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A PRIMER OF ESSENTIALS
IN
GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
BY
MARIETTA KNIGHT
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, SOUTH HIGH SCHOOL
WORCESTER, MASS.
NEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI- :.CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.
ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON.
PRIM. OF ESSEN. IN GRAM. AND RHET.
TT
PREFACE
THIS primer is the outcome of the need felt
by a group of teachers of English for something
in the hands of their pupils that would simply
and concisely, in the form of definitions, rules,
and principles, summarize the class-room teach-
ing in the essentials of grammar and rhetoric
in secondary schools. It is designed as a guide
in review study of the ordinary text-books of
grammar and rhetoric, or as an aid to teachers
who dispense with ordinary text-books; in either
case it is assumed that abundant illustrative and
drill work has been provided by the teacher in
connection with each subject treated.
266963
CONTENTS
PAGE
RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAM-
MAR 5
Nouns, 6. Interjections, 30.
Pronouns, 1 1. Sentences, 31.
Verbs, 14. Clauses, 32.
Adjectives, 25. Phrases, 33.
Adverbs, 28. Capitals, 33.
Prepositions, 28. Punctuation, 33t
Conjunctions, 29.
RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC . . 36
Forms of Composition, 36. Choice and Use of
Letter Writing, 38. Words, 45.
The Paragraph, 42. Figures of Speech, 47.
The Sentence, 43. Poetry, 49.
DON'TS — RHETORICAL AND GRAMMATICAL . . . .57
HELPS IN WRITING A THEME 59
INDEX ,.«»••••••• 6f
PRIMER OF ESSENTIALS
RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRINCIPLES
OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Grammar is the science which treats of the forms
and the uses of words. The rules of grammar con-
form to the usage of the best writers and speakers.
Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of
the relations of words in sentences.
Inflection is a change in the form of a word to
indicate a change in meaning or use. English is
a language so slightly inflected that the relation of
words is indicated chiefly by position. All words,
phrases, and clauses should be placed as near as
possible to the words they modify.
An Idiom is an accepted peculiarity in the form
of a phrase or in the use of a word.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
The Parts of Speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections.
The part of speech is determined by its use in
the sentence.
5
GRAMMAR
NOUNS
A Noun is the name of anything.
NOUNS
Kinds i
Proper
Common
Abstract
Collective
Gender
Properties
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
First
Person •) Second
Third
Number
Case
Plural
Nominative
Possessive (Genitive)
Objective (Dative and Accu-
sative)
A Proper noun is a name given to an individual
of a class to distinguish it from others of the same
class. In contrast with this sort of noun, all others
are called Common nouns.
An Abstract noun is the name of a quality, con-
dition, or relation of an object. Examples: heigtft,
goodness, nearness.
A Collective noun is a name applied to a collec-
tion of objects. Examples : family, tribe.
NOUNS 7
Gender is that property of nouns and pronouns
which distinguishes objects in regard to sex.
The Masculine gender denotes the male; the
Feminine denotes the female; and the Neuter
usually denotes that the object has no animal
life.
Person is that property of nouns and pronouns
which denotes whether the person speaking is
meant (First person), the person spoken to (Second
person), or the person or thing spoken of (Third
person).
Number is that property of nouns and pronouns
which denotes one (Singular) or more than one
(Plural). (See p. 10.)
Case is the use of nouns and pronouns in the
sentence.
A noun in the Nominative case may be : —
1. Subject of a finite verb.
2. In apposition with another noun in the nomi-
native case.
3. A predicate noun modifying the subject.
4. Used independently by direct address.
5. Used independently with a participle0
Examples of nominative use : —
1. The book is here (subj.).
2. The present, a book, is here (appos.).
3. The present is a book (pred. noun).
8 GRAMMAR
4. John, come here (indep. by direct address, — Voca-
tive).
5. The book having been presented, I went home (indep.
with a participle).
A noun in the Objective case may be : —
1. Direct object of a transitive verb.
2. Indirect object of a transitive verb.
3. Object of a preposition.
4. In apposition with another noun in the objec-
tive- case.
5. Predicate noun modifying the object.
6. Used adverbially to show measure.
7. Subject of an infinitive.
Examples of the objective use : —
1. You may give the book (dir. obj. of verb).
2. You may give John the book (indir. obj.).
3. The work is in the book (obj. of prep.).
4. I saw the present, a book (appos.).
5. They called the game a draw (pred. noun modifying
the object) .
6. He jumped afoot (used adverbially to show measure).
7. He made the */<?£• jump (subj. of inf.).
The Possessive (or Genitive) case of the noun
and pronoun usually indicates ownership.
FORM OF THE POSSESSIVE
The possessive singular of a noun is nearly
always formed by adding 's to the noun. If the
NOUNS 9
plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added to
form the possessive. If the plural does not end in s,
the possessive is formed by adding 's. Examples :
boy's, boys' , metis.
The possessive case of compound nouns is formed
by adding the possessive sign to the last word. Ex-
amples : son-in-law' sy sons-in-law's, men-servants'.
A noun of more than one syllable ending in an
s or a z sound sometimes omits the s of the pos-
sessive sign and adds only the apostrophe. Ex-
amples : Dickens' stories, for justice' sake.
Proper nouns form their possessive case like
common nouns with similar endings.
USE OF THE POSSESSIVE
Nouns that do not denote living beings are
seldom used in the possessive case unless they
are personified.
A noun or pronoun used before a gerund should
be in the possessive case. Example : He did not
like the musician's playing.
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
A Predicate Noun is one that modifies another
by the help of a verb.
An appositive or predicate noun or pronoun has
the same case as the noun that it explains.
10 GRAMMAR
FORM OF THE PLURAL
Most nouns, common and proper, form theil
plural by adding s or es to the singular.
Sometimes the last letter of the singular form is
changed before the plural ending s or es. Ex-
amples : daisy, daisies ; leaf, leaves.
Some nouns have an irregular plural. Examples :
mouse, mice ; tooth, teeth; man, men.
Some nouns have two plurals. Examples :
f pennies } , . ( dies ]
penny \* \, die\ \.
[pence J [dice J
Some words use their singular form with a plural
meaning. Examples : sheep, deer, trout, salmon.
Letters, figures, signs, and words regarded
merely as things spoken or written form their
plural by adding 's. Examples: a's, fs, + 's,
me's, my's.
Some nouns are used in the plural only. Ex-
amples : scissors, tongs, trousers.
When a title is used with a name, either the
title or the name is made plural. Examples :
The Mrs. Browns, The Misses Brown, The Miss
Browns.
Compound nouns usually form their plural by
making plural the principal word. Some exceptions
make both words plural. Examples : knights-
templars, lords-justices,
PRONOUNS
II
PRONOUNS
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun,
and it has in general the same uses that nouns
have.
Personal
Relative
Kinds \ Interrogative
Demonstrative
[ Indefinite
Masculine
Gender -j Feminine
Neuter
PRONOUNS
Properties -
f First
Person J Second
[ Third
Number j
/ Plural
Case
{Nominative
Possessive
Objective
The Declension of a pronoun shows its changes
in form according to number and case.
The Personal pronouns in the nominative singu-
lar are /, thou, you, he, she, it.
The pronouns of the first and second persons
are declined thus : —
12
GRAMMAR
NOMINATIVE :
POSSESSIVE :
OBJECTIVE :
NOMINATIVE :
POSSESSIVE :
OBJECTIVE :
FIRST PERSON
Singular
I
my, mine
me
SECOND PERSON
Singular
you
your, yours
you
Plural
we
our, ours
us
Plural
you
your, yours
you
The old form of the second person is declined
thus : —
Singular Plural
NOMINATIVE : thou ye
POSSESSIVE : thy, thine you, yours
OBJECTIVE : thee you
The pronouns of the third person are declined
thus : —
THIRD PERSON
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
All Genders
NOMINATIVE: he
POSSESSIVE : his
OBJECTIVE : him
she
her, hers
her
it
its
it
they
their, theirs
them
The personal pronoun ending in self or selves is
to be used for emphasis or reflexively. Examples :
/ myself did it. I blamed myself.
PRONOUNS 13
The personal pronouns use no apostrophe in the
possessive case.
A Relative pronoun is one that connects. The
relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, as,
and the compounds whoever, whosoever, whatever,
whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever.
Singular and Plural
NOMINATIVE: who which what that
POSSESSIVE : whose whose whose
OBJECTIVE : whom which what that
The Interrogative pronouns, used in asking ques-
tions, are who, what, and which. Who is declined
like the relative pronoun who.
Demonstrative pronouns point out. They are
this, these, that, those. These pronouns do not
change their forms for case.
The Indefinite pronouns are each, either, neither,
some, any, few, all, both, one, none.
The demonstrative and indefinite pronouns are
often called Adjective Pronouns.
The indefinite singular pronouns, such as each,
either, one, should be used with a singular verb and
a singular pronoun, thus : " Each thinks that he
can do the work."
The Antecedent of a pronoun is the word for
which the pronoun stands. A pronoun must agree
with its antecedent in gender, person, and number.
14 GRAMMAR
The case of a pronoun, like the case of a noun,
is determined by its use in the sentence.
VERBS
A Verb is a word that asserts.
(Regular
Irregular
Defective
Governing ( Transitive
Power { intransitive (Complete
( Incomplete
f Principal
Rank\ Auxiliary
T. . f Active
Voice \ n .
Passive
VERBS
Properties
Mode
Tense
Indicative
Subjunctive
Potential
Imperative
Present
Past (Imperfect, Preterite)
Future
Present Perfect (Perfect)
Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
Future Perfect
Person
Number
A Regular verb is one that forms its past tense
and past participle by adding d or ed to the root
VERBS 15
(simplest form) of the verb. These verbs are said
to belong to the new, weak, or regtilar conjuga-
tion. Example : row (rowed). An Irregular verb
forms its past tense and past participle usually
by a change in the vowel of the root. Such verbs
are said to belong to the old, strong, or irregular
conjugation.
A Defective verb is one that lacks some of its
principal parts. Examples : ought, quoth, may,
can, shall.
A Transitive verb is one that is usually followed
by an object; that is, by a noun or pronoun
signifying that which is Affected by the action of /
the verb.
An Intransitive verb is one that can not have an
object. An intransitive verb can have no passive
voice.
Intransitive verbs are divided into two classes —
complete and incomplete. A Complete intransitive
verb is one that requires nothing to complete its
meaning. An Incomplete intransitive verb is one
of such verbs as be, appear, seem, look, become,
which require a noun, an adjective, or an adverb
to complete their meaning.
The Principal verb is the part of the verb phrase
which expresses the action or state.
The Auxiliary verb is one of the words have,
has, had, do, be, shall, will, may, can, must, might,
16 GRAMMAR
and the like, which help the principal verb to ex-
press its action or state.
Can and .could express ability ; may and might.
possibility and permission ; must, necessity ; do
and did, emphasis ; be and its variations, the pas-
sive and the progressive forms; shall and will,
the future tense.
Voice is that property of transitive verbs which
signifies whether the subject is acting or is acted
upon. If the subject is acting, the verb is said to
be in the Active voice. If the subject is acted
upon, the verb is said to be in the Passive voice.
The passive voice of the verb is formed by prefixing
some form of the verb be to the past participle of
the principal verb.
Mode, or Mood, is the manner of expressing the
action of the verb.
The Indicative mode is the mode of simple
declaration.
The Subjunctive mode is the mode of doubt-
; ful or conditional assertion, and it is also used
to indicate a wish in the first and the third
persons.
The Potential mode is the collection of verb
phrases that indicate ability, possibility or permis-
sion, obligation, or necessity. The auxiliaries used
in these phrases are may, can, must, might, could,
would, and should.
VERBS I/
The Imperative mode expresses command, en-
treaty, and sometimes a simple wish. The sub-
ject of a verb in the imperative mode is in the
second person.
Tense is the property of verbs which indicates
the time of the action of the verb. There are six
tenses : present, past, future, perfect, pluperfect,
future perfect.
The Future tense uses the auxiliaries shall and
will.
The Perfect tense uses the auxiