. AMASAKl's GENERAL BUSINESS OFFICES AND RESIDENCE AT OSAKA
746
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
The Amasaki Shipbuilding Department is
at No. 7 Tomijiniacho, Kita-ku, Osaka.
Iron works, machine shops, and dockyards
have been established at No. 52, Honda,
Nishi-ku. The shipbuilding yards are at
No. 26 Nambajima, and also at No. 155
Shinsumiyacho, Nishi-ku, Osaka. The de-
partment builds and repairs ships for the
use of the Amasaki Steamship Department,
and is also carrying on an extensive con-
struction work for ships that are leased to
other companies. One instance of the
capacity of the shipbuilding department
is that the gunboat Akagt, which fought
so bravely at the Battle of the Yellow Sea
in the China-Japan War, was bought by
Mr. Amasaki, and was reconstructed by the
Shipbuilding Department. She was then
given the name of the Akagi Martt, and is
now plying in the coastal trade, reminding
the Japanese perpetually of the bravery of
Commander Sakamoto, who was in com-
mand of her at the battle.
The Amasaki Cultivation Department is
at 4th Street Nishi, Saikemachi, Amagasaki
City, Hyogo Prefecture. This department
carries on a valuable work of colonisation
and farm settlement. At present about 740
acres of land are leased for agriculture, close
attention being given to all matters per-
taining thereto.
Mr. Amasaki was born in Amagasaki
City in 1867, and succeeded to the family
interests on the death of his father in 1903.
He wasamemberof theOsaka City Assembly,
and is a member of the Osaka Chamber of
Commerce, a member of the House of Peers,
and holds the rank of Fourth Merit. Besides
these honours, Mr. Amasaki is a director of
the Hokoku Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., the
Yachiyo Life Insurance Co., Auditor for
the Osaka Soda Co., Ltd., Adviser for the
Toyo Waterworks and Wood Pipe Co., and
the Nippon Chemical Oil Refining Co. In
addition, he is on the consulting committees
of over twenty other companies. Mr.
Amasaki's private address is No. 175, Shimo-
Fukushima, 3rd St., Kita-ku, Osaka.
THE JAPAN STEAMSHIP COMPANY,
LIMITED
This is one of the Japanese shipping com"
panics which has come prominently to the
fore with the strong advance in the marine
interests of the Empire. The Nippon Kisen
Kabushiki Kaisha, as it is called in Japanese,
was formed in December, 19 15, with a capital
of Yen 10,000,000, the greater part of the
capital being furnished by Mr. F. Kuhara,
the principal of the Kuhara Mining Co.,
Ltd. Mr. Kuhara's progressive spirit is
well known in Japan, and when his interest
is attached to any enterprise it generally
means success. The following ships were diary for the ])urchase, sale, and chartering
built for the company: of steamers, as well as for freight brokerage.
Where Constructed
Name
Tonnage
Date of Launching
Uraga Dock
Uraga Maru
3.500
April, 1916
Osaka Iron Works .
Yezaki Mam
5,200
May, 19 16
Osaka Iron Works.
Totai Maru
5,200
May, 1916
Osaka Iron Works .
Hirano Maru
1,830
July, 19 16
Osaka Iron Works .
Mikage Maru
1,830
Aug., 1916
Harima Dock
Misaki Maru
1.770
Sept., 1916
Osaka Iron Works .
Taki Maru
1,875
April, 1917
Osaka Iron Works .
Masaki Maru
1.875
May, 19 1 7
Osaka Iron Works .
Fuku Maru
6,800
Aug., 1917
Osaka Iron Works
Yaniato Maru
6,800
Oct., 1917
This was a fairly vigourous rate of con-
struction for a new company, but even so,
the Directors promptly entered into a con-
tract with the Osaka Iron Works, Ltd., to
construct 60,000 tons of new ships annually
for five years from 1917. This in itself
would soon bring the Japan Steamship Co.,
Ltd., U]) among the leaders in the shipping
industry, but, not content with this progress,
the company has now purchased a site of
1 ,240 acres near Kasado Bay, at Kudamatsu,
Yamaguchi Prefectiu-e, where the Kuhara
people have started a shipbuilding yard.
The construction work is now well in hand,
and materials and plant have been pur-
chased. The Japan Steamship Co., Ltd.,
plans to lay down by May, 1918, ten
berths capable of building vessels of 10,000
tons each. In addition, workshops and
equipment are being provided to carry on
general steel construction work, and to
turn out boilers and engines. When the
yards and plant are completed the company
will be able to build 200,000 tons of ships
per annum.
The head office of the company is at
No. 17 Harimacho, Kobe, and there is
a branch office at No. 90 Kitahama,
Ni-chome, Osaka. The Directors of the
Japan Steamship Co., Ltd., are: Messrs.
T. Tamura (President), S. Nakayama (Man-
aging Director), and K. Takenouchi. The
Auditors are Messrs. H. Nishimura and
S. Yamaoka.
THE MEIJI BUSSAN COMPANY, LIMITED
The origin of this company dates back to
January, 191 1, when the Meiji Bussan Goshi
Kaisha, a private concern, was started, to
deal in coral and general merchandise. In
August, 191 6, the Meiji Bussan Company,
Ltd., was formed, and took over the entire
interests of the former concern, at the same
time extending the old business and opening
up new lines of activity. The paid-up
capital of the company to-day is \'en 200,000,
and its main business is acting as interme-
In the comparatively short time that the
company has been handling this class of
business it has effected the purchase or sale
of six vessels, of a deadweight capacity of
35,800 tons, and has arranged time charters
of forty-five vessels, of 22,510 tons dead-
weight, including fifteen vessels which have
still to be delivered. The head office of
the Meiji Bussan Company, Limited, is at
No. 19 Kaigan-dori, Kobe. Mr. Tosataro
Yamaji is the Managing Director of the
company.
THE MEIDAI STEAMSHIP CO.NHWNY,
LIMITED
Closely associated with the Meiji Bussan
Company, Ltd., is the Meidai Steamship
Co., Ltd., which is rapidly coming to the
front among the shipping interests of Japan.
The company was formed in 1916 with a
paid-up capital of Yen 500,000, and at once
took up charters of several ships, besides
placing orders for the construction of others.
The chartered vessels running in the interests
of this enterprising young company are as
follows :
Shinchiku Maru 4,500 tons D. W.
Asosan Maru 2,100 tons D. W.
Suki Maru 5, 100 tons D. W.
Teiko Maru 1,800 tons D. W.
Total 1,^.500 tons D. W.
The Meidai Steamship Co., Ltd., has
under construction the very latest model of
freighter, to be known as the Meidai Maru.
She is of 3,500 tons D. W., and is being
built by the Uraga Dockyard Co., Ltd. In
addition, there are two wooden ships, each
of 1,600 tons D. W., under construction, so
that presently the company will have a
strong fleet. Mr. Tosataro Yamaji is the
Managing Director of the company, which
has its office at No. 19 Kaigan-dori,
Kob^.
NIPPON KISEN KABUSHIKI KAISHA (jAPAN STEAMSHIP CO., LTD.): THE KOBE OFFICES — VIEW OF THE SITE OF THE NEW
SHIPBUILDING YARD AT KUDAMATSUCHO, YAMAGUCHI PREFECTURE — THE OSAKA OFFICES
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
TYPE OF STEAMER OWNED BY THE MEIJI BUSSAN CO., LTD., AND THE MEIDAI STEAMSHIP CO., LTD.
KABUSHIKI KAISHA SHOSHO YOKO
The full description of this extremely-
successful enterprise with its numerous inter-
ests embracing Shipping, Mining, Imports
and Exports, etc., will be found in the Tokyo
and Yokohama Shipping Section of this
volume. The important and somewhat
different nature of the firm's business at
Kobe warrants independent mention.
The Kobe branch was established three
years ago in small premises which have
recently given place to well appointed and
commodious offices in the foreign commercial
and business district of the port. The prin-
cipal business is the importation of coal from
China, the product of the Kailan Mining
Administration, to the extent of about
700,000 tons annually. Thirty-two steamers
chartered by the Shosho Yoko, representing
a total tonnage of more than 77,000,
are engaged solely in this business, and the
exportation of timber from Hokkaido and
Saghalien on the return trip. This timber is
utilised for construction purposes, but prin-
cipally for mining-props.
In view of the great strides made by the
apaii shipping business, the Shosho Yoko has
also branched out into the shipbuilding busi-
ness, the yard being located at Yoshiura, but
under the direction of the Kobe office. This
new venture has made excellent progress,
since, although barely a year in operation, it
now employs about 1,300 hands and six
engineers.
Two steamers of 1,500 tons each have
already been launched and three other vessels
of an average of 2,000 tons each are well
advanced. Further, it is expected that work
on two steamers of 6,000 tons each will
shortly be commenced. The capacity of the
yard is at present about 20,000 tons annually.
The Kobe branch is under the management
of Mr. T. Ogawa, with Mr. K. Inaishi as
assistant manager, and a staff of eighteen
clerks.
As pointed out in the other article on this
firm (see page 192), Mr. T. Y'amamoto, the
senior partner and founder, is active in the
personal supervision of all his interests
THE OCEAN TRANSPORT CO., LIMITED
The Ocean Transport Co., Ltd., is at
present operating a fleet of 23 steamers,
representing an aggregate of 150,000 tons.
and this despite the fact that the company
has not yet been a year in operation. There
is an air of purpose about the whole enterprise
which impresses, and if the reason is some-
what intangible on the one hand, there is
plenty of solid justification for the prediction
that it will "go far" in the persons of the
following directors and advisers: Mr. C. Ito,
whose interests receive special description
elsewhere in this publication; Mr. T. Idichi,
equally prominently associated with the
foreign trade of Japan; Mr. N. Hatsui, well
known in Japanese banking circles, and Mr.
G. Takabe, also widely known in legal circles.
The phenomenal success achieved by Mr.
G. Katsuda, special advisor to the company,
is dealt with in one of the most interesting
notices of this Kobe Shipping Section.
The Ocean Transport Co., Ltd., maintains
regular freight services over the following
routes: Japan-Pacific Service, Kobe and
Yokohama to Seattle, tivo to three steamers
monthly; Kob6 and Yokohama to San Fran-
cisco, one steamer monthty. Chin.a-P.acific
Service, from Dairen, calling at Tientsin,
Cliin-Wang-Tao, Hongkong, and Manila, to
Seattle and San Francisco, one steamer
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS O F J A I' A N
749
KOBE OFFICES OF KABUSHIKI KAISHA SHOSHO YOKO
monthly. Singapore-Pacific Service, from
Singapore to Seattle and San Francisco, three
or fot-ir steamers monthly. Calcutta-Cev-
LON-P.-^ciFic Service, from Calcutta and
Colombo to Seattle and San Francisco, one
steamer monthly. The company carries
freight only, and is unique insomuch that it is
practically the only concern thus operating.
The Managing Directors are Messrs. T.
Ishida and T. Hirota, both of whom are well
known experts in the marine transportation
business, having had many years' experi-
ence abroad.
THE SOUTH SEA MAIL STEAMSHIP CO.,
LIMITED (naNYO YUSEN KAISHA, LTD.)
This company was founded in October,
19 1 2, consequently the founders claim for
themselves a place amongst those keen busi-
ness men who foresaw the future maritime
greatness of Japan in the normal times prior
to the war. The founders of the company,
Messrs. K. Oaki, M. Itaya, R. Matsumoto,
S. Saiki, and the late J. Harada, Esq., still
constitute the Board of Directors, of course
with the exception of Mr. J. Harada, whose
place has been taken by his son, Mr. R.
Harada, as President of the enterprise. The
capital of the company is Yen 1,500,000, the
interest on which is guaranteed by Govern-
ment subsidy, though the following steamers
owned by them represent a far larger sum:
S. S. Rio jun Maru (G. T., 4,731), S. S.
Borneo Maru (G. T., 3,916), S. S. Banri
Maru (G. T., 3,247), and the S. S. Hokuto
Maru (G. T., 3,046).
A regular three weekly freight and passen-
ger service is maintained between Japan and
the Dutch East Indian ports. On the out-
ward voyage the steamers leave Kob6 for
Sourabaya, via Moji, Hongkong, Batavia,
and Semarang, and homeward botmd from
Semarang to Yokohama, call at Macassar,
Balikpapan, Hongkong, Moji, and Kobe.
The South Sea Mail Steamship Co., Ltd.,
is excellently represented at all ports of call
by the following well known houses: Yama-
gataya Kaisoten, Yokohama; Oguri Goshi
Kaisha, Moji; Dodwell & Co., Ltd., Hong-
kong; Maclaine, Watson & Co., Batavia;
Eraser, Eaton & Co., Sourabaya; McNeill
& Co., Semarang; Michael Stephens & Co.,
Macassar, and the Bataafsche Petroleum
Maatschappij at Balikpapan.
The Managing Director is Mr. R. Matsu-
moto, and the General Manager is Mr. S. Saiki.
MITSUBISHI GOSHI KAISHA, SHIPPING
BUREAU (kOBE)
The historj' of this great enterprise, long
since internationally famous, and what it
has done to aid in Japan's great struggle for
commercial and industrial recognition, is
dealt with in the Tokyo section of this
book. Although the Mitsubishi has ex-
tensively operated a large fleet of its
own steamers for a number of years, it
is only recently (October, 19 16) that it
was found necessary to open the above
Bureau.
Eighteen of the company's own steamers,
a total tonnage of 30,649, are under the direct
management of the Bureau, with an addi-
tional fifteen chartered vessels, bringing the
grand total tonnage up to 56,991. The
whole fleet is engaged in the transportation
of coal, general cargo, and iron ore, from
Tayeh, China, to the Government iron
foundry at Yamata, Kyushu. Various ves-
sels of the fleet have been specially con-
structed for the ore-carrying trade, a good
example of which is the Matsura Maru,
shown in the accompanying illustration in
the process of unloading with powerful
cranes at Yamata Quay.
750
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
^!i
KOBE OFFICES OF THE OCEAN TRANSPORT CO., LTD.
The Kobe premises, also shown in the
illustration, cover a considerable area, and
are housed in one of the finest buildings
in the port.
The following list of steamers owned by
the company, ranging from 1,000 to 4,000
tons, will give a comprehensive impression
of the important manner in which the ship-
ping business has developed:
Tomiura. Maru, Maisura Maru, Fukura
Mam, Daiya Maru, Wakamatsu Maru,
Toyora Maru, Kalsura Maru, Ichiro Maru,
Nagaura Maru, Yenoura Maru, Yoshiura
Mam, Holaka Maru, Jiro Maru, Sahuro
Maru, Shiro Maru, Goro Maru, Rcikiiro
Maru, Ilichiro Maru.
THE JAPAN MARINE ENGINEERING &
SALVAGE CO., LIMITED
With the great rise in the shipping in-
dustry' of Japan it is natural to expect to
find an organisation on modem lines for the
salvaging of ships that experience serious
trouble, and such a concern exists in the
Nippon Kaiji Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha, or
Japan Marine Engineering & Salvage Co.,
Ltd. This company was established through
the efforts of Captain T. Chiura, one of the
most experienced shipping men in Japan.
Captain Chiura was for over nineteen years
in the service of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha
and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha in the capacity
of Marine Superintendent. He realised the
necessity for a strong salvage corporation to
take care of the vastly increased volume of
shipping in Japanese waters, and it was by
his efforts that the company of which he is
now the Managing Director was organised.
There were, of course, salvage companies
before that time, but the shipping interests
and underwriters were in general agreement
that there was need for an amalgamation and
strengthening of the salvage, plants available.
Captain Chiura succeeded in combining the
plants of the Messrs. S. Matsuda, R. Yama-
shina, and the Salvage Department of the
Mitsubishi Company. Mr. Matsuda had
been engaged in the business with three
salvage vessels and six crews of men since
1906. Mr. Yamashina's outfit comprised
three vessels and seven crews, and had
originated as far back as 1883. The Mitsu-
bishi Salvage Department comprised two
steamers and crews. By this combination
the Japan Marine Engineering & Salvage Co.,
Ltd., secured a good workable plant and a
large number of e.\perienced officers and men
The company was formed with a capital of
Yen 5,000,000, of which Yen 2,000,000 has
been paid up. The principal shareholders
are the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Osaka Shosen
Kaisha, Toyo Kisen Kaisha, Nisshin Kisen
Kaisha, and several other well known
companies and private ship-owners, as well
as such representative underwriting concerns
as the Kobe Marine Transport and Fire
Insurance Co., Ltd., Tokj'O Marine Insur-
ance Co., Ltd., Osaka Marine and Fire
Insurance Co., Ltd., and the Imperial
Marine Transport and Fire Insurance Co.,
Ltd.
The Japan Marine Engineering & Salvage
Co., Ltd., has eight salvage ships, ranging
from the Oura Maru, a vessel of 672 tons
gross, and 12 knots speed, fitted with wireless,
and rated 100 A. i. at Lloyds, down to the
Hiei Maru of 126 tons gross. There are 230
sets of French diving apparatus, and 54 sets
of English, and the ships are fitted with all
other necessary appliances and plant, such as
high-powered centrifugal, steam and oil
driven pumps, lighters, anchors, cable, etc.
The employees of the company include about
40 engineers, 1 1 6 divers, 20 diving carpenters.
IKflyS-JftIi:
1
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^^■'
1
!
1
ii
si
i
MITSUBISHI GOSHI KAISHA SHIPPING BUREAU, KOBE: SHIPPING BUREAU AND BANKING PREMISES AT KOBE — "mATSURA MARU," TYPE OF
SPECIAL MITSUBISHI ORE FREIGHTER — S. S. "tOMIURA MARU," TYPE OF CARGO VESSEL
70-
P K 1<; S E N T - D A Y I M 1' R !•: S S I O X S OF J A PAN
SOUTH SEA MAIL STEAMSHIP CO., LTD. (nANYO YUSEN KAISHA, LTD.): BUILDING IN WHICH THE COMPANY'S OFFICES ARE LOCATED-
TYPE OF VESSEL OWNED BY THE COMPANY
80 diving smiths, and 300 riggers and work-
men, all of long experience in their work.
Of course, the best testimony to the capac-
ity of such a company is the work it has
already carried out, and in this connection
the Japan Marine Engineering & Salvage Co.,
Ltd., can claim a brilliant record. It has
worked on such big salvage jobs as the S. S.
Minnesota, 20,718 tons, the S. S. Dakota, of
similar tonnage, the S. S. Empress of China,
the S. S. Tetlus, the Haddon Hall, Ctunny
Castle, and Saxonia, besides a score of other
undertakings, some of tremendous difficulty.
The head office of the company is at
Yedobori Kamidori, Nishi-ku, Osaka. There
are branches at Tokyo, Moji, Hakodate,
and Otaru, and the company has as agents
the Osaka Shosen Kaisha at Hongkong, the
Nisshin Kisen Kaisha at Shanghai, the
Mitsubishi Companj^, London Branch, at
London, and the Goko Shokai at Kob6.
Captain Chiura and his expert staff are ready
to undertake any salvage or marine work
that falls within the scope of the company.
The telegraphic address is
and the codes, A. B. C.
Bentley's
"Salvage," Osaka,
5th Edition, and
SHIPPING AND WARE-
HOUSE COMPANIES,
ETC.
THE KOBE PIER COMPANY, LIMITED
The Kobe Sanbashi Kabushiki Kaisha,
or Kobe Pier Company, Ltd., was established
in 1884, and may fairly claim to be one of
the pioneers and present-day leaders in the
business of shipping, towing, transporting,
stevedoring, and similar work in the ports of
Kobe and Osaka. As the name implies the
company is also interested in the construction
and management of wharves and piers,
though at present its main business is other-
wise. It must be admitted, however, that
the early work done by the company was a
decided factor in the development of the
trade of the Port of Kob^. Shortly after its
establishment the Kobe Sanbashi Kaisha
constructed a pier to faciUtate the mooring
of steamers, and the loading and discharging
of cargoes. In 1909 this pier was purchased
by the Government, but the pier and adjacent
embankments and other facilities installed by
the company still remained at the service of
the shipping interests. In the same year the
company purchased the Kyodo Hikifune
Kaisha (Union Tug-boat Co.) and set out
on a new record of activity in the towage
business. Since then the transportation of
cargoes between Kobe and Osaka, as well
as the tug-boat and coal lighterage business
between Wakamatsu, Kob6, and Osaka, have
been started and the business has developed
to a very large extent. Branches were
established at several places in the meantime,
and with a view to conducting the business
of general marine transportation, stevedoring,
and export and import in Shanghai, a new
company was established under the control
of the Kob6 Pier Co., entitled the Shanghai
Transportation Company, Ltd., which now
Nll'i'dX KAIJI KOGYll KABUSHIKI KAISHA (jAPAN MARINE ENGINEERING & SALVAGE CO., LTD.): S.ALVAGE STEAMER "OLRA MARU '
— HEAD OFFICE AT OSAKA
754
PRESENT-DA V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
owns a fleet of 5 tug-boats and 40 lighters
aggregating 8,000 tons.
In 1915 the Kobe Pier Company, Ltd.,
started in the shipping business, and now
has a tonnage of 25,000, including the vessels
now under eonstruction. The capital of this
company is Yen 6,000,000. The principal
officials are: Directors, Messrs. S. Nango
(President), K. Yoshida, I. Kohdziro, and R.
Godai; Auditors, Messrs. R. Kobayashi and
I. Tanaka. Mr. K. Matsukata is acting as
adviser to the company. Included in the
fleet of the company are five steamers of a
total of 16,000 tons, and two vessels of 4,500
tons deadweight capacity are under con-
struction. There are 560 Hghters of a ca-
pacity in all of 45,000 tons, 22 steam tug-
boats, and one motor boat. The head off.ce
of the Kob^ Pier Company, Ltd., is at No.
16, Kano-cho, Rokuchome, Koh6, and the
branches are at Osaka and Shanghai, while
despatch offices are maintained at Takasago,
Wakamatsu, and Tsingtao. The company's
shipbuilding yard and repair works are at
Osaka.
THE TOKIO WAREHOUSE COMPANY,
LIMITED
The excellent wharfage and cargo storage
accommodation at Kobe provided by the
Tokio Warehouse Company, Limited, is well
known to foreign shipmasters and consignees,
and it is doubtful whether better facilities,
provided by private enterprise, are to be
found anywhere in the East. This company,
known under its Japanese title as the Tokio
Soko Kaisha, is one of the subsidiary con-
cerns of the great Mitsubishi Company. As
a joint-stock company it was floated in 1887
in Tokyo. Business expanded year by year
in keeping with the development of Japan's
overseas trade, and branches were opened,
with the necessar>' works, at Osaka and
Hyogo. In 1896 the Mitsu Bishi family took
up the whole of the stock in the company
and carried out further extensions of the
company's storage capacity, completing and
improving warehouses and dock sheds, and
generally reforming the business methods of
the concern. The development of the busi-
ness of the Tokio Soko Kaisha has been most
marked at Kobe, since the purchase of the
properties of the Nihon Trade Warehouse
Company, and the starting of the Kob^
branch office. In 1907 the company in-
creased its capital fourfold, making the total
Yen 2,000,000, and then commenced new
lines of activity such as stevedoring, acting
as landing and shipping agents, and customs
brokers, in addition to the main business of
warehousing and storing. Under contract
with the Japan Cotton Merchants' Associa-
tion, the Tokio Soko Kaisha constructed
transit .sheds, godowns, and a steel pier in
the southwestern part of Kob<5 (Wada
Compound), for landing and assorting cotton
imported to the port from various parts of
the world. In 1914 the company completed
the work of reclaiming 12 acres of land, and
installing the new area with quays, railways,
transit .sheds, godowns, etc. This new site is
in the centre of the harbour, the most con-
venient situation for transporting imports
and exports, and for assorting general import
cargoes. The Kobe branch of the company
has under its direction four landing and w-arc-
housing premises in the harbour, viz., Taka-
hama, Wada, Onohama, and Shimakami.
The Takahama Compound has an area of
25 acres, with a water frontage of 2,544 feet
and a quayage of 2,082 feet. The depth
alongside the wharves at low tide is 27 feet.
Transit sheds occupy 7 acres and the ware-
houses (bond and free) cover 7.8 acres.
There are 5.32 miles of railway track, eight
3-ton electric cranes, one 1 5- ton fixed crane,
two 3-ton steam cranes, and two 3-ton
floating cranes. The quay will accommodate
three steamers of the io,ooo-ton class at the
same time. The railways are built through-
out the length and breadth of the compound,
and join with the Imperial Government rail-
ways in the Kobe compound, and so directly
communicate to all parts of the country from
the ship's side.
The Wada Compound has an area of
16.5 acres, and a water frontage of 1,896
feet. There is a steel pier, 600 feet long,
63 feet wide, and with a depth of water at
low tide of 26 feet. The transit sheds cover
5 . 5 acres and the warehouses 7 acres. There
are 5 . 6 miles of railway and 1 6 I J^-ton
electric cranes. The steel pier will accom-
modate vessels of the 8,000-ton class on both
sides at the same time. The railways
combine with the Government lines in the
Wada Compound, and offer the same facil-
ities for transportation of cargoes to any
part of the country as in the case of the
Takahama Compound. In the Shimakami
Compound there are warehouses covering
five acres and sheds covering two acres.
These warehouses are situated close to the
Hyogo rice and manure markets, and so are
very convenient for the storage of rice,
cereals, corn-cake, etc. The Onohama Com-
pound has bond and free warehouses cover-
ing 2 . 4 acres. They are situated in the
eastern part of the city, close to the Kobe
Customs Compound, and convenient for
the storage of import cargo cleared from
customs and awaiting transaction.
The Kob^ branch of the Tokio Soko
Kaisha has provided a fleet of steamboats
and barges to facihtate its landing, shipping,
and general stevedoring business. There
are twelve steamboats, of a total tonnage
of 400, available for the carriage of passengers
or for towage of barges. The barges number
120 and have a capacity of 10,000 tons. In
expediting stevedoring and general shipping
business in principal ports in cooperation
with work at Kobe, the company has
stevedoring departments at Yokohama and
Moji. The head office of the company is
at No. 7 Komatsucho, Fukagawaku, Tokyo.
MORI.MOTO GOMEI KAISHA
In* a big commercial centre like Kob6,
where the import and export trade is con-
tinually on the increase, and firms and
companies engaged in the trade are always
in search of suitable premises for offices and
warehouses, it is to be expected that there
should be some organisation handUng the
leasing of godowns, etc. This is the business
of Morimoto Gomei Kaisha, a firm that has
established a big business in the direction
indicated, and which has achieved a high
reputation throughout commercial circles for
the capable manner in which it provides for
the needs of the importers and exporters,
both foreign and Japanese. The business
was originally founded by the late Mr.
Rokubei Morimoto, in December, 1900, at
which time only a few properties were
handled. Since then the business has ex-
tended to a substantial degree, as may be
gathered from the fact that to-day the
Morimoto Gomei Kaisha has under its con-
trol over 210 substantial brick buildings,
besides land and other properties suitable
for compounds, godowns, and offices. The
area leased totals 13,000 tsiibo. Godowns
are situated at 1st, 2nd, and 3rd streets,
Isogamidori; at 1st, 2nd, and 3rd streets,
Hamabedori; at 2nd street, Yawatadori;
at 6th street, Kanomachi, and elsewhere, all
occupying advantageous business sites in
the best parts of Kobe. The firm attends
to the leasing and management of properties
and all other classes of business associated
with real estate interests.
The Morimoto Gomei Kaisha has a capital
of Yen 1,000,000, and the principal officers
are Messrs. Ginjiro Morimoto, Representa-
tive Partner, and Yoshimatsu Umeda, Man-
aging Partner. The head office of the firm
is at No. 23 Motomachi-dori, Ichome, Kobe.
Y. SATO & CO.
The Goshi Kaisha Sato Shoten, or Messrs.
Y. Sato & Co., was established in the year
1890 by Mr. Yutaro Sato, who is still the
principal of the firm. Mr. Sato has had a
lengthy experience of the shipping business,
and is regarded as one of the best informed
men regarding the growth of Kob^ as a
shipping centre. He was the first shipping
■"
1
i
KOBii; SANBASHI KABUSHIKI KAISHA, LTD. (KOBE PIER CO., LTD.): THE COMPANY'S FINE OFFICE PREMISES AT K0B6
S. S. "FUKU MARU" — A FEW OF THE COMPANY'S NUMEROUS TUGS AND LIGHTERS
TOKIO WAREHOUSE CO., LTD.: VIEW OF T.\K.\H.\M.\ WH.\RI- .\T KOliK — INTERIOR OK W.MIA WAREHOUSE, .MrlSlBISHT CO., KOnfe -
VIEW OF THE TAKAHAMA GENER.\L GODOWNS AT KOBE — ^THE WADA COTTON GODOWNS AT KOBi
P R K S K N T - D A Y I M P R I<: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
/,■)/
broker to establish such a business in J.-ipan,
and has been remarkably successful in the
transaction of a large volume of business
involving the chartering and handling of
steamers, freight brokerage, and general
agency work. It is also interesting to note
that a great number of the wealthy ship-
brokers and ship-owners of Japan gained
their experience in Mr. Sato's office, which
was the training school for so many men
who form the principal members of the
shipping circle of Kob6 to-day.
Messrs. Y. Sato & Co. have widespread
foreign connections, and they represent
some of the largest Japanese shipping interests
in the capacity of intermediaries for charters,
insurance, and so forth. A special feature
of the firm's operations is the confidence
which has been developed with foreign con-
cerns, as well as with Japanese companies.
The head office of Y. Sato & Co. is at No.
26 Naniwa-cho. Kobe.
THE YAMAGUCHI GOMEI KAISHA
Mr. Takeshi Yamaguchi, director of the
Yamaguchi Gomel Kaisha, which transacts
a widespread business in land and sea trans-
portation, has done a great deal to improve
conditions in this business, and to provide
conveniences for the rapid and economic
carriage of goods from one part of the coun-
try to another. It is a business in which he
has had a very lengthy experience, not only
in Japan, but in Manchuria and China.
Mr. Yamaguchi originally formed the Nippon
Teigyo Kaisha, or Japan Transport Co., in
April, 1896, at a time when little or nothing
was being done by forwarding agents, and
the services of this system were a great boon
to the many consignors of small cargoes
throughout the country, and around the
coasts. Later on Mr. Yamaguchi founded
the Nippon Unso Co., Ltd., in Tokyo, and
this business is now running and yielding a
fair profit annually.
The Yamaguchi Gomel Kaisha operate as
customs brokers, shipping, landing, and
forwarding agents. The organisation was
formed in 1909 by altering the organisation
of the Yamaguchi Unsotcn (Yamaguchi
Transport Agency), which had previously
been a private concern. This agency was
first established in 1893, and under Mr.
Yamaguchi's personal attention developed
into a very large business. The head office
was in Kob^, with a branch at Osaka. Many
desi)atch offices were started in Kob6 and
Osaka and elsewhere, and agents were ap-
pointed in the principal business centres of
Japan. In 1906 the same business was
entered upon in South Manchuria, with
headquarters at Dairen, and later on des-
patch offices were placed in Yingkao, Muk-
den, Tiehling, Kaiyucn Shih-ping-hai, Kung-
chuling, Changchun, Harbin, and elsewhere.
Agents were appointed at each station along
the South Manchuria Railway, and thus the
Yamaguchi Transport Agency established
transport facilities, not only throughout
Japan, but in Korea, Manchuria, China, and
Russia, always doing a big business and
materially helping the development of the
local and foreign trade. At the same time
the agency opened up a service by coastal
steamers all along the China Coast, and a
forwarding branch for the despatch of goods
to foreign countries. Consequently, when
the private concern was turned into a joint-
capital company, the Yamaguchi Gomel
Kaisha had a well organised business, and
it must be admitted that it has lost no
opportunity of extending it. Connections
have been formed in Tientsin, Tsingtao,
Shanghai, Hongkong, and Hankow. Busi-
r
EXTENSIVE KOBE GODOWNS OF THE MORI.MOTO GOMEI KAISHA
49
./■
, ll
^n
W^.^ ^
THE KOBE PREMISES AND OFFICE OF SATO SHOTEN (Y. SATO & CO.)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
759
I * *■ nBOKX^'.'^r.ivK
r>T!E:»j«as.^B»tan.2yi5«*T .
YAMAGi'c 111 \ cii.: iiii-; Kiiiu-; I'Kicmises
■THE DAIKEN BRANCH
ness has also been extended to the South Sea
Islands, the Straits Settlements, India, and
North and South America. Further exten-
sions are now contemplated.
The Directors of the Yamaguchi Gomel
Kaisha are: Messrs. K. Yamaguchi (Presi-
dent), T. Yamaguchi, H. Yamaguchi (Master
of Laws), and H. Yamaguchi. The head
office of the company is at Sakaecho, 3rd
Street, Kobe, and branch offices are at
Tomijimacho, Osaka, at Kambudori, ist
Street, Dairen, and East 2nd district,
Changchun.
MIKAMI & CO.
This firm was established by Mr. T.
Mikami, at Kob6, in 1890, and has won an
excellent reputation throughout Japan and
abroad for the sound and progressive con-
duct of its widely varied and important
business. Mr. Mikami himself is noted for
his broad vision. He has not been satisfied
to confine his business interests solely to
Japan, or to one restricted line of activity.
but has launched out on many enterprises,
all of which have been substantially and
successfully developed. The firm's busi-
ness is conducted through three departments,
viz.: (A) Shipping Department, (B) Ship-
liroking Department, and (C) Estate and
Mining Department. Messrs. Mikami &-
Co. own and control a number of ships, and
the direction of this phase of their operations
rests with "A Department." In "Depart-
ment B," which constitutes the main busi-
ness of the firm, all classes of freight, ship-
ping, and other brokerage associated with
the mercantile marine is transacted. This
department is splendidly organised, and
Mikami & Co. are particularly well known
throughout the entire business community
for the trustworthiness and despatch with
which their commissions are executed. The
third department governs all the mining,
farming, and general agricultural interests
with which the firm is associated. Mr.
Alikami is largely concerned with such enter-
prises, in which he has invested to a con-
siderable extent. The firm largely controls
the Kankow Mining Company, the Koyanose
Coal Company, the Fukuho Agricultural
Enterprise Company, which holds consider-
able pasturage properties in Hokkaido
and Korea, the Tokiwa Gold Mining Com-
pany and the Daido Antimony Company,
in China. Mr. Mikami's interests in China
have been built up through his earnest
endeavours to promote the most intimate
relationship between Japan and China,
financially and economical^. He is well
known as an old friend of the Chinese
National Party, the powerful revolutionary
party governed by Dr. Sun yat Sen, ex-
President of China.
Originally the capital of the firm was only
Yen 5,000. To-day it is Yen 300,000. No
change has taken place in the constitution
of the business, which is still that of a joint-
stock concern. The President and principal
of the business is Mr. Toyotsune Mikami,
whose co-directors are Dr. S. Mikami
(Doctor of Laws) and Dr. T. Ito (Doctor of
76o
P R K S !• N T - n A Y I >r P R K S S I O \ S OF JAPAN
Agriculture). These two gentlemen are well
qualified to administer the diversified busi-
ness and special undertakings of the firm.
The General Manager for Messrs. Mikami
& Co. is Mr. S. Nishikawa. Messrs. Mikami
They also have correspondents in all
the ports of South China, in Vladivostock,
Singapore, Seattle, San Francisco, New
York, Lc Havre, Calais, Amsterdam, Rotter-
dam, Venice, Genoa, Sydney, Melbourne,
NEW PREMISES OF MIK.\MI & CO.
& Co. have their head office at No. 8 San-
chome, Kaigan Don, Kobe, where the firm
owns a modem three-story brick building.
Branches are established at Osaka, Tokyo,
and London. The firm is also widely repre-
sented abroad. Their agents in the United
Kingdom are Messrs. T. G. Beatley & Son,
57, 58 Leadenhall Street, London, E. C.
In Paris they are represented by Messrs.
Beatley et Fils, 8 Rue Halevy de I'Op^ra.
and other centres of shipping and commercial
importance.
THE TOMIJI.MA GUMI (TRANSPORTATION
CO.), LIMITED
The first big development of the mercantile
marine of Japan took place in 1884, at which
time the Osaka Shosen Kaisha was formed
among a large number of individual ship-
owners. At that period the whole question
of transportation by sea and land was gone
into, and one result was the formation of the
Tomijima Gumi (Transportation) Company,
an offspring of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha,
designed to take care of the handling of
cargoes by land. For many years this con-
cern was conducted as an ordinary trade
association, but in August, 1907, when it
also went in for lighter and tug-boat opera-
tions in connection with shipping, and for
this purpose purchased the tugs and lighters
of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, it was capitalised
as a company, and entered upon a new and
separate existence from the parent concern.
In March, 1909, the Tomijima Gumi Com-
pany entered into an arrangement with the
Railway Department under which cargoes
can be handled over the Government lines
between the interior and Hokkaido, via
Fushiki. Other expansions of the company's
service were regularly made, and to-day its
system covers the whole of Japan. The
Tomijima Gumi was registered as a limited
liability company in May, 1916, and its
capital was raised to Yen 1,000,000.
Generally speaking, the history of the
company has been one of prosperity and
steady growth. To-day there are 14 despatch
offices in Osaka, a branch in Kob6, and three
despatch offices in Hyogo, as well as in other
centres of traffic. There is also a detached
department of the service under the direction
nf Messrs. Lever Bros, of Amagasaki. The
main business of the Tomijima (Transporta-
tion Co.), Ltd., consists of shipping and dis-
charging exports and imports, transporting
cargoes by lighter and by rail, handling
Imperial Army freight of various kinds,
besides acting as Customs clearance agents,
tugging lighters between Osaka and Kob6,
transportation by connecting ships and rail-
ways with the main ports, and handling
Customs papers. Cargoes handled by the
head and branch offices reach the large total
of 3,570,000 tons every half-year on an
average. About 3,000 labourers are em-
ployed, and the company owns over 300
carts, wagons, motor trucks, etc., for land
transportation, and about 500 lighters and
ten steamboats. The President of the
company is Mr. T. Inouye, and the Managing
Director is Mr. K. Kohno, who is in direct
control of the operations. The head office is
at .\o. 60 Tomijimacho, Kita-k-u, Osaka.
At the close of the half-year ended June 30,
19 17, the assets of this enterprising concern
were valued at Yen 1,292,409. The profits
for the half-year were Yen 60,458. After
adding Yen 8,000 to the reserves, and paying
an ordinary and a special bonus amounting
to Yen 15,500, a dividend of 15 per cent per
annum was declared. As stated, the capital
of the Tomijima Gumi, Ltd., is Yen 1,000,000,
of which Yen 500,000 has been paid up.
THE HEAD OFFICE OF THE TOMIJIMA GUMI, LTD., OSAKA
THE WAY TO NAKASENDO
XLIII. Other Important Towns of Japan
The Gitv of Wakayama — The City of Niigata — The City of Sendai—
The City of Kanazawa — The City of Hiroshima
THE
CITY OF WAKAYAMA
WAKAYAMA is another of those old
cities of which Japan has so many,
the origin of which dates back to
the remote ages of antiquity. The place first
comes into prominence in Japanese annals
when the priests of the Negoroji Temple, in
the Province of Kii, united with the lord of
Ota Castle in a scheme to attack the Castle
of Osaka. On learning of the plot Hideyoshi,
then in supreme power at Kyoto, indignant
at this treachery, despatched troops under
Hidenaga Hashiba to defeat the machinations
of the priests. This was in the year 1584.
The army of Hideyoshi poured into Kishu in
great force, destroyed the Negoro Temple by
fire, and then proceeded to sack Ota Castle.
The rebellion being completely crushed,
Hideyoshi himself paid a visit to the scene
of decimation, and ordered a still greater
castle to be erected on the site, naming the
place Wakayama and making his son its first
lord. This is the origin of the present Waka-
yama Castle, which when first erected, soon
gathered about it an increasing population,
causing a large city to rise. Thus Hideyoshi
may be regarded as the real founder of
Wakayama, as before his time the place
amounted to no more than a small village.
In the year 1600 Asano Yukinaga became
lord of Wakayama Castle, increasing its
proportions and greatly strengthening its
battlements. Not long afterwards he was
succeeded by his younger brother, Nagahira,
and he in turn by the lord of Hiroshima, in
1 61 9, as the tenth son of leyasu, Tokugawa
Yorinobu, had taken his former fief. He
founded the third of the great Tokugawa
families, making Wakayama his castle town,
and having it thoroughly rebuilt with the
consent of the shogun. As the family held
very exalted rank, being one of the three
entitled to succeed to the shogunate, the
castle was spared the demolition suffered by
many others at the time of the Restoration.
The strategic position of the city appealed
to the Tokugawa authorities, who well knew
the advantage of having there a dairayo
likely to keep a sharp eye on the lords of
Shikoku and Kyushu. Wakayama has now
passed from the dignity of being the castle
town of Kishu to that of the capital of the
prefecture of Wakayama, being the fifteenth
city of the Empire, with a population of about
80,000 people.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
763
The city of Wakayama is pleasantly
situated facing the sea, with the Nagamin;?
Hill rising to the south, and the north being
bounded by the province of Idzumi. North
of the city runs the River Kino on its way
to the sea, while eastward extends a wide
plain to the beach. The city is thus quite
conveniently situated for communication
both by sea and land, with adequate steam-
ship and railway connections. Among the
principal buildings of Wakayama are the
prcfectural offices, the local law court, and
the headcjuarters of the 32nd Amiy Brigade.
The city has ten primary schools, a municipal
commercial school, a girls' art school, one
normal training college, one middle school,
one girls' high school, a technical school, and
a public library. Wakayama has its mayor
and municipal council, like other cities, an
excellent system of city government being
maintained. The revenue of the munici-
pality amounts to about 220,000 yen annu-
ally, which is usually sufficient for the city's
expenses. The large number of old samurai
families residing in Wakayama makes it a
typical Japanese city and an attractive
residential centre.
The chief interests of Wakayama, howl
ever, are industrial and commercial, the
centre of greatest activity being toward the
northern section of the city. The largest
product of the place is cotton flannel, the
annual output of which is valued at 10,000,-
000 yen. As the daimyo of Kishu was the
first of the barons to equip his troops with
foreign uniforms and weapons, the place
became a centre for weaving material for
army clothes, which, as wool was not to be
had, were made of a coarse cotton duck;
and it was a Wakayama man, Major-Genera-
Tsuda, who first tried to produce real army
cloth in Japan, though it resembled flannel
more than the real article. When the
feudal system was abolished and the heredi-
tary pensions of the samurai were done away,
some 7,000 of these warriors of Kishu found
themselves masterless, and turned to the
flannel mills of Major-General Tsuda for
work to ensure them a livelihood. With
imports of flannel from Italy, the cotton
flannel industries of Wakayama were stimu-
lated to keener competition, great improve-
ments were inaugurated, several fine mills
were established, and thus was created the
present flourishing industry in Wakayama.
It was soon followed by great cotton mills,
which are now also a conspicuous feature of
the city's numerous activities. The hosiery
produced at Wakayama is among the best
made in Japan, representing about 4,000,000
pairs of socks a year, valued at some 320,000
yen, and mostly exported through Osaka.
Wakayama also produces wood finishings in
abundance, as the mountains of Kishu are
noted for good timber. The annual value
of such wood productions is about 410,000
yen. The timber is felled in the hills and
floated down the River Kino to the city,
where it is sawn and made up or shipped,
the annual output being valued at 600,000
yen. There is also a large production of
sake, totalling more than 1,000,000 yen
annually in value, most of which is disposed
of in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo. Wakayama
sake has a reputation for delicacy of flavour,
due to the quality of the water procurable
there for brewing. One of the most noted
brewing firms of the city is Kumakusu
Minamikata, whose name is well known
abroad. It may be truly said that Waka-
yama is one of the most prosperous and
industrious cities of its size in the whole
Empire, having no less than 112 industrial
corporations with a total capital of some
15,000,000 yen.
The three most alluring attractions of
Wakayama to the traveller are the old castle
of its former daimyo, the Kimii Temple, and
the entrancing scenery at Waka-no-ura.
The castle is situated on a picturesque site
known as Torafusuzan, or "the mountain of
the crouching tiger," its three-storyed tower
rising serenely among the lofty old trees of
the precincts. Lying westward of the castle
is Oka Park, its rocky sides suggesting former
proximity to the coast. On its summit
stands a monument to the men of Kishu
who died in the wars of the Restoration, and
the spot affords a magnificent view of the
surrounding country. At the foot of the
hill in the park is the Ho-on Temple where
the wife of Tokuga wa Yorinobu — a daughter
of the celebrated hero, Kato Kiyomasa — lies
buried. The Renshin Temple was erected
by the mother of Yorinobu in 1609 and has
examples of the handwriting of the lords of
Kishu. Westward of the city may still be
seen the two ancient pines marking the spot
where the garrison of Ota Castle surrendered
to the forces of Hideyoshi, and were saved
by thirty-six brave officers and a general
sacrificing their lives by committing harakiri.
The Kimii Temple is about thirty minutes
by electric tram from the city, being Number
2 of the thirty-three most holy places in
Japan. It was founded b\' a Chinese mis-
sionary named Ikwan, in 770 A. D., the
sacred edifice being erected to house an
image of the goddess Kwannon found there.
But to the average visitor it is the beautiful
scenery of the environment that is the chief
attraction, the view being typically Japanese
and one that any artist would choose. From
the height one gazes away across a charming
labyrinth of land and water until the eye
rests on another fair scene, known as Waka-
no-ura, a sandy peninsula, narrow and
fantastically overgrown with pines and
enclosing a little bay, of which poets have
sung the praises from time immemorial. A
walk along the coast from this point affords
the most lovely views of land and sea.
THE CITY OF NIIGATA
NIIGATA, the capital of the prefecture of
the same name, is situated on the west
coast of Japan on a narrow, sandy strip
of land between the River Shinano and the
sea. It was one of the first ports in Japan
opened to foreign trade and is still the
busiest centre in the Province of .Echigo,
having convenient and regular railway com-
munication with Tokyo, and steamship con-
nection with the coast towns. In reaching
the city from the railway one has to cross
the Shinano River by the great Bandai
Bridge, some 2,500 feet in length. Situated
near the mouth of the river, Niigata faces
the Sea of Japan, with extensive sand dunes
protecting its western side. Thus strung
along the coast, the streets running east
and west are short, while those parallel with
the beach are correspondingly long.
As Niigata -is one of the largest ports on
the coast of the Japan Sea, it was greatly
favoured by the government of the shogunate
and enjoyed commercial prosperity from
very early days. When Lord Makino took
up his residence there as head of the Echigo
clan he built his castle at Nagaoka, but did
all in his power to promote the commercial
interests of Niigata, the citizens of which
were exempted from taxation — with the
hope of rapidly increasing the population — ■
and under such encouragement the place
experienced great development. Though the
broad river and the great bridge which spans
it were formerly regarded as picturesque
advantages to the city of Niigata, they are
to-day looked upon as prejudicial to its
interests, as it is inconvenient to have to
cross the bridge to connect with the railway,
while the bridge itself, being constructed of
wood, is too flimsy to be regarded as a per-
manent structure. In the old days the
Shinano River was a highway for inland
navigation, but in recent years it has become
silted up and navigation is impossible. Dredg-
ing undertaken to relieve the situation has
proved in vain, owing to the immense flow of
sand from the upper reaches of the river.
In the early daj'S it was supposed that
Niigata would become the chief port for
ships trading with Russia, but results in
this direction have not come up to expecta-
tions, the route having been deflected to
Tsuruga, farther south. Still, the city has
numerous industrial and commercial activities
r64
P R E S E N T - I) A ^• I M I' R E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
that make it an important centre of life in
that part of the Empire. The city produces
large quantities of sulphuric acid, lacquer
ware, woven tissues, matting, umbrellas, and
matches, to the value of nearly i ,000,000 yen
annually. Exports are not large, as the
harbour can not accommodate vessels very
well, and they have to anchor in the roadstead
outside. In case of high wind the coast is
considered dangerous, and then ships have
to take refuge in the harbour of Ebisu-minato,
on the island Of Sado, some distance away.
It is evident from old maps that the site now
occupied by Niigata was eight or ten miles
out at sea 800 years ago, the whole surround-
ing plain having become dry land within
historic time, partly by the silting up of
rivers and partly by upheaval. The town
has never attracted foreign trade, and the
only foreigners now residing there are
missionaries.
Owing to the severe winters on this coast
of Japan the snowfall is unusually heavy,
and consequently the houses at Niigata are
built differently from those in ether regions
of Japan, being for the most part covered
with shingles instead of tiles, the shingles
often having stones laid on them to prevent
the fierce winds tearing them off. The
houses are low, with gable ends toward the
street, and the roofs prolonged beyond the
walls to keep the snow from blocking up
the windows and from rendering the side-
walks impassable. One frequently sees
photographs from Niigata sho-ning how the
people there dig themselves out after a big
snowstorm by tunnelUng through the snow.
As the soil is so sandy the willow is the only
tree that thrives well in the city, but the
town is intersected by streams and canals
necessitating numerous bridges, which add
to its picturesqueness. As the banks of the
rivers and canals are lined with willow trees,
the place is known as "the City of Willows,"
in which respect Niigata somewhat resembles
Osaka.
Niigata carries on important public works,
especially of a riparian nature, and has good
educational facilities, possessing seven pri-
mary schools, one middle school, and one
girls' high school, besides a commercial school
and a medical college. The prefectural
reformatory' is also situated there and an
orphanage, as weU as a school for the bhnd
and deaf. The finest buildings are those of
the Prefectural Office and the Department
of Communications. The Hakusan Garden
to the south of the city has many fine old
pine trees surrounding a shrine of the same
name, and by a.sccnding the hill one has a
charming view of the plain on one side and
the mountains on the other. This outlook-
was admired greatly by the late Emperor
of Japan, who once visited the park. The
sailors of Niigata have a song which they
sing on approaching the port, to the effect
that the heart of the sailor lad is always
elated as he sees the pines of Hakusan rising
through the mists of dawn, reminding him
of happy days under their shade with friends
of now or long ago. On the summit of
Hiyoriyama is an observation tower used
by shipping agents in the old days to see
when their vessels were approaching the
harbour, and the place now affords an
excellent view of the plains and the sea, with
Sado Island rising Uke a purple gem from the
distant ocean.
In modem times Niigata is said to be
more renowned for its beautiful women than
for any other specialty. The long bracing
winters there are said to so modify the effect
of the sun as to produce a peculiar complexion,
which the Japanese admire as white and
delicate; and this delicacy of complexion,
combined with a certain curve of the neck,
distinguishes the Niigata woman in a way
that gives her an advantage over all her
sisters in Japan. This is why the Niigata
girls are the most noted among the Tokyo
geisha, and for the same reason the people
of Niigata are reputed to be unique among
Japanese in preferring a family of girls to
one of boys. In strange contrast to the
peculiar beauty of the women of Niigata is
the uses to which they are put as manual
labourers, being made hewers of wood and
drawers of water to the community. It is
quite a common sight in Niigata to see women
pulling a cart-load of goods along the street.
And the women of Niigata are given names
quite different from those used in other parts
of Japan, where female names are usually
those of pretty flowers or objects in nature,
as "Miss Flower," "Miss Love," "Miss
Snow," "Miss Pine," and so on. The
Niigata belles are caUed by such names as
"Miss Chin," "Miss Rita," "Miss Sase," or
"Miss Oso," which have a ludicrous sound
in other parts of Japan. Niigata is famous
for its oysters, which one can have served
even in summer.
THE CITY OF SENDAI
SENDAI, the largest city of northern
Japan, some 12 hours by train from
Tokyo, hes on a level plain at the foot of
Mount Aoba, from the green slopes of which
one looks out on the Pacific. The origin of
the city is lost in the mists of antiquity. It
is believed, however, that the place began to
assume a position of importance when the
Emperor Keitai had a fortress erected on
Mount Aoba in 507 a. d., and when the
Emperor Yomei had a thousand Buddhist
images (Senlai) set up in the place in 586
A. D., the settlement took its present name.
Tradition has it that originally the site was
a marshy plain overgrown with reeds,
stretching between the foot-hills and the
River Hiros6, a stream that now meanders
through the city, and it is probable that the
first settlement of any importance was a
garrison of the castle, placed there as an
outpost to prevent incursions of the savage
Ainu. When Yoritomo undertook to sup-
press the Fujiwara family in the northern
districts he gave Sendai to a daimyo named
Chiba, who built a grand mansion on Mount
Aoba and made Sendai his castle town.
Later, especially during the age of the civil
wars, Dat6 Masamune, the scion of another
powerful family, rose and brought under his
sway the whole of the region; and at the
beginning of the Tokugawa period in the
seventeenth century the Date family moved
their headquarters to Sendai, when the town
was remodelled and became the greatest city
of the north, with more than three hundred
households and as many shrines and temples.
The Dat6 family did everj-thing possible
to make their new capital a place of com-
mercial and industrial importance, issuing
special regulations for the protection and
encouragement of trade, the merchants of
Sendai being allowed to bring their goods
direct from Osaka and Yedo, while the traders
of other towns in the fief had to suffer
inconvenient restrictions in buying everj'thing
from the wholesale dealers of the castle town.
Naturally this caused trade to centre in the
daimyo's capital, as it was the only source
of merchandise. In return, the merchants
of Sendai had to keep up the streets, with
first-class shops fronting on them, where all
kinds of wares could be bought, so as to
supply the necessities of the people of the
town and of the surrounding districts. More-
over, as a castle town, the place was visited
by increasing numbers of people and assumed
an air of considerable importance.
With the Restoration of Imperial Govern-
ment came the fall of the Sendai clan, and
the castle town of the Dat^ family began to
show signs of decline. The Sendai clan
naturalh' revolted against the attitude of
Choshu and Satsuma toward the Tokugawa
house, as these southern daimyos had been
historic enemies of the Date family. The
northern clan was, however, finally forced
into submission, but, as a matter of course,
none of its friends were allowed . to enter
the pubUc services, at least not for some
years. The traders of Sendai, thus deprived
of the assistance and patronage of the clan
government, had to shift for themselves,
and a fierce struggle for existence followed.
The city gradually declined in commercial
P R K S E N T - I) A "S' IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
765
importance, and the products of the place were
Hmited to a few efforts in handicraft, such
as dyed articles of domestic make, earthen-
ware, lacquer ware, writing brushes, and
bamboo goods, amounting to no more than
some four and a half million yen annually. In
1879 the number of houses in Sendai was
only 11,500, the exact number of the popu-
lation being unknown, but to-day the number
of houses has increased to more than 21,000
and the population is well over 100,000 —
so that a period of revival and prosperity
has apparently set m.
Sendai, however, is regarded as a more
important town pohtically and in a military
sense, than in the way of commerce and
industry. It is the seat of the Prefectural
Office, the Sendai Court of Appeal, the Ad-
ministration Office of Communications for
the northern department of the service, and
is the headquarters of the Second Army
Division. Educationally, too, Sendai is a
much more important centre than even some
larger towns, as it is the seat of the Imperial
University of the North-West, W'ith its
colleges of Science, Engineering, and Medi-
cine, and also of the Second National College.
Among the important mission colleges there
is the Tohoku Gakuin.
As a centre of historical and topographical
interest Sendai has large claims to the
interest of the observant and the thoughtful.
Crossing the big bridge, over 360 feet long,
which spans the Hiros4 River, one wanders
westward over an ascending road to the main
gate of Sendai Castle, now occupied as the
headquarters of the Second Army Division.
The magnificent main gate is about the only
remnant of the ancient castle that is left, as
the first governor of the place, after the fall
of the Tokugawa shogun, was so indignant
at the opposition of the Sendai clan that he
had the old castle razed to the ground, and
what may have survived his wrath was
destroyed by fire in 1882. It is said that
the present main gatew-ay was formerly the
entrance to Hideyoshi's mansion at Nagoya
when he was commander of the expedition
sent to Korea, and that Dat6 Masamun(5
obtained it and had it conveyed to his capital
in the north to be set up as the main gate
of his castle. It still has its golden chrysan-
themum crests of twenty petals and its
paulownia leaves, the crest of the Tokugawa
clan. On the site where once stood the
central tower of the castle there is a monu-
ment in commemoration of the soldiers who
fell in the war with China. The monument
rises to a height of 67 feet, and on the top
is a bronze kite measuring 22 feet between
the tips of its wings.
The ancestral sejxilchre of the Date family
is at Zuihozan, on the summit of Kyogamin^
Hill, in the midst of beautiful [lincsand cedars.
Within the shrine stands a statue of the
famous daimyo, looking very grave in court
dress. In former times the tomb, with its
fine corridors, gate, and sanctuary, was as
grand and imposing as the Tokugawa tombs
at Nikko, but what with the mutilation of
enemies and the neglect of friends, its splen-
dour has mostly departed. The spot is still a
centre of veneration and is visited by the
folk of Sendai.
The plain of Miyagino, extending from the
city toward the sea, is noted for its abun-
dance of wild flowers and its singing insects,
the fame of which has been recited in a thou-
sand songs and poems. In the days of Sen-
dai's glory the Date family used to present
annually to the shogun in Yedo a singing
grasshopper from this famous plain of wild
grass and blossoms. The plain is now being
gradually absorbed by radish fields and
drill grounds.
In a wood near Miyagino plain is the
Yakusi Temple, which the Date family had
reconstructed on a magnificent scale, making
it one of the most impressive sacred edifices
of the Momoyama age. In a beautiful park
of fine trees stands the Ozaki Hachiman
shrine in honour of the god of war, where the
carvings of the famous master of the chisel,
Hida Jingoro, may still be seen. Another
historic spot is Tsutsujigaoka Park, a hilly
region not far from Sendai on the plain of
Miyagino, where Yortiomo encamped when
he came north to attack Fujiwara Yasuhira
with his 280,000 Kamakura warriors. At
the end of the grounds now stands the bar-
racks of the Fourth Infantry Regiment, with
the local military preparatory school. An-
other park lies behind the Hirose River
in the western portion of the city, and has
many pines and cherry trees, the elevation
commanding a fine view of the city spread
out below it.
With its many hills, trees, and streams
Sendai is, on the whole, a pretty town,
which, on account of its culture, is some-
times called "the Boston of Japan," as
Kyoto, the old capital, is called "the
Moscow of the Empire." In physical fea-
tures and historical traditions there are
few towns that can compare with Sendai,
except, perhaps, Kanazawa, in Kaga; for
there, as nowhere else, can one study well
the departed glory of the Tokugawa regime.
In addition to its historical interest,
Sendai has in its vicinity the lovely Matsu-
shima, a sea of fairy-like islands, one of
the three most beautiful spots in the Em-
pire, with good hotels and every other
accommodation to welcome the traveller who
desires to see the fairest portions of the
country.
THE CITY OF
KANAZAWA
ONE of the most historic old cities of
Japan, Kanazawa is the largest town
in the province of Kaga and the capital of
Isliikawa Prefecture. Built along the foot-
hills of Mount Matsu with the Japan Sea in
front and the rivers Sai and Asano flowing
through the town, the site is an ideal one.
The town is said to have derived its name
from an incident of ancient times wherein a
native of the district, on finding some alluvial
gold, washed it in a pond near the feudal
castle, after which it was called Kanea-
raisawa, or "Gold-Washing-Swamp," which
finally became Kanazawa." The site of the
present city has been occupied by the Kana-
zawa clan from the early part of the four-
teenth century. By the year 1339 the village
had over 1,000 houses and was called Ya-
mazakimachi, or " Mountain-front-village."
About this time a Buddhist temple was
erected in the village and that religion became
powerful enough to rise against and defeat
the Togashi family in 1469, for religion had a
very martial spirit in those days. The victory
of the Hongwanji sect of Buddhism over its
enemies won for it the admiration and support
of the surrounding population. In 1488 de-
fences were erected about the city and a
famous warrior named Chikuzen Shimotsuna
was brought from Yamashina in Omi to
superintend the fortress. The castle was
named the "Yamao," on account of the
mountain. In 1 573 the great Oda Nobunaga,
in supreme military power at Kyoto, sent
his retainer, Morimasa Sakuma, to reduce
the castle at Kanazawa to submission, and
in 1580 Sakuma was given possession of the
castle. After the death of Sakuma in the
battle of Shizugatake, Hideyoshi, who had
succeeded Oda, gave Kanazawa Castle to
Toshi-iye Mayeda, who gave the stronghold
its present name, and the Mayeda family
remained in possession down to the Meiji
period. It was under the Mayeda family
that the city became a place of great impor-
tance and the whole surrounding country
experienced unwonted development and
prosperity. The present head of the family.
Marquis Toshinari Mayeda, a Captain in
the Imperial Army, still has his estates there
with chief residence in Tokyo, and remains
one of the first peers of the realm.
Indeed, the history of Kanazawa from the
beginning of the seventeenth century down
to the Restoration period is largely a history
of the wise and admirable management of
the lords of Kaga, all of whom through
succe.ssive generations proved men of great
ability as soldiers and statesmen. The pol-
icy of encouraging agriculture and rendering
/
66
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
every possible aid to the population, be-
gun by the first lord of Kaga, was contin-
ued by his successors, and the third daimyo,
Toshitsun^, was distinguished for his appre-
ciation of literature as well as ability in
statesmanship and his encouragement of
education and fine art, always gathering
about him men of skill and artistic accom-
plishments. The influence of the Mayeda
family on the art and industry of Kana-
zawa has been the making of the place.
Tsunanori, the fifth lord of Kaga, was so
distinguished as an administrator that the
saying became current in high places that
for brilliant administration of estates Kaga
was first and Tosa second. When the
Restoration of Imperial Power was about
to be accomplished, Keinmei, the fourteenth
lord of Kaga, at once championed the Imper-
ial cause against the shogun and sent an army
against the opponents of the new regime,
defeating them in the battle of Ou, the
Emperor rewarding him in a signal manner.
At the time of the fall of the shogunate in
1869 Kanazawa was a town of only 120
streets, but after the abolition of clan govern-
ment the space occupied by the retainers of
the daimyo was taken as part of the city and
the streets increased to 531. In 1873 the
Prefectural Office was estabHshed at Kana-
zawa and a garrison placed there, being later
succeeded by the gth Division of the Impe-
rial Army. In time, Kanazawa was con-
nected with the main line of railway, and
schools and factories rising every-where began
to indicate the rapid modernisation of the
city. In 1889 the old village system of
government gave way to the present munic-
ipal system, and Kanazawa became a real
city with good streets and roads and other
city improvements, including first-class com-
munications. The city of Kanazawa has
now 38,229 households, with a population of
137.734-
One of the most important products of
Kanazawa is hard porcelain, the principal
manufacturing company being the Koshitsu
Toki Kaisha, working on a capital of 600,000
yen. The porcelain turned out by this
company is noted for its art and durability,
being able to stand any temperature and
having a beautiful white glaze. This porce-
lain is now an increasing export of Kanazawa.
The next most important product of the dis-
trict is habutai, or silk piece goods, the
Kosansha Company being the most famous
weavers since 1887. Beginning with silk
handkerchiefs, the company soon undertook
regular piece goods, which at once became
a specialty of Ishikawa Prefecture. At
present Kanazawa is one of the most impor-
tant centres in Japan for light silk goods,
the annual turnover from this source amount-
ing to about 6,000.000 yen. Kanazawa is
also showing an increasing production of
metal foil of all kinds, more than half the
output of Japan coming from this district,
exports going chiefly to Siam, India, and
Annam, the yearly value now amounting
to some 800,000 yen. The hemp braid
industry, too, is making rapid progress in
Kanazawa, most of the output being shipped
through Yokohama dealers, the annual value
reaching about 750,000 yen. The city has
various other industries, but those mentioned
are the most important.
It would take up too much space to tell
of all the interesting places the tourist might
visit at Kanazawa. The Oyama Jinja, a
Shinto shrine dedicated to the spirits of the
Mayeda family, is one of the most interest-
ing. It is near the mansion of Marquis
Mayeda, noted for its beautiful gardens.
Kenroku Park, the former site of the daimyo's
mansion, is an excellent example of Japanese
taste in landscape gardening, every tree and
rock within the enclosure having a history.
The story of Kanazawa Castle, one of the
greatest fortresses in the Empire, already
referred to, would be one of great interest
to narrate, as its ancient walls have experi-
enced stirring times and passed through
famous episodes in the history of Japan. It
is now the headquarters for the Division of
the Imperial Army stationed there.
It is in Kanazawa that one can see the
famous six-blossomed lotus of matchless
crimson hue, the best place being at the
Myoren Pond. A remarkable thing about
this lotus is that if transplanted elsewhere it
returns to but a single blossom, like the ordi-
nary lotus, thus giving rise to one of the most
interesting botanical questions in the world
of science. No wonder that the people of the
district have a superstitious faith in its petals,
which they dry and use for medicine.
All around Kanazawa are numerous places
of historic interest, such as Nonoichi, where
the old feudal office used to be, and Kami-
kanaiwamachi near the mouth of the Saiga wa,
the birthplace of the famous Gohei Zeniya.
On Ishiyama stands the ancient Dai joj i Tem-
ple, founded in 1261, and farther in the coun-
try is Shirayamahime Shrine. At the town
of Matsuto stands an old castle of the same
name, that has seen many a battle, and
at Dangisho is the beautiful Xaruwataki
Falls, where the brave Toshitsune rested
during his flight from Oshu. On Mount
Tonami was the ancient barrier between the
provinces, often mentioned in liistory and
literature. The Dentoji Temple, some two
miles from Kanazawa, was erected at the
command of the Emperor Komei in 1339,
though since rebuilt, and is under the pro-
tection of the Mayeda family.
THE CITY OF
HIROSHIMA
THOUGH the city of Hiroshima is com-
ing to occupy a place of increasing
importance in the commerce and industry of
southern Japan, it has in the past been thought
of chiefly as a strategic position. In the wars
with China and Russia it was selected as the
Imperial Army headquarters, and has thus
been honoured by visits from His Majesty
the Emperor as Commander-in-Chief of the
national forces. The Fifth Army Division
is stationed at Hiroshima, and when war
breaks out the first detachments proceeding
to the front invariably start from there.
One reason why the place is so strategically
important is its nearness to the great naval
port of Kure, where transports and convoys
are always in readiness for emergency. The
city is also near Ujina as well as being central-
ly situated for communication with the
various army divisions. Hiroshima, there-
fore, affords every facility for naval and
military transportation when occasion calls.
Situated at the southern end of the Prov-
ince of Aki where the bay cur\-es deeply
inland, the town is about a mile from the
shore. Hiroshima is an old city, but did
not show ver\' marked progress until the
Meiji era. It now has a population of about
170,000, representing some 40,000 families.
Six streams of meagre proportions flow
through the town, adding to its facilities for
transportation as well as its picturesqueness.
Some three hundred years ago whence the
city dates its rise, Terumoto Mori, of the
great house of that name, and ancestor of
the present Prince Mori, built a castle at
Hiroshima, the work starting in 1592 and
reaching completion seven years later.
Soon people from various parts began to
settle on the sandy plain outside the fortress,
and in time a prosperous city arose. When
the Mori family took sides with Mitsunari
Ishida against the Tokugawa clan and was
defeated in the great battle of Sckigahara,
the castle and estates were confiscated by
the victors, who go.ve Hiroshima to Masanobu
Fukushima. He, in turn, was dismissed for
attempting to repair the stronghold without
permission of the shogun, and so the castle
passed into the hands of Naga-akira Asano,
who was appointed lord of Hiroshima and
whose family has survived the twelve inter-
vening generations, being now represented
by the Marquis Asano.
Hiroshima may be said to owe much of
its modem prosperity to war, for it was not
until after the war with Cliina that the city
began to show rapid growth in activity and
population. When the war broke out and
it was announced that Hiroshima was
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
767
chosen as the Imperial heaikiuarUTS, reforms
of all kinds began to be thoroughly carried
out. The streets were improved and a
system of waterworks was started, with
sewerage mains laid down, as the Emperor
and his retinue of high personages could not
be allowed to sojourn in a city that was not
modern in a sanitary sense. Not only so,
but it is of the utmost importance that cen-
tres where great bodies of troops congregate
should be thoroughly sanitary, so as to pre-
vent disease in the army. All these consider-
ations combined to further the interests of
Hiroshima in a very marked degree. The
army set out to make a system of waterworks
of its own to supply pure water for the
troops, the task being accomplished in the
short space of six months, and afterwards
this was connected with the city water
system at a cost of 640,000 yen to the city.
Hiroshima is now quite a modern city, with
all the usual improvements.
Commercially the significance of Hiroshima
may be inferred from the fact that it has 444
incorporated industrial or other companies
representing a capital of 19,188,000 yen, and
the place is regarded as one of the most
important distributing centres west of Osaka,
dealing in general goods, though manufac-
tures are growing. As the city is in direct
communication with all the great centres of
industry, north and south, it is expected to
have a bright future. One of the chief
articles of manufacture is a coarse cotton cloth
of which the annual output is valued at some
2,000,000 yen. Most of the industrial pro-
ducts of Hiroshima are for home consumption,
including large quantities of tinned goods,
gela, umbrellas, matches, mosquito nets, and
cotton yarns.
Among the more important public buildings
of the city are the High Court of Appeal, one
of the seven such tribunals in the Empire;
tlie Prefectural Office; the headquarters of the
Fifth Army Division and the Ninth Brigade;
as well as the Higher Normal College, with
many other educational institutions, including
a military preparatory school, two middle
schools, three girls' high schools, five primary
and eighteen elementary schools.
Historically the most interesting spot in
Hiroshima is, of course, the old castle and its
precincts, standing northward toward the
centre of the city which it dominates. The
site is well placed at a point where six streams
divide in deltas seaward. The great walls of
the fortress measure 33,200 feet in circum-
ference and have 20 gates. The keep, which
is 72 feet by 54 at the base, tower to a height
of 108 feet above the 136 other minor emin-
ences and pinnacles. As this stronghold has
never been destroyed by war or fire, it
presents one of the finest examples of ancient
castle architecture in Japan. The head-
quarters of the Fifth Army Division are in the
castle, as are also the apartments occupied by
the Emperor during war time. The plain
solidity of the castle appeals to the severity of
Japanese taste, and consequently the castle is
admired by the whole nation.
The city of Hiroshima has many beautiful
parks, of which Futaba is a good example,
rising, as it does, through wooded hills,
affording good views of landscape, with the
Kanda River flowing gracefully in front.
The park is a scene of fine trees and fair
blossoms in season, the wistaria being espe-
cially beautiful. The Nigitsu Shrine in the
park is an ancient foundation dedicated to the
spirits of the ancestors of the Asano family,
and possesses among its treasures the war
drum and other accoutrements used by
Nagamasa in the expedition to Korea.
Farther eastward along the river is the Shuk-
keien Garden, formerly the site of the Asano
mansion, but which is now open to the public,
offering superb views and exquisite examples
of landscape gardening in the Japanese
manner. As the name implies, the garden is a
miniature of the famous West Lake in China.
From Eba Park, near the village of the same
name, a fine view of the city may be had, the
spot being a favourite resort in summer on
account of the shade trees, as well as the
scenery. The Toshogu Shrine is pictur-
esquely situated on a hill approached by a
flight of 52 stone steps, and is dedicated to
the shogun lyeyasu, being a thank-offering
from the Asano family for favours received.
At the southern side of the same hill stands
the Temmangu Shrine, in memory of the
famous loyalist and exile, Sugawara Michi-
zane, who is said to have gone there to obtain
a beautiful view of the surrounding country,
when on his way to banishment in Kyushu.
Across wide fields of rice waving in the wind
the eye dwells pleasantly on the village of
Eba, near the sea, with Ujina beyond. In
summer the hills around Hiroshima are alive
with people gathering the wild flowers in
which this region aboimds.
TOKYO RAILWAY STATION AND STATION HOTEL
XLIV. Government Railways
Brief History — Railway Nationalization and Its Results — New Departures Since Railway
Nationalization — Some Statistics Showing the Progress of the Government Railways
JAPAN'S railway schemes date back to
i86q, in which year the Government
decided to undertake the construction
of railway lines in the Empire. In the next
year work was commenced on the railway line
between Tokj'O and Yokohama in March,
and on that between Osaka and Kobe in
November. The year 1872 saw the opening
to traffic of the Shinagawa- Yokohama section
in May, and the line being completed to
Shimbashi in July, the opening of the railway
between Tokyo and Yokohama was cele-
brated at the Shimbashi terminus, Tok\'o
(the present Shiodome goods station), in
November in the presence of the Emperor
Meiji. This is the inception of the present
far-reaching railway systems of this country.
The Osaka-Kob^ line was opened to traffic in
May, 1874, and the Kyoto-Osaka line in
Februar\-, 1877, the present trunk fine, known
as Tokaido Line, thus gradually developing
from both ends. Private railway enterprises
were started in 1881 with the establishment
of the Nippon Railway Company. This
company set to work on the line between
Ueno (Tokyo) and Kumagaya under the
Government protection, and opened it to
traffic in July, 1883. Both Government and
private schemes made steady progress year
by year, and, in May, 1887, the Government
established the Private Railway Act for
encouraging private railway enterprises and
endowed them with such privileges as expro-
priation and tax exemption of land for railway
building, etc. This proved an immediate
impetus to the rise of railway construction
with private capital. In 1888 the San-yo
Railway Company opened to traffic the Kobe-
Himeji section, and in 1889 the Kyushu
Railway Company, the Hakata-Kurume
section. Thus these private lines formed by
degrees the present trunk Une system com-
prising the North-Eastem, Tokaido, San-yo,
and Kyushu Lines. One company came into
existence after another; the Kobu, Kwansai,
lyo, Ryomo, Sanuki, and Hokkaido Colliery
Railway Companies were established. After
the Chino-Japanese War the investment of
private capital in various enterprises reached
its zenith and at the end of 1899 private com-
panies numbered more than 30. This diver-
gent ownership and management brought in
its train lack of systematic working, etc., and
the question of railway nationalization began
to receive the serious attention of both the
Government and the general public. At last
after years of investigation, the plan matured,
and the Railway Nationalization Law was
enacted in March, 1906, by which it was
decided to turn over to Government owner-
ship seventeen leading companies (Kobu,
Hokkaido Colliery, Nippon, Gan-etsu, Nish-
inari, San-yo, Kyushu, Hokkaido, Kyoto,
Hokuetsu, Hankwaku, Sobu, Boso, Nanao,
Tokushima, Kwansai, and Sangu). In the
two years of 1906 and 1907, the Government
bought the lines of all these companies, and
the total Government Unes on the completion
of the railway nationalization extended to
4,371 miles, about three times their former
length of 1,518 miles, while the invested
capital grew from Yen 170,000,000 to Yen
700,000,000. Since then, the construction
of the Government lines has been pushed
steadily on, and even comparatively remote
districts are being provided with railway
facilities. At the end of 1916 the aggregate
mileage of the Imperial Government Railways
reached 5,860 miles, and the extension of
lines since the nationalization has been 1,489
miles. Various kinds of railways under
private ownership in Japan proper at the end
of November, 191 5, were 2,829 niiles in total
length (railways, 214 miles; light railways,
1,404 miles; urban and other tramways, 1,211
miles). The total length of railways in Japan
proper. State-owned and private, was roughly
8,600 miles, and the aggregate mileage includ
ing Chosen, Formosa, Karafuto, and South
Manchuria roughly 11,000 miles. Thus,
Japan's railway development has been steady
and significant, and is all the more remarkable
in view of the geographical nature of the
islands. Capital invested up to March, 19 14,
was Yen 967,001,763, and that up to March,
1915, is estimated at Y'en 1,010,284,563,
P R E S E N T - ri A V
I M
R E S S I O N S
O F
T A P A N
769
and the animal net profit for one year
ending April, 1915, was Yen 54,564,532,
while that down to April, 1916, is estimated at
Yen 60,089,087. The figures showing the
rate of profit accruing from the railway work-
ing for the last decade are as follows:
1906-1907 8.7 Per Cent
1907-1908 8,5 Per Cent
1908-1909 7.6 Per Cent
1909-1910 7.6 Per Cent
1910-191] 8,1 Per Cent
191 1-1912 ■ 9.0 Per Cent
1912-1913 8.9 Per Cent
1913-1914 8.4 Per Cent
1 9 1 4- 1 9 1 5 7.3 Per Cent
1915-1916 82 Per Cent
RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION AND ITS
RESULTS
The merits resultant from the railway
nationalization are manifold, and to explain
the progress of the Government Railways
more fully, we shall point to the principal
achievements in detail. One of the chief
aims of the railway nationalization was the
systematic working by means of through
train services, unified passenger and goods
tariffs, simplified transactions and account-
ings, thereby increasing the efficiency of
service, and simultaneously the revenues
accruing from it. Train operations have
been completely systematised on all the
main and branch lines, especially on the
trunk lines between Tokyo and Kagoshima
and between Ueno (Tokyo) and Kushiro.
Passenger fares which had been on varied
bases peculiar to each company before the
nationalization, were unified by adjusting
traffic mileage and revising the scale on and
after November i, 1907, on the completion
of the purchase of the private lines in October
of that year. In this revision all passenger
rates in force on the former Government
and private lines were taken into considera-
tion, and the new tariff was laid down on
the tapering system (cheaper rates for
longer journeys), with a view to the reduc-
tion of imposts in general. Although some
steps had been taken to revise goods rates
on the Government lines except in Kyushu,
consideration of local conditions and com-
petition prevented the thorough unifying
of the goods tariffs and the nationalized
railways continued to be on the different
bases formerly adopted Ijy each company.
The goods tariff was chiefly local and highly
differential, but at last was thoroughly
revised in October, 1912, and placed on the
etiual basis almost, on all the Government
lines. To sum up the whole scheme, the
tariff was generally made cheaper (especially
for such staple goods as coal, minerals, fish,
silk cocoons, etc.), and almost uniform on
the Bareme Bel^e with flat-rates instead of
the former Bareme d, pollers; terminal
charges were included in freights and their
rates lowered for short hauls; the calcula-
tion of freights simplified; ist, 2nd, and 3rd
classes applied to car-load consignments
(formerly grouped in two classes, high class
and below 3rd class), in order to be fair to
all kinds of shippers; the fifty km unit was
replaced by the ten kin unit for piece con-
signments according to kin rates; overland
freights were calculated through when the
goods were conveyed by the channel steamers;
extra rates for valuable goods and animals
were greatly reduced. Both passenger fares
and goods rates are reckoned through, not
separately on different sections, as was the
F.LECTRIC TRAIN, IN USE ON BOTH IRBAN AND INTERURBAN LINES — OBSERVATION CAR, LIMITED E.XPRESS
/
YOKOHAMA STATION — KYOTO STATION, ESPECIALLY BUILT FOR THE IMPERIAL CORONATION CEREMONIES IN I9I5 SANNOMIYA RAILWAY
STATION HEAD OFFICE OF THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT RAILWAY, TOKYO — THE STATION AT KYOTO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
771
Fiscal
Year
Beginning
Passenger
Fares per
Passenger-
Mile
Goods
Rates per
Ton-
Mile
April
Yen
Yen
1 906
•0155
.0199
1907
.0149
.0203
iyo8
.0142
.0194
1909
.0140
■0193
1910
■ 0139
.0191
1911
■0139
.0194
19 1 2
,0138
"1 83
19 1 3
■0139
.0174
1914
.0138
.0172
1915
.0132
.0171
express locomotive IUILT at KAWASAKI DOCKYARD, KOUE
case prior to the nationalization. This
undoubtedly has contributed not a little
to the increase of efficiency of the passenger
and goods service. The statistics showing
the progress of passenger-miles and ton-
miles are as follows:
Fiscal
Year
Beginning
Passenger-
Miles
Ton- ■
Miles
April
1906
2,294,882,361
1,426,969,053
1907
2,621,434,819
1. 545.99 1. 639
1908
2,743,203,558
1,829,429,158
1909
2,812,329,108
1,911,197,440
1910
3.038,736,966
2,126,834,4-3
191 1
3,382,586,411
2,347,871,475
1912
3,626,316,499
2,691,464,174
19 1 3
3,690,964,619
3,053.852.638
1914
3,623,743,236
2,982,798,482
19 1 5
3.«56,536.966
3.309.518,677
The most significant result of the unifica-
tion of the passenger and goods tariffs was
the general reduction in fares and rates on
account of cheaper rates for longer journeys
and hauls. The cheapness of fares and
rates results naturally in stimulating pro-
ductive industries and is effectual in multi-
plying the national wealth. The figures
showing this tendency are given below.
Cheaper passenger fares are chiefly due to
the increase of long-distance travellers,
season and commutation ticket holders, etc.
As for the goods rates, they had gradually
fallen along with the development of longer
hauls down to 1912, in which year the receipts
fell off more than ten per cent again owing
to the revision of the goods tarifT. We
have reasons to believe that this cheap
conveyance directly and indirectly goes far
towards helping the industrial activities of
our country and the corresponding increase
in the national wealth.
Furthennore, these cheap fares and rates
are levied for shorter journeys and hauls
than those on foreign railways. The average
journey per passenger is 2 . 4 miles and the
average haul per ton is 92 . 4 miles, accord-
ing to the latest returns available. When
these conditions are taken into consideration,
our railway fares and rates may be considered
exceptionally cheap.
The railway nationalization was also
effective in adjusting differences that had
existed in the types of rolling-stock and
various materials, making one type common
to all the lines and beneficial for working.
Passenger-cars have been improved by
degrees; second class sleeping-cars were
inaugurated, cushions in third-class cars
made better, the highest standard of accom-
modation reached by the Tokyo-Shimonoseki
Train-de-Luxe, etc. Besides, the use of
larger types of passenger-cars has made the
average seating space much more roomy,
and warming apparatus has been installed
as widely as possible. These improvements
have enabled the Government Railways to
warrant the comfort, if not luxury, of accom-
modation, and encourage tours and travel
at large, which results ultimately in the
provision of further facilities for travelling.
A typical scene at a small station on a JAPANESE RAILWAY
772
P R E S E N T - I) A \"
IMPRESSIONS
O F
J A P A X
As for goods-wagons, the improvement of
axles has increased the loading capacity of
these wagons, and those now built arc
chiefly fifteen tons in capacity. Those cars
with which faults had been found, such as
damaged axles, imperfect construction, etc.,
have been replaced by new and more solid
wagons. Thus the loading capacity has
grown year by 3^ear, as follows:
Fiscal
Year
Bfginnim.
AVER.\GE
Loading-Capacity
PER Goods-Wagon
(TONS>
April
1906
7- ^
1907
7
2
1908
7
2
1909
/
,S
1910
7
4
1911
7
7
1912
8
2
1913
8
6
1914
-8
9
1915
9
4
More powerful locomotives have been put
into use by degrees and especially since 191 1
super-heater locomotives have been generally
run with great economy. The use of heavy
locomotives with increased traction-power
has necessitated the corresponding improve-
ment of tracks for bearing heavy loads. No
doubt heavv locomotives and better tracks
FlSC.\L
Year
Beginning
Average
Number of
Average
Lo.\D
Cars
PER Train
per Train
(Tons)
April
1907
20 4
71.0
1908
21 8
76.9
1909
24 3
90.3
1910
25-4
96.3
191 1
24,6
95 I
1912
24 .^
98.8
1913
25-1
I03-9
1914
25.6
106.7
19 1. S
27.1
1 1 5 5
mean much for the general efficiency of rail-
way traffic. Also the tractive capacity of
various locomotives has been systematised
to the great convenience of transportation,
and the annual increase in the average
number of cars and the average load per
train has been remarkable.
Besides, refrigerator-cars are now run for
the conveyance of fresh fish and meat, etc.
October, 191 1, saw the transport of goods-
wagons between Shimonoseki and Moji for
their through operation between the Mail
Island and Kyushu, and the damage inci-
dental to the former method of transship-
ment was entirely got rid of, making possible
the through conveyance of bulky and heavy
goods and coal and marking a period in the
local traffic conditions. These three results
— systematic working, reduced rates, and
adjustment of rolling-stock and materials —
are the chief among the various achievements
of the nationalized railways, but from the
financial point of view, the following two
items may also be brought forward. One is
the general decrease in the expenses of man-
agement and the other is that in the operat-
ing expenditure. As seventeen railway com-
panies creased to exist on the railway nation-
alization, the economy of the salaries of
their directors and the staff for general
affairs and accounting business, was esti-
mated at Yen 970,000. The returns down
to 191 5 show a considerable decrease of
these managing expenses in proportion to
the operating expenditure, as given below.
At the beginning of the nationalization,
an economy of the operating expenditure was
expected from the avoidance of clearing busi-
ness among various railways for through
traffic. Although the sum to be thus econo-
mised was then estimated at Yen 170,000, no
statistics are available to prove this, but still
there is much evidence to testify that it has
been the case.
Also in the financial arrangement of the
State, the Government Railways are now set
apart as a special account, and all disburse-
ments for construction, working, improve-
ment, etc., are to be met by the receipts and
profit accruing from railway traffic.
Last but not least, another feature of the
railway nationalization is the efficiency of
transportation due to the unobstructed
circulation of the rolling-stock on all the lines
according to traffic conditions and the relative
reduction of spare cars and wagons. This
increase of efficiency was primarily estimated
at 10 or 20 per cent. Thus, goods- wagons
except those of special types have been made
common to all the lines in the Main Island,
and since the opening of wagon-crossing on
the Moji-Shimonoseki channel, Kyushu has
been included in the sphere of circulation of
goods-wagons. The haul of empty wagons,
which had been of ver>' frequent necessity
prior to the nationalization, practically
became unnecessary, and as this naturally
produces a surplus of transportation capacity,
the circulation of rolling-stock among several
lines leaves almost nothing to be desired. At
the same time, car repairs can now be effected
in consideration of the quantity of traffic.
As no statistics are available before the
nationalization, we can not give evidence to
this fact by means of figures.
NEW DEPARTURES SINCE RAILWAY
NATIONALIZATION
Since the railway nationalization the
Government Railways have made a point of
adjusting different systems and institutions,
as detailed above, and also left nothing
unturned to introduce necessary new arrange-
ments for the working of railway traffic.
Some of these new departures are given in the
following paragraphs.
The railway lines in Japan proper are of
narrow gauge, but the railway management is
doing its best to effect various innovations in
passenger and other servicss in the matter of
comfort, speed, and safety, as far as circum-
stancss permit. The issuing of season and
commutation tickets on all sections of the
Government Railways and also the electric-
car and steam motor-car services in operation
on some hea\'y traffic sections have proved
very convenient for interurban and suburban
travellers, enabled busy citizens to live in
healthy suburban surroundings, and contri-
buted much to the development of the en-
virons of cities and towns. Also, the speed
of trains has been gradually acc8lerated to the
great convenience of long-distance passengers,
and their mnning systems systematised, as
Ratio of the
Fiscal Year
0per.\ting
Managing
L.\tter
Beginning
Expenditure
Expenditure
TO the
Former
Ajiril
Yen
Yen
1906
33,809.927
2.379,078
.069
1907
37.989.259
1,124,902
.030
1908
41,096,073
1,078,869
.026
1909
40,824,988
969,509
.024
1910
41.868,250
1,161,527
.028
1911
44.251.827
1,311,760
.030
1912
48.395.7.53
1 ,456,400
.030
1913
52,172,161
1,360,415
.026
1914
55.360.979
1,369,091
.025
1915
53,802,030
1,181,101
.022
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
773
"fusan shimonoseki," communication steamer, at shimonoseki wharf
referred to above. Through services on
various sections have to a large extent done
away with the necessity of transfer at junctions,
and through trains now run between Ueno
(Tokyo) and Aomori via the Joban Line
(along the Pacific coast) and via the Ou Line
(along the northeastern coast on the Japan Sea),
and through train services on the trunk line
between Tokyo and Shimonoseki have been
increased in number, inaugurating the daily
train-de-luxe chiefly for the benefit of through
travellers to Chosen, Manchuria, and farther
afield to China and Europe. Various equip-
ments in passenger-cars have been improved
and train staff increased in number and
refined in quality. In comparison with 1910,
the present train speed has cut off about four
hours west of Tokyo and more north of Tokyo.
The passenger fares were made cheaper on the
trunk line sections, as per accompanying table :
and also for advancing the last mentioned
expenses, which were formerly in force locally.
The great benefit resultant from these
arrangements can be statistically testified.
In addition to these new departures, the
Government Railways have been making
strenuous endeavours to make both passen-
ger and goods traffic as smooth as possible.
The principal sections of lines have been
doubled and even quadrupled where neces-
sary, bridges and tracks made solid, and many
stations renewed. Now the new buildings
of such metropolitan termini as Tokyo,
Shimbashi, and Manseibashi, and the stations
in Yokohama, Kyoto, Moji, etc., form
attractive features of these cities. Besides,
the utmost efforts have been made to
improve all passenger-cars, goods- wagons,
and locomotives, as already mentioned.
Although the expenditure since 1908 for
Trunk Line
First Class
Second Class
Third Class
Yen
Yen
Yen
Tokyo- Aomori
1. 91
5- 12
1-34
,V8I
0.89
•■50
Tokyo-Shimonoseki
Not only the Main Island but both Kyushu
and Hokkaido are now provided with ex-
press and through trains running at high
speed, and equal degree of excellence of service
is now assured in these comparatively remote
districts.
Among various latest arrangements for
goods traffic, the most important are the
inauguration of collection on delivery for
wagon goods and parcels, and the extension
of the systems for paying at destinations
freight charges and incidental expenses
improvements on the former lines amounts
roughly to more than Yen 140,000,000, ideal
equipments are impossible to suit the ever-
increasing quantity of passenger and goods
traffic. In the busiest seasons, the lack of
sufficient transportation capacity hinders the
free circulation of wagons, and scarcity of
rolling-stock inevitably accompanies the accu-
mulation of goods at various points. This
is also true with passenger traffic, and there
occur cases of unavoidable overcrowding of
passenger-cars. In order to be fit for the
natural expansion of the national strength and
discharge their duty as the common carriers
to the fullest extent, it is of urgent necessity
for the Government Railways to spend more
for the improvement of the existing lines and
to bring their transportation capacity to
perfection. Althougli the European War has
impeded the growth of railway traffic con-
siderably, the normal ratio of increase of
quantity of traffic before the present war was
about six per cent for passengers or about ten
per cen t for goods. After peace has been estab-
lished and commercial relations again become
normal, the said ratio of increase in traffic, it
is trusted, will also return to its normal tide
and not fall off by any appreciable quantity.
FERRY STEAMER BETWEEN MAINLAND AND
HOKKAIDO
50
774
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
OBSERVATION CAR — DINING CAR — FIRST CLASS SLEEPER
In such circumstances, the necessity of larger
expenditure for improvements is undoubtedly
worth the most serious attention of the general
public as well as the railway authorities.
Passenger and Goods Traffic
Miles
Open
TO Traffic
Fiscal
Miles
Open at the
Year
End
OF THE Year
1892
1,830.2
1897
2,768.9
1902
3.844-0
1905
4,345-8
1908
4.542.9
1911
5.044-1
1914
5.689.5
1915
5.759-0
1916
5,860.0
The extension o£ new hnes into everj' nook
and comer of the Empire has been steadily
pushed on. As already pointed out, the
increase of length of Unes since the nationali-
zation reached 1,388 miles at the end of 1915
and the capital invested in them amounted
roughl}^ to Yen 150,000,000. Consequently
more remote parts of the Empire have been
Fiscal
Year
P.\ssengers
Passenger-
Miles
Goods in Tons
Ton-Miles
1892
25.935.490
572,206,013
2,673,848
136,500,476
1897
76,089,173
1,414,985,083
8,360,029
409,988,854
1902
95,672,218
1.767,578,228
15.300.351
897.083,372
1905
97,701,960
2.381,339.652
20,278,673
1.333.378.644
1908
123,227,543
2,743,203,558
23.524.559
1,829,429,158
1911
151.077.779
3,382,586,411
29.337.054
2,347,871,475
1914
166,092,421
3.623,743.236
35.272,875
2,982,798,481
1915
172,290,045
3.856,536,966
35,800,664
3,309,518,677
Traffic Receipts
FlSC.\L
Passengers
Goods
Miscellaneous
Total
Year
Yen
Yl-u
Yen
Yen
1892
6,167,277
2.527,913
204,54s
8,899,738
1897
17,083,213
8,148,188
611,547
25,842,948
1902
28,305,010
19,570,027
1,607,131
49,482,168
1905
34,126,740
28,293,400
3,839,325
66,259,465
1908
41,920,361
34.898,935
1.063,777
77,883,073
1911
50,985,660
45.636,565
1.510,675
98,132,900
1914
55,044,167
52,451,363
2,429,981
109,925,511
1915
57,162,227
57,985.710
2,646,696
117,794,633
1916
64.977,652
69,783,796
3,260,000
138,021,448
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
775
provided with railway lines, and even where
travelling was formerly done only on foot or
by jinrikisha and the conveyance of goods
only on horseback or by men, railway facilities
are enjoyed and travelling and transport have
been made much more economical in expense
and time. Of course the extension of railway
lines is still unsatisfactory, as is fully known
to the public, and future efforts should be in
the direction of perfecting railway systems
and making them as far-reaching as possible.
Improvements and new departures in
either passenger and goods traffic are as out-
lined above, but such matters as accelerating
train-speed, making trains and tracks better
appointed, simplifying transactions, etc.,
still require much of the attention of the rail-
way authorities.
Car and Train Miles
Certain Averages of Traffic Receipts
Fiscal
Car-Miles
Train-Miles
Year
1892
7,587,852
1897
1902
17,635,987
29-599,664
451,406,349
1905
560,527,085
33,818,809
1908
771,844,901
43,422,967
1911
899,629,853
49,605,446
1914
1,071,026,028
58,420,612
•915
1,151,358,267
60,303,844
Traffic Balances
Fiscal
Operating
Expenditure
Profit
Year
Yen
Yen
1892
4,281,516
4,618,222
1897
12,413,553
13,429,395
1902
23,167,002
26,315,166
1905
28,857,998
37,401,467
1908
41,096,073
36,787,000
1911
44,251,827
53,881,073
1914
55,360,979
54,564,532
1915
53,802,030
63,992,603
1916
58,446,176
79,575,272
Not only for railway communications in the
Empire, further facilities are offered by the
operation of efficient channel steamer services
between Fusan and Shimonoseki for Japan
proper-Chosen connections, between Aomori
and Hakodate for the Main Island-Hokkaido
connections, and other short launch services,
in order to carry out efficiently through
conveyance of passengers and goods from or
to the continent and between the different
islands forming Japan proper. As the Japa-
nese Empire is comparatively small in area and
her development owes much to the expansion
of the sphere of her activity over the seas, we
can not be satisfied with the progress of the
Passenger
Goods
Receipts
Receipts
Receipts per
Receipts per
per Mile
per
Year
Passenger-mile
Ton-mile
Open
Train-mile
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1892
.01078
.01852
5,004
I-I73
1897
.01207
.01987
10,147
1.465
1902
.01600
.02182
13.297
1.672
1905
.01436
. 02 1 2 1
i5„s6o
1-959
1 908
.01528
.01908
17,259
1.726
191 1
.01507
.01944
19,824
1.978
i')i4
.01519
.01758
19,682
1. 916
1915
.01482
.01752
20,560
' -953
Certain Averages of Operating E.xpenditure
Fiscal
Year
Operating _ Ditto
„ Ditto _
Expenditure _, per Passenger-
, . _ per Train-mile
per Mile Open ton-mile
1892
2,407
56126
00604
1897
4,874
70388
00680
1902
6,226
78268
00869
1905
6,690
85332
00777
1908
9,107
94640
00899
191 1
8,939
89208
00772
1914
9,912
94763
00838
1915
9,391
89218
00751
Certain Averages per Day per Mile
Fiscal
Year
Traffic Receipts
Operating
Expenditure
Profit
Yen
Yen
Yen
1 892
1 897
1902
1905
1908
1911
1914
1915
13.710
27.800
36-4,30
42.082
47.284
54-163
53-923
56-175
6-595
13-353
17.058
18.329
24-950
24.424
27.156
25-658
7-115
14-447
19-372
23-753
22-334
29-739
26.767
30.517
Other Statistics
Capital (.Approximate)
Fiscal
Ratio of Expenditure
April i
Ratio of Profit
Year
TO Receipts
to Capit.\l
Yen
1892
.481
80,305,294
-057
1897
.480
136,725,350
.098
1902
.468
323,445,766
.081
1905
■436
397,637,340
.094
1908
-528
706,582,633
.052
1911
•451
819,198,477
.066
1914
■504
967,001,763
.056
1915
■457
1,000,469,583
.064
These figures include the actual prices of the nationalized lines.
776
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
internal business alone, but taking advantage
of the Empire's position in the centre of the
Pacific trade and travel, efforts have been
incessantly made to perfect international
through traffic relations for the extension of
her national activities. With this in view,
through traffic arrangements have been of late
put into force one after another. There are,
on one hand, the through booking arrange-
ments for passengers and their luggage to and
from those neighbouring lands, such as
Chosen, North " and South Manchuria,
Russian Maritime Province, China, and
farther afield to and from European Russia
and West Europe over the trans-Siberian
route, while on the other, arrangements exist
for the issuing of interchange tickets between
Japanese and Chinese ports of call with the
chief trans-Pacific and Suez steamer lines,
with a view to passengers breaking the
monotony of a sea voyage by overland jour-
neys. The through traffic of goods was
opened in 1914 with North Manchuria and
Russian Maritime Province, and through
conveyance of silk to European Russia via
Siberia. Thus, to-day the Imperial Japanese
Government Railways are striving to carry
out passenger and goods traffic services most
effectually not only within but beyond the
limits of the Japanese Empire. With regard
to these oversea through traffic arrangements,
efforts should be made in earnest and the
international position of the Japanese Empire
elevated more and more for turning her
geographical advantages to development of
her economical relations.
SOME STATISTICS SHOWING THE PROG-
RESS OF THE GOVERNMENT
RAILWAYS
Figures before the railway nationaliza-
tion are the total of those for the Govern-
ment Railways and the private railways
nationalized. (See tables on pages 774-775.
KI\TAI-KYO nRIDGE, SUO PROVINCE
XLV. Posts, Telegraphs, Telephones,
Roads, Rivers, and Bridges
I. Post Offices: Courier System of Old Japan— Advent of a Modern Postal System-
Development OF Postal Business. II. Telegraphs and Telephones: Early
Development— Telegraph and Telephone Rates and Revenue.
III. Roads, Rivers, and Bridges
UXDER the caption of Communi-
cations are included such public
utilities as posts, telegraphs, tele-
phones, roads, bridges, harbours, and ship-
ping. Railways and other public works
being under a different bureau, are treated
under a separate heading in this volume.
The Department of Communications was
organised in 1885 to take over the super-
vision of post offices, telegraphs, lighthouses,
and shipping, up to that time under the
Department of Agriculture and Commerce,
and the Department of Engineering since
abolished. In 1891 telephones and electrical
industries came under the supervision of
this department, to which in 1892 was added
the railway business, and a year later the
general supervision of land and sea trans-
portation. The department had now become
so expanded as to have grown unwieldy, and
after the nationalization of private railways
a Railway Bureau was created in 1909.
1. POST OFFICES
COURIER SYSTEM OF OLD JAPAN
Japan claims to have had a postal service
of rudimentary character from the year
202 A. D., when the Empress Jingo invaded
Korea, but little is known of either its mode
or efficiency, save that after some fouf
hundred years it was improved under the
influence of ideas borrowed from the relay
system of China. The service was further
reformed by the military government of
Yoritomo at Kamakura in the twelfth
century when couriers took the place of
riders, but during the strife of the Ashikaga
period all means of communication fell into
abeyance. The Tokugawa shoguns had
their own system of couriers which was
inaugurated in 1696 to convey official
communications from the Central Govern-
ment to the various district officials, the
letters and documents being placed in boxes
and carried from station to station, the
stations being paid in rice. The various
daimyo and their district officials maintained
a messenger service, the most notable of
which was that of Kii Province, by which
communications were carried to post stations
fifteen miles apart, though the service was
strictly limited to official use. During the
last two centuries of the Tokugawa era,
however, the merchants of Osaka, Kj'oto,
and Yedo had a regular system of private
letter carriers, and for sharing in this con-
venience the pubUc were glad to pay high
rates. This system continued down to
the opening of Japan to Western intercourse
in 1868.
ADVENT OF A MODERN POSTAL SYSTEM
With the accomplishment of the Restora-
tion of Imperial Government and the rapid
modernisation of the country, the people of
Japan were glad to have the old relay system
778
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A GLIMPSE OF THE CANAL SYSTEM OF JAPAN
of couriers, with all its abuses, give way to a
new system modelled after that of Western
nations. In December, 1868, a regular postal
service was inaugurated between Tok>'o and
Kyoto, the service being extended to Osaka
and Yokohama the next year. Stamps were
now used for the first time to mark the pay-
ment of postage on letters. The new postal
service made remarkable progress, soon open-
ing up connections with Nagasaki in the
south and Niigata in the west as well as
Hakodate in the north, W'hile the kinds of
matter carried in the mails greatly increased,
charges being calculated according to dis-
tance. In March, 1873, new regulations
were issued by which private individuals
were forbidden to engage in letter-carrying,
and uniform rates of postage were fixed for
all places within the Empire. In June, 1877,
Japan joined the Universal Postal Union and
organised a system of domestic and foreign
mail service that has since continued and
shown unusual development and efficiency.
In 1879 the post offices maintained by
the various European Powers in the
Treaty Ports of Japan were withdrawn,
the British Government taking the lead,
after which time Japan enjoyed complete
postal autonomy.
According to the existing system there are
three grades of post offices in Japan, known
as first, second, and third class post offices.
First class post offices are in the larger cities
of the Empire, like Tokyo and Osaka, and
have the supervision of offices subordinate
in character, as well as over maritime affairs
in their respective districts. The chief of
such offices are at Tokyo, Osaka, Kumamoto,
Sendai, and Sapporo. The vast majority
of the national post offices are of the third
grade, and are conducted on a contract
system, an expedient which the Government
finds highly economical.
DEVELOPMENT OF POST.\L BUSINESS
The postal service of Japan has not only
shown remarkable development but has
branched out into an extraordinary number
of activities not usually undertaken by post
offices in other countries, such as the carry-
ing of every sort of freight with strict limits
as to size and weight, the collection of taxes
and bills, the distribution of advertisements,
and the paying of pensions and annuities
on behalf of the National Treasury. There
is a special system for the collection and
distribution of New Year messages and
parcels, these being collected some weeks
before the festive season opens and held in
readiness for delivery at the proper moment,
so as to save a crowding of the mails and
consequent late deliveries. Mails are de-
livered twelve times daily in Tokyo, ten times
in Osaka and Kyoto, the average for first
class post offices being eight times a day, for
second class offices six times daily, and for
third class post offices three times a day.
There are special delivery services at reduced
rates for various forms of mail matter. The
regular letter postage inland is 3 sen for half
an ounce, 9 sen for special delivery, and 7 sen
extra for registration, while the charge for
parcels is remarkably small. No money is
allowed to be sent through the mails, and
consequently there is a tremendous business
in postal money orders, which have, never-
theless, to be registered, and so add 7 sen
extra commission to the postal revenue.
The Japanese post office does an important
and growing business in savings deposits,
the present rate being 4 . 8 per cent per
annum.
The Japanese postal official is usually a
courteous and faithful ser\'ant of the public,
though there are sometimes eccentricities of
service and interpretations of regulations that
astonish the foreigner; and as for postmen,
considering the small rate of wages they
receive, they are remarkably efficient and
honest, though not infrequently arrested for
pilfering or tampering with the mails. One
sees reports in the press of postmen accused
of throwing away mail matter when distance
proved inconvenient for delivery, and of
removing stamps from letters, a habit en-
couraged by the custom of receiving postage
stamps for deposit in the postal savings
banks. Consequently it is a conviction with
most citizens that letters bearing stamps of
tempting denominations had better be
carried to the nearest post office rather
than dropped in the street box. The post
office of Japan maintains a rural delivery
that is probably unsurpassed in any other
country, extending even to mountain
regions where postmen have to face the
risk of being waylaid by robbers and
killed for the sake of the money orders
and other commercial papers that may be
negotiable.
The growth of Japan's postal business
may be seen from the fact that in 1905 there
were only 4,228 post offices, which increased
to 6,932 in 1910, while at present the number
is 7,266, or one for about every 7,410 of the
population. The following table will indi-
cate the rate of development in Japan's
postal business during the last fifteen years
at intervals of five years:
Posts
Year
Offices
Miles of
Route
Letters, etc.
Parcels
FORER.N
1905
1910
1915
6,237
7,086
7,266
61,135
59,i3«
54,313
1,256,691,581
1,526,121,284
1,816,144,272
13,795,163
22,445,448
25,473,020
27,700,108
50,813,704
17,245,000
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PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
779
II. TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
The electric telegraph instrument was
first brought to Japan by Commodore
Perry as an example of the progress of inven-
tion in the United States, and the first
telegraphic apparatus was set up in the
palace of the Prince of Satsuma in 1858,
as a curiosity and not for use. The first
telegraph service was opened in Tokyo in
1872, the engineer being an Englishman,
and to him and others of his race the
Japanese system owes its initial success.
So rapid was the development that Japan
was ready to join the International Tclc-
cables were laid between Japan and Formosa,
and opened for service in 1910. According
to Japan's agreement with the Great North-
ern Telegraph Company of Denmark that
company has the exclusive right of landing
on Japanese territory in connection with
international cable service, and under these
terms the Danish company laid cables be-
tween Nagasaki and Shanghai, Vladivostock
and Fusan: but the cable which Japan laid
to the continent during the war with Russia
had rendered her independent of foreign
service, and, as has been shown, led to her
taking over the rights of the Danish company
in Korea. The charter of the company,
which expired in 191 2, was renewed for the
PUNTING A MOTOR CAR ACROSS A STREAM
Postal Money
Orders
Domestic
Foreign
Year
Remitted
Paid
Remitted
Paid
NcMIiER
Value (Yen)
Number
Value (Yen)
Number
Value (Yen)
Number
Value (Yen)
■905
1910
1915
13.977.655
15.551.866
19,366,000
155.579.340
204,980,447
252,862,000
14.864,731
16,254,843
19.378,000
173.504.789
214,260,642
252,932,000
11,891
23.076
22,468
382,076
709,660
933.462
72,461
181,362
148,512
6,248,159
13,284,458
10,361,002
PosT.^L Savings Deposits
Year
Depositors
Amount
(Yen)
Per Capita
(Yen)
Depositors
per too of
Population
1905
1910
1915
4,929,189
10,052,641
12,928,005
41,801,386
127,112,097
202,782,687
8.48
12.64
15-68
10.39
19-65
23.10
graph Convention seven years later, and
in 1883 she became a member of the
International Union for the Protection of
Submarine Cables. At the end of 1915
there were in Japan 108,470 miles of over-
head wire, 2,223 miles of underground, and
14,688 miles of submarine cable. Morse
instruments are everywhere in use through-
out Japanese circuits. The accompanying
table shows the development of Japanese
telegraphs during the past fifteen years.
As to Cables it may be said that the service
has shown remarkable development in recent
years. A cable was laid to Korea in 1882,
the points of connection being Nagasaki
and Fusan by way of the island of Tsushima,
and the service was under the auspices of
the Great Northern Telegraph Company to
which was granted a charter for tliirty years.
After the annexation of Korea it was deemed
inexpedient to have the service in foreign
hands and the rights were amicably trans-
ferred to Japan for a consideration of Yen
160,000, the portion between Nagasaki and
Hizen having been transferred in 1891 for
Yen 85,000. At the same time additional
service to Shanghai, and further negotiations
were opened with the Great Eastern Tele-
graph Company, as well as the Danish
company and China and Russia, for an
improved service to Siberia. Work on this
is soon to proceed.
In Wireless Telegraphy, too, Japan has
shown rapid developraeat. At first the
service was confined to the Army and
Navy, but in 1906 Japan despatched her
first delegates to the International Wire-
less Conference at Berlin and in 1908
she became a member of the Interna-
tional Wireless Union, which act was
ratified and promulgated by Imperial Ordi-
nance in June of the same year. By
March, 19 16, Japan had sixty-four Govern-
ment and nine private wireless installations
aboard steamers, with nine stations on shore.
The shore stations have the latest equip-
ment. (See table at foot of page.)
Telegraphs
Year
Offices
Lines
Wires
Messages
Wireless
1905
1910
1915
2,600
3.951
4.936
19,753 miles
23,433 miles
26,255 miles
92,860 miles
103,885 miles
125,651 miles
23,772,950
28,185,955
33,750,481
7.817
36.057
St.\tion
Metre
Vibration
Power (Kilowatts)
Transmission Distance
Ochiishi
300:600:1800
7 Quenched spark
Day 600; Night 1,800 miles
Choshi
300:600:1800
7 Quenched spark
Day 600; Night 1,800 miles
Shiozaki
300:600:1800
3 Quenched spark
Day 400; Night 1,100 miles
Tsunoshima
300:600:1800
4 (Ordinary spark
Day 400; Night 1,000 miles
Osezaki
300:600:1800
7 Quenched spark
Day 600; Night 1,800 miles
Shimotsui
300 : 600 : 1 800
4 Quenched spark
Day 300; Night 1,000 miles
Rasa
300:600:1800
3 Quenched spark
Day 450; Night 1,300 miles
Cape Fuki
300:600: . . .
4 Ordinary spark
Day 450; Night 1,200 miles
Dairen
300:600: . . .
7 Ordinary spark
Day 500; Night 1,300 miles
78o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
CONSTRUCTING A RIVER EMBANKMENT
The Choshi and Osezaki stations are under
reconstruction, after which they will be
capable of transmission to a distance of
1,500 nautical miles by day and 3,000
by night. The Funabashi station, which
belongs to the Imperial Navy, is also
open for public service, and can com-
municate with Hawaii and the South Sea
Islands, being the most powerful station in
Japan.
The following table affords an interest-
ing and instructive comparison between the
ordinary and the wireless service in Japan
during three recent years:
TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE RATES
AND REVENUE
Domestic telegrams are sent in the kana
s\'Uabary, the rate being 20 sen for the first
15 syllables and 5 sen for every 5 syllables
or less over that number; but for telegrams
within the same city or postal area the rate
is reduced to 10 sen and 3 sen respectively
for the same number of syllables, the address
in cither case being free, except that of the
sender, and a reply may be prepaid accord-
ingly. Telegraph messages may also be sent
in Roman letters at the rate of 25 sen for
the first 5 words or less, and 5 sen for each
additional word; but for telegrams within
the city the rate becomes 15 sen for the first
5 words and 3 sen for each word added, the
word limit being fixed at 15 letters, excess
of this being reckoned as one word up to
another 15 letters unless more than one
word is included. In groups of Arabic figures
5 or less count as one word, and in codes the
maximum for words is 10 letters. Urgent
telegrams, which take precedence to ordinary
messages, may be sent at three times the
ordinary rate. Express telegrams may be
sent to be forwarded from the last post
office by post or special courier at the rate
Ordinary Telegrams
Wireless
Year
Domestic
Foreign
Domestic
Foreign
Despatched
Received
Desp.atched
Received
1914
1915
1916
33,025,000
32,876,000
32,898,000
312,000
342,000
320,000
351,000
393,000
368,000
30,089
31,233
31,676
4,058
4,307
4,381
665
767
678
HODZU RAPIDS, NEAR KVOTO
of 7 sen for postage and 20 sen for a messenger
within a radius of 8 miles, and 25 sen for
each additional 2>^ miles. The rate for
telegrams to Formosa or any of the Japanese
colonies in the native syllabary is 30 sen for
the first 15 syllables and 5 sen for each
additional syllable or less, while messages in
Roman letters are 40 sen for the first 5 words
and 5 sen for each additional word.
The first Telephone service was opened in
Japan in and between Tokyo and Yokohama
in 1890, and a long-distance service was
inaugurated seven years later, extending to
Osaka, 350 miles away. At first the develop-
ment was slow, as the Japanese did not
appear to appreciate the convenience of such
means of communication, and special pains
had to be taken by the authorities to invite
the interest of subscribers. It was not long,
however, before the demand for telephones
was much greater than the Government
could supply, and even still the number of
applications for installations is many thou-
sands more than the officials can overtake
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
781
At the end of March, 1915, the demand in
excess of supply was 140,000, and several
thousand more applicants have been added
since. As each applicant has to deposit 15
yen with his application the Government is
enabled to have the use of over 2,000,000
yen a year without interest, while telephone
brokers do a large and questionable business
by securing premiums from applicants willing
to pay from 400 to 800 yen for transfer of
privilege for prior installation. The Govern-
ment in 1909 started the custom of putting
in telephones first for those willing to pay
premiums of from 150 to 185 \en. Indeed,
this aspect of the telephone business in Japan
amounts to a public scandal, made possible
only because the business is a Government
monopoly, as any private company would
fill the applications in short order. The
annual fee for telephone connection is 36
yen as a minimum, the maximum charge
being 66 yen according to place. Automatic
stations are situated at convenient places
along the streets in cities, where messages
may be sent by dropping 5 sen in the
slot. The exchanges are served by girls,
as abroad, and the wages are scarcely
sufficient for support. But the telephone
in Japan, like the post office, is a
money-making institution for the Govern-
ment, and every interest has to be sub-
servient to that end. While profits from
such public utilities in other countries where
they are monopolies arc usually small,
in Japan they are large, and in the post
A BUSY SCENE ON A RIVER
office department the profit is especially
large. The first table below will illustrate
the growth of Japan's telephone activity
during fifteen years at intervals of five
years.
The total of Japan's revenue and expenses
from posts, telegraphs, and telephones for
fifteen years at intervals of five years may
be seen from the following tables:
III. ROADS, RIVERS, AND BRIDGES
In old Japan the building of roads and
bridges was not encouraged, particularly in
the vicinity of boundaries between daimyo
dominions, where access was blocked or
rendered uninviting by barriers for the strict
examination of travellers. With the open-
ing of the country to modern ways the new
Government undertook the promotion of
Telephones
Year
Offices
Automatic
Twines
Wires
Exchanges
Appar.\tiis
Subscribers
Messages
1905
1910
1915
197
1,141
2,404
143
382
679
3,2'\S
5.-'^>^7
7.44.T
1 37.55^
269,238
539,992
374
1,454
3.135
37.160
141.895
234.988
35.52^
102,626
211,540
150,171,687
423.339,467
1,045,042,902
Receipts
Year
Ordinary
Mail
Parcels
Money
Orders
Savings
Deposits
Telegrams
Telephones
Tot.\l
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1905
1910
1915
16,285,000
20,417,000
23,747,000
2,430,000
3,369,000
3,893,000
1,216,000
1,439,000
1,676,000
31,000
220,000
551,000
8,873,000
8,914,000
10,281,000
3, II 1,000
9,117,000
14,759,000
3 1 ,859,000
43,479,000
54,908,000
Expenses
Year
Ordinary
Mail
Parcels
Money
(Droers
Sa\ings
Deposits
Telegrams
Telephones
Total
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1905
1910
1915
7,767,000
9,793,000
10,486,000
2,090,000
2,692,000
2,916,000
673,000
700,000
741,000
849,000
1,303,000
1,492,000
5,985,000
6,279,000
7,170,000
1,179,000
2,136,000
3,585,000
18,545,000
22,605,000
26,392,000
782
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A JAPANESE BRIDGE OF THE OLD STYLE, AT SHIMOGAMO
road construction as far as possible, though
as yet this side of Japan's development has
not at all kept pace with her progress in
other directions, and the roads of the nation
are in a poor way compared with other
countries, most of them being not only ill-
made but too narrow for modern vehicles.
The roads of Japan are divided into three
classes: national, provincial, and village
roads. The national roads are those leading
from the capital to the open ports, the Grand
Shrine at Ise, the headquarters of the army
divisions, naval stations, and prefectural
offices, including connecting roads. The
width of national roads must be eighteen feet,
or forty-two feet between banks or fences.
Provincial roads are those leading from the
prefectural offices to the district offices, or
these connecting towns and busy ports.
Such highways must be from twenty-four
to thirty feet wide. The village roads con-
nect the minor sections of districts or lead
to local shrines or temples. There is no
regulation as to width, and many of these
roads are mere paths. Expenses for the
upkeep of national and provincial roads have
to be borne by the Prefectural Treasury,
while the various towns and villages arc
responsible for the repair of the roads and
paths concerning them. The total mileage
of national roads is 6,436.8; provincial roads,
22,936.63, and village roads have a mileage
of 267,699.3. Owing to the enormous num-
ber of streams in Japan bridges and culverts
exceed in number those of most other coun-
tries. On the above mileage of roads there
are no less than 312,761 bridges, of which
267 are of iron, 66,639 of stone, 132,265 of
wood, and the rest are of earth or are pontoon
bridges. The average annual expenditure
on roads in Japan is about 15,000,000 yen,
and some 4,000,000 yen is spent on bridges,
the total, including sundry engineering
expenses, coming to over 22,000,000 yen
annually. The aggregate of expense for
engineering operations in connection with
roads, bridges, rivers, and riparian work is
over 43,000,000 yen a year.
The rivers of Japan require a great deal
of attention and expense, owing to frequency
of floods. During the last 1,300 years there
have been some 426 destructive inundations,
or one every three years, with consequent
entailment of enormous outlay on dredging
of waterways and repairing of embankments.
One of the most destructive of these floods
occurred in 1896, causing damage to the
extent of 138,000,000 yen, though the flood
of 1910 was scarcely less destructive. Losses
of human life from floods during the past
thirty-five years have totalled 23,677 persons.
By the River Control Law of 1896 the Gov-
ernment attempted to make a determined
effort to provide still greater safeguards
against destructive floods by a system of
hydraulic engineering, each local government
being responsible for the streams under its
jurisdiction, the State to assist in cases
manifestly too expensive for local finance.
Since then 25 rivers and 36 tributaries have
received attention at an average annual
outlay of about 3,000,000 yen by the Govern-
ment and some 10,000,000 by prefectures,
the total last reported being 12,840,568 yen
for the year. To avoid further devastation
from floods the authorities are pushing
riparian schemes to completion with great
expedition. At present 65 rivers are in-
cluded in the Government's plans, of
which 20 are to be finished in 18 years'
time at a cost of 180,000,000 yen, for
which the sum of 10,000,000 yen is to be
set apart annually, with a further equal
amount to be expended for the prevention
of landslides.
THE ADMINISTRATION OFFICES OF THE IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES BUREAU, TOKYO
XLVI. Government Monopolies
The Tobacco Monopoly— The Salt Monopoly — The Camphor Monopoly— The Opium
Monopoly— Commercial Notices
THOUGH the Imperial Government
of Japan engages in numerous
undertakings, such as conducting
a printing bureau, military and naval arsen-
als, steel works, dockyards, woollen mills,
and State railways, to say nothing of tele-
graphs and telephones, only tobacco, salt,
camphor, and opium are called Government
monopolies. Of course, telegraphs and tele-
phones must be regarded as Government
monopolies in the most absolute sense, since
no private lines are suffered to exist, much to
the inefficiency of the service and the con-
stant inconvenience and complaint of the
public. The same may be said of the State
railways, as private lines can not be con-
structed without Government permission,
which is never given except for light railways
and then only when there is no possibility
of competition with Government lines.
Many applications for the building of rail-
ways are rejected annually, and the respec-
tive districts thus deprived of railway service,
because the utility is a national monopoly.
Recently the Government refused permission
to a private company to construct an electric
railway between Tokyo and Osaka, which
would tap much new territory, simply for
the reason that the contemplated line would
afford more rapid transit than the State lines
to the south, and thus result possibly in some
loss of revenue to the Government. In spite
of the enormous sums annually expended on
railway extension and improvement, the
public is loud in complaint against the in-
adequacy and inefficiency of the service.
Freight constantly lies piled up to congestion
at way stations, and passengers have to
stand during a whole journey for want of
proper accommodation.
In respect to industrial monopolies such
as weaving and steel manufacture, the
Government pursues quite a different policy,
encouraging every possible competition. It
is clear that the authorities entertain a
double purpose in their adoption of monop-
olies and State undertakings. Primarily the
motive was for administrative expediency
and the improvement of nascent industries
by providing models, a secondary motive
being to increase national revenue. In most
cases, however, the motives have been taking
a reversed order, and considerations of in-
creased revenue have predominated. The
list of Government enterprises was com-
paratively unimportant up to the year 1 891
when there was a remarkable and sudden
increase, and the policy was further empha-
sised after the war with China in 1895,
actuated by a desire for mcreased revenue.
But the establishment of the Government
steel works at Wakamatsu in 1897 was not
so much a profit-making venture as to inaug-
urate the home manufacture of ship-con-
struction material and render the nation
independent in time of emergency. The
steel works, however, which was started at
an outlay of 37,000,000 yen, to which 12,-
000,000 yen more was added in 1911, have
been running at a loss, the total of which
already amounts to 1,500,000 yen. The
tobacco monopoly, which came into force
in January, 1898, was obviously for reasons
of revenue. The camphor monopoly was
adopted in the same year, ostensibly to
784
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
T. KANOH, DIRECTOR GENERAL OF THE IMPE-
RIAL JAPANESE GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES
protect the industry in Formosa, but doubtless
in reality for financial reasons as well. After
the close of the war with Russia the tobacco
monopoly was extended and made complete
over the cultivation of the plant. In July,
1904, the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes
was included, and in April, 1905, cut tobacco
was made a Government undertaking.
Salt became a Government monopoly in
June, 1905, in spite of the protests of the
public, which have ever since continued.
The monopoly has added much to the
Imperial Treasury, even if the people have
had to pay more for one of the prime neces-
sities of life. Salt monopoly is known in
Japan as one of the three bad taxes, the other
two being the taxes on transit and textiles.
The three monopolies of salt, tobacco, and
camphor are directly under the Department
of Finance, and are managed by the Govern-
ment Monopoly Bureau, while opium is
confined to Formosa and is under the juris-
diction of the colonial administration there.
But salt and tobacco, as well as camphor,
are carried on as monopolies in Formosa as
well as in Japan, and salt, ginseng, and to-
bacco in Korea as well. As the monopoly
statistics for the three different fields of
operation are kept separately by the Govern-
ment, and only those for Japan proper are
in any degree adequate as to details, it is
difficult to cover this side of the subject in a
satisfactory manner. It may be mentioned
further that after Japan concluded peace
with Russia without indemnity in 1906, a
considerable increase of revenue was impera-
tive, to obviate which the seventeen private
railway Unes of the Empire, representing
some 2,823 miles, were nationalised at a cost
of 484,639,584 yen and the railway business
made a separate financial venture, now
bringing in a profit of some 60,000,000 yen
a year. Thus from State undertakings and
monopolies the Government has greatly
increased its annual revenue, though the
general opinion in Japan is that the national
income has been enhanced at the expense
of efficiency in public service. The country
pays more for an inferior service than it did
under private auspices for a superior one,
especially in regard to public utility indus-
tries. The following figures represent a
comparative table of profits for the three
Government monopolies in Japan [proper
for the last ten years:
a ban, which continued from 1609 to 161 5,
was placed on the importation and cultivation
of tobacco, when the habit of its use was
found to have become so ingrained in the
])eople that they could not abandon it, the
l)an being more observed in the breach than
the observance; and finally the prohibition
was removed. Indeed, Japan still looks
upon the tobacco habit as being as inveterate
as the social evil, and regulates its quality
and sale much in the same way.
The first devotees of the weed in Japan
smoked a cigar introduced by the Protuguese,
but it was not long before the pipe was
adopted and preferred. The first vendors of
tobacco did not sell it cut and ready for use,
nor yet in figs, but in the dry leaf, the smoker
Profits on Monopolies
Profits on
Profits from
Profits from
Tobacco
S.ALT
Camphor
Total
Year
Monopoly
Monopoly
Monopoly
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
1907
35,607,902
I3.^97.«46
278,225
49.183.973
1908
49,304,569
11,892,826
221,714
61,419,149
1909
47,267,571
11,134,120
47,691
58,449,382
1910
50,936,126
1 1,060,131
93,.SI7
62,089,574
1911
51,315,884
11,840,312
1 79,903
63,326,099
UJ12
55,630,888
10,254,805
129,825
66,015,518
H)I3
58,649,647
10,570,894
76,882
69,597.423
I9I4
50,021,995
4,796,475
230,775*
54,697,115
I9I3
60,167,986
10,773,575
72„S08
70,913,869
I9I6
58,802,746
S,95i,,i36
49,248
67,803,330
* Loss
As to monopolies in the colonies, Korea
makes about 2,500,000 yen a year on tobacco,
500,000 on salt, and 1,000,000 on ginseng;
while in Formosa profits on the salt monopoly
amount to about 2,000,000 yen a year, on
tobacco about 4,000,000 yen, and on opium
some 6,000,000 yen, with about 6,000,000
more for camphor.
THE TOBACCO MONOPOLY
The tobacco plant was first brought to
Japan by the Spanish from Manila in the
middle of the sixteenth century, not very
long after it had been introduced into Europe.
The Japanese in Nagasaki, where the weed
first appeared, took to the smoking habit
with zest, and some years later (about 1592)
steps were taken to introduce the cultivation
of the plant. In the time of the early
Tokugawa shoguns, however, the smoking
habit came to be recognised as an evil
threatening the health of the nation, and the
authorities in Japan, like the worthy King
James of England, expressed the opinion
that turning the human mouth into a smoke
funnel was a useless as well as a filthy habit,
unbecoming a civihsed people. Consequently
being obliged to take it home and cut it for
himself. The business so developed that
dealers began to adapt themselves to the
demand of the times and offered to cut all
tobacco purchased from them. By the
middle of the seventeenth century tobacco
smoking became universal in Japan, and it
still is so. Wherever one goes, even to the
remotest section of the Empire, the pipe and
the cigarette are in evidence among all classes
and both sexes, though, needless to say, it is
more common among men. The diminutive
pipe, holding but a pinch, three pipefuls mak-
ing a smoke, is fast giving way to the cigarette
of the Monopoly Bureau, of which there are
various brands representing as many qualities.
Foreign pipes and cigars are used by a few
only. The Japanese may be regarded as
among the most inveterate smokers of the
world, though the quantity and strength of
the tobacco consumed can not be said to com-
pare with consumption in Western countries.
The native pipe is comparatively harmless
and the weed in the native cigarette is much
milder than foreign tobacco. The annual
consumption of tobacco in Japan is on the
increase and soon the mind of the nation will
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
785
A TOBACCO FARM
very few cigars. The work is done mostly
by girls, and the total output in cigarettes is
about 7,000,000,000 a year. There are some
fifty offices of the Monopoly Bureau through-
out the Empire for the supplying of retail
dealers with tobacco. The duty on imported
tobacco is now 250 per cent, which, of course,
is prohibitive, though there is a good deal of
smuggling. The table below shows the
amount and value of tobacco handled by
the Monopoly Bureau every five years during
the last fifteen years.
In addition, there are some 70,000 acres
under tobacco cultivation in Korea, which
bring in an annual revenue of about 2,500,-
000 yen, while in Formosa the annual out-
put is about 2,000,000 pounds, valued at
over 7,500,000 yen.
THE SALT MONOPOLY
In Japan salt refining is an industry of
great antiquity and much importance. One
be as much under the influence of nicotine as
are some Western countries. How far this
may militate against the interests of the
Japanese race is for scientists to say. There
is no doubt that it is already making its
effects felt on the mental development of the
young. If a boy is behind his classmates in
the public schools of Japan, it may usually
be attributed to the cigarette habit.
For the first three hundred years after the
introduction of smoking most of the tobacco
consumed in Japan was grown at home, but
with the opening of the country to foreign
trade at the beginning of the Meiji period,
large imports arrived from abroad in the
shape of cigars, cigarettes, and cut tobacco.
Foreign manufactures soon saw in Japan an
excellent field for enterprise, and in time the
Government decided that if the tobacco busi-
ness was going to prove so profitable it might
as well be used to increase the revenue of the
State. Moreover, the foreign dealers were
instilling in the people a taste for the strong
tobacco of the West; and the quality used
should be supervised by proper authority.
Accordingly, in 1896, the business was
declared a Government monopoly and put
into operation in 1898 by buying up the native
and foreign tobacco factories, the regulations
being revised in 1891. During the first six
or seven years of the monopoly the profits did
not exceed 7,000,000 yen annually, but by
1903 they arose to 15,000,000 yen, and now
they amount to nearly 60,000,000 yen a year.
The most important centres of tobacco
cultivation in Japan are around Kokobu in
the Province of Satsuma, Nagasaki in Hizen,
Yoshino in Yamato, and Hatano in Sagami.
Lovers of the weed profess to find quite a
different flavour in the leaf produced in each
Year
Area
Cultivated
Production
Cost
V.-^LUE OF
Imported
Tobacco
Profits on
Sale of
Manufactured
Tobacco
Acres
Pounds
Yen
Yen
Yen
1906
191 1
1916
81,985
60,933
90,327
94,907,501
73,894,326
105,279,158
8,166,922
8,091,569
14.116,612
1,595,100
44,856
789,297
33,602,057
51,315,884
58,802,746
of the districts named, while foreign tobacco
to the Japanese taste is also very different,
and even repugnant to some native smokers.
On the other hand foreigners, as a rule, have
no relish for Japanese tobacco. The native
tobacco, however, is of fair quality, and yeUow
American varieties are also cultivated. The
Monopoly Bureau imports all kinds of foreign
tobacco, some of which is made up into cigars,
cigarettes, and cut tobacco and some is mixed
with the native leaf to represent the various
brands sold by the Bureau. The native leaf
is pulverized to look like brown hair and sold
for use in the tiny metal pipes used by the
Japanese. The bowl and mouthpiece of the
native pipe are of metal, connected by a bam-
boo stem which is changed, when it becomes
too strong, by a pipe-cleaner, who goes his
daily rounds shouting his services along the
street. The Government supervises the cul-
tivation of the plant in the fields as well as
the varieties selected for manufacture, the
farmers being obliged to sell all the crop to the
Monopoly Bureau for a fixed price. The
Monopoly Bureau now has 23 well equipped
factories in various centres throughout the
Empire, some of the finest being in Tokyo and
Osaka, where millions of cartons of cigarettes
and cut tobacco are turned out annually, but
learns from Japanese history that in ancient
times an inland enemy could be exhausted by
being deprived of access to the sea, and thus
cut off from a supply of salt, and one of the
most famous heroes of the nation obtained
an immortal reputation for magnanimity by
allowing non-combatant enemies to have salt
in time of war. The salt is produced almost
exclusively from the evaporation of brine,
rock salt being very rare. Throughout the
Empire generally the process is carried on by
artificial heating, but in Formosa and other
latitudes of high temperature evaporation is
left to the sun's rays. The Japanese method
of salt refining has remained unchanged for
ages and consists of building a low circular
wall on the foreshore where the sea water is
retained until it partially evaporates, after
which the mixture of brine and sand is
removed and the process of evaporation com-
pleted in pans over a fire. The districts along
the Inland Sea of Japan form the main centres
of production. In Japan proper salt has been
a Government Monopoly since 1905, but it
has been a monopoly in Formosa since Japan's
occupation of the island. As has already
been mentioned, the salt monopoly has from
the first been a constant theme of public
opprobrium, owing to the increased price of
786
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
the article. In the first year of application
the profits of the monopoly amounted to 1 1 ,-
998,012 yen, and in 1908 to 24,652,674 yen,
since when the annual profits have decreased
on account of criticism compelling a reduc-
tion of price, and in 1917 the profit from salt
reached only 8,951,336 yen on an output of
over one billion pounds. The Government
has model salt refineries at various places,
the most inportant being those at Chiba
and Hiroshima. The accompanying table
gives the details of salt production and sale
in Japan at intervals of five years during
the last fifteen years.
The annual production of salt in Formosa is
240,000,000 pounds, of which about 180,000,-
000 pounds are brought to Japan; and in
Korea there is a yearly output of 325,000,000
.\ TYPE OF S.\LT FIELD
pounds, all of which is consumed in the pen-
insula, while the production of salt in Japan's
leased territory of Kwantung is about 136,-
407,900 pounds annually. The value of the
salt produced in the colonies and the profits
on sales thereof are not given in any official
statistics available. It is safe, however, to
conclude that the profits are at least equal to
those on the same quantity of salt in Japan
proper.
THE CAMPHOR MONOPOLY
Originally the camphor monopoly applied
only to Formosa, where the great camphor
forests are, but the price of the article was so
greatly influenced by development of the
manufacture of camphor in Japan proper that
the monopoly was extended in 1903 to the
S.ALT Monopoly Production .\nd Profits
Year
Area of
Salt-Pans
Annu.\l
Production
V.\LUE
Profits
Acres
Pounds
Yen
Yen
1906
1911
1916
20,483
15-233
14,765
1,255,081,644
1,261,589,367
1,357,569,164
9,718,062
10,243,485
11,904,123
11,998,012
11,060,131
8,951,336
whole Empire. The amount produced in
Japan is still insignificant, however, as com-
pared with the output in Formosa, and since
the main object is to increase the industry in
the island colony, there has been little pro-
gress in the rest of the country, the profits
amounting to scarcely over 50,000 yen a year,
while in Formosa the profits reach nearly
6,000,000 yen. As to the progress of camphor
cultivation and manufacture in Formosa, it
will be found partially treated in the chapter
on that island in this volume; but it may be
added in this connection that the Monopoly
Bureau is pursuing a policy of extensive
afforestation in camphor trees in Formosa,
more than half a million having already been
set out, replanting some 3,000 acres. The
plans of the Government, however, contem-
plate the reafforestation of some 50,000 acres
by the year 1923, at an outlay of some 50,000
yen annually. The great importance of
camphor afforestation will be seen when the
rate at which mature trees are being felled is
borne in mind, as well as the fact that the
camphor tree does not yield well before the
age of 60 years. Trees of not less than 100
years of age now number something below
12,000,000, the forest resources in sight beinu
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
787
equal to a yield of about 33,000,000 pounds of
crude camphor and 24,000,000 pounds of
camphor oil. Japanese chemists are experi-
menting at trying to extract camphor from
the twigs and leaves of the camphor tree, but
so far without much success.
Japan now supplies about one -half of
the 10,000,000 pounds of camphor annually
consumed by the world, nearly all of it
coming from Formosa. In production of
camphor Japan's only rival is southern China,
but the quality obtained there is very crude.
Some years ago Japan thought that she
would be able to command the camphor
markets of the world, especially as the sub-
stance was coming into increasing use in the
manufacture of celluloid, rubber goods, balls,
and combs, as well as in the manufacture
of gunpowder and medicine, but the appear-
ance of synthetic camphor altered the
prospects considerably. Experiments, too,
have shown that the camphor tree can
flourish in numerous other countries, though
it will take years yet for plantations to reach
the yielding age. For some time yet Japan
will, therefore, remain the main source of
supply. The conditions prevailing in For-
mosa when Japan took over the island from
China necessitated the serious attention of
the Government, as the Chinese had been
most reckless in cutting down camphor
trees, and the value of the forests was gravely
impaired. Some of the more productive
regions, too, were in possession of the savage
tribes of the island, and work could not be
undertaken without military protection. The
CAMPHOR MANUFACTURING WORKS
number of reforms carried out and the great
improvement inaugurated in the extracting of
camphor would be too numerous to mention.
The Monopoly Bureau used to dispose of
its camphor in foreign markets throiigh the
British firm of Messrs. Samuel & Samuel,
which has branches in the Far East, but in
1908 the Government became its own agent,
and now Japan conducts the business in
London on her own account or through the
Mitsui Company.
ONE OF THE MACHINE AND WORK ROOMS, IMPERIAL TOBACCO MONOPOLY
The table on the next page gives the
production and value of camphor in Japan
proper at intervals of five years for fifteen
recent years.
In Formosa the annual production of
crude camphor is about 4,500,000 pounds,
valued at 1,463,000 yen; and of crude
camphor oil 6,288,876 pounds, valued at
about 1,100,000 yen, the total profits in
1916 being 5,808,000 yen.
THE OPIUM MONOPOLY
This monopoly is confined altogether to
Formosa as the use of the drug for any but
medical purposes is prohibited in Japan
proper. The subject will be found treated
from an administrative point of view more
fully in the chapter on Formosa elsewhere
in this volume. The monopoly was under-
taken professedly for the purpose of controll-
ing the victims of the opium habit of whom
there were immense numbers when the
colony came under Japan's jurisdiction.
The policy of the Government has been
gradually to reduce the number of smokers
until the habit is completely eradicated on
the island. Every habitual user of opium
was required to prove the fact and then take
out a license for the consumption of the
drug. It was supposed that if no licenses
were issued to new applicants after the total
number of users were so supplied that in
time the number would naturally decline as
the older victims died off. It was decided
to establish a factory under Government
control for the manufacture of opium doses,
as the Chinese had done, with, however,
certain important improvements. As a result
788
PRESENT-DAY I-MPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
CIGARETTE-MAKIXG MACHINES, IMPERI.VL GOVERNMENT MONOPOLY
of the policy of gradual prohibition which
came into force in 1896 the number of licensed
opium smokers has decreased from 169,064
in 1900 to some 75,000 at present. In 1906
the amount of opium imported by the
authorities was 446,667 pounds, at a cost
of 3,371,789 yen, from which a profit of
4,205,830 yen was made. At present the
annual value of imports of opium is 2,190,897
yen, which is made into something over
3,000,000 ounces of the drug and sold at a
profit of something over 6,000,000 yen; but
in recent years the statistics as to profits
and sale of opium officially published have
not been very definite.
THE DAI NIPPON SALT COMPANY,
LIMITED
This great company, known under its
Japanese title as the Dai Nippon Engyo
Kabushiki Kaisha, is associated with the
Taiwan Engyo Kabushiki Kaisha, in han-
dling the bulk of the salt trade of Japan.
It was organised in September, 1903, with
the comparatively small capital of Yen
50,000, which- has since been increased at
different times to the large figure of Yen
4,950,000 at which it stands to-day. The
company is entirely engaged in the production
of salt, which is collected at Kantoshiu,
South Manchuria, and there is refined and
treated for sale in the markets of Japan and
elsewhere. The annual production is over
150,000,000 pounds. Mr. Kenechi Fujita
is President of the Dai Nippon Engj'o and
also of the Taiwan Engyo. The other
principal officers of the company are: Direc-
SEtTION OF THE MITSUBISHI BUILDING WHERE UFEiCES OCCUPIED BY THE DAI NIPPON
ENGYO KABUSHIKI KAISHA (DAI NIPPON SALT CO., LTD.) ARE LOCATED
tors, Messrs. Rinsaburo Imanishi, Matakichi
Ida, M. Hamada, Eizo Nagasaki, Seizo
Matsubara, J. Aoki, I. Furuki, Kihei Miwa,
K. Watanabe, K. Usami, and Mr. Kato.
The head office of the company is at Xo. 30
Kambu-dori, Dairen, with branches at
Tokyo and Kobe.
THE TAIWAN ENGYO K,\BUSHIKI
KAISHA
Associated with the Dai Nippon Engyo
Kabushiki Kaisha is the Taiwan Salt Com-
]_)any. Limited, which was established in
March, 1909, as a limited liability concern
with a capital of Yen 3,000,000. This com-
pany is a selling organisation, and does not
manufacture salt. The product is princi-
pally imported from Taiwan (Formosa),
and is refined and put on the market. Mr.
Fujita is Managing Director and the Board
also comprises Messrs. Hatasaburo Hanai,
Kihei Miwa, Yoshio Kawai, Torataro Kira-
mori, I. Furuki, I. Aoki, Kunji Usami, and Hoji
Isemura. The head office of the company
is at No. I, Yuraku-cho Itchome, Kojimachi-
ku, Tokyo, and there is a branch office at
Xo. I, Higashi Kawasaki-machi, Kob^.
A BUSY SCENE AT THE FERRY, KARATO-MACHI, SHIMONOSEKI
XLVII. Cities of Moji and Shimonoseki
SITUATED on pleasant sites just op-
posite each other, the two cities of Moji
and Shimonoseki may be conveniently
considered under one heading. At the extreme
south of the main island of Japan runs the
narrow strait that separates Honshu from
Kyushu, opening the way into the beautiful
Inland Sea. On either side of this charming
stretch of water stand the cities of Moji and
Shimonoseki, the former on the Kyushu side
and the latter in Honshu. Being ports of call
for steamers coming from China and the
southern route, all travellers have to pass
through this strait and no doubt the two cities
are already familiar to many readers. The
two places have always been important sta-
tions between the ferry landings for travellers
proceeding from one island to the other, but
it is only in recent years that they have attained
to importance in foreign trade and sea com-
munications.
Shimonoseki is situated along the shores
ot the Hayatomo Channel, protected from
high winds by lofty hills on the north, while
to the westward lies Hiroshima Island,
serving to check the sea breaking in from
the outside. The harbour is deep and
commodious, though sometimes troubled
by winds. . As long as Shimonoseki was a
mere ferry station it showed no remarkable
growth, but after it became a port of depart-
ure for China and Korea for the Imperial
Government railways the place began to
make rapid development. The present popu-
lation of the city is about 73,000, which is
fast increasing, though of late there has
ajjpeared a tendency for population to drift
toward the rival city across the strait. It
remains, however, the chief port of departure
for Korea.
The volume of trade passing through
Shimonoseki has been showing a favourable
increase in recent years, the total for the
year being at present in the vicinity of 1,000,-
000 yen, while imports represent about
75,000 yen, as most of the imports enter
Japan through Kob6 or Yokohama. So
long as the big liners of the Nippon Yusen
Kaisha have a base there, as well as the
numerous trawlers from neighbouring fish-
ing grounds, the place will no doubt continue
to hold its own. The fisheries are quite
extensive, representing some 160 boats,
employing nearly 2,000 hands and taking an
annual catch valued at about 7,000,000 yen.
The city has the usual appointments of a
Japanese town which has not yet approached
the stage of complete modernisation. Some
foreign firms have offices there, most of them
British, and the city has a good foreign hotel.
There are also the usual schools, city offices,
and municipal government.
The environment of Shimonoseki is full
of historic memories, as near by is the famous
plain of Dannoura, extending along the
highway leading to the town of Chofu, where
was fought the great battle which resulted
in the final overthrow of the Heike clan, the
remnants of whom the Genji warriors forced
over the cliff into the sea. The view from
here, with the hills of Hino behind and the
sea in front, is charming in the extreme,
The big crabs found in these waters are
known as Heik^ because of the semblance
of their backs to a human face, it being
supposed that the drowned Heike warriors
assumed this form of existence. In the
disaster that befell the Heike clan the
Emperor Antoku perished, and a shrine was
erected at the foot of Mount Beni-ishi to
the honour of the Imperial spirit, known as
the Akamanomiya; and the tombs of the
Heike leaders are in the same grove, though
the inscriptions are now hardly legible. A
peculiar feature of the annual festival at
this shrine is the custom of having the pro-
ceedings opened by the gay ladies of the
district, who march out in the picturesque
robes of their calling, and after they retire
the place is declared opan to the public.
The custom is said to have had its origin in
the misfortune that befell the women of the
Heike lords, who when left without pro-
tectors, had no resort but to become denizens
of the gay quarters of the town, the citizens,
however, treating them with great sympathy
and respect owing to their unhappy lot, so
that in spite of their calling they never lost
their high social position, entitling them to
be the first visitors to the shrine festival.
Near the mausoleum of the Emperor
Antoku stands the Shumpanro Hotel, noted
as the scene of the negotiations between
Japan and China in 1895. bringing the war
to a peaceful conclusion. The chairs used
by Prince Ito and Li Hung-Chang are still
preserved there. From .this hotel a beautiful
view of the picturesque neighbourhood may
be had, including the mountain ranges of the
Seto Channel. The Injouji Temple, where
Li Hung-Chang stayed while in Shimonoseki,
51
790
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
and where he was treated by a surgeon after
the attempt on his Ufe by an assassin, is
also in this vicinity, witli pleasant views and
surroundings. There are various other
temples and shrines of historic or antiquarian
interest for those who care for such things.
Tsunakidani is a beautiful valley lying be-
hind the city whence one gets an entrancing
view of the mountains and the sea. As
Shimonoseki is in a strongly fortified zone
all photographing and sketching are strictly
prohibited, and one of the misfortunes which
frequently happens to the unwary visitor
ashore is to have his camera confiscated.
Proceeding across the strait to Moji, one
is in a city which in ancient times was re-
gardedas the gateway to Kyushu, where all
travellers were carefully examined. During
the middle ages it was no more than a small
fishing village, but after the beginning of
the Meiji era Baron Yasuba, the Governor
of Fukuoka, began to promote the interests
of the place as an important place of anchor-
age for ships and for trade purposes, and
finally a harbour was constructed. In the
thirty years that have since elapsed remark-
able changes have taken place in favour of
Moji, and it is now a close rival of Nagasaki
as a port of call for steamers either to trans-
fer passengers and freight of to coal. The
present population of Moji is about 100,000,
but it is growing so rapidly that soon it will
become' one .of the greatest cities of Kyushu.
In the past few years the rate of increase in
population has been much greater in Moji
than in Kob6 or Yokohama. Owing to its
excellent harbour, quite protected by noble
hills, Moji is well suited to accommodate
shipping.
The growth and prosperity of Moji have
been greatly fostered by the coal trade, there
being an immense output from the mines of
Kyushu, many of which are in this vicinity.
Moji also rivals Nagasaki as the most impor-
tant centre of distribution for Kyushu. The
imports formerly going in through the more
southern port have now been largely de-
flected toward Moji. Rice, which forms
almost three-fourths of the stock in the
Tokyo market, is nearly all exported through
Moji, the volume amounting to more than
(Left) A. Hills, Manager at Shimonoseki for Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd. (Upper) E. H. Holmes, British Counsel at Shimonoseki.
(Lower) H. Sykes Thompson, Manager at Shimonoseki for Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd. (Right) R. McKenzie, Manager at
Shimonoseki for Wuriu Shokwai (Holme, Ringer & Co.)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
791
PROMINENT KYUSHU BUSINESS MEN
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. Shimpei Higasa, Managing Director, Kyushu Electric Wire Manufacturing Co., Ltd. — Mr. S.
Nakamura, President, S. Nakamura & Co., Ltd. — Mr. S. Sawayama, Vice-President, Nagasaki Chamber of Commerce. (Lower Row)
Mr. K. Akiyama, Manager, Sugar Manufacturing Co. of Japan, Dairi — Mr. L Sumida, President and Managing Director, Teikoku
Brewery Co., Ltd. — Mr. K. Nagami, President, Eighteenth Bank, Ltd.
one million tons a year. Already this port
has begun to attract the attention of the
whole Empire as a centre of great commercial
and industrial possibilities. Ten years ago
the total of exports from Moji amounted
in value to 15,469,415 yen, while imports
totalled 18,703,121 yen, or an aggregate of
34,172,526 yen; and to-day the annual
exports from Moji amount in value to 18,-
604,378 yen, with 23,200,794 for imports, or
a total of 41,815,172 yen. Naturally the
largest item in exports is coal, but refined
sugar, cotton yarn and other staples are also
large. Though the figures are as yet insig-
nificant in comparison with Kobe and Yoko-
hama, they nevertheless indicate what an
important place Moji will continue to occupy
in the commercial and industrial life of the
nation. One of the most important indus-
tries of Moji is the making of cement.
The environs of Moji are not so rich in
historic interest as those oT Shimorioseki or
even the average Japanese city, but the
scenery, especially at the foot of Mount
Sankaku, is picturesque, there being a park
there presented by the late Emperor of
Japan in memory of his visit to the city to
review the troops, while on the summit of
Mount Furuki stands a castle the possession
of which in feudal days was frequently
contested by rival daimyo. The place is
now an important fortress in connection
with the defences of the Inland Sea. On the
Fudetate Hill is a shrine, known as the
Koso Hachimangu, dating from 870 a. d.
The stones paving the court are said to have
been the anchors of tribute boats that came
from Korea, while the image in the shrine is
reputed to bear the armour worn by the Em-
press Jingo during her expedition to Korea.
Between Moji and Shimonoseki the Gov-
ernment ferry runs regularly, meeting all
trains and making sharp connections, and
the two cities form important bases for all
travellers touring that part of the Empire.
SAMUEL SAMUEL & CO., LIMITED
This well known old house occupies a
unique position in the foreign trade and
commerce of Japan because, more than any
other concern, it has always been in the
closest relationship with the Japanese Gov-
ernment, and with the Governments of the
Allied Powers. In the early daj's of foreign
trade in Japan, Messrs. Samuel Samuel &
Co. were practically the purchasing agents
and financiers of the Imperial Government,
their close connection with the London money
market, and with influential circles generally
through the agency of Messrs. M. Samuels
SAMUEL SAMUEL & CO., LTD.: THREE VIEWS OF THE FIRM'S BUNKERING OPERATIONS AT MOJI AND SHIMONOSEKI —
H. SYKES THOMPSON, MANAGER — PORTION OF THE FIRM's HUGE COAL STOCKS AT MOJI
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
793
/I \ *llf
1
/ ; ■ 1
N 1 ' \
J^BH
y
HOSOYE BAY, SHIMONOSEKI
& Co., giving them special facilities for carry-
ing through important transactions. With
the development of Japan's own financial
and economic resources the necessity ceased
to exist for some of the functions which the
old firm had been fulfilling, and greater
attention was then devoted to ordinary
trade lines, though Messrs. Samuel Samuel
& Co. have never lost that intimate relation-
ship with the Japanese and other Govern-
ments that was the special feature of their
earlier history.
The old firm became a limited liability
company some years ago, and both prior
to that change and since, the record of the
house has been one of constant progress
and increasing prestige. Branches are main-
tained at such important centres as Tokyo,
Osaka, Yokohama, Kob6, Moji, and Taipeh
(Formosa). Business transacted varies only
according to the special trade lines at each
place. The company holds a large number
of very important agencies, and deals exten-
sively in practically every item which makes
up the sum of import and export trade in
Japan. The Shimonoseki (Moji) branch,
with which we are now dealing, has made a
special feature of the coal business, apart
from the general shipping and other agencies
and import and export operations. Coal
is largely exported by the company to
Hongkong, Saigon, Manila, Colombo, Singa-
pore, Java and elsewhere. For several j-ears
prior to the war Messrs. Samuel Samuel &
Co., Ltd., held the contract for the G. I. P.
Railways of India, and shipped coal to Bom-
bay. The company is probably the largest
foreign bunkering concern in Shimonoseki
(Moji) and Karatsu, and through the London
agents, Messrs. M. Samuels & Co., of 25-27
Bishopsgate, E. C, contracts are in force
with the principal British and Continental
steamship owners for bunkers. The com-
pany also holds contracts with the British
and Italian Governments. The Bunkering
Department of the company holds the time
record for loading 8,000 tons of bunkers in
Moji harbour, as well as the record for having
loaded the largest cargo of coal ever des-
patched from Moji.
Reverting to the fact that Messrs. Samuel
Samuel & Co., Ltd., are in such close con-
tact with various governments, it may be
mentioned that the company has carried out
some important commissions during the war.
All the steam trawlers purchased by His
Excellency the Governor of Ceylon were
obtained through the company by H. B. M.
Embassy in Tokyo, and the Italian Govern-
ment also entrusted the entire purchase of
their requirements, which included fifty-
three vessels for mine sweeping in the
Mediterranean, to Messrs. Samuel Samuel
& Co., Ltd. In the Shipping Department
Messrs. Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd., are
agents at Moji and Karatsu for the Royal
Mail Steam Packet Company, now working
in conjunction with the Glen Line of steamers,
maintaining a regular service in peace times
between London and the Far East. Other
shipping agencies include those of Messrs.
Furness, Withy & Co., Ltd., the Swedish
East Asiatic Company, Danish East Asiatic
Company, Asiatic Navigation Co., Ltd.,
the Hogarth Shipping Co., Ltd., the Anglo-
Saxon Petroleum Co., Ltd., and the British
India Steam Navigation Co., Ltd., at Misumi.
Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd., represent the
International Banking Corporation of New
York, and the Bureau Veritas (International
Register of Shipping). In insurance they
are settling agents for the Fireman's Fund
Insurance Co. of San Francisco, for the
Marine North China Insurance Co., Ltd.,
and for the Liverpool & London & Globe
Insurance Co. A general import trade is
done, the main lines being wire rope, iron
^^k.
SAKINO.M.-VCHI, SHIMONOSEKI
794
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
THE SHIMONOSEKI OFFICES OF AKITA SHOKAI
bars, bundles, plates, angles, rape seed cake,
bone meal, paints, ships' stores, etc. The
company holds the agency for Messrs. D. &
H. Haggie, of Sunderland, whose wire ropes
have a wide reputation throughout the
principal collieries of Kyushu. Another
valuable agency is that of Zocus ship paints.
Messrs. Thomas Cook & Sons are represented
at Moji and Shimonoseki by the company.
That the branch is of first rate importance
is evidenced by the fact that the turnover
for the year 1916 was over Yen in,ooo,ooo.
Mr. H. Sykes Thompson, who has been
with Messrs. Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd.,
for 'fourteen years, is Manager at Moji, a
position he has held for ten years past.
The telegraphic address for the offices at
Shimonoseki, Karatsu, and Misume is
"Orgomanes" Shimonoseki.
AKITA &• CO., SHIMONOSEKI
Mr. Toranosuke Akita, who directs the
many different interests which are comprised
under the name of the Akita Shokai, well
deserves the title of being one of the most
successful business men in Japan, as he cer-
tainly is the leader in financial and commer-
cial circles in Yamaguchi Prefecture, of which
Shimonoseki is the centre. This gentleman
was born at Fujiyama-mura, in 18-5, and on
the completion of his education launched out
on a business career which has been conspic-
uously brilliant. He was early attracted to
the possibilities of the shipping industry,
and commenced operations in this direction
in 1905, when he chartered a foreign steamer
and opened up a new line of trade between
Japan and China. This initial move was a
success, and shortly afterwards the Akita
Shokai was organised.
The firm does a general business in ship-
ping, trading, mining, colonisation and
development schemes, fishing and lumber
industries, besides acting as agent and broker
for various marine, fire, and life insurance
companies. Moreover, the firm is engaged in
the manufacture and sale of the Akita system
of fire extinguishers. The development of
this widely varied business may be traced in
the following way: In 1906 Mr. Akita com-
menced a general shipping business, employ-
ing steamers on the Inland Sea and in the
coast trade of Japan. A number of vessels
have been purchased at various times since
then, and the firm has made every effort to
improve the trade and transportation facilities
with Mancliuria and China, while at the same
time the Chosen and Taiwan routes have not
been neglected. In 1909 Mr. Akita bought
up the Shimonoseki Post Office pier, and
by improving the structure he was able to
provide much better facilities for the embar-
kation of the travelling public. The follow-
ing year the proprietor of this rapidly
expanding business leased some land at
Chinkaiwan, and built a number of houses.
In 191 1 the business was transformed into a
goshi kaisha with a capital of Yen 300,000,
and Mr. Akita continued to direct affairs as
President of the new organisation. Since
191 2 the firm has bought forest lands at
Osaba-mura, and the lumber has been mar-
keted, while at the same time a rich tract of
territory lias been improved by the building
of roads, and reclaiming of lands, which are
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
795
later on to be put undcT rice cultivation.
Mishima Colliery near Osaba-mura, and the
Tsukikuma Colliery in Fukuoka Prefecture,
are also owned by the Akita Shokai. Since
1913 the firm has invested largely in mining
in Chosen, where valuable leases have been
acquired from the Government, and opera-
tions are in force for producing gold, silver,
copper, tungsten, iron, zinc, and graphite. In
1914 the firm was successful in securing the
transfer of a lumber mill from the South Man-
churia Railway Company. This mill was for-
merly worked by the Russian Government,
but when it came into the hands of the Akita
Shokai it was renamed the Dairen Lumber
Mill, and its direction was placed under the
Dairen branch of the firm. The same year
the firm established a branch at Tientsin, and
Mr. Akita organised the Tientsin Warehouse
Co., Ltd., of which he is the largest share-
holder, and his brother is Managing Director.
At the request of the shareholders of the
Kwanmon Marine Products Co., Ltd., Mr.
Akita took over the presidency of that concern
in Februarj', 1914, and reorganised it, raising
the company to a prosperous condition, and
enabling it to achieve new records in trawl
fishing in Japan. This company has since
sold eight trawling vessels to the French and
Italian Governments. These vessels were
delivered at Port Said and the transaction was
the first of its kind carried out in Japan. To
complete the record of a very busy and
successful life, it should be mentioned that in
191 5 Mr. Akita invented a highly successful
powder fire extinguisher, which is being manu-
factured and sold extensively.
Mr. Akita is associated with a large number
of companies and industries. He is President
of the Shimonoseki Billbroker Bank, Ltd.,
President of the Tsingtao Flour Mill Co., Ltd.
(capital Yen 500,000), President of the
Kwanmon Commercial Co., Ltd., President
of the Akita Steamship and Fishery Associa-
tion, Director of the Kyodo Transportation
Co. Ltd., and of several other companies,
member of the Shimonoseki City Assembly,
committeeman of the Chamber of Commerce,
member of the Business Tax Investigation
Association, and a member of the House of
Representatives. He has always been noted
for his keen interest in public affairs and for
his liberal support of educational movements.
JARDINE, MATHESON & CO., LIMITED
Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.,
are strongly represented in every important
trading centre throughout the Far East.
Shimonoseki is no exception to this statement,
for here the company occupies a prominent
position in general trade, and especially in the
shipping and coal business. The branch was
opened in 1900 to attend to the various
agencies held by Jardine, Matheson & Co.,
Ltd., and to do business in coal, rice, fiour,
bean cake, machinery, etc. The volume of
trade rapidly increased, and the company pur-
chased a business site, centrally located on
the water front, close to the Customs House,
and in 1905 erected a three-story brick
building for offices and residential quarters,
with a commodious two-storied godown
behind.
Business is constantly increasing, and the
operations of Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.,
fw
111
"^~
, 1
i
1
r-
i
j
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:: : s
'~~ - ■ :
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-
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(upper) s. s. "war prince," being coaled at moji by jardine, matheson & CO., LTD. (lower) offices and godowns
OF jardine, matheson & CO., LTD., SHIMONOSEKI
796
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SHIMONOSEKI PREMISES OF T. YUASA & COMPANY
now consist, in addition to the trade lines
mentioned above, of large transactions in
coal, which is shipped as bunkers, or ex-
ported as cargo to various southern ports.
The company has supplied coal for its own
hne, the Ellerman & Bucknall S. S. Co., and
allied lines, Andrew Weir & Co., etc., with
both bunker and cargo coal for several years
past. Since the war Jardine, Matheson &
Co., Ltd., have done a large business
with the British Government in cargo and
bunker coal, supplied to the numerous new
ships built in Japan and requisitioned.
The company represents the Watcrhouse
Steamship Lines, Bombay-Burmah Trading
Corporation (teak)," New York Lubricating
Oil Co., Hongkong &■ Shanghai Banking
Corporation, and the companies for which
Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd., act as general
agents and managers in China. Mr. A. Hills
is the company's Manager at Shimonoseki.
T. YUASA & CO.
Messrs. T. Yuasa & Co. occupy a prom-
inent position in the trade of western Japan,
Manchuria, and Chosen. The iirm has been
established for many years, and though for
a long period its operations were mainly
confined to Kob^, business was extended to
new spheres immediately the opportunity
arose. An instance of this progressive spirit
on the part of Messrs. T. Yuasa & Co. is to
be foimd in the fact that they were amongst
the first Japanese merchants to open a
branch in Dairen, immediately upon the
conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War.
This firm does a general business as im-
porters and exporters, handling practically
every line of merchandise. Imports com-
prise flour, hardware, sugar, cotton, gunny
bags, etc., from abroad, and large quantities
of agricultural produce from Manchuria,
jirominent amongst which are soya beans,
bean oil, seed cake, and so on. The head
office of Messrs. T. Yuasa & Co. is at Kobe,
and there are branches at Shimonoseki,
Dairen, and in every important centre
throughout Japan and adjacent countries.
HOLME, RINGER & CO. (WURIU SHOKWAl)
This firm has been established in Shimono-
seki for over twenty-eight years, and is one
of the best known concerns engaged in the
general shipping business in southwestern
Japan. Messrs. Holme, Ringer & Co.'s
Shimonoseki office is almost universallj'
known as the Wuriu Shokwai, their Japanese
title. They are chartering brokers, coal
exporters, importers of metal goods and
other merchandise, insurance agents, both
fire and marine, and shipping agents, the
business transacted being practically all that
is incidental to a general merchant house in
a busy shipping centre.
Messrs. Holme, Ringer & Co. are agents
at Shimonoseki for the Chartered Bank of
India, Australia, and China. They are
Lloyd's agents, and also represent the London
Salvage Association. Among the shipping
agencies held by the firm are the following:
Bank Line, Ltd., Asiatic Steam Na\-igation
Co., the "Ben" Line of Steamers, Canadian
Pacific Ocean Services, Ltd., China Naviga-
tion Co., Cie des Messageries Maritimes,
Java-China-Japan Line, Norwegian, Africa
and AustraUan Line, Northern S. S. Co.
(Petrograd), Ocean S. S. Co. (A. Holt & Co.),
Pacific Mail S. S. Co., and the Royal Mail
Steam Packet Co. (Pacific scr\-ices).
Business is transacted in Moji and adjoin-
ing centres. The firm is engaged in the coal
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
797
trade to a large extent, and contracts for
coaling locally and abroad. The office is
at No. 27 Nishinabc-cho, Shimonoseki. Mr.
R. McKcnzic is Manager in Shimonoseki
for the firm in whose service he has spent
sixteen years, four of which have been as
director of the interests of Messrs. Holme,
Ringer & Co. at Shimonoseki. The head
office is in Nagasaki.
KYUSHU ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO.,
LIMITED
Moji and Nagasaki, the largest ports of the
island of Kyushu, are principally notable as
coaling stations, and consequently it has been
customary to regard the whole territory which
feeds them as important only from its pro-
ductivity in this direction.
A little thought points to the natural devel-
opment to be expected from an inexhaustable
supply of cheap fuel to be the growth of
industries. Prior to 19 14 the opening up of
new industrial ventures proceeded steadily,
but the last three years have witnessed a
marked acceleration in the increase in
the number of tall chimneys.
It was with the idea of being an important
factor to the industrial development of the
island that the Koushu Electric Railway Co.
was formed ten years ago (1908), and if during
the first years the promoters were forced to
exercise some patience, they are more than
rewarded by the pressure under which they
work to-day, in order to supply demands, all
on the increase, for more power. All the
industries, such as the Imperial Brewery, the
Kob6 Steel Works, the Dia-Nippon Sugar
Manufacturing Company's Dairi Refinery,
the Kyushu Electric Wire Company, de-
scribed in this volume, and numerous other
concerns that have been established in rapid
succession at Dairi, Kokura, Tobata, Yawata,
Kurazaki, Orio, etc., and other towns of
northern Kyushu, are suppKed to a greater
or less extent by this power plant, with the
result that the present installation of 23,000
K. W. is found quite inadequate. At the
time of this writing a further 10,000
K. W. is being added, increasing the power
to 60,000 H. P., which will in the near fu-
ture be further augmented to 80,000 H. P.
With regard to the tramway service, the
company has in operation at present 21 miles
of line between the port of Moji and Orio, to
which an addition of 3 miles is at present
under construction, linking up Tobata and
Yawata. As an indication of the growth in
the passenger traffic of the line, it may be
stated that the increase in the number of
passengers, transported during the last half of
191 7 was just 38 per cent in advance of the
number carried during the same period of
191 6. The lighting service which is univer-
sally admitted admirable, has also felt the
development which must be attributable to
the growth of industries and consequently of
population, insomuch as the company has
been called upon to supply fights, increasing
at the rate of 20,000 per annum during the past
eight years. Undoubtedly the coal supply
would have guaranteed the industrial great-
ness of Kyushu, but that the Kyushu Electric
Company, by augmenting and cheapening
the supply of power in the form of electricity,
has done yeoman service, is imiversally
agreed. The company is also operating a
WIRIU SHOKWAI (holme, RINGER S: CO.^
THE "war dame" being COALED BY THE COMPANY FOR THE ADMIRALTY-
THE company's OFFICE
r
M
KYUSHU ELECTRIC RAILWAY CO., LTD.: BIRD's-EYE VIEW OF THE WORKS, SHOWING CHEMICAL PLANT ON THE LEFT —
A PORTION OF THE 33,000 KILOWATT PLANT
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
799
A BREEZY DAY OFF SHORE, MOJI
chemical works for the production of potas-
sium chloride, located in close proximity to
the power station. The annual product of
the works — at present 30,000 kegs of 112
pounds each — is of a superior grade, and finds
a ready home and foreign market. Electrical
goods are also manufactured.
The original capital of the company, Yen
1,000,000, was augumented in 1910 to Yen
3,150,000, in 1914 to Yen 6,300,000, and
finally to Yen 16,000,000, the present figure.
The area covered by the enterprise, including
power plant, chemical works, car sheds, yards,
etc., is about twenty thousand tsubo. Gen-
erating stations are established at seven
important points of the service. The officers
of the company are: Messrs. K. Matsukata
(President), Y. Tomiyasu, T. Yamaguchi,
M. Seno, I. Obata, K. Ozone (Directors),
and M. Matsumoto (Director and General
Manager).
OKURA GUMI
The Kyushu branch of Okura Gumi,
located at Moji, does an extensive business
in the importation of all kinds of industrial
machinery, for the installation of the numer-
ous plants that are everywhere springing up
throughout northern Kyushu. Metals of
all descriptions, in bulk and manufactured
form, as well as the mineral products of the
island, are handled very extensively. It is
the policy of the house to prepare for every
demand in their particular line, so that it
may be taken for granted that everything
which comes under the heading of Hardware,
in the widest sense of the word, is handled by
them. Readers are recommended to refer to
the Tokyo Import and Export Section of this
volume, which supplies further interesting de-
tails on the history of the firm. (See pags 211.)
GOSHI KAISHA TOMOEGUMI
GosHi Kaisha Tomoegumi started in the
general shipping business, principally broker-
age, etc., fifteen years ago and came in, dur-
ing the recent boom, for a considerable share
of the general success. In 19 16 the concern
was turned into a partnership, and will in
the near future undergo a further change to
emerge a limited company. The firm pre-
viously owned four steamers, which they
sold, engaging in the business of chartering.
About fifteen steamers are at present under
charter to the firm, of which ten are sub-
chartered, and the remainder, plying to all
parts of the world, they maintain in their
own service. They also own a large colliery,
situated at Yokoshima, employing about
five hundred people. The annual output
is 70,000 tons, which, however, represents
only one-third of the coal annually sold by
them. In this connection it is important
to note that they do a considerable business
MOJI OFFICE OF OKURA GUMI
COSHI KAISHA I( IMHEl.l Ml : lil SY SCENE IN THE HEAD OFFICE AT MOJI — OFFICES AT WAKAMATSU — OFFICES AT SHIMONOSEKI
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
80 1
in the coaling of steamers. Branches of the
Goshi Kaisha Tomocgumi are maintained
at Kob^, Osalca, Shimonoscki, and Waka-
matsu, whilst at the latter place they have a
coke manufacturing plant.
Mr. K. Nakano, the President and General
Manager, enjoys an enviable reputation in
Japan, and is a committee member of the
Coal Merchants' Guild of Kyushu. He is
also interested in the ferry companies that
ply between the two ports of Mogi and
Shimonoscki, and is the founder of the New
Mercantile Steamship Company, which will
shortly commence operations. Mr. S. Na-
kano, brother of the above named gentleman,
is a partner, active as Vice-President and
Assistant Manager.
NAKAMURA & CO., LIMITED
Perhaps one of the most interesting
figures in the high commercial circles of
Japan to-day is Mr. S. Nakamura, President
of the Kabushiki Kaisha Nakamura Gumi,
or Nakamura & Co., Ltd. Mr. Nakamura
figures prominently amongst those fortunate
individuals who, having taken opportunity
firmly by the forelock, find themselves pos-
sessed of more millions of yen than they, in
the majority of cases, know exactly what to
do with. Mr. Nakamura is not, however, a
narikin," the term which is apphed in
Japan to the more recent of the millionaires.
A glance at his most interesting career will
show that Mr. Nakamura is one of the sound-
est business men, and that the foundation of
his great success and fortune was laid long
before the war.
Under the business title of the Goshi
Kwaisha Nakamura Gumi, the original firm
came into existence in 1904 with the very
small capital of Yen 150, and, it may be
assumed from results, a large fund of deter-
mination. The firm started operations in
Manchuria, while the war with Russia was
still raging, the business comprising the
chartering of lighters and freight transpor-
tation for the Government. There was then
a small office in a single room at Dairen.
From such a small start Mr. Nakamura went
on in the transportation business, steadily
progressing, and strengthening his position,
investing profits in the business, and develop-
ing an organisation ready to cope with any
commercial situation. Space does not per-
mit of our dealing with the successive steps
taken by the firm. Suffice it to say that
prior to the outbreak of the European War
Mr. Nakamura was running steamers of his
own, and the success which enabled him to
establish the present company, with a capital
of Yen 6,000,000, and to embark on many
other enterprises involving a much larger
amount of capital, was merely the result of
the foundations so firmly laid in the past.
At the time of writing Nakamura & Co.,
Ltd., have about nine vessels in service, but
the building programme provides for a
number of new steamers, which will bring
the total of the fleet up to about 38,000 tons
by March, 1918. Some of the new steamers
are being constructed in the company's
own yard, recently established at Chin-
nampo. Chosen. At present the operations
uiKin him obligations of a public nature,
which hi- meets in a whole-hearted manner,
hoping to be able to inspire other men of
wealth to emulate his example. The port
of Hakata, some fifty miles southwest of
Moji, is the scene of one of Mr. Nakamura's
most interesting public undertakings. The
work in hand comprises the construction of
a harbour which will involve the outlay of
Yen 40,000,000, the work to take a number
A STREET SCENE IN MOJI
of this yard are restrictetl to the construction
of steamers up to about 1,000 tons, but this
limit will naturally be raised witliin a reason-
able period and upon the installation of the
plant now on order. At the Moji and other
branches the company undertakes the coal
business, the volume of trade being about
1,000,000 tons per annum.
Mr. Nakamura is now establishing a de-
partment for general import and export
business, and is sending a representative to
Europe who will make the necessary foreign
connections to ensure the success of this new
enterprise. Branch offices are established
at Keijo, Heijo (or Pinyan), Chinnampo,
which is the present head office, Wakamatsu,
Osaka, Tokyo, and Kobe. In the latter port
very commodious and imposing office prem-
ises have been purchased, and by the time
this volume is issued, the company's head
office will have been removed from Chin-
nampo to the new building at Kobe.
It is Mr. Nakamura's conviction that the
acquisition of his huge fortune has imposed
of years. Mr. Nakamura formed a special
company for this undertaking, and took
up a large majority of the shares in the
capital of Yen 3,000,000. The first part of
the undertaking calls for an expenditure of
Yen 5,000,000. Additional capital will be
raised as required. The inauguration cere-
mony of the first stage of the work wiU take
place in October, 1 91 8, and the second stage
will, in all probability, see completion with
the end of 192 1. Dredging operations are now
in progress, and the harbour will accommo-
date ships of 5,000 tons to begin with. A
small scale dockyard for repair work has
been installed. This will be sufficient to meet
all requirements in the immediate future,
but it can be enlarged as occasion demands.
As a port, Hakata, located between Moji
and Nagasaki, in spite of its 100,000 inhabi-
tants, and the very great natural advantages
which inspired Mr. Nakamura to undertake
its development, has no great commercial
importance to-day. The development of
Kyushu Island, which the Government con-
NAKAMLRA & CO., LTD.: IRON WORKS AND SHIP YARD AT CHINNAMPO, CHOSEN — ^SMOKELESS CO.\L LOADING DEPOT AT CHINNAMPO-
OFFICES AT MOJI — TYPE OF THE COMPANY'S STE.\MERS — OFFICES AT TOKYO — OFFICES AT KOBE
^^
1 ■
1
Sj
+
1
n
J
FOUR VIEWS OF THE HARBOUR WORKS AT HAKATA
8o4
PRESENT-DAV IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
templates, the establishment of new indus-
tries and the exploitation of the mineral
resources, are what Mr. Nakamura has in
mind, but it will be understood that under
the most favourable conditions, and even
given times of phenomenal development, this
gentleman will have long to wait before there
is even the smallest return on the enormous
sum of capital invested. The element of
risk is so great that the scheme would not
attract any capitalist who was not inspired
with the highest ideals, and the utmost
confidence in the future greatness of Japan.
Another project which Mr. Nakamura
has taken up in a pubUc spirit is the estab-
lishment of a large experimental chemical
laboratory, which he has endowed with Yen
3,000,000 for ten years. Impressed with the
difficulties under which research work has
been carried out in Japan, Mr. Nakamura
established this laboratory, which is specially
equipped in all details. It is divided into
six departments of investigation, each under
the direction of a scientist who has graduated
from Tokyo or some other University, as-
sisted by keenly interested students and
graduates. The results of the work done in
this laboratory will be developed com-
mercially.
Throughout his business operations, Mr.
Nakamura employs about four hundred
clerks and a much larger nimibcr of labourers.
Apart from the undertakings already men-
tioned, the principal of the company has
many other interests in Japan and abroad,
among which may be mentioned rubber
estates in the Malay peninsula. It will not
be necessary to add that there are few more
alert or energetic personalities in Japan
to-day than Mr. S. Nakamura.
YAMASHITA COAL CO., LTD., MOJI
No name is better known throughout Jap-
anese shipping circles, or in connection with
the coal trade, than that of Mr. Yamashita,
whose interests are very extensive. Mr.
Yamashita has been engaged in the coal trade
for close on a quarter of a century, and his
position in the shipping industry is equally as
pronounced. The Yamashita Coal Co., Ltd.,
is one of the concerns under his control, and
the extent of its operations are so great that
it is rightly considered the leader in thj entire
business in the East. The company controls
seven collieries in Japan, the output of which
is noted for its excellent quahty for steam and
general purposes, and for its moderate price.
The Yamashita Coal Co., Ltd., engages
extensively in coaling operations not only at
Moji, but at various other ports, where ships
are supplied with bunkers, or cargoes are
loaded for export. It may well be imagined
that a company with such a lengthy experi-
ence in the trade is in a position to load and
discharge coal with great rapidity. The plant
employed is second to none, and the company
takes pride in the satisfaction which has been
expressed in shipping circles generally over
the work carried out under contract. The
head office of the company is at No. 22
Gofukucho, Tokyo. The Moji branch office
is at Higashi Hon-cho, Shichome, Moji, and
is under the management of Mr. S. Nakai.
There are also branches at Yokohama, Osaka,
Wakamatsu, Otaru, Nagoya, Naoyetsu, and
Muroran. The cable address of the company
is "Yamashita," codes used being A. I., and
A. B. C. .sth Edition.
YAMASHITA COAL COMPANY, LIMITED: S. S. "NAM SANti," LOADING A CARGO OF CO.\L FOR THE BRITISH ADMIRALTY — ■
THE firm's proposed NEW OFFICES .\T MOJI
ENTRANCE TO NAGASAKI HARBOUR
XLVIII. The City of Nagasaki
IN one sense Nagasaki should be better
known to the Western world than any
other city in Japan, for it was one of the
earliest ports visited by foreigners and the
only place in which they were allowed to
settle and trade after Japan was isolated in
the seventeenth century. The small fishing
village that for centuries occupied the fore-
shore now represented by the imposing
waterfront of Nagasaki began to assume the
proportions of a growing town when Yoritomo
granted to Nagasaki Kataro the valley known
as Fukae-no-ura in the thirteenth century,
the town that emerged taking the name of its
master. Situated on a narrow bay indenting
a peninsula which juts out from the southern
part of the island of Kyushu, and surrounded
on three sides by steep, green hills, no more
beautiful site for a city could be imagined.
The area of the valley where the settlement
lies is about six square miles in extent. The
harbour is an ideal one, deep and well shel-
tered, affording safe anchorage to shipping of
all sizes, and proving a place of refuge to many
a storm-driven vessel escaping from distress
in the typhoon-swept waters of the south.
It was under stress of weather that the first
foreign ship visited Nagasaki, a Portuguese
merchant vessel which sailed into the harbour
in the year 1570, remained for a time trading
with the people, and was so pleased with
the results that subsequently repeated visits
were made by foreign ships bent on trade.
After Nagasaki became a regular port of call
for Portuguese ships trading in the Far East,
the Spanish found it out and began to arrive,
and in time the Dutch and English, the latter
establishing their "factory" at Hirado, some
distance away.
In Nagasaki the Jesuit fathers found their
earliest and most loyal converts to the
Christain faith, and when the banner of bar-
barous persecution was later unfurled against
the disciples of the Nazarene, the Nagasaki
members of the Church showed themselves to
be of the stuff of which martyrs are made,
many of them, men, women, and children,
going gladly to crucifixion rather than trample
on the cross as a sign of their retraction of
their new-found faith. The monuments of this
persecution may still be seen in the Roman
Catholic Cathedral at Nagasaki. And that
the blood of the martyrs was in this case, at
least, the seed of the Church, may be seen
from the fact that nearly 300 years after the
faith was supposed to have been completely
eradicated from the soil of Japan, Christians
were still found at the village of Urakami,
near Nagasaki, when the missionaries return-
ed in response to the opening of Japan to
foreign intercourse in the nineteenth century.
Before the outbreak of persecution, how-
ever, the foreigners at Nagasaki did a pros-
perous trade, and the feudal lord of the
district did not hesitate to traffic with them,
even to the borrowing of large sums of money,
which afterwards he proved unable to repay.
The daimyo of the time had constant conflicts
with one another, and money was necessary
to their numerous military campaigns. As
the foreigners were the only source of foreign
arms and ammunition, they were doubly
welcomed by the warriors and their services
often sought in equipping military forces.
When the daimyo of Nagasaki was unable to
meet his financial obUgations incurred with
the foreigners, he conceded them favours in
regard to trade instead, together with rights
to carry on religious propaganda. About
these latter the Buddhists raised such a storm
of opposition that later a petition from the
officials at Nagasaki asked Hideyoshi, then
the veritable ruler of the country, to prohibit
the foreign religion. This is regarded by
some as the beginning of the official aversion
to the Christian religion in Japan, but the
causes must not be forgotten. These the
Japanese assert to have been the suspicion
raised by the foreigners as to the motives of
their countries in sending them to Japan,
which were believed to be political and a
menace to the independence of the Empire.
It can not be overlooked, however, that the first
petition against the new religion from Naga-
saki was due to Buddhist jealousy and to the
debts which the feudal lord was unable to meet,
while Hideyoshi's ready response to the appeal
and his subsequent launching of cruel per-
secutions must be ascribed in a large meas-
ure, not so much to religious convictions,
as to his hatred of the missionaries who
opposed the nefarious traffic of his agents in
trj'ing to collect among the Christian families
beautiful girls for his harem. Although
Hideyoshi forbade the teaching of Christianity
52
8o6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
at Nagasaki, the believers continued to
increase, and the more they increased the
more sternly did they refuse to insult the
crucifix. On one occasion Hideyoshi had 25
leading Christians, 13 Japanese and 12 for-
eigners, marched through the country- under
appalling agony and then publicly cnicified
at Nagasaki as a warning to the faithful.
But all this proved to no purpose, for the new
religion had taken root and continued to grow
until after more than a hundred years of the
most persistent and cruel persecution the last
Christian was supposed to have been swept
from Japanese soil.
While the authorities at Nagasaki had such
an aversion to the religion of the foreigners,
for the reasons just given, on the other hand
they did all they could to encourage foreign
trade. By the year 1613 we find that as
many as 120 European vessels entered the
port of Nagasaki annually. As foreigners
were banished from other parts of Japan in
the middle of the seventeenth century they
began to settle in Nagasaki, most of them
Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch. The latter,
unable to endure the keen competition that
rose with the others, circulated all sorts of
defamatory stories about the Spanish and
Portuguese and their countries, w-hich the
Japanese authorities came in time to believe,
until this and the religious propaganda of the
missionaries became an excuse for banishing
all foreigners from Japan except the Dutch
and Chinese, the former being subjected to
the most humiliating conditions in their con-
finement to the little island of Deshima at
Nagasaki. As the Christians refused to
abandon their religion after the banishment
of their leaders, the persecution waxed radi-
cally severe, and in 1637 they arose in rebel-
lion, taking refuge in a castle at Shimabara
not far from Nagasaki, but they were finally
subdued and put to the sword. In the Dutch
settlement at Nagasaki there were always
H.\MANO-MACHI, PRINCIPAL SHOPPING
THOROUGHFARE OF NAGASAKI
men of some scientific attainments, like
Kcempfer and von Siebold, who did much to
make Japan known in Europe, while the more
intelligent of the Japanese used the Dutch
"factory" as a window through which they
might see Europe and obtain something of
Western knowledge. It is not too much to say
that during the two hundred years of Japan's
isolation from the Western world, she received
sufficient of Occidental knowledge through
the Dutch at Nagasaki to prepare her in some
measure for the subsequent opening of the
country to modern civilisation and inter-
course. Indeed, there is no city in Japan
that has had a greater influence on the civili-
sation of the country than Nagasaki, having
Ijeen for centuries the one opening through
which a knowledge of science, art, and civili-
sation could filter in from China and the
nations of the West.
The principal articles of trade during the
Dutch occupancy of Deshima were European
textiles, especially woollen blankets and other
cloths, sugar, medicines, cinnabar, hides,
leather, and perfumes, to say nothing of
muskets, cannon, and powder; while the chief
items of export were dried fish to China,
especially beche-de-mer, awabi, and sharks' fins,
as well as ginseng and earthenware. To
Europe went porcelain, silk, gold and lacquer
ware. During the period of seclusion the
people of Nagasaki longed for greater liberties
in regard to foreign trade, but the authorities
were adamant, and no Japanese ship was
allowed to navigate the high seas or touch at
a foreign port. Any one attempting to go
abroad was immediately decapitated. Such
was the state of affairs when, in 1804, a
Russian frigate one day suddenly sailed into
Nagasaki harbour without leave or license;
and in 1808 a British gunboat followed a
Dutch ship into Nagasaki, England being
then at war with Holland. Prom this time
foreign ships began to appear along the coasts
of Japan with impunity, though some of the
sailors cast away on the shores of the country
were cruelly treated, leading the American
Government to despatch a mission under
Commodore Perry, in 1853, to demand a
treaty of comity and intercourse, which he
succeeded in doing, and then Japan and
Nagasaki were once more open to the
world.
After the opening of the country the chief
centre of foreign trade was at Yokohama and
later at Kobe, so that the commercial progress
of Nagasaki was somewhat slow. When the
Imperial Government established a custom
house at Nagasaki in 1873 the progress of
trade became more marked, though it never
assumed a position of abnormal importance,
as in recent years Nagasaki has not been able
to hold its own against ports like Moji and
Shimonoseki. During the wars with China
and Russia there was, however, a remarkable
expansion of trade and great activity in
munitions at Nagasaki, which, of course,
could not be expected to continue. As trade
began to withdraw to more conveniently
situated ports, the population also declined.
Ten years ago the population of Nagasaki
was 173,000; now it is not more than
162,000, including some 1,200 foreigners.
TWO ASPECTS OF THE PORT AND HARBOUR OF NAGASAKI
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
807
A BEAUTIFUL EUROPEAN RESIDENCE AT NAGASAKI
The following table shows the progress of more than 1,200 hands being available on
trade at an inter\-al of five years: short notice, capable of putting on board
Year
Exports
Imports
Total
Yen
Yen
Yen
1910
19 1 5
3.303,959
4,639,673
8,918,907
7,829,518
12,222,866
12,469,191
It may be said that at present Nagasaki is
just holding its own in trade and no more.
The principal exports are dried fish of various
kinds, rice, sweet potatoes, mushrooms, tea,
coal, charcoal, wax and vegetable oil, paper
and porcelain, while imports are for the most
part cereals, beans, cotton, petroleum, iron,
and machinery.
Industrially, Nagasaki must remain an
important section of the Japanese Empire,
for the sake of the great Mitsubishi Dock-
yards and for the immense coal mines in the
vicinity, if for no other reason. The docks
and shipbuilding yards of the Mitsubishi Com-
pany are described elsewhere in this volume
and need not receive extended notice here.
It is sufficient to say that they can accom-
modate the largest steamers ; and the biggest
battleships and merchant vessels have been
launched from the Mitsubishi yards, more
than 10,000 skilled mechanics being employed
in the works. At the mouth of Nagasaki
harbour are the famous Takashima mines,
producing an immense tonnage annually, and
supplying the more than 6,500,000 tons of
shipping that annually enter the port of
Nagasaki, as well as exporting large quan-
tities. The coaUng of ships is done by women
passing small baskets from hand to hand,
about 640 tons an hour. The sight is indeed
something to see.
In domestic industries of various kinds the
Nagasaki folk are noted for their skill and
craftsmanship. One of the most famous
products of the place is tortoise-shell ware,
the raw material being imported from the
southern seas. In this ware such articles as
cigar and cigarette cases, toilet boxes, hair-
pins, combs, ship-models, and toys are turned
out in great quantities and are masterpieces
of art. Embroidery is another art in which
Nagasaki excels, while the lacquer ware,
umbrellas, and fans made there have a large
sale.
As a city of pleasure and beauty, Nagasaki
ranks high among the resorts of Japan.
People from China, India, and the Philippines
frequently take refuge there in the hot season,
as the climate is mild the year around, never
suffering from extremes of temperature. The
average temperature at the port is 15.7 above
zero Centigrade, the maximum being 36.7
above, and the minimum 5.2 below zero.
The winding, hilly streets of many parts of
the town are inconvenient to the delicate and
the aged, but add greatly to the picturesque-
ness and beauty of the situation and outlook.
Tramways and motor car services, however.
relieve the pedestrian of the strenuous exer-
tions of the old days, while there is railway
and steamboat communication with every
part of the Empire. There are also good
foreign hotels for the accommodation of those
making a long stay. The city is well lighted
by electricity and kept in a good state of
sanitation, while a modern waterworks system
supplies the inhabitants with pure mountain
water. The great banks are well represented,
the most important being the Yokohama
Specie Bank, the Hongkong & Shanghai
Banking Corporation, and the Japanese
banks. The city is well provided with educa-
tional institutions, having a Government
Higher .School of Commerce, a city commer-
cial school, with secondary and primary
schools for both sexes, to say nothing of two
fine mission colleges for men and women.
The historical associations of an old city
like Nagasaki are too numerous for extended
notice. One of the most famous places is
Osuwa Temple on the heights overlooking the
city, possessing relics associating it with the
persecutions of the Christians. The Kunichi
Odori, or Nine Days' Dance, is a festival
peculiar to this temple and wonderful to
behold. The Roman Catholic cathedral in
Nagasaki and the. church at Urakami are
interesting objects, bringing back memories
of the past. There are few cities that have
more charming environments and walks than
Nagasaki. The trip over to Mogi is one
abounding in landscape scenes one can never
forget. Across the Bay of Shimabara is the
Unsen Spa, where many spend the summer
months, with the great volcano dominating
all. One inconvenience to travellers is that
Nagasaki lies in a military zone and photo-
8o8
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
HOLME, RINGER & CO.: THE OFFICES AT NAGASAKI — THE FIRM's PRIVATE LAUNCH
graphing or sketching will get into trouble
those who insist on picturing their impressions.
HOLME, RINGER & CO.
To the traveller and merchant of the Far
East the name of Holme, Ringer is almost
synonymous for that of the port, so intimately
associated is its history with Nagasaki.
The firm will celebrate its fiftieth anniversary
on November and of this year (1918), and
has, therefore, the unique record of being
the sole representative of foreign trade in
this centre for half a century, during which
period it has been connected with the various
progressive commercial and industrial move-
ments to a most interesting degree, and,
indeed, is responsible for the inception of
many. As an example, it is interesting to
note that the firm started the whaling indus-
try of Japan, and fifteen years later operated
the first steam trawler equipped with harpoon
guns, etc. Messrs. Holme, Ringer were so
successful in this business that it was not
long before a large number of small whaling
companies came into existence, which through
over-competition were forced to amalgamate
into the present Oriental Whaling Co. of
Osaka, described elsewhere in this volume.
A considerable quantity of tea was at one
time exported by this firm, which fact is of
interest when it is remembered that the first
tea exported from Japan went through Naga-
saki.
Prior to the war, Messrs. Holme, Ringer
& Co. carried large stocks of Cardiff coal
for supplying steamers. This business is
still carried on extensively with the use of
the local output.
The firm's business premises at Nagasaki
are located on the Bund and cover a con-
siderable area. The offices and godowns are
excellently appointed and employ a staff'
of about fifty clerks in the various depart-
ments, which comprise Banking, Insurance,
Shipping, Coaling, Import, Exports, Real
Estate, etc. Branches are estal^lished at
Shimonoseki and Fusan and a short, interest-
ing article on the former appears in connec-
tion with the description of the Port of
Shimonoseki.
The following list of well known firms for
which Messrs. Holme, Ringer & Co. act as
agents will serve as an index to the important
position this house occupies not alone in
Japanese, but in Far Eastern trade:
Banque de I'lndo-Chine; Chartered Bank
of India, Australia, and China; Comptoir
National d'Escompte de Paris; Thos. Cook
& Sons; International Banking Corporation;
National Bank of China ; Deutsche Asiatische
Bank. {Steamship companies): American Asi-
atic S. S. Co.; American and Oriental Line;
Auchen Steam Shipping Co., Ltd.; Barber
& Co.'s Line of steamers; Charles Barrie &
Son (Den Line, etc.); Ben Line of steamers;
British India Steam Navigation Co. ; Burrell
&- Son (Strath Line); Canadian Pacific
Railway Co.'s S. S. Line; China Mutual
Steam Navigation Co., Ltd.; China Navi-
gation Company, Ltd.; Compania Trans-
atlantica; Compania Genl. de Tabacos de
Filipinas; East Asiatic vSteamship Co.;
Eastern and Australian S. S. Co.; Camillo
Eitzen & Co.; H. Fredriksen; Furness,
Withy & Co.. Ltd. (Gulf Line); Gow,
Harrison & Co.; Greenshields, Covvie & Co.
(Knight Line); Houlder, Middleton & Co.;
M. Jebsen; MenzeU & Co.; Cie des Messager-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
809
ies Maritimes; Mogul Line of Steamers;
Northern S. S. Co., Ltd. (St. Petersburg);
Ocean Steamship Co., Ltd.; Pacific Mail
Steamship Co.; Peninsular and Oriental
S. N. Co.; Prince Line, Ltd.; Rankin,
Gilmour & Co., Ltd.; Royal Mail Steam
Packet Co.; Russian East Asiatic Co.;
Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co.;
Shire Line of Steamers, Ltd.; Steamship
Co. "Ocean," Ltd. (Odessa); G. M. Steeves
& Co.; Swedish East Asiatic Co.; Toyo
Kisen Kaisha, Ltd.; Turner, Brightman &
Co.; John Warrack & Co.; Watts, Watts
& Co., Ltd.; Andrew Weir & Co.'s Lines of
steamers (Bank Line, etc.); West Hartlepool
S. N. Co., Ltd. (Insurance companies):
Aachen Munich Fire Insurance Co.; Baloise
Transport Insurance Co., Ltd.; Board of
Underwriters of New York; China Mutual
Life Insurance Co., Ltd.; Commercial Union
Assurance Co., Ltd.; Equitable Life Assur-
ance Society of U. S. A.; Helvetia General
Insurance Co., Ltd.; Law Union Insiu-ance
Co., Ltd.; Liverpool Underwriters Associa-
tion; Lloyds (London); London Salvage
Association; Mannheim Insurance Company;
Marine Insurance Co.; Marine Insurance
Co. of Liverpool; National Board of Marine
Underwriters, N. Y.; Neuchateloise Trans-
port Insurance Co., Ltd.; Nordische Ver-
sichenmgs-Gesellschaft; North British and
Mercantile Ins. Co.; North China Insurance
Co.; Norwich Union Insurance Society;
Royal E,\change Assurance Corporation;
Royal Insurance Co. ; S. British Fire and
Marine Insurance Co., N. Z.; Sun Insurance
Office; Swiss National Insurance Co., Ltd.;
Switzerland General Insurance Co., Ltd.;
Tokyo Marine Insurance Co. Ltd.; Union
Insiu-ance Society of Canton, Ltd.; Yangtze
Insurance Association, Ltd.
The present partners are Mr. Sydney
Ringer, the senior partner, who is in charge of
the business at Nagasaki, and Mr. Frederick
Ringer, who travels considerably in the
interests of the firm. Mr. S. Ringer is a
graduate of St. Paul's College, London, and
Mr. F. Ringer of the Edinburgh Academy.
Both gentlemen are keenly interested in sport.
Messrs. Holme, Ringer are the owners of a
number of lighters, also fine steam and
electric launches. They are large holders
of both business and residential property in
Nagasaki and it may be added that the firm
is the centre of those organisations which
have given this small community so honour-
able a position amongst the supporters of
war charities.
.t
■-«.■-!■ .
HEAD OFFICE OF THE EIGHTEENTH B.\NK, LTD., NAGASAKI
was founded in 1872, or within a few years
of the organisation of the national finance,
and was the first institution of its kind in
Kyushu.
Naturally, it was some time before the
bank took its present form; at its inception
amounting to little more than a general loan
business, the whole of the capital of Yen
50,000 being subscribed by the late Messrs.
Matsuda and Nagami (the latter gentleman's
place being taken at his death by his son,
Mr. K. Nagami, now the President of the
institution). The founders, it may be ob-
served, showed considerable courage and
enterprise, as it was no unusual thing in those
early days for the Government to arbitrarily
requisition money wherever it could be found,
in addition to which there was no law of
any description protecting wealth, hence
merchants made it a rule to hide their
savings, well satisfied if they could retain the
principal.
In 1877 the concern assumed the title of
the Eighteenth National Bank, and in the
twenty years that followed the development
continued steadily, new shares being issued
until, in 1897, the capital stood at Yen
1,000,000. At this stage it was decided to
alter the name of the bank to the Eighteenth
Bank, Ltd. In the next two years rapid
progress was witnessed and the capital
doubled, whilst in 1906 a further augmenta-
tion raised it to Yen 3,000,000.
To-day the capital of the bank is Yen
5,000,000, and the sphere of its operations
has been greatly increased by the establish-
THE EIGHTEENTH B.\NK, LI.MITED
(kABUSHIKI kaisha Jl'HACHI GINKO)
The Eighteenth Bank, one of the oldest
established banks in the Japanese Empire,
SCENE IN THE NATIONAL PARK OF .MATSUSHIMA
8 10
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SAWAYAMA SHOKAI: NEW NAGASAKI PREMISES IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
ment of branches at Osaka (two branches),
Kumamoto, Sasebo, Izuhara, Keijo (Seoul),
Jinsen (Chemulpo), Fusan, Gensen, and other
centres, bringing the total to seventeen.
The Eighteenth Bank, Ltd., acts as the
Kyushu agent of the Bank of Japan, the
Hypothec Bank of Japan, and the Industrial
Bank of Japan, which important institutions
are described and illustrated in the Tok>'o
Banking Section of this volume. All the
departments usual to the modem banking
establishment are operated by the bank,
including deposits, loans, discount of bills,
remittances, collections, purchase and sale
of securities, letters of credit, etc. The
fact that the bank is represented in over
two thousand cities throughout the world
will emphasise the fact that it commands
all facilities.
The officers of the bank are: Kanji Naga-
mi, Esq., President; Yeizo Matsuda, Esq.,
Vice-President; Messrs Moritaro Takahashi,
Takajiro Adachi, and Seiichi Matsuda,
Directors; Messrs. Wabei Takami, Soichiro
Fujise, and Matasubiu-o Yamada, Auditors.
The Manager is Mr. Tsunekichi Mori.
SA\VAYAM.\ SHOKAI
This firm is among the oldest estabhshed
concerns in Japan, having been founded by the
father of the present proprietor forty years
ago — in 1878. The business was at first
restricted to local trading but was later ex-
panded, principally in the export of volcanic
ash from Karatsu to the Japan mainland,
Dairen, etc. This ash is an excellent sub-
stitute for cement, especially valuable in
the construction of roads, pavements,
wharves, docks, etc., and was extensively
used in the ports and towns of Kjiishu.
Mr. Sawayama later acquired two steam-
ers, averaging about 3,000 tons, one of which
is chartered, and the other maintained on
service between Japan and the South Sea
Islands. A considerable export trade is at
present done with the islands, and it is Mr.
Sawayama's policy to develop this business
as much as possible. The firm supplies
water to steamers for which purpose it owns
a large w-ater boat, also about thirty- five
lighters for cargo transportation.
Branches are maintained at Kobe, under
the management of Mr. Sawayama's eldest
son, and at Fusan, under the management
of the second son. Fine premises are at
present under construction at Nagasaki on a
most attractive site near the Bund. Mr.
Sawayama is also interested in other enter-
prises and is on the directorate of the Oriental
Ice Works of Nagasaki. For seventeen
years this gentleman has served on the com-
mittee of the Nagasaki Chamber of Com-
merce, and for the last twelve as Vice-
President of that institution.
SOUTH MANCHURIA RAILWAY COMPANY, LIMITED: BRIDGE OVER THE HUM RIVER NEAR MUKDEN — WORKSHOPS AT SHAK.\KOU, NEAR
DAIREN TRAINS AT THE CHANGCHUN STATION RAILWAY STATION AND STATION HOTEL AT MUKDEN
PANORAMIC VIEW OF PART OF DAIREN CITY (dALNY), ALSO SHOWING DAlREN BAY.
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE
XLIX. Province of Kwantung
How Acquired — Area, Population, and Government — Agriculture, Industry, and Trade-
Finance AND Banking — Education — Communications — Dairen — Commercial Notices
THE Province of Kwantung, in Man-
churia, came under Japan's juris-
diction as a result of the war with
Russia, in 1905. It will be remembered that
after the war with China, in 1895, Japan
forced from that country a lease of the Liao-
tung Peninsula, with Port Arthur as the
centre, but owing to the interference of
Germany, France, and Russia, Japan was
obliged to restore the territory to China.
Shortly afterwards relations between China
and certain European Powers brought about
unexpected changes, the most startling of
which was the leasing of Port Arthur and
Dairen to Russia. As Japan considered this
frought with danger to her national existence
she made repeated efforts by friendly negotia-
tions to remove the menace. The attitude
of Russia, however, was averse to Japan's
policy, and when every means that patience
and diplomacy could command had been
exhausted, Japan felt compelled to resort to
arms. At the Portsmouth Peace Conference
which terminated the war with Russia, the
Treaty of Peace signed between the two
countries gave Japan the former rights held
by Russia in Manchuria. The terms, as
regards China, were confirmed by the Treaty
of Pckin, concluded in December, 1905,
wherein China formally recognised Japan's
new position. According to the treaty
between Japan and Russia, signed at Ports-
mouth, the two countries agreed to withdraw
the railway guards placed in Manchuria to
protect the lives and property of foreigners,
as soon as China was able efficiently to under-
take this duty; and further, that the military
railway built during the war between Antung
and the borders of Korea and Mukden was to
be under Japanese management for fifteen
years from the time of its completion of equip-
ment for public service, for the transportation
of goods of all nations. By this treaty Japan
obtained possession of the southern part of
the Manchuria railway and of the territory
which had been leased from China by Russia.
Japan regards the position acquired by her in
that part of China as essential to her self-
protection and the maintenance of peace in
the Far East, as well as entirely innocent of
any aggressive meaning. She has not, of
course, been able to attain so predominant a
position in one of the more important prov-
inces of China without arousing a good deal
of suspicion in that country as well as abroad.
But the unpolitical nature of Japan's position
in Manchuria is being constantly emphasised
by Japanese officials, who proclaim their
country as holding this favoured position as
the champion of the Powers for the preserva-
tion of the "open door" in China, while at the
same time assuring the world that Japan is in
no way taking undue advantage of her unique
opportunity. That Japan intends to remain
in possession of Kwantung, however, is
clear, from the fact that the present lease
which was drawn to expire in 1923, has been
extended to 1997, China being forced to ac-
quiesce in the matter on account of financial
considerations.
AREA, POPUL.\TION, AND GOVERNMENT
The Province of Kwantung forms the most
southern part of the Liaotung Peninsula, and
covers an area of some 1,312 square miles,
extending between 121° 50' and 122° 33' East
Longitude on the one side, and 38° 40' and
39° 30' North Latitude on the other, including
40 small islands along the coast. The total
population of the territory in 1916 was 540,-
845, of which number 490,431 were Chinese,
50,262 Japanese, and 142 foreigners. If the
population of the railway zone be included,
the total will reach 595,594. The largest
cities are Dairen (Dalny) with a population
of 57,000, Port Arthur with 18,000, and
Kinchou with about 9,000.
Having thus become responsible for South
Manchuria, Japan organised the Kwantung
Government for its administration, whilst for
its economic development special importance
was attached to the railway system, on the
effective working of which the success of her
policy was supposed to depend. Even now,
after more than ten years of occupation, the
South Manchuria Railway may be said to
form Japan's main source of activity within
the territory and to control nearly all its
interests. An administration office for the
Province of Kwantung was immediately
established after the transfer of the territory
was completed, and also an office for the
TAKEN FROM THE ROOF GARDEN OF THE SOUTH MANCHURIA RAILWAY COMPANY'S YAMATO HOTEL
management of the South Manchuria Rail-
way, the latter to be more or less under
supervision of the Government office. The
Kwantung Government has the administra-
tion of the leased territory, as well as the
protection and control of districts adjacent
to the railway lines transferred from Russia.
Kwantung was at first placed under
military control, but after order was duly
restored the administration was discharged
by a Governor-General, who presides over the
civil government. According to the Imperial
Ordinances relating to the Government-
General, however, issued on September i,
1906, the office must always be filled by an
officer of the Imperial Army with the rank of
lieutenant-general or full general; so that the
government is still more or less military in
nature. The Governor-General has under him
not only the administration of the province
but command of the troops guarding it, and
he is subject only to the Minister of Foreign
Affairs in regard to civil administration, and
the army authorities in Tokyo as regards
military matters. He is authorised under
special commission to conduct negotiations
with the Chinese authorities. The Governor-
General may issue punitive ordinances inflict-
ing penalties of not more than one year's
imprisonment and a fine of not more than 200
yen. Thus the office of Governor-General
consists of two departments — Civil and
Military. The Civil Administration Depart-
ment comprises such sections as General
Affairs, Police and Law Courts, Finance,
Engineering, Education, Communications,
Public Health, Marine, and so on, and it
exercises its powers mainly through branch
offices, sub-branches, as well as district and
village offices. The chief administration
offices are at Port Arthiu- and Dairen. The
control of land along the railway zone is in
charge of the police, while Japanese consuls in
South Manchuria act as commissioners for
the Kwantung Government. Provisions for
the judicial administration of the province do
not differ materially from those in Japan,
except that deference is sometimes made to
Chinese customs. Local courts are invested
with all the rights of judgment in civil and
penal cases which do not come under the local
administration offices, but appeals may be
made to the High Court against the latter or
against the local court. The Russian prisons
were taken over and improved by the new
administration.
AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND TRADE
Land in the Province of Kwantung is
generally adapted to agriculture, especially in
the districts around Chinchou, with consider-
able recent development around Port Arthur
and Dairen. The total area of arable land
in the province is about 245,000 acres, or less
than 23 per cent of the whole area, and the
number of farmers is about 350,000. The
chief agricultural products are maize, Indian
millet (which the natives call kaoliang),
Italian millet, soya beans, rice, wheat, buck-
wheat, and vegetables In foreign trade the
soya bean is coming to play an increasing part,
the annual export amounting to over 8,000,-
000 tons, of which some 50 per cent goes to
Europe. These figures represent all Man-
churia, but a large part of the crop, as well as
of the beancake and bean oil, passes through
Dairen. Grapes are also successfully culti-
vated, and the Government experimental
station is promoting the growth of pears,
peaches, cherries, and apples. Stock-farming
and poultry-raising are yet in a nascent stage
but showing considerable development, the
chief animals being horses, cattle, mules,
asses, goats, sheep, pigs, and poultry. Seri-
culture is being encouraged, but is making
only slow progress. Forest resources are poor
owing to denudation, but the administration
is doing everything possible to promote
afforestation, planting out some 10,000,000
seedlings annually. As the Province of
Kwantung faces the Yellow Sea on the one
side and the Gulf of Pechili on the other,
fishing resources are rich There are over
18,000 fishermen and some 4,000 boats now
engaged, the annual catch being valued at
over 500,000 yen for natives and 300,000 for
Japanese. The best fish are tai and cod.
Among the more important industries of
the province is the making of bean oil, while
beancake manufacture is fast increasing.
The old-fashioned oil presses formerly used
by the Chinese are, under Japanese auspices,
fast giving way to modern hydraulic, steam,
or electric presses, which secure a far greater
percentage of oil. The more than 70 factories
now in operation make over 80,000,000
pounds of bean oil and 20,000,000 pieces of
beancake annually. The brewing or distilling
of spirits from Indian millet is another grow-
ing industry, though as yet on a small scale,
while soy-making is fast increasing. The
manufacture of brick promises to become a
growing and profitable industry, as is also the
making of roof-tiles. Lime and oyster-shell
works are doing a good business, and there is
a good outlook for cement. Glass works under
Japanese auspices have sprung up in various
towns, and there is a large number of flour
mills, though the industrj' seems stationary.
The match industry is making remarkable
headway, and also tobacco industries. The
salt fields of the province have been repaired
.by the Japanese and the output greatly
increased, the quality being far superior to
that produced in Japan. The mining enter-
prises of Kwantung appear to be making but
8i4
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
indifferent development. Gold, alluvial gold,
iron, coal, and building stone are the chief
minerals, but are found in no very paying
quantities. Three gold mines and one coal
mine are being worked by Japanese, but none
of them have advanced beyond an experi-
mental stage. An asbestos mine at Hoshang-
tun is said to offer rich deposits.
The import and export trade of Kwantung
has made remarkable progress since Japan
took over the territory, the main expansion
being in the direction of Japan herself, which
stands for more than one-half of the total
trade. In accordance with the agreement
concluded in June, 1907, between Japan and
China respecting the estabUshment of a mari-
time custom house at Dairen, it was decided to
make the whole leased territory a free zone.
That is to say, goods brought by sea to Dairen
are subject to import duties only when they
cross the boundary of the leased territory into
China, and those coming from China into the
leased territory pay export duties only when
they are exported from Dairen. For the
collection of these import and export duties a
custom house imder the control of the Chinese
Government was estabUshed at Dairen on
July I, 1907. The value of the various
commodities exported and imported through
Dairen (Dalny) in 191 5 was as shown in
table below.
Owing to the extent of boundan,- line be-
tween the leased territory and China it is very
difficult for the Chinese authorities to prevent
smuggling of goods across the line, and as
these goods enter Kwantung duty free they
can undersell all competitors in China.
FINANCE AND BANKING
The expenses of the Kwantung Govern-
ment were, from the time of Japan's occupa-
tion, defrayed from the extraordinary war
fund, but after the closing of that account
the annual expenditure of the Kwantung
Government was placed under a special
account, the principle of which was to make
revenue meet expenditure as far as possible
and make up deficits from the national
treasiu-y. The expenses of local administra-
tion are met for the most part by local revenue
so as to impress vi\adly on the population the
connection between the benefits they enjoy
and the burden they bear financially. With
this end in view the expenses of education,
finance, sanitation, encouragement of indus-
try, building, engineering, reUef work, and
pubhc works are met from local business and
miscellaneous taxes. The revenue for 191 7
was as follows:
Revenue
Ordinar\- : Yen
Taxes 269,000
Public undertakings and State
property 1,734,207
Stamp receipts 94.581
Miscellaneous receipts 62,192
Total 2,159,980
Extraordinary:
Sales of State property 28,784
Surplus from preceding year 287,306
National Treasury Grant 2,007,000
Total 2,323,090
Grand Total 4,483,070
Expenditure
Ordinary: Yen
Kwantung Government 550,605
Law courts and prisons 141,223
Police 867,598
Education 440,948
Communications. . 1,065,71 1
Marine Bureau 80,269
Miscellaneous expenses 22,023
Reserve funds 120,000
Total 3,288,377
Extraordinan,-:
Various undertakings 934.693
Land investigation 100,000
Investigation of industry 10,000
Local expenses deficit 150,000
Total 1,194,693
Grand Total 4,483,070
The silver currency system prevailing in
the province Japan has replaced by a gold
standard, but silver and gold are alike now
used. In the principal transactions of trade,
convertible notes of the Bank of Japan are
largely used, as well as (imtil recently) the
notes of the Dairen branch of the Yokohama
Specie Bank. Tliis power is now held by the
E.XPORTS
Imports
ToT.\L
Yen
Yen
Yen
28,117,309
428,889
20,247,130
2,174.355
5,798,892
18,071,820
1,263,340
14,960,883
796,310
4.597.739
46,189,129
1,692,229
3S, 208,01 3
Chosen
China
TTnnpWonp India Australia
2,970,665
10,396,631
"Ptirone America and Others
Total
56,766,575
39,690,092
96,456,667
Bank of Chosen which established the Dairen
branch in 1913. (See report of Bank of
Chosen.) With the rapid development of
business, credit institutions have increased,
the Seiryu Bank establishing a branch in
Dairen in 1909, and the Taishin Bank a
branch the following year. The industries
that chiefly benefit by the facilities afforded
by the banks, particularlj' the Bank of Chosen
and the Yokohama Specie Bank, are cotton
yam, cotton cloth, sugar, matches, cement,
beer, marine products, and timber. The
Government at first provided the Yokohama
Specie Bank w'ith a sum of 3,000,000 yen at
two per cent, or some such low rate of interest,
which enabled the bank to extend accom-
modations in Kwantung at rates much le.ss
than other banks, thus bringing down the
loan rate from ten to five per cent. Com-
plaints have been raised, more especially by
foreigners, against these trade advantages
thus conferred on the Japanese in Manchxma,
enabling them to undersell their competitors,
but the Japanese deny that there is any
discrimination. Besides the banks named,
there are the Dairen Savings Bank, the
Russo- Asiatic Bank, the Chugoku Bank, and
the Tatsunokuchi Bank.
THE BANK OF CHOSEN, D.\IREN BRANCH
The Bank of Chosen, which is the central
bank of the Peninsula of Chosen, has 14
branches in Manchuria, located in the
following places: Dairen, Antung, Mukden,
Newchwang, Port Arthur, Liaoyang, Tieh-
ling, Changchun, Szupingchieh, Kaiyuan,
Harbin, Fuchiatien, Lungchingtsun, and
Kirin. These places are all important in one
way or another, but as the port of Dairen is
by far the most important, it is in the branch
there that the General Manager of all Man-
churian branches of the bank is stationed.
The position is now filled by Mr. S. Ohta,
who is also a director of the bank.
For many years, the bank played a very
important role in the financial affairs of Man-
churia, its bank notes circulating far and wide
over the country, and its branches doing good
and prosperous business with local govern-
ments, as well as with indi\'idual merchants,
whose confidence in the bank was ever grow-
ing. But the most remarkable change in the
status of the bank in Manchuria took place
only recently, when its bank notes were made
the sole legal tender throughout Kwantung
Province and the South Manchuria Railway
Zone, along which almost all the important
commercial centres of Manchuria are located,
and all the gold notes of the Yokohama
Specie Bank in circulation were transferred
to the bank. Besides, the bank was entrusted
by the Government of Japan with the hand-
ling of its Treasury business in Manchuria.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
815
In short, it has come to enjoy much the same
position as it does in Chosen, that is, that of
the Central Bank. As a result, the total
circulation of the Bank of Chosen notes in
Manchuria, until recently about Yen 6,000,-
000, has now increased to Yen 10,000,000 or
more.
The growing importance in the world trade
of the port of Dairen, coupled with the gaining
influence of the Bank of Chosen all over
Manchuria, through its numerous branches,
has made the Dairen branch of the bank the
most important financial institution in that
vast land. A recent statement of this impor-
tant branch office of the Bank of Chosen
gives its advances at Yen 10,090,000, and its
deposits at Yen 4,334,000. An idea of its
growth and a conception of the important
position it holds in banking in that city may
be gained from the following interesting facts:
At the end of 1913 the branch had five
per cent of the deposits of all the banks in
Dairen, and 13 per cent of the total ad-
vances made, but at the end of June, 1917,
DINING CAR ON SOUTH MANCHURIA RAILWAY
the deposits were 36 per cent of the total
and the advances represented 44 per cent of
the total.
The business of the bank has developed to
such an extent that the present premises in
Dairen have been found much too small.
t
^B 1 1 II
(lower) present PREMISES OF THE BANK OF CHOSEN, DAIREN. (UPPER) MAGNIFICENT NEW BUILDING NOW IN
COURSE OF ERECTION BY THE BANK OF CHOSEN
8i6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
DAIREN PREMISES OF THE YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK
Accordingly a new site was obtained near
Ohiroba, at a cost of Yen 500,000, and there
is now in course of erection a magnificent
building, covering an area of 800 tsnbo, which
will undoubtedly add much to the beauty and
splendour of Dairen. The staff of the bank
numbers 30, but when the new building is
complete, and the general enlargement of
operations takes place, a staff of over 70 will
be employed.
Mr. S. Ohta is General Manager for all
the branches in Manchuria. Mr. M. Hashi-
moto is Manager of the Dairen branch,
and the Sub-Managers are Messrs. H. Kura-
tomi and T. Kurihara. The head office of the
Baixk of Chosen is at Seoul. Mr. S. Minobe
is the Governor and the Directors are:
Messrs. T. MLshima, Y. Kimura, and S. Ohta;
Auditors, Messrs. C. Ito and K. Hattori.
Foreign correspondent banks are: London,
the London City & Midland Bank, Ltd., and
the Bank of Taiwan, Ltd.; New York, the
Guaranty Trust Company of New York, and
the National Bank of Commerce; Petrograd,
Banque de Commerce de I'Azoff-Don. The
cable address is "Chosenbank."
THE YOKOHAMA SPECIE BANK, LIXHTED,
DAIREN
The influence, and the enormous extent of
the operations of the Yokohama Specie Bank,
Limited, would make it indeed surprising if
we did not find this famous institution well
represented in the progress and development
of Manchuria. Branches of the bank are
established at every important business
centre, and owing to the special facilities
enjoyed the Yokohama Specie Bank, Limited,
is doing a great deal to further general
business interests throughout the territory.
The Dairen and other Manchurian branches
were opened at the conclusion of the Russo-
Japanese War, especially to help in the colonial
development. The bank is authorised by the
Japanese Government to issue notes, which
greatly facilitate business transactions. Be-
sides the exportation of agricultural products,
which is the most important business in this
territory, the Yokohama Specie Bank, Lim-
ited, finances the importation of several kinds
of goods especially required in Manchuria,
and also does a general banking business. In
fact, one can hardly overlook the efforts which
this institution has made over a long period
of years, when speaking of the wonderful de-
velopments that have taken place in agricul-
ture and industry in Manchuria.
When first established at Dairen the bank
was located at No. 66, Kambu-dori, but to-day
the premises are at No. i Oyama-dori, where
there is a new and handsome building of three
stories, specially constructed for the bank.
This building covers a site of about 300 Isuho,
and is constructed on the most modern prin-
ciples. The Dairen branch employs a staff
of 50 clerks. The Manager is Mr. Kunio
Inouye, and the Sub-Managers are Messrs.
Hideshige Kashiwagi and Kanji Yano. As
stated in the general article dealing with the
Yokohama Specie Bank, Limited, which ap-
pears in another section of this work (page
102), the capital of the bank is Yen 48,-
600,000, of which Yen 36,000,000 is paid
up. The reserves total Yen 22,100,000.
BANK OF CHINA, DAIREN
The leading financial institution of the
Chinese Republic is the Government con-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
817
trolled organisation, the Bank of China, whicli
was established by Imperial decree in 1897,
and first opened at Shanghai. Later on the
head office was removed to Peking. The
Bank of China has extended its operations
all over China proper, and is now strongly
represented throughout Manchuria, having
branches in all the principal cities and other
commercial centres. The branch at Dairen is
an excellent example, both as regards the elab-
orate premises and the general organisation,
of the progressive policy of the institution
The Dairen branch was opened four years
ago, though the business then taken up had
really been established some four or five years
previously by the Tai Ching Bank, which was
amalgamated by the Bank of China. Mr.
Chang Chen Chang, Manager of the Dairen
branch, is a graduate of the Commercial
College of Waseda University, Tokyo. He
was for some years Professor of the Japanese
Language at the Military College, Peking,
prior to entering the service of the Bank of
China, and assuming his important position
at Dairen. Mr. Chang is assisted by a staff
of fifteen clerks. The bank does a general
business, and is highly regarded by all sections
of the business community at Dairen.
EDUCATION
The Governor-General has done a good
deal for the promotion of Education in the
province, establishing primary schools in
various districts and special schools in the
larger centres. Schools are maintained both for
Japanese and Chinese, and, in addition, there
are those maintained by the South Manchuria
Railway Company. The principal statistics
for education in the province are as follows:
THE BANK OF CHINA, DAIREN (dALNY)
Government itself. After Japan took over
the railway from Russia it was transformed
into a semi-private concern with a capital of
200,000,000 yen, divided into a million shares
of 200 yen each, half of the capital to be held
by the company and the other half by the
Japanese Government, the capital repre-
sented by the company to be taken up by
Chinese and Japanese subjects, of which sum
60,000,000 yen have so far been called up.
The Government guaranteed a profit of six per
cent on the paid-up capital for fifteen years,
claiming no dividend on its own shares when
the profit is not up to six per cent. The
Institutions
Primary schools in Kwantung
Primary schools along railway
Port Arthur Technical School
Kwantung Middle School
Port Arthur Giris' High School
Number
Staff
Pupils
10
loS
4.1^7
17
103
2,618
100
219
40
441
18
i.'^o
In addition to the above schools, there are
many primary institutions under joint
auspices of Chinese and Japanese. The
schools under Japanese control are carried on
in the same way as those in Japan, except
that attendance is not compulsory, and in the
schools for Chinese the Japanese language is
taught as a foreign tongue.
COMMUNICATIONS
In the Province of Kwantung and South
Manchuria generally, the South Manchuria
Railway and its enterprises absorb all inter-
ests, throwing in the shade even the Civil
Government has made itself responsible with-
in a limit of 100,000,000 yen for the payment
of interest if necessarj^ or of principal, or of
debentures issued with the consent of the
Government. In 1913 the South Manchuria
Railway Company was able to pay a dividend
of seven per cent, and in the following year
eight per cent, from which period the com-
pany has been paying the Government two
per cent on its shares. Recently the policy
of the Tokyo Government has been to bring
the South Manchuria Railway more closely
into touch with the railways and Government
of Korea, a complete change of officials having
taken place for this purpose. The question
is whether the unification of the railway
systems of the two provinces will eventually
mean a unification of the provinces them-
selves.
It would be impossible in any short space
to give an adequate account of the enterprises
carried on by the South Manchuria Railway.
The company has control of over 60,000,000
tsubo of land in Manchuria, and all not used
by itself or by the Government is let out in
farm lots or building lots, more than 12,000,-
000 tsubo being already so disposed of. Besides
the usual railway business the company has
launched out in various other important
enterprises, such as harbour work, coal mines,
gas works, electric plants, and hotels. The
railway system itself is an immense one, con-
sisting of the main line, 440 miles in length,
from Dairen to Chungchun, with a branch of
47 miles to Port Arthur, one of 13 miles to
Yingkow,one of 30 miles to the Fushun mines,
and the Mukden-Antung line of 170 miles, —
687 miles in all. The line is of standard gauge
and furnished with the latest equipment in
rolling stock and passenger service, and is
now the most important route between Japan
and Russia, its international through service
being of the very best. The company runs a
regular steamer service between Dairen and
Shanghai by way of Tsingtau, as well as to
South China. The harbour works completed
by the company at Dairen, including fine
quays and breakwaters, are models of their
kind. The collieries operated by the South
Manchuria Railway Company include the
famous Fushun and Yentai mines, with an out-
put at present of some 2,500,000 tons a year.
pi
li: ii
'■I
■■'\
(I
-- • J -^'..4
SOLIU MANCHURIA RAILWAY COJirANY, I.IMIIED; ERLL HON SHOP AT SHAKAKOU, NEAR DAIREN — YALU RAILWAY BRIDGE, 3,097 FEET LONG
CONNECTING MANCHURIA AND KOREA OVER THE RIVER YALU — ELECTRIC WORKS AT DAIREN
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
819
DR. KUNISAWA, DIRECTOR-IN-CHIEF OF THE
SOUTH MANCHURIA RAILWAY COMPANY,
LIMITED
The Fushun coal fields lie 22 miles east of Muk-
den and extend for 12 miles along the Hum
River, with a deposit of from 80 to 175 feet in
-thickness, the average being 1 30 feet, a conserv-
ative estimate of the whole being 800,000,000
tons. The five pits now in operation do not
take out more than 6,000 tons daily. The
Yentai mines lie east of Liaoyang, the seams
being much thinner than the Fushun mines,
and the daily output is not more than 200 tons.
The South Manchuria Railway Company has
established electric power stations at Dairen,
Mukden, Changchun, Antung, Fushun, and
Tentai, and runs electric cars at Dairen and
Fushun. Its gas works at Dairen and Fushun
produce over 100,000,000 cubic feet annually,
with much coke and coal tar. The com-
pany's fine hotels at Dairen, Port Arthur,
Mukden, and Changchun provide model
accommodation for travellers along its lines.
It also maintains 14 hospitals, 17 primary
schools, 10 Chinese schools, 28 business
schools, 9 girls' schools and a medical and a
technical school, as well as a teachers' training
institute, to say nothing of its experimental
stations and waterworks. The table given
on this page will indicate the extent of the
company's business in igi6.
Mention must also be made of the new
railway line recently completed by Japan
and China, as a joint enterprise, between
Changchun, the northern limit of the South
Manchuria Railway, and Kirin, a distance
of 79 miles, with 12 stations and making a
journey of six hours. The Japanese share of
the expense of construction, amounting to
2,250,000 yen, was borne by the South Man-
churia Railway Company, and is repayable
Item
Railway service ,
Shipping ,
Mining . . ,
Harbours and piers . .
Local undertakings .
Hotels
Electric undertakings
Gas
Others
General affairs
Interest
Debt charge
Total
Profits . . . .
Receipts
Yen
23
I
12
894,000
,226,000
,648,000
,292,000
,517,000
235,000
,160,000
244,000
190,000
380,000
43,786,000
E.xpense
Yen
8,174,000
1,220,000
10,640,000
1,921,000
2,491,000
283,000
723,000
1 34,000
70 1 ,000
3,174,000
6,244,000
3,S,70.S.ooo
8,081,000
by China twenty-five years from the date of
opening. The South Manchuria Railway
Zone is guarded by Japanese troops and
special railway guards. One division is
stationed as a garrison at Liaoyang, the term
of service being two years, when it is suc-
ceeded by another division from Japan.
Sixteen independent battalions act as inde-
pendent guards along the line of railway,
each composed of 21 officers and 617 rank
and file, all under control of the Department
of Communications. The headquarters of
the various l^attalions are Liaoyang, Tiehling,
Liutszton, Port Arthur, and Haicheng.
With Japan's occupation of the province,
post and telegraph offices began to increase,
rising from 94 in 1906 to over 200 in ten years'
time. At first the various stations along the
railway were authorised to receive and des-
patch mails and telegrams, and in the mean-
time regular postoffices were established at
leading centres like Dairen and Port Arthur.
Mails are carried by rail routes and water
routes and by ordinary road routes. The
mileage of mail routes by railway is about
6,855; by waterway, 5,800; and by ordinary
roads, 710,000 miles. The leading post
offices in Kwantung can transact all the usual
business of international post and parcel ser-
vices, as well as the usual telegraph service.
The telegraph lines extend through all the
more important sections of Kwantung, as
well as along the whole length of the South
Manchuria Railway, with a wireless service on
the coast. The telephone service is not so
universal as the telegraph but it is fast
aM!iiMMa&aMffi<J8WM!M8B!a.^Jliiillllia
h U i
HEAD OFFICE OF THE SOUTH MANCHURIA RAILWAY COMPANY, DAIREN
SOUIH MANCHIKIA RAILWAY COMPANY, LIMITED: lE.N-WHEhL lYfE LOCOMOTIVE BUILT FOR IHE FRENCH INDO-CHINA RAILWAY — TKN-WHEEL
TYPE LOCOMOTIVE BUILT FOR USE ON THE COMPANY'S OWN LINE ENGINE ERECTING SHOP THE SAW MILL — THE MACHINE SHOP
I'KESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
821
^Mmw^^V
S. S. " SAKAKI MARU," ONE OF THE SOUTH MANCHURIA RAILWAY COMPANY'S
DAIREN-TSINGTAO-SHANGHAI MAIL AND PASSENGER LINERS
increasing, the chief cities being already con-
nected. The progress of shipping in the
jjrovince has been remarkable since the
Japanese occupation, the total entries at
Dairen for steamers being nearly 2,000 a year,
representing a tonnage of nearly 3,000,000;
and for Port Arthur about 300 steamers, with
a tonnage of about 300,000. The number of
boats and sailing vessels is, of course, far
greater, but of less tonnage, that for Dairen
being 3,000 with a tonnage of some 35,000,
and for Port Arthur, 815 sailing vessels repre-
senting an aggregate tonnage of 6,000.
DAIREN (DALNY)
THE Port and City of Dairen is one of
the most modern creations under for-
eign influence in Asia, its history going back
less than twenty years. Until the Kwantung
Peninsula was leased to Russia, Dairen was
only a fishing village known to the Chinese
as Ching-ni-wa. The location is on th? Bay
(Left, Upper) Mr. IM. Kawahe, President, Bank of Dairen. (Left, Lower) Mr. TsuNEO Suzuki, President, Dairen Oil and Fat
Industry Co., Ltd. (Centre) Mr. Y. Tanuma, President, Dairen Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha. (Right, Upper) Mr. K. Inouve, Manager,
Yokohama Specie Bank. (Right, Lower) Mr. Y. Iwato, General Manager, Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd., Dairen
53
822
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SCENE ON DAIREN WHARF
of Victoria, a small indentation in the larger
Bay of Dairen, which in turn is an inlet of
the Yellow Sea. As a site for a port Ching-
ni-wa impressed the Russians, and they fixed
on it as the terminus of the railway through
Manchuria. They decided in 1896 to make
the place a commercial entrepot, and began to
extend the railway through South Manchuria
to Lushun and Dairen, giving the latter
place the name of Dalny.
Regardless of expenditure the Russians
succeeded in conjuring up a new city, and
1898 saw the completion of the foundation
works of the modem port and town. Before
Dairen could be completed according to
Russian plans, the Russo-Japanese War broke
out, and after the Battle of Nan-shan, the
Russians retreated to Port Arthur, leaving
the new city for a time in the hands of robbers
and wreckers, who did a great deal of damage
before the Japanese formally entered into
possession. When peace was declared and
the Kwantung Peninsula came under Japa-
nese control, the work of repairing and com-
pleting the city of Dairen was taken in hand,
and is now practically completed. The
Japanese have followed the original Russian
plans, and Dairen may now be said to repre-
sent a modem and well designed city. It is
divided into Chinese and foreign quarters,
the divisional strip of land I^eing set aside
and used as a public park.
From its excellent geographical location
Dairen was destined to become a great
commercial centre, and the expectations of
the Russian founders of the city have been
fully realised by the Japanese. The port
being the terminus of the railway system of
the South Manchuria Company, receives the
great bulk of the ever increasing traffic in
Manchurian produce, as also it is the point of
entry for the bulk of the imports from Japan
and farther afield. It is the distributing
centre for an immense territory, and also
constitutes an important point in the trans-
continental railway system, the .South Man-
churia Railway Company having established
a steamer service with Shanghai and Tsingtao,
which brings those cities, as well as Peking,
two days, in point of time, closer to London,
via Siberia. Opened to foreign trade in
September, 1904, Dairen at once became a
centre of exploitation of the vast natural
resources of Manchuria, the Japanese mer-
chants and foreign firms rapidly establishing
themselves in the new port and extending
their operations inland. The population of
Dairen can only be estimated, in the absence
of recent official figures, but it may safely be
set at about 57,000, of whom the bulk are
Japanese. There is quite a numerous com-
munity of Europeans, mainly consisting of
representatives and the staffs of firms that
have opened branches in the port.
Though the official headquarters of the
Kwantung Government are at Lushun,
Dairen is the real administrative centre and
business entrepot of the peninsula, and has
many attractive public buildings, such as the
Civil Administration Office, Post and Tele-
graph Bureau, Marine Bureau, Agricultural
Experimental Station, Waterworks Office,
Meteorological Station and so on. The
South Manchuria Railway Company has
established very extensive works, in which
practically all the locomotives and rolling
stock for the Chosen and Manchurian lines
are constructed. There are also numerous
factory buildings, such as cotton mills and
vegetable oil factories. The city is well laid
out and quite attractive in its general appear-
ance, the authorities maintaining close watch
over sanitation and similar public services.
An electric tramway system, modem in every
respect, exists, and all the conveniences of a
big city are available. Mention must be
made of the Y'amato Hotel, a magnificent
structure, conducted by the railway company,
built and fiunished in the most elaborate style.
The railway lines running into the city
separate the grounds owned by the Govern-
ment, from those owned by the railway
company. The railway is spanned by a
handsome steel bridge, known as Nippon-
Ijashi, which cost about Yen 150,000. Dairen
railway station stands by the southwest side
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS
OF JAPAN
823
of this bridge, which, with the great square
which stands at the end of a road running
southeast, constitute two centres from which
the main streets of the city radiate. A
number of the large Japanese commercial
houses have their branches in Dairen, as well
as a few of the principal British and other
firms doing business in the Far East. The
head office of the South Manchuria Railway
Company and the Go\'ernment offices are
splendid structures.
Public institutions of the port, other than
those already mentioned, are the three
Japanese Government schools, the Dairen
Commercial School, maintained by the
Presbyterian Mission, the Girls' Art School,
the Municipal Offices, Chamber of Commerce
and so on. There are three journals pub-
lished in the Japanese language. In Dairen
all the principal business and private houses,
as well as hotels, public offices, etc., are
connected by telephone. There are tele-
phones for public use at all the post offices,
as well as in automatic telephone stands at
the principal centres of the city. The cur-
rency of Dairen is the Japanese, nominally a
gold standard, but actually paper money,
and this circulates freely throughout the
Kwantung Peninsula.
Dairen is screened from the cold northern
continental blasts by ranges of high hills, and
it also faces the Yellow Sea. Its climate is,
therefore, milder than that of any other part
of Manchuria or North China, the thermom-
eter, even in mid-winter (January-February)
seldom falling below 6 degrees below zero
(centigrade), while in summer it hardly ever
rises above 25 degrees (centigrade). Dairen
is essentially an ice-free port, even in the
extremes of cold weather. The cleanliness
and general sanitation of the port is in the
hands of a capable administrative body.
The harbour works of Dairen have been
planned and carried out on an extensive scale,
the first step having been the reclamation of
a long stretch of swamp land on the coast,
northeast from the centre of the new town.
Two wharves have been completed. The
first, known as the East Pier, lies at the
east end of the town. Nearby is the second,
known as the Great Pier, i ,960 feet long, and
with a depth of 28 feet of water — sufficient
for ships of over 10,000 tons. The total
length of anchorage provided is 8,445 feet.
Railway tracks run along each pier, greatly
facilitating transportation. Warehouses,
cranes, and all modern harbour facilities are
provided. On the west of the Great Pier and
at right angles to it, there is the Third Pier,
which divides the Inner from the Outer
Harbour. At its extremity a breakwater
1,221 feet long has been built, and work is
now proceeding on a second similar, but
Y.'i.\l.\G.AT.\-DORI, M.\IN BUSINESS THOROUGHF.ARE OF D.AIREN — OKU-MACHI-DORI, ONE OF
THE IMPOSING BOULEVARDS — OYAMA STREET AS VIEWED FROM NIPPON BASHI
824
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
YAMATO HOTEL, DAIREN, ONE OF THE CHAIN OF HOTELS OWNED AND RUN BY THE SOUTH MANCHIRL^ RAILWAY COMPANY SOUTH
MANCHURIA RAILWAY ELECTRIC PARK, DAIREN, THE CHIEF PLEASURE RESORT OF THE CITY — SCENE IN NORTH PARK, DAIREN
longer, structure, to give greater protection
t-o the anchorages. As a shipping centre,
Dairen is always very busy, and for a port
only twenty years old, it must be con-
sidered remarkably well developed.
The industrial character of Dairen is
rapidly becoming emphasised. The port
affords great facilities for the effective work-
ing of factories, and in recent years many new
and substantial industries have sprung up.
In themselves, the extensive works of the
South Manchuria Railway Company con-
stitute a very important industry, a small
town having sprung up around the new works,
which cover an area of over 400 acres, and
give employment to close on 2,500 hands.
Associated with the works are a library,
meeting-hall, school, hospital and similar
institutions for the welfare of the employees.
Then there are the electrical works, from
which the city derives its light and power,
and the railway company's up-to-date gas
works. The oil industry of Manchuria
practically centres in Dairen, and many
important factories have been established to
treat the soya bean, and extract other vege-
table oils and by-products. Behind this
important industry the administration of the
South Manchuria Railway Company has put
all its influence and energy, and the output is
rapidly increasing. There are at least half a
dozen strong brick companies in operation,
and the output of bricks probably reaches
20,000,000 per annum. Lime and oyster-
shell ashes are also produced in large quan-
tities.
Closely adjacent to Dairen there are
good farm lands within the jurisdiction of the
Dairen Civil Administration Office, and on
these the greater part of the vegetables,
fruits, and similar food products consumed
in Dairen, are produced. There is also a
growing rice production, near the port, and
colonisation projects of a substantial nature
will doubtless soon transform all arable lands
of the peninsula into rich farms.
Dairen does not present any special features
of old historical interest, but it is the starting
point for tourists who wish to visit the scenes
of the Russo-Japanese War. Lushun, or
Port Arthur, can be visited in a da^- from
Dairen, and has always proved a centre of
attraction, the famous fortress being almost
exactly in the same condition as when it
surrendered to the Japanese after the long
siege.
CORNABE, ECKFORD & CO., DAIREN
Established at Chefoo, in 1864, the firm
of Cornabe, Eckford & Co., importers,
exporters, general merchants, and agents,
has extended its operations throughout North
China, and may justly claim the position of
being one of the leading foreign concerns in
this important territory.
The Dairen branch, which is at present
under review, was opened in 1906, which goes
to show that the firm lost no time, after the
termination of hostilities between Japan and
Russia, in establishing their business interests
in this centre. A large measure of success has
attended this important branch, which is now
housed in a fine white glazed brick structure,
covering about 1,000 square feet, and occupy-
ing one of the most valuable sites on Yama-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
825
gata-dori, a few paces from Dairen's central
square. The branch is under the direction of
Mr. F. Larkins, who is assisted by two other
Europeans. Business is conducted under the
methods followed by foreign firms throughout
China, a Chinese compradore and a staff of
Chinese clerks being employed. In common
with other firms of the port, Comabe, Eckford
& Co. handle soya beans, and the by-products
of the beans, together with various seeds and
cereals. Imports cover practically all the
usual lines, with railway requisites and
machinery as a specialty.
The following list of important shipjjing
and insurance companies, for whom Cornabe,
Eckford & Co. are agents, will indicate the
nature and volume of the business transacted
in these two departments: P. & O. S. N. Co.,
Glen Line of Steamers, East Asiatic Line
of Steamers, Russian Asiatic Company Line of
Steamers, Swedish Asiatic Company Line
of Steamers, Indo-China S. N. Co., Ltd., Gar-
land Steamship Corporation, Lloyds, London,
Hongkong Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., Canton
Insurance Office, Ltd., Royal Insurance Co.,
Ltd., Sun Fire Office, Yangtsze Insurance
Association, Ltd., Hongkong & Shanghai
Banking Corporation, British-American To-
bacco Co., Ltd., British Cigarette Co., Ltd.,
American Asiatic S. S. Co., and the Cie
Messageries Maritimes.
The head office at Chefoo is under the
direction of Mr. Vy-vyan Eckford, son of the
founder of the business. His staflf comprises
seven Europeans, and the business also em-
ploys many Chinese clerks and officials. At
Chefoo all North China products are handled,
but main attention is given to such lines as
strawbraids, silk, and bristles for brush-
making. The firm has exceptionally large
and well built godowns at Chefoo, undoubt-
edly the best in the port, where imports and
exports are inspected and in other ways
dealt with. The head office handles the
agencies of the Chartered Bank of India,
Australia, and China, Mercantile Bank of
China, Ltd., Commercial Bank of London,
Ltd. Shipping agencies comprise the follow-
ing: Indo-China Steam Navigation Co.,
Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Eastern Australian
S. S. Co., Ltd., P. & O. S. N. Co., Cie Mes-
sageries Maritimes, Toyo Kisen Kaisha,
Mogul Line of Steamers, Canadian Pacific
Railway Co., Shire Line of Steamers, Union
Line of Steamers, Indra Line, Ben Line, and
Glen Line. In the Insurance Department
the firm represents the following companies:
(Fire) Royal Insurance Co., Ltd., Hongkong
Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., London & Lan-
cashire Fire Insurance Co., Imperial Fire
Office, Sun Insurance Office, and General
Accident, Fire and Life Assurance Corpora-
tion; (Life) Standard Life Assurance Co.,
Sun Life Assurance Co. of Canada; (Marine)
Canton Insurance Office, Ltd., Yangtsze
Insurance Association, Ltd., South British
Marine Insurance Co., Ltd., of New Zealand,
Germanic, and International Lloyds.
Cornabe, Eckford & Co. are also repre-
sentatives at Chefoo of the Hokee Lighter
Company, Whatai Filature, British-American
Tobacco Co., Ltd., Green Lsland Cement Co.,
Ltd., Hongkong Rope Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd., and the Vacuum Oil Co.
There are branches also at Wei-hai-Wei
CORNABE, ECKFORD & COMPANY'S FINE PREMISES ON YAMAGATA-DORI, DAIREN
826
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PREMISES OF THE FIRM OF F. J. BARDENS, DAI KEN
and Tsingtao. At the latter place the firm
has a staff of three Europeans, and the branch
may be expected to play an important part
in the commercial development of the port,
which is likely to be the centre of consider-
able interest during the next few years.
Comabe, Eckford & Co. are represented
abroad in practically every important com-
mercial centre of the world, which fifty years
of experience of the trade with China has
been made the legitimate sphere of the
firm's operations. This old firm was orig-
inally founded by the late Mr. W. A. Comabe,
Andrew Millar Eckford, since deceased,
joining the firm some years later. Its
development has kept pace with the growth
of foreign trading interests in North China,
and its history is interwoven with that of
the entire territory, in so far as its commer-
cial expansion is concerned.
F. J. BARDENS, DAIREX
In Far Eastern countries it is usual to
find certain names of foreign firms insepar-
ably linked with the progress and history
of trading centres, or territories, and when
the pioneer work of those areas is being dis-
cussed, a spirit of justice and a desire to give
credit to whom credit is due, invariably lead
to the mention of the man, or men, who first
broke ground for the foreign trader. In
point of years, the foreign trade with Man-
churia is not so old, but to appreciate the
nature of the pioneer work of even fifteen
years ago, one has to understand the imsettled
conditions that prevailed then, and the
dangers and difficulties attendant on the
effort to transact business in a distracted
country. Manchurian history, so far as
the European trader is concerned, includes
the Russo-Japanese War, when the entire
countr)' was in the throes of a desperate
struggle, and a period when reconstruction
and adjustment were going on. Throughout
these strenuous times, the business now
directed by Mr. F. J. Hardens, was carried on.
Mr. Hardens was the first foreigner to
establish a business in Dairen, and is rightly
regarded as the pioneer of trade there. He
located in the port immediatelj' the Russo-
Japanese War was ended and some time
before Dairen w-as opened to foreign trade
by the Japanese at the conclusion of the
struggle. Mr. Hardens brought to Dairen
with him a ripe experience of Oriental busi-
ness affairs, and a capacity for business
acquired in a very good school. He was for
seven years in the London office of Messrs.
Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd., and in 1887
came East for that concern, sen-ing as
manager of the Kobe office until he entered
on business for himself, and blazed the trail
in Manchuria. The business established by
him at Dairen was for some years absorbed
by Messrs. Bush Bros., for whom Mr.
Hardens continued to act as Managing
Director, but in 1910 he again took over the
interests of the concern, and since then has
been sole proprietor of the business. Mr.
Hardens is trading as a general merchant,
importer, and exporter, and holds several
valuable agencies. Prior to the war the
principal lines handled were drugs, hospital
appliances, and explosives. The latter is
still the leading feature of the business, but
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
827
drugs and similar lines have been largely
replaced by wines and spirits, soap essences
and so on. The firm has the agencies for
W. & A. Gilbey, Ltd., London (wines and
spirits), and W. J. Bush & Co., Ltd. (soap
essences). Other important items of trade
are Colman's products (mustard, other con-
diments, starch, etc.), Cadbury's cocoa and
chocolate. Lever Brothers soaps, etc., and
Bradford woollens. Mr. Hardens has the-
agencies for the Robert Dollar Steamship
Line and Lumber Company, and for Carna-
A Bl.!SV SCENE IN THE D.\IREN OFFICE OF MITSUI BUSS.\N K.\ISHA
MR. F. J. DARDENS
principal of the business under review is a
Devonshire man. Mr. Hardens has two
sons in the trenches, the eldest of whom was
in charge of the Tsingtao office prior to leav-
ing for active service.
MITSUI BUSSAN KAISHA, LIMITED,
DAIREN
Knowing the vigourous and progressive
policy of the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, Ltd.,
it creates no surprise to learn that the com-
pany is strongly represented in Manchuria
and is taking a most prominent part in the
industrial and economic development of that
vast territory. The Mitsui Bussan head
office is at Tokyo. Headquarters for Man-
churia have been established at No. 126
Yamagata-dori, Dairen, where the company
has fine offices and extensive godowns, all
under the direction of Mr. N. Nodaira.
Branches are also established at Antung,
Feng-ticn (Mukden), Kirin, Newchwang,
Tiehling, Changchun, Harbin, Kung-chu-
ling, Shan-hai-Kwan, Chin-chow-fu, Kai-
yuan, Liao Yuan, Szu-Ping-chieh, Vladivos-
tock, and all main stations on the Chinese
Eastern Railway Line.
The Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, Ltd., holds
the agencies for Dairen and other ports of
the EUerman & Hucknall Steamship Co. and
tion Condensed Milk. The Insurance De-
partment handles the agency work of the
following important offices: The Eagle and
British Dominions Insurance Co., Ltd., the
Yorkshire Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., and the
New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd.
The offices of the firm are located on
Yamagata-dori, and, as will be seen from the
illustration, are up to date in all respects.
Naturally, for the storage of explosives Mr.
Hardens has magazines, located on the out-
skirts of the city. They are specially con-
structed, of the very latest design for such a
purpose. There is a branch of the business
at Tsingtao. That Mr. Hardens has experi-
enced such gratifying success during the past
decade may no doubt be attributed to the
great esteem in which he is held by all sections
of the community, European and Japanese.
Mr. Hardens, it is interesting to note, speaks
and writes Japanese, and the value of such
an accomplishment to a business man in
Manchuria can not be over-estimated. The
BAGS OF THE FAMOUS .SOYA BEANS AWAITING SHIPMENT AT DAIREN WHARF
A ':
i^
SUZUKI & CO.: THE firm's new premises BEAN OIL MILL OF THE LATEST TYPE, AT DAIREN
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
829
thu Nippon Yviscn Kaisha, Ltd. In the
Insurance Department the following com-
panies arc represented: Chiyoda Fire Insur-
ance Co., Ltd., KoW Marine, Transit and
Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., Kyodo Fire Insur-
ance Co., Ltd., Meiji Fire Insurance Co.,
Ltd , Nippon Fire Insurance Co., Ltd.,
Osaka Marine and Fire Insurance Co., Ltd.,
Tokyo Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., Tokyo
Marine Insurance Co., Ltd., and the Yoko-
hama Fire, Marine, Transit and Fidelity
Insurance Co., Ltd. Three very important
trading agencies are those for the Onoda
Cement Co., Ltd., the Hokuman Flour
Mills Co., Ltd., and the Texas Oil Company.
The Dairen and other branches in Man-
churia do a large import and export trade,
handling practically all lines of natural
produce, etc., and general merchandise.
SUZUKI & CO., DAIREN
Amongst the Japanese firms whose names
are familiar throughout the world are
Suzuki & Co., whose operations extend
throughout Japan and its territories, and
are equally important all over China and in
foreign commercial centres. There would
appear to be no branch of industry and com-
merce in Japan to-day with which this
powerful house is not connected in some
important degree. It is, therefore, no
surprise to find that in Manchuria one of
the most important vegetable oil mills is
operated by Suzuki & Co., nor to notice
that the firm's Dairen building is amongst
the most imposing premises in this city of
fine structures.
The oil mill located at Jijiko, near Dairen,
employs a staff of forty for the direction of
the coolie labour, and consumes about three
hundred tons of bulk beans a day. The
soya bean is principally dealt with, but the
firm also specialises in the refining of crude
oils, both fish and vegetable, and produces
fatty acids and glycerine. The oil is ex-
ported to the United States, and the bean
cake to Japan and the South Sea Islands.
It is interesting to note that the Suzuki Oil
Mill was once the property of the South
Manchuria Railway, but did not produce
in those days more than 50 per cent of the
present output. The Dairen branch of the
firm was opened in 1909, and is at present
under the direction of Mr. Y. Nishikawa,
who has been with the firm for ten years,
and was appointed Manager at Dairen in
1915. The new premises at Yamagata-dori
comprise a fine structure of red brick and
granite, erected on a site which measures
400 tsubo. A staff of eighty clerks handle
the extensive business transacted. Exports
dealt with by the Dairen branch of Suzuki
& Co. include, as has been indicated, bean
and other vegetable and fish oils and by-
products, bean cake, hemp seed, and cereals.
Imports mainly consist of piece goods, cotton
yarn, sugar, iron and steel and machinery,
matches, gunny bags, lumber, flour and other
sundries. Amongst the important companies
represented by the firm are the South Man-
churian Products Company, which is really
a department of Suzuki & Co., having its
head office at Dairen; the Imperial Steam-
ship Co., another Suzuki enterprise with
head office at Kobe ; the Tokvo Marine
MIPPON nRlDCE OVER SOUTH M.-\NCHURIA R.\ILW.AY, D-^IREN
830
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
DAIREN OIL AND FAT INDUSTRY CO., LTD.: THE LABORATORY AND TWO VIEWS OF THE F.\CTORY
Insurance Co., Ltd., the Kobe Marine, Fire,
and Transport Insurance Co., Ltd., the Sun
Fire Office of London, the Kanagawa Electric
Co. of Tokyo, the Taisho Life Insurance
Co., the Teikoku Beer Brewery Co., and the
New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd.
The head office of Messrs. Suzuki & Co.
is at Kobe. There are branches at Osaka,
Nagoya, Yokohama, Tokyo, Dairi, Moji,
Shimonoseki, Otaru, Hakodate, Sapporo and
Asahigawa, Fusan, Seoul, Taipeh, Tainan,
and Takao. Abroad the firm has its own
London office at No. 29 Mincing Lane, and
a New York office at No. 220 Broadway.
Other foreign branches are at Seattle, Petro-
grad, Vladivostock, Singapore, Calcutta, Bom-
bay, Hanoi, Hongkong, Shanghai, Tsintao,
Chinan, Tientsin, Hankow, Harbin, and
Changchun. The senior partner of the firm
is Madame Yone Suzuki, who has been
decorated by the Emperor of Japan with the
Green Ribbon, for the splendid work she has
done in the development of Japan's foreign
trade. The Manager of the Kobe head office
is Mr. B. Nishikawa, and the co-partners in
this great business are Messrs. F. Yanagida
and N. Kaneko.
DAIREN OIL AND FAT INDUSTRY CO.,
I.I.MITED
Bean oil is produced in Manchuria on a
very large scale, the export from the port
of Dairen alone amounting to over 100,000
tons per annum. Yet, despite the fact that
this enormous production has been going on
for a number of years, there was no oil and
fat industry, dealing with the raw product
and converting it into commercial uses, until
the formation of the Dairen Oil and Fat
Industry Co., Ltd., took place. The neces-
sity for such an industry was first seriously
realised by the directors of the South Man-
churia Railway Company, and investiga-
tions were started in the Central Laboratory
of that company, to discover a method for
hardening the bean oil. A process was per-
fected by Messrs. Suzuki and Okada, both
masters of physics. Experiments were con-
ducted by these chemists for about a year,
and it was demonstrated that by their process
the bean oil could be profitably treated for
oils and fatty essences. When the question
of commercialising the process came up,
President Nakamura of the South Man-
churia Railway Company thought it would
prove much better to establish a joint-stock
company, than to make the industry another
monopoly of the railway administration.
Accordingly, on January 17, 1916, Messrs.
R. Kawamura, Y. Kubo, K. Yasuda, J.
Tochinai, Y. Suzuki, D. Iwao, K. Ishimoto,
Y. Aioi, and H. Nagahama held a promoters'
meeting and it was decided to start the
Dairen Oil and Fat Industry Co., Ltd., with
a capital of Yen 1,000,000, one-quarter of
which should be paid up at once. Out of
the total of 20,000 shares it was agreed that
7,000 should be allotted to the South Man-
churia Railway Company, 10,000 should be
taken up by the promoters, and the balance
should be available to the public. The pro-
moters' anticipation of public interest in the
new industry was sadly at fault, for when the
applications came in it was found that instead
of 3,000 shares being wanted, the public
applied for 153 times that number! With
such a bright prospect the company was duly
formed on April 26, 1916, the following
gentlemen constituting the directorate:
Messrs. Y. Suzuki, representing the rail-
way company, K. Ishimoto, Y. Aioi, Y.
Kubo, K. Yasuda. The Auditors were
PRESENT-DAY I M P R I-: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
831
Messrs. R. Kawamura and H. \agahama.
A parcel of ground of about 3,000 tstibo
was selected in Dairen and the building of a
factory was at once started, the manufacture
of the machinery being undertaken at the
same time at the works of the South Man-
cliuria Railway Co., at the mouth of the
Sha-ho. By September, 1916, the following
buildings had been completed: A brick fac-
tory, covering 336 tsubo; steam boiler house,
covering 34 tsubo; hydrogen generating room
of brick, covering 28 tsubo, and offices and
godown of brick, covering 180 tsubo. In
the following month plant and machinery
was installed comprising hydrogen generat-
ing furnace and storage tank, intermediate
manufacturing equipment, original oil refin-
ing plant, oil and fat hardening machinery,
oil and fat decomposing chamber, glycerine
extracting and glycerine vaporising machin-
ery, stearine distilling plant, and glycerine
distilling plant. A trial of the equipment
was held in October, and in November, 19 16,
less than si.x months after the company was
formed, work actually commenced. Owing,
however, to the shortage of water that season,
the output of the factory could not be brought
up to expectations at that stage. Once over
the initial difficulties the plant and arrange-
ments ran smoothly, and at present the
monthly output of the factory is as follows:
80 tons of hardened oil, 20 tons of stearine,
5 tons of glycerine, and 30 tons of olein.
The enlargement of the plant, which was
started in August, 1917, is expected to be
completed in February, 1918, when it is
hoped to increase the monthly output to
the following figures: 250 tons of hardened
oil, 60 tons of stearine, 9 tons of glycerine,
and 30 tons of olein. The company owns
the following patents: No. 27,066, for oil
hardening process; No. 29,697, method of
manufacturing intermediator for adding
hydrogen; No. 29,696, hardened oil filtering
arrangement; No. 30,643, method for decom-
posing lime, and No. 38,964, process for pro-
ducing soap fats from oil. These patents
have been secured for inventions of Director
Suzuki and Chief Specialist Okada.
The principal officers of the Dairen Oil
and Fat Industry Co., Ltd., are: Directors,
Messrs. Y. Suzuki, K. Ishimoto, and Y.
Aioi. Mr. D. Iwao is the Manager, Mr. T.
Okada, Chief Specialist, and Mr. S. Sato is
the Auditor.
M. KAWABE, DAIREN
Mr. Kavv.^be is very closely associated in
a number of ways with the entire commerce
and industry of Manchuria, and he has, for
many years, been prominently concerned in
the development of all trading interests.
His business interests are wide and varied,
and in view of this fact it is natural to find
him regarded in Dairen as one of the leaders
of Japanese and foreign commerce. The
business in which Mr. Kawabe is most closely
concerned is the old established shipping
house which was formerly Sung, Mow &
SCENE ON THE MIKDEX - .ANTING LINE OF THE SOUTH M.ANCHIRI.A RAIl.W.W
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Mil
PREMISES OP DAIREN GINKO DAIREN PREMISES OF SUNG, MOW & CO.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
833
Co. This concern was founded in 1902 in
Yingkow, and besides conducting the general
'business of shipping agents, the firm pur-
chased three steamers and started a line of
regular freight and passenger transportation
between Manchuria and Japan. This was,
in fact, the first shipping company established
in Manchuria.
After the Russo-Japanese War the business
of handling railway cargoes was commenced.
In 1905 the Dairen despatch office, which
had been in existence some time, was made
the head office of the firm, and since then,
maritime transportation has been exclusively
transacted. In igio the North China
Steamship Company came into existence,
and regular navigation between Antung-
Hien, Tientsin, Yingkow and Lungkow, and
Dairen was started, the new company having
nine steamers. The whole business was,
however, transferred to the Manchurian
Railway Co., at the lattei's request. There-
upon the Dairen Steamship Company, which
includes the old Sung, Mow Company's
interests, was started by Mr. Kawabe.
To-day that company holds a prominent
position as a maritime transport organisation.
Mr. Kawabe, leader of the shipping inter-
ests of Manchuria, is also in the forefront
of banking. He is President of the Dairen
Ginko, an institution with a capital of Yen
1,000,000, and deposits of over Yen 2,000,000.
The Dairen Bank is doing valuable work in
accommodating local business interests with
necessary funds. Mr. Kawabe is a member
of the Dairen City Assembly, member of
the Dairen Chamber of Commerce, Vice-
President of the Dairen Marine Association,
and Auditor to the Dairen Sencho Kaisha
(silver exchange).
USUI & CO., DAIREN
Mr. K. Usui, principal of the Goshi Kaisha
Usui Yoko, or K. Usui & Co., is one of the
very earliest pioneers of commerce and
industry in the port of Dairen. He estab-
lished himself in business there in 1905 at the
close of the Russo-Japanese War, and by
enterprise and determination has made his
undertaking a distinct success. Mr. Usui
practically taught the soya bean oil business
to the Chinese. When he started operations
there were only about 500 retailers of the
beans, but to-day the industry is one of the
staples of Manchuria and gives employment
to at least 50,000 Japanese alone.
Messrs. Usui & Co. do a general trade in
Manchurian products, specialising in soya
beans, oil and cake, which are exported to
Japan and to Europe. The extent of the
business is something of which Mr. Usui is
proud, and he hopes to be able to open up
foreign connections and still further develop
his important interests. The office of the
firm is situated at No. 9 Kanbu-dori, Itchome,
Dairen. The cable address is "Usuiyoko,"
codes used being A. B. C. 5th edition and
Western Union.
KAWASAKI DOCKYARD CO., LIMITED,
DAIREN BRANCH
The greatest engineering concern in the
Far East is the Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd.,
the famous Japanese shipbuilding organisa-
tion, which has its main works at Kobe, and
PREMISES OF USUI & CO., DAIREN
834
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
carries out a gigantic programme of ship
construction, as well as general work. This
company established a branch yard and works
at Dairen as far back as 1906, immediately
after the Russo-Japanese War, and has
developed the plant as rapidly as the needs of
the time have called for. The dock and
building yards are, in fact, the only ones in
North China, and they certainly are a credit
to the company, and speak volumes for its
enterprise. A total area of 15,839 tsuho is
utilised for the dock and works. The dock
measures 52 feet wide by 440 feet long, with a
depth of over 20 feet on the sill. Men of war,
or merchant ships up to 6,000 tons, can be
accommodated, and there is a complete ecjuip-
ment for their repair. The shipbuilding
yard is capable of constructing ships up to
2,000 tons, and the machine shops, boiler
foundry, etc., can turn out engines and boilers,
and other machinery for a similar class of
vessel. It is planned to install Lloyds survey-
ing machinery and testing plant at an early
date. (See also page 717.)
DAIREN KISEN KAISHA
This company was established in February,
1915, and it may be said without hesitation
that it has rendered extremely valuable
service to the entire trading community of
Manchuria and North China, by inaugurating
and maintaining fast and regular services
between the various ports. Without such
transportation facilities business in the entire
area would never have developed to the extent
that has been the case, and all credit is there-
fore due to the enterprise of those who
founded the Dairen Kisen Kaisha.
Regular steamer services are maintained
by the company as follows:
Dairen-Tientsin-Antung Line, six times a
month.
Dairen-Tsingtao Line, five times a month.
Dairen-LungkowLine, seven times a month.
Dairen-Shanghai Line, four times a month.
The company's fleet comprises the follow-
ing: S. S. Ryitsho-Maru, 2,880 tons; S. S.
Taisho-Marii, 2,580 tons; S. S. Kojun-Maru,
2,180 tons; S. S. Hakushin-Maru, 1,480 tons;
S. S. Isshin-Maru, 1,450 tons; S. S. Tencho-
Marii, 1,300 tons; S. S. Saitsii-Maru, 1,100
tons; S. S. Ryohei- Maru, 800 tons; S. S.
Risai-Maru, 700 tons.
The head office of the Dairen Steamship
Co., Ltd., is at No. 50 Yamagata-dori, Dairen.
There are branches at Tientsin, Antung,
Tsingtao, and Kobe, and agencies at Shang-
hai, Chefoo, Lungkow, and Port Arthur.
The registered cable address is "Daiki."
Mr. Y. Tanuma is President of the company
which has a capital of Yen 2,000,000. Mr.
T. Tsukamoto is Director and General Man-
ager. Both these gentlemen have had
considerable experience in shipping, and they
are regarded as authorities on the develop-
ment of trade relations between Manchuria
and Japan and China.
T. YUASA & CO.
Elsewhere in this volume the operations
of this important house are described at some
length, so that in dealing with the Dairen
branch of Messrs. T. Yuasa & Co. it is not
VIEW OF THE PREMISES OF THE KAWASAKI DOCKYARD CO., LTD., DAIREN
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836
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PREMISES OF T. YUASA & CO., DAIREN
necessary to do more than explain the main
features of the extensive and vahiable busi-
ness which is transacted in Manchuria.
The branch was established as soon as the
port was opened to trade at the conclusion of
the Russo-Japanese War, but, as will readily
be understood, the business was on a much
more modest scale than at present. In fact,
the great expansion that has taken place
would be a surprise to those who knew the
business in those early days. Much of the
success achieved has undoubtedly been due
to Mr. T. Kawai, who has been with the firm
for fourteen years, and has managed the
Dairen branch since its inception. The
present fine offices cover about lOO Isubo, and,
in addition, the site owned by the firm
includes an area of 500 tsubo fronting on
Dairen's best thoroughfare, Yamagata-dori.
As will be seen from the illustrations, the
office premises are of the most modern
description.
Messrs. Yuasa & Co. handle large quan-
tities of cereals, soya beans, etc. Manchurian
products do not cover a wide range, and like
other firms, Yuasa & Co. find their business
limited to cereals principally, of which the
soya bean and its by-products is the most
important. They handle large quantities of
beans, oils, seed cake, etc., for export. Prin-
cipal among the imports are flour, hardware,
sugar, cotton yarn, cotton cloth, gunny bags,
matches, lubricating oils, roofing paper, etc.
The firm is also doing a substantial business
as agents for various concerns, one of which
is the Paraffine Paint Company of San
Francisco. A new department, which the
firm has been studying for some time, is
the trade in furs and skins. In addition to
their export, Messrs. Yuasa & Co. propose to
start a curing and tanning house. Visitors
to Mukden and other Manchurian fur centres
will have remarked that there is much to be
done in the way of curing and preparation of
skins and furs, and there can be little doubt
that Messrs. Yuasa & Co. will develop an
important business in this department.
The head office is at Kobe, branches
being located in all important centres
throughout Japan and the adjoining countries.
THOMPSON, HANN.\.M & CO.
This well-known British merchant house
has been established in Dairen since 191 1,
when the partners, Messrs. Frank Delano
Thompson and C. H. G. Hannam, entered
into the trade in Manchurian produce, their
operations then being confined largely to the
export of soya beans, soya oil, and various
cereals. Both partners are British born, and
have had considerable experience of market
ahd trade conditions throughout the Far
East, having been in the service of well-known
firms engaged in shipping, insurance, etc.,
before entering upon business for their own
account.
Prior to the war the principal markets of
the firm were London, Antwerp, Amsterdam,
and Christiania, the United States, up to the
outbreak of the war, not being a large con-
sumer of oil or other Manchurian specialties
in which Messrs. Thompson, Hannam & Co
deal. The business has now developed into
a general import and export trade, the firm
being particularly interested in Java alcohol,
Calcutta gunnies, coffee, metals, chemicals
and drugs, teak, etc. A tin-making plant has
also been added to the firm's operations.
This factory is capable of turning out 4,000
bean oil cans daily. Under contemplation
is the installation of a barrel- and drum-
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
837
BANK OF CHOSEN: MUKDEN BRANCH AT SHOSEIKVVAN, MUKDEN — THE SUB-BRANCH AT
SHINSHIGAI, MUKDEN
making plant, which will be laid down when
normal times return. The firm is the only
European member of the Dairen Produce
Exchange, Mr. Thompson, who has had many
years' experience in Mincing Lane, Ceylon,
China, and Japan, being a daily attendant
at the market.
Messrs. Thompson, Hannam & Co. are
prepared to buy or sell Manchurian produce
on a commission of one per cent on F. O. B.
prices, and this covers all charges for packing,
loading, sampling, and care. The firm has
its own forwarding, shipping, and packing
department, and controls several godowns
where goods can be stored and insured. The
finn represents several shipping companies,
including the Dodwell, Barber and "Ben"
lines. Messrs. Thompson, Hannam & Co.
are general agents for the Manchuria Manu-
facturing Co., and also represent several
insurance companies. Their London agents
are Messrs. H. D. Thompson & Co., 21
Cullum St., Penchurch St., London. They
represent, among other houses, Messrs.
Nichol & Lyons. Ltd., of Kob^.
BANK OF CHOSEN, MUKDEN BRANCH
In dealing with the history of the Bank
of Chosen in a separate article, we have
shown how rapidly this institution has
extended its operations, and what an impor-
tant part it is taking in the development of
Manchuria. The bank has done a great
deal to stabilise the monetary system in that
territory, and its notes are now circulated
widely. The Chinese have reposed the
utmost confidence in the bank, and there is
no question that this fact has been due to
the broad and healthy policy of the directors,
and the splendid efforts which the branch
managers have made to foster and assist
all local industries.
When the Bank of Chosen came into
existence as the old Bank of Korea, in 1909,
it took over a branch of the Dai-Ichi Ginko,
which had been established at Antung.
The Mukden branch was established in
July, 1913, and is the second oldest branch
in Manchuria. Mr. H. Konishi is the Man-
ager. Some indication of the growth of the
business in Mukden is given by the fact
that the bank has recently opened a sub-
branch in the new section of the city, and
this is a great convenience to business men.
(See index for other references.)
54
THE RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE YALU RIVER AT AXTUXG, 3,098 FEET IN LENGTH
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE
L. Chosen (Korea)
Ancient Relations with Japan— Modern Relations with Japan — The Annexation of Korea
BY Japan — Reforms Inaugurated — Modern Regime— Area and Population— Forests
AND Fisheries — Agriculture and Industry— Commercial Notices— Minerals
AND Mines — Trade and Commerce — Commercial Notices — Communica-
TiONS— Finance and Banking— Banking and Currency— Commercial
Notices — Education — Keijo (Seoul) — Commercial Notices
KIJREA, known to the Japanese as
Chosen, the country being anciently
so designated, is now an integral
part of the Empire of Japan, and the nation's
largest and most important colony. How
the ancient Hermit Kingdom came to pass
under Japan's jurisdiction forms an interest-
ing study in the rise and fall of nations, as
well as an excellent illustration of the fate
of races neglecting the fundamentals of pro-
gressive civilisation. A thousand years ago
Korea was Japan's teacher in art, literature,
and government. To-day she lies in the
dust of ignorance and incompetence at the
feet of her old-time pupil, at once a warning
and an example to overconfidence and con-
ceit, as well as of the dangers of parasitic
officialdom and abounding superstition.
Whether the fate of Korea was one that
Japan welcomed is not a question that here
needs to be considered — most nations stand
ready to take the territorial accretions that
fall in their way, — but historj' affords ample
evidence of Japan's more than casual inter-
est in the peninsula from even the remotest
period. In the first centuries of the Christian
era, Korea was divided into three kingdoms,
known as Shiragi, Kudara, and Mimana,
and constant disputes between these tribal
dynasties gave Japan every chance to inter-
fere, as she was frequently appealed to for
aid by one or the other of the belligerents.
In return for aid thus given she usually
exacted tribute, which gave her the position
nominally of suzerain. As peace was resumed
and the Korean kingdoms began once more
to prosper, they assumed an attitude of
independence toward their Yamato neighbour
across the straits, which usually aroused the
ire of the Island Empire. It is probable that
during the early period of Japanese history
the coastal inhabitants of both countries
preyed ceaselessly on each other, creating
a race of sea pirates as bold and terrible as
the Vikings of Europe in the same period.
After the dawn of authentic historj' in Japan
we have mention of rebellions against imperial
authority among the later settlements from
the continent, instigated often by Korean
influence, and the Japanese were more than
once driven to lead an expedition into the
peninsula in retaliation. One of the most
noted of these reprisals was the invasion of
Korea by the Empress Jingo in the second
century A. D., when the kingdoms of Shiragi
and Kudara were obliged to surrender and
pay tribute to Japan. The Japanese claim
that from then down to the sixth century,
Mra, at the head of Chinghai Bay, in Korea,
was held by them. Though piracy con-
tinued, no mention is made of further moles-
tation of Korea until the year 1592, when
Hideyoshi, the Napoleon of Japan, having
subdued all the recalcitrant daimyo of the
Empire, wished to extend the glory of his
arms abroad, and decided on an invasion of
Korea, purely to satisfy the lust of conquest,
as some Japanese historians admit. Land-
ing somewhere near Chinghai Bay, after the
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
839
example of the Empress Jingo, the troo]K
of Hideyoshi attacked the Koreans, and for
the next eight years plundered and over-
ran the kingdoms of the peninsula, until
finally the people in despair invited the
intervention of China. Some twenty years
later Korea was subjected to a similar
process of plunder by China, and it is said
the country never subsequently recovered
from the effect of these two disasters.
After the death of Hideyoshi, Japan and
Korea enjoyed peaceful intercourse, and
the Tokugawa shoguns, anxious to main-
tain their long-continued peace as the only
means of retaining the shogunate, had an
embassy from Korea come to Kyoto once a
year for a mutual exchange of felicitations.
Owing to impecuniosity, the later shoguns
had the place of meeting transferred to the
island of Tsushima, where the feudal lord
there received the Korean deputies on
behalf of the shogun.
MODERN RELATIONS WITH JAPAN
Thus peaceful relations were maintained
between the two countries until the Restora-
tion of Imperial Power in Japan in 1868,
when an incident occurred which nearly
caused war. The new Japanese Government,
in courteously informing the Government
of Korea of the change that had taken place
in Japan, used certain expressions which
seemed to the Koreans to claim a position
higher than even the Emperor of China.
The Koreans officially refused to receive the
letter containing such claims, and returned
it to those that brought it, with affirmations of
surprise and resentment at what they regarded
as an unwarranted usurpation of power
and dignity. The Japanese authorities were
naturally much displeased at the attitude of
Korea, and had it not been that wiser coun-
sels prevailed, the incident would have led
to hostilities. At that time Japan was not
ready for military adventures abroad, and
so the matter was allowed to drop. The
policy of peace, however, was not approved
by some of the more important Japanese
statesmen, including the famous General
Saigo, who at once resigned from the Govern-
ment and retired to his native place, deter-
mined to overthrow a cabinet which he
regarded as having suffered Japan to be
insulted. This led to the Satsuma Rebellion
some years later, when Saigo commanded a
rising against the Imperial forces and was
finally defeated.
In 1876 the first treaty of amity and com-
merce was signed between Japan and Korea,
in which Korea was referred to as an inde-
pendent kingdom having equal rights with
the Empire of Japan. This was probably
done to remove, if possible, the shadowy
M.\RSH.\L COUNT YOSHIMICHI H.\SEGAWA,
GOVERNOR-GENER.^L OF CHOSEN
claim of China to suzerainty over the penin-
sula. China desired to maintain the fiction
of Korean independence while evading the
responsibility of her alleged protectorate.
Japan was determined to have it either one
way or the other: either China should
assume a formal protectorate and be respon-
sible for Korea, or she should recognise the
complete independence of Korea. Her deter-
mination to do neither finally brought her
into a clash with Japan in 1895. In accord-
ance with the new treaty with Korea, a
Japanese Legation was estabUshed at Seoul
in 1877. For the next five years the relations
with Japan ran smoothly, though anti-
foreign factions in the Korean administra-
tion showed a growing danger which came
to a head when the old army incompetents
were being replaced by modern recruits
under Japanese instructors, the former ris-
ing in mutiny, killing the paymaster of the
forces, and setting fire to the Japanese lega-
tion. The Japanese Minister and his staff
escaped, at last reaching the seacoast with
great hardship, where the party embarked
in a small boat and were finally rescued by
a British gunboat. The father of the Korean
king, to whose intrigues the anti-foreign
policy was due, now resumed office and
enjoyed a temporary restoration of power.
Knowing that Japan would be likely to be
aroused to resent the treatment of her
Minister at Seoul and probably take action,
China despatched General Ma with 4,000
trooijs, supported by a naval squadron, to
Seoul. The leaders of the recent disturb-
ances were taken prisoners, the questionable
elements removed from the government, the
father of the Korean King taken to China
and Yuan Shikai appointed Regent-General
to maintain order and reform the adminis-
tration. The presence of a Chinese official
in Seoul gave cause for offence to those who
desired an independent Korea; and as the
Queen seemed to rely on Yuan Shikai to
strengthen her position against Japan, the
dissatisfied elements turned to the latter for
sympathy. At the close of 1884 a Korean
named Kim Gyokkun led a conspiracy to
annihilate the whole government at a banquet
of the ministers to celebrate the inauguration
of the Korean postal service. The conspir-
ators claim that the Japanese countenanced
the plot, but there is now no way of proving
this. It seems that the plot proved partially
abortive, and in the midst of the distiu-bance
the King of Korea sent to the Japanese
legation for troops to guard his person, two
companies of infantry being despatched.
The palace was besieged by the 4,000
Chinese soldiers under Yuan Shikai, and
against such superior forces the two Japanese
companies could do nothing. The King and
Queen ultimately fled to the Chinese camp,
and the Japanese Legation, followed by the
Japanese residents in Seoul, escaped to
Chemulpo. Much damage was done to
Japanese property and many Japanese lives
were lost. Some of the conspirators took
refuge in Japan, and those unable to escape
were put to death.
Japan was not yet ready to cross swords
with China; and so an agreement was signed
between them in 1885 in which both countries
agreed to withdraw their troops from Korea
on the condition that when the necessity
arose for one of the contracting parties to
despatch troops thither, previous notice
should be given to the other. Thus, while
both parties seemed to be placed on an equal
footing in Korea, the ascendancy really
remained with China, and the arrangement
could not hope for permanence. For the
next ten years Japan and China were con-
stantly at variance over affairs in the penin-
sula. Matters came to a crisis, however, in
1894, when a Korean assassin murdered the
conspirator, Kim Gyokkun, while he was on a
visit from Japan to Shanghai, the murderer
being given honours by the Chinese author-
ities. At the same time China determined to
assert her suzerainty over Korea, despatched
troops to Seoul under pretence of helping the
King to suppress an insurrection, and Japan
adopted a similar measure, nominally to
protect her subjects in the Korean capital.
While negotiations were pending between the
two governments, Captain Togo, now Admi-
ral Count Togo, on July 29, 1894, met a
Chinese transport loaded with troops and
840
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
challenged licr to surrender. Upon refusal to
do so she was sunk, 1,000 out of the 1,200
on board losing their lives. This brought on
the China- Japan War in which the Chinese
suzerainty of Korea ended; but as Russia
soon after took China's place, the problem
of Korea was not yet ended.
THE ANNEXATION OF KOREA BY
JAPAN
By the treaty of Shimonoseki, April 14,
1895, China ceded Formosa to Japan and
recognised the independence of Korea.
Japanese advisers were engaged to reform the
Korean administration, but their work was
rendered difficult by constant political
intrigues, until finally they were dismissed.
Russia now, instead of China, became the
disturbing factor at Seoul. Forcing Japan to
withdraw from the Liaotung Peninsula that
China had agreed to let her occupy, Russia a
few years later leased the same territory her-
self, and from that time war with Japan was
certain. Feeling secure under the wings of a
great country like Russia, the Queen of Korea
engaged in all sorts of intrigues against
Japanese interests, while Russia, both in
Korea and Manchuria, strengthened her
forces and assumed a more menacing attitude
to Japan. Finally a conspiracy was formed
for the assassination of the Queen of Korea,
when the palace was attacked and she was
done to death. The plot was alleged to
have had the sanction of the Japanese
Minister, Viscount Miura, and he was brought
to trial before a Japanese court, charged with
the crime; but the Court found that while he
was a party to it, he did not actually take
part in the murder, and so acquitted him.
This episode turned the Koreans all the more
towards Russia for protection; and thus
matters went from bad to worse until open
conflict broke out between Japan and Russia,
when the peninsula was saved from becoming
a Russian province, as ten years before it was
saved from becoming a province of China.
Even now, had the Koreans possessed the
slightest capacity for self-government, they
might have succeeded in retaining their
independence. Up to this time Japan's
treaties with Korea guaranteed the independ-
ence of the country from foreign aggression
on condition that the Korean Government
take Japan's advice as to administrative
improvements, but after the war with Russia
Japan felt it essential that she should have
control of Korea's foreign relations, for which
purpose she established a residency-general
at Seoul, at the same time pledging herself
to maintain the welfare and dignity of the
Korean Throne. In 1907 the administrative
authority of Korea was transferred to Japan
and the country made a suzerain State. The
GREEN HILL OF KAZAN
Korean Government was to be guided by the
Japanese Resident-General in all matters re-
lating to administrative reform, and obtain
his approval of all laws and measures of im-
portance, as well as receive his consent to the
nomination or dismissal of all high officials
and to appoint to public posts in Korea any
Japanese recommended by him. These con-
ditions went on for three years, during which
Prince Ito, the first Resident-General, and
Viscount Son6, his successor, managed to
carry out an exhaustive reform of affairs in
Korea. But all these reforms were paving
the way for Japan's absorption of the country
into her own Empire. It was evident to
Japan, oven before the death of Prince Ito,
that the office of the residency-general could
only be transitional, and when Count Terau-
chi became resident-general in 1910 he at once
proceeded to bring about the formal annex-
ation of the peninsula to Japan. The coun-
try was then placed under a governor-general
and the royal family given the rank of
princes, with provision for their maintenance.
In taking over Korea, Japan pledged the
extension to the country of all her existing
VIEW OF CHEMULPO HARBOUR
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
841
KWANNON PEAKS,
KONGO-SAN SHISHO-HO (CRYSTAL PEAKS), KONGO-SAN
A VIEW FROM THE TOP OF BANBUTSU-SO, KONGO-SAN
treaties, as far as possible, including all priv-
ileges granted by her to foreign residents in
Japan and protection under Japanese juris-
diction of legally acquired rights of such.
Japan, furthermore, promised to maintain the
existing Korean tariflf for a period of ten
years, and for the same period to continue
maritime trade between Korean and Japanese
ports by vessels of the Powers having treaties
with Japan. The pledge with regard to the
tariff has since been considerably modified,
as will appear under the heading of Trade in
Korea. Perhaps the most remarkable thing
about the annexation of Korea is the myste-
rious acquiescence of the United States, in
the face of her treaty with Korea pledging
the country's independence, and of England,
acquiescing in the extinction of her territo-
rial rights without a word.
Thus Japan's frontier is no longer the
inviolable sea, but now extends far into the
continent of East Asia, and is destined, as
some believe, and as many Japanese desire,
to extend ultimately into China. How Japan
is facing her new responsibilities toward East
Asia is a subject of great international inter-
est. Her foreign policy at present involves
a predominant interest in China, Korea and
Manchuria being used as bases of operation
for a defence of this policy, as well as the
safeguarding of China from foreign aggres-
sion. China, like Korea, is to be allowed to
go her own way and save herself if she can,
but not by the help of any Western nation.
If loss of independence eventually becomes
inevitable, China must look to Japan for help,
as Japan will permit the interference of no
third party. Thus Japan is determined that
if the fate of Korea should befall China, to
Japan rather than to any Western nation
shall be given the jurisdiction over that
country. Japan believes that China in the
hands of any alien Power would threaten
Japan's own independence, and to prevent
this no degree of sacrifice will be too great.
Japan's aims, methods, and the results of
her administration in Korea will now be more
fully discussed.
REFORMS INAUGURATED
From the time that Japan assumed pro-
tective responsibility in Korea after the
conclusion of peace with Russia in 1905, she
began to take the management of Korean
officialdom into her own hands. The Japa-
nese Residency-General was established at
Seoul in 1906 under Prince Ito, and the
various Japanese consulates in Korea virtu-
ally became offices of the new regime. The
numerous treaties and agreements in the
course of Japan's relations with Korea might
be more truly termed proclamations or orders
in council of the Japanese Government, since
the Korean authorities had no choice but to
acquiesce in them. On the score of main-
taining the welfare and dignity of the Royal
House of Korea, one of the first acts of the
Resident-General was to separate the func-
tions of the State and of the Court, since the
chronic conditions of political corruption
with which the Court was infected, influenced
all the government administration. The
palace precincts were rid of the tribes of
fortune-tellers, necromancers, and sorcerers
that infested it and the coterie of disreputable
court ladies scattered. Superfluous offices,
bribes, confiscations and other abuses of
power were abolished. Japanese were placed
842
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
in all important offices to ensure thoroughness
of reform and efficiency of execution.
Needless to say this interference and reform
was anything but acceptable to the Koreans,
especially to the Royal Court, and the King
abdicated in 1907, living in confinement, and
was succeeded by his son. To impress the
public with the beneficent nature of the new
regime and its reforms, the new King and
the Resident-General made a royal progress
throughout the country, bestowing gifts
instead of exacting them, as was the former
custom, while the presence of the King and
Resident-General together on the same mis-
sion was intended to convince the masses
of the acquiescence of the Royal Court in
Japan's policy. The next step was to take
the young Crown Prince away from his
parents and send him to Japan to receive
a modern education, though doubtless the
Koreans at first regarded this act as making
the young prince a hostage for their good
behaviour. The Residency-General now took
over the management of all crown lands, the
matter being transferred to the Finance
Department. Investigations w-ere carried
out as to the legitimacy and adjustment of
royal debts, amounting to more than one
million yen. Considerable expenses were
saved not only by the dismissal of hundreds
of useless court officials but by the reduction
of court ceremonies from 792 to 201 annually.
Investigation and reform mercilessly pro-
ceeded from the royal court down to the
general administration of the State, where
unnecessary or incompetent officials were
dispensed with and the salaries of those
retained raised above the point of former
temptations to bribery. The salaries of all
Japanese officials were made not only higher
than those of natives of the same rank, but
some thirty per cent higher than the same
officials receive in Japan proper, on the score
that it is difficult to get competent officers
to accept office outside the home land.
Gradually the powers with regard to taxation
and jurisdiction of the provincial governors
were transferred to the Central Government
under the Resident-General, and administra-
tive districts were left little local autonomy,
the functions of governors, prefects, and
magistrates being limited to putting into
effect laws, ordinances, and instructions
issued by the Central Government. The
courts of justice, which were largely courts
of corniption and bribery, .were now brought
under the scheme of reform, the regulations
for civil and criminal procedure being entirely
revised and special codes promulgated, with
improvement of prisons. A proper police
force was now for the first time organised,
numbering over 5,000, as well as a force of
gendarmerie for the more distant districts, to
A STREET IN JINSEN (CHEMULPO)
the terror of the local inhabitants. Naturally
the change was unacceptable to large sections
of the population, and rebellion and brig-
andage began to prevail in many places, all
of which was put down with a severe and
relentless hand. Much criticism had been
made regarding this period of the new admin-
istration, especially in respect to its alleged
ruthlessness, but the Japanese deny that
extreme measures were resorted to more than
was necessary. Roads, bridges, and rail-
ways were also included in the scheme of
reform leading up to the annexation of the
peninsula.
MODERN REGIME
After the annexation of Korea the
Resident-General became the Governor-
General, and was invested with power of
almost absolute government over the whole
country. He is in command of the army
and navy under direct control of the Emperor
of Japan, and within the sphere assigned to
him commands the defences of the colony.
ANOTHER STREET SCENE IN JINSEN (CHEMULPO)
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
843
DIAMOND MOUNTAIN SEA, KONGO
The Governor-General also supervises all
the political affairs of Korea and has the
right to appeal to the Emperor for sanction
through the Minister of Home Affairs and
the Premier of Japan. In these duties the
Governor-General has the assistance and
advice of the Director of Political Affairs.
The office of the Governor-General is divided
into five departments: Internal Affairs,
Finance, Agriculture, Commerce and In-
dustry, and Justice, under the management
of directors, councillors, and thirty-six com-
missioners. In addition to numerous tech-
nical experts and clerks, there are officials
of affiliated bureaux connected with the
central council, the railway and the Depart-
ment of Communications.
The whole peninsula is divided into thirteen
prefectures, the governors of which are all
Japanese, except five. The central council
is an advisory body of fifteen, twenty coun-
cillors and thirty-five others, who deliberate
on matters submitted bv the Governor-
General. The members of this body are
appointed by the Imperial cabinet in Tokyo
on the nomination of the Governor-General
from among Koreans who have held minis-
terial office under former governments, but
the president of the council is always the
Director of Political Affairs. The fifteen
official advisers alone have the right of voting
at meetings of the central council.
The former King of Korea now takes the
title His Imperial Highness Prince Yi, and
the son is known as Prince Yi, Junior. The
royal family of Korea receive the same treat-
ment as princes of the blood in Japan, and
an annuity of 1,500,000 yen. Some seventy-
five distinguished Koreans, including five
members of the royal family, have been
granted the rank of peers, making five
marquises, three counts, twenty-two vis-
counts, and forty-five barons, and have been
given lump sums of from 200,000 to 50,000
yen, according to rank.
The peninsula is now garrisoned b}' two
divisions of the Imperial Army, with head-
quarters at Pingyang near the capital, 884
Japanese and 3,130 native police, together
with a large force of gendarmerie, the total
forces being over 14,000, or one policeman to
each six square miles. A new naval station
has been established at Chinghai Bay, where
some 8,000,000 yen in improvements is being
expended.
Korean courts of law come under the
direct control of the Governor-General.
There are eight district courts with 71
branch courts, three courts of appeal and a
supreme court, with 197 judges, of whom 160
are Koreans; 64 public procurators, of whom
54 are Korean ; as well as various clerks and
interpreters. The total number of cases
coming before Korean courts in 1914 was
211,235, of which 17,819 were criminal suits.
The number of convicts in Korean prisons
is 9,474, of whom 534 are females.
That the entire judicial system of the
country should be subject to the Governor-
General is not regarded as conducive to
impartial justice, as apparently unlimited
discretion is allowed to procurators and
police. The most conspicuous example of
what might be regarded as a miscarriage of
justice occurred in 19 15 when 123 men, most
of them Christian pastors and teachers and
students, were arrested and made to implicate
themselves, under torture inflicted by the
poHce, in a conspiracy to assassinate the
Governor-General. On the confessions forced
from them by torture, as they openly testi-
fied in court, 105 of these victims were
sentenced to various terms of penal servitude.
The case was appealed to a higher court,
when the number of convictions were re-
duced to six, which an appeal to the Supreme
Court confirmed. As the six victims finally
condemned were sentenced on the same evi-
dence as those who had been convicted at the
first court and acquitted at the second court,
the judicial system of Korea may be said to
have ignored the charges of torture against
the police and sentenced to penal servitude
six men against whom there was no evidence
of guilt save confessions extorted by torture.
As the victims were mostly Christians the case
attracted the attention of the world. Some
of the foreign missionaries in Korea were
openly accused in court of being accomplices
to the alleged conspiracy, and yet they were
not permitted to take their stand in court
and prov'e their innocence, which was every-
where regarded as a further miscarriage of
justice. It will take some time before the
administration in Korea is able to free itself
from the suspicions thus aroused and to
remove the discredit brought upon it by this
remarkable attitude of its judiciary in the
episode mentioned.
844
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
A great deal of fault is also found with the
practice of keeping the Koreans under a
system of military government, and always
ha\nng the Governor-General an officer of
the army. Exception is taken to the military
system in Korea by even Japanese leaders
of thought themselves, as not likely to win
the confidence of the Korean people who still
see nothing good in their Japanese overlords.
The policy of terror pursued during the early
stages of Japan's regime in Korea has never
been forgotten, and it is only by the greatest
tact and consideration that the people can
be persuaded that their masters mean them
good
AREA AND POPULATION
Bounded on three sides by the sea, Korea
forms one of the largest peninsulas of East
Asia, having an area of about 18,130 square
miles and a coast line extending close upon
1,700 miles, with various islands scattered
here and there, particularly to the southwest.
The official survey of the country is not yet
complete, but the Government is expending
a sum of some 15,000000 yen on it, to be
laid out during a period of seven years.
Towards the north and east the peninsula
is mountainous, the elevations being chiefly
devoid of trees, though the banks of the rivers
Yalu and Tumen have some valuable timber.
The region known as Diamond Mountain is
particularly picturesque, its admirable scen-
ery attracting numerous tourists from year
to year.
The total population of Korea is officially
stated as 17,519,864 in the year 1916, of
which 8,415,913 are females. In addition,
there is a Japanese population of about
300,000, with some 18.000 foreigners, of
whom over 16,000 are Chinese. The annual
births of the peninsula are over 450,000, of
which about 4,500 are still-bom. Deaths
number about 275,000 annually. The annual
number of marriages is 232,000, of which
nearly 10,000 experience divorce annually.
The largest centres of population are Seoul
with about 230,000, and Fusan with over
1 1 1 ,000, none of the other cities reaching
50,000. The Japanese population is fast
increasing in the colony and in a few years
will wield a predominating influence, especial-
ly as the Japanese language is being imposed
on the Koreans.
FORESTS AND FISHERIES
For centuries before Japan's occupation
of Korea no care was taken of forests and
consequently more than 75 per cent of the
forest area of the country has been ruthlessly
destroyed by fire and the axe of the woodman.
Areas properly regarded as forests still cover
some 27,000,000 acres, however, or about 40
per cent of the total area of the country.
The species of tree most important are pine,
birch, oak, and walnut, with others indige-
nous to the Orient. The absence of trees in
the more inhabited portions of Korea, how-
ever, is a tremendous handicap to the prog-
ress of the country, as there is no material
for fire-wood and the construction of houses,
while the general deforestation also injures
agriculture. The Government has estab-
lished a model forestry station and ntu-sery
gardens under supervision of Japanese
experts, and every effort is being made to
replant the bare hills and mountains through-
out the country. A special course in forestry
has been added to the Agricultural and
Industrial Model Station at Suwun, the
graduates from which are employed by the
Government at various forestry stations. A
Bureau of Forestry has been established and
special legislation has been directed toward
the protection of forests, while conditions in
the interest of forests are made upon the
sale or lease of public lands. The custom of
observing Arbour Day has been inaugurated,
which results in the planting of some 15,-
000,000 young trees annually, while the
yearly planting of trees by the Forestry
Bureau amounts to over 35,000,000 more.
The valuable timber forests along the Yalu
FUSAN FISHERIES
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
845
FISH MARKET, FUSAN
River are being carefully exploited by the
Japanese, great quantities of fine trees being
brought to the home market every year.
The Government's timber stations on the
Yalu and the Tumen Rivers command a
forest acreage of about 4,410,000, yielding
more than half a million yens' worth of timber
annually, and over a million yen in value
of sawn lumber. The most important trees
exploited are pine, spruce, white fir, oak,
birch, lime, ash, yew, elm, poplar, and cherry.
The fishing industry of Korea brings a rich
return since the introduction by Japanese
fishermen of methods more skilful than those
previously adopted by the natives. The
latter resorted only to catching fish near the
coast with crude appliances, but now they
vie with the Japanese in deep-sea fishing.
As many as one hundred species of marine
animals are secured for food or to supply raw
material, including fish, shells, and seaweeds
used in the making of gelatine. An official
department deals with the marine products
by way of inspection, research, and pisci-
culture, about 3,000,000 young salmon and
2,000,000 young trout being set free in the
rivers annually. Lobster basins have been
constructed in large numbers and a good deal
of money spent on experimental work. The
13,851 Korean boats in operation have an
annual catch valued at over Yen 6,000,000 in
round numbers, while the 6,01 1 Japanese
boats take fish to the value of Yen 5,500,000,
almost twice the value, per boat, of the native
craft. The main lines of fishing industry are
in cod, guchi, and herring, but sardine,
yellowtail, shark, perch, and whale are also
taken in Korean waters.
AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY
Korea being almost wholly an agricultural
country, farming is naturally the most
important industry. The farms are on a
very small scale and owned mostly by land-
lords. The Government has taken an active
and intelligent interest in agriculture, encour-
aging the utilisation of the waste lands,
estimated to cover some 66 per cent of the
arable area of the country, the existence of
which is attributable to lack of trees and the
ravages of floods in the absence of embank-
ments, drainage, and irrigation. For the
promotion of more intensified agricultural
industry the Government has taken shares in
the Oriental Development Company, a Japa-
nese concern aiming to furnish settlers, farm-
ers, and others in Korea with funds. Reports
that the tendency of the company is to absorb
and exploit lands formerly held by Koreans
are not confirmed by the Japanese author-
ities, but nearly 4,000 Japanese have already
taken up land in Korea, representing an acre-
age of 320,000 and a value of Yen 20,000,000.
The model farms started by the Government
for the promotion of cereal cultivation and
other staple agricultural industries, as well as
the raising of poultry, live stock, and silk,
have done much in this direction, the distribu-
tion of plants and seeds from these stations,
and of agricultural implements and machin-
ery, greatly assisting the ignorant peasantry
towards modern methods of production.
Special attention is being devoted by the
Government to the promotion of sericulture,
liberal subsidies being granted to associations
for this purpose. The progress of the silk
industry may be seen from the fact that
77,000 sheets of eggs in 1910 grew to 203,780
sheets in 1913, whilst the production of
cocoons has nearly trebled and the area of
mulberry plantations more than doubled.
The model farm experiments in the cultiva-
tion of rice, hemp, tobacco, sugar beets, the
raising of cattle and in the chemistry and
bacteriology of agriculture, have all lent
remarkable impetus to these industries. En-
couraging results have also been obtained in
the improvement of fruit trees and vines,
chiefly apple, grape, chestnut, walnut, pear,
persimmon, and peach. Cotton planting in-
creased from 120 acres in 1908 to 63,000 acres
in 1913, the production now being about 50,-
000,000 pounds annually, though of a coarser
fibre than Indian or American cotton. Plans
are being put into operation to increase the
acreage under cotton to 250,000. Ramie and
hemp are also cultivated extensively in vari-
ous provinces. Rice, of course, is the staple
food of Korea, supplemented by wheat, barley,
and red beans. Under Government inspection
of output rice is being brought to a higher
standard, but as yet no more than seven and a
half out of a total production of 750,000,000
bushels is of improved quality. The annual
crop of wheat and barley amounts to about
30,000,000 bushels, beans 16,000,000, and
millet 17,000,000. Upon the yield of beans
much of the Korean farmer's financial condi-
tion depends, as this is one of the most im-
portant exports to Japan, where it is used for
making soy, oil, and soap. At present the
crop reaches only 12 bushels of beans per
acre and the annual value is only some Yen
5,000,000. Tobacco cultivation is carried on
chiefly in the southern districts where, not-
withstanding great improvements introduced
by the authorities, the annual crop is not
worth more than Yen 3,000,000, and does not
begin to meet the domestic demand which con-
sumes some Yen 8,000,000 in value annually.
The growing of ginseng, a medical root highly
valued by the Koreans and Chinese, is a
Government monoply, bringing in some Yen
2,500,000 of revenue every year. Live stock is
raised as a by-product of agriculture, cattle,
horses, goats, and pigs being found everywhere
in the country. Korean cattle are valued for
their size and their beef, and large numbers
are exported to Japan and Russia. Though
efforts have been made at improvement of
breeds no apparent increase has taken place.
In 1913 cattle numbered 1,211,000; horses
50,650; donkeys 13,225; mules 802; pigs
761,186; goats 10,456; fowls about 5,000,000.
When Korea was taken over by Japan
native industries were in rather a primitive
condition. Even ceramics and weaving, in
which Korea at one time had been the teacher
of Japan, were fallen into neglect and decay.
846
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
MARKET AT TAIKVU, THE LARGEST IN CHOSEN
Apart from the little that was done in the way
of weaving, paper making, tanning, knitting,
metal and bamboo work, there were no
special industries to speak of. The Koreans,
however, are very deft with the hands, as
may be seen from their ancient fabrics and
other works of art, and all that is necessary
to improve the industrial output of the penin-
sula is leadership and education. To encour-
age the further development of industry the
Government has established training and
technical schools, printing offices and brick
factories. The principal industries carried
on by Japanese in Korea are rice-cleaning,
iron works, brick and tile making, electric
enterprises, lumbering, brewing, and tanning,
with an annual output valued at some
Yen 28,000,000, employing 17,000 hands, of
whom 13,000 are natives. In 1915 the 13
electric companies in Korea had a capital of
Yen 10,850,000, and were generating 8,100
kilowatts, the largest concern being the Seoul
Electric Company, with a capital of Yen 6,-
000,000, supplying power for street railways
as well as current for illumination. The
total capital invested in enterprises in Korea
in 1915 is shown in table below.
The principal industrial products of Korea
at present are textile fabrics, paper, pottery,
metal ware, manufactured tobacco, brewed
drinks, and leather, most of which are under
Japanese auspices. Few of the native indus-
tries are on a large scale, all being carried on
as subsidiary house industries, and the output
is quite insignificant, and unequal to the
home demand. Under Government encour-
agement some of the notable arts and crafts
that flourished in ancient Korea show some
signs of revival, especially in such lines as
weaving, silk, and paper. Wages in Korea
are very low, being not much more than half
what they are in Japan.
Class
Agricultural companies . . .
Industrial companies
Commercial companies. . .
Transportation companies
Others
Total
Number
Capital
Paid ii>
Yen
Yen
21
14,223,000
12,208,233
42
7,501,300
3,133,728
1 1 1
27.379,520
18,827,465
21
4,086,500
2,025,500
14
2,796,800
2,396,455
209
56,977,120
3«,59i.,S8i
THE ORIENTAL DEVELOP.MENT
COMPANY, LIMITED
The Oriental Development Company was
organised on the twenty-eighth of Decem-
ber, 1908, about two years previous to
the annexation of Korea to the Empire of
Japan, by virture of special laws of Japan
and Korea respectively, with a view to open-
ing up the natiu-al resources of the peninsula
under the auspices of both Governments and
with their cooperation, not only to facilitate
the mutual economic expansions, but also to
promote the welfare of the two countries in
common.
In consideration of the nature and func-
tions of the company, the Government of
Japan has granted to the company a subsidy
of Yen 300,000 per annum, for the period of
eight years since its formation, and also the
privilege of issuing debentures, guaranteed
by the Government to the extent of ten times
the amount of its paid-up capital.
The principal officials of the company were
newly appointed, in October, 19 16, by the
Government as follows: President, Mr. Yeizo
Ishizuka; Administrators, Viscount Naohira
Matsutaira and Messrs. Tsunero Kawakami
and Umekichi Takase; Supervisors, Messrs.
Tokuzo Shima, Gennosuke Fukumoto, and
Chyo-Chintai.
The law regulating the comjiany was also
revised in July, 1917, introducing very
TOYO TAKUSHOKU KABUSHIKI KAISHA (tHE ORIENTAL DEVELOPMENT CO., LTD.): VIEW OF FARM LAND AND RICE FIELDS — LAYING AN
IRRIG.\TION PIPE LINE — TWO VIEWS SHOWING TANGIBLE PROOF OF THE COMPANY'S SUCCESS — THE HEAD OFFICE AT SEOUL
848
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
important modification towards expansion
along the lines of business in kind and degree,
with a view to meeting the needs of the time.
The following are the capitulations of the
general features of the company under the
new regime:
(i). The object of the company is to
engage in development enterprises in Chosen
and foreign countries, such business as fur-
nishing development funds or others, estab-
lishing its head office in Tokyo, and branches
or sub-branches in Seoul, Mukden, and any
other convenient places.
(2). The company carries on the following
business: (a) Furnishing funds necessary for
development; (6) Agriculture, irrigation
works, and the acquisition of, working and
disposition of, lands necessary for develop-
ment; (c) Invitation and distribution of
settlers necessary for development; (d)
Construction, sale or purchase and lease or
rent of buildings necessary for development;
(e) Furnishing settlers or farmers with articles
necessary for development; (/) Working and
managing lands entrusted to the company;
(g) Enterprises necessary for development.
(3). The Government has granted the
immunity to the company, besides the sub-
sidy which was completed in 191 6, exempting
it from all dividends to be made on 60,000
Government shares, for the period of anothei
eight years from and on the first of April, 1917.
The sphere of operations of the company
has been thus far extended beyond Chosen,
covering, at present, the greater part of
South Manchuria and East Mongoha in
China, as well as overseas in the South.
Nevertheless, the centre of the company's
economic activity rests in Chosen, with the
resources of 73,000 hectares of cultivated land
consisting mainly of rice fields, and with the
loans above 10,000,000 yen in total which
were made to farmers. Agricultural and
Industrial Banks, and other public or private
corporations, etc. ; besides the amount of
2,750,000 yen being furnished to 15,000
settlers, of 2,900 families all together, as
the cost of allotted lands and settlement
expenses by the end of the year 191 7. Rec-
lamation and irrigation schemes have been
projected and worked on a large scale,
bringing waste land into cultivation for rice,
the staple product of the Orient. Affor-
estation, including a bamboo plantation, has
also been carried out with much success.
The Seoul branch manages and controls
the business operations in the peninsula,
equipped with sub-branches in several im-
portant localities, under the supervision of
Mr. Kawakami, the Resident Administrator
of Chosen and Director of the Working
Department of the company.
A SCENE IN .\ M.\RKET PL.\CE, SHOWING S.\MPLES OF GR.AIN DISPL.WED IX STR.\W TR.WS
The Mukden and Dairen branches, both
of which were set up quite recently, are
very busily engaged in the lines of business,
especially in the supplying of development
funds, under the supervision of Mr. Takase,
the Resident Administrator in China and
Director of the Banking Department of the
company.
The Tokyo head office superintends the
business affairs of the company in general,
under the presidency of Mr. Ishizuka, aided
by Viscount Matsutaira, the Administrator
in Tokyo and Director of the General Affairs
Department of the company, and by the
two other administrators above mentioned.
The company is now operating with a
capital of 10,000,000 yen, fully paid up,
and with a fund of 37,000,000 yen raised by
debentures in home financial circles and in
Paris. The business conducted by the com-
pany is in a new economic field, and of a
highly complicated nature, yet so efficient
are their methods that they are realising
in a marked degree the special mission for
which they are organised, namely, the devel-
opment of agriculture and industries.
FUJII IN'DUSTRI.\L DEVELOP.MENT CO.,
LIMITED
A GRE.\T deal of the credit for the rapid
growth and improvement of the industries
and the general economic situation of Chosen
is due to the splendid manner in which cer-
tain of the big development and colonisation
companies have taken hold of the problem
of enhancing the natural resources of the
country. An instance of such work is to be
found in the record of the Fujii Kogyo
Kabushiki Kaisha, or Fujii Industrial Devel-
opment Co., Ltd.
This organisation was promoted by Mr.
Kantaro Fujii, who has taken the greatest
interest in the development of Chosen ever
since he has been in the country. Mr.
Fujii has always been specially interested in
the opening up of a large tract of land
which stretches from Ryugamno, near the
mouth of the River Yalu, to Rikaho, via
Jikoho, and this is now the scene of his
company's extensive operations. This area
is known to be fertile, but before it could be
put to any use, the water difficulty had to
be solved, and much embankment and similar
work undertaken. Given a sufficiency of
water for irrigation purposes, the area is
estimated to be capable of producing seven
kokii of unhulled rice per 300 Isuho. Mr.
Fujii took up the question of irrigating this
tract of country. He formed the Rinyeki
Water Utility Association, and had all plans
completed by June, 1911. At this time he
was also the Managing Partner of the Fuji-
moto Goshi Kaisha. Mr. Fujii realised that
as the water difficulty had been met, the
next step was to proceed with throwing the
land open for farm and pasture. In June,
1912, the agricultural quarters of the Fuji-
moto Goshi Kaisha were established at
Zenhoku, and Mr. Fujii then made a close
investigation of the agricultural possibilities
of the area referred to above. Finding it
to be a promising district for the growing of
rice, under proper management, he applied
' / ',
SHIN-BANBUTSUSO, KONGO-SAN — VIEW OF HIHO-BAKU, KONGO-SAN-BANSOTEI (REST HOUSE), BANBUTSUSO, KONGO-SAN — BANSO-DAKI
(fall) in BANBUTSUSO (ROCK OF MYRIAD ASPECTS), KONGO-SAN — KIMENGAN, KONGO-SAN
850
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
FUJII KOGYO KABUSHIKI KAISHA: (LEFT TO RIGHT) ONE OF THE FIRST CROPS — -PORTION OF THE SEA WALL CONSTRUCTED DY THE
COMPANY — PLANTING RICE ON REDEEMED LAND. (LOWER CENTRE) CONSTRUCTION WORK ON
IRRIGATION CANAL — AN IRRIGATION CANAL THE SEA WALL
for and secured a lease from the Govern-
ment General of Chosen of about 21,000,000
tsiibo of land, approximately 17,157 acres.
Work in the direction of irrigating the
tract, constructing embankments, and gener-
ally improving the area was started in June,
1914. It was found that even the pre-
liminary work of constructing the main
embankments along the river called for a
large amount of capital, and the company
was reorganised as a joint -stock concern,
Mr. Fujii being joined in his big undertaking
by Messrs. Ukon of Osaka, and Kawakami
of Yechigo. The name of the concern was
then changed to its present title of the Fujii
Industrial Development Co., Ltd., and the
capital was fixed at Yen 1,000,000. Then
the work of constructing the main embank-
ments was fairly put in hand. This work
called for an extraordinary number of labour-
ers, and it was found that as the embankment
work was greatly affected by the rise and
fall of the tide along the seashore at the
mouth of the River Yalu, dredgers were
required. The Osaka Iron Works, Ltd.,
built two Priestman dredgers for the com-
pany, and on their arrival one was set
up at Seikoko, and the other at Shishito.
Under- this arrangement the work was started
from both ends at once and proceeded toward
the centre. Embankments of a total length of
six and one-half miles were completed, and
a spacious area for rice cultiv-ation was
ready by the end of 1915.
Meanwhile an association called the
Taisho Water LUilisation Association, of
which Mr. Fujii is also the President, pro-
ceeded energetically with the work of supply-
ing water to the reclaimed ground. Still,
the undertaking for both companies was of
such a vast and expansive nature that they
had to apply to the Oriental Development
Co., Ltd., for funds. The application was
granted and the work once more proceeded
with energj', the area controlled by the
Fujii Industrial Development Co., Ltd., now
being well supplied with water, and all
arrangements being completed to make it
available for settlement. The work actually
carried out, or to be completed, comprises
the construction of dykes or embankments
along the seacoast near the mouth of the
River Yalu, to dredge out the shallow swamp
lands and convert them into rice fields or
grass lands; to construct main and sub-
sidiary canals for conveying water to the
fields, and to build roads and other con-
veniences for farmers.
It is planned to cultivate the grass-grown
tracts in 1918, to open up fields in the dredged
portions in 1919, and in 1920 the w-hole of
the remaining portions are to be prepared for
cultivation. The company intends to plant
rice exclusively. Three kinds will be grown,
viz., Sekiyama, Shirahige, and Kameno-o.
It is anticipated that the land will yield about
7 koku per 300 Isubo, and as the net area
available for rice fields is about 10,500,000
Isubo, the yield will be worth, at Yen 5 per
koku, even taking the average at 5 koku per
300 tsubo, Yen 875,000. The project is a
big one, but it is felt that it will prove highly
successful and will amply repay Mr. Fujii
and his supporters for the great enterprise
they have shown.
PRESENT-UAY
IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
851
MINERALS AND MINES
Korea is remarkably rich in minerals,
chiefly gold, iron, graphite, and anthracite,
together with silver, zinc, copper, lead, coal,
and tungsten ore. The gold mines were
formerly exploited chiefly by foreigners,
but since annexation the Japanese have
commenced prospecting and every year shows
increasing in,vestments in gold mining enter-
liriscs. The number of gold mining conces-
sions at the end of 191 3 was 189, exclusive of
placer mines. One of the leading foreign
companies is the Oriental Consolidated
Mining Company, an American corporation
with concessions in the Pyongon district,
working on a capital of 10,000,000 yen and
having an annual output valued at 3,300,000
yen, or 10 yen per ton. Another American
lirm is the Seoul Mining Company, which
takes out ore to the value of 1,500,000
annually. The northern portion of the
])eninsula is richest in mineral deposits.
Since 191 1 an official mineral survey has
been going on and reports are issued to those
interested in mining. In addition to the
minerals already named the reports indicate
possibiUties of chromium, molybdenum,
mercury, mica, asbestos, and talc, as well
as marble and building stone, and also potters'
clay of good quality. Some of the more
important of the Japanese mining firms have
installed metallurgical plant.s, such as the
Mitsu Bishi iron foundry at Kenjiho, the
Kuhara gold-recovery plant at Chinnampo,
the Government reserve plant supplying in
part its Wakamatsu iron works, the works
for iron ore from Sainei and Inritsu in the
Kokai district, and another for ore from
Kaisei owned by the Mitsui firm. The
Meiji Mining Company works the coal
deposits at Anshu, the Furukawa Company
the gold mines of Kijo, the Fujita Company
owns the zinc mines at Neihen, and there
are several other Japanese companies. The
iron ores of Ennyul and Chailong in the
Province of Wanhai average from 52 to 55
per cent iron, with manganese 1 . 70 and
1 . 30 per cent respectively, together with a
little silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus. One
of the most important iron mines is being
worked by the Okura Company at Angaku
on the Talong River. Out of a total of 1,080
mining permits, 612 are in Japanese hands,
369 in Korean, and 51 are joint companies
of Korean and Japanese, the Americans
holding 31 concessions and the British five.
The total output of iron in Korea amounts to
no more than 170,000 tons annually, the
whole of which is taken by the Government
iron works at Wakamatsu in Japan. The
copper mines are chiefly at Kapsan in the
South Hamkyong Province. The principal
company is American, its ores yielding 11
1907
1909
1911
1913
MlNER.\L
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Gold
2,508,197
84,589
7,200
15,528
13,178
4.428
3.109,733
166,164
526,969
4,096
42,385
2,737
327,613
181,574
225,864
4,438,838
12,499
591,618
7,118
38,378
230,210
684
162,988
169,065
539,497
63
5.639,437
Gold ore
74,218
970,205
Silver
18,237
Gold and silver ore
Gold and copper ore
Copper ore
Iron ore
(iranhite - . .
372,063
3,300
216,406
238,920
Coal
574.526
Various
3,100
Total
2,633,120
4,587,135
6,190,958
8,1 10,412
per cent copper. Graphite, discovered in
1906, is of a clayey nature with from 70 to 80
per cent carbon, a minimum of 35 per cent in
scaly graphite and 96 per cent as a maximum.
The quality is inferior to that of Ceylon and
India, but the output is valued at about
200,000 yen a year. The Pyonyang coal
mines are owned by the Government, turning
out an anthracite of from 85 to 90 per cent
carbon to the amount of about 150,000 tons
a year. Mica is now being mined at Tan-
chon. Salt, which for centuries had been
obtained by boiling sea-water, is now made
by evaporating the brine in pans, as a monop-
oly of the Government. The output is about
25,000 tons a year, and there is brisk com-
petition with the cheap salt of China. The
table above shows the important develop-
ment that has taken place on the mining field
in Korea from 1907 up to the date of the
latest available returns.
TRADE AND COMMERCE
Since the annexation of Korea to Japan the
foreign trade of the peninsula has witnessed
considerable expansion, though the balance
of trade will probably remain unfavourable
for many years to come. Up to the time of
the war with Russia the total volume of
Korea's foreign trade did not amount to more
than 20,000,000 yen annually. It increased
rapidly after the war, and in 1910 reached a
total of over 70,000,000 yen, of which 30,000,-
000 yen represented exports. In 1915 the
foreign trade of Korea had grown to 108,691,-
682 yen, of which 49,492,325 yen represented
exports and 59,199,357 imports, an increase of
44 per cent in exports and of about six per
cent in imports, over the previous year. The
excess of imports, however, need not be
regarded so pessimistically as if there were no
compensations .such as an excess of exports in
gold bullion annually amounting to over
10,000,000 yen. The table below indi-
cates the progress of exports and imports
in Korea For fifteen years at intervals of
five years.
The chief exports from Korea, in order of
their value, are rice and beans, which are by
far the largest, amounting to 7,524,879 yen
and 5,215,609 yen in value, respectively, in
1916; and next come hides, which total over
1,000,000 yen. Raw ginned cotton, fish, and
iron ore follow in value, with ginseng, timber,
barley, wheat, live stock, paper.salt, fertilizer,
dried fish, and copper next in order. Among
the principal imports are cotton sheetings,
cotton yarn, grass-cloths, kerosene, sugar,
flours, coal and coke, timber, machinery,
silk piece goods, tobacco, sake, paper, straw
bags, rope, and matting. The remarkable
increase of exports in recent years is due to
rapid development of mineral products,
especially coal, iron ore, and graphite, as well
as in rice, beans, and ginseng under Govern-
ment encouragement.
As to distribution of trade, of course that
with Japan is naturally of first importance, and
that with China of considerable importance,
Asiatic Russia, Great Britain, and the United
States coming next. In 1915 the commod-
ities exported to and imported from Japan
were valued at 40,900,828 yen and 41,535,102
yen, respectively. Those to China equalled
Ye.\r
Exports
Imports
Excess
Imports
Gold Coins and Bullion
Yen
Yen
Yen
Exports
l.M PORTS
1905
1910
1915
7.916,571
19.913,843
49,492,325
32,971.852
39,781,7,56
.59,199.357
25,055,281
19,867,913
9,707.032
5,206,805
8,833,629
11 ,,366,587
500,000
20,111
852
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
5,599,280 yen, and for imports 8,022,188 yen.
Korea's trade with various countries during
the last fifteen j-ears may be seen from the
accompanying table, recorded at intervals
of five years.
Although the import trade with Europe and
America seems on the decline or barely hold-
ing its own, it has to be remembered that only
in recent years has any serious attempt been
made to dififerentiate between the origins of
imports. American and European imports
entering Korea by way of Japan or China
were often credited to the last two countries.
Since 1907, however, the Customs Bureau has
endeavoured to classify returns of trade as
far as possible according to country of origin.
The commerce of Korea as yet affords but
little evidence of that interplay of interna-
tional economic forces seen in all countries
susceptible to the influence of world-wide
industrial and commercial conditions because
they have taken a place in the ranks of
international trade. Each year, however,
renders this reflection more distinct in the
trade of Korea, though the increased tariff
may have some adverse effect on the policy
of the "open door."
1905
1910
1915
Country
E.XPORTS
I.MPORTS
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Vlh
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Y.n
Japan
China..
5,611,925
2,276,693
21,633
6,320
24,041,216
6,463,042
110,772
369,997
15,378,643
3,025,836
1,155.357
24.719
156
12,972
25,348,083
3,845,274
17,970
6,226,524
96,039
488,281
120,976
3,204,668
434,939
40,900,829
5,599,280
2,903,641
12,185
1,823
41.535,102
8,022,188
Asiatic Russia. .
Great Britain . .
France
107,106
4,279,512
69,814
191,034
61,919
3.933.840
998,842
Germanv
Belgium
8,013
1,978,812
United States . .
Other countries
304,867
",293
32,.-523
42,243
Total
7,916,571
32,971,852
19,913,843
39,782,754
49,492,324
59.199.357
MITSUI BUSSAN KAISH.\,
SEOUL
LIMITED,
The great Mitsui Bussan Kaisha is strongly
represented in all departments of commerce
and industrj' in Chosen, its interests ha\'ing
been established there eighteen years ago.
At that time the Korean Government con-
trolled the peninsula, but as the affairs of
state were in a confused condition, there was
practically no control, and Japanese influence
not having yet extended over any large
sphere, there was no guarantee either for the
property or the lives of the Japanese engaged
in business. It may be imagined that com-
merce and industr>' were carried on under
great disabilities, and business transactions
generally were uncertain and at the best of
times, most difficult.
Fortunately the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha
had a strong and capable man as its Chosen
SEOUL PREMISES OF MITSUI BUSSAN K.^ISH.\
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
S53
Manager. This was Mr. Daigoro Kure, who
kept clear of the tide of unrest and political
turmoil, and ap])lying himself to the com-
pany's interests with ardour and fortitude,
established the Seoul business on a sound
basis. Eighteen years have now gone by.
Successive managers have been Messrs. Y.
Koizumi, S. Odagaki, C. Asano and others,
the head of the Chosen business to-day being
Mr. Seizo Takano. Throughout the com-
pany's business career in Seoul, ample capital
and capable staffs, wisely directed by sound
and experienced managers, have developed a
most prosperous business. At the present
time the Mitsui Bussan Kaisha organisation in
Chosen includes despatch offices at Fusan,
Jinsen, Gunsan, Shingishu, and Chinnampo.
Business is being conducted on a large scale,
smoothly and energetically.
The Mitsui Bussan Kaisha does a general
import and export trade and agency business.
Among the principal lines dealt with are:
Mineral ores, fertilizers, cereals, machinery.
timber, cotton yarn and piece goods, coal,
cement, and explosives. There is a shipping
department, and a department for insurance.
The company holds the sole agency for the
Onoda Cement Company, and is also agent
for the Tokyo Marine Insurance Co., Ltd.,
Nobel's E.xplosives Co. (Glasgow, Scotland),
the Dai Nippon Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd.,
and the Oriental Spinning Co., Ltd. The
direction and transaction of the Company's
business operations in Chosen are carried on
by Messrs. N. Kasahara, Y. Amano, T.
Igarashi, K. Nomura, C. Nogami, T. Tejima,
S. Homma, and M. Tanaka, heads of depart-
ments; K. Doki (in charge of the Jinsen office),
T. Kobayashi (chief of the Fusan office), and
.S. Wakimura (chief of the Gunsan office).
TOWNSEND & CO.
The business conducted by this firm is the
oldest established foreign interest in Chosen
(Korea). It was originally founded under
the firm name of Morse, Townsend & Co.,
importers and general agents, and after hav-
ing been in existence for a number of years
prior to 1894, 't became known as Townsend
& Co., the present principal, Mr. W. D. Towns-
end, having purchased the interests of Mr.
Morse. Over a long period of time and
through the many political changes which
have taken i)lace in Korea, the business has
steadily developed, and is now highly success-
ful, the firm's operations being associated
with the most active commercial expansion
of the country. Townsend & Co. were for
many years agents for Korea for the Standard
Oil Company of New York. This agency
was, however, taken over in 1909 when the
Standard Oil Company established their own
offices in Korea.
At present, Townsend & Co. are agents for
the following: Hongkong & Shanghai Bank-
ing Corporation, Nobel's Explosives Co., Ltd.,
Glasgow, British-American Tobacco Co.,
Ltd., Commercial Union .'Vssurance Co., Ltd.,
Hongkong Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., China
TOWNSEND & company: THE PICTURESQUE OLD KORE.\N OFFICE BUILDING .^ND THE FIR.m's ST.\FF
55
854
P R !•: S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PORTION' OF GARAGE AND OFFICE OF J. H. MOKKIS & CO., sEOLL
Traders Insurance Co., Ltd., Oriental Con-
solidated Mining Co., China Sugar Refining
Co., Ltd., The Seoul Mining Company, The
Chiksan Mining Company, the "Glen" Line
of Steanier.s, Pacific Mail Steamship Com-
pany, and the "Prince" Line of Steamers.
Apart from other interests the firm owns a
rice-cleaning mill, which is leased to Japanese.
Mr. W. D. Townsend is a director of the
Chiksan Mining Company, which is conduct-
ing mining operations for both quartz and
placer gold. The firm's Manager is Mr.
J. D. Atkinson.
J. H. MORRIS & CO., SEOUL
There are a number of enterprises, the
directors of which look back with pride to a
long business experience, and rightly regard
themselves as the pioneers in the commercial
development of Japan and its oversea pos-
sessions. Two decades have made great
changes in Japan, and if business men there
may speak of the problems that presented
themselves, what must have been the diffi-
culties encountered in Chosen, when only
to-day is any sign of progress dimly visible?
Work in connection with the Seoul tram-
ways took Mr. J. H. Morris to the country
in 1898, and after completing that work he
remained to install the waterworks system.
Later on Mr. Morris was prominently asso-
ciated with the mining industry, and for
many years enjoyed well merited success.
In 19x4 all Mr. Ivlorris's many years of
hard work went for nothing, as he was de-
frauded by a partner and was practically
ruined. Undismayed by such misfortune he
established the business which he now con-
trols, and that it should have achieved
success so pronounced and gratifying, speaks
volumes for the spirit and enterprise of the
proprietor. The principal lines of business
conducted by J. H. Morris & Co. are dealing
in electrical supplies, lighting installations,
large and small, pumps and mining plant
installations, and automobiles and motor
cycles as a special department. Mr. Morris
is the sole representative in Korea for the
famous Overland Car, and the equally
famous Indian Motor Cycle. A completely
equipped repair and overhaul shop is main-
tained under the supervision of a thoroughly
experienced American mechanic.
Some surprise may be expressed that there
should be such a demand for cars in so new
and undeveloped a country as Chosen, but
what is at once the secret of the success
enjoyed by Mr. Morris, and the great interest
he personally finds in the business, is the
fact that he is creating the demand. The
railway service of the country, as far as it
goes, is excellent, but where the railway does
not go, transportation is furnished ver\'
PRKSENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
^55
largely by means of motor bus service, for
the operation of which various small com-
panies are springing up in all parts of the
country. This scheme originated with Mr.
Morris, as did also the idea of attaching a
fire hose reel to the chassis of a motor car,
for fire-fighting purposes in the city. When
it was found that the improvised fire motor
hose reel could get to the scene of a confla-
gration and be playing on the fire some time
before the old horse reel put in an appearance,
Mr. Morris's contrivance soon found a ready
sale with the municipality. Morris & Co.
also represent the Canadian Pacific Railway
and Canadian Pacific Ocean Services, as
well as the Oliver Typewriter Co.
The offices and warehouse of the firm are
well constructed premises covering an area
of about 660 square feet, the land and build-
ing being the property of Mr. Morris. A
staff of five clekrs is employed. The future
development of the business will not neces-
sarily maintain its present form, though
doubtless cars, pumps, electrical apparatus,
and machinery generally will continue to
be its specialties. Chosen is destined to
become a fertile field for the foreign manu-
facturer, progress and enterprise being now
visible in many directions, and the happy
reputation which Mr. Morris has built up
for himself, particularly in the direction of
overcoming difficulties, should make him a
desirable representative of foreign interests.
KYOYEKI SH.\ TR.MJING CO., I.I.MITEI),
SEOUL
The Kyoyeki vSha Trading Co., Ltd., has
assumed a position of first rate importance in
the general trade of Chosen and Manchuria,
and is rapidly expanding into one of the
biggest concerns in the peninsula. The
business was started in 1908 as a part-
nership between Mr. S. Boku, the present
President, and Mr. K. Nishihara, who acted
as advisor on trade affairs. At that time the
principal line of business was the trade in
cotton and cotton piece goods, the firm acting
as sales agents for the Fuji Gas Spinning Co.,
Ltd.
In 191 5 the private interests of the partner-
ship were transferred to a joint-stock com-
pany which was formed at the instigation of
Mr. Boku, with an initial capital of Yen
500,000, of which Yen 250,000 has been paid
up. Messrs. Ito & Co., the well known
merchant house of Osaka, are the biggest
shareholders, and are considered as the
company's branch in Japan proper. The
principal lines now dealt with arc agricultural
produce such as beans and other cereals,
which are exported to Japan and elsewhere,
and cotton piece goods, and hides and skins.
The company has adojjted a vigourous policy
which will lead to rapid expansion in the near
future, particularly in Manchuria, where a
special trade is to be opened up with the
products of the Fuji Gas Spinning Co., Ltd.,
and of the Kanegafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd.,
with which the Kyoyeki Sha is closely con-
nected. A small steamer owned by the
company is now plying regularly between
Fusan and Osaka, carrying goods for account
of the concern.
The head offices of the Kyoyeki Sha Trad-
ing Co., Ltd., are situated right in the centre
of Seoul and occupy an area of 280 Isubo.
The building is a modern red brick structure,
with spacious godowns attached. Special
arrangements have been completed for han-
dling raw hides, which are to be exported
principally to Italy. These are branches
of the business at Harbin, Changchun,
Mukden, Chemulph, Gensan, Joshin, Fusan,
and Antung. Employees number about 150.
Mr. S. Boku is the Chairman of the board
of Directors. Other principal officers are:
Messrs. S. Tanaka (Managing Director),
PREMISES OF KYOYEKI SH,\ TR.\DING CO., UTD., SEOCl,
8.S6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
CONNECTING STEAMER OF CHOSEN RAILWAYS AT FUSAN PIER
Messrs. C. Ito, J. Sai, and K. Tsutsui
(Directors), Messrs. K. Sai, G. Kin, and
S. Cho (Auditors), Mr. T. Takenaka
(Manager), and Mr. K, Nishiliara (Adviser).
For the year ended January 26, 1917, the
Kyoyeki Sha Trading Co., Ltd. realised a
profit of 10 per cent, but it is confidently
expected that the next dividend will be 18
per cent. In the 1917 balance sheet the
assets were shown as Yen 2,227,592, the
profit available for distribution then being
Yen 59,741,80. Of this sum Yen 25,000
was placed to reserve funds, a bonus of Yen
6,000 was awarded, Yen 25000 was dis-
tributed in dividends, and the balance was
carried forward. The head office of the
company is at No. 13, Nandaimon-dori.
Nichomc, Seoul.
SUZUKI & CO., SEOUL
The Seoul branch of this famovis Japanese
firm was established in 191 5 by the present
manager, Mr. Koyama, under whose juris-
diction come also the other branches in
Chosen, viz., Fusan, Chinnampo, and Gensan,
and also the firm's, pulp mill at Kuppo and
the cotton mill at Taikyu.
The offices of Messrs. Suzuki & Co. are
located in the centre of the business district
of Seoul, and attached to them are commodi-
ous godowns, etc. A vigourous policy of
expansion is being pursued and in this con-
nection the visitor to Fusan will notice that
there the firm has under construction fine
new buildings in which the handling of cargoes
at the port will be greatly facilitated. Messrs.
vSuzuki & Co. conducted a general merchan-
dise and agency business. Their principal
lines are cotton, matches, caustic soda, and
beer, the firm having the sole agency for the
Imperial Beer Co. of Shimonoseki. They
are also agents for the Dai Nippon Salt Co.,
the Kanto Sanso Chemical Company (which
is dealt with fully, elsewhere in this volume),
the Oriental Marine Insurance Company,
and the Hohden Oil Company. Some idea
of the extent of the operations of the cotton
mill which the firm owns at Taikyu
may be gathered from the fact that supplies
of raw cotton to the annual value of Yen
1,500,000 are required to maintain it in
operation.
In the mining industry of Chosen, Messrs.
Suzuki & Co. are also prominent operators.
They own an ore selecting and treatment
plant at Rorvoshin, near Seoul. A specially
constructed compound which covers 20,000
Isiibo and cost over Yen 200,000 is utilised
for the selection of the various grades of ore.
At these works the firm handles over 1,500
Year
Mileage
Passengers
Carried
Fares
Goods
Carried
Revenue
Yen
Tuns
Yen
1912
1913
1914
1915
igi6
767.48
836.40
966.55
99342
1 ,006.40
2,429,687
4,399,022
4,995,441
4,768,251
5,040,471
2,508,111
3,257,726
3,494,097
3,308,130
3,562,620
1,063,111
1,105,362
1,388,915
1,386,614
1,656,640
1,937,429
2,083,462
2,356,172
2,553,623
3,122,680
Money Orders and Savings Banks
Issued
Paid
Item
NUMHER
Amount
Number
A.M(.IUNT
Yen
Yen
Domestic orders. .
1,434,705
2,090
870,75'
31,636,622
62,705
8,045,265
926,187
2,546
26,068,669
Foreign orders . .
I ■i7,o6o
Savings deposits. ... ...
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
857
Account
1914
1915
1916
1917
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Ordinary Revenue:
Taxes
Land Tax
Rural House Tax
L'rban House Tax . .
Liquor Tax.
'J'ol^acco Tax
Mining Tax
Customs Duties
Tonnage Dues . . -
Income Tax
13,903,623
''.979,730
761.141
156, 026
444.925
379,957
24(),C),S2
4,.So6,673
86,773
16,685,250
10,100,940
781,118
209,350
477,020
740,419
365,102
3,893,064
87,412
17,121,1 16
9,838,760
737,789
198,227
408,719
900,448
270,437
4,641,837
91,708
16,684,928
9,899,377
777,282
222,195
693,286
813,726
290,224
3,721,762
78,190
161,9^2
Miscellaneous Taxes
Stamp Receipts . .
State Lands
Government Enterprises and l'ri>i)erlv.
Waterworks
Government Printing Bureau ....
Pyengyang Mining Station
Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone
Services
Railway Receipts
Other Receipts
Miscellaneous Receipts
3'N,4'6
1,718,680
1,171,304
Li,940,934
311,495
319,206
•'<65,322
3,135,867
7,851,626
613,002
1,457,418
30,824
1,857,915
1,549,266
14,749,791
352,069
345,984
1,299,929
3,149,588
7,734,260
850,116
1,867,961
33,191
1,715,923
1,521,423
18,616,671
460,566
413,465
1,432,410
3.738,021
10,177,059
801,586
2,395,150
26,954
2,402,787
1,520.857
20,098,385
436,655
387,200
1 ,460,960
3,738,060
10,149,039
854,669
3,926,471
Extraordinary:
Sales of State Property
Loans Received
Loans for Public Works . . .
297,165
1 1,103,112
10,000,000
10,345,669
75,548
7,640,871
8,634,327
10,585,000
National Treasury Grant. ,
Surplus of Preceding Year
9,000,000
9,639,004
8,000,000
2,149,451
7,000,000
702,372
Ordinary Expenditure:
Korean Royal Family
Government-General
Courts and Prisons . .
Police Expenses
Local Administration
Pyengyang Mining Station
Communications
Railway Expenses
Interest on Loans
Reserve Fund
1,500,000
2,824,216
2,486,790
3,266,483
4,033,258
524,096
755,644
3,347,54"
6,282,341
2„568,7,V5
.1,101,122
1,500,000
2,982,907
2,455,449
3,370,374
4 103,505
553,720
779,588
3,570,300
6,500,119
4.751,910
1,500,000
3,245,279
2,588,022
3,317,076
4,166,475
592,673
775,692
3,685,168
7,718,726
3,894,183
1 ,000,000
4,310,871
1,500,00"
3,300,673
2,724,269
3,314,472
4,273,901
595,573
785,751
3,775,843
7,690,455
5,01 1,606
1 ,000,000
Other Expenses .
1,709,878
3,100,612
Extraordinary ;
392,795
1,103,966
2,466,074
2,729,034
106,975
1,267,256
4,670,071
8.469,387
558,706
245,884
1,102,827
3,074,939
3,283,528
780,000
1,324,651
4,227,592
7,321,953
1,460,711
237,222
1,104,429
3,596,903
3,216,156
64,000
1,398,636
3,237,034
7,580,000
1,644,858
232,59"
Assistant Gendarmes. .
Cadastral Surveys. . .
Subsidies. .
Grants
1,104,429
3,785,164
3,050,608
64,000
1,084,087
Public Works
3,202,512
RniKvav Construction etc
8,390,000
Ollit'i* KxDcnses
1,862,453
Ions of ore per month. The degree of con-
fidence which Messrs. Suzuki & Co. enjoy is
evidenced by the fact that they have been
appointed wholesale agents for cereals,
grain, and other products, acting on behalf
of the Government General of Chosen.
Their godown at Chinnampo covers i.,500
tsubc.
Mr. Koyama, tlie Manager for the firm
at Seoul, has been in the service of Messrs.
Suzuki & Co. for many years, and the Chosen
business is showing gratifying progress
under his management.
COMMUNICATIONS
The first railway in Korea was the line
between Inchyong and Seoul opened in 1900;
the line from Seoul to Fusan was completed
in 1904, and to Wiju in 1906. These lines,
started under private companies, were pur-
chased by the Government in 1906 at a cost
of 20,084,537 yen. The extension from
Seoul to the Yalu River, a distance of 585
miles, was begun, and, together with the
branches to Wasan and Kinjipho, was com-
pleted during the war with Russia. In 191 1
the magnificent bridge over the Yalu River,
3,098 feet long, was fini.shed at a cost of
1,500,000 yen; and now the whole length of
the peninsula is traversed by a great trunk
line connecting Fusan in the south with
Antung on the right bank of the Yalu in the
north, the total length, including branches,
reaching 1,006.5' miles. Branch lines run
from Yongdupho on the Seoul-Fusan route
to the port of Inchyong, from Samrangjin
to Masampo, from Hoangjin on the Seoul-
Wiju line to Kenjipho, from Pyengyang to
Chinnampo, from Thaijon to Mokpho, known
as the Honan line, which is 175 miles long,
with a sub-branch from Liri to Kansan, com-
pleted in 1914. The Seoul-Wonsan line, 138
miles long, runs from Yongsan to Wonsan,
and was also completed in 1914, while the
Hamgyong line, a branch of the Wonsan-
Yongheng section, has recently been opened
for traflfie. The main line traversing Korea
is broad gauge and provided with the latest
equipment in rolling stock, having finer trains
than are to be seen in Japan proper. This
line now forms the shortest and most com-
fortable route between Europe and East
Asia. The Railway Bureau has good hotels
••It Fusan and Wiju, whilst at Seoul the
Chosen Hotel is one of the finest in the Far
East. The picturesque tourist resort known
as Diamond Mountain is well provided
with hotels. About 130,000,000 yen has
been expended by Japan in the iinprovement
and extension of railways in Korea The
first table on the preceding page shows the
expansion of railways and traffic in Korea
during five recent years.
' ^H B H aH"
4-
a.
«d?
BANK OF chosen: THE SF.Oin, PEE\fISES TIIF B WKTNr; CHA^rnER — A RErEPTION ROOM
PRKSENT-DA^- IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
859
MR. S. MINOBE, PRESIDENT ANIJ DIRECTOR
OF THE BANK OK CHOSEN
Much has also Ijcen done to improve
communications b)- the extension and con-
struction of highways in the peninsula, over
12,000 miles being so effected in the last
five years, but the progress of tramways is
yet remarkably slow.
In regard to posts, telegraphs, and tele-
phones the same principles of progress have
been pursued as in the case of railways,
though no very definite statistics arc avail-
able. The following are the official figures
for the year 1916: Number of post offices,
MR. T. MlslllMA, UIKI-XIOR OF THE BANK
OF CHOSEN
.Si(>; miles of route, 19,730; letters and
papers, 177,816,121; parcels handled, 2,677, -
901 ; telegraph offices, 590; length of lines,
4,914 miles; length of wires, 13,760 miles;
number of messages annually, 4,691,693;
number of telephones, 494; length of lines,
2,875 niiles; length of wires, 21,350; number
of messages, 39,344,905.
Considerable work has been done in the way
ijf improving rivers and harbours in Korea,
])rincipaUy at Pusan, Jinsen, Heijo, and
C'hinnampo. The tonnage of vessels entering
Korean ports has increased from 2,000,624
in 1905, with 9,949 ships, to 4,076,983 in
1913, with 9,980 ships, of which 4,187 were
steamers representing an aggregate tonnage
of 3,942,120.
FINANCE AND BANKING
Previous to Japan's assumption of her
protectorate over Korea in 1907 the finances
of the country were in rather a deplorable
condition, extravagance and inefficiency being
as prominent features of the fiscal as they
were of the Government administration
generally. A financial adviser from Japan
had been engaged by the Korean authorities
in 1904, opening a way for economic adjust-
ment, but his advice was not wholly adopted.
After 1910 a radical transformation of the
country's fiscal system was inaugurated and
some attempt was made to balance revenue
and expenditure. To enable the Korean
Government to meet the deficit in its budget
the Government of Japan, previous to annex-
ation in 1910, advanced the sum of 104,000,-
000 yen from the Imperial Treasury, of which
14,200,000 yen was in the shape of loans free
of interest.
The most of this loan was expended on
the reformation of the judicial system of the
kingdom. After annexation the ordinary
expenditure of the country was met by ordi-
nary revenue, extraordinary outlay, such as
expenses for military forces, railway exten-
sion and so on, being covered by loans or
grants from the Imperial Treasury. These
advances amounted to 12,350,000 yen in
191 1 and 1912, to 10,000,000 yen in 1913,
9,000,000 yen in 1914, and 8,000,000 yen
in 1915.
Japan's policy is to have Korea independ-
ent financially by the year 1919. The
Iiossibility of realising this ambition is
indicated by the fact that every year since
annexation of the peninsula has witnessed
an increase of revenue, while the initial
expenses of the new administration may lie
expected to decrease with time. In 1907
the total revenue was only about 17,000,000
yen. Two years later it arose to 29,000,000
yen, including some advances from the
Imperial Treasury, In 1912 the revenue
MH. V. KIMIRA, DIRECTOR OF THE BANK
OF CHOSEN
increased to 52,000,000 yen, and it is now
over 59,000,000 yen. Revenue and expendi-
ture from 19 1 4 will be seen from the tables
on a preceding page.
It is apparent from the above tables that
a considerable proportion of the revenue
comes from taxes, duties, and Government
undertakings, while a large amount of the
expenses is on the development and improve-
ment of the resources of the country, such
as railways, riparian work, and agriculture.
MR. S. OHTA, DIRECTOR OF THE BANK
OF CHOSEN
860
PRESENT-DAY
I>[PRESSIONS OF
j A P A N
The financial condition of the country is
undoubtedly improving under the new regime.
The national debt of Korea, incurred mostly
for purposes of financial adjustment, and for
internal improvements, now totals 65.657,000
yen.
BANKING AND CURRENCY
Up to the year 1904 Korea had no banks
of its own, but the First Bank of Tokyo,
which opened an office in Seoul in 1878,
received from the Government of Korea
and the Home Government permission to
issue convertible notes, and in 1905 it was
authorised to perform the functions of a
central bank. As a result of the country's
financial expansion, however, it soon became
necessary to provide more extensive facilities,
and steps were taken in August, 1909, to
establish the Bank of Korea, to be the mone-
taryorganof the peninsula. In the November
following, the new bank took over the duties
formerly devolving on the First Bank. The
Bank of Korea opened with a capital of
10,000,000 yen, and a loan of 1.230,000 yen
from the Government, and established branch
offices at fifteen places of importance. After
the annexation of the peninsula the name of
this bank was changed to the Bank of
Chosen. While performing all the functions
of a central bank, the Bank of Chosen
carries on a regular banking business, and
has branches in Tokyo, Mukden, Dairen,
Chengchun and other parts of China. In
1906 regulations for the inauguration of
agricultural and industrial banks were
brought into operation, and such banks
were established in various important places,
their business being to make long-term loans
for the promotion of agriculture and indvistry,
at the same time carrying on ordinary bank-
ing business. Owing to the increased demand
for economic facilities the agricultural and
industrial banks were later amalgamated,
greatly aiding the circulation of capital.
In 1915 the number of head offices of such
banks was six, with a total capital of 4,059,-
980 yen, including loans from the Govern-
ment amounting to some 330,000 yen. After
the financial adjustment of 1904 the only
ordinary- banks in Korea were the Ten-ichi
and the Haisong banks, which, with inade-
quate capital and defective administration,
were on the point of bankruptcy. But the
Government recognising the need of banks,
appointed Japanese managers and advanced
capital to the banks, improving their pros-
pects greatly. In 1906 several Korean
financiers united in organising the Kan-ichi
Bank in Seoul, independently of Government
assistance. Japanese ordinary banks in
Korea are the First Bank, the Eighteenth
Bank, the One Hundred and Third Bank,
the Suwo Bank, the Mitsuyo, and the
Shichisei Bank. In addition to the banks
indicated there are numerous local monetary
circulation associations for the purpose of
facilitating the circulation of money among
the agricultural classes and promoting their
economic development. Members of these
associations must be persons who have re-
sided not less than one year within the dis-
trict and are engaged in agricultural pursuits
and earning an independent livelihood there-
by. Each association has a fund of 10,000
yen granted by the Government, and this,
together with deposits, loans, and contribu-
tions of its members, is employed in accom-
modating farmers who wish to purchase seed,
manure, and agricultural implements. The
associations also act as agents to receive
deposits for banks The number of thcsc'
associations at the end of 1915 was 240, with
an aggregate membership of 69,279, contri-
buting 849,490 5-en, possessing reserves of
5,'?i,859 yen, deposits of 277 124 yen, advanc-
ing 2,095,141 yen in loans, and as agents
of banks receiving 269,023 yen.
Through the long years of Korean history
the coinage system of the country underwent
many changes, and after annexation the old
system was suspended with a view to uni-
fication of Korean coinage with that of
Japan. The current subsidiary coins of
Korea were withdrawn from circulation as
they came into the hands of the Government
and sent to the mint to be melted down, until
they were gradually replaced by the sub-
sidiary coins of the Empire. To promote the
process of replacing native by Japanese coins,
some 500,000 yen in small coins was sent
from the National Treasury to the Bank of
Chosen, and thence distributed among the
agricultural and industrial banks and the
monetary associations. At the end of 19 15
current coins circulating in Korea amounted
to 4,757,121 yen in Japanese currency, and
1,809,909 yen in old Korean currency, while
the banknote circulation of the Bank of
Chosen reached 34,387,520 yen, the capital
now standing at Yon 20,000,000.
THE BANK OF CHOSEN, SEOUL
It would be almost impossible, in any
effective survey of the commercial, industrial,
or general economic development of the
territory of Chosen, to exaggerate the vitalh-
important part which has been played by
the Bank of Chosen. This institution may
be fairly described as the State or National
Bank of; this portion of the Japanese Empire.
It is not only a Government-controlled bank,
l^iut its sphere of influence and its general
policy are at once wider, and depart more
sharply from the common performance of
the functions of banking, than those of any
.MR. CHO CHIN r.\I, I'KEslUENT OF CHOSEN
COMMERCIAL B.\NK, LTD.
other bank operating in the peninsula or
contiguous territory. Tlie Bank of Chosen
is to that country what the Bank of Japan
is to Japan proper
As it stands to-day the institution under
review is the matured development of a clear-
sighted policy which was laid down many
years ago, and which has been pursued
undeviatingly. Prior to the formal estab-
lishment of the bank, functions of a central
bank in the old independent Korea were
performed by the Seoul branch of the Dai
Ichi Ginko, a famous Japanese bank. The
Dai Ichi Ginko under Government super-
vision issued bank notes, undertook currency
reform, handled Treasury money, and
rendered various other services required by
the Government. In 1907 a treaty was
concluded between Korea and Japan whereby
Japanese officials were taken into the ser\dce
of the Korean Government. Reforms were
introduced in the general administration of
affairs, and a great expansion of the financial
and economic power of the country was
witnessed. It was then that the need for a
regularly organised central bank was most
acutely felt. The idea found expression in
an arrangement entered into first between the
Dai Ichi Ginko and the Korean Government,
and later in negotiations between the Korean
and Japanese Governments. The outcome
of these negotiations was the passing of the
Bank of Korea Act, while all the business
pertaining to the establishment of the pro-
posed institution was left to the Government
of Japan. In August, 1909, a committee to
P R !<: S E N T - n A V IMPRESSIONS O I" JAPAN
86i
undertake the organisation of the Bank of
Korea was appointed l^y the Japanese (jovern-
nu'nt, and ineluded the Governor of the Bank
of Japan and the Viee-Minister of Finance
for Korea. In the same month sliares were
issued for pubhe subseription. The result
was something extraordinary, for though the
appHeation list was to have been open for
seven days, it had to be closed at one o'clock
p. M. on the first day it was opened, the public
lodging applications for 20,352,374 shares, as
against the 69,600 which were to be allotted.
Shares were finally distributed to the appli-
cants pro rata to their applications, the
Japanese and Korean Imperial Households
each receiving i ,000 sliares.
With the coming into existence of the Bank
of Korea all the branches of the Dai IchiGinko
in Korea and Manchuria, as well as its busi-
ness and personnel, witli the exception of
those in Seoul and Fusan, were transferred to
the new institution, which consequently
started operations with thirteen branch
offices, a going business, and a well trained
staff. A year later Korea was annexed to
Japan, and the bank was renamed the Bank
of Chosen, new legislation being framed to
accomplish this change and to legalise all
transactions that had been entered upon
under the old regime. In the year of annexa-
tion, 1910, the total trade of Chosen was
valued at Yen 59,696,599. In 1916 the trade
had risen to a value of Yen 131,258,739. In
19 10 Chosen had only 145 companies with a
paid-up capita! of Yen 10,230,903, whereas
in 1916 there were 222 companies with a paid-
up capital of Yen 44,014,410. In the same
period l)ank deposits expanded from Yen
I**i355>670 to Yen 43,716,741, and advances
from Yen 30,691,677 to Yen 70,456,738.
These figures, though not of impressive
magnitude, nevertheless indicate a vigourous
development in the economic condition of
Chosen, and they suggest what an important
Ijart has been filled by an institution of a
semi-governmental nature like the Bank of
Chosen. When the bank came into existence
the work of coinage reform was going on, and
the Bank of Chosen had to complete it,
besides undertaking the financing of the needs
of the Government and of the various munici-
palities in the direction of carrrying out public
works. New enterprises were springing up,
and the most worthy of them were accom-
modated with funds. The financial problem
in the first few years was not by any means a
simple one, and frequently owing to economic
depressions and other causes the directorate
Iind to face most anxious situations. How-
ever, in course of time, the industrial develop-
ment of the country established a balance of
trade more favourable to banking generally,
and the anxious period was over.
At this stage the Bank of Chosen turned
its attention to Manchuria, where it has
carried out the same policy which had proved
successful in Chosen. Branches were estab-
lished in the important centres, and a general
banking business was entered upon. Mone-
tary conditions in Manchuria were not
FINE SEOUL PKEMISES OF CHOSEN COMMERCIAL B.\NK, LTD.
satisfactory, but the Bank of Chosen has
rectified a good deal of the trouble by encour-
aging the circulation of gold notes, and
fractional notes to provide the country with
subsidiary monies on a gold basis. It is
interesting to note that more recently in
Japan proper this practice has been followed
to reheve the shortage of small money, due to
the high price of silver. The Bank of Chosen
has also estaljlished branches in Japan proper,
and as a member of the syndicate of large
banks it has taken part in all the great loans
of national importance that have been floated
of recent years. Moreover, the bank has
taken its place in international finance, now
having a foreign department at the head
ofiice. All this has resulted in an enlarge-
ment of business, and a consequent demand
for more capital. This situation was met at
the general meeting of shareholders in
Februar)', 1917, when the directors' proposal
to increase the capital from Yen 10,000,000
to Yen 20,000,000 was passed unanimously.
The prestige which the Bank of Chosen has
won was again demonstrated when the new
shares, offered at a premium, were over-
subscribed for three times.
It is hardly necessary to go into details of
the bank's operations. What has been
written will convey a general idea of the
organisation, stability, and influence of the
institution. The directorate is a very care-
fully chosen body of men. The Governor is
appointed by the Government of Japan, and
the directors are appointed by the Governor-
General of Chosen from among twice their
number nominated at a general meeting of the
shareholders. These officials at present are:
Governor, Mr. S. Minobe; Directors, Messrs.
T. Mishima, Y. Kimura, and S. Ohta;
Auditors, Messrs. C. Ito and K. Hattori.
As the State Bank of Chosen it will be of
interest to say that in 19 16 the Bank of
Chosen handled Government funds to the
total of Yen 710,934,502. Financially the
institution has been a pronounced success.
A dividend of seven per cent has been paid
for the past three years, and the reserves
total well over Yen 1,500,000, a result which
must be considered satisfactory in view of the
short while the bank has been in existence.
Branches of the Bank of Chosen exist at
the following centres: Chosen — Seoul (head
office), Chemulpo, Pyeng-Yang, Wonson,
Taiku. Chinnampo, Mokpo, Kunsan, Masan,
Fusan, Ranam, Shinwiju, and Hoilyong.
Manchuria — Antung, Mukden, Tiehling,
Liaoyang, Port Arthur, Dairen, Changchun,
Szupingchieh, Kaiyuan, Harbin, Yingkow
(Newchwang), Fuchiatien, Yongchongchon,
and Kirin. Japan — Tokyo, Osaka, and
Kobe. (See also pages 109, 814, and 837.)
862
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF J A I' AN
A VIEW OF KEIJO (SEOUL), NEAR THE CHOSEN HOTEL
CHOSEN COMMERCIAL BANK, LIMITED
This institution claims the distinction of
being the oldest bank established in Korea.
It was founded in 1899, and was originally
known as the Taikan Tcn-ichi Bank, Limited.
The bank was given the privilege of issuing
convertible currency, and for some years
enjoyed considerable prosperity. Later on,
however, when the general conditions of the
countrv led to the complete dislocation of
business and induced a panic, the Taikan
Ten-ichi Bank was compelled to close its
doors during a period of reconstruction. On
reopening the bank applied for and obtained
a Government loan, and a Japanese banker
was appointed on the recommendation of the
Government, to manage affairs. Thereafter a
progressive policy was followed, aimed at es-
tablishing banking business on a sound basis.
After the annexation of Korea by Japan,
the name of the institution was altered to the
Chosen Commercial Bank, Limited, and
besides ordinary banking business the bank
constructed godowns and is now doing a
large and flourishing business in this class
of investment. In April, 1917, the capital
w-as increased to Yen 1,000,000, but this
amount still being inadequate for the bank's
transactions, it is now proposed to raise the
capital to Yen 5,000,000. The Chosen Com-
mercial Bank, Limited, is fulfilling many im-
portant functions in connection with the
commerce and industry of the country.
It is under Government protection and
supervision and is a stable institution. Mr.
Cho Chin Tai, the President of the l)ank,
is at the head of Korean business men, and is
prominently associated as a director, or in
other capacities, with several other banks and
companies. It is due to Mr. Cho that a
great deal of the prosperity witnessed in
Chosen to-daj' has been realised.
EDUCATION
Prior to Japan's protectorate and final
annexation of Korea, there was very little
in the way of systematic education in the
country. Village school masters taught
Korean boys domestic etiquette, writing andl
reading of Chinese ideographs, while the]
more intelligent classes sent their sons toj
complete their education in Chinese classicsl
at the Confucian school in Seoul. The only
education worthy of the name was that
received in the mission schools kept by
foreigners who brought with them some
principles of educational reform, but until
the inauguration of common schools and
normal training colleges by the Japanese,
education was never looked upon as a matter
BRASS BOWLS 1-OK S.\LE IN TllE MARKET PL.\CE
^^
SCENES IN KEIJO (SEOUL): SHOKO STREET— NANDAIMON STREET KOKAMON STREET
864
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS
O V
A I' A N
CHOSEN HOTEL, SEOUL
of public interest. The reform of education
among a subject population, as suspiciously
inclined as the Koreans, has been no easy
task: and the progress of the new system
has not been made easier, if not rendered
futile, by the Government's insistence on
all instruction being given in the Japanese
language, whicli, of course, none of the
children understand. The amount of in-
struction given depends, therefore, on the
ability of the teacher to make himself under-
sttind through translation, as well as on the
progress of the pupils in the imposed language.
This imposition of a foreign language on the
native population to the extent of making
the education of the rising generation depend
on acquiring it, represents a more vigourous
policy than was adopted by the ancient
Romans on their subject peoples. Not only
so, but the regulations with regard to edu-
cation seem to be aimed at depriving mission
schools of the right to educate Korean
children, for they are forbidden to use their
school buildings for the teaching of religion,
the very purpose for which the buildings
were erected. In fact, no school is permitted
at all unless it conforms strictly to Govern-
ment regulations. This placing of all private
schools under the administrative control of
the Government-General is a great handicap
to missionary work as well as to education,
crippling, as it does, the five hundred mission
schools of the peninsula, and is evidently
based on the official conviction that foreign
schools do not hasten Korean subserviency
to Japanese rule.
Under the new regulations for the reform
of education in Korea, primary schools were
completely reorganised, a modern Japanese
normal school replaced the old Hansong
normal school founded in 1895, the High
School of Hansong became a Middle School,
the Japanese Language School of Pyongyang
became a High School, and a foreign language
school was created in 1906. Schools for the
blind, a law school, three girls' higher schools,
several industrial and commercial schools,
were in operation by the year 1913, when the
Seoul Academy was also reorganised. Be-
sides the above mentioned Government
institutions, some 1,200 private schools still
flourish, including village schools. Medical
education, too, has made some progress, the
training school having 140 students and 39
Japanese instructors. Public elementary
schools, as well as higher schools for Japanese
children, have also been organised to the
number of some 315, with 1,223 teachers
and about 35,000 pupils, while Government
schools number 487, with 2,345 teachers and
67,367 pupils.
Expenditure on education in Korea is
over Yen 1,500,000 annually. The Govern-
ment provides the school books, which are
lompiled with a view to making the Koreans
loyal citizens of Japan, and therefore not
very popular. Special attention is devoted
lo medical education, as it has been obvious
to the Government that through hospitals
the foreign missionaries exercise a most
potent influence over the Koreans. Conse-
(juently the authorities have started labora-
tories, isolation hospitals, and means for the
prevention of disease and the promotion of
hygiene. Hospitals now number more than
18, with some 480 physicians, and more than
400,000 patients are treated annually.
Inspection of meat, street sanitation, and
improved water systems for cities have been
inaugurated, and everything possible done to
remove the causes of ill health.
In Korea, as in Japan, all faiths are free
and equal, but the Government's deter-
mination to separate religion and education
is much more stem than at home. The
cult of Confucianism finds favour mostly
among the upper classes, as in Japan; while
Buddhism is more popular among the
common people. Between the two comes
Christianity, which is increasingly popular
among all classes. The French Roman
Catholic Mission was the first to invade
Korea, arriving as early as 1836, Protestant
missionaries not appearing until 1884. The
missions of the American Presbyterian and
Methodist churches are the most progressive,
followed by the Methodists and Presbyterians
of Canada and Australia and the Cluu'ch of
England. . Foreign missionaries of the Meth-
odist and Presbyterian churches number
306, with 1,292 native pastors and workers,
2,477 churches, and 203,973 converts.
LOBBY OF THE CHOSEN HOTEL SEOUL
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
865
KEIJO (SEOUL) POST OFFICE
Statistics for other missions are not given.
The educational work done by the mission-
aries in Korea, already alluded to, is of wide
influence and imijortance. With the policy
of the present Government-General, however,
all education in time must inevitably pass
under Government auspices.
KEIJO (SEOUL)
SINCE the annexation of Korea to
Japan, the ancient capital of Seoul has
been known as Keijo, or Kei)-jo, and while
it has lost little of its old interest as
a quaint old Oriental city, it has been greatly
modernised under Japanese influence, and
as a city, it is much improved.
Keijo lies in latitude 37 35' north and
longitude 127 East. It is situated almost in
the centre of the Province of Keiki, and is
the commercial and political capital of
Chosen, or Korea. The city lies on a fairly
level plain with the lofty range of the Hokkan-
zan, or Pukhan Mountains, to the north and
the tranquil Kan River to the south. As
in the case of most old cities on the mainland,
Keijo is surrounded by a crenelated wall,
originally erected for defensive purposes.
SKATING ON THE RIVER K.\N, NE.\R RYUSA.N
about seven miles long, and from ten to
twenty feet high. This wall is pierced by
eight gateways, of which the largest are the
IS'andaimon, or Great South Gate, and
Todaimon, or Great East Gate. The esti-
mated population is about 300,000, of whom
close oh 60,000 arc Japanese, with a small
sjjrinkling of Eurojjcan peoples. The princi-
pal native street is Shoro (Bell Street), and
the most flourishing Japanese and foreign
street is'Hon-rnachi (Main Street).
Keijo' is in railway comniunication with
Fusan to the southeast, from which port all
traffic with Japan is maintained, the steamer
journey across to Shimonoseki occupying
about fourteen hours. On the east the port
of Jinsen is connected with Keijo by rail,
and to the northeast runs the main line of
the railway, forming connection with the
South Manchuria Company's system, and
constituting an important link in the trans-
continental route to Petrograd and Ostend.
Reference has been made to the changed
aspect of Seoul under Japanese influence.
Old Seoul was always noted for its squalor
and general dilapidation. For centuries it
was the home of the King, or Emperor of
Korea, and around the court grew up a
horde of parasites and exploiters, who cared
more for an easy life than they did for the
betterment of the city. The Japanese have
made the city the seat of the Government-
General of Chosen, and have erected fine
administrative buildings, besides giving Keijo
a greater commercial aspect, and generally
improving the architecture and condition of
the place. A destructive fire of some years
ago was also not an unmixed disaster, for
it led to the re-building of a considerable
portion of Keijo. Sanitation has also been
imjiroved, and to-day Keijo can offer attrac-
tions to the visitor more substantial than old
ruins and offensive conditions.
It is not fair to give all the credit for
modernising Keijo to the Japanese, because
prior to their control of Korea, the city was
beginning to show some signs of progress.
.\n electric tramway system was installed
some eighteen years ago by an American
firm. This was transferred to the Keijo
Electric Company a few j'ears back, and is
now operated along improved lines. The
total extent of track is fourteen miles.
Modem hotels have been erected. The best
is the Chosen Hotel, managed by the Chosen
Railways Administration. The ground in
which this splendid structure stands originally
fonned part of the precincts of "The Temple
of Heav'en."
Keijo as a city of importance in Oriental
history' dates back to about 1394, when it
became the capital of the kings of Korea, who
in later years elected to be styled emperors.
itha-i :
M
Ml
Ni' V X-- v' V.' \T ^
KEIJO ELECTRIC CO.. LXn.r THE GAS-PRODUCING PLANT — VIEW OF THE POWER STATION — THE TRAM CAR SHED
P R E S E N T - II A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
867
%:j)
DAIDO-MON GATE, KEIJO
The city was founded as the capital of
Korea on the rise of the Li dynasty. The
first of this line of kings built the Keifuku
Palace, and when this was ready the seat of
Government was removed to Keijo. In
1396 the work of building the walls was
commenced, the king requisitioning the
services of 200,000 men for the w-ork. For-
tresses and other defensive works were also
built, but as the glory of the Korean Kingdom
departed the whole place fell into a state of
disrepair. The Li dynasty lasted till Korea
was incorporated in the Japanese Empire,
when the Emperor and the Imperial Family
were pensioned off. Most of the ancient
buildings, such as palaces and public struc-
tures, have been turned into museums, where-
in are to be found much in the way of art
treasiu-es, paintings, porcelain ware, and so
on. There are many show places of particu-
lar historical and general interest, and
undoubtedly some of them possess great
architectural beauty and grandeur. The
Keifuku-kyu is a case in point. This com-
prises a number of buildings erected in 1850
by the despotic regent. Tai-in-kun, who
impressed workmen into his service and
NANDAIMON-DOKI, KEIJO (sEOI'L)
NANDAI-MON (sOUTH GATE), KEIJO
secured the necessary funds for his house-
building by extortion. This palace stands
on the grounds of an ancient palace which
was fired by the Koreans in 1592 before they
fled from the Japanese who had invaded the
country, and captured Seoul.
Keijo contains a large number of public
buildings erected by the Japanese. There
are also the consulates of the Allied and neu-
tral Governments, and many fine commercial
structures. The Keijo Commercial Museum
is a feature of the strong eff'ort being made b}'
the Japanese to instill commercial ideas into
the minds of the Koreans. Admission is free,
and the visitors may see a fine display of
sample products of the agricultural, fishing,
mining, and other industries. As a commer-
cial centre Keijo is yet backward, as compared
with the larger cities of Japan and China, but
with the effective development of the resources
of the country, there is no reason to doubt
that it will yet take its place amongst the
great cities of the Orient.
KEIJO ELECTRIC CO., LIMITED
This is a Japanese company, having its
head office at No. 16 Shinyemon-cho, Nihon-
bashi-ku, Tokyo, and with branches through-
out the most important centres of Chosen.
The company was established in 1908 with a
capital of Yen 3,000,000. In the following
year the Kambi Electric Co. was bought up,
and the name of the combined concern
became the Nikkan Gas Electric Co., Ltd.,
business being conducted at Seoul. The
Bazan branch was opened in 191 1, and the
following year that at Chinkai was started.
The Jinsen Electric Company was bought
out in 1912, and the new works gave the
company its fourth branch. In 1 91 5 the
name of the company was changed to its
present title, viz., the Keijo (Seoul) Electric
Co., Ltd. Thus through these successive
changes the company has gone on expanding,
and increasing its capital, which to-day is
Yen 9,000,000, divided into 180,000 shares.
The Keijo Electric Co., Ltd., engages in the
suijply of electric light and power for all
purposes, the supply of coal gas, power for
electric tramways, sale of coke and coal tar,
and sulphate of ammonia. Some idea of the
extent of the company's operations may be
gathered from the following figures: Electric
lights supplied — Seoul, 83,407 ; Jinsen, 1 0,744 ;
868
PRESENT-DAY I M P R E S S I O N .S OF JAPAN
Bazan, 2,556; Chinkai, 3,313; total, 100,020.
Electric power supplied — Seoul, 1,502 horse-
power; Jinsen, 596 horsepower; total 2,098.
Gas supplied — Seoul, 11,379 lights, and 8,882
items for heating purposes. The company op-
erates 16.23 miles of electric tramways. Its
output of coke for the six months from
January to June 30, 1917, was 2,618.25 tons.
In the same period the works produced
1,097.94 tons of coal tar, and 16 tons of sul-
phate of ammonia. A lucrative business, which
is rapidly increasing, is enjoyed by the com-
pany for its by-products such as coke, coal tar,
and sulphate of ammonia. Coke is demanded
by several factories. Coal tar is supplied to
the Korean Administration Board for road-
making use, and sulphate of ammonia finds a
ready sale throughout Manchuria as a
fertilizer.
The principal officials of the Keijo Electric
Co., Ltd., are: Directors, Messrs. Shintaro
Ohashi (President), Sei-i Oka (Managing
Director), Naoharu Shiraishi, Tahei Yama-
guchi, Inki Pak, Kan-ichi Ito, and Dembei
Shimogo; Auditors, Messrs. Michitsugu Hira-
sawa, Michihiko Nishimura, and Gentaro
Hagiwara. The accompanying balance sheet
will show the prosperous condition of the
company.
The gross profit available at tlie end <jf the
period under review was Yen 378,923.34,
which was distributed as follows: To Reser\-e
fund. Yen 18,000; special reserve, Yen 15,000;
employees' retirement fund, Yen 3,000;
bonus. Yen 10,000; dividend at 9 per cent
per annum. Yen 286,875, leaving a balance
to carry forward of Yen 45,148.34.
Bal.\nce to June 30, 191 7
Assets
Ll.\B[LITIES
Yun
Yen
Unpaid capital 2,250,000.00
Business establishment 6,942,501.58
Business suspense account 12,320.42
Goods in warehouses 343,201.06
Drafts- received. 2,088.50
Capital 9,000,000.00
Reser\-e fund 131,000.00
Special reserves 129,000.00
Employees' retirement fund 2,510.80
Unpaid dividends 7, 807.56
Money temporarily paid 4,201.11
Money to be collected 206,954.29
Guarantee money for contracts. . 14,731.00
Guarantee monev for personaltv 38,990.09
Securities 366.00
Commodities in guarantee i ,075.00
Money temporarily received. . . . 1,356.19
Money not }-et paid 148,499.74
Brought forward from last term. 33,121.56
Cash on hand 26,735.00
Profit for the term 344,901.78
Total Yen 9,851,918.72
Total Yen 9,851,918.72
THE NEW GOVERNMENT OEiaCES AT TAIl'EH
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE
LI. Taiwan (Formosa)
History — Area, Physical Features, and Population— Administration — Finance— Commerce
AND Trade— Industry — Communications — Education — Commercial Notices
FORMOSA, called Taiwan by the Chi-
nese and Japanese, is Japan's south-
ernmost colony, ceded to her by
China after the war with that country in
1895. The island was known to the Chinese
from at least the seventh century, though
they did not attempt to colonise it until eight
or nine hundred years later. Owing to the
hostile tribes, mostly of Malayan stock, who
inhabited it, the Chinese settlements on the
island were never quite successful. The first
Europeans to reach the island were the Portu-
guese, who were so struck by its pleasing
appearance rising above the blue sea that
they called it Formosa, that is, The Beaiiliful,
a name it has borne to Europeans ever since.
The Spanish, Dutch, English, and Japanese
all, in turn, gained a footing on the island
during the seventeenth century, but each
failed to hold it. The Dutch, however, did
most for the civilising of the place, for, during
the forty years of their occupation, while
repaying themselves abundantly in a pecu-
niary way, they tried in some measure to
educate' and enlighten the savages, even
"educating the women," as a Japanese writer
naively puts it. In the middle of the seven-
teenth century tlierc (U'osc a remarkable
adventurer named Koxinga, called Kaku-
senya by the Japanese, the son of a Chinese
pirate by a Japanese mother, who drove out
the Europeans and established a dynasty
lasting from 1662 to 1683, when it was .sub-
dued by the Manchu invaders who had
recently established themselves on the Throne
of China. For the succeeding 280 years
Formosa remained a part of the Chinese
Empire, whose people with their accustomed
industry digged and sowed and planted, doing
what they could to civilise the inhabitants,
their efforts for the most part being a failure.
Japan made a descent on the island in 1874
to punish the savages for murdering some
fishermen of Luchu who had been cast ashore
on Formosa, an astute stroke of policy which
helped to substantiate the hitherto doubtful
claim of Japan to the archipelago of Luchu.
China did her best to establish an effective
rule in Formosa, but her administration was
never successful and constant raids by the sav-
ages discouraged settlement save in the coast
towns and villages, the best part of the
island being abandoned to the wild tribes.
The Pckin Govenuncnt regarded Taiwan as
a thorn in the flesh, an insoluble problem,
and was greatly relieved when Japan asked
for the island as part of her indemnity after
the war of 1894. Those who have read the
memoirs of Li Hung-Chang, who represented
China during the peace negotiations at
Shimonoseki, will remember how delighted
he was, and never so surprised in his hfe, when
he found that Prince Ito, the Japanese envoy,
really wanted Taiwan. While the shrewd
Chinese statesman pretended to hesitate, he
admits that he was trembling within lest
Japan should change her mind before the
cession of the island was accomplished.
From this it can be easily imagined that
Japan had no easy task on her hands in taking
over this island of savages and undertaking
to establish upon it Imperial rule.
AREA, PHYSICAL FE.'i.TURES, AND
POPULATION
Taiwan consists of the island of Formosa,
the Hokoto Islands, called by the Europeans,
the Pescadores, and several smaller islands
lying off the coast of the main island. The
total area of the main island is 13,911 square
miles, and of all the islands comprising the
colony, 13,944 square miles. Taiwan is about
264 miles in length and from 60 to 80 broad,
lying between 21° 45' and 25° 38' North
56
870
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
latitude, and 120° 2' and 122° 6' East longi-
tude. The Tropic of Cancer divides the
island about the middle. The western coast
is a low alluvial plain, some 20 miles broad
at its widest, covered by tea and sugar
plantations and agricultural settlements.
The remainder of the island is mountainous
except the fertile plain of Giran on the east
coast, and some highly productive valleys in
the neighbourhood of Kwarenko and Pinan,
as well as the plain of Ako in the south.
From north to south the island is traversed
by a range of mountains of considerable
elevation, with parallel ranges sloping toward
the west until merging in the fertile undulat-
ing plain already mentioned. The mountains
break oflf in steep precipitous clifTs on the
east coast, some of which rise 7,000 feet sheer
from the sea. Among the higher mountain
peaks of Taiwan are Mount Sylvia, 13,000
feet, and Mount Niitaka, 14,500 feet, with
the volcanic peak known as Daiton, 3,500
feet in the north, round which are numerous
hot springs. The mountains ■ are clothed in
virgin forests and scantily peopled by the
savage aborigines of whom there are several
tribes, speaking as many dialects, mutually
imintelligible, and often engaged in inter-
necine strife. Some tribes, especially those
in the north, are headhunters, and every
youth has to produce one human head as a
trophy before he is permitted to marry.
Operations against these hostile tribes are
constantly under way, and the guard lines
are being pushed steadily forward, yet after
more than twenty-five years of occupation
GENERAL BARON TEIBI ANDO, GOVERNOR-
GENERAL OF FORMOSA
and warfare Japan has not succeeded in
bringing all the savages under her jurisdiction.
(This subject will be more fully treated under
the head of Administration.) The rivers of
Taiwan are small and swift, and in the rainy
season and during typhoons are subject to
destructive floods. Along a coastline of more
than 700 miles there are few bays, except the
harbours of Keelung and Tamsui in the north
and Takao in the south, and even in these the
anchorages have to be greatly improved.
The temperature of the island is naturally
very high, seldom falling below 90° f. A
northeastern monsoon brings a heavy rainfall
in the north during the winter months, while
a southwest monsoon causes heavy precipita-
tion in the south in summer. The total
annual rainfall at Taihoku (Taipeh), the
capital, was 2,030 mm. in 1917, with 185
days of wet weather.
The total population of Taiwan in 191 7
"'as 3,752,710, or about 168 to the square
mile. Of the total population, 133,937 are
Japanese; Formosans of Chinese and mixed
blood numbered 3,265,169; foreigners, 19,-
164; savage aborigines, 125,283, though the
latter figure must be taken as very uncertain.
The annual births recorded number 145,000
to 87,000 deaths. There are eleven cities of
over 10,000 inhabitants, the largest by far
being Taihoku (Taipeh) with about 100,000,
Keelung coming next with 19,000, and the
rest all smaller. The aborigines are divided
into northern and southern tribes, living in
672 communities. The northern tribes are
the most savage, the southern being more
amenable to civilisation. Life in the less
settled parts of Taiwan continues to suffer
from raids of the aborigines. In 1912 as
many as 65 1 police were killed and 886
wounded in these raids, while the number of
noncombatants killed was 816, with 889
wounded. Savages who cominit murder, or
are taken as inciters of insurrection, are
always executed. Sometimes in one year
several himdred are apprehended and sen-
SHIKANOSUKI NIIMOTO, ESQ., ACTING DIRECTOR, FORMOSA GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS — HIROSHI SHIMOMURA, ESQ..
OF FORMOSA SAGATARO KAKU, ESQ., OF FORMOSA GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES BUREAU
CIVIL GOVERNOR
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
871
■ l{ « ,V
" /')
&%
STREET SCENES IN TAIPEH: HOKUMANKOGAI AND JHONANGAI
tenced to death for promoting rebellion.
As the savages occupy the most inaccessible
mountain fastnesses it is as dangerous as it
is difficult to pursue them. The barrier
running along the frontier between savagery
and civilisation is guarded by 5,339 men, of
whom 2,246 are natives and 3,083 are Japa-
nese police officers, covering in all a distance
of 360 miles, 280 miles of which are protected
by charged barbed wire, from nine batteries
placed at strategic points. In the seven
years dating from 191 o the Government
spent some 1,600,000 yen on the subjugation
of the savages, 9,750,000 on the guard zone,
and 5,134,000 on active warfare against them.
The total outlay on accovmt of the aborig-
ines, however, was over 20,000,000 yen.
There were four general campaigns in all.
The first one, from May to October, 1910,
against the Gorgan tribe in the south, in
which 4,000 police and troops took part;
the second campaign against the Moricowan
tribe in mid-Taiwan, lasting through August
and September, 191 1 ; and in July, 1913, an
expedition carried out against the Kinagli
in the north with a military force of 3,700.
The fourth and largest campaign was that
carried out against the Tarco tribe by 12,000
troops from May to August, 1914. This
tribe, which numbers more than 10,000,
occupies the central mountain range opposite
Kwarenko on the east coast. By these and
other minor campaigns against the aborigines
some 551 tribes, representing about 116,744
individuals, have been brought into subjec-
tion. It is reported by the officials that
there are 121 tribes, comprising some 13,000
persons, yet to be dealt with. As no reliable
estimate of the number of savages has yet
been reached, the figures named can only
lie taken as approximate with reference to
the number of savages yet untouched by
Japanese rule. Like the proverbial grain of
salt on the bird's tail, if the authorities could
get near enough to number the savages, their
capture would be easy. However, after a
long and ugly history, consisting mainly of
a series of horrors, with bloodshed, plague,
liattle, murder, sudden death, and exploita-
tion, the unhappy natives of the "island
beautiful" may soon see the light of better
days, though the hatred which the natives
bear their conquerors will take many a year
to abate. Complaints as to the wisdom and
alleged inhumanity of Japan's way of dealing
with the aborigines of Taiwan wiU be found
more critically treated under the subject of
the island judiciary.
ADMINISTR.\TION
The central organ of the Taiwan Govern-
ment is the office of the governor-general of
the colony, whose headquarters are at
Taihoku, the administration covering the
adjacent islands as well. The governor-
general carries on his administration chiefly
through provincial organs, such as provincial
chiefs and their subordinate officers, as well
as through district, town, and village head-
men, together with numerous special offices,
some of which are temporary and others
permanent, including law courts, procurator's
office, railway department, monopoly bureau,
public works department, departments of
manufactures, customs, education, police
872
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
MOUNT NIITAKA, KAGI DISTRICT, FORMOSA
and prisons, communications, harbours, ship-
ping, and agriculture. The governor-general
of the colony is always an army officer, and
the general tone of the administration is
military. Perhaps this is necessary in a
country where law and order never prevailed
before Japan's occupation. The inhabitants
of the island, being for the most part descend-
ants of rebels and robbers taking refuge on
the island from the Chinese coast, are
admittedly a difficult race to govern. But
the conviction of many who have made a
study of the subject is that government of a
less military nature and more under the
control of the home authorities would be
better adapted to the pacification of the
rebellious element. Such was the nature of
the first government of the island under the
late General Count Kodama. Until he
assumed office in 1898 and undertook the
task of governing them, the people of Taiwan
had never really been controlled. The
progress of the colony under his rule was
remarkably rapid and humane. He found
practically no government, savages and
insurgents committing depredations unmo-
lested, infectious diseases rife, only a few
miles of wretched railway service, and no
good harbours. During his ten years of
administration he reclaimed thousands of
acres of land formerly overrun by savages,
opened up productive sugar plantations and
forest industries, reorganised the communi-
cations of the island, and established a
modern system of sanitation, at the same
time offering every encouragement to
colonisation. The Government adopted a
system of financial assistance to nascent
industries, the establishment of model in-
stitutions and a lengthy programme of public
works, including railway extension, irriga-
tion, road construction and a monopoly
of salt, opium, camphor, and tobacco.
Governor-General Kodama departed leaving
behind him a lasting memory of Splendid
service.
His successor. General Sakuma, introduced
ten years of stem administration that has
attracted severe comment from many quar-
ters, especially as regards his method of
dealing with the aboriginal races. So averse
to his rule were the savages that they arose
in almost constant insurrection. The Koda-
ma administration had adopted a policj' of
not rushing the subjugation of the tribes, but
his successor reversed this for a programme of
subjugation by force, involving a total outlay
of 21,000,000 yen, with very harsh results
that can hardly be said to have justified the
losses in men and money. He succeeded,
however, in extracting from the aborigines
some 27,000 firearms, as well as killing a
great many persons, and the administration
claimed to have for the most part crushed
their antagonism. The peaceful means which
the administration of Governor-General
Sakuma subsequently sought to adopt were
negatived by the strong measures by which
he had already created terror and hatred
among the tribes. Reports of torture and
other cruelties to the natives are alleged
untrue by the officials of the colony, who
declare that only the weapons and modes
of legitimate warfare were used, but inde-
pendent reports to the contrary circulate
and are believed by responsible persons.
The present Governor-General, General
Baron Ando, is a man of excellent and
intelligent character, with high ideals as to
the treatment of native races, but the
highest officials are not always able to control
the deeds of those below them. He has had
no easy task to follow his predecessor and
make sonic attempt at appeasing the savages
by the adoption of a more educative policy.
Some of the more recent uprisings of the
Taiwan aborigines have been due to the
pernicious influence of unruly elements on
the opposite Chinese coast. Between 1907
and 1915 there were eight raids from the
mainland. The raid in 1915 was the gravest,
when Ra Fukusei, a rebel chief, conspired
with 500 aborigines to attack the Govern-
ment offices at Taihoku (Taipeh), the plot
being detected before it was too late. In
1 91 5 another insurrection broke out, when
15 Japanese were killed. By the aid of
troops 1,413 of the rebels were arrested and
866 sentenced to execution, but the sen-
tences of all save 95 were commuted under
amnesty on account of the Imperial coro-
nation.
FINANCE
When Taiwan came under the civil ad-
ministration of Japan in 1896 a policy was
adopted looking to the financial independence
of the island. At first revenue was supple-
mented by grants from the National Treas-
ury, but the rapid progress of the colony
rendered such grants less necessary year by
year imtil the amount fell from 6,940,000
yen in 1897 to 2,500,000 in 1904, and to only
700,000 in 1910, since when no grant has
been necessary. Thus not only has the
island become independent financially but
its finances have expanded from a budget
of 10,000,000 yen in 1897 to about 40,000,000
BRIDGE OVER THE KATANSUI KEI, AKO DISTRICT, FOR.MOSA
PRESENT-DAY I M 1' k E S S I O N S OF JAPAN
873
in 1917. Undertakings such as land read-
justment, waterworks, harbour construction,
and railway extension, however, were paid
for by jjublic loans amounting to some
32,000,000 yen, aided to some extent by
increase of ordinary revenue. Public under-
takings contemplating an outlay of some
38,900,000 yen are still under way, financed
so far by the Bank of Taiwan, to be supple-
mented by temporary loans. The following
table gives the revenue and expenditure of
Taiwan at three periods separated by five
years for the sake of comparison:
To maintain the revenue of the colony
almost every species of taxation is resorted
to, especially for local purposes, including
taxes on tea, sugar, sake, mining, registration,
clearance fees, textile fabrics, customs, ton-
nage dues, house tax, business tax, and so on.
There is much complaint among the natives
regarding official imposts, labour often being
requisitioned to the great inconvenience of
the victims.
When Japan took over the administration
of the island there were no banking facilities
of any account in Taiwan. Owing to the
Revenue
Expenditure
Sources
Ordinary :
Administration office .
Judicial courts
Local government . . . .
Police
Prisons
Hospitals
Custom houses
Government railways
Communications
Monopoly Bureau ...
Loan redemption . .
Other expenses
Total
Extraordinary :
Special undertakings .
Public works
Aids to industries. . .
Subsidies
Other expenses
Total
1907
Yen
775.186
371,895
593,429
350,080
495.232
297,371
277,851
1,441,152
1,195,626
8,790,914
2.239.77'
2,731,166
19,559,673
2,686,593
3,290,426
525,076
783,500
754,485
27,599,753
1912
Yen
1.287,590
464.302
940,025
516,030
490,428
330,697
3.558,362
1,525,069
9.158,851
3,109,568
4,306,849
25.687.771
2,936,685
7,918,353
1,560,426
1,032,233
8,053,108
Sources
1907
1912
1917
Yen
Yen
Yen
Ordinary:
5,794,855
2,142,077
18,389
20,092,725
579,695
4,045
218,332
13,464,482
6,947.154
Tonnage dues
Public undertakings and State property ....
Stamp receipts
29,166
24,729,654
4,002,832
3, .347
301,438
28,484,479
1.037.5.30
4.024
1,266,734
Miscellaneous receipts
Total
Extraordinary :
Sales of State property
Subsidv from National Treasury
28,850,118
87,688
1 ,000,000
42,530,919
119,064
37,739.921
502,231
Loans
3.427.143
14,218,594
137
1,550,000
188,703
48
Surplus of preceding year
Miscellaneous receipts
5,357.968
Total
35.295.774
60,295,857
39,980,903
47,188,576
191;
Yen
1.279,931
456,984
947.984
544.812
579.174
311.327
3.410,535
1,560,607
10,511,611
4.071.399
7,968,516
31,642,880
1,550,000
4.092.503
842,821
1,450,864
401,835
39,980,903
SCENES ON BANANA AND PINEAPPLE
PLANTATIONS, FORMOSA
rapid development of industry and commerce
a special bank was established, called the
Bank of Taiwan, in 1899, which became the
central bank of the colony, commencing with
a capital of 5,000,000 yen, recently increased
to 20,000,000 yen. The bank is empowered
to issue convertible notes on a gold basis,
and has fifteen branches, and eleven sub-
branch offices in the island and elsewhere.
In addition, there are also the Thirty-fourth
Bank, the Taiwan Commercial and Industrial
Bank, the Kagi Bank, the Shoka Bank, and
the Niitaka Bank, with branches in the
more important centres of population, which
give great assistance to the people. Taiwan
also has some fifty-eight credit associations
for supplying financial accommodation to the
rural settlements. The ancient custom of
the island in hoarding coin is fast disappear-
ing, and bank deposits are consequently
increasing. In 191 1 the coinage of the island
became uniform with that of the Empire.
COMMERCE AND TRADE
No phase of Japan's connection with the
island of Taiwan has been more encourag-
ing, perhaps, than the development of trade
that has marked the course of her adininis-
tration, especially with Japan herself. The
various enterprises set on foot by the Govern-
ment, the regular steamship services opened,
and the increase of colonisation have all
tended to enhance the interests of commerce
in an unprecedented manner. In 1900 the
total foreign trade of the island was about
21,000,000 yen in value, and some 16,000,000
yen with Japan proper, or about 37,000,000
yen in all. In 1910 it rose to over 32,000,000
874
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
with foreign countries and 78,000,000 yen
with Japan, a total of 1 10,000,000 yen.
In 19 1 5 the trade of Taiwan with foreign
countries amounted to 28,000,000 yen and
100,700,000 yen with Japan, or a total of
some 130,000,000 yen, the distribution being
as follows:
The cultivation of sugar cane has shown
remarkable development and is now one of
the most promising industries of the colony.
Thirty-si.\ big mills with the latest machinery
are turning out some 500,000,000 pounds of
sugar annually, reducing imports of this
article from Java. Industries in sweet
Countries
Japan
United States
China
Great Britain
Dutch East Indies
British India
Hongkong
Annam and French India
Asiatic Russia
France
Germany
Turkey
Australia
Other countries
Exports
Yen
60,
6
4.
,192,896
,180,053
,994.324
931,763
.968,378
257-932
583,748
Imports
Yen
24.542
338,308
60,691
90,539
40,587,492
761,518
20,688
711,949
170,266
1,677,823
20,688
46,622
2,414
13,484
105,806
32,686
11,117
The chief exports in order of value are
tea, camphor, rice, flax, jute, hemp, lung-
wort, sugar, coal, and turmeric, while the
principal imports are opium, tobacco, kero-
sene, timber, paper and paper foils, shirtings,
cottons and Italians, grass cloth, oil cake,
tea seed, packing mats, flour, rice, and rails.
It is only too apparent that while trade
with Japan increases that with other countries
declines or remains stationary, trade on the
whole, however, leaving a favourable balance
to the colony.
INDUSTRY
The main industries of the island are in
tea, sugar, agriculture, and the development
of forest products. The climate and soil
of Taiwan are thoroughly adapted to agri-
culture, which the authorities are doing
everything possible to encourage. The grad-
ual reduction of the savages has brought
larger and larger areas under cultivation,
while the Goverrmient system of irrigation
is greatly increasing the fertility of the land
as well as making more land available. Rice
grows abundantly in any part of the island
where there is a sufficient supply of water.
Two crops can be raised annually, the total
crop of the island being about 25,000,000
bushels, most of which is exported to Japan.
The area imder rice is constantly increasing,
which, with improved water resources and
the use of artificial fertilizer, promises a
large increase of crop. The tea plantations
in the north are also extending, the varieties
gro\VTi being Oolong and Pouchong, with an
annual crop valued at about 7,000,000 yen.
potatoes, beans, peas, jute, hemp, indigo,
and Hve-stock are fast increasing. The
forest regions of the island abound in valuable
timber of various kinds, especially in the
Arisan hills, and already Formosan lumber
is taking an important place in the markets
of the East. The camphor tree takes first
rank in economy, the exploitation thereof
being a Government monopoly, bringing in
considerable revenue. The most important
mineral products are gold, silver, alluvial
gold, copper, coal, petroleum, sulphur, and
phosphorus, most of which are produced in
the north of the island. The mineral out-
put in 191 5 was as foUovvs:
MOTOJIRO T.\K-\T.\, ESQ., DIRECTOR OF THE
BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES, GOVERNMENT
OF FORMOSA
\'ictims and to no others, so as to allow the
users of the drug to disappear gradually
and no new smokers to be Ucensed. During
the years from 1900 to 1914, for example,
the decrease in the number of opium-smokers
was 92,069. Complaints have been made
that the decrease of victims is not sufficiently
rapid owing to carelessness or conniving in
issuing licenses to new smokers. The mo-
nopoly being very profitable, there is, of
course, a temptation to encourage rather
than discourage the use of the drug, but it
can hardly be said that such encouragement
is official. The amount annually imported
Minerals
A.MOLNT
Vau E
Yen
Gold
56,203 oz.
279,368 tons
1,482 m. tons
662,461 gals.
2,294,050
Coal
1,459,478
CoDoer
1,051,604
Petroleum
83,470
As already indicated, opium, salt, camphor,
and tobacco are monopolies carried on by
the Government. When Japan took over
the colony opium-smoking was prohibited, as
well as the importation of the drug, but to
accommodate the confirmed victims of the
habit who could not survive a sudden depri-
vation of their pipes, the Government estab-
lished a factory for making opium doses to be
sold only by licensed vendors and to persons
having Government license to smoke opium.
The idea was to issue licenses only to habitual
by the Government shows a gradual decline
from a value of 3,371,759 in 1906 to 2,190,897
yen in 19 1 5 Perhaps the regulations of the
Government for the prevention of opium-
smoking are to some extent nullified b)- the
number of opium dens and their \-ictims to
be seen in the various towns where Chinese
congregate.
The salt industry has been greatly de-
veloped in the island tmder Government
auspices, as well as improved in quality, the
total area now tmder salt fields being over
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
875
BUMBUGAI, TAIPEH — FUZENGAI, TAIPEH — FUGOGAI, TAIPEH, SHOWING THE STATION HOTEL
ON THE RIGHT AND THE MUSEUM IN THE DISTANCE
5,000 acres, yielding some 160,000,000 pounds
of evaporated salt annually. While the
monopoly improves the quality it increases
the price of the salt beyond what it ought
to be. The camphor industry is one of the
most profitable of the Government under-
takings, as the chemical is used in the manu-
facture of celluloid, drugs, anticeptics, and
in India for making incense. Several private
companies arc now promoting camjihor
afforestation in Taiwan. The climate of the
island is verj' favourable to the cultivation
of tobacco, the plant being made cliiefly into
cigarettes and cut tobacco for native con-
sumption. The annual output is about
1,600,000 pounds, which supplies only one-
third of the total demand of the colony, the
shortage being imported from Japan. The
tobacco industry is still capable of much
greater development. The total income of
the Government from its monopolies in
Formosa must be well over 10,000,000 yen,
since the expenditure of the Monopoly
Bureau is above that sum.
Such industries as indigo-growing, hemp
weaving, and the manufacture of paper from
bamboo fibre are making headway, while
the Mitsu Bishi paper mill is now turning
out a good quality of India paper from wood
fibre. The manufacture of imitation Pana-
ma hats is also coming to be an important
industry'. Marine industries are progressing
though still carried on in rather a primitive
way. There are some hundreds of acres of
oyster hatcheries, while deep sea and coast
fisheries reach an annual value of about
1,500,000 yen, with some 300,000 yen more
for prepared fish products.
COMMUNICATIONS
No sooner had Japan established her
administration in Taiwan than she planned a
trunk line of railway traversing the island
from north to soutli so as to connect the ports
of Keclung and Takao, a length of 247 miles,
to open up the heart of the country' to coloni-
sation and industry. The line was completed
in 1908 by reconstructing and utilising the
tl
876
P K I-: S E N T - D A Y
I M I> R E S S I O \ S
O K
J A P A N
REPRESENTATIVE JAPANESE AND FOREIGN BUSINESS MEN OF TAIPEH
(Left) Mr. C. Baraclough, Manager for Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd. (Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. H. W. Rowbottom, Manager
for Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd. — Mr. Tetsutaro Sakurai, President, Bank of Taiwan, Ltd. — Mr. George Beebe, Manager for Carter,
Macy & Co. (Lower Row) President Kimura, of the Commercial and Industrial Bank of Taiwan — Mr. KojURO Nakagawa, Vice-President,
Bank of Taiwan, Ltd. — Mr. T. Hir.\taka, Manager for Suzuki & Co. (Right) Mr. Fred B. Marshall, Senior Partner, Tait & Co.
63 miles laid by the Chinese Government, the
total cost being 28,800,000 yen, raised by
public loan. The Une runs through the
important towns of Taihoku, Taichu, and
Tainan, the great rice, sugar, tea, and mining
districts, and has completely transformed the
social and economic conditions of the island.
There is a branch railway from Taihoku to
Tamsui, 133 miles long, and another from
Takao through Kukyokudo to Ako, a distance
of 15.8 miles. The Keelung-Taihoku portion
is being double-tracked. The Taito line on
the east coast of the island is now midcr con-
struction at an estimated cost of 4,257,000
yen. It nins between Kwarenko and Pinan,
and about two-thirds of the line is already
open for traffic. Including trunk and branch
lines, the total mileage of railways in Taiwan
is now 318. The number of passengers
carried during the last year was 5,412,308,
and the receipts from the 1,144,553 tons of
freight were 4,728,510 yen. In addition to
the Government lines, there are numerous
private railways for the convenience of the
sugar planters, the total mileage of which is
964, carrying 1,111,797 passengers and 137,-
019 tons of freight annually, together with
1,576,624 tons of freight for the owners them-
selves. The annual earnings of these light
railways in 1914 was 388,467 yen. Extensive
tracks for hand-pushed cars arc also in use,
reaching a total mileage of 636, carrying
3.691,757 passengers and 365,200,000 pounds
of freight on an annual revenueof 957,728 yen.
The steamer services between Taiwan and
Japan proper are regular and excellent, the
lines being subsidised by the Government.
The chief services are under the auspices of
the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha, some of whose boats running
to Formosa are over 6,000 tons, and call at
Shanghai and Dairen. Lack of natural ports
and harbours has been a great inconvenience
to shipping in Taiwan, but the Government
of the island is going to immense outlay to
remedy this defect by constructing fine har-
bour works at Keelung and Takao, the
former to cost 9,000,000 and tlic latter
4,733,000 yen. There is also a big traffic by
small steamers, sailing vessels, and junks.
Before Japan's occupation of the island
there was no postal system. The first service
of the kind began with the field service
organised by the Japanese army after its
occupation of Hokoto in 1895, and the field
post offices and telephones then established
came under the civil administration after the
ceding of the island to Japan. The present
post and telegraph system of Taiwan is the
same as in Japan proper. • The telephone
system at Taihoku (Taipeh) is underground.
The following figures will show the business
done by the Taiwan post offices in 1915:
Number of offices 158
Length of postal routes 7,665 miles
Number of letters and post cards .34,929,042
Number of parcels 522,766
Number of telegrams 1,835,904
Length of wires 2,608 miles
Telephone offices 139
Length of wires 12,387 miles
Telephone messages 20,162,355
Domestic money orders issued 647,709
Value 11,888,139 yen
Domestic money orders paid 360,171
Value 8,238,896 yen
Foreign money orders issued 402
Value 13,189 yen
Foreign money orders paid 225
Value 9,614 yen
Number of postal savings depositors. 147,607
Amount of deposits 2,545,370 yen
The wireless telegraph station at Fukikaku
communicates with Japan, transmitting 450
miles by day and 1,200 at night. There is a
submarine cable from Tamsui to Nagasaki,
a distance of 672 miles.
EDUCATION
The new administration in Taiwan soon
established a system of education adapted to
OOLONG TEA GARDENS, FORMOSA
ItANK OF TAIWAN, LIMITED: BRANCH AT KEELUNG — HEAD OFFICE OF THE BANK AT TAIPEH, TAIWAN (FORMOSA) — BRANCH AT
KAGI BRANCH AT KARENKO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
879
the special needs of the colony, chiefly aiming
at ecfucating the natives in the language and
customs of their new masters. A language
school was opened at Taihoku in 1896, and a
public school system put into operation in
1898 for the education of native Formosans,
and a primary school for Japanese children.
In 1902 a noniial school was opened for the
training of teachers, and later a middle school
and a girls' high school at Taihoku, with
various technical, medical and other schools
with experimental stations for promotion of
industrial education. The basis of education
is much the same as in Japan, except for the
emphasis laid on acquaintance with the
Japanese language on the part of native
children. Besides the primary and public
schools for natives and Japanese, there are
schools for the children of aborigines in wliich
courses in agriculture and handicraft are
given in addition to the usual subjects.
There arc kindergartens at Taihoku, Taichu,
and Tainan. The Middle school at Taihoku
(Taipeh) is quite an institution, with a fine
staff of teachers, including some foreigners,
and a dormitory for students. The Taihoku
Industrial Institute trains students in the
various arts and crafts most needed in
the colony. The following are the school
statistics in Taiwan for the year 1914:
out reason that this tea is frequently referred
to as the "Tea of All Teas."
Foniiosa Black Tea is also produced in the
island, and, like the Oolong, contains a very
small percentage of tannin It is of a high
quality and rich flavour, being much appre-
ciated wherever it has been introduced.
Among the ini])ortant firms engaged in the
export of the Formosan teas are the following:
Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.,
Mitsui &■ Co., Boyd & Co., Tait & Co.,
Nozawa & Co., J. C. Whitney & Co., and
Carter, Macy & Co., principally handling the
Oolong brand, and the Nippon Taiwan Tea
Co., Ltd., of Ampeichin, Toyen District
exporting "Black Tea."
It can be truthfully remarked that the tea
driiil;er who has not yet sampled Formosa
Oolong Tea will be agreealily surprised and
should not hestitate to give it an early trial.
THE BANK OF TAIWAN, LIMITED
The Bank of Taiwan, Limited (Kabushiki
Kaisha Taiwan Ginko), is under the direct con-
trol of the Imperial Government of Japan, and
was foniied by the promulgation of a special
law in 1 899 to operate primarily as the Colo-
nial Bank of Formosa and to afford special
financial facilities for the encouragement of
industry and trade throughout the island.
Schools
Elementary schools for Japanese
Public schools for Formosans. . .
Middle school
Girls' higher school
Language school
Others
Native private schools
Number
Teachers
Pupils
94
3«5
10,380
268
1,345
,54.969
I
25
623
I
2.^
341
I
Si
1,949
14
120
1 ,039
576
5*^9
17,284
FORMOSA OOLONG TEA
Of recent years "Formosa Oolong Tea,"
one of the principal products of the Island of
Formosa, long highly esteemed by connois-
seurs, has also gained a very considerable
reputation in both England and America.
In its cup quality it combines naturally some
of the best and most essential qualities of the
"black" and "green" teas, and has, in addi-
tion, a peculiarly fine flavour and delicate
fragrance. Unlike many other teas, it has a
percentage of tannin which is exceptionally
small. Moreover, it is free from effects
injurious to the health, even in the case of
the most devoted drinker; indeed, it is found
to steady the nerves and infuse vigour.
As a blender, the Formosa Oolong Tea may
be said to stand alone, and when mixed with
the "green" and "black" teas it has a most
refining effect, imparting to them a touch of
its own deUcious fla\'our, and making for
general improvement. Hence it is not with-
One of the first important tasks undertaken
was the adjustment of the monetary system,
then in almost complete disorder, with a
naturally adverse effect on the growth of
trade. The financing of industries by the
bank at very reasonable rates had the immedi-
ate effect of lowering the price of money
throughout the island, and the trade returns
quickly testified to the benefit conferred.
The development of the gold industry and
the perfection of the irrigation system may
be numbered among the achievements of this
institution; indeed, it is often truthfully
observed that there are few branches of
Formosan industry' which do not owe their
present success to the helpful aid of this bank.
A network of branches have been opened
throughout the island at the following points:
Ako, Giran, Kagi, Karenko, Keelung, Mak-
ung, Pinan, Shinchiku, Taichu, Tainan, Tai-
peh, Takow, Tamsui, antl Toen, for it will be
understood that as a Government concern
SUSPENSION BRIDGE AT DOJO, NANTO
DISTRICT, FORMOSA
the bank enjoys many privileges in which
other banks do not participate, especially as
the sole "Bank of Issue." All departments
of modern banking are in operation, particu-
larly foreign exchange, for which, through the
medium of its foreign branches at Shanghai,
Hankow, Hongkong, Canton, Kiukiang,
Foochow, Amoy, and Swatow (China),
Batavia, Semarang, and Sourabaya (Java),
Bangkok, Singapore, Bombay, London, and
New York, and a long Ust of representatives,
the bank has special facilities.
The present capital is Yen 30,000,000,
which places the bank weU to the fore among
the important financial institutions of Japan.
In Japan proper branches are maintained
at Tokyo, where new and imposing premises
have recently been completed, Yokohama,
Osaka, Kobe, and Moji. Further details are
given in connection with the bank in the
Tokyo Banking Section of this volume. The
officers of the bank are: President, Mr.
Tetsutaro Sakurai, Vice-President, Mr.
Kojuro Nakagawa, and Directors, Messrs.
lyetoshi Sada, Kyoroku Yamanari, and
Shingo Minami.
A PICTURESQUE WATERFALL
88o
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
note that the bank acts for the Government
for the collection of taxes in the Gairan,
Shinchiku, Ako, and Karenko Prefectures.
That the bank stands in high favour is
evident from the fact that since its inception
it has paid a ten per cent dividend.
The following gentlemen form the Board
of Directors: Messrs. K. Kimura (President),
J. Muramatsu, H. Yamashita, T. Arai,
K. Kaneko (Directors), G. Tanase, K.
Komatsu, Ran Ko Sen, M. Koga, So Un Yei,
and Kan Tetsu Kyo (Auditors).
SUZUKI & COMPANY
In Formosa Messrs. Suzuki & Co. seem to
have found an ideal field for the exceptionally
enterprising spirit which is so evident in all
their undertakings. In the sugar business
alone they have 124,950 acres under cultiva-
tion, divided among their three mills located
at Shinchiku, at Chureki, and at Taiko. A
further 3,675 acres is cultivated for the pro-
duction of hemp and lemon grass. Their
mining interests include coal, copper, and iron
ore, which is in part e.xported and partly
supplied to the company's iron works for the
manufacture of sugar milling machinery,
shipbuilding machines, parts, etc. In lumber
an important business is done both as regards
the exportation of the timbers to Japan and
other parts of the Far East, and the milling
and preparation for local consumption. At
the port of Takao in the south of the island
they are at present installing an important
shipbuilding plant, which, operated in con-
nection with the iron works and lumber mills,
will doubtless achieve the success which
characterises everything they touch.
TAIPEH OFFICES OF THE THIRTY-FOURTH BANK
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BANK
OF TAIWAN
In a colony like Formosa, where a benevo-
lent Administration endows the working man
with opportunities to acquire capital sufficient
to start in a modest way on liis own account,
the savings bank is admittedly a most nec-
essary institution. Tliis essential feature
was, prior to 1910, supplied somewhat inad-
equately by the Taiwan Savings Bank, ab-
sorbed in the formation of the Commercial
and Industrial Bank of Taiwan. The new
bank has a capital of Yen 1,150,000 with
Yen 750,000 paid up, and operates primarily
as a "peoples' bank," affording facilities for
the small depositor and accommodation in
the form of loans to the merchant and farm-
er in a small way of business.
The head office is centrally located in
Taipeh and branches are maintained at Kee-
lung, Giran, Shinchiku, Taichu, Tainan,
Takao, Ako, Karenko, Rato, Byoriku, Hozan,
and Toko. Incidentally it is interesting to
HEAD OFFICE OF THE COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL BANK OF TAIWAN, TAIPEH
SUZUKI & CO.: UNLOADING CANE FOR THE COMPANY'S MILLS — ONE OF THE NUMEROUS PROPERTIES UNDER CULTIVATION FOR THE
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR, LEMON-GRASS, HEMP, ETC. CLEARING LAND FOR CULTIVATION — THE CHUREKI SUGAR
MILL A CORNER IN THE TAIPEH OFFICE
882
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
PREMISES OF MESSRS. JARDINE, MATHESON & CO., LTD., .\T DAITOTEI
The Taipeh office is under the direct juris-
diction of the head office at Kobe, but controls
the sub-branches located throughout the
island at Keelung, Chureki, Taiko, Kagi,
Tainan. Takao, also the offices at Amoy,
Swatow, and Foochow, China. The com-
bined office staffs of these branches number
about 300 clerks, wliilst in their various
enterprises in Formosa the company employs
over 3,000 labourers, and a large number of
engineers and experts.
As agents for the Dairi Flour Mill, Ltd.,
the Kobe Steel Works, the Imperial Brewerj-,
Ltd., the Kanto Sanso K. K. (chemicals and
fertilizers), the Sugar Manufacturing Co. of
Japan, the Tokyo Marine Insurance Co.,
and a number of other enterprises, the busi-
ness of the Taipeh branch, in this connection
alone, will be understood to reach considerable
proportions.
The manager at Taipeh and principal
representative for Formosa is Mr. T. Hira-
taka, who has served with the company for
a period of eleven years.
(See index for other references.)
J.\RUIXE, .M.\THESON & CO.,
LI.MITED
A MORE detailed description of the opera-
tions of this most important of British firms
in the Far East, of the foundation of the
enterprise by Dr. William Jardine, Mr. James
Matheson (afterwards Sir James Matheson,
Bart., of the Lews), and Mr. Hollingworth
Magniac, as far back as 1832, will be found
elsewhere in this volume.
The principal business of the Formosan
branch is the exportation of tea, which has
grown to very considerable proportions since
the estabhshment of the branch in 1 89 1,
prior to which date the business was carried
on through intermediaries.
The staff quarters, offices, and godowns,
located on the banks of the Tamsue River,
cover a considerable area and are of a ramb-
ling character, though strongly constructed
to withstand the ravages of typhoons, which
occasionally cause the flooding of the river.
All the firing and other important processes
are undertaken on the premises, for which
purpose a staff of about forty-five is employed
884
P R E S E N r - n A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
in the season, as well as a large numljcr of
coolies.
Insurance is written as agents for the
Hongkong Fire Insurance Co., Ltd., the
Canton Insurance Co., Alliance Insurance
Co. of London, and the New Zealand Fire
Insurance Co.
In shipping, an important business is also
carried on as the agents of the Canadian
Pacific Ocean Services, China Mutual Steam
Navigation Co., Ltd. (New York Service)
(India line of steamers, Indo-China S. N. Co.,
Ltd.), and other companies represented by
the head office.
Mr. C. Baraclough is at present Manager
at Taipeh, and is assisted by two European
tea experts.
(See index for other references.)
SAMUEL SAMUEL & CO.
From the notice descriptive of the firm
of Messrs. Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd., con-
tained in the Yokohama Import and Export
Section of this compilation, it will be seen
that the operations of the company in Japan
cover a very wide field, apart from their
great interests in other parts of the world.
The branch at Taipeh, established in 1901,
is primarily important as representing the
following well known companies: Hongkong
& Shanghai Banking Corporation; Douglas
Steamship Co., Ltd.; Messageries Mari-
times; Java-China- Japan Line; Ocean Steam-
ship Co., Ltd.; China Mutual S. N. Cc, Ltd.:
Chargeurs Reunis; The Swedish East
Asiatic Co., Ltd., Gothenberg; The East
Asiatic Co., Ltd., Copenhagen; Union
Insurance Society of Canton, Ltd.; Alliance
Assurance Co., Ltd. (Marine Dep't.); Com-
mercial Union Assurance Co., Ltd.; Law
Union & Rock Insurance Co., Ltd.; Liver-
pool & London & Globe Insurance Co., Ltd.;
Sun Insurance Office; New Zealand Insur-
ance Co., Ltd.; Royal Exchange Assurance
Corporation; Manufacturers Life Insurance
Co.; New York Life Insurance Co.; The
Royal Mail Steamers, and The Blue Funnel
Line.
Very large cargoes of tea are annually
shipped, as well as other important Formosan
products. Further, it is important to note
that this is the only foreign company doing
an import business to the island. Formerly
they were the sole agents for the Camphor
Monopoly, and may be regarded as mainly
TAIT & C0M1'.\NY: premises at DAITOTEI, TAIl'EH, TAIWAN SCENE IN THE TEA ROOM
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
885
instrumental in building this business, which
in their hands jjrow to considerable dimen-
sions.
From the accompanying illustration the
offices and staff quarters will be seen to be
of a most ui)-to-date type. They cover, in
connection with two long and spacious go-
downs, about 1,500 isubo.
Mr. H. W. Rowbottom is the present
Manager at Tai])eh, assisted by a staff of
fourteen clerks, and two European assistants.
Sul)-branches are maintained at Keelung
and Takow. (See also pages 245 and 791.)
TAIT & CO.
A HISTORY of the port of Amoy which
omitted imjiortant reference to the finn of
Tait & Co. would be incomplete, insomuch
as this business was founded in 1846, or
within four j'ears of the signing of the Treaty
of Nanking, and within five years of the ac-
tual occupation of the port by the British. In
1H45 the British garrison was withdrawn and
the small group of British merchants left to
their own resources.
Tait & Co. had come to China to stay and
neither the rising of the insurgents under
Huang Teu-mei, Huang Wei, and Magay
(Ma-kin), in 1853 — the first signs of unrest
experienced in the port in connection with
the Taiping Rebellion — nor the stirring
events of 1857-62, during the second Anglo-
Chinese war, had the effect of deterring
James Tait, the founder of the business, from
pursuing his policy as a pioneer of British
trade. The founder has been dead for many
years and the business has passed into the
hands of worthy successors in the persons
of Mr. Fred B. Marshall, the senior part-
ner, and Mr. W. Wilson.
The principal business of tlie firm to-day
is the exportation of Formosa tea to Great
Britain and her colonies and to America, for
which purpose offices were first established
in Formosa in the early sixties — first at the
port of Tamsue, and later removed to Dai-
totei, a suburb of Taipeh. Mr. F. B. Marshall
takes charge in Formosa, and in the season
employs a staff of about 45 assistants and
from 150 to 200 coolies for picking, packing,
etc., according to the amount of tea handled.
The crop naturally varies with the season,
but is seldom far from the 100,000 (half
chests of 40 pounds) mark, and, indeed, has
risen upon occasion to as much as 103,000
for the year.
Mr. Marshall joined the firm of Tait & Co.
in 1886, having served the intervening six
years since the completion of his education
with the old London tea firm of Messrs.
Peek, Winch & Co. (now Peek Bros.). His
experience of Formosa dates from practically
this period; hence his opinions, expressed at
various times in interesting contributions to
the trade journals, are of special significance.
Mr. Marshall draws attention to the value
of the Oolong tea as a blender, opining that
there is no tea produced to-day in any part
of the world that can not be more or less
improved by a proportionate addition of the
Formosa product. Although the leaf meets
all the requirements of the market and is
held in high esteem wherever it has been
introduced, this gentleman believes that
there is still room for improvement, which
will be realised when the production is placed
on a large scale ^ in other words, in large and
properly organised gardens as opposed to
cultivation by the small holder.
Tea is not, however, the sole interest of
Tait & Co. in Formosa, as under the title
of the Takki Gomi Kaisha (to comply with
Japanese mining regulations) they are the
owners of a coal and a sulphur mine, both in
OFFICES AND CODOWNS OF MESSRS. BOYD & COMP.WY AT DAITOTEI, TAIPEH. TAIWAN (FORMOSA)
.57
886
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
operation — the latter producing as much as
2,000 tons annually in times of brisk demand.
The head office at Amoy is one of the
finest office premises of the port and is under
the direction of Mr. Wilson. The principal
business is shipping, as the agents of the
P. O. Steamship Co. ; banking, as the agents
of the Chartered Bank of India, Australia,
and China, and the sale of oil as the agents
of the Texas Oil Co. This latter agency
they hold for both Foochow and Amoy,
where they have appointed numerous agents
with very satisfactory results. Mr. W.
Wilson is at present the President of the
Kulangsu Municipal Council and Consul
for Belgium and Norway, in which latter
capacity his ser\-ices are particularly valuable
on account of his knowledge of the Chinese
language, several dialects of which he speaks
with fluency.
Old China residents will remember Mr.
Marshall as an enthusiastic sportsman, as
he takes a keen interest in all branches of
sport, especially racing, having on various
occasions ridden his own ponies at the
Amoy meetings. The accompanying illus-
trations will give some idea of the Daitotei
offices and staff quarters. Mr. Marshall
also owns an attractive residence at Shrin, a
few miles from Taipeh, where he has cul-
tivated beautiful surroundings.
BOYD & CO.
It is with a sense of satisfaction that one
finds a pioneer business like that of Boyd &
Co., established for a half centurs- in the tea
trade of Formosa, and for a much longer
period in Amoy, China, as general merchants,
adapting itself to all the innovations and
changes of time, with a keenness that guar-
antees its long continued future success.
The principals in the business to-day are
Mr. W. S. Orr, who takes charge in London;
Mr. J. S. Fenwick, the resident partner at the
head office at Amoy, and Mr. E. Thomas,
senior partner, who manages the Formosa
interests.
Practically all the tea handled by the firm,
an average conservatively estimated at about
70,000 half chests (of 40 pounds) annually, is
disposed of in the United States through the
medium of Messrs. Robinson & Woodworth
of Boston, Mass., and Mr. Charles de Cor-
doba, their New York agent. The book-
keeping, engagement and direction of tea
pickers and other coolie labour, numbering
in the season as man)' as 200 hands, is con-
trolled by a comprador department — a sys-
tem found satisfactory throughout China in
all the kading foreign hongs. The general
supervision, inspection of the leaf, weighing,
etc., is in the hands of European experts,
under Mr. Thomas, who has had 26 years'
-1
T.\IPEH BR.\NCH OFFICE OF THE FIJIT.^ MINING CO., LTD.
experience in Formosa teas. He is one
of the few remaining foreigners who were
doing business in the country when it was
still part of the Chinese Empire.
The Taipeh premises at Daitotei, on the
Banks of the Tamsui River, cover a consider-
able area, are well installed, and very strongly
constructed — an essential feature in view- of
the devastating typhoons which occasionally
visit the island and cause the flooding of the
river, with considerable damage to the prop-
ertj' on its banks.
Messrs. Boyd & Co. occupy fine offices at
Amoy, where, as agents for the Kailan
Mining Administration, the principal business
is the bunkering of steamers and the sale of
coal. They also do a considerable insurance
and banking business as agents for the
China Mutual Life and the Mercantile Bank.
The principal agencies of the Formosa
office are the China Mutual Life, the Eller-
man Line of Steamers, Alessrs. Dodwell's
Steamers, and Lloyds and the London
Salvage Association for both Formosa and
Amoy.
CARTER, .M.\CY & CO.\IP,\NV
The firm of Carter, Macy & Company
has been engaged in the tea business for
many years, having commenced operatiors
in 1850 as Wliitlock, Kellogg & Carter.
In 1916 the American International Corpor-
ation acquired a controlling interest in the
newly organised firm of Carter, Macy &
Company, Incorporated, which at the time
was doing the largest tea business in the
United States.
The company as now organised represents
a complete cycle in the tea trade. It has
its own buj'ing organisation, warehouses,
packing plants, and shipping facilities in
every country where tea is grown, from
Ceylon to Japan, backed up by a purchasing
and trans-shipping office in London and
warehouses and distributing stations through-
out the United States. In Canada the dis-
tributing house of John Duncan & Company,
Limited, of Montreal, is controlled by Carter,
Macy & Company, Incorporated.
In Formosa, a factory and staff of Chinese,
and godowns for handling stocks are main-
tained at Taipeh, under the management of
Mr. George S. Beebe. Until 1899 the
firm's requirements in Formosa Oolong Tea
were supplied through local commission
houses, when it was decided to establish
its own buying branch. In that season
2,200,000 pounds were shipped, since which
time the business has increased materially —
finally during a series of years reaching the
largest average total of any of the exporting
houses, with a maximum of 4,000,000 pounds.
THE FUJITA MINING CO., LIMITED
The Fujita Mining Co., Ltd., operating
prior to 1917 as the Fujita Gumi with head
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
887
PREFECTURAL OFFICE, TAIPEH, CONSTRUCTED BY GOSHI KAISHA SAWAI GUMI
office at Osaka and the Formosa branch at
Taipeh, has been interested in the develop-
ment of the Formosa mining properties since
Japan took over the island at the conclusion
of the Sino-Japanese War. One of the first
properties to come into their hands was the
Tanho Gold Mine in i8g6, which is still
being ver\' successfully operated.
Quite apart from the usual financial uncer-
tainty which is always understood to exist,
the exploitation of mining properties in the
island has been a most hazardous business,
as the aborigines inhabiting the mountain
ranges of the interior are not even to this day
entirely subjugated, and formerly constituted
a great menace to the safety of the mining
exploration parties sent out by the company.
Their depradations grew so serious, indeed,
that the Government was moved some years
ago to teach them a sharp lesson, which had a
salutary effect. It is interesting to note as a
natural corollary that recently the company's
engineers were rewarded for the many hard-
ships they had been forced to endure, by the
discovery of a number of important exposed
copper reefs. Just how this property will
develop it is impossible to say, inasmuch as
the mining business in Formosa is still in its
infancy.
The mining concessions held by the com-
pany at present include gold (quartz and
placer), silver, copper, kerosene oil, and
coal, and cover a total area of nearly 10,-
000,000 tsubo, whilst the concessions applied
for and which will in all probability be
granted, represent more than eleven times
this area. (See Page 477, Mines and Min-
erals Section, Fujita Gumi.)
SAWAI GUMI
The head office of this firm of Civil Engi-
neers and General Contractors is located at
No. 3 Nakanoshima, 4-chome, Kita-ku,
Osaka, and the Formosa branch at No. 9
Fuchumachi, i-chome, Taihoku (Taipeh),
Formosa. The business, under the direction
of Mr. T. Sawai, President, and Messrs.
C. Mori and K. Omuro, Directors, was
established in 1897, and has played a very
important part in bringing about the change
that is so noticeable in the business district
of Osaka, and in the constructing of the
many beautiful public buildings of Taihoku
(Taipeh).
All kinds of constructional work is imder-
taken, including railways, waterworks and
harbour improvements, roads, reclamation
and tunnel work, garrisons, schools, factories,
etc. The fact that the contracts handled
by the firm up to the year 191 7 represent
a sum total equivalent to Yen 26,360,000,
gives some idea of the volume of the opera-
tions of the Sawai Gumi.
MAGNIFICENT CANE ON THE PLANTATION OF THE IMPERIAL SUGAR CO., LTD., AT MANTOROKl', FORMOSA
LII. JAPAN'S Sugar Industry
SuGAK Production in Japan Proper— Sugar Production in Formosa— Commercial Notices
IT is not too much to say that sugar
cultivation and refining are among the
most flourishing and profitable indus-
tries of Japan. With the exception of minor
plantations in the Luchu Islands, KjTashu,
and Shikoku, the greater part of the industry
is carried on in Formosa where sugar cane
thrives abundantly. Beet-root for the pro-
duction of sugar has not yet been introduced
into Japan, but in Manchuria a Japanese
company has recently invested 1,500,000
yen in sugar-beet cultivation.
Sugar cane has been cultivated in Japan
proper since the year 1600, when it was
introduced into the islands of Oshima and
Okinawa, where the cUmate is more or less
tropical. Oshima is an island just off the
coast of Kagoshima, and Okinawa is one
of the Luchu group. In 1730 the plantation
of sugar cane was begun in Kagawa in the
island of Shikoku, where the first refineries
were also opened. The output from these
various centres of cultivation, however, is
small compared with the crop in Formosa,
which is already the main supplier of sugar
to Japan, and may soon rival Java and
Queensland, though, as yet, the crop per
acre is no more than half what it is in
these countries. For many years a striking
feature of the sugar industry in Japan was
the small quantity raised in comparison
with the amount imported. From 1890 to
1894 the percentage imported was as high as
95 per cent. The proportion of imports to
domestic production is still considerable, but
since most of the imports now come from
Fonnosa the nation's increasing independence
of foreign imports of sugar is apparent.
The table on the following page will show
the relation between production and im-
ports in Japan proper during five recent
years, namely, 191 1 to 1915, inclusive.
Most of Japan's imports of raw sugar used
to come from Java, with smaller quantities
from the Philippines, Hongkong, and the
United States, but, as will be seen from the
table refered to, imports are fast decreasing on
account of the abundant supply from For-
mosa. It is further apparent that Japan's
exports of lefined sugar increased enormously
during the late war, most of the cargo going
to China, Manchuria, Korea, and Hongkong.
Up-to-date sugar refining equipment did
not appear in Japan until 1895, when the
Yaeyama Sugar Refining Company was
organised; and this was followed a few
months later by the Nippon Sugar Refining
Company, and subsequently the Dai Nippon
and similar companies were started, the
centres of operation being at Kob^, Nagoya,
and Yokohama. The crude sugar for these
refineries at first came chiefly from Java
The nominal duty on raw material was pu
PRESENT-1)AY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
889
Sugar Production in Japan Proper (In Pounds)
\' I' A K
i<;i I
11)12
1914
191 5
Production
IX Japan
152,800,000
1 36,586,000
146,382,000
182,796,000
167,880,000
Imports
FROM Abroad
175,274,000
303,095,000
725,068,000
459,224,000
276,963,000
From
Formosa
533,827,000
335,480,000
140,377,000
303,712,000
464,902,000
Total
861,901 ,000
775,151,000
1,01 1,877,000
944,732,000
909,748,000
Exports
Consumption
IN Japan
102,700,000
111,180,000
225,117,000
175,098,000
156,527,000
759.197.000
653,984,000
786,706,000
770,635,000
753,118,000
Value of Japan's Imports and Exports of Sugar (In Yen)
Year
Imports
Exports
Raw SroAR
Refined
Refined
1912
15,951.023
69,682
«.477,253
1913
36,548,996
203,054
15.831.330
1914
21,540,105
138.529
12,382,809
1915
14,794,102
7.992
11,803,785
1916
12,956,676
21,379
16,421,738
at 20.4 sen per cwt., but as a good rebate
was allowed by way of subsidy in view of
the conventional tariff on refined sugar, the
rcfuierics were in a highly favourable position.
SUGAR PRODUCTION IN FORMOSA
When Japan took over the island of
Formosa from China in 1895 the sugar
industry was in a sadly neglected condition,
as the natives had been allowed to carry on
cultivation according to primitive and anti-
quated methods which ran out the land.
The new rulers, finding that sugar plantations
yielded a far better profit than rice cultiva-
tion, determined not only to make that the
staple industry of the country, but to improve
the growth and extend the area under culti-
vation. Owing to the increased yield of rice
per acre it was found possible to convert
large tracts of paddy fields into sugar plan-
tations, the crops, of course, being raised in
proper alternation with others; and it has
now become a settled policy of the authorities
to devote as small an area of land to rice as
is capable of supplying the needs of the
population.
As the production of sugar in Japan
proper is so meagre compared with the annual
consumption, which amounts to over 700,-
000,000 pounds, great interest is taken in :i
more intensive and extensive cultivation of
cane in Formosa, where the rapidly increasing
output is expected soon to render Japan
quite independent of foreign imports. With
so large a market at her doors Formosa is
undoubtedlj' destined to play an ever more
important part in the sugar trade.
Since Japan's introduction of modern
methods of cultivation and manufacturing
in Formosa, progress has been very rapid.
Erection of the old buffalo type of sugar mill
was prohibited and modern machinery insti-
tuted, a change amply justified by the results.
The new sugar mills established were equipped
with tlie latest machinery from the United
States. At first such radical measures of
reform naturally provoked a great deal of
sharp criticism and some positive opposition
from the owners of the native factories, but
the natives have gradually come to see that
their real interests lie in adopting modern
methods. It is not necessary to contend
that the new regime in sugar production was
enforced without some degree of injustice in
certain cases, that, perhaps, being unavoid-
able. But if injustice sometimes crept in,
it was chiefly because the Government, in
order to hasten the progress of the industry
by attracting capital, encouraged the for-
mation of big sugar companies to undertake
the growing of cane on a large scale.
Foremost among the Japanese concerns to
begin exploitation of the Formosan sugar
1»4
irrigation works, taichu district
plantations was the Taiwan Sugar Refining
Company, originally composed of a group of
Japanese millionaires, the company being sub-
sequently amalgamated with others. Then a
Sugar Guild was organised, which practically
controlled the industry like a Trust. This
gave rise to serious abuses and consequent
criticism. It is, however, the tendency of
firms engaged in the same business to com-
bine in this way for mutual profit and pro-
tection, in all parts of the world, and this
tendency is but illustrative of the slow and
silent economic changes that are everywhere
modifying social conditions. The Sugar
Guild has enabled the planters to unite with
regard to trade and thus command a better
price for their sugar in the foreign market.
To improve cultivation of the cane the
authorities took over absolute control of the
industry and introduced new shoots from
abroad, with conspicuous success. Lahaina
cuttings were found to flourish, and the Rose
bamboo from Hawaii also thrives weU in
Formosa. In 1902 other experiments were
made with new species from Java and Aus-
tralia, and compulsory measures were en-
forced, as in Java. In 1905 the sugar
industry in Formosa was placed under the
strict supervision of Government authority
and thence for some years every official pro-
tection was extended to the enterprise.
Sugar production was backed up financially
to the extent of 90 per cent of the value of
Java sugar imported into Japan. The rate
was subsequently reduced to 50 per cent, as
the industry attained a prosperity sufficient
to dispense with such high protection, and
the natives no longer required costly inter-
ference to compel proper cultivation and
production of cane. Once the profit was
apparent the work was enthusiastically sup-
ported by the people. The native species
of cane has now so declined in favour that
no further effort is needed to encourage the
cultivation of the better plants.
With this rapid improvement of species
has come an extension of areas under culti-
vation. In 1908 there were 68,645 acres
under cane, and of these 28,055 'were planted
with native varieties, and the remainder with
improved and imported canes. By 19 10 the
total area had increased to 162,108 acres, of
which 24,081 were bearing indigenous plants.
The yield per acre, too, had increased by
about 13 per cent, and there was an improve-
ment of nearly five per cent in the amount
of sugar extracted from the cane. The area
at present under cultivation is over 281,890
acres, yielding more than 700,000,000 pounds
of sugar a year. Of the total production,
over 450,000,000 pounds are exported to
Japan and the rest used at home or sent
abroad. The following table gives the
890
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
annual production of sugar in Formosa for shoots from Java, Hawaii, Louisiana, and
five recent years, together with the value of Cuba and keeping a stock always in the
amounts exported for the same period: Government nursery of 60 acres, is doing
Year
Sugar Produced
Exports
Pounds
Yen
1912
1913
1914
1915
igi6
390,108,323
155,532,326
335,038,958
463,261,864
713,896,437
1,719,396
8
342,292
11,317,643
The annual production for 191 7 is dis-
tributed among the various sugar com-
panies operating in Formosa, as foUows:
a great deal toward remedying this evil.
Japanese sugar is not equal in quality to
American sugar, being soft and damp.
Name of Company
Taiwan Sugar Refining Company
Oriental Sugar Refining Company
Meiji Sugar Refining Company
Ensuiko Sugar Refining Company
Dai Nippon SugarRefining Company
Taihoku Sugar Refining Company
Niitaka Sugar Refining Company
Rinhongen (Native)
Shinko Sugar Refining Company
Tainan Sugar Refining Company
Taito
Total
Pounds
219,'
145,
120,
122
91
81,
66,
39,
13,
19,
970,000
867,000
534,000
,670,000
334,000
34,000
700,000
300,000
060,000
334,000
867,000
923,870,000
Marked as has been the progress of sugar
production in Formosa in recent years, it is
still far behind the rate reached in Java in
some essential particulars. The yield of
cane and of centrifugals in Java is yet about
three times per area what it is in Formosa,
yielding about 1,500 piculs to 450 in For-
mosa, though the percentage of centrifugals is-
nearly the same. The difference is due to
better irrigation of the cane fields in Java
and to a more systematic leaving of the land
fallow, whereas in Formosa the land is pushed
to its utmost limit of production, and irri-
gation is inadequate. Wages in Java, too,
are only about 6d a day against lod in For-
mosa. On the other hand, Formosa has the
advantage of improved canes and a pro-
tective tariff of Yen 3.10 per picul.
Formosan sugar refineries for centrifugals
now number 36, capable of turning out over
27,000 tons a year. These are owned by
ten companies, capitalised at over 80,000,000
yen.
Injury from insects and other parasites has
already begun to attract the attention of the
planters and the authorities in Formosa.
The difficulty is believed to arise from degen-
eration of the root and an abuse of the fertihty
of the soil. But the Government policy of
regularly introducing improved and vigourous
and lial-ile to cake, and also having
apparently less sweetening power.
TAIW.^N SUGAR MANUFACTURING
COMPANY, LIMITED
This company, known throughout the Far
East as the Taiwan Seito Kabushiki Kaisha,
is one of the big enterprises which have sprung
from Japan's colonial expansion. It is the
leading factor in the sugar industry of Taiwan
(Formosa), and from a small beginning, has
grown into a huge corporation, absorbing
several smaller concerns, and to a very large
extent controlling the sugar market of Japan
and the Orient. The Taiwan Seito Kabushiki
Kaisha was originally formed on December
10, 1900, with a capital of Yen 1,000,000,
half of which was paid up. The sugar market
in Japan then offered every inducement for
such an enterprise, as apart from the small
output of some of the southern islands, Japan
was entirely dependent on foreign-grown
sugar, and necessarily upon foreign sugar
companies. Formosa was an ideal sugar
country and any Japanese company that
could handle the product of that island was
almost certain of success in the big market at
home. Mr. Tozaburo Suzuki, President of
the newly formed company, and Mr. Teijiro
Yamamoto, Manager, were sent to Taiwan to
inspect the sugar fields in the Provinces of
Tainan and Ako, and to inquire into the
question of erecting a factory to cnish cane.
They decided to make a start with a small
factory capable of crvishing about 250 tons of
cane a day, and the work of erection was put
in hand. It was the original plan of the pro-
moters of the Taiwan Seito Kabushiki Kaisha
THE TAIWAN SUGAR COMPANY S AKO MILL, THE
A CAPACITY OF THIRTY-FIVE HU
LARGEST IN THE JAPANESE EMPIRE,
NDRED TONS OF CANE A DAY
WITH
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
891
ONE OF THE LARGEST STEAM PLOUGHS IN JAPAN, ON THE KOHEKIRIN FARM OF THE TAIWAN SUGAR MANUFACTURING CO.,
(TAIWAN SEITO KABUSHIKI KAISHA) — KOHEKIRIN MILL CANE STACKS AT THE KOHEKIRIN MILL
to purchase cane from the farmers in the
island, but this idea was abandoned as it was
found to be more profitable to purchase land
and grow the necessar>' supplies. The new
project was put before a large meeting of
shareholders held on January 5, 1901, and it
was resohed to call up the balance of the
capital, m.,Yen 500,000, and devote the money
to the purchase of land. Land totalling in
area more than a thousand cho (approximately
2,450 acres), was then purchased. This land
was cleared and planted, but the attempt of
the company to provide its own cane was not,
at first, satisfactory, owing to seeds of poor
quality and the lack of workmen through the
prevalence of fever. Furthermore, the com-
pany's enterprise was a dangerous one, as the
factory was always liable to be attacked by
the bandits. After a very difficult initial
period, the factory was erected and the pro-
duction of cane became regular. The cession
of the island to Japan as a result of the war
with China led to a marked improvement in
conditions. In August, 1906, it was decided
to increase the capital to Yen 5,000,000, and
one factory after the other was erected. The
success achieved by the Tiawan Seito Kabu-
shiki Kaisha directed attention to the profit-
able nature of sugar production, and one by
one other companies came into the field.
The Daito Sugar Manufacturing Company
was established at Ako, with a capital of Yen
5,000,000, the majority of the shares in the
new enterprise being taken up by the share-
holders in the Taiwan Company. The
amalgamation of the two companies took
place in April, 1908, and 9,000 of the shares
in the joint stock of Yen 10,000,000 were
taken up by the Imperial Household Depart-
ment. The reorganised concern bought out
the Taiwan Sugar Manufacturing Company
in August of the following year. Subse-
quently the English company known as the
Formosa Sugar and Development Company,
which had a capacity for 850 tons of cane,
and Bain & Company's factory of 300 tons,
were acquired. Another amalgamation was
that of the Kob^ Sugar Manufacturing Co.,
which was bought out in December, 191 1, for
Yen 950,000. By purchase and amalgama-
tion of these various interests, the Taiwan
Sugar Manufacturing Co., Ltd., became the
powerful organisation it is to-day. Eleven
years after its formation the company's out-
put reached 1,210,000 piculs. This was not
only then sufficient to meet the domestic
demand of Japan, but an export trade was
entered upon. However, severe storms
visited the cane fields of Formosa in 191 1 and
the following year, and the output of crude
sugar was seriously decreased. In July, 1914,
the Taiwan Company amalgamated with the
Horisha Sugar Manufacturing Co., and in
September, 19 16, with the Taihoku Sugar
Manufacturing Co.
The situation to-day of the Taiwan Sugar
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is that it owns and
operates ten factories or mills for the produc-
tion of crude sugar. These mills are nearly
all in southern Formosa; one is in the centre
and one in the north of the island. The com-
pany's mill at Ako is the largest in the
Japanese Empire, and has a capacity of 3,500
tons of cane a day. In addition, there are two
alcohol distilleries in the southern part of
Taiwan, and two refineries at Kob6, where
the crude product is prepared for the domestic
and foreign markets. The company actually
892
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
owns sugar lands totalling 15,000 cho,ov about
36,500 acres. It has a railway of its own
construction for handling cane, over 400 miles
of rail being laid, and in addition there are
lighters, launches, and other plant. At present
the sugar output of Formosa, besides the
native sugar, is about 400,000 tons, produced
by twelve companies. The Taiwan Sugar
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., alone turns out
120,000 tons per annum, representing about
30 per cent of the total, and it produces half
the total of alcohol used in Japan, so that it
may well be considered the largest sugar
manufacturing concern in the Far East.
The development of the company has
necessarily meant frequent and substantial
increases in its capital. This has risen from
Yen 1,000,000 in 1900 to Yen 29,800,000,
divided into 596,000 shares of Yen 50 each.
During the year ended March 31, 1917, the
gross receipts were Yen 20,995,863 for nine
months. The substantial sum of Yen 3,557,-
000 was written off for depreciation, and the
gross profit remained Yen 5,100,806. An
ordinary dividend of 12 per cent was paid,
followed by two special dividends of eight and
three per cent, respectively, the total thus
distributed being Yen 3,552,880. The reserves
total Yen 5,159,650. Mr. Shiro Fujita is the
Chairman of the Board of Directors. Other
members are: Messrs. Teijiro Yamamoto
(Senior Managing Director), Tadamichi
Takechi (Managing Director), Taro Masuda
(Managing Director), and Tamiyoshi Zushi
and Jitaro Maruta (Directors). The Auditors
are Messrs. Kichibei Murai, Kinsaburo
Kada, and Robert W. Irwin, Jr. Mr.
Takashi Masuda is adviser to the company.
The sale of the products of the Taiwan Sugar
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., is in the hands of
the Mitsui Bussan Kabushiki Kaisha as sole
agent. Enquiries regarding the Taiwan Sugar
Manufacturing Co., Ltd., should be directed
to their Tokyo head office, 22 Honkoku-cho,
Nihonbashi-ku, Tokyo; and if in connection
with the sale of sugar or alcohol, to the Mitsui
Bussan Kabushiki Kaisha or their branch
offices.
THE ORIENTAL SUGAR MANUFACTUR-
ING COMPANY
Nothing has done more for the prosperity
and general development of Japan's greatest
island colony than big corporations like the
Oriental Sugar Manufacturing Company,
whose large investments and intensive
industries have been a marked feature of
modem progress in Formosa. The island
has long been noted for its plantations of
sugar cane, but since coming under the re-
gime of Japan it has become one of the great-
est sugar-producing countries in the world.
Situated in about the same latitude as
Cuba and Hawaii, the climate is excellently
adapted to the cultivation of sugar cane.
Even under the rule of China sugar was the
most important crop of the island. With the
improved methods of cultivation and manu-
facture introduced by Japan, the annual out-
put of sugar has been enormously increased
until now the home demand of the Empire
has been almost fully met, imports from Java
have been almost stopped, and large quan-
tities of Japanese sugar are being annually
exported.
Among the foremost sugar fimis in Formosa
is the Oriental Sugar Manufacturing Com-
pany. Established in 1907 with a capital of
5,000,000 yen, the company at once began
planting and cultivating on an extensive
scale, turning out some 1,000 tons of sugar
NANSEl FACTORY, FORMOS.\, OF THE ORIENTAL SUG\K M.\NUF.\CTURING COMPANY
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
893
HOKKO I-A( TORY OF THE ORIENTAL SUGAR MANUFACTURING COMPANY OF FORMOSA
the first year and 2,000 tons the next, a rate
it has since pretty well maintained. A year
after its organisation the profits of the com-
]jany were 673,300 yen on an income of over
2,000,000 yen. The superior equipment of
the Oriental Sugar Manufacturing Company
and its extensive operations enabled it to
absorb several of the minor and less efficient
sugar companies doing business on the island.
The Toroku Sugar Company was taken into
the firm in 1914, increasing the capital by
1,200,000 yen, and several other companies
followed in 1915. The Hokko Sugar Com-
pany, with a capital of 1,500,000 yen, and the
'I'amaki Sugar Company, possessing a capital
of 6,615,000 yen, were absorbed in 1916,
bringing the total subscribed capital of the
Oriental Sugar Manufacturing Company up
to 11,750,000 yen, and the paid-up capital
to 7,962,000 yen, with a reserve fund of
2,403,000 yen, the company paying an annual
dividend of over 14 per cent.
The Oriental Sugar Manufacturing Com-
pany has extensive plantations and large
mills equipped with the most up-to-date
machinery and is prepared to supply orders
for any quantity of sugar. Its plantations
are situated in the most favourable portion
of the island and promise considerable
extension as well as increased crops. The
following are the present officers of the com-
pany, to whom it owes much of its phenom-
enal success: Totaro Shimosaka, Esq. (Presi-
dent); Goro Matsukata, Esq., Kusuya
Komatsu, Esq., Kenchi Fujita, Esq., Sho-
kuma Matsukata, Esq., Rihei Hyuga, Esq.,
Retsu Oka, Esq., Shoji Ishikawa, Esq.,
Toshiro Tamura, Esq. (Directors). The
head office is at Nanseisho, Kagi, Formosa,
and the Tokyo office is located at No. 21
Mitsu Bishi Building, Marunouchi, Tokyo
MEIJI SEITO KABUSHIKI KAISHA
This company, known under its English
title of the Meiji Sugar Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd., is one of the very active and most
efficient of Japanese industrial organisations.
The reserve fund of the company was aug-
mented TO Yen 7,000,000 within twelve years
from its inauguration, against the paid-up
capital of Yen 8,925,000, thus increasing its
rate of dividend from 12 per cent in 1909 to
26 per cent in 19 17. The hands employed,
including clerical staffs and labourers, exceed
1,000. It was formally established in De-
cember, 1906, by its late President, Mr. Z.
Ogawa, who was associated in the organisa-
tion of the concern with the present Presi-
dent, Mr. H. Soma, Baron M. Takei, and
Messrs. Y. Usui, S. Uemura, and N. Yama-
moto, who are members of the present Board
of Directors. Besides these gentlemen.
Baron E. Shibusawa, Baron I. Morimura,
the late Mr. M. Asada, and about twenty
other prominent business men in Japan, were
concerned in the formation of the new enter-
prise. All the stock was subscribed by the
promoters and their friends, and the general
public were not called upon to provide one
yen of the initial capital of Yen 5,000,000.
The first enterprise of the new company was
the manufacture of raw sugar in Formosa,
where a factory was opened at Shoro in
DecemlxT, 1908, with a capacity of 750 tons
of cane a day. The Santaw factory (with
a capacity of 1,000 tons) was established
in November, 1910. The demand for the
company's products was so marked that
even these new factories were not sufficient
for the needs of the market in Japan where
the industry was particularly active, and so
the Meiji Sugar Company added the Soya
factory at Tainan in January, 1912, with an
output of 1,000 tons a day. Simultaneously
with this rapid expansion of their operations,
the directors recognised the necessity for
sugar-refining plants, and in January, 1912,
an amalgamation was effected with the Yoko-
hama Sugar Refining Co. The capital of
the new organisation was increased to Yen
10,000,000, and the refining of raw sugar
was begun at the Kawasaki Refinery,
Kanagawa Prefecture, which had an output
of 200 tons of refined sugar a day. From
the inception of the Meiji Sugar Manufactur-
ing Company the directors had before them
a steady expansion of the company's opera-
tions, in keeping with the development of
the sugar industrv'. They succeeded in July,
1913, in amalgamating the Chuo Sugar Manu-
facturing Co., at Nan to, Formosa, and thus
secured the Nanto Factory with its capacity
for 750 tons a day. At the same time the
capital was increased to Yen 12,000,000. A
big oversea trade was developed at this stage
and the Kawasaki Refinery being insufficient
to meet demands, the company established
the Tobata Refinery in Fukuoka Prefecture,
in July, 1916, with a capacity for 100 tons
a day. Besides the factories mentioned, the
Meiji Sugar Manufacturing Company entered
upon the manufacture of by-products and
is now turning out at Santaw large quantities
of alcohol from molasses. The Kawasaki
Refinery is also producing cube sugar and
candy, and is being prepared for the manu-
facture of powdered sugar. The present
manufacturing capacity of the factories is as
follows: Raw sugar, 3,500 tons a day;
refined sugar, 300 tons a day; alcohol, about
280,000 gallons per annum. The company
also contemplates extensions in other direc-
tions, mainly in the manufacture of con-
fectionery and condensed milk. The follow-
ing is the present Board of Directors of this
company: President, Mr. H. Soma; Man-
aging Directors, Messrs. T. Takagi and K.
Arishima; Directors, Messrs. Z. Ogawa,
Y. Usui, S. Uemura, Baron M. Takei, Messrs.
H. Chiba and S. Tanii; Auditors, Messrs. N.
Yamamoto, Y. Kawahara, and K. Morimura.
The Tokyo office of the company is at No. 1
Yuraku-cho, Kojimachi-ku, Tokj'o.
IMPERIAL SUGAR CO., LIMITED
Although established a little more than
seven years, the Teikoku Seito Kabushiki
Kaisha, or Imperial Sugar Co., Ltd., now
holds a position of first importance in the
894
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
T
IMPERIAL SUGAR CO., LTD.: THE MILL IN FORMOSA — THE REFINERY AT KOBE
sugar industry of Japan, its various proper-
ties and interests being wide-spread and of
considerable value. The founders of the
company were Messrs. Kobei Abe, Hidezane
Yamashita, and Shokuma Matsukata. At
its inception on October 30, 19 10, the com-
pany had a capital of Yen 5,000,000, but the
sum has since been raised to Yen 15,000,000.
The company is engaged in all branches of
the sugar business, which includes the pro-
duction of raw sugar, and the processes of
refining, and the treatment of by-products
such as alcohol, etc. Furthermore, the
Imperial Sugar Co., Ltd., is actively asso-
ciated with the transportation business
between Japan proper and Formosa, and by
the use of its extensive railways in Formosa,
carries on a large traffic with freight and
passengers.
The Imperial Sugar Co., Ltd., has five
raw sugar mills in Formosa. They are
situated as follows: No. I and 2 factories
at Taichu; No. 3 at Tanshiken, Taichu;
No. 4 at Suidensho, Shinchiku, and No. 5
at Sankatutensho, Shinchiku. There are
alcohol factories at Taichu and Suidensho,
in the Shinchiku District of Formosa, and
a large and well equipped refinery at Higashi-
Shirike Village, Hyogo, Kob^. The output
for several years past has been as follows:
Shinchiku line has four locomotives and 216
cars. The company also lias 10 passenger
cars, 16 luggage cars (covered-in), and 4
uncovered cars for the transportation of
Year
Raw Sugar
Refined Sugar
Alcohol
191 1
1 12,419.95 piculs
205,517.00 piculs
281,984.49 piculs
610,734.13 piculs
656,704.00 piculs
1914
191 5
1916
1917
600,000 piculs
600,000 piculs
3,665 koku
7,000 koku
The figures for 19 17 arc estimated on the
basis of previous years. The several factories
mentioned above have a productive capacity
of 2,500 tons of cane a day. The Imperial
Sugar Co., Ltd., owns the following railways
in connection with its properties in Formosa:
37.4 miles of line for Taichu Factory; 1 7. 1
miles. for the Shinchiku Factory, and i mile
23 chains for the Tanshiken Factory. The
rolling stock employed in connection with
the Taichu Factory railway comprises 9
locomotives and 570 freight cars, while the
passengers and general merchandise, luggage,
etc. Passenger traffic and general goods
conveyance for the public is handled over a
distance of 10.3 miles of line between Taichu
and Mantoroku, and there is also a service by
hand-push railway for a further distance of
27.7 miles. For ocean transport the Imperial
Sugar Co., Ltd., has three vessels, one of
them being 3,000 tons, and also has under
construction two other steamers of handy size.
Following are the principal officers of
this enterprising company: Mr. Shokuma
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
895
A PRIMITIVE SPADE
Matsukata, President and Managing Director;
Mr. Seisa Makiyama, Managing Director,
Messrs. Konosuke Abe, Rinrjosuke Yama-
naka, Seitaro Yamaguchi, Gunnosuke Saku-
rai,. Tomio Matsuoka, and Tahei Mayekawa,
Directors. The head office of the company
is at No. 14 Taichu, Formosa, and the Tokyo
branch office is at No. i. Ginza Shichome,
Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo. The Imperial Sugar
Co., Ltd., has had a prosperous career, and
its future is exceedingly bright. What a
substantial concern it is may be gathered from
Assets
Yen
Capital unpaid 2,250,000.00
Ground 968,263.38
Buildings , , 1,168,383.67
Railways 1,502,769.17
Ships 2,910,000.00
Machinery 2,928,453.14
Furniture and tools 75,523.24
Cattle in use 6.937-75
Works not yet completed 75,752.72
Goods in storage 576,171.38
Deposit with bank ... 542,444.79
Guarantee money for contract . . 15,337-95
Money deposited 28,535.00
Securities 8,187.50
Drafts received 136,919.32
Money lent 443,704.85
Fertilizers lent 263,046.51
Cost of ground to be billed 386,954.64
Money temporarily paid 223,677.72
Money not yet received 2,071.12
Articles shipped out . . 75,604.00
At other stores 210,119.22
Manufactured articles ^57,o55-3i
Semi-manufactured articles 86,682.00
Raw material for refined sugar. . 610,791.19
Agriculture account for next
fiscal year 1,202,248.43
Cash on hand 10,191.28
Liabilities
Yen
Capital paid . . 7,500,000.00
Legal reserve . . 270,000.00
Special reserve 450,000.00
Employees' pension fund 53,500.00
Reserve for stafT 56,676.53
Guarantee money deposited. . . ._ 2,905.70
Drafts payable 6,315,362.80
Loans 700,000.00
Money temporarily received. . . . 57,014.71
Dividends unpaid 1,357.60
Moneys unpaid . 231,154.82
Taxes unpaid 157,025.68
Tokyo despatch-office 142,189.13
Brought from last period 396,113.06
Profit during this period 1,413,278.25
a study of the accompanying balance sheet,
for the six months ended September 30, 1917.
The company's profit referred to above
was distributed as follows: To legal reserve.
Yen 70,000; to special reser\'e, Yen 100,000;
to employees' pension fund, Yen 15,000;
to property repayment fund. Yen 200,000;
bonus, Yen 100,000; to dividend. Yen 315,000
(12 per annum); to special dividend. Yen
472,500 (18 per annum); carried forward,
Yen 437,891.31; total. Yen 1,710,391.31.
THE SUGAR MANUFACTURING CO. OF
JAPAN, LTD. (dAI NIPPON SEITO
KABUSHIKI KAISHa)
The company was brought into existence
more than twenty-two years ago (January,
1896), under the name of the Nippon Seisito
Kabushiki Kaisha, Ltd. (Nippon Refined
Sugar Co., Ltd.), with the modest capitalisa-
tion of 300,000 yen. This capital, following
the gradual extension of business, had soon
to be greatly increased, and in November,
1906, when the company was amalgamated
with the Nippon Seito Kabushiki Kaisha in
Osaka, it commanded a capital of 12,000,000
yen. The companj' then assumed its present
title. In August of the following year, the
Dairi Sugar Refinery was purchased by the
company, an accession to its properties that
gave it the premier position in the trade and
securely laid the foundation of the sugar
refinery industry in Japan.
In 1908 a raw sugar mill was established
in Gokenseki, Kagi Prefecture, Formosa, to
which was added a second mill in 1911, this
being part of a plan to secure independence
in the source of supply of raw material.
When No. I and No. 1 1 refineries, both in
Tokyo, and those in Osaka and at Dairi are
combined, the company has a daily manu-
facturing capacity of over 850 tons (estimat-
ing day and night shifts of twenty-four
hours), in addition to which provision is
made for the manufactiu-e of rock candies
and alcohol in Tokyo and cube sugar in
Osaka. There are two raw sugar mills in
Formosa, which turn out 2,200 tons of raw-
sugar per twenty-four hours. The districts
supplying raw materials actually cover an
area of over 60,000 ko (i ko equals about
FLIGHT OF STONE STEPS AT MAYASAN
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THE SUGAR MANIFACTIRING CO. OF JAPAN, LTD., DAIRI REFINERY: VIEW SHOWING TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
BY LAND AND SEA, THE REAR OF THE WORKS AT DAIRI (mOJI)- — FRONT VIEW OF THE SAME WORKS
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
897
(Upper Row, Left to Right) Mr. H. Soma, President, Meiji Seito Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. Shiro Fujita, Chairman Board of Directors,
Taiwan Seito Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. S. Matsuk.\ta, President, Imperial Sugar Co., Ltd. (Lower Row, Left to Right) Mr. Teijiro
Yamamoto, Senior Managing Director, Taiwan Seito Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. Tadamichi Takechi, Managing Director, Taiwan Seito
Kabushiki Kaisha — Mr. Taro Masuda, Managing Director, Taiwan Seito Kabushiki Kaisha
three acres), of which 2,000 ko are sugar
cane plantations in the possession of the
company. More than one hundred and
eleven miles of railways have been con-
structed in these districts for the exclusive
use of the company; indeed, in the vastness of
its undertakings and the completeness of its
various plants and business organisation, the
company ranks amongst the most important
in the East. Owing to the superiority of
quality, and to the care bestowed upon
packing, weighing, etc., the products of the
company have secured a wide market both
at home and abroad.
The present capital of the company stands
at Yen 18,000,000. The following gentlemen
form the Board of Directors: Raita Fuji-
yama, Esq., President (also President of the
Tokyo Chamber of Commerce); Managing
Directors, Messrs. Nagayuki Takayawa and
Yoshitatsu Izawa; Directors, Messrs. Seizo
Xakamura, Shaku Hoshino, and Yoshiaki
Haniamoto; Auditors, Messrs. Yoshio Sasu-
da and Naoyoshi Ounabara.
THE SUGAR MANUFACTURING CO. OF
JAPAN, DAIRI REFINERY (dAI NIPPON
SEITO KABUSHIKI KAISHA, DAIRI KOJO)
The Dairi refinery referred to in the pre-
ceding notice is one of the most important
installations of the kind in Japan. A few
details about it will therefore be of interest.
The refinery covers the unusually large
area of 35,000 tsuho and is located on the
shores of the Inland Sea within about ten
minutes' electric car ride of the port of Moji.
The buildings will be seen from the accom-
panying illustrations to be of a most imposing
description, and include, besides the main
works, twenty-five godowns ranged along
the shore to facilitate shipments. . Water
is supplied for the use of the refineiy from a
private reservoir which has a superficies of
.5,870 tsubo.
With regard to the installations, it is
interesting to note that the major portion
of the machines bear the name plates of well
known European and American engineers.
Power is derived from two powerful
steam engines supplied by Harvie & Co.,
with Bab'cock & Wilcox boilers, two General
Electric Company dynamos, and four electric
motors.
The raw material is imported from Java,
Manila, and Cuba, and the product in refined
sugar is exported to China, the South Sea
islands, India, and Russia, through the
medium of the following well known firms,
the specially appointed agents of the com-
pany: Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, Suzuki Shoten,
Yuasa Shoten, Fukuwaya Co., Okura Gumi,
and Abe Shoten.
The refinery, which gives employment to
250 labourers and 50 clerks, has a daily
capacity of 350 tons. The annual production
at present amounts to 1,274,000 piculs,
valued at Yen 17,090,400, of which China
consumes the greater part, the company
having paid special attention to the require-
ments of that market.
The General Manager of the refinery is
Mr. Konosuke Akiyama, who has been with
the company for a number of years.
JAPAN'S COLONIAL EMPIRE
LIII. Karafuto (Japanese Saghalien)
History — Area, Physical Features, and Population — Commerce and Industry-
Communications— Administration AND Finance
Karafuto, japan's northernmost
colony, forms the southern half of
- the island of Saghalien below the
fiftieth degree of latitude. When this por-
tion of the island was ceded to Japan by
Russia at the Portsmouth Peace Conference
in 1905, Japan, it is said, desired the inter-
national boundary to be placed along the
fiftieth parallel of latitude because the
cherry does not bloom north of that limit.
The name Karafulo means "land at the
extremity of China," and signifies that when
first known to the Japanese they supposed
it to be part of the Chinese mainland.
HISTORY
The history of Saghalien is too remote for
present investigation, but there is frequent
mention of it in Chinese and Japanese docu-
ments of the seventeenth century. As early
as 1 65 1 a Japanese expedition touched at the
island and made a map of the southern
portion. A second expedition under a
samurai named Wada visited the island in
1764, and another one under Niida, in 1785,
which indicates the interest then taken in
the place by the Japanese. As already
mentioned, the fact that from the beginning
the Japanese called it Karafuto shows that
they mistook it for a peninsula jutting from
the Chinese littoral, an idea that even in
Europe prevailed down to the eighteenth
century, when La Perouse determined its
insular character, having circumnavigated
the island in 1787. Although the Japanese
supposed it to belong to China they always
regarded it as rightly a part of their own
Empire, the ancient policy of the country
being to gain control of all frontiers. Con-
sequently, expeditions were constantly des-
patched to the island by the Japanese author-
ities with the hope of supplanting China.
Under the auspices of the Tokugawa sho-
gunate a party was organised for the explora-
tion of Saghalien in 1785, led by a gentleman
-named Matsudaira, a dignitary of Yedo,
and this expedition was followed by another
in 1789 and by still others in 1801 and 1808.
By this time, however, the Russians had
come upon the scene, with consequent
liitter rivalry between the two races.
From 1807 onward Russia began to estab-
lish a penal colony on the island, and in
1853 she built Fort Dui for the protection of
her fur hunters there. This aroused the
Japanese to action, and in 1855 the Yedo
government decided to take direct control
of Saghalien. In 1868 Kanosuk^ Okamoto
was appointed governor of the island, and
he went over to the town of Odomari and
opened an office there for the administration
of the territory. Subsequently, however, it
was decided to administer the affairs of
the island from the Government Office
in Hokkaido. The Japanese settlements in
Karafuto at this time were chiefly engaged
in exploiting the fisheries and to some extent
the agriculture of the place, with steady
increase of settlement and occupation towards
the south. As large deposits of coal were
discovered in the interior of the island, the
interest of both countries increased to appre-
hension, and Russia began to oppose the
Japanese settlements, with constant quarrels
between the rival races. This was intolerable
to Japan, and so in 1863 the Japanese em-
bassy sent to Europe was charged with a
mission to Russia to negotiate concerning
the boundary question in Saghalien. Russia
was wilHng to allow Japan's occupation of
the southern part of the island provided the
boundary was delimited to the forty-eighth
degree of latitude, but Japan insisted on
the fiftieth being named. It was agreed to
leave the adjustment of the question to a
further conference the following year, but
the outbreak of civil war in Japan prevented
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
899
the shogun fulfilling the agreement. Vice-
AdmiralEnomotowas despatched on a special
mission to Russia in 1874 to settle the bound-
ary question respecting Saghalien, but his
efforts were in vain. In 1875 Russia suddenly
assumed possession of the whole i.sland, offer-
ing Japan the Kuriles in return for her interest.
Japan was not at that time prepared to resist
the projjosal, as she had no navy worth
speaking of. Thus the question was allowed
to stand until the war with Russia, in 1904,
when Japan again occupied Saghalien and
finally succeeded in retaining the southern
portion, extending some 295 miles north,
according to the terms of the treaty of
Portsmouth. The work of delimiting the
international boundary was completed in
1907 by delegates representing Japan and
Russia.
AREA, PHYSICAL FEATURES, AND
POPULATION
A LONG narrow island bordering the
eastern shores of the Russian littoral, Sagha-
lien is some 630 miles in length from north
to south, its least width being 17 miles and
its greatest 93 miles. The total area of the
island is about 29,100 square miles, with some
99 villages and 4,715 settlements. The
Japanese pcrtion of the island, however,
comprises only 13,254 square miles of area,
the territory lying between 141° 51' and 144°
55' East Longitude; and extending 45° 54'
to 50° o' North Latitude. The eastern coast
is washed, by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the
western coast faces Siberia, from which it is
separated by a narrow strait. The southern
extremity of the island forks into two arms
embracing the Bay of Aniwa, the points being
separated from Hokkaido by the Soya
Strait, 46 miles across.
The portion of the island occupied by
Japan is comparatively level. Two ranges
of mountains extend north and south, but
the greatest elevation, near the northern
international boundary, does not exceed
4,000 feet above sea level. Between the
two ranges lies a low plain, through which
slowly flow the rivers Horonai, Naibuchi,
Suzuya, and Rutaka. Karafuto is popularly
supposed to be a land of snow and ice, but
this is by no means the case, even in winter,
for the climate is not uniform owing to geo-
graphical position and ocean currents. The
average annual temperature is about 38° F.
at Mauka, and 29° F. at Shikita. The
minimum in January falls to 40° F. below
zero, while the maximum rises to 91° F. in
August. The flora and fauna of the island
are remarkably rich. The central zone of
the mountain slopes is covered with a fine
growth of coniferous timber, while the still
more elevated regions are clothed in season
with .splendid Alpine flora. The most im-
portant trees are pine, larch, and birch but
lliere are many others. According to the
official survey completed in 1910, the forest
area covers nearly 8,000,000 acres, of which
some 5,000,000 acres arc given to coniferous
trees, rich in excellent timber and material
for wood pulp. Of the mineral resources of
Karafuto the most important is coal, found
in abundance in a series of seams from two
to five feet thick generally but in some places
reaching a thickness of fifty feet. The coal
is of excellent quality, like the Hokkaido
coal, with very little sulphur and yielding
60 per cent coke, as well as giving very little
ash. Alluvial gold has also been discovered
in promising quantities along the river beds,
especially in those descending from the high-
lands of Tohoku and Shiretoko. Iron pyrites
is found in large quantities in the Notoro
Peninsula, while oil wells have been found
in the neighbourhood of Tokombo and Arakoi,
on the western coast, as well as at Aushi
and Notasamu, where the petroleum de-
posits cover an extensive area. Prospecting
for gold, silver, and copper ores is being
steadily carried on by influential firms
engaged in the mining industry, and there
is every reason to expect important develop-
ments in this direction. The principal coal
regions are around Horonai, Seitonai, Nai-
buchi, Tomariori, Fusetaki, Notoro, and
Shiretoko, some mines covering an area of
sixty miles. Amber has been found along
the east coast. The fisheries have so far
been looked upon as the greatest resources
of Japan's most northerly colony, as they
have been more exploited and the financial
returns have been more direct, but the
mineral and agricultural resources of the
island are equally great if properly developed,
to say nothing of the forest resources which
seem almost inexhaustible.
The development of agriculture depends
chiefly on population. The population of
Karafuto as yet is not large, being no more
than 51,730 in all. During a busy fishing
season it rises to a much higher number,
declining to the normal again after the
summer is over. Of the total population,
some 3,000 are Gilyaks, with 800 Orotshones,
2,200 Ainu, and 100 Tunguses. With the
increase of colonisation the aborigines are
gradually dwindling, chiefly on account of
inebriety, some villages having literally drunk
themselves to death. The rest of the popu-
lation is made up of Japanese, Koreans,
Chinese, and Russians, the Japanese largely
predominating, with a total of over 44,000.
The large number of Russians who formerly
inhabited the southern part of the island,
removed after its cession to Japan, only those
too poor to remove remaining. The Japa-
nese government has been using every
inducement to promote a rapid colonisation
of the island, but the process is still very
slow. Owing to the natural dread of cold
which every Japanese has, immigration is
small. Before Russia assumed possession of
the whole island in 1875, the Japanese colony
in the south numbered some 480 persons,
most of whom departed with the Russian
occupation. Russia turned the island into
a penal settlement, allowing the convicts to
take up land and intermarry, and by this
means a considerable portion of the arable
land was brought under cultivation. The
convicts usually tried to escape to Siberia
with every opportunity, and consequently
the settlements did not steadily increase.
On the island being restored to Japan, the
Imperial Government made careful investi-
gation as to the best means of promoting
colonisation, and a definite system of encour-
agement was adopted, especially with a view
to development of agriculture. Extensive
areas of land were opened up for settlement
at low rent and under official encouragement
and protection. Yet the numlier of families
induced to migrate to the colony has not
been more than six or seven hundred annually
since 1906, or about 17,000 in all, cultivating
about 12,000 acres out of nearly a million
available. Considerable numbers of these,
however, engage in fishing and trade. There
is no reason why the island should not become
a great agricultural country if properly
settled. Barley, rye, wheat, oats and other
northern cereals grow well, to say nothing-of
all kinds of vegetables, while experiments in
fruit-growing have been very satisfactory.
The country abounds in wild berries and other
fruits of various kinds, including nuts.
Moreover, the possibilities of stock-farming
are infinite. The total output of grains and
vegetables so far, however, does not amount
in value to more than 500,000 yen a year.
COMIIERCE AND INDUSTRY
Although the commerce and industry of
Karafuto are still in a nascent state the
possibilities of development are great. The
experimental stations and other organisations
established by the Government for the pro-
motion of industry and the general develop-
ment of the rich natural resources of the
island, together with a steady improvement
in communications, are doing much for the
extension of industry and trade. During the
winter season, when communication with
the rest of the Empire is interrupted for
three months, trade is necessarily inactive
and business generally dull. But the volume
of trade multiplies in proportion to the
progress of colonisation and the development
of industry. Imports now total about
goo
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
5,000,000 yen a year in value, and exports
some 4,000,000. Imports consist mainly of
rice, salt, tobacco, matting, oats, kerosene,
bean paste, and sake, while the principal
exports are herring, timber, fish guano,
canned crab and sardines, and dried cod.
After the opening of navigation in April
and May comes the busiest trade season,
and preparation for winter leads to a further
revival of trade in the months of September
and October.
The fisheries are still by far the most
important industries of the island. Special
licenses for seine fishing are issued for exclu-
sive grounds to those agreeing to carry on
the industry for a certain number of years,
while other licenses are allotted by tender.
Special license grounds number 40 on the
east coast and 14 on the west coast, and those
open to bidders number 870 on the east and
433 on the west. For the protection of
breeding certain waters are closed to fishing.
The principal varieties of fish are herring,
cod, salmon, sardine, trout, and flat fish.
Next in importance to the herring fisheries
come those of trout and salmon, the means
adopted being for the most part stationary
nets. Hitherto most of the herring catch
was made into fertilizer, but recently the
Government has introduced the salted-
herring industry. A Government experi-
mental .fishery station has been estabUshed
on the western coast, where everjrthing in
relation to the industry can be learned. The
rapid development of the tinned crab indus-
try in recent years is especially significant.
Whales abound along the coasts of the island
and the industry is also undergoing steady
development, the catch being about sixty
annually. Ten miles off the coast lies the
famous Seal Island, where vast herds of fur
seals breed. A Government agent always
remains on the island for the protection of
the seals, which at present must not be
exploited.
Industries in forest products are also mak-
ing rapid development. Four big saw mills
with Western machinery are turning out
great quantities of all kinds of lumber, but
the development as yet does not at all
approach the possibilities. A Government
factory was opened in 191 1 for utilising the
broad-leaved trees, and now produces char-
coal, calcium acetate, wood tar, and methyl
by the Mayer distillation machines, the
white birch being the chief material. Great
pulp mills have also been erected and are
meeting the immense demand created for
this material by the European war. The
Mitsui Bussan Kaisha's plant, erected at a
cost of more than 1,000,000 yen, turns out
20,000,000 pounds of pulp a year. The
Okawa pulp mill expects to produce an equal
annual turnout. Resources in turpentine oil
and resin are also immense. Forest re-
sources in furs are large, the principal animals
being sable, otter, fox, bear, reindeer, musk
deer, squirrel, sea lion, seal, and rabbit.
Some 5,000 skins are taken annually, amount-
ing in value to about 50,000 yen.
COMMUNICATIONS
The first railways constructed in Karafuto
were temporary light tracks for military
]iurposes, running twenty-six miles between
Otomari and Toyohara and built in 1906.
With the abolition of military government
in 1907, this line was thrown open to general
traffic, and subsequently branches were
built. The increasing traffic, as well as the
importance of having a regular railway,
caused the authorities to reconstruct the
line in 1910, making the gauge 3 feet 6 inches,
the same as the railways in Japan proper.
Karafuto now has a Une of 57 miles and 58
chains running between the two most impor-
tant towns of the colony and touching some
of the more important settlements and mines.
The rolling stock comprises 6 modem loco-
motives, 70 cars with a capacity of 48,600
tons, together with 18 passenger coaches
capable of carrying 484 persons.
In shipping, Karafuto has a coasting service
as well as a regular line between the colony
and Japan proper. One line of coasting
steamers serves the east shore and another
the west shore, both lines being owned by
one company, which receives an annual
subsidy from the Government. The steam-
ers used are not above 150 tons. The line
nmning to Japan also receives a subsidy
from the Government. They belong to the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha and maintain a regular
service between the island and Japan. There
are numerous other steamers plying between
Japan and the island ports, carrying freight
and especially coal and timber. The annual
number of ships entering the ports of Kara-
futo is over 2,000, representing a total
tonnage of over 1,000,000.
When Japan took over the island there
was but one road, which connected Otomari
and Toyohara, but the Government has
opened up several important new roads
since, the one between Toyohara and Mauka
over the western mountain range making
communication by sledge possible even in
winter Minor roads leading to important
towns and \'illages have also been opened,
with numerous bridges where formerly there
were none. Toyohara, called Vladimirovska
under the Russian regime, is the capital,
with a population of about 8,000, and situ-
ated on the Suyuza plain about twenty-five
miles north of Otomari, surrounded by some
of the most promising districts for colonisa-
tion. At this town are the principal offices
of the Karafuto Administration, and roads
branch off to all the more important surround-
ing districts and villages. Here also are the
headquarters of the Karafuto garrison, the
local courts, hospital, and post office, as
well as the prison. Mauka on the west
coast has been an important fishing station
ever since the Russian occupation. There
are other rising towns in the vicinity, especial-
ly Kitanoyoshi and Shikiki. Otomari is the
most important town in the south. None
of the towns have very good harbours but
safe anchorage is possible.
Post and telegraph offices have been
established at all the important towns and
villages, and extensions are steadily going
on. The first postal service was that of the
military field system, the ordinary mail
service being opened in 1906. Telegraph
service is available at all post offices, as in
Japan proper. Telephones have been intro-
duced into the principal towns only, some
289 already being installed, with numerous
unfulfilled applications for more. There are
thirty-four post and telegraph offices in all,
and cable communication with Japan and
Russia.
.\DMINISTRATION AND FINANCE
When Japan forcibly assumed occupation
of Saghalien in 1905 the administration was
established on a militarj' basis with the head
office at Otomari, then called Karsakov.
The only purpose of the administration at
that time was to secure protection for the
troops and peace and order among the
inhabitants. General Nambu, as chief in
command of the army of occupation, was
appointed Military Governor, and assumed
the responsibilities of civil administration
until a regular civil Administration Office
was opened in April, 1907. The Governor
of Karafuto acts under the Minister of Home
Affairs in Tokyo, and has under supervision
the posts, telegraphs, customs, banking, and
judiciary of the colony. He has under him a
large staff of minor officials to look after the
various departments of his administration.
In addition to the head office of the Adminis-
tration there are branch offices at Otomari
and Mauka, each with its chief and a staff
of assistants. Courts have been established
for the enforcement of the laws of the Empire,
special deference being made to certain local
customs as far as seems desirable.
The expenses of the military adminis-
tration of Karafuto were defrayed from the
special account for extraordinary military-
outlay, and from a local fund comprising
sundry receipts under the military occupa-
tion. With the establishment of a regular
civil administration in 1906 revenue and
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
901
expenditure were brought under llie juris-
dietion of the Department of Home Affairs.
To enhance tlie defieient re\-enue of the
colony a fixed grant was made annually
from the National Treasury, supplemented
liy taxes and imposts, the taxes being chiefly
I )!! houses and business and in no case heavy.
Tlr.' accompanying table represents the
riA-enue and expenditure of the colony for
the year 1917.
Schools have been established to the
number of 99, of which 4 are public and the
rest private, with some 8,000 pupils in
attendance.
Revenue
Ordinary-: Yen
Taxes 193,098
Public undertakings, etc 793.5<'5
Licenses and fees 562,903
Stamp receipts 62,510
Miscellaneous receipts I4i694
Extraordinary:
Sales of State property 1 79,696
National Treasury Grant 293,575
Surplus of preceding year 1 13,415
Miscellaneous receipts 5,163
Total 2,218,559
E.XPENDITURE
Ordinary : Yen
Administration of Karafuto 1,187,642
Reserve fund 30,000
Other expenses 8,000
Extraordinary:
Expenses of State management . . 73,220
Building and engineering 310,544
Colonisation 409, 1 53
Special undertakings 200,000
Total 2,218,559
58
A DRINKING BOUT IN AN AINV VILLAGE
LIV. The Ainu
By the Venerable Archdeacon JOHN BATCHELOR
THE race of people now to be found
only in Hokkaido and Saghalien
and which knows itself by the de-
signation Ainu, is not so well known among
the nations of the earth as many other
families of men. This is by no means be-
cause nothing has been written about them,
for, indeed, hundreds of books and pamphlets
.dealing with them are in existence. The
vast majority of these, however, are in the
Japanese language and therefore sealed to
the general European and American reader,
while others are in Russian and some in
French, English, and German. Chamber-
Iain, in the first volume of the " Memoirs
of the Imperial University of Japan," gives
a list of 465 such publications, while, since
that volume was published in the year 1887,
many other works have appeared. If, there-
fore, little is generally known of this interest-
ing and now fast disappearing people, "the
reason must be sought," as Chamberlain so
well puts it, "in the remoteness of the sub-
ject from topics of general interest," rather
than elsewhere.
I have by me an extraordinary book
written by Mr. A. H. Savage Landor entitled
"Alone with the Hairy .Ainu," and published
in 1893. I was away in England for a rest
when Mr. Landor came to be a/one with his
"hairy" ones, and so missed the honour of
meeting him. He occupied my little room,
nine feet by six, built in the northeast corner
of Chief Penri's hut, while he was at Piratori,
and Penri and others had a good deal to tell
me about him when I returned the following
year. After a very long experience among
this people I feel bound to remark that I have
never seen a more imaginative and distorted
account of this race than is recorded in that
book. I read and translated parts of it to
the Ainu themselves and showed them their
pictures. After hearing and seeing, the old
men gravely remarked, "Whatever Ainu can
he be describing? His Ainu evidently do not
belong to Yezo!" They were greatly inter-
ested and roared with laughter at the splendid
caricatures in the book. On account of Mr.
Landor's undoubtedly great artistic gifts
Penri spoke of him as the "Demon" (Nitne
Kumiii), but whether by way of compliment
or in disapprobation I was unable to discover.
Chief Penri died in 19 10 at the age of eighty-
five years. The accompanying portrait of
him was made thirty-five years ago. He
dressed in Japanese clothing for the occasion.
When he died, being the old man of the family,
his house was duly burnt down according
to Ainu superstition and custom, and my
THE VENERAULE AKCHDH.\CON JOHN
li.MX IIHLOK, AKTER FORTY YEARS AMONG
THE AINU
P R K S V. N T - 1) A Y IMPRESSIONS O !• JAPAN
903
CHIEF I'ENRl
own room also went up in smoke with it!
Like many other old customs I found in vogue
among the Ainu forty years ago, this one also
has now practically died out.
Penri was a fine man and full of humour.
1 always stayed with him when in Piratori
and he accompanied me with pleasure in
most of my journeys among his people. He
was my first teacher of the Ainu language.
He was very fond of Japanese sake, as, indeed,
nearly all the Ainu are. He was not a native
of Piratori nor was he the real Amu chief.
He came from Shum-un-kot and was appointed
head of Piratori by the Japanese authorities.
He formerly had several wives, one of whom
attempted to commit suicide. I am afraid
his family relations were not of the happiest
nature. He was very self-righteous and he
told me he expected to have a very high
position in heaven when he got there! He
had no confession to make of sin or wrong-
doing, and had no thought of seeking pardon
from his gods.
.'\niong modern books on Ainu matters I
should recommend for light reading, Miss
I.sabella Bird's "Unbeaten Tracts in Japan"
(1885); "Life with Trans-Siberian Savages,"
l)y B. Douglas Howmd, M. A. (1893); "The
Ainu Group at the St. Louis Exposition"
(1904), by Professor Frederick Starr; and for
a very full account of the people in every
department of their life I must recommend
my own books, but especially that on "'i"hf
Ainu and Their Folk-lore" (1901). Many
references are made to the Ainu by Dr. Neil
Gordon Munro in his "Prehistoric Japan"
(1908), a book which I heartily recommend
to all students of ancient Japan.
The Ainu of forty years ago were in some
respects superior to those of the present day.
Their love for strong drink has ruined them.
Had they been protected by prohibition, say-
forty or fifty years ago, the race would have
been by now as great an asset to this Empire
as the Maoris of New Zealand are to the
British Empire, and had they been allowed
the same all-round advantages as regards
education that the Japanese have, they would
have been as great an ornament. On the
preceding page the reader may see the Ainu
at a drinking bout, the men seated in front
and the women behind, the latter receiving
just so much of the drink as their lords think
fit to spare them. The crowns the men wear
are not regal, but, like the dresses, ceremonial.
It is quite likely, too, that the carved heads
on the crowns have a totemistic import. It
will be seen that the old swords are of a
northern, or Manchurian, type. The man
standing has a foreign hat, the mat is Ainu,
and the tubs are of Japanese lacquer. The
men sit cross-legged, but the women sit upon
the knees.
The name Ainu, by which this race knows
itself, is still applied to themselves only. A
Japanese is called Shisam, while a European
or American is called Fure-Shisam. Ainu
AN AINT Dili:
is derived from a word meaning "think," so
that Ainu is "thinker." It is also of interest
to note that the word ramat, "soul," has the
root meaning of "mind," "intellect." For
many years the Ainu have been called by
their smoother-skinned Japanese neighbours,
Aino, which is wrongly said to be a corruption
of Ai-no-ko, Japanese for "children of the
middle" or "bred-between," that is to say,
bred from man and beast. Some Japanese
say the name Ainu is just Inu, which means
"dog" in Japanese. The Ainu themselves,
however, think their ancestors were descended
from one named Aioina, whoever he may
have been, whose name is sometimes heard in
prayer. Further than this we are unable to
go at present, for the Ainu have no literatiu-e
to help us and Japanese works shed no light
on the matter, while the present-day Ainu
are utterly unreliable on ancient customs and
lore.
That the Ainu were in Japan many years
before the Japanese arrived here is well
attested by the oldest Japanese books,
namely, the Kojiki or Records of Ancient
Matters (712 A. D.), and the Nihongi or
Chronicles of Japan (720 A. n.). The Records
speak of them as tsuchi-gumo, "earth-spiders,"
AN AIM' VILI,.\GE — CHIEF PENRI S IILT
904
P R E S E N T - D A ^■ IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
AINU !K11:M» mi- I UK I.AM GENERATION
but this designation is really a simple cor-
ruption of the Ainu word toche-guru, which
means nothing but "earth-house-peoplc,"
"pit-dwellers." That the Ainu formerly
Uved in pits is a well known fact. There are
grounds for believing, as Dr. jMunro so clearly
shows, that there were other "pit" or "cave
dwellers" in this Empire besides the Ainu.
Certain it is that the Ainu were not the only
inhabitants in Japan prior to the Japanese,
for we are expressly told that when the First
Emperor, Jimmu Tenno Sama, arrived in this
Empire he encountered various "barbarian
tribes, the most fierce of whom were the
Ainu." Some would have us believe that
prior to the Ainu there was, particularly' in
Yezo, a race of dwarfs inhabiting the island,
who were called Koropok-guru. But that
they were dwarfs is not proven, — there is no
evidence at all. Koropok-guru means "people-
below," "below" referring to locality. It is
cqui\-alent to "pit-dwellers," and the pit-
dwellers were Ainu, and they can not be
called dwarfs. The place names are Ainu,
and the exhumed bones and flint implements
and pottery are Ainu also.
Although the oldest books speak of the
Ainu as Tsuchi-gumo, yet later Japanese pub-
lications call them Ebisu and Emishi, but
these only mean "barbarians." In olden
times they were a very warlike people, though
they are mild and gentle enough now. The
Ancient Records tell of the massacre of eighty
of their chiefs while sitting at a feast to which
they had been invited. In the north of Japan
there may be seen many barrows, or mounds,
containing great heaps of the bones of Ainu
slain in battle. It was not till after 855 A. D.,
when the Ainu were much weakened by inter-
necine strife, that they were eventually sub-
dued. Indeed, the year 878 a. d. is given as
the year of their final subjugation. Though
formerly very numerous the Ainu now number
but 18,674 souls, 9,019 being males and 9,655
females. In 1876 they numbered 19,456
111 Hokkaido (Yezo), and about 2,000 in Sag-
lialien. Many of those now registered as
.\inu are pure Japanese, while the half-breeds
are very numerous. It may now, indeed,
practically be said that the race, as Ainu, does
not exist. The Ainu do not bear many
children and, to keep up the families, they
adopt Japanese babies and register them as
Ainu. I know of one Ainu school where
quite one-third of the scholars, though called
Ainu and counted as such, are pure Japanese
children. Thus are their numbers kept up.
In some places there is a great deal of con-
sumption among them and this dire disease
carries ofiF many.
The Ainu have been called "dull" and
"stupid." Certainly they have not had
the advantages of travel and education and
competition that many other races have had
to make them sharp. It is evident also
that the Japanese consider them to be lack-
ing in brain power. Indeed, an order has
gone forth that Ainu children shall enter
school at an age one year older than Japanese
children and remain at school only four
years instead of six! It is evidently the
opinion of the Japanese educational authori-
ties that the Ainu are weak in intellect.
Still, we have had good results from those
whom we ourselves have sent to school in
Sapporo and Tokyo, and we see no lack of
brain power in such.
The Ainu were once widely distributed,
geographical nomenclature showing clearly
that they were formerly scattered throughout
the whole of Japan. Thus, for example, the
name Fuji (in Mount Fuji) is the Ainu name
for "fire" when being worshipped, though
WOMEN POUNDIM, MILLET — AINU MAX .\ND
WOMAN. THE ORNAMENTS WORN BY THE
WOMAN ARE OF MANCHURIAN ORIGIN
when spoken of generally "fire" is always
ahe. Fuji is the goddess of fire, and Fuji no
Yama is "dormant volcano." Nolo is really
"Cape Blunt," Musashi is " Surf -place,"
and so on ad infinitum. There are also
Ainu names of places in Siberia, as Tomsk
and Enise and Kota testify. We are also
informed that there are grounds for the
belief that the present-day Ainu are con-
nected with the ancient cave dwellers of
Europe. The ground for this idea is the
fact that the conical shaped skull and
flattened tibia are identical. The Ainu
language is of an Arj-an type both as regards
vocabularj' and grammar. Pildzuski tells
us that the Ainu spoken in Saghalien is of an
older type than that current in Yezo, thus
indicating that the Ainu came from the north.
Some of the idioms of the language also show
a northern rather than a southern habitat
I' R 1<: S E N T - D A Y IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
905
A WELL TATT(">l-.ll WclMAN
When I first came to live with the Ainu
the thing which impressed mc most was
their abundant black hair, carefully parted
in the middle and falling in tresses to the
shoulders where it was cut in a crescent shape
behind. The people love wavy, curly hair
and call it Kamui otop, "the hair of the gods."
But now the men cut their hair and the
younger women follow the Japanese custom
of allowing theirs to grow. Some have hair
reaching to the waist, others to the knees,
while a few have it so long that when let
down it touches the ground. There are
several superstitions connected with the hair.
Formerly to cut the hair too short meant
shortening one's life; to allow another to get
any of it meant bewitching; to bury the hair
of another person meant to kill him by
degrees. The men remind one much of the
Russian Mujik. Though as a rule quite hairy,
there are many among the men who have
very little hair on the breast, arms, and legs.
The most remarkable thing which struck
me about the women was the tattooed lips,
hands, and arms, and, in some instances, the
forehead as well. It is said to be a very
ancient habit and no one can now tell us
about the origin of the custom. Its old
name was Anchi-piri, "black-stone marks,"
the "black-stone" being either coal or ob-
sidian, and this takes us back to the stone
age, which is not so far away. It is now done
with Japanese knives. The process is begun
when a child is about five years of age and is
not finished till she is cither married or
betrothed. It is bluish-black, to get which
colour soot which has collected on the
bottom of a pot is rubbed into the cut place
which is afterwards washed with a dye
obtained by steeping the bark of a tree in
hot water. The tattoo may be regarded
as a kind of wedding ring. The custom has
now been forbidden by the authorities. The
colour of the eyes varies. In some it is
black, in others grey, and in others nut-brown.
The voice of the women is soft and musical
excepting when angry. I have always found
them kind and courteous, and so honest
that during all the years I have been among
them I have never lost anything. They eat
of the same food as the men and at the
same time, and laugh and chat meanwhile.
The women rise early and go early to bed.
They do all the household work, cook, make
cloth, sew, pound the millet, draw the water,
and so forth. And, withal, they are very
happy when their spouses are not drinking.
The clothes I found the Ainu wearing were
made chiefly from the inner bark of elms
and the skins of such animals as deer, bears,
dogs, foxes, and racoons. The process of
weaving cloth from elm bark was a long one,
and very little, indeed, is made now, Japanese
material having superseded it. Some of the
fibre was steeped in a decoction of bark to
make it last longer and withstand the wet
weather better. This gave it a brown or
buff colour. They also wore leggings made
of fur, and boots made out of salmon and
other skins.
The Ainu were formerly fish and meat
eaters and cultivated very small patches of
ground. Each family catered for itself and
had its own plot for millet, peas, beans.
■"^■■■**»»^--> ■■i<*.^j
-i^iSSBlm- ..—-.-« j-ri^T;'
i->,f^^'
WOMEN AND GIRL CARRYING WOOD WO-
MAN WEAVING CLOTH
AN EMBROIDERED DRESS SUCH AS IS W-QRN
BY THE AINU PEOPLE
potatoes, cabbages, pumpkins and other
vegetables. These were stored in the family
storehouse. Flesh and fish were hung up
in the roof, where they got well smoked.
The women were usually very happy while
pounding their millet and sometimes three
or four would join in this work and have a
good time. The giris were kept very busy
nursing the babies, which they carried slung
from the forehead and resting on the back,
in drawing water, working in the gardens,
or fetching wood.
Ainu dwellings are not very large and may
be distinguished from Japanese houses by
the thatch on the roof, which consists of
several layers of straw so superimposed as
to form a series of ridges. They are not at
all warm in the winter as the cold wind
rushes through the reed walls at a great
rate when it blows. It is also very trying
to one's eyes to stay in them as there are
no chimneys to carry off the smoke. Among
the mountain Ainu of Yezo the villages con-
sisted of a row of huts on one side of the path
and a row of small family storehouses on the
other. The Saghalien Ainu were more com-
munal and had their common village store-
houses for grain, fish, and flesh. Both Yezo
and SaghaUen Ainu produced fire by friction.
It is a fact that the Ainu have no temples
yet it is also eminently true that they are a
verj- reUgious people. They are also obsessed
by that disease of religion which we term
superstition. In one illustration may be
seen a seive and sickle set up on high. These
are so set up as fetiches and are used to per-
suade the gods to send fine weather after
too much rain. The east end of every hut,
— and there one may see numerous shavings
9o6
P R E S E N T - I) A V
IMPRESSIONS
O F
J A P A N
^^
ii»*i&:&*:2>j*^&i*?
AN AIXL' STOREHorsE - A SIEVE AND A REAP-
ING HOOK SET UP AS FETICHES TO
CALL FORTH FAIR WEATHER
and fetiches set up, both inside and out, —
is the family temple, and every Ainu man is
the priest of his household. The men alone
perform most of the worship, and the women
are sent with libations as offerings to the
ancestors. The people have a strong belief in
a future life where each person is to receive
cither reward or punishment according to
the deeds done in the body here on earth.
The wands shown in another illustration of
the eastern end of a hut are called Inao,
which means "message-bearers." Prayer is
.said before them, libations are poured out
to them, and they are then sent with mes-
sages, some to heaven and some to hell, as
the case may be. They are not gods but
messengers.
When I first went among them I found
that the Ainu ideas concerning death were
jiurely animistic in nature. Thus, according
to them, the dead did not die entirely, that
is to say, as soon as the breath was out of
the body, but their spiritual entity continued
in this world, particularly about the grave
and the former home, for quite a long time
after the event we term death had taken
])lace. For so long a time as there was a
single atom of the material body remaining
undissolved, there was supposed to be a
perfectly intelligent and personal particle of
the anima hovering round and in it, in the
process of escape. And this was not only
capable of locomotion, but of exercising a
direct influence upon the living for good or
ill. Thus it came about that when I once
\"entured too near a grave I had to be puri-
fied by having water sprinkled over my
person and to submit to a brushing down
with spray wood. Although these disin-
carnated spirits were eventually supposed to
take their departure hence, yet they were
also supposed to return to earth at times.
Moreover, when they left the body they
were thought to possess more knowledge.
CELEBRATION OF A BEAR FESTIVAL IN AX
AINU VILLAGE
more power, and far mightier faculties than
when in the body. And they never forgot
the past. The Ainu worship a very great
number of things, — gods, godlings, and
demons, — in heaven, earth, under the earth,
and in the rivers and seas. The Creator of
all comes first, then the sun, after that the
fire, then male and female progenitors of the
family, then the various objects of nature,
the presiding daimoncs of rivers, springs.
TWO VERY OLD WOMEN — A SPOT AT THE EASTERN END OF A HUT, SHOWING A BEAST's SKULL SET UP FOR WORSHIP
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
907
lakes, mountains, valleys, trees, animals,
birds, fishes, and objects innumerable.
Moreover, there are also multitudes of de-
mons to be propitiated. Every kind of bird,
from the tiny wren to the great eagle, is
worshipped when killed. Food it offered to
its spirit and libations poured out before
it. When offered ceremonially the process
is called lyomande, "a sending away."
Fishes also, from the sprat up to the whale,
are "sent away" on occasion, particularly
salmons, sword-fish, and whales. Every kind
of animal, also, is "sent away," from the
mouse up to the bear. Dogs also are so
treated. Taken altogether, Ainu religion is
a very serious affair and has large and
intricate ramifications.
After fire-worship, which includes in it
the worship of the ancestors, bear-worship
is the chief act of worship, for poor Bruin
is cruelly killed by inches, so to speak, in
sacrifice, and then eaten. This is a great
festival, the underlying principle of which
seems to be a notion of kinship, in which
all thoroughly enjoy themselves with dancing.
Much sake is dnmk, many cakes eaten, the
bear's flesh partaken of, and his soup drunk.
It is a cruel, degrading and drunken, noisy
revel,* and the authorities ought, in the
writer's opinion, to put a stop to the practice.
I have seen tiny cubs brought up at the
breasts of Ainu women till they could eat.
After this they are kept in cages, such as
will be seen in the accompanying illustration,
till the time for sacrifice comes round.
The Ainu has been a fine, hardy race in
bygone years, and it seems to the writer
to be a very great pity that the more intel-
lectual Japanese have not done something
to preserve them, even as an ofif-set for
occupying their country.
* For a full account of Ainu religion I must refer the
reader to "Ttie Ainu and Their Folklore." pages 446 —
594, and to my article in Hastings' "Dictionary o£
Ethics and Religion."
raii.Y,aitrifciKiiriii»aiirrnririr -
A BEAR CUB IN A CAGE BEING FATTENED FOR A
SACRIFICIAL FEAST
i' I' '! il I' I' !l II I! !' " 1^ I! li li'li ■' ^1'!'' II'!!'!? |l I! I! '■ !' :i f; n"!i IN! !' !, V i! II II ,: 11' r
FUJI-SAN AT DUSK
LV. Biographical Notes
A KIYAMA, GENZO, LL. B., among the
/^ best known of distinguished Japanese
U. ^ lawyers, and one who enjoys a high
reputation among the foreign business com-
munity. Is in general practi ce as an advocate,
attorney, and counsellor at law, conveyancer, .
and patent agent. He is perhaps best known
as corporation lawyer, being retained as ad-
viser to such important concerns as the Stand-
ard Oil Company of New York, the Pacific
Mail Steamship Company, the American
Trading Company, and the Deutsch Asiatische
Bank. Bom at Kakegawa, Totomi Province,
in August, 1859, the eldest son of Toshio
Akiyama, a samurai of the Kakegawa clan.
He studied Chinese and Japanese classics at
the school of his feudal lord, and later entered
the Law College of the Tokyo Imperial
University from which he was graduated in
1879. He was appointed a Probationary
Judge immediately after his graduation and
in 1882 he was made the full Judge and was
appointed President of the Nagasaki District
Court. Some years later, he was transferred
to the Yokohama District Court as Presi-
dent of that tribunal, and finally, in 1898, he
became Judge of the Supreme Court in
Tokyo. Retired from the bench to enter
upon private practice, and specialised in
legal affairs as they affect foreign corpora-
tions. He is a member of the Yokohama
Chamber of Commerce. Mr. Akiyama's
head office is at No. 15, Uneme-cho, Kyo-
bashi-ku, Tokyo, and he has branch offices at
No. 75 Yamashita-cho, Yokohama, and at
No. 28 Nakayamate-dori, 4th Street, Kob^.
Akiyama, Saneyuki, Rear Admiral, Com-
mander of the Second Torpedo Boat Flotilla
since December, 1916. Born March 20, 1868,
in Ehime-ken, youngest brother of General
Kouko Akiyama. Graduated from the Naval
Academy, 1890. Commander in 1904; Cap-
tain in 1908; Rear Admiral, December, 1913.
Occupied successively the posts of Instructor
of the Naval College, Staflf of the First
Squadron, of the Combined Squadron, Vice-
Captain of the Mikasa, Captain of Akilsushii,
Otoioa, Hashidate, Izumo, Ibiiki, Japanese
warships; Staff of the Naval Staff Office.
Was ordered to America, June, 1897; went
to London, December, 1899. Promoted to
the Directorship of the Military Affairs
Bureau of the Naval Department, April,
19 14. Again went to London on a military
commission in June of the same year. On
his return, December, 1916, appointed to the
present post. Played a splendid part in the
Russo-Japanese War as a member of Admiral
Togo's staff. Was decorated with the Order
of the Rising Sun and the Third Class of the
Golden Kite for his military service.
Ariyoshi, Chuichi, Governor of Kana-
gawa-ken. Born June, 1873, in Kyoto- fu,
eldest son of Sanshichi Ariyoshi. Married
Hisae, eldest daughter of Taro Sadahiro.
Graduated from the Law College of the
Tokyo Imperial University, July, 1896.
Passed the Higher Civil Service Examination,
November, 1896. Appointed Councillor of
Shimane-ken; afterward held the posts of
Councillor of Hyogo-ken and Home Depart-
ment. Visited Europe, October, 1907. Ap-
pointed Governor of Chiba-ken, March, 1908;
Secretary-General to Resident-General of
Korea, July, 1910; Director of the General
Administration Affairs; Governor of Miya-
zaki-ken in 19 11; transferred to the present
post in August, 1915.
Asano, Soichiro, President of the Toyo
Steamship Company and of the Asano
Cement Company, etc. Born March, 1848,
in Toyama City, eldest son of Taijun Asano.
Married Saku, second daughter of Choemon
Suzuki of Tochigi-ken. He early came up to
Tokyo and established himself as a coal
merchant, encountering many hardships.
Later organised the Asano Cement Works in
Fukagawa, Tokyo, which has operated very
prosperously ever since. In 1886 estab-
lished a shipping and transportation business
under the title of Toyo Steamship Company.
Opened up a direct steamship service between
Japan and South America. Established
P R E S E N T - D A V IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
9oy
Asano Shipbuilding Yard, 1916. In addition
to the companies above mentioned, he is
connected with the Tokyo Gas, the Ishikari
Coal Comjiany, the Tokyo Steel Foundry,
the Imperial Theatre Company, the Imperial
Hotel, Tokyo Cardboard Manufacturing
Company, Tokyo Artificial Manure Com-
l)any, and several other companies. Deco-
rated with the Third Order of Merit for his
services during the Russo-Ja]3anese War.
As.\NO, Taijiro, President of the Hinode
Steamship Company, Director of the Third
Bank, the Asano Cement Company, the
Formosan Land and Building Company,
Keclung Land and Building Company, and
the Keihin Transportation Company, and
Auditor of the Nippon Kyodo Stone Com-
pan}'. Born July, 1884, in Tokyo, eldest
son of Soichiro Asano, a leading business
man in Tokyo. Married daughter of Count
Itagaki. Studied at the Waseda University.
Made a tour through Europe and America.
Was Manager of the Asano Cement Com-
pany.
Chinda, Sutemi, Viscount (created 191 1),
Japanese Ambassador to Washington. Born
at Hirosaki, December, 1856, first son of
samurai of Tsugaru clan. Married Iwa, third
daughter of Yufu Chinda. Graduated from
an American university, 1881. Appointed a
clerk of the Foreign Office, l88g, changing
later to the Telegraph Section in the same
office. Consul at San Francisco, 1890;
removed to the Consulate at Chemulpo;
Consul-General at .Shanghai, 1895; Minister
to Brazil, next to The Hague, 1899-
1900; Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary to St. Petersburg, 1900;
Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1901;
Ambassador to Germany, 1908; Ambas-
sador to Washington, November, 191 1.
Present post, June, 19 16. Decorated with
the Grand Cordon of the Order of the
Rising Sun.
Den, Kenjiro, Baron (created 1907).
Member of the House of Peers, Minister
of Communications since October, 19 16.
Born, February, 1855, in Hiogo-ken, son of
the late Bumbei Den. Married Yasu,
elder daughter of Ankyo Shigeno. Studied
Chinese classics while young under the
tutelage of Seijun Watanabe and Seisai
Kojima, the famous scholars of the old
Daimyo, and afterwards studied English
at the Nagoya Foreign Language School
and other institutions. After occupying
the post of Superintendent of Police in the
prefectures of Kochi, Kanagawa, and Sai-
tama, he was appointed Secretary of the
Department of Communications in 1890,
and subsequently Director-General of Posts
and Telegraphs in the same department. In
1895 and again in 1901 he was Vice-Minister
of Communications in the Ito Cabinet, and
also held the same post for the third time
in the Katsura Cabinet in 1903. He resigned
the post when he was nominated a member
of the House of Peers in 1906. Afterwards
he became President of the Kyushu Colliery
Steamship Company. In 1893 he went to
Europe and America, representing Japan
at the International Telegraphic Con-
ference at Budapest. He held the posts
of Councillor of the Imperial Railway Asso-
ciation and of the Marine Association.
On 'the formation of the Terauchi Cabinet
in December, 1916, he was given the port-
folio of Communications. He was created
Baron and received the Second Order of
the Rising Sun in 1907 in recognition of
his meritorious services rendered to the
State during the Russo-Japanese War. He
has also received decorations from the
Governments of France, Denmark, Austria,
Turkey, and Roumania.
Eguchi, Ko.manosuke, Director of the
Tokyo Stock E.xchange, Limited. Born,
I8g8, in Yamagata-ken, eldest son of Man-
emon Eguchi. Married eldest daughter of
Seinosuke Shoen, of Ibaraki-ken. Grad-
uated from the Yonezawa Normal School;
studied Chinese classics at private school
in Tokyo. Went to China, 1879, and made
a tour of inspection through Hankow,
.Shanghai, Teintsin, and Manchuria. Served
in the Japanese Consulate, Shanghai, for
three years; on his return home in 1884
entered the official service of the Nagasaki
Prefectural Office, and the Department of
Agriculture and Commerce, 1888; retired
from official life, 1898, and became Manager
of the Tokyo Stock Exchange, and, later.
Director. Despatched to Europe and America
to investigate the exchange condition there.
Has published "Exchange in Europe and
America."
FujlTA, Heitaro, Junior Fifth Rank,
Third Order of Merit, Baron (succeeded
as, 1912), President of Fujita and Company.
Bom, October, 1869, in Osaka, eldest son
of the late Denzaburo Fujita, founder of
Fujitagumi. Married Tomi, third daughter
of Count Akimasa Yoshikawa. Studied at
the Keio University. After his return home
from England he became Vice-President of
the Fujitagumi and besides became connected
with the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, the Nippon
Fire Insurance Company, and the Nikkan
Gas Company. After his father's death in
19 1 2 he was ordered to succeed to the peerage
and is now President of the Fujitagumi,
succeeding his father. He is a prominent
business man of Japan.
Fujita, Shiro, Member of the House of
Peers, Lord-in- Waiting of the Kinkei Hall,
Presiding Director of the Formosan Sugar
Refining Company. Bom, June, 1861, in
Niigata-ken, fifth son of Ryuzo Fujita.
Married Bun, adopted daughter of Marquis
Inoue. Graduated from the Tokyo Imperial
University in 1885. Entered the Govern-
ment service as attache and councillor to the
Foreign Department; served successively in
the Japanese Legations at Vienna and Berlin;
was appointed private secretary to the Min-
ister of Communications in 1890; sent to
Vienna as a representative to the Interna-
tional Postal Conference held there in 1891;
promoted to Councillor of the department
upon his return; Councillor of the fourth
Home Exhibition; promoted to be Vice-
Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, 1898;
retired from the Government service in 190 1,
when Marquis Katsura became Premier;
nominated member of House of Peers, 190 1.
Fujiyama, Raita, Chairman of the Tokyo
Chamber of Commerce, President of the
Dai Nippon Sugar Refining Company, Direc-
tor of the Nippon Fire Insurance Company,
the Tokyo Gas Company, the Tokyo Stock
Exchange, the Nikkwa Life Insurance Com-
pany, the Meiji Brick Manufacturing Com-
pany, etc. Born in August in Saga City, son
of Kakuzaemon Fujiyama. Married Mine,
second daughter of Tsunenosuke Yegawa.
Completed the course at the Nagasaki Nor-
mal School and further studied economics and
politics at the Keio University, graduating
in 1884. Teacher at Nagasaki Normal
School for a short time. Elected member,
also Chairman, of the Nagasaki Prefectural
Assembly at twenty-five years of age. Es-
tablished the publication Nagasaki Shimbun.
Entered the Mitsui firm and was appointed
Managing Director of the Shibaura Engineer-
ing Works. Organised the Oji Paper Mill
Company of which he became President.
Elected a member of the Standing Com-
mittee of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce.
Rendered useful service in the organisation
of the Tokyo Street Railway Company and
became Managing Director of the same.
Promoted the Shun-to Electric Company
with capital of 1,000,000 yen in 1903. Ap-
pointed Vice-President of the Nippon Fire
Insurance Company. Entrusted with the
readjustment of the affairs of the Dai Nippon
Sugar Refining Company, the largest concern
of its kind in Japan, which was financially
embarrassed; finally became President of
the same. Is a conspicuous figure in business
circles at present.
GoH, Seinosuke, Baron (created 1910),
member of the House of Peers, Chairman of
the Board of Directors of the Toky^o Stock
Exchange, Director of the Teikoku Com-
mercial Bank, Special Member of the Tok>-o
Chamber of Commerce. Born, January,
1865, in Tokyo, second son of the late Baron
9IO
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
SCENE IN UYENO PARK, TOKYO
Junzo Goh. Studied economics, interna-
tional law, and politics in Germany and Bel-
gium, 1884-1891. Was given official posi-
tion in Department of Agriculture and Com-
merce, recommended by the late Count
Mutsu (Minister of Agriculture and Com-
merce, 1892). Left the Government service
soon afterward and took up present business.
Goto, Shimpei, First Order of Merit,
M. D., Baron (created 1906), M. H. P.,
Minister of Home Affairs and in addition
President of the Imperial Railway Board
since October, 1916. Bom, June, 1857, in
Mizusawa, Iwate-ken, eldest son of Juyemon
Goto, a doctor, and a grandson of the famous
patriot, Chouei Takano, who was put to
death by the Tokugawa Government a little
time before the Restoration. Married Katsu,
sister of Baron Suyeyoshi Yasuba. Studied
medicine at the Medical School at Fuku-
shima; graduated from the University of
Berlin with the degree of Doctor of Medicine,
1890-1892. At the early age of twenty he
was appointed physician of the Aichi Prefec-
tural Hospital and was also one of the teach-
ing staff of the Prefectural Medical School.
Four years later he was promoted to be Chief
of the hospital, as w'ell as the medical school.
In 1883, he was transferred to the Depart-
ment of Home Affairs and appointed Acting
Director of the Sanitary Bureau, in which
capacity he achieved the important work of
amelioration of the medical system in Japan,
especially that of social sanitary institutions.
Elected President of the Central Sanitary
Association and Committee of the Dai-Nip-
pon vSanitary Association. Made an inspec-
tion tour of social sanitary institutions in
Europe, 1890. Appointed Director of the
Sanitary Bureau after his return home in
1892. When the famous Soma scandal case
came up in 1893, he was arrested on the
charge of complicity in it, but was acquitted
soon after. Subsequently he was appointed
Sanitary Commissioner of the Army at the
time of the Sino-Japanese War. When the
late General Kodama was sent to govern
Formosa, he was singled out (in 1897) by the
General as the Chief of the Civil Adminis-
tration Birreau of the colonial government.
Though a man of medicine by profession, he
l^ecame by circumstances a man of politics,
and it was in the administration of Formosa
that he displayed those remarkable abilities
which finally brought him rapid official
promotion. During the period of his admin-
istration of the island, he enforced the Opium
and Camphor Monopoly Law, initiated the
construction of railways and roads, and
developed local industry along sound lines.
He was made a Baron in 1906, and given a
seat in the House of Peers. When the South
Manchuria Railway Company was estab-
lished in 1906, he was recommended as its
first president, and here he also displayed his
distinguished abilities in the administration
of the railway. In 1908, when the second
Katsura Cabinet was organised, he received
the portfolio of Communications, which he
resigned in August, 1912. Elected M. H. P.;
appointed Minister of Communications again
on the formation of the third Katsura Cabi-
net, and President of the Imperial Railway
Board as an additional post, December, 1912
The next year he resigned his official post
On the formation of the Terauchi Cabinet,
October. 1916, he was appointed to his pres
ent posts. Publications: "On Bureaucracy'
(translation from the German) ; "Principles of
State Hygienics"; "Treatise on Sanitary
System"; "Common Physiology and Hy-
gienics."
Har.\, Kei, M. H. R., a leading figure in
the political life of Japan, Member of the
House of Representatives for Morioka City,
and leader of the Seiyu Kwai, or Constitu-
tionist partj". Has had a distinguished career
as Government official and statesman. Bom
in Morioka City in February, 1856, and was
educated at the Law College of the Tokj'O
Imperial University. Entered upon the
career of a journalist as a member of the staff
of the Hochi Sliinbuii. Went to Korea as a
special correspondent in 1S82. Later entered
the Foreign Office and was appointed Consul
at Tientsin, China. Thereafter his career
was cast in the public service and politics of
Japan. Secretary and Charge d'affaires in
Paris in 1886. Returning to Japan he be-
came Private Secretary to the late Marquis
Inouye when that gentleman was Minister
for Agriculture. Then he took the post of
P E R S E N T - n A Y I M P R 1^: S S I O N S OF JAPAN
911
THE AVENUE OF NIKKd
Director of the Commercial Bureau at the
Foreign Office under the then chief, the late
Count Mutsu. Promoted to Vice-Minister
of the Department, in 1895, and the following
year was sent as Minister to Korea. He
resigned from this position and became Chief
Editor of the Osaka Mainichi Shinbun. Re-
turning once more to the public service he
succeeded the late Mr. T. Hoshi as Minister
of Communications, igoo-1901. Then he
became Chief Editor of the Osaka Shimpo
for a while and having been elected as member
of the House of Representatives for his
native city in 1902 he continued to devote
himself to affairs of state. Was Minister
for Home Affairs in the Saionji Cabinet,
1906-1908, holding the same portfolio a
second time, and being also President of the
Imperial Government Railways, 1911-1912.
For a third time he became Home Minister,
retaining that office from February, 1913, to
the following year. He has been returned
for his constituency seven times since his
first election. To-day Mr. Hara, by virtue
of his leadership of the powerful party to
which he belongs, is regarded as the staunch-
est champion of the Constitution, and his
speeches in Parliament are very closely
followed. For his long and valuable services
to Japan, Mr. Hara has been decorated by the
Emperor with the First Class Order of the
Rising Sun.
H.\R.\, RoKURO, President of the Fuji
Paper Mills Company, Director of the
Yokohama Specie Bank and of the Imperial
Hotel, Limited, Presiding Director of the
Yokohama Dock Company, the Tobu
Railway Company, the Inawashiro Hydro-
Electricity Company, Ltd., and the Taian
Life Insurance Company, and Auditor of
the Tokyo Savings Bank, Ltd. Born, 1844,
in Hyogo-ken, sixth son of Rokuemon
Shindo, of a well known family in Hyogo-
ken. Adopted by Joemon Hara. Married
Tomi, daughter of Shozaburo Dokura of
Nara-ken. While young he became the
friend of Kuniomi Hirano, a famous patriot,
and took part in the Restoration Movement.
After the Restoration he went to Europe
and America for study and stayed there
about seven years. After his return he
organised the Tokyo Savings Bank in
cooperation with Marquis Terumasa Ikeda
and Marquis Tadasuke Shimatsu. Further,
started the One Hundredth National Bank.
Founded the Imperial Commercial Bank
in 1894 and became its President. President
of the Yokohama Specie Bank, 1883— 1890.
H.\RA, Takashi, President of Seiyu Kwai
party, M. H. R. Born, February, 1854,
at Morioka, younger brother of Kyo Hara.
Married Asa, daughter of Yataro Suga.
Studied at Foreign Languages School and
Law College. Took up journalism as a
member of the staff of the Hochi. Went
to Korea as a newspaper correspondent
with Marquis Inoue, Special Envoy, 1882.
Entered the Foreign Office as Consul in
Tientsin; Secretary and Charge d'affaires in
Paris, 1886. Count Mutsu's Private Secre-
tary when Minister of Agriculture and
Commerce. Director of the Commercial
Bureau at Foreign Office. Promoted to
Vice-Minister of the department, 1895.
Minister to Korea, 1896. Chief Editor of
the Osaka Mainichi. Succeeded the late
Hoshi as Minister of Communications,
1900— 1901. Chief Kditor of Osaka Shimpo.
Minister of Home Department under the
Saionji Cabinet, 1906—1908. Home Minister
again and President of the Imperial Rail-
way Board, 1911— 1912. Home Minister for
tlie third time, February, 1913, which post
he resigned, 1914.
Hashimoto, Keizaburo, Second Order of
Merit, M. H. P. Born, September, 1865,
first son of Yajuro Hashimoto, a samurai of
.\iigata-ken. Married Chise, sister of Asa-
taro Yamane, a samurai of Yamaguchi-ken.
Graduated from the Law College of the
Tok>'0 Imperial University, 1890. Appointed
Secretary of the Privy Council, 1892, having
filled the posts of Councillor of the Legis-
lative Administration Bureau, Secretary of
the Financial Department, Revenue Officer,
Secretary of the Monopoly Bureau, of
several departments; appointed Vice-Min-
ister of Agriculture and Commerce, February,
1913, which post he resigned with the fall
of the Cabinet and was nominated M. H. P.
Heath, Gilbert Octavius, was born in
1873 at Wagga Wagga, New South Wales,
Australia, was educated at the Sydney
Grammar School, and admitted to prac-
tice by the Supreme Court of New South
Wales in 1897. He served in the Anglo-
Boer War during 1900, and obtained
the Queen's medal with four clasps. Mr.
Heath came to Japan early in 1904, and in
1906 he joined the firm of Crosse & Yama-
shita, of Kobe. In 1907, in conjunction
with Mr. C. N. Crosse, Mr. Heath took
over the late Mr. H. C. Litchfield's share of
the legal business which the last named
gentleman had established some time prior
to 1885, when Mr. Litchfield was Crown
Prosecutor of the British Consular Court at
Kanagawa. This old established business
had grown substantially with the develop-
ment of the commercial interests of Yoko-
hama, and the practice of the new firm,
known as Crosse & Sawada, was further
widely extended under the management of
Mr. Heath. In 1910 Dr. C. Vogt was
admitted a partner and the business was
carried on until early in 19 13 as Crosse,
Heath & Vogt. Dr. Vogt retired in 1913
and the firm name w-as changed to Crosse &
Heath, until the business was taken over
entirely by Mr. Heath at the beginning of
1916. Mr. Heath conducts a general law
business, and conveyancing, patent and
trade-mark registration, and also undertakes
the management of estates, and the invest-
ment of funds, etc. The office address is
No. 75D Yamashita-cho, Yokohama; postal
address, P. O. Box No. 117, Yokohama;
912
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
cable address "Heath," Yokohama. The
London agents for Mr. Heath are Messrs.
Stephenson, Harwood & Co., 31 Lombard
St.; Austrahan correspondents, Messrs. Gar-
land Seaborn and Abbott, Bull's Chambers,
14 Moore St., Sydney, and Messrs. Gair &
Brahe, Queensland Building, 84—88 William
St., Melbourne. Mr. Heath is a Commis-
sioner for Affidavits for the Supreme Court
of New South Wales.
HiRATA, Hatsukuma, Managing Director
and General Manager of the Dai Nippon
Artificial Manure Company, Director of
the Formosan Manure Company, the Kiyoda
Colliery Company, and of the Tokyo Indus-
trial Company, and Auditor of the Joso
Railway Company. Bom, October, 1867,
in Yamaguchi-ken, eldest son of Kwango
Hayashi and adopted by the late Yoichiro
Hirata. Married Masu, second daughter
of Hanshichi Mitsuda. Studied Chinese
classics in his native province; came to
Tokj'o, 1888; studied mathematics and
bookkeeping. Entered the Mitsui Bussan
Kaisha and ser^-ed at the branches of Otaru
and Nagasaki or at the head office. Since
then, after ser\'ing as chief of the Fishery
Department in Hokkaido and Director of the
Yingkow branch of the same firm, trans-
ferred to Councillor of the head office, 1909;
resigned the post in April, 1910, to enter
the Dai Nippon Artificial Manure Company
as its General Manager; then present post.
HoRi, Keijiro, President of the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha (Osaka Mercantile Marine
Company, Ltd.). Bom January, 1867, in
Ishikawa-ken, eldest son of Gohei Hori, a
samurai. Graduated from the Law College
of the Tokyo Imperial University, 1893.
Served in the Osaka Russian Petroleum
Company, 1893- 1895; entered the service
of the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, Ltd., December,
1895, serving successively as manager in
its branches at Chemulpo, Kobe, Shanghai,
and Hankow, 1896-1907; Chief of the
Traffic Section and Examination Section,
February, 1907; Director and Manager,
July, 1907; Vice-President, January, 191 1;
now President.
Ikegami, Shiro, Mayor of Osaka City
since .September, 1913. Born, April, 1857, in
Fukushima-ken, second son of Tasuke
Ikegami, a samurai of Fukushima clan.
Married Hama, sister of Nyoyen Kosuge
of Shizuoka. Entered the service of the
Metropolitan Police Board as a policeman
in 1877; promoted successively to be Police
Sergeant of Ishikawa and Kyoto Prefectures,
Superintendent of Kyoto Prison, Police
Inspector of Kyoto Prefecture, Chief of
Police of Chiba, Hyogo, and Osaka Prefect-
ures, Counsellor of the Osaka Prefectural
Government, then elected to present post,
September, 1913. Decorated with the Fourth
Order of Merit.
Inabata, Katsltaro, President of the
Osaka Muslin Manufacturing Company, Pro-
prietor of Inabata Dyeing Factory and the
firm of Inabata Shoten, member of the Osaka
Chamber of Commerce, etc. Bom October
30, 1862, in Kyoto, eldest son of Risuke
Inabata. Married Tomi, third daughter of
Toshige Mori, of Tokyo. Graduated from
the Kyoto Normal School, 1877; was sent to
France to study applied chemistry (first at
the Lyons Technical School and then at Paris
University) ; studied art of dyeing at a dye-
ing factory in France. Represented the Kyoto
Prefectural Exhibitors at the International
Exhibition held in Amsterdam, at the same
time investigated chemical industry in Hol-
land; returned home in 1884 after investigat-
ing the dyeing industry in England, Germany,
Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, etc.; appointed
Expert to the Kyoto Prefectural Office in
1884; inaugurated the Kyoto Dyeing School
and became its President in 1886; appointed
Chief Expert of the Kyoto Woolen Goods
Company in 1888; afterward established
the Inabata Dyeing Factory and became
its President, the khaki uniforms which
were so extensively used during the Russo-
Japanese War being manufactured by him.
Has branches in Tokyo, Tientsin, etc.
Has several times been appointed Examiner
to domestic exhibitions and fairs. Decorated
by the Government of France with the Order
of the Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur.
Inouye, Junnosuke, President of the
Yokohama Specie Bank. Bom, March, 1869,
in Oita-ken, adopted son of the late Kwanichi
Inouye. Married Chiyo, eldest daughter of
Hajime Mori, of Yamaguchi-ken. Gradu-
ated from the Law College of the Tokyo
Imperial University. Entered the service
of the Bank of Japan; occupied important
posts as Chief of the Business Bureau of the
bank. Made business tour of Europe and
America. Vice-President of the Yokohama
Specie Bank, 1911-1913.
Inukai, Takeshi, M. H. R. for Okayama-
kcn, leader of the Kokuminto (National
party). Born, April, 1855, in Okayama-ken,
second son of the late Genzayemon Inukai.
Married Chiyo, sister of Sennosuke Mita, of
Tokyo. Studied at Keio University. Be-
came Editor of the Hochi Shimbun, serving
as war correspondent of the paper during
the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877. In 1880
started the publication of the "Tokai Eco-
nomic Magazine" and strongly advocated
the principle of trade protection as opposed
to free trade, advocated by the late Ukichi
Taguchi. Appointed Junior Secretary to the
Board of Statistics the following year; re-
signed office and became member of the Con-
stitutional Progressive party, organised in
1882; elected member of the Tokyo-fu Assem-
bly same year; joined the staff of the Choya
Shimbun, becoming Editor. Elected mem-
ber of the House of Representatives, 1890;
occupied the chair of Minister of Education
for a while with the Okuma Cabinet in l8g8;
held the post of Chief of the General Com-
mittee of the Constitutional party for a
number of years; was one of the organisers
of the newly formed Kokuminto (National
party) of which he is now leader. One of the
most energetic politicians in the opposition
party. Decorated with the Second Order of
Merit.
IsHii, KiKujiRo, First Order of Merit,
Viscount (created 1916), member of the
House of Peers (October, 1916), Minister
since October, 1915. Bom, February, 1866,
in Chiba-ken, adopted into Ishii family.
Married Tama, daughter of Tadashi Kashi-
mura. Graduated from the Law College of
the Tokyo Imperial University, 1890. On
graduation passed the Diplomatic Service
Examination and entered the service of the
Foreign Department as Probationer; Diplo-
matic Attachi in 1891 ; Second Class Secretary
of Legation at Paris in 1 893 ; First Class Con-
sul at Chemulpo in 1 896 ; Second Class Secre-
tary of Legation at Peking in 1898. During
the Boxer Trouble was among the besieged;
after peace was restored was called back to
Foreign Office to fill successively the posts of
Secretary, Chief of the Section of Telegraphs
in 1900, and then Director of the Bureau of
Commercial Affairs. Was despatched to
San Francisco and Vancouver in 1907 to
investigate the anti- Japanese movements
in those places. Vice-Minister of the Foreign
Department in 1908. Ambassador to Paris,
1912-1915. Foreign Minister, 1915-1916.
Chief of the Japanese Political Mission to
America, 1917.
Itami, Jiro, Joint Managing Director of
the Nippon Yusen Kaisha since January,
191 7. Bom in Tokyo, younger brother of
Baron Haruo Itami. Married Tsutae, second
daughter of Seiji Suzuki, of Hyogo-ken.
Early entered the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and
was promoted successively to the present
post.
Ito, Takuma, Standing Director of the
Nippon Leather Company, Director of the
Tokyo Woolen Manufacturing Company and
of the Nippon Shoes Company, and Auditor
of the Okura Gumi. Born, September, 1869,
in Saijo-machi, Ehime-ken, third son of
Haruo Ito. Married Tei, eldest daughter of
Motokiyo Isahaya, 1899. Graduated from
the College of Law of the Tokyo Imperial
University, 1897, and studied further in
England. After his return home served
at the Okura Gumi, 1899-1909; became
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
913
StanriiriK Director of the Nippon Leather
Company on its establishment.
Ito, Yonejiro, Joint Managing Director
of the Nippon Yuscn Kaisha. Bom, Decem-
ber, 1 86 1, in Ehime-ken, second son of
Kihaku Ito. Married Kei, aunt of Sadaaki
Ito, of Ehime-ken. Early entered the Nip-
lion Yusen Kaisha and was promoted suc-
cessively to the present post. Before present
post was Manager of the London branch.
Ito, Yoshigoro, Baron (created 1907),
Vice-Admiral (retired), M. H. P. Born
May 5, 1858, in Nagano-ken, fourth son of
Kenji Ito, a samurai of Nagano clan. Mar-
ried Mari, daughter of a French naval officer.
Oraduated from the former Kaigunheiga-
kuryo (naval academy) in 1876. Midship-
man on board the Tsukuba in the same year.
Took part in the Satsuma Rebellion in 1880;
Sub-Lieutenant in the following year; Lieu-
tenant, 1882. Sent to France and Germany
to study gunnery, 1884-1888. Lieutenant-
Commander, 1886; Chief Gunner of the
Takachiho. Member of the Naval General
Staff and Staff-Officer of the Standing Squad-
ron in succession. Commander, 1890; Sec-
ond Captain of the Hiei, Yamato, Katsuragi,
and Takachiho, etc. Private Secretary to
the Minister of the Navy during the
Japan-China War. Captain, 1896. Legation
attache at Paris and Commander of the
Shikishiina successively; Rear Admiral, 1900;
Commander of the Standing Squadron ; Chief
of the Construction Department of the
Yokosuka Naval Station; Commander of the
Takashiki Second Naval Station, etc. Vice-
Admiral, 1905; created Baron, 1907; invested
with the Second Order of the Rising Sun
together with the Third Class of the Golden
Kite in connection with the Russo-Japanese
War.
IwASAKi, HiSAYA, millionaire. Baron (cre-
ated 1895), ex-President of the Mitsubishi
Company. Born, 1855, in Tokyo, eldest
son of the late Y. Iwasaki, the founder of the
Mitsubishi firm. Married Shizu, sister of
Viscount Masaaki Hoshina. Studied at the
Keio University and then at the Mitsubishi
Commercial School. Later went to the
United States and graduated from Penn-
sylvania University in 1891, with the degree
of LL. B. Became President of the Mitsu-
bishi Company on his return to Japan.
Was created Baron in recognition of the
meritorious services rendered to the State by
his illustrious father. He retired from the
presidency of the Mitsubishi Company in
favour of his younger lirother. Baron K.
Iwasaki, in 19 16.
Iwasaki, Koyata, Baron (created 1896),
President of the Mitsubishi Company (since
July I, 1916), Director of Tokyo Warehouse
Company, Limited, Yokohama Specie Bank,
and the A.sahi Glass Company. Born, Au-
gust, 1879, son of the late Y. Iwasaki. Mar-
ried Ko, youngest sister of Baron Sonosuke
Shimazu. Educated at Cambridge University.
Kato, Takaaki, Viscount (created July,
1916), M. H. P., leader of the Kensei-kwai
(Constitutional party). Born January 3,
1859, at Sayamura in Aichi-ken, adopted into
the family of Buhachiro Kato. Married
Haruji, youngest sister of Baron Hisaya
Iwasaki, 1886. Graduated from the Law
College of Tokyo Imperial University in 1 88 1 .
Entered business as a clerk of the Mitsubishi
Company, where he served a few years as
Manager of the Hokkaido branch. Entered
the Foreign Office, 1887, and was appointed
Private Secretary to Count Okuma (Foreign
Minister, 1888); transferred to Financial
Department and promoted to Director of the
Banking Bureau; later of the Taxation
Bureau; returned to Foreign Office and was
appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Eng-
land, 1894-1899; Minister for Foreign Affairs
under the Ito Cabinet, 1900-1901 ; elected
member of the House of Representatives for
Kochi-ken, 1902; again elected for Yokohama
in 1903; appointed Foreign Minister under
the Saionji Cabinet, 1906, but left the minis-
try owing to his opposition to the Railway
Nationalization; Ambassador to Court of
St. James until December, 191 2; joined the
late Prince Katsura's third cabinet as Foreign
Minister for the third time, but resigned very
soon owing to the sudden downfall of the
ministry; organised the Doshikwai with the
late Prince Katsura, and became its Presi-
dent, 19 13; joined the Okuma Cabinet as
Foreign Minister, April, 1914, resigning in
August, 1915; elected member of the House
of Peers, August, 1915.
Kato, Tomosaburo, Admiral, Minister of
the Navy since August, 1915. Born Feb-
ruary 22, 1859, in Hiroshima-ken. Grad-
uated from the Naval College. Appointed
Second Sub-Lieutenant, 1884; Captain, 1899;
Professor of the Naval Academy; Sectional
Chief of the Naval Affairs Bureau of the
Navy; Chief of Staff of the Standing Squad-
ron, 1902; Chief of Staff of the Kamimura
Squadron; transferred to that of the Com-
bined Fleet during the Russo-Japanese War;
appointed Vice-Minister; appointed Com-
mander-in-Chief of the First Squadron,
1906; Vice-Admiral, 1908; was given the
title of the portfolio of the Navy under the
Okuma Cabinet; Vice-Admiral, 1908. He
was the right-hand officer of Admiral Togo
and Admiral Kamimura in the Russo-
Japanese War. Took part in the Japano-
German War, 1914. Decorated with the
First Order of the Rising Sun and Second
Class of the Golden Kite and Grand Cordon
of the Rising Sun, for his services, July, 1916.
Kawasaki, Suketaro, M. H. R. for
Gifu City, President of the Kyoto Estate
and Building Company, Director of the
Nippon Petroleum Company and the Osaka
Muslin Company, dealer in foreign piece
goods. Born January 13, 1873, in Gifu-
ken, son of Kikuo Kawasaki. Married
Shiu, sister of Kichisaburo Doi. Studied
at the Kobe English Institute. At the age
of twenty-four years he started himself in
the foreign piece goods business. Has
made three trips abroad. Has a piece
goods shop in England. Elected M. H. R.
for Gifu City and belongs to the Kensei-kwai
(Constitutional party).
Kawasaki, Yoshitaro, President of the
Kobe Kawasaki Bank, Limited, and the
Fukutoku Life Insurance Company, Vice-
President of the Kawasaki Dockyard,
Limited, Director of the Arashiyama Electric
Railway Company, Limited. Bom January
7, 1869, in Hyogo-ken, eldest son of Jembei
Onizuka and adopted by Shozo Kawasaki.
Married Chika, second daughter of his
adopted father, Shozo Kawasaki. Grad-
uated at Poughkeepsie, New York, U. S. A.
Since his return home, has been engaged
in his adopted father's shipbuilding business.
(See Osaka and Kobe Shipbuilding Section,
this volume.) In the Russo-Japanese War,
1904-1905, he rendered signal services to the
State by repairing the ships of the Imperial
Navy and executing its secret orders.
Decorated with the Fourth Order of Merit
as a w'ar reward.
KiKucHi, Kvozo, Kogakuhakushi (Doctor
of Engineering), President of the Amagasaki
Cotton Yam, Limited, Managing Director
of the Settsu Cotton Yam Company,
Limited, Director of the Nippon Cotton
Yam Company, Limited. Bom in 1859
in Ehime-ken, third son of Yasunari Kikuchi.
Married Suma, second daughter of Keiyu
Shirae of Nagasaki-ken. Graduated as
Mechanical Engineer from the Kobu Dai-
gakko (former Government Technical Col-
lege), 1885, and studied cotton spinning
further in England. Returning home, he
started in the same line of business and has
greatly contributed to the success of different
cotton spinning companies. Received the
degree of Kogakuhakushi (Doctor of Engi-
neering) in February, 1915.
KiRisHiMA, ZoiCHi, Head of the Land
Department of the Mitsubishi Company.
Born in 1864 in Kochi-ken, eldest son of
Masachika Kirishima, a samurai. Married
Mitsu, youngest sister of Denjiro Hagi, a
samurai of Nagasaki. Graduated from the
Law College, Tokj'o Imperial University.
On graduation entered the Mitsubishi Com-
pany and has been promoted successively
to his present post.
914
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
1
(I) Mr. M. Nakamatsu, Counsellor at Law and Patent Attorney, Tokyo. (2) Mr. T. Tokonami, M. H. R.
(3) Mr. TsuNEjiRO Miyaoka, Prominent International Lawyer. (4) Mr. Heikichi Ogawa, Member of House of Rep-
resentatives and Counsellor at Law. (5) Mr. Ren Yabe, Counsellor at Law and Patent Attorney. (6) Dr. S. Oba,
Counsellor at Law and Patent Attorney. (7) Mr. Genzo Akiyama, Counsellor at Law, Tokyo. (8) Mr. H. Osaki,
M. H. R.
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
915
KiTA, Matazo, ManaKing Director of the
Nippon Menkwa Kabushiki Kaisha (Tlie
Japan Cotton Trading Company, Limited).
Horn September 11, 1877, at Toriido,
Katsuragi - mura, Minami - Katsuragi - gnn,
Xara-kcn, third son of Choshichiro Kita.
Married Tei, third daughter of Bunnosuke
Komura. Graduated from the Osaka Higher
Commercial School, 1894. On graduation
entered the Japan Cotton Trading Company
and served at its Bombay branch for five
years following 1896; present post since
1 9 1 1 . During that time he travelled through
India, China, Egypt, and America. Beside
the above mentioned post, he is Director
of the Osaka Meriyasu Weaving Company,
Chairman of the Japan Cotton Merchants'
Union, and Standing Member of the Osaka
Chamber of Commerce.
KoNDO, Rempe], Baron (created 191 1),
First Order of Merit, President of the Nip-
pon Yusen Kaisha, Limited, and the Nis-
shin Steamship Company, Director of the
Kirin Beer Brewery Company, Limited,
the Tokyo Marine Insurance Company,
and the Inawashiro Hydroelectric Company.
Born, November, 1848, in Tokyo, second
son of Gensen Kondo. Married Ju, youngest
sister of Ryohei Toyokawa, a famous busi-
ness man. Studied at the Keiogijuku.
Entering the service of the Mitsubishi firm,
he gained the confidence of the late Yataro
Iwasaki and served as Manager of the head
office at Tokyo and of the branch office at
Yokohama. Rendered great services in the
amalgamation of the Mitsubishi firm with
the Kyodo Unyu Kaisha, and became Vice-
President of the newly formed Nippon Yusen
Kaisha. When the war between Japan
and China broke out in 1894, he ably assisted
the late Mr. Yoshikawa, then President of
the company, in transportation of war
materials and troops, in recognition of which
he was rewarded with the Fourth Order of
Merit. President of the company on the
death of Mr. Yoshikawa. Made various
European and American trips. Created
Baron and decorated, with Second Order of
Merit for signal service in the development
of Japan's merchant marine.
KuHARA, FusANosuKE, President of Ku-
hara Mining Company, Limited. Born June,
i86g, in Yamaguchi-ken, third son of
the late Shozal)uro Kuhara, and cousin of
Baron Heitaro Fujita. Married Kiyo, sister
of Gisuke Aj'ukawa, of Yamaguchi-ken.
Graduated from Keio University, 1889.
On graduation entered the Morimura-gumi,
which post he resigned soon to enter the
Fujita-gumi, when he started his career as a
clerk at Kosaka Mines, and rose by succes-
sive promotions to be manager of the same.
Succeeded to his father's house, 1915;
A JAPANESE GEISHA
estabhshed the Kuhara Mining Company
with capital of Yen 10,000,000. Is now a
millionaire of Japan.
Ki-sHiDA, Manzo, Ph. P., Head of the
Banking Department of the Mitsu Bishi
Goshi Kaisha. Born, February, 1867, in
Tokyo, eldest son of Magosaburo Kushida.
Married Fumi, elder sister of Shigezo
Imamura. Studied at the University's
Preparatory School; studied finance and
economics in the University of Pennsylvania,
graduating in 1890. On his return home,
1894, entered the Banking Department of
Mitsu Bishi Goshi Kaisha and served at the
branches in Osaka and Kobe; returned to
the head office, 1901, and occupied the
post of Sub-Manager of Banking Depart-
ment; then present post.
Makoshi, Kvohei, President of the Dai
Nippon Brewery Company and of the
Ihara and Kasaoka Light Railway Company,
Presiding Director of the Nippon Acetic
Acid Company and of the Tokyo Hat Com-
pany, Director of the Toho Fire Insurance
Company and of the Inawashiro Hydro-
Electricity Company, Auditor of the South
Manchuria Railway Company, the Toyo-
kawa Railway Company, and the Dairen
Real Estate Company, Member of the
Tokyo Chamber of Commerce. Born,
October, 1844, in Okayama-ken, second son
of Gensen Makoshi. Married Kiku, second
daughter of Mambei Kurano. In 1873 he
came to Tokyo and entered the Mitsui
Bussan Kaisha, shortly afterward being ap-
pointed Manager of its Yokohama branch.
Became President of the Nippon Brewery
in 1892. When, in 1905, this company was
amalgamated with the Sapporo and Osaka
Beer Companies, under the name of the
Dai Nippon Brewery Company, he was
elected President, which position he still
holds. In 1898 he was elected a member
of the House of Representatives for Oka-
yama-ken. Made a tour through Europe
and America for business investigations in
191 2; went to China with Baron Shibusawa
in 1913. He is one of the leading business
men in Japan, and has been decorated with
the Fourth Order of the Rising Sun.
Matsui, Keishiro, First Order of Merit,
Ambassador to Paris since November, 1915.
Born March 5, 1868, in Osaka, second son
of Yasuzo Matsui. Married Teru, sister
of Shigezo Imamura. Graduated from the
Law College of Tokyo Imperial University,
1889. Appointed Probationer of Foreign
Affairs after graduation; Third Legation
Secretary, 1893; Second Legation Secretary,
1894; attache to the Japanese Embassy at
Washington, Januar\', 1895; First Legation
Secretary, September, 1897; served at the
Japanese Embassy in London, April, 1898,
and at Peking, September, 1902; Councillor
of the Foreign Office, July, 1905; Councillor
to the Embassy in Paris, March, 1906;
appointed Councillor to the Embassy at
Washington, March, 1906; recalled to the
Foreign Office to take up the post of Vice-
Minister; then present post.
M.\tsukat.i, Goro, Si.xth Order of Merit,
Managing Director of the Oriental Sugar
9i6
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Refining Company, Limited, President of
the Tokyo Gas and Electric Industrial
Company, the Horoshima Gas Company,
and of the Tokiwa Shokwai, Director of the
Tokai Life Insurance Company, and Auditor
of the Ujigawa Electric Company. Born,
April, 1871, in Kagoshima City, fifth son of
Marquis Masayoshi Matsukata. Married
Kame, second daughter of Chujiro Shibu-
kawa. Graduated from the Law College of
the Toyko Imperial University in 1896;
studied in England and Germany, 1897—
1901. Since his return to Japan, he has
devoted all his energies to the great busi-
ness enterprises with which he is connected.
Matsukata, Kojiro, President of the
Kawasaki Shipbuilding Yard, the Kobe
Gas Company, and the Kyushu Electric
Tramway Company, Director of the Osaka
Sirup Manufacturing Company. Bom, De-
cember, 1895, third son of Marquis Ma-
sayoshi Matsukata. Married Yoshi-ko, sister
of Viscount Takateru Kuki. Graduated
from the Peers' School and the Imperial
University; studied in Europe and America.
Upon return home became Lecturer of the
Tokyo Imperial University; resigned to
enter business. Elected M. H. R. for Kob(?
City, 191 2.
Matsukata, Masayoshi, Marquis (Count,
created in 1884 and Marquis in 1906),
M. H. p.. Privy Councillor, Councillor of
the Bureau of Decorations. Born, February,
1835, in Kagoshima, fourth son of Yenzo
Matsukata, a samurai of Kagoshima.
Married Masako, first daughter of Sadayu
Kawakami, a samurai of Kagoshima. Is
one of the "Elder Statesmen." Entered
the Financial Department soon after the
Restoration and became Minister of Finance
in 1 881; held the post over ten years and
instituted great reforms. In 189 1 formed
a Cabinet and became the Premier with
additional portfolio of Minister of Finance.
Ministry fell the following year, unable to
withstand the united attacks of the opposite
parties; was again Minister of Finance on
the occasion of the Japan-China War; was
obliged to resign his post in consequence of
differences of opinion with the late Prince
Ito, then Premier. His second Ministry,
1896-1897, was made memorable by the
establishment of the gold standard. Was
Financial Minister in the Yamagata Ministry
that followed, 1898-1900. In 1902 he
travelled through Europe and America. A
Privy Councillor since July, 1903; President
of the Japan Red Cross Society in 1903,
which post he resigned in 19 13. Has been
decorated with the Order of the Chrysan-
themum and promoted to the rank of
Marquis in recognition of meritorious ser-
vices. Publications, "Report on the Adjust-
ment of Paper Currency" (in Japanese);
"History of National Debts in Japan"
(translated into EngUsh); "Report on the
Post Bellum Financial Administration in
Japan" (translated into English); "Notice
Historique sur la R(5forme de I'Import
Fonder au Japony" (written in French).
Matsumuro, Itasu, Minister of Justice
since October, 1916. Born, January, 1852,
in Fukuoka-ken, first son of Shingo Mat-
sumuro, a samurai of Fukuoka-ken. Married
Koto, first daughter of Tsuneyuki Yotsuya,
a samurai of Tokyo. Graduated from the
Law College of the Tokyo Imperial University
in 1884. Appointed Probationary Judge,
1884; Judge of the Tokyo Court of Appeal
in the same year; Public Procurator and
Procurator in Chief of the Nagasaki Court
of Appeal, June, 1898; President of the same
court, June, 1901; Procurator-General of
the Supreme Court, July, 1904. In addition,
he has held the posts of President of the
Administrative Litigation Court; Minister
of Justice under the second Katsura Cabinet,
December, 19 12, to February, 1913; Chief
Auditor to the Imperial Household Treasury,
July, 1914, to October, 1916. On the forma-
tion of the Terauchi Cabinet he was appointed
to his present post. He was decorated
with the First Order of the Sacred Treasure,
in October, 1915.
Matsuo, Hisao, Director of the Mousseline
de Laine Spinning and Weaving Company,
Limited. Born, March, 1871, in Mie-ken,
fourth son of Kazunao Matsuo. Married
Matsuko, elder daughter of Heisaku lida,
of Oita-ken. Graduated from the Economic
Course of the Keio University, 1894. Joined
the staff of the Jiji Shimpo, a daily paper,
as writer, immediately after graduation;
was in China as the Peking correspondent
for the above mentioned paper, 1896- 1898;
Manager of the Osaka branch of the Jiji
Shimposha; Manager of Murai Brothers &
Company, 1899; connected with the present
company since 1908.
Megata, Tanetaro, Baron (created
1906), Member of House of Peers. Born
July 20, 1853, first son of Kosuke Megata,
a samurai. Married Itsu, adopted sister
of Count Katsu. Graduated from Harvard
University; studied economics; returned
home and served as judge, Secretary of the
Financial Department and the State Council;
Revenue Officer; Councillor of Finance;
Director of Reventie Bureau; Director of
Experimentary Brewery Laboratory; went
to Europe and America as superintendent
of Government students; appointed Financial
Advisor to Korean Government, 1904,
holding the post until October, 1907, when
the new Japan-Korean agreement was
concluded; nominated member of the House
of Peers, 1904; created Baron in recognition
of meritorious service during the Russo-
Japanese War. Has been decorated with
the Second Order of Merit. Head of
Japanese Commercial Mission to America,
1917-1918.
MiSHiMA, Yataro, Viscount (succeeded
as, 1888), Member of House of Peers,
President of the Bank of Japan since Feb-
ruary, 1913. Bom April, 1867, first son of
the late Viscount Michiyoshi Mishima.
Married Kane-ko, sister of Marquis Taka-
naru Shijyo. Studied in an American
university, 1884- 1888; repeated his visit,
1889-1892.' Appointed Expert of Hokkaido,
1 888 ; elected member of the House of Peers,
July, 1897; Director of the Yokohama
Specie Bank; promoted to the presidency
of the same, 191 1; present post since 1913.
Has been decorated with the Fourth Order
of the Rising Sun.
MiY.AOKA, TsuNEjiRO, Lawyer. Born in
1865 at Osaka. Married Keiko, second
daughter of Ginsaku Masaki, a samurai.
Graduated with honors in law from the
Tokyo Imperial University, 1887. Entered
diplomatic service, being commissioned as
Attache of Legation and assigned to duties
in Law Bureau of the Department of Foreign
Affairs, 1887. Secretary of Legation and Jun-
ior Councillor of the department, 1889:
Charge d'affaires at Washington, 1894; First
Secretary of Legation at Berlin, 1 894-1900,
part of that time acting as Charge d'affaires:
Minister Resident and Senior Councillor of
the department, 1900-1906; represented
Japanese Government before International
Arbitral Tribunal of The Hague, 1904-1905;
Councillor of Embassy at Washington with
rank of Minister Plenipotentiary, 1906-1908;
President of Japanese Commission to In-
ternational Opium Conference, 1909. Re-
signed to take up general practice of law,
1909.
MoTONO, Ichiro, Viscount (created 1916),
Hogakuhakushi, Foreign Minister since
November, 1916. Born, Ferbuary, 1862,
in Saga-ken, first son of Seikyo Motono, a
samurai of Saga clan. Married Hisa-ko,
elder sister of Viscount Ikizo Nomura.
Graduated from the University of Lyons,
France. On his return home was appointed
translator in the Foreign Office, 1890; then
Councillor, 1893, and had conferred on him
the degree of Hogakuhakushi; private secre-
tary to the Foreign Minister and Councillor
to the Administrative Bureau, 1895; trans-
ferred as First Secretary of Legation at
St. Petersburg, 1896; appointed Minister-
Resident at Brussels, 1898; was a Junior
Delegate of Japan to the Peace Conference
held at The Hague, 1899; transferred to be
Minister at Paris, 1901 ; Ambassador at
1
I
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
917
Petrograd, January, 1906. Has been deco-
rated with the First Order of the Grand
Cordon of the Rising Sun. Created Viscount
for his distinguished services to the State,
July, 1916.
MuRAl, KiCHlBEi, President of the Murai
Head Office, the Murai Bank, and the Murai
Savings Bank, Director of the Murai Steam-
ship Company, the Murai Coal Mining
Company, the Teikoku Reeling Company,
the Imperial Hotel, the Murai Warehouse
Company, Auditor of the Hohden Petroleum
Oil Company, of the Toa Flour Refining
Company, of the Imperial Theatre Company,
and of the Formosan Sugar Refining Com-
pany. Born, Januarj', 1864, in Kyoto,
second son of Yahei Murai, and adopted
by Kichiemon Murai, his uncle. Married
Kaoru-ko, daughter of Viscount Hinonishi.
Went to America; studied the manufacture
of cigarettes. His cigarettes first appeared
on the market in 1893; being extensively
advertised they developed an important
sale in Japan, and by 1903 had practically
stopped the import of foreign cigarettes;
also exported to China and other countries
in large quantities. In 1889 a combine
was formed with the American Tobacco
Compan}' under the name of Murai Brothers
& Company, of which company he was
elected President and Director. This con-
cern was purchased by the Government
when it launched the Tobacco Monopoly
in 1905. He established the Murai Bank;
has opened branches and agencies in all the
important commercial centres of the Empire.
Now interested in many enterprises.
Naito, Hisahiro, President of the Nippon
Kerosene Company, Limited, Director of
Niigata Iron Works. Born July 22, 1859,
in Niigata-ken, eldest son of Hisayuki Xaito.
Married Saga, younger sister of Shoji Hiro-
kawa, o£ the same province. Elected mem-
ber of the Prefectural Assembly, 1885; mem-
ber House of Representatives, 1894; estab-
lished the Nippon Petroleum Company,
Limited, 1888. While holding a seat in
Parliament he went to Europe to inspect
petroleum industries, commissioned by the
Department of Agriculture and Commerce,
1897; returned home in December of the
same year; sent to America by the same
department, 1904; returned home in August
of the same year; nominated Councillor of the
Japan Grand Exhibition, 1908. Was given
a "Blue Ribbon " in recognition of his brilliant
services, 1909.
Nakahashi, ToKiGORo, Third Order of
Merit, M. H. R. for Kanazawa City, Presi-
dent of the Ujigawa Electric Company,
Limited, President of the Japan Lime Nitro-
gen Company, Limited, Auditor of the South
Manchuria Railway Company, Limited.
Born, 1864, in Kanazawa, fifth son of
Soichi Saito, a samurai of Kanawa,
adopted into the Nakahashi family. Mar-
ried Etsu, adopted daughter of the late
Baron Demzaburo Fujita. Studied law,
politics, and political economy at the Tokyo
Imperial University. When he graduated,
in 1886, he became judge, but soon was
transferred to the administrative service and
contributed to the development of industry as
Councillor of the Agriculture and Commerce
Department. In 1889 he was appointed
Councillor of the Bureau of Legislation, and
visited England, France, Germany, Austria,
Italy, Russia, and North America as the
Commissioner, and engaged in investigation
of the parliamentary systems of Europe and
America. When he returned to Japan in
the following year, after studying the consti-
tutional governments of the above men-
tioned countries, the First Parliament of
the Empire was about to be opened, and he
was appointed Secretary of the House of
Representatives. In 1 891 he was trans-
ferred to the Department of Communica-
tions, and after serving as Director of the
Accounts Bureau and Director of the Inspec-
tion Bureau, he was promoted to the post of
Director of the Railway Bureau. In 1898
he became the President of the Osaka Shosen
Kaisha (Osaka Mercantile Steamship Com-
pany). At that time the economic circles
of the Empire were panic stricken as a conse-
cjuence of the Japan-China War, and various
industrial companies were brought to the
brink of ruin. Especially was the carrying
trade badly depressed. Hereupon Mr. Naka-
hashi carried out certain reforms in the
administration of the company, and also
endeavoured to increase its income. As a
result, the business gradually began to
improve. He also regulated the old service
lines, and at the same time opened new-
ones. Thus, reforming the administration
on the one hand, and amalgamating with
other companies also engaged in coast navi-
gation on the other, the business was almost
doubled. Since passing through the Russo-
Japanese War, the foundation of the company
has become more solid, and the business has
gone on expanding. At present steamship
services of the company include Japan, For-
mosa, Southern China, Northern China,
Manchuria, Korea, Vladivostock, Saghalien,
and America. After Mr. Nakahashi wit-
nessed the prosperity of the company, he
resigned the presidency, in 19 14. When the
Uji-rivcr Electric Company was established
in 1906, he was chosen its President. The
object of the company is to utilize the water-
power of Biwa, the largest lake of Japan, and
to supplj' electric power to Osaka, Kyoto,
and other large towns in the vicinity. The
capital of the company is 12,500,000 yen.
The plans for the work are the largest of their
kind in Japan. Mr. Nakahashi was elected
a member of the Osaka Municipal Assembly,
and became its President; was elected
M. H. R. for Osaka City in 1912, and for
Kanazawa City in 1916 and 1917. Publi-
cation: "Removal of the Imperial Capital
to Osaka "
.Naka.matsu, Morio, F. R. S. A., is one of
the leading and best known authorities in
Japan on the law relating to patents, and
generally regarding industrial matters as
they affect foreign concerns. His experience
is a very lengthy one, and from the dis-
tinguished official career which he had before
entering upon private practice as Counsellor
at Law and Patent Attorney, it will be
seen that Mr. Nakamatsu is particularly
well qualified to direct the Nakamatsu
International Patent and Law Office which
he founded. The subject of this sketch was
born in Wakayama Prefecture, and grad-
uated from the Law College of the Tokyo
Imperial University in 1891. He entered
the service of the Government in the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Commerce, and was
appointed Secretary of the Patent Office in
1895. He served in this office for eighteen
years, the last six as Director. Mr. Naka-
matsu took part in the drafting of all the
legislation relating to industrial property,
and as representative of his Government
he attended the Technical Congress for the
unification and simplification of industrial
property, held at Berne in 1904. In 191 1,
in a similar capacity, he attended the Con-
ference of the International Union for the
Protection of Industrial Property, held at
Washington. He resigned his public position
in 1913 and opened a patent and law office
the following year. Mr. Nakamatsu has
therefore had an intimate knowledge and
great experience in matters relating to
industrial property, both at home and
abroad. The staff of the Nakamatsu Inter-
national Patent and Law Office is well
appointed, and the business is growing
steadily year by year. Members of the
staff are Messrs. R. Ono, Chemical Engineer,
Patent Attorney, and ex-Chief Examiner
of the Imperial Patent Office; K. Okada,
Mechanical Engineer, Patent Attorney, and
ex- Assistant Examiner of the Imperial
Patent Office; S. Yashima, Counsellor at
Law and Patent Attorney, graduate of
the Tokyo Imperial University, and Y.
Ikeda, Counsellor at Law and Patent
Attorney, graduate of the Tokj-o Imperial
University.
The office address of Mr. Nakamatsu is
No. 21 Mitsubishi Building, Marunouchi,
Tokyo.
9i8
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
Nakano, Buei, Chairman of the Tokyo
Chamber of Commerce, Chairman of the
Tokyo Municipal Assembly, President of
the Nisshin Life Insurance Company,
Director of the Ishikari Colliery Company,
Limited, and of the Hakodate Water Power
Electric Company, Limited. Born January
3, 1848, at Takamatsu in Kagawa-ken,
eldest son of Kaichi Nakano, a samurai.
Married Sen, younger sister of Nagayuki
Shimazu, a samurai of Kagawa-ken. Enter-
ed the Kagawa Prefectural Office in 1872;
an administrative official of the Kumamoto
Prefectural Office at the time of the Saigo
Rebellion; then of the Yamaguchi Pre-
fectural Office; entered the Central Govern-
ment as Junior Secretary to the Department
of Agriculture and Commerce, 1881 ; resigned
with Count Okuma and joined Kaishinto
(Progressive party) in 1888; was elected
member of the Prefectural Assembly of
Kagawa, his native place, and was after-
wards appointed Chairman. Began his
business career as Vice-President of the
Tokyo Stock Exchange, Limited; then
President of the Kansai Railway Company,
Limited. Was elected M. H. R. to the
first session of the Imperial Diet in 1890;
elected successively eight times. Filled
important posts in various companies;
nominated Chairman of the Tokyo Chamber
of Commerce until 191 7; Chairman of Tokyo
City Assembly, June, 1914. Visited America
in 1909.
Editor's Note: To Mr. Nakano much
of the success of this compilation is due,
inasmuch as he gave it his very enthusiastic
support and approval, for which we make
grateful acknowledgment.
Nakashoji, Ren, Second Order of Merit,
M. H. P., Minister of Agriculture and
Commerce since October, 1916. Born, July,
1866, in Yamaguchi-ken, second son of
Kyuryo Nakashoji, a samurai. Married
Yae, third daughter of Asazo Shimamoto of
Hyogo-ken. Graduated from the English
Law School in 1882; passed the Government
examination for the Bench in 1887; Clerk
of law court; Public Procu. in 1890; Procu.
of the Yokohama District Coiu-t, then of
the Tokyo Court of Appeal; Councillor of
the Department of Justice; sent to England
in 1901; Director of the Bureau of Civil
Engineering in the Home Department in
1904, then of the Police Bureau in the same
year; Vice-Minister of Communications
until December, 191 3; Minister of Agricul-
ture and Commerce from December, 191 2,
to February, 19 13; then nominated M. H. P.
Oba, Dr. Shige.ma, Jr., Doctor of Law
and Patent Attorney, holds a distinguished
place in the legal system of Japan, and is
recognised as an authority on criminal
jurisprudence. He was born in Yamagata
in November, 1869, a son of the late Iwazo
Oba, a samurai. Dr. Oba graduated in the
English Course of the Hogakuin (now the
Chuo University), July, 1899. Previous
to this he had passed the examinations
qualifying him to practise law (1891), and
to take a seat on the bench when appointed.
He entered upon the practice of his pro-
fession, and in October, 1895, was appointed
He is an ardent advocate of the revision of
the new Crinimal Code now in force. He
was elected a member of the House of
Representatives for Yamagata Prefecture
in 1915. Dr. Oba has written extensively
on legal matters, his most important works
being, "Fundamental Principles of Criminal
Policy," "Fundamental Subjects of Criminal
Policy," "Introduction to Criminal Law,"
" The Jury System, " "Method of Identifying
gamman, nikko
a judge, taking seat in turn at Osaka, Kob^,
and Nagoya. Dr. Oba was a judge until
1908, when he was made Public Procurator
for the Tokyo District Court, a position
he held for three years. In vSeptember,
1905, he went to Germany to investigate
the conduct of public prosecutions, and
while there he entered the Law College of
Muchen University, graduating as Doctor
of Jurisprudence in 1907. On his return
to Japan, Dr. Oba was appointed Public
Procurator of the Tokyo District Court,
and Councillor of the Department of Justice
in April, 1908. He also served at the
Bureau of Civil and Criminal Affairs, and
the Prison Bureau. He was Manager of
the Legal Investigation Committee, 1908-
1913, and obtained the degree of Hogakuha-
kushi (Doctor of Law), March, 1913. The
following month he was appointed a judge
of the Supreme Court, but after one year's
service resigned his official post to enter
private practice as Counsellor at Law and
Patent Attorney. Dr. Oba is well known
for having introduced the finger-print sys-
tem of identification in criminal affairs.
Culprits," etc. Dr. Oba's office address is
No. 3 Yurakucho, 3-Chome, Kojimachi,
Tokyo.
Okada, Ryohei, Minister of Education
since October, 1916. Born, May, 1864,
in Shizuoka-ken, eldest son of the late
Ryoichiro Okada, a samurai of Kakegawa
clan. Married Misao, second daughter of
Tsutomu Ishiguro, a samurai of Shiga-ken.
Graduated from the College of Literature
of the Tokyo Imperial University, 1887.
Appointed Professor of the former First
Higher Middle School; School Inspector of
the Department of Education; Councillor
to the same; President of the Yamaguchi
Higher Middle School; Secretary of the
Department of Education; member of the
Higher Educational Council; Councillor to
the Department of Education; Director of
the Technical Education Bureau of the
same; Secretary-General of the same; Lord-
in-waiting in the Kinkei Hall. He repre-
sented Japan at the International Popula-
tion and Sanitation Conference held at
Paris, 1900; nominated member House of
Peers, 1904; President of the Kyoto Imperial
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
919
University, 1907; Vice-Minister of Education
in 1908, which post he later resigned.
Oklra, Kihachiro, Second Order of
Merit, Baron (created December i, 1915),
millionaire. President of the Okura Gumi,
Presiding Director of the Imperial Hotel,
Limited, of the Japan Chemical Industrial
Company, of the Tokai Paper Materials
Company, and of the Imperial Theatre;
Director of the Oriental Steamship Company,
the Narita Railway Company, the Tokyo
Electric Light Company, the Koriyama
Silk Spinning Company, the Dai- Nippon
Beer Brewery Company, the Niitaka Sugar
Refining Company, the Teikoku Hemp
Manufacturing Company, and the Tokyo
Rope Manufacturing Company; Auditor of
the Japan Shoes Manufacturing Company,
the Hokkaido Colonization Bank, the Uji-
kawa Electric Company, the Formosan
Bank, etc.. Bom September, 1837, at
Shibata in Niigata-ken, second son of
Sennosuke Okura. Married Toku, elder
daughter of Tome Mochida. Grew up
under the parental roof, but when seventeen
years of age lost his parents, and the next
year came to Tokyo. Employed by a grocer,
and after five years started business inde-
pendently. At the time of the Restoration
he sold arms and ammunition, from which
he derived a large profit. Subsequently he
imported Western arms. Later he founded
a foreign tailor's shop — a pioneer in that
business in Japan. In 1872 he travelled
through Europe and America to study
commerce and industry in the West, and
opened a branch office in London, from
which ever since he has operated an export
and import business. In the Formosan
Expedition of 1874 and the Civil War of
1877, he rendered great services to the
Government by supplying provisions and
other necessaries to the Imperial forces. In
1880 he went to America in order to regain
the market for Japanese tea there and to
encourage its export, as our tea export to
America was then decreasing owing to dis-
creditable actions on the part of traders.
In this mission he was successful. Again,
in 1884, he travelled through Europe and
America for commercial and industrial
observation. On his return he established
the Engineering Department of his firm,
and was contractor to the Army in this line
of work during the Japan-China and Russo-
Japanese Wars. Baron Okura is one of
the founders of the present Tokyo Chamber
of Commerce, in which for many years he
held the post of Vice-President. In 1888 he
contributed a large sum of money toward
the Coast Defence expenses and was granted
the Court rank of Junior Fifth Grade. He
made a donation of Yen 500,000 toward
the establishment of the Okura Commercial
School and also rendered great financial aid
in the inauguration of the Osaka and the
Seoul Commercial Schools. Lately he has
offered Yen 1,000,000 to the Government
as a relief fund for poor people, following
the example of His Majesty's recent gracious
donation of the kind. He has been decorated
with the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure
in recognition of his meritorious service,
both in the Japan-China and in the Russo-
Japanese War. After the latter war he
went to China to investigate business
conditions. He founded the Okura Fine
Arts Hall. On the occasion of the Corona-
tion Ceremony of H. I. M. the Emperor,
December, 1915, he was created Baron.
Olsen, Captain C, well known in the
Yokohama business community, and prob-
ably just as familiar a figure throughout the
Far East, Captain C. Olsen is one of the
interesting types of foreigners who have
pioneered the mercantile marine and other
interests of the Empire. The subject of
this sketch, Canute Olsen, was born at
Stavanger, Norway, June 21, 1 85 1. He
spent the early years of his life at sea in
sailing ships, and first came to Japan in 1877.
At that time Japan had practically no
merchant marine, and foreign officers were
badly wanted for the few ships that were
running. The Mitsui Bishi Shipping Com-
pany offered Captain Olsen a position, and
in 1879 he joined that company's service as
second officer. He remained with the
Mitsui Bishi Company until its amalgama-
tion with the Kiodo Uenyu Steamship Co.,
and then transferred to the new company,
afterwards so well known as the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha, serving on their ships as
Chief Officer. He became a captain in 1890.
During the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5,
Captain Olsen served as master of a steamer
engaged in transport work, etc., and for his
distinguished services to Japan he was
decorated by the Emperor Meiji with the
Sixth Order of the Rising Sun. In 1899
Captain Olsen retired from the service of
the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and paid a visit
to Norway, after having been away from
his birthplace for over thirty-two years.
On his return to Japan he joined the Akazawa
Copper Mining Company in 1902, and
became Manager of the mine. He remained
in his position until 1904, when the Europeans
interested in the property had to sell out on
account of lack of funds. The mine is now-
one of the richest in the country, having
been properly developed under the name
of the Hitachi Kozan. Captain Olsen then
established his present business as a marine
and general surv'eyor in Yokohama. He
was appointed surveyor to the Bureau
Ycritas of Paris, and after the beginning of
the present war he took over the inspector-
ship of that institution, also becoming their
agent in Yokohama. Captain Olsen estab-
lished the Japan agency for the Norske
Lloyd Fire and Marine Insurance Company
of Christiania. He is also agent for the
Bergens, Agders and Vidar Insurance Clubs
of Norway. Captain Olsen is married to
a Japanese lady and has one son. His
office address is 167 Yamashita-cho, Yoko-
hama, and private residence, 914 Daijingu-
yama, Kitagata, Yokohama.
OoKA, Ikuzo, M. H. R. for Yamaguchi-
ken. Born June, 1856, in Yamaguchi-ken,
eldest son of the late lori Ooka of Yamaguchi-
ken. Married Yoshi, second daughter of
Matabei Yamamoto of Tokyo. Studied
German at the Medical School in Nagasaki;
studied law in the Law School of the Depart-
ment of Justice; became a lawyer in 1880;
appointed President of Kyoritsu College in
1882; joined the Progressive party the
same year; elected member of Tokyo
Prefectural Assembly in 1885; elected mem-
ber of House of Representatives in 1890,
1892, 1894, 1898, 1902, 1903, 1907, and 1912;
established the Kokumin Kyokai with the
late Marquis Saigo and Viscount Shinagawa
in 1892; proprietor of the Chiio Shimbun,
1893-1910; went to China with the late
Prince Ito in 1898; made an inspection tour
through Europe and America in 1899; on
his return home established the Seiyukawi
under the presidency of Prince Ito; elected
Chairman of the Tokyo Municipal Council
in 1905; President of the House of Repre-
sentatives, 191 1 ; appointed Minister of
Education, March, 1913, but on the over-
throw of the Yamamoto Cabinet, in con-
sequence of the Naval Scandal, resigned the
next month.
OsAKi, HiROYOSHi, member of the House
of Representatives for Matsuyama City,
besides being a well known young business
man in Tokyo, is one of the vital factors in
Japan's politics. He does not belong to
any political party, and exercises a vigourous
independence in his attitude on the big
questions which confront the Japanese
politician. His criticism of the Government
is striking and his speeches on many impor-
tant matters of policy have attracted Empire-
wide notice. Mr. Osaki was bom in Matsu-
yama City in July, 1878, the son of Hiromasa
Osaki. He graduated in the political course
of the Law College of the Tokyo Imperial
University in 1902, and then entered the
service of the Mitsui Bank. He was
appointed Managing Director of the Chu-
Nichi Jitsugyo Kabushiki Kaisha (Japan-
China Industrial Development Company,
Ltd.) in August, 1913. At the elections in
59
920
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
April, 191 7, Mr. Osaki was returned to the
House of Representatives for his native city.
OsAWA, Shozo, Vice-President of the
Japan Leather Company, President of the
Japan Shoes Manufacturing Company.
Bom May, 1849, in Tokyo, third son of
Ruiemon Osawa, a Tokj'o samurai. Married
Moyo, elder daughter of Hirozo Shindo, a
samurai of Chiba-ken.
OsHiMA, Ken-ichi. Lieutenant-General,
Minister of War since 1916. Bom May,
1858, in Gifu-ken, eldest son of the late
Keinoshin Oshima, a samurai of Gifu-ken.
Married Isoyu, elder daughter of Yu Shimi-
dzu, a samurai of Aichi-ken. Graduated
from the Military Academy, 188 1 ; prosecuted
his military studies in Germany and France,
1 890- 1 893; Sub- Lieutenant of Artillery,
December, 1881; Lieutenant, May, 1885;
Captain, December, 1889; Major, December,
1894; Lieutenant-Colonel, October, 1899;
Colonel, December, 1902; Major-General,
November, 1906 ; Lieutenant-General, August,
1913. Was Chief of Staff of the General
Commimications Department and later Chief
of the Karafuto Delimitation Committee in
the Russo-Japanese War. Vice-Chief of
the General Staff Office, September, 1912;
Vice-Minister, April, 1904; promoted to
Minister of War, March, 1916. Decorated
with the First Order of Merit and the Third
Class of the Golden Kite.
Otani, Kahei, one of the largest tax-
payers of Kanagawa-ken ; tea, silk, and
cocoon export merchant; Chairman of the
Yokohama Chamber of Commerce; Chair-
man of the Central Chamber of the Tea
Traders' Association; President of the
Yokohama Seventy-fourth Bank, Limited,
the Yokohama Savings Bank, the Japan
Tea Manufacturing Company, and the
Tokiwa Life Insurance Company; Director
of the Tokyo Fire Insurance Companj' and
the Yokohama Wire-Telegraphic Company;
Auditor of the Teikoku Marine Transporta-
tion Fire Insurance Company, the Japan
Hypothec Bank, and the Bank of Taiwan
(Formosa). Bom, 1844, in Mie-ken, fourth
son of Ichibei Otani. Went to Yokohama in
1862 and engaged chiefly in the tea export
business; in 1872 inaugurated a tea manu-
facturing company and greatly contributed
to the improvement and development of
the industry; in 1881 rendered a good
service in the readjustment of the financial
difficulties of the Seventy-fourth Bank;
being elected its President, he placed the
business of the bank on a sound basis; in
1884 organised the Yokohama Tea Mer-
chants' Guild of which he became President;
elected Chairman of the Central Associa-
tion of the United Tea Merchants' Guilds,
which post he still occupies; elected member
and afterwards Chairman of the Yokohama
Municipal Council; President of the Yoko-
hama Educational Society since 1893;
organised the Japan Tea Manufacturing
Company, becoming its President. Appoint-
ed Councillor of the Japanese Exhibits
Business Bureau at the time of the Paris
International Grand Exhibition in 1896.
Elected President of the Yokohama Chamber
of Commerce, the Yokohama Conscription
Encouragement Society, and member of
the Yokohama Harboiu- Investigation Com-
mittee. In 1898, when the United States
Government decided to levy heavy duties
on Japanese tea, he was elected, w-ith the
unanimous approval of the tea merchants
in Japan, as their representative, to proceed
to America and lay the case before President
McKinley. The mission proving successful,
the high tariff was abolished the following
year. During his stay in America he also
attended the International Commercial Con-
gress held in Philadelphia, representing the
Tokyo and Yokohama Chambers of Com-
merce, and submitted a proposition for the
rapid construction of the direct submarine
cable between Japan and America, across
the Pacific Ocean. The proposal having
been eventually adopted, the Pacific Com-
mercial Cable Company was formed. He
returned home the following year, after
having made a tour through Europe. He
was decorated with the Third Order of
Merit in 1907. He was a member of the
party invited by the United Chambers of
Commerce of the Pacific Coast in 1909.
In 19 10 he travelled in China and Korea.
Saka, Nakasuke, Third Order of Merit,
Governor of Niigata-ken. Bom January
29, 1879, in Yamaguchi-ken, first son of the
late Chusuke Saka, a samurai of Yamaguchi-
ken. Married Tatsu, first daughter of
Kuwasuke Nakao, of the same prefecture.
Studied law, and passed the Higher Civil
Service Examination in 1885. Appointed
a subordinate official in the Home Depart-
ment; Probational Public Auditor; Secretary
of the Board of Auditors; Private Secretary
to the Home Minister, June, 1901; Secre-
tary to Aichi-ken, November, 1904; Com-
missioner to Kanagawa-ken, July, 1906; then
Governor of Ibaraki-ken in October, 1908;
Governor of Ishikawa-ken, December 1912,
April, 1914; then transferred to present
post.
Sato, Aimaro, Japanese Ambassador to
Washington, 1916 and 1917. Born March,
1857, in Aomori-ken, second son of Itsuro
Yamanaka, a samurai of Aomori, and
adopted by Kiyoei Sato. Married Yuki,
first daughter of Tsunao Tsushima, a samurai
of Aomori-ken. Graduated from an Ameri-
can university, 1881; appointed clerk in the
Foreign Office the same year; Legation
Secretary unattached, 1886, and Chief of
the Telegraph Section; Secretary to the
Legation at Washington, 1888; transferred
to London, 1891 ; recalled home and appointed
Chief of Telegraph and Translation Section,
1893; First Class Secretary to the Legation
at Paris, 1896, and at Berlin, 1898; Minister
Resident, 1900; accredited to Mexico;
recalled home in 1902. He had charge of the
special correspondence business during the
Russo-Japanese War, and was in the suite
of the Peace Plenipotentiary at Portsmouth,
1905; Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary to Holland, 1906; attended
the Second International Peace Conference
held at The Hague, 1907; attended the
International Opium Conference at The
Hague, October, 191 1; Ambassador to
Austria-Hungary, August, 1914. Decorated
with the First Order of the Sacred Treasure
and with many foreign orders.
Sato, Tetsutaro, V'ice-Admiral, Pres-
ident of the Naval College since December,
191 6. Born July 17, 1866, in Yamagata-ken,
eldest son of the late Yujiro Hiramuki.
Married Aya, sister of Viscount Chosei
Ogasawara. Graduated from the Naval
Academy, 1887. Appointed Second Sub-
Lieutenant, June, 1893, and to the present
rank of Rear-Admiral in December, 1912.
Staff to Standing Squadron and Second
Squadron, Captain of Aso, a warship of
First Squadron. Sent twice to Europe
and America. Took part in the Sino-
Japanese and the Russo-Japanese Wars.
Decorated with the Second Order of the
Sacred Treasure and the Third Class of the
Golden Kite.
Shimamura, Hayao, Baron (created July
14, 19 16), Vice- Admiral, Chief of the Naval
General Staff since April, 19 14. Bom
September, 1858, in Kochi, second son of the
late Sagohei Shimamura, a samurai of Kochi.
Married Kudao, first daughter of Masa-
hide Kondo of Kochi. Graduated from
the Naval Cadet School, 1880; studied
in England and Italy, 1888-1890; Second
Sub-Lieutenant, November, 1883; Lieuten-
ant, July, 1886; Second Commander, Decem-
ber, 1894. Was Staff Officer on board the
flagship Maisushima in the Japan-China
War, being slightly wounded in the left leg
in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Commander
soon after, and attached to the Naval
Department; Professor at the Naval Staff
College, 1896, and in the same year attached
to the Japanese Legation at Rome; Captain,
1899. Was Commander of the Suma and
Chief of Staff to the Standing Squadron in
the Boxer Trouble, 1900; attached to the
Naval Department, and also professor at
the college; Rear-Admiral, 1904. Took
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
921
part in the Russo-Japanese War as Com-
mander of the Second and Fourth Squadrons;
was Chief of Staff to Admiral Togo; Director
of the Naval Cadet College, 1906; Vice-
Admiral, and President of the Naval Staff
College, 1908; Commander-in-Chief of the
Second Squadron, December, 1909; Com-
1904, he was ordered by the Department of
Finance and the Formosan Government-
General, to take charge of the investigation
of the sugar industry. He was appointed
Expert to the Formosan Sugar Affairs
Bureau, and when the Meiji Sugar Refining
Company was inaugurated in 1906, he
A CHERRY BLOSSOM SCENE
mander-in-Chief of the Saseho Naval Station,
191 1 ; then present post. Promoted to the
rank of Vice- Admiral, August, 1915. He
attended the Hague Peace Conference in
1907. Was decorated with the Second Class
of the Golden Kite and the Second Order of
the Double Rayed Rising Sun for his services
in the Russo-Japanese War.
Soma, Hanji, President of the Meiji
Sugar Refining Company. Born July, 1869,
in Tokyo, younger brother of Yojiro Tanaka,
a samurai of Aichi-ken, and adopted into
the Soma family. Married Kiyoshi, elder
daughter of his adopted father. Graduated
from the Tokyo Higher Technical College
in 1896. On graduation he was appointed
Assistant Professor of his alma mater.
Proceeded to Germany by Government
order in 1900, and studied various pro-
cesses related to sugar refining at the Berlin
Higher Technical School and the Bruns-
wick Higher Technical School. In 1901
he went to the United States and continued
his studies in matters pertaining to sugar at
the University of Michigan, from which he
was graduated with the degree of Master
of Science in April, 1903. In the following
June he returned to Japan and was appointed
Professor by his alma mater. In December,
entered the firm as its Managing Director-
He is also adviser to the Toroku Sugar
Refining Company.
SuDA, TosHiNOBU, Kogakuhakushi, Vice-
President of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha.
Born February, 1856, in Miyazaki, third
son of Moshimasa Suda, a samurai of Miya-
zaki. Married Aki, first daughter of Mori-
kuni Takarabe, a samurai of Miyazaki, in
1886. Graduated from the Kobu-Daigaku
(now the Engineering College of the Tokyo
Imperial University), in 1881. On his
graduation he entered the Communications
Department as Expert, afterwards becoming
E.\pert to the Kawasaki Dockyard Company.
He joined the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and
was sent to England by the company, 1887-
1892. On his return to Japan, he was
transferred to the Yokohama branch, and
in 1898 to the head office in Tokyo. He
received the degree of Kogakuhakushi in
1899. He served as Managing Director
until November, 1915, when he was pro-
moted to his present post. He has been
decorated with the Fourth Order of Merit
in recognition of his services during the
Russo-Japanese War.
Takahashi, KoREKivo, Baron (created
1907), ex-Minister of Finance, Member of
House of Peers. Born July, 18,54, '" Sendai,
first son of Koretada Takahashi, a samurai
of Sendai clan. Married Shina, first daughter
of Kinzaemon Harada, a samurai of Kago-
shima. Studied English at Yokohama, and
was sent to America for study in 1867.
Received the appointment of Assistant
Professor of the Kaisei-gakko; then teacher
of English in a clan school in Karatsu. Prin-
cipal of the Osaka English School in 1873; an
official of Department of Agriculture and
Commerce in 1881, and promoted to the pres-
idency of the Patent Bureau. This post he
resigned in 1890 and went to Peru to exploit a
silver mine, which was being defrauded by a
German swindler. In April, 1 891, he
returned home and took a post in the Bank
of Japan. He was promoted to be a Director,
having charge of the western section of the
bank, in 1893. In 1895 he entered the
Yokohama Specie Bank as its Manager,
became Director in 1896, its Vice-President
in 1897, and then Vice-President of the
Bank of Japan and President of the Yoko-
hama Specie Bank in 1906, as an additional
post. He was Financial Agent for raising
foreign loans in England and America, and
visited those countries twice on that impor-
tant mission, 1904-1906. President of the
Bank of Japan, June, 1911. Accepted the
portfolio of Finance under the Yamamoto
Cabinet, February, 191 3. He resigned in
April, 1914, and is now one of the leaders
of the Seiyukai party. He has been deco-
rated with the First Order of Merit.
Takarabe, Takeshi, Vice-Admiral, Mem-
ber of the Board of Admirals. Born, March,
1867, in Miyazaki-ken, second son of Tane-
aki Takarabe, a samurai of Miyazaki-ken.
Married Ine, first daughter of Admiral Count
Gombei Yamamoto. Graduated from the
Naval Staff College, 1892, and studied in
England. Appointed Commander, Septem-
ber, 1902; Captain, in January, 1905; Rear-
Admiral, in December, 1909; Vice-Admiral in
December, 1913. Before he was appointed
to his present post he held successively the
posts of commander of the battleship Fuji,
Chief of Staff of the First Squadron, Director
of the Temporary Naval Construction De-
partment, Vice-Minister of the Navy, and
member of the Naval Flag Officers' Confer-
ence. He w'as Commander of the Port
Arthur Fort in 1915. Has held his present
post since December, 1916. Took part in
both the Japan-China War and the Russo-
Japanese War. Has been decorated with the
Third Class of the Golden Kite, the Second
Order of Merit with the Cordon of the Sacred
Treasure, and many foreign orders.
Takata, Shinzo, Proprietor of the well-
known Takata Shokai, machine exporters.
Bom, February, 1852, in Aikawa, Sado, first
922
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
son of Rokuro Takata. Married Tami, elder
sister of Hidematsu Ikeda, of Tokyo. Became
a student interpreter at the Ebisu Custom
House in 1869. Ten years later he came
up to Tokyo to seek his fortune, and first
became clerk to a merchant, Tsukiji, under
whom he gained experience in foreign trade.
In 1 88 1 he took over the business, which by
his vmtiring perseverance and extreme
prudence, has been carried to its present
state of prosperity. He made a tour of
observation in Europe and America dicing
1887, and on his return home founded the
Takata Shokai. He has been decorated
with the Third Order of Merit for services
during the Russo-Japanese War.
Taked.h, Kyosaku, Proprietor of the
Takeda Mining Office, President of the Kano
Mining Company, Limited, and the Japan
Mining Company, Limited. Bom in 1867
in Yamaguchi-ken, third son of Shozo
Isobe, adopted by Toyo Takeda. Married
Ichi, elder daughter of Shikataro Fujita of
Osaka. Graduated in Mining and Metal- -
lurgy at the Tok-yo Imperial University in
1893. Entered the Foitagumi and became
Chief Expert of the Omori and the Kosaka
Mines; then present posts.
Takeshita, Isamu, Rear-Admiral, Staff
of Naval General Staff Office, and Instructor
at the Naval College. Born December 4,
1869, in Kagoshima-ken, second son of
Sadayoshi Yamamoto, a samurai of the same
prefecture. Married Tei, adopted sister of
Baron Sameshima. Graduated from the
Naval Academy. Appointed Second Sub-
Lieutenant of Navy in July, 1890; Com-
mander, 1907; Captain, 191 1; Rear-Admiral,
June, 1913. Held successively the posts of
Staff on the Standing Squadron, Naval At-
tache to the Japanese Legation at Washing-
ton, Chief of Staff on the Second Squadron;
Captain of the Suma, Kasuga, and Iziimo
(warships) ; Staff of Naval General Staff
Office; Captain of Tsukuba and Shikishima
(warships) ; Chief of Staff on the First Squad-
ron: then the present post. Went to the
Peace Conference at Portsmouth as Naval
Delegate, in 1905. Later he was despatched
to China for inspection of military affairs.
He has been decorated with the Third
Order of Merit.
Terauchi, Seiki, Count (created 1910),
Field-Marshal, Premier of the Cabinet since
October, 1916. Bom February 5, 1852, in
Yamaguchi-ken, second son of Shobei Utada,
a samurai. Married Taki, elder daughter of
Sadao Hasegawa of Shizuoka-ken. Adopted
by Kanemon Terauchi. Studied military
science in France. Was appointed Sub-
Lieutenant in August, 1 871; Lieutenant in
November, 1871; Captain in 1872; Major in
1879; Lieutenant-Colonel and Colonel both
in 1887; Major-General in 1892; Lieutenant-
General in I8g8; General in 1902; Field-
Marshal, June, 1916, Military Attache to the
legation at Paris, 1882— 1885; Adjutant and
Private Secretary to the Minister of War in
1886; Director of the Military Academy in
1887; Chief of Staff of the First Army Di-
vision in 1 891; Director of the First Bureau
of the General Staff Office in 1 892 ; sent abroad
in 1896; Commander of the Third Army
Brigade in 1896; Superintendent of Military
Education in 1898; Vice-Chief of the General
Staff in 1900; Minister of War in 1902;
Resident-General of Korea, 1910— 1916. He
took part in the Saigo Rebellion as head of
a company of the Imperial forces, and was
wounded in the right arm in the battle of
Tawarazaka. In the China-Japan War he
was Supervisor of the transport service.
He achieved distinction in the Russo-
Japanese War as Minister of War, which
post he held until August, 191 1. He was
nominated Viscount and invested with the
First Order of Paulownia and the First
Class of the Golden Kite as a war reward.
He has been promoted Count in recognition
of his services in connection with the annexa-
tion of Korea.
ToKONAMi, Takejiro, member of the House
of Representatives since 1914. for the Kago-
shima Prefecture, has had a distinguished
career in the public and political life of
Japan. He was born in December, 1866, in
Kagoshima, the first son of the late Seieis
Tokonami, a samurai of Kagoshima, and
married Kiyoko, first daughter of Tsunenori
Hashimoto, a samurai of the same prefecture.
Mr. Tokonami graduated from the Law Col-
lege of the Tokyo Imperial University in
1890. After serving as Secretary of the
Finance Department, Secretary of Yamagata
and Niigata Prefectures, Governor of Toku-
shima and Akita Prefectures, and holding
other public offices, Mr. Tokonami was
transferred as Vice-Minister in the Home
Office in 1906. He made an official tour of
investigation in Europe and America in
1908. Mr. Tokonami filled the highly
important position of President of the
Imperial Government Railways from Febru-
ary, 1913, to April, 1914. He sought election
to Parliament in 1914 for his native prefec-
ture, and was successful in the interests of
the Seiyukai, the Constitutionalist party.
At the elections of April, 1917, he was again
returned and was appointed Director of his
party. Mr. Tokonami 's valuable services to
the Empire have been recognised by His
Majesty the Emperor, who has conferred
upon him the Second Class Order of the
Sacred Treasure, and the Second Class Order
of the Rising Sun. As an author Mr.
Tokonami is known widely for his work.
"Glimpses of Europe and America." His
address is 14 Mikawadai-machi, Azabu,
Tokyo.
Toki(;awa,Ivesato, Prince (created 1884),
Lord-in-Waiting in the Jako Hall, President
of the House of Peers, and President of the
Peers Club. Bom, July, 1863, at Tokyo,
third son of Y^oshiyori Tokugawa. Married
Hiroko, daughter of the late Prince Tada-
fusa Konoe. Studied in England from 1877
to 1882. His father was of the Tayasu
branch of the Tokugawa family. The Prince
was adopted as heir in 1868, by the last of
the shoguns. After the Restoration he
became Governor of Shizuoka clan. On
returning from abroad he was appointed
Lord-in-Waiting in the Jako Hall. M. H. P.
since 1900. President of the House of Peers
since December, 1903. When the Yamamoto
Cabinet resigned in 1914, H. I. M. the
Emperor ordered him to form the cabinet,
but he did not accept. He went abroad on a
tour of inquiry in 19 10. He is President of
the Peers Club and the Tokj-o Charitable
Society. His worn de plume is "Seigaku."
TsuNETO, NoRiTAKA, Nogakuhakushi, Pres-
ident of the Rasa Island Phosphate Company,
Limited. Bom, January, 1857, at Nakatsu,
Oita-ken, son of Hanshiro Tsuneto. Married
Sumi, third daughter of Yuzuru Katsuda. He
received his education at the Osaka EngUsh
School and the Komaba Agricultural School,
from which latter institution he was gradu-
ated in 1 883. He was appointed Expert to the
Department of Agriculture and Commerce;
Chief of the Soil Section of the Geological
Laboratory; Director of the Fertilizer Re-
search Laboratory; Professor of the Morioka
Higher Agricultural and Forestry School ; Lec-
turer at the Kagoshima Higher Agricultural
and Forestry School; Expert to the Formosan
Government. He represented Japan at the
International Geological Conference held in
Russia in 1896. In 1901 he was sent abroad
on business connected with fertilizers. He
retired from official service ini904. His pub-
lications are as follows: "Nippon Dojo Ron"
(Essay on Japanese Soil); "Minami Nippon
no Fugen ' ' (Resources of Southern Japan) , and
"Statistics of the Products from Japanese
Soil." He lectures on Practical Fertilization.
TsuNODA, Shimpei (nom de plume "Chi-
kurei"). President of the Tokyo Chamber
of Commerce, Member of the Tokyo City
Assembly, Director of the Tokyo Stock
Exchange, and Director of the Shueisha
Printing Company. Born, June, 1857, in
Shizuoka-ken, second son of Hikoemon
Tsunoda of Shizuoka-ken. Married Ei,
younger sister of Chubei Ikeda, of the same
prefecture. Studied law, and passed the
examination for the Bar in 1880, after which
he practised as a lawyer. He joined the
PRESENT-DA ^■ IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
923
Kaishinto (now Doshikai) in i«84. He was
chosen Chairman of the Tokyo Lawyers
Association in 1898; elected M. H. R. several
times since 1892; appointed to the Street
Reform Bureau in Tokyo City and rendered
good service toward the improvement of
streets and avenues. He has been decorated
with the Fourth Order of the Rising Sun
in connection with the Russo-Japanese
War.
Uehara, Yusaku, Baron (created 1907),
Lieutenant-General, Chief of the Military
General Staff since December, 1915, High
Military Councillor. Born, November, 1856,
in Miyazaki-ken, second son of Seizan
Tatsuoka, a Miyazaki samurai, and adopted
by Naozane Uehara. Married Maki,
daughter of the late General Marquis Nozu.
Studied military tactics in France, 1881;
appointed Sub-Lieutenant of Engineers,
December, 1879; Lieutenant, September,
1882; Captain, June, 1885; Major, May,
1 890; Lieutenant-Colonel, September, 1894;
Colonel, October, 1897; Major-General,
July, 1900; Lieutenant-General, July, 1906.
Occupied successively the posts of Instructor
of the Military Academy, Chief of the Fifth
Section of the General Staff Office, Inspector-
General of Military Education, Superintend-
ent of Engineers, etc. He took part in
the Japan-China War as Staff Officer to
the First Army and was Chief of Staff to the
Fourth Army under General Nozu during
the Russo-Japanese War. He was created
Baron and invested with the First Order
of the Rising Sun and the Second Class of
the Golden Kite for his services in war.
He was Commander of the Seventh Army
Division and of the Fourteenth Army
Division until April, 1902. When he was
Minister of War under the Saionji Cabinet
he proposed to increase the army by two
divisions, but Premier Saionji not conciurring
in this opinion, the Cabinet resigned in
December, 1912. He was appointed Com-
mander of the Third Army Division,
Inspector-General of Military Education
(19 14— December, 1915), and then present
post. He has been decorated with the Grand
Cordon of the Rising Sun and with the
First Order of the Sacred Treasure (October,
1915)-
Wada, Toyoji, Managing Director of the
Fujigasu Spinning Company, Limited, and
Special Member of the Tokyo Chamber
of Commerce. Born, November, 1861, in
Oita-ken, eldest son of the late Kunroku
Wada, a samurai. Married Orie, sister of
Chijuro Kawabata, an Oita samurai. Gradu-
ated from the Keio University in 1885,
and pursued his studies in America. After
returning to Japan he w'as employed by the
Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japan Mail Steam-
ship Company). Afterwards he accepted a
position in the Mitsui Bank, being appointed
Sub-Manager of the Yokohama liranch.
At the time of the readjustment of the
Kanegafuchi Spinning Company, he was
elected its Manager. Some time after this
he transferred to the Fuji Spinning Company
as Managing Director, in which post he
had ample opportunities for displaying his
rare business abilities. He is one of the
best informed business men in Japanese
spinning circles.
Yabe, Ren, Coimsellor at Law and Patent
Attorney, is a prominent member of the
legal profession in Tokyo. He was born
September, 1872, in Okayama Prefecture,
and is the adopted son of Osamu Yabe.
He was graduated from the Law College of
Tokyo Imperial University in July, 1897,
and passed the Higher Civil Service Examina-
tion in November of the same year. Mr.
Yabe was appointed Comptroller of the
Patent Bureau, and in addition was made
Councillor to the Department of Agriculture
and Commerce in June, 1899. In January,
1 90 1, he was sent on official business to
France and India. He became Secretary
of the Department of Conmierce in February,
1903, but the same year he resigned his
official posts and opened a law and patent
office in Tokyo, where he has been practising
ever since. Mr. Yabe has built up a large
practice and his reputation, based on his
extensive knowledge of general law and the
patent systems of Japan and foreign coun-
tries, is of the very highest. His office
address is Mitsubishi Buildings, i Yayesu-
cho, Kojimachi-ku, Tokyo.
Yamada, Atsushi, Managing Director of
the Nippon Cotton Company, Limited.
Bom July 9, 1878, in Osaka, son of Shin
Yamada, miner. Married Sayo-ko, August,
1906. Studied at the First High School.
Entered the Nippon Cotton Company in
1897, and served in its New York branch,
July, 1901; in Bombay, 1907-1910; again in
New York in 1910. He is a member of the
New York Cotton Exchange and of the New
Orleans Cotton Exchange.
Yamada, Masakuni, Managing Director
of the Tokj'o Rope Manufacturing Companj',
Limited, and Director of the Far Eastern
Rubber Company. Bom, May, 1848, in
Tokyo, third son of Chugoro Yamada, a
samurai. Married Shu, elder daughter of
Rihei Okada, also a Tokyo samurai. Suc-
ceeded his brother, Tamotsu Yamada, in
1870. He was in the official service for a
long period, and afterward entered business.
Yamagata, Aritomo, Prince (created 1906),
Field-Marshal, Supreme Military Councillor,
President of the Privy Council, holder of the
Grand Cordon and the First Class of the
Golden Kite. Born April 22, 1838, at Hagi,
in Yamaguchi-ken, eldest son of the late Sa-
buro Yamagata, a samurai of Choshu clan.
Was well known by his early name, Kyosuke.
Educated by the late Shoin Yoshida. He
fought against the shogunate army before the
Restoration, when the shogunate army at-
tacked Choshu clan in 1866. He was Chief
of Staff of the Echigo Army of the Imperial
forces, and tooT< the castle of Nagaoka, and
marching farther north subjugated entire dis-
tricts in the northeastern provinces in 1868.
He was despatched to Europe for observation
and study, 1869-1870. Vice-Minister of War,
1 87 1; Lieutenant-General and Minister of
War, 1872; Chief of Staff of the Imperial
Army during the Civil War, 1877; Chief of
the General Staff, 1878; Minister of Home
Affairs, 1882; created Count, 1884; member
of the Coast Defence Committee, 1885; again
Minister of War, 1885; Minister of Agricul-
ture and Commerce (in addition), 1886; Chief
of the Fortress Construction Department,
1886; Chairman of the Local Administration
Investigation Committee, 1887; ordered to
proceed to Europe, 1888; Prime Minister and
(in addition) Minister of Home Affairs, 1889;
Minister of Justice, 1892; President of the
Pri\'y Council, 1893; commanded the First
Army Corps in the war with China but re-
turned home on account of ill health; Minis-
ter of War for the third time, 1895. He
attended the coronation ceremony of Czar
Nicholas and brought home the Yamagata-
Lobanoff Convention in regard to Korea,
1896. Was created Marquis and Field-
Marshal the same year, and Prime Minis-
ter again in 1898. In 1900 he was granted
the Grand Cordon. He was Chief of the
General Staff during the Russo-Japanese
War, after the war being raised to the rank of
Prince and decorated with the First Class of
the Golden Kite and the Grand Order of the
Chrysanthemum in 1907. He was appointed
President of the Privy Council in 1909.
Yamaoka, Juntaro, Vice-President of the
Osaka Shosen Kwaisha (Osaka Mercantile
Steamship Company, Limited), Chairman of
the Board of Directors of the Osaka Tek-
kosho (Osaka Iron Works, Limited), and a
member of the Osaka Chamber of Com-
merce. Bom, September, 1866, in Kana-
zawa, eldest son of Yoshiaki Yamaoka.
Married Ichi, elder daughter of Yasukich
Taguchi. Served with the Department of
Communications from 1892 to 1898, and
entered the Osaka Shosen Kwaisha in the
latter year. He was Assistant Secretary
until 1899, Secretary from 1899 until 1907,
Treasurer during the same period, Manager
of the Home Services Department (1907-
1908), General Manager (1908-1911), Mana-
ging Director (1911-1914), and Vice-Presi-
924
PRESENT-DAY IMPRESSIONS OF JAPAN
dent, 1914. He entered the Osaka Tekkosho
in 1914, President in 1914-1915, and Chair-
man of the Board of Directors, 1915. Elected
a member of the Osaka Chamber of Com-
merce in 1913.
Yashiro, Rokuro, Baron (created July,
1916), Vice-Admiral, Commander of the
Second Squadron since December 13, 1915.
Bom, January, i860, in Aichi-ken, second
son of Shoshichi Matsuyama, adopted by
Ippei Yashiro, in 1869. Married So, elder
daughter of Hosho Ono, a samurai of Shi-
zuoka-ken. Educated at the Naval Academy.
Third Sub-Lieutenant, June, 1885; Com-
mander, December, 1897; Captain, October,
1901; Rear-Admiral, December, 1907; Vice-
Admiral, 191 1. Was successively Adjutant
to the Naval Academy, member of the
Naval General Staff, Section Commander
of the Yashima, attache to the legation at
St. Petersburg, Vice-Commander of the
Yashima, Commander of the Miyako and
the Asama, attache to the legation (after-
wards embassy) at Berlin, Commander of
Yokosuka Reserve Fleet Squadron and of
the First Squadron, attache to the Kure Naval
Station. He took part in the Russo-Japanese
War as Commander of the Yashima, belong-
ing to the Second Squadron, under Vice-
Admiral Uryu. He was Commander of
Maizuru Naval Station, September, 1916.
When the Okuma Cabinet was formed in
May, 1914, he entered it to hold the port-
folio of the Navy, which he resigned in
August, 1915. He was then appointed to
his present post. He has been decorated
with the Third Order of the Rising Sun, the
Third Order of the Sacred Treasure, and
the Third Class of the Golden Kite.
YoNEi, Genjiro, Proprietor of Yonei Sho-
ten. President of the Meiji Rubber Manu-
facturing Company, Managing Director of
the Kirin Beer Brewery Company, Limited,
and President of the Meidi-ya. Born, Sep-
tember, 1 86 1, in Okayama-ken, second son of
Nakahei Yonei. Married Tsurumatsu, also a
native of Okayama-ken. Graduated from the
Keio University in 1887. After graduation he
entered the firm of Meidi-ya, grocer and spirit
merchant, the proprietor being the late Mr.
H. Isono, his relative. During the time he
was with Meidi-ya, he inaugurated, in part-
nership with Mr. H. Isono, a separate im-
port and export business under the firm name
of Isono Shokwai, dealing in machinerj', steel
and iron materials, and sundries. On the
death of Mr. Isono in 1897, Mr. Yonei
took the management of the Isono Showkai
into his own hands, and it is now known as
Yonei Shoten. In the following year he
started the Meiji Rubber Manufacturing
Company, of which he became President.
When Meidi-ya was changed into a partner-
ship in 1903, he was elected its representative
member, and again when the partnership
was transformed into a joint-stock firm, he
became its President. In 1906 he purchased
the Kirin Beer Brewery Company, which
was then owned by foreigners, and became
its President also, the company now brew-
ing a million koku of beer annually. (See
page 569 of this volume for further details.)
I
Mf '^■
¥^
FINAL NOTE
IN the compilation of a work of this encyclopedic character it is highly necessary to have the
assistance of valued contributors. As a perusal of the book will show, this kind of aid has
been generously given, and we have also received gratifying help from others who, by virtue
of their prominent positions, were able to furnish absolutely up-to-date data.
First and foremost, we have to thank Mr. Gi Nakamura, Chief of the Bureau of Commercial
Affairs, and Mr. Buyei Nakano, late President of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce, for the excellent
aid rendered by them in the early stages of this important compilation. Then, again, our thanks
are due to Mr. Shiro Ikegami, Mayof of Osaka; Mr. Jusajiro Kashima, Mayor of Kobe; Mr. Kotetsu
Hamaoka, President of the
merce, and Mr. Kahei
Yokohama Chamber of
afforded by them to study
cial aspects of their respec-
Finally, we have to ex-
contributors who furnished
so diverse and so informa-
of this comprehensive pub-
following titles: "The For-
Robert Young, Proprietor
"The vSilk Industry of
Shito, Director of the Imper-
ing House; "Tea," by Mr.
President of the J. C. Whit-
"The Progress of Medicine
Kitasato, M. D., F. R. S.,
and Foreign Policy of
E^^ans, Managing Editor of
W. H. MORTON CAMERON
Kyoto Chamber of Com-
Otani, President of the
Commerce, for the facilities
the industrial and commer-
tive cities.
press our obligations to the
us with the special articles,
five, which are such a feature
lication, and which carry the
eigner in Japan," by Mr.
of the Japan Chronicle;
Japan," by Mr. Akira
ial Japanese Silk Condition-
Charles E. Atwood, Vice-
ney Company, Chicago ;
in Japan," by Professor S.
London; "The Diplomacy
Japan," by Mr. D. J.
the Japan Chronicle; "The
Future of Japan," by Hon. Y. Takegoshi, ex-Member of the House of Representatives; "Constitu-
tion and Law of Japan," by Dr. J. E. de Becker, LL. B., D. C. L. ; "Japanese Arts of Self-Defence,"
by E. J. Harrison, F. R. G. S.; "Japan as a Tourist Land," by Mr. W. B. Mason, Joint Author
of "Murray's Handbook to Japan" and Corresponding Member for Japan of the Royal Scottish
Geographical Society; "The Ainu," by the Ve. Archdeacon John Batchelor; "Petroleum," or "The
History of Oil in Japan," by Mr. A. P. Scott, Managing Director of the Rising Sun Petroleum
Company, Limited; "The Rice Industry," by Professor Shosuke Sato, of Tohoku Imperial Uni-
versity; "The Patent System," by Mr. Morio Nakamatsu, ex-Director of the Imperial Japanese
Patent Office; "Japan's Button Trade," by Mr. Emile Ott, of Messrs. Israel &: Oppenheimer,
Ltd., Kobe, and "A Short History of Coinage in Japan," by Dr. Yoshimasa Koga, F. C. S., Chief
Assayer at the Imperial Japanese Mint, Osaka.
The Globe Encyclopedl\ Co.
«
I
I
99
II
.80
f9i
587
741
638
NANKO TEMPLE, KOUli
Index of Commercial Notices and Portraits
A
Abe Kobei Co 258
Adet, Campredon & Co 267
AiKOKU Life Insurance Co., Ltd. . 148
AizAWA Shipyard 727
Akita & Co 794
Allen, Edgar, & Co., Ltd. . . . 275
Amasaki Honten 743
American Express Co 264
American Trading Co 669
AsAHi Glass Co., Ltd 647
AsANO Portland Cement Co., Ltd. . 602
AsANO Shipbuilding Co., Ltd.. . . 180
B
Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd 271
Balfour, Arthur & Co., Ltd. . 292
Bank of China, see China, Bank of
Bank of Chosen, see Chosen, Bank of
Bank of Japan, see Japan, Bank of
Bank of Taiwan, Ltd., see Taiwan,
Ltd., Bank of
Bardens, F. J S26
Barmont, L., & CiE 350
Birch, Kirby & Co., Ltd 671
Boyd & Co 886
Brett's Pharm.\cy 201
BucKNEY, Arthur, \. W. L E. E. . 277
G
Carter, i\L\cY & Co 886
Chartered Bank of India, Australia,
and China 132
Chichibu Electric Wire Manuf.^c-
TURING Co., Ltd 595
China and Japan Trading Co., Ltd. 678
China, Bank of 816
China Mutual Life Insurance Co.,
Ltd 144
Chosen, Bank of . , 109, 814, 837, S6o
Chosen Commercial Bank, Ltd. . . 862
Clifford-Wilkinson Tansan Mineral
Water Co., Ltd 658
Commercial and Industrial Bank of
Taiwan 880
Cooper & Co 248
Cornabe, Eckford & Co 824
Crowther, C, & Co 697
D
Dai Hyaku Ginko, see One Hundredth
Bank, Ltd.
Dai-Ichi Ginko, Ltd 105
Dai-Nippon Brewery Co., Ltd. . 573
Dai-Nippon Jinzo Hiryo Kabushiki
Kaisha, see Great Japan Artificial
FertiUzer Co., Ltd.
Dai-Nippon Kogy'o Kabushiki Kaisha,
see Great Japan Mining Co., Ltd.
Dai-Nippon Salt Co., Ltd. . 788
Dai-Nippon Seito Kabushiki Kaisha,
see Sugar Manufacturing Co. of
Japan
Dairen Kisen Kaisha 834
Dairen Oil and Fat Industry Co.,
Ltd 830
Dairi Flour Mill, Ltd 647
Daisan Ginko 120
Davis, Summers & Co 257
Denki Kagaku Kogyo Kabushiki
Kaish.a, see Electro-Chemical Indus-
try Co., Ltd.
Dick, Kerr & Co., Ltd 279
Dieden, B., & Co. (illus.) .... 234
DoDWELL & Co., Ltd. . . 243, 666
DuNLOP Rubber Co., Ltd 622
E
East Indies Tr..\ding Co 702
Eighteenth Bank, Ltd 809
Electro-Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. 324
Eymard, C, & CiE 353
F
Fifteenth National Bank, see Jugo
Ginko
Findlay, Richardson & Co., Ltd. . 666
First Mutual Life Insurance Co. . 150
Firth, Thos., & Sons, Ltd. . 290
Formosa Oolong Tea 879
Eraser, Peter, & Co 689
Fuji Paper Mills Co., Ltd. . 617
Fuji Steel Co., Ltd 582
Fujigasu Spinning Co., Ltd. . . 554
Fujii Industri.\l Development Co.,
'Ltd 848
FUJIMOTO BiLLBROKERS BANK, LtD. . 526
Fuji-nagata Shipbuilding Yard . . 720
Fujita Co 477,886
Furukawa & Co. (Furukawa Gomel
Kaisha) 470, 635
Futabaya & Co 226
G
Gadelius & Co 287
Giles, S. E 683
GoKo Shokai, Ltd 739
gomeikaisha murai bank . 2l6
Goodrich, B. F., Rubber Co. . 234
GosHi Kaisha Sato Shoten, see Sato,
Y., & Co.
GosHi Kaish.\ Tomoegumi .... 799
Gre.\t Japan Artifici.\l Fertilizer
Co., Ltd 311
Gre.\t Japan Mining Co., Ltd. . . 480
Great Japan Petroleum Mining Co.,
Ltd 491
H
Hakodate Fish Net Manufacturing
and Shipbuilders' Supply Co..
Ltd 587
Hashimoto Shoji Kabushiki Kaisha. 741
Hattori, K., & Co 638
928
INDEX OF COMMERCIAL NOTICES
Healin(;, L. J., & Co., Ltd. . . .271
Hellyer & Co 335
Herbert, Alfred, Ltd 285
Hobo, Kondo & Co 222
HoHDEN Sekiyu Kabushiki Kaisha . 489
Hokkaido Colonization Bank, Ltd.. 114
HoKOKU Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. . 534
Holme, Ringer & Co 796, 808
Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Cor-
poration 129
Horne, F. W., Co 279
Hunt & Co 337
Hunter, E. H., & Co 675
Hyogo Prefectural Hypothec Bank 531
Hypothec Bank of Japan, Ltd. . .115
I
Iida & Co., Ltd., see Takashimaya
Imperi.\l Brewery' Co., Ltd. . . . 573
Imperial Fla.x Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd 566
Imperi.\l Life Insurance Co., Ltd.,
see Teikoku Seimei Hoken Kaisha
Imperi.\l I\Larine Transportation and
Fire Insurance Co., Ltd. . . 138
Imperial Sugar Co., Ltd 893
Imperi.\l The.\tre, Tokyo . . .407
Inaba Cloisonne Ware Co. . . 443
Industrial Bank of Japan, Ltd.. . 106
Internation.al Banking Corporation
135. 534
Internation.\l Trading Corporation,
Ltd 263, 669
Isaacs, S., & Co 253
Ishikawajima Shipbuilding and En-
gineering Co., Ltd 182
Israel & Oppenheimer, Ltd. . . . 690
iTo, Cho., & Co 681
IwAi & Co., Ltd 251, 680
Iwakami & Co 268
IwAKi Cement Kabushiki Kaisha . 609
Iwaki Shokai 727
J
Japan Acetic Acid Manufacturing
Co., Ltd 326
Japan Advertiser, The 715
Japan Arms and Machinery Manu-
facturing Co., Ltd 578
Japan Artificial Fertilizer Co., Ltd. 308
Japan, Bank of 102
Japan-China Steamship Co. . . .188
Japan Chronicle, The 714
Japan Cotton Trading Co., Ltd., see
Nippon Menkwa Kabushiki Kaisha
Japan Electric Wire & Cable Co.,
Ltd 598
Japan Gazette, The 716
Japan Glycerine Industry Co., Ltd. 325
Japan Hide and Leather Co., Ltd. . 632
Japan Import and Export Commission
Co 263
Japan Mail Steamship Co., see Nippon
Yusen Kaisha
Japan Marine Engineering & Sal-
vage Co., Ltd 750
Japan Musical Instrument Manu-
facturing Co., Ltd 626
Japan Nitrogenous Fertilizer Co.,
Ltd., see Nippon Chisso Hiryo Ka-
bushiki Kaisha
Japan Savings Bank 443
Japan Shoe and Boot Manufactur-
ing Co., Ltd 633
Japan Steamship Co., Ltd. . . . 74^
Japan Sulphur Co., Ltd 315
Japan Trading Co., Ltd., see Nippon
Shoji Kaisha
Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd.
237, 664, 795, 882
JiNju Life Insurance Co., Ltd. . . 153
JoMO Muslin Co., Ltd 564
JuGO GiNKO, Ltd 106
K
Kabushiki Kaisha Dairi Seifunsho,
see Dairi Flour Mill, Ltd.
Kabushiki Kaisha Juhachi Ginko,
see Eighteenth Bank, Ltd.
Kabushiki Kaisha Kobe Seikosho
Mojl Kojo, see Kob^ Steel Works,
Moji Branch
Kabushiki Kaisha Meidi-Ya . . 571
Kabushiki Kaisha Shosho-Yoko 192, 748
Kabushiki Kaisha Tokyo Ginko, see
Tokyo Bank, Ltd.
Kajima Bank, Ltd 517
Kanegafuchi Spinning Co., Ltd. . 561
Kanto Sanso Kabushiki Kaisha . . 321
Katsuda Shokai 734
Kawabe, M 831
Kawakita Electric Co., Ltd. 293, 592
Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd. 717, 833
Keane & Strome, Ltd 252
Keijo Electric Co., Ltd 867
KiRiN Brewery Co., Ltd 569
KisHiMOTO Bank, Ltd 532
Kjellberg, J. A., & Sons, Ltd. . . 282
Kobe Marine Transport and Fire
Insurance Co., Ltd 535
Kobe Okazaki Ginko, see Okazaki
Bank, Ltd.
Kobe Pier Co., Ltd
Kobe Steel Works, Moji Branch
Kobe Towa Steamship Co., Ltd.
Kobei, Abe, Co. .
Koike Bank, Ltd.
Kuhara Mining Co.
KUM.\Z.\WA, G., & Co. .
Kyodo Fire Insurance Co,
Kyosai Life Insurance Co.
Kyoshin-Yoko.
Kyoto Te.xtile Co., Ltd,
Kyoyeki Sha Trading Co., Ltd.
Kyushu Densen Seizo Kabushiki
Kaisha, see Kyushu Electric Wire
Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Kyushu Electric Railway Co., Ltd. 797
Kyushu Electric Wire Manuf.\c-
TURiNG Co., Ltd 597
Land & Cox 688
Lazzara, Homberg & Co 690
Lever Brothers (Japan), Ltd. .651
Locomotive Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd 588
Lycett Saddle Co 651
M
Macdonald, J. M., & Co 689
Masuda Billbroker Bank . 530
Masuda, T., Shoten 700
Masuda & Co 240
Matsuyama & Co 228
McKay & Co 686
Meidai Steamship Co., Ltd. . . . 746
Meidi-Ya Co., Ltd., see Kabushiki
Kaisha Meidi-Ya
Meiji Bussan Co., Ltd 746
Meiji Seito Kabushiki Kaisha . 893
Meiji Trading Co., Ltd 216
Mik.\mi & Co 759
Mit.\tsuchi Gum Seizo Gomei Kaisha 623
Mitsu Bishi Co. . . .176, 705, 723, 749
Mitsui Bussan K.usha . 164, 359, 827, 852
MiTSUKOSHI 165
MiYABE & SUYETAKA 693
MoGi, House of 254
Momijiya Bank 128
Morimoto Gomei Kaisha .... 754
MoRiMURA Bank 122
Moritani & Co 293
Morris, J. H., & Co 854
Morrison, James & Co., Ltd. . . 273
Mousseline Spinning & Weaving Co.,
Ltd 562
Murai Bank, see Gomeikaisha Murai
Bank
N
Nakai & Co., Ltd 228
Nakamura & Co., Ltd 801
Naniwa Bank, Ltd 522
Nanyo Boyeki Kaisha, see South Sea
Trading Co., Ltd.
Nanyo Rubber Plant.\tion Co., Ltd. 704
Nany'o Sen-i Kogvo Kabushiki Kai-
sha, see South Seas Fibre Industry
Co., Ltd.
Nanyo Yusen Kaisha, Ltd., see South
Sea Mail Steamship Co., Ltd.
New Ze.^land Insurance Co., Ltd. . 140
Niigata Tekkosho 588
Nippon Cement Co., Ltd 602
Nippon Chisso Hiryo Kabushiki Kai-
sha 317
Nippon Densen Kaisha, Ltd., see
Japan Electric Wire & Cable Co.,
Ltd.
Nippon Fire Insur.\nce Co., Ltd. . 147
Nippon Glycerine Kogyo Kabushiki
Kaisha, see Japan Glycerine Industry
Co., Ltd.
Nippon Kaiji Kogyo Kabushiki Kai-
sha, see Japan Marine Engineering
& Salvage Co., Ltd.
Nippon Kogyo Ginko, see Industrial
Bank of Japan, Ltd.
Nippon Kwangyo Ginko, see Hypothec
Bank of Japan, Ltd.
Nippon Menkwa Kabushiki Kaisha 569
Nippon Oil Co., Ltd 487
Nippon Paint Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd 647
Nippon Sakusan Seizo Kabushiki
Kaisha, see Japan Acetic Acid Mfg.
Co., Ltd.
Nippon Seika Kaisha, see Japan Shoe
and Boot Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Nippon Shoji Kaisha, Ltd. . . .233
Nippon Trading Society, Ltd. . . 703
Nippon Yusen Kaisha 184
Nipponophone Co., Ltd 624
Nishiwaki Bank, Ltd 122
NissHiN Flour Mills, Ltd. . . .644
NissHiN Kisen Kaisha, see Japan-
China Steamship Co.
NissHiN Shipping Agency Co., Ltd. . 743
Nobles' Bank, see Jugo Ginko
INDEX OF COMMERCIAL NOTICES
929
o
Ocean Transport Co., Ltd. . . 748
Ogura, K., & Co 220
Ohsawa vSeizo Shoten 226
Okazaki Bank, Ltd 528
Okazaki Steamship Co., Ltd. . 739
Okura & Co 211,699,799
Omi Bank, Ltd 519
One Hundredth Bank, Ltd. . .121
Ono Iron Works and Shipbuildino
Yard, Ltd 723
Ono, M., & Co., Inc 267
Oriental Creosoting Co., Ltd. . . 364
Oriental Development Co., Ltd. . 846
Oriental Muslin Co., Ltd. 552
Oriental Spinning Co., Ltd., see Toyo
Boseki Kabushiki Kaisha
Oriental Steamship Co., see Toyo
Kisen Kaisha
Oriental Sugar Manufacturing Co. 892
Oriental Whaling Co., Ltd. . . 370
Ornstein, B., & Co. (illus.) . . 697
Osaka Alkali Co., Ltd 314
Osaka Brick and Cement Co., Ltd. 607
Osaka Chemical Fertilizer Co., Ltd. 312
Osaka Chochiku Ginko, see Osaka
Savings Bank, Ltd.
Osaka Copper Refining Co., Ltd.,
see Osaka Denkibundo Kabushiki
Kaisha
Osaka Denkibundo Kabushiki Kai-
sha 476
Osaka Dojima Rice and Produce
Exchange, Ltd 515
Osaka Electric Light Co., Ltd. . . 590
Osaka Iron Works, Ltd 720
Osaka Marine and Fire Insurance
Co., Ltd 535
Osaka Mercantile Agency 5I5
Osaka Mercantile Steamship Co.,
Ltd., see Osaka Shosen Kaisha
Osaka Savings Bank, Ltd. . . . 525
Osaka Shipyard Co., Ltd 727
Osaka Shosen Kaisha 729
Osaka Steel Manuf.^cturing Co.,
Ltd 580
Osaka Zinc Mining & Smelting Co.,
Ltd 476
Owi & Co 686
P
Peninsular and Orient.\l Steam Nav-
igation Co 731
R
Rasa Island Phosphate Co., Ltd.
308
s
Sakura Cement Co., Ltd 609
Sale & Frazar, Ltd 215
Samuel Samuel & Co., Ltd. 245, 791, 884
Sankyo & Co., Ltd 218
Sato, Y., & Co 754
Sawai Gumi 887
Sawayama Shokai 810
Seiko Shokai 580
Settsu and Amagasaki Cotton Spin-
ning Co., see Settsu Spinning and
Weaving Co., Ltd.
Settsu Spinning and Weaving Co.,
Ltd 557
Shewan, Tomes & Co 673
Shibakawa & Co 235,260
Shimada & Co., Ltd 700
Shimadzu Seisakusho, Ltd. . 598
Shimidzu Gomei Kaisha .... 695
Shimidzu Trading Co 265
Shinagawa Fire Brick Co., Ltd. . 605
Shosho-Yoko, see Kabushiki Kaisha
Shosho-Yoko
SiBER, Hegner & Co 349
Singleton, Benda & Co., Ltd. . 248
South Manchuria Railway Co.,
811 el seq.
South Sea Mail Steamship Co., Ltd. 749
South Sea Trading Co., Ltd. . 235
South Seas Fibre Industry Co., Ltd. 632
Southern Pacific Trading Co., Ltd. 265
STR.4CHAN, W. M., & Co., Ltd. 242, 664
Strong & Co 671
Sugar Manufacturing Co. of Japan,
Ltd 895, 897
Sumitomo, House of. . . 472, 521
Sun Insurance Office of London . 138
Sung, Mow & Co., see Kawabe, M.
Suzuki Cement Co 605
Suzuki & Co. . 222, 260, 661, 829, 856, 880
Taisho Steamship Co., Ltd. . . 743
T.\iT & Co 885
Taiwan, Bank of, Ltd. . 111,879
Taiwan Engyo Kabushiki Kaisha . 788
Taiwan Sugar Manufacturing Co.,
Ltd 890
Taiyo Life Insurance Co., Ltd. . .123
Takasago Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha 153
Takasago Life Insurance Co., Ltd . 153
Takashimaya 355
Tak.\ta & Co 213, 699
Takeuchi, K., S.afe Co 650
Tanaka & Co 219
Tanimichi & Co., Inc 196
Tansan Mineral W.\ter Co., Ltd.,
see under Clifford-Wilkinson
Tata, Sons & Co 704
Teikoku Brewery Kabushiki Kai-
sha, see Imperial Brewery Co., Ltd.
Teikoku Seimei Hoken Kaisha . .151
Teiyu Bank, Ltd 120
Third Bank, Ltd., see Daisan Ginko
Thirty-fourth Bank, Ltd. 517
Thompson, Hannam & Co 836
Thompson, J. L., & Co 657
To-indo Boyeki Kabushiki Kaisha,
see East Indies Trading Co.
Tokio Warehouse Co., Ltd. . . . 754
ToKiWA & Co., Ltd 230
Tokyo Bank, Ltd 122
Tokyo Gas and Electric Industrial
Co., Ltd 640
Tokyo Ishikawajima Zosenjo, iff Ishi-
kawajima Shipbuilding and Engineer-
ing Co., Ltd.
Tokyo Itagami Kaisha, Ltd. . .619
Tokyo Kaiun Kabushiki Kaisha, see
Tokyo Shipping Co., Ltd.
Tokyo Marine Insurance Co., Ltd. 135, 534
Tokyo Prefectural Hypothec Bank,
Ltd 117
Tokyo Rice and Produce Exchange 127
Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd. 628
Tokyo Ryusan Kabushiki Kw.\isha,
see Japan Sulphuric Acid Co., Ltd.
Tokyo Shipping Co., Ltd 195
Tokyo Steel and Spring Works Co.,
Ltd 585
Tokyo Stock Exchange . . .125
Tokyo Strawboard Co., Ltd., see
Tokyo Itagami Kaisha, Ltd.
Tokyo Sulphuric Acid Co., Ltd. . 319
Tomijima Gumi (Transportation Co.),
Ltd 760
Tomoegumi, Goshi Kaisha . . 799
Townsend & Co 853
ToY'o Boseki Kabushiki Kaisha . . 554
Toyo Chemical Industri.\l Co., Ltd. 328
Toyo Kisen Kaisha 188
Toyo Takushoku Kabushiki Kaisha,
see Oriental Development Co., Ltd.
Tsuboya, C, & Co. . . ... 226
Tsurutani Gomei Kaisha .... 695
u
UcHiDA Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha . 737
Uchida Steamship Co., Ltd., see
Uchida Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha
Uchida Trading Co., Ltd 737
UjiGAWA Electric Co., Ltd. . . 592
Union Importing & Exporting Co.,
Ltd 693
Uraga Dock Co 184
Usui & Co 833
Uyenishi Shokwai (illus.) .... 741
V
Varnum Arnould & Co 250
Villa, A. P., & Bros., of Japan, Inc. 351
w
Whitney, J. C, Co 334
Winkel & Gedde, Ltd 675
WiTKOWSKi, J., & Co., Ltd. 253, 670
WuRiu Shokwai, see Holme, Ringer &
Co.
Y
Yamaguchi Bank, Ltd 524
Yamaguchi Gomei Kaisha .... 757
Yamaichi Goshi Kaisha . . .128
Yamashita Co.\l Co., Ltd. . . . 804
Yamashita Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha
190, 732
Yamashita Steamship Co., Ltd., iee
Yamashita Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha
Yamatake & Co 231
Yasuda Bank 118
Yasuda Nail Works 641
Yazawa, Totaro & Co 652
Yokohama Dock Co., Ltd. . . .182
Yokohama Engine and Iron Works,
Ltd 182
Yokohama Fire, Marine, Transit and
Fidelity Insurance Co., Ltd. . . 142
Yokohama Nursery Co., Ltd. 260
Yokohama Rope Manuf.\cturing Co.,
Ltd 630
Yokohama Seventy-fourth Bank, Ltd. 118
Yokohama Specie Bank, Ltd. 102, 816
Yoshida, E 695
Yuasa, T., & Co 796, 834
930
INDEX
O F
PORTRAITS
INDEX OF PORTRAITS
A
Abe, Kobei 224
Abe, Konosuke 224
AiKO, Kentatsu 520
Akiyama, Genzo 914
Akiyama, K 791
Akivama, Admiral Saneyuki ... 54
Alston, J 210
Amano, C 610
Anamidzu, Y 613
Ando, General Barox Teibi . 870
Anraku, K 307
AoKi, K 178
Arnould, H. M 210
Asano, Ryoso 169
asano, soichiro 169
AsANO, Taijiro 610
B
Banno, K 520
Baraclough, C 876
Bardens, F. J 827
Barmont, L 353
Batchelor, Ve. Archdeacon John . 902
Beebe, George 876
Blum, Henri 675
Brusewitz, L 273
Buckney, Arthur 273
Bugbird, F. H 210
c
Chalmers, Hon. A. M 210
Chicken, C 667
Chinda, Viscount Sutemi .... 62
Cho Chin Tax, Mr 860
Cox, Douglas 675
D
Davis, E. C 210
Den, Baron Kenjiro 84
E
Edwards, E. B. S 667
Eguchi, Komanosoke 165
Eguchi, Sadaye 178
Ensworth, H. a 210
Eymard, Cesar 333
Eymard, Charles 353
Eymard, Claude 353
F
Forster, R.\lph G. E 667
Fox, W. G 675
Fraser, Peter 675
Frazar, E. W 273
Fujii, Shigeta 578
Fujii, Terugoro 578
FujiMOTo, S 307
Fujita, H 479
Fujita, Shiro 897
Fujiyama, Raita 163
Fukuhara, a 133
Funasaka, H 442
Fushiminomiya, H. I. H. Field Mar-
shal Prince Sadanaru .... 8
G
Gadelius, K 273
Giles, S. E 675
Goh, Baron Seinosuke 165
Goto, Baron Shimpei 84
Greene, His E.xcellency the Rt.
Hon. Sir Conyngham 64
H
Hara, K 610
Hara, R . 615
Hara, Takashi opp. 80, 87
Harada, Shinji 178
Harris, A. R 135
Hasegawa, N 610
Hasegawa, Tetsutaro 307
Hasegawa, Marshal Count Yoshi-
MicHi 839
Hashi.moto, K 669
Hashimoto, Keizaburo 479
Hashimoto, Kizo 729
Hashimoto, Sennosuke .... 479
Hashimoto, Tatsujiro 729
H.\tano, Viscount Yoshinao ... 9
Hattori, Kintaro 610
He.\ling, L. J 273
Hellyer, Arthur T 337
Hellyer, Frederick 337
Hellyer, Harold J 337
Hellyer, Walter 337
Hereford, H. O 675
Herrera, E. a 675
HiGASA, Shimpei 791
Hills, A 790
Hira, M 669
Hiraga, T 520
HiRAGA, ToKUTARO 224
HiRAO, M 538
HiRATA, H 307
HiRATAKA, T 876
HiROSE, C 126
HiRosE, Y 615
Holmes, E. H 790
Homberg, E 675
HoRi, K 169
Horne, F. W 273
Hoshino, S 578
Hoshino, Y 520
Hume, H. S 210
Hunt, H. R 337
Hunter, E. H., the late .... 667
I
Ikebukuro, H 154
Ikeda, Kenzo 93
Ikegami, Shiro 511
Inabata, K.^tsutaro 551
Inouye, J 91
Inouye, K 821
Inouye, Tor.\ji 729
Inukai, Takeshi 87
Irving, A. E 520
Isaacs, S 210
IsAKA, T 135
ISHIDA, H 615
IsHii, Viscount K 63
Ishikawa, U 307
Itami, J 169
Ito, Chojiro 669
Ito, Denshichi 551
Ito, Takuma 610
Ito, Baron Y 578
Ito, Y. 169
Iwai, K 669
Iwasaki, Baron Hisaya . . .178
Iwasaki, Baron Koyata . . .178
Iw.\TO, Y 821
K
Kaku, Sagataro 870
Kami, Yuzo 442
Kamiryo, J 307
Kanda, Raizo 126
Kaninnomiya, H. I. H. Prince Koto-
HITO 9
Kanoh, T 784
Kato, Viscount Takaaki .... 87
Kato, Admiral Tomosaburo, opp. 80, 84
Katow, S 307
Katsuda, G 729
Kawabe, M 821
Kawachi, Kentaro 729
Kawakita, Y 578
Kawasaki, Hajime 135
Kawasaki, S 351
Kawasaki, Y 169
Kendrick, W. H 610
KiKucHi, Dr. Kyozo 551
Kimura, Mr 876
Kimura, Kusuyata 178
Kimura, Y 859
Kinbara, Y 551
KiRISHIMA, SHOICHI I78
KiTA, M 551
K1TAS.A.T0, Prof. S 410
KoHZEVAR, R. E 210
Koike, K 93
KojiMA, Hidekichi 307
Kondo, Baron R 169
Konishi, K 578
kono, sunao 135
KoRo, Seisuke 224
Koyama, N 615
Kubota, S. 615
Kuhara, Fusanosuke 479
Kumazawa, G 224
KUNISAWA, Dr 819
KURACHI, MaSAO 135
kurasawa, h 729
Kushida, Manzo 178
L
Lazarus, L 675
Lazzara, G 675
Lefroy, a. J. S 273
Longmire, J. D 210
M
Making, Motora 669
Makoshi, K 610
M.iLIGNY, C. E 135
Marsh.all, Fred B 876
INDEX OF PORTRAITS
931
Marshall, James 667
Masuda, Taro ^97
Matsui, His Excellency Keishiro 62
Matsukata, G (>io
Matsukata, K 169
Matsukata, Masao 520
Matsukata, Marquis Masayoshi. 86,91
Matsukata, -S 897
Matsuki, K 729
Matsumuro, Dr. Itasu 84
Matsuo, Hisao 551
Matsuyama, S 224
Mayekawa, Tahee 165
McArthur, J 667
McKay, P. H 675
McKenzie, R 790
Megata, Baron 62
Metcalf, H. E 273
Meyer, L 675
MiKi, S 538
Minobe, Shunkichi, III 859
MiSHIMA, T 859
MisHiMA, Viscount Y 91
MiYAOKA, TSUNEJIRO 914
MizuKosHi, R 93
MizuNO, Dr. Rentaro 84
MoGi, S 224
Mori, K 93
Morimi'ra, Baron 1 93
MoRiTANi, G 224
Morris, Hon. Roland S 66
Moss, W. Stanley 273
Mourasse, Dr. Haruo 135
MuRAi, K 162
N
Nagami, K 791
Naito, Hisahiro 479
Nakagawa, a 578
Nakagawa, Kojuro 876
Nakahashi, Tokugoro . opp. 80, 307
Nakai, S 224
Nakamatsu, M 914
Nakamura, S 791
Nakaxe, T 126
Nakano, Buei 162
Nakashima, K 169
Nakashoji, Ren 84
Nango, S 729
Naruse, M 669
Niimoto, Shikanosuki 870
Nishiwaki, Seizaburo 135
Noda, Utaro opp. 90
NoGUCHi, Mr 307
Nomura, T 610
o
Oba, Dr. S 914
Ogawa, Heikichi 914
Ogawa, M 224
Ogura, Kyubei 224
Ohsawa, Seizo 224
Ohta, S 859
Oi, B 307
Oka, J 729
Okada, Dr. Ryohei 84
Okazaki, Tadao 729
Ok.\zaki, Tokichi 538
Okuma, Marquis Shigenobu ... 86
Okura, Baron K 162
Ono, K 353
Ono, M i3,S
Ono, Dr. Y 93
OoKA, Ikuzo 87
Osaki, H 914
OSAWA, S 610
OsHiMA, Lieut. -Gen. Kenichi .84
Otani, G 442
Otani, J 538
Otani, Kahei 337
Otani, T 610
Owi, T 669
P
Perry, Commodore Matthew C. . 77
PooLE, O. M 210
R
Regnaitlt, His Excellency M. Eugene
Louis Georges 67
Rowbottom, H. W 876
s
Saionji, Marquis Kimmochi ... 86
Saito, Shigetake ... 93
Saka, Nakasuke 479
Sakano, T 578
SaKURAI, TeTSUTARO ... 1X2, 876
Salisbury, Dr. Edward . 418
Sasaki, Y 93
Sashida, Yoshio 126
Sato, Aimaro 62
Sato, H 615
Sato, Vice-Admir.al Tetsutaro . 54
Saway'ama, S. 791
ScHENCK, W. Egbert 273
Scott, A. P 210
Shibusawa, Baron Eiiuchi . . 204
Shidachi, T 93
Shim.\dzu, Genzo 442
Shimadzu, T 442
Shimamura, Admir.\l Baron H. . . 54
Shimidzu, H . 135
Shimidzu, T . 224
Shimomura, Hiroshi 870
Shimura, G 93
Shinkai, E 126
Shiohara, M 224
Shiota, T 178
Sho, Seijiro 178
Shoda, T 610
Soma, H 897
Stephen, R. F 675
SuDA, Dr. T 169
Sugino, K 126
Sugiyama, K 224
Sumida, 1 791
suttor, j. b 667
Suzuki, Tsuneo 821
T
T.AJIMA, N 578
Tajiri, Viscount Inajiro .... 157
Takahashi, Baron K. . opp. 80, 87
Tak.\h.\shi, T 615
Takamine, Dr. Jokichi 224
Takarabe, Vice-Admir.\l Takeshi . 54
Takata, Motojiro 874
Tak.\ta, S 162
Takechi, Tadamichi 897
Takeda, K 479
Takeshita, Vice-Admir.\l Isamu . . 54
Tamura, S 669
Tanaka, Lieut.-Gen. Giichi . . opp. 80
Tanaka, M 224
Tanaka, S 538
Tanaka, Y 307
Tanimura, Ichitaro 520
Tanuma, Y 821
Tarao, G 538
Tasaka, T 648
Tasaki, Nagakuni 610
Tasaki, Tadaatsu, the late .... 610
Tasaki, Tadahiro 610
Terauchi, Field Marshal Count
Masakata 84, 540
Thieck, M 675
Thompson, H. Sykes . . 790, 792
Thompson, J 273 ■
Togo, Admiral 53
Tokonami, T opp. 80, 914
Tokugawa, Prince Iyes.\to ... 87
Tsuchiya, Hidetatsu 610
Tsuda, K 578
TsuNETO, Dr. N 307
Tsunoda, Shimpei 165
u
UcHiDA, Viscount Kosai . opp. 80
Uchida, Nobunari 729
Uehara, General Baron Y. . . .49
Uyematsu, T 178
Uyenishi, K 729
V
Varnum, R. M 210
w
Wada, T 551
Ward, F. W. R 210
Watanabe, T 578
Watson, A. H. Cole 210
Wilkinson, Clifford 610
Woolley, Alf 667
Wright, R. T 210
Y
Yabe, Ren 914
Yamada, A 307
Yamada, a 551
Yamada, M 610
Yamada, M., the late 307
Yamagata, Field Marsh.\l Prince 49, 86
Yamaguchi, K 520
Yam.\guchi, M 224
Yamaguchi, Unosuke 165
Yam.^ji, Tosataro 729
Yamamoto, K 224
Yamamoto, T 729
Yamamoto, Tatsuo ... opp. 80
Yamamoto, Teijiro 897
Yamanari, Kyoroku 112
Yamaoka, J 169
Yamashita, K 729
Yanai, S 615
Yano, T 135
Yashiro, Vice-Admiral Baron Rokuro 54
Yasuda, Z 93
Yasuda, Zengoro 135
Yazawa, T 610
Yokota, Y 520
Yonei, G 610
Young, Robert 412
z
Zahn, M 353
cf
^)
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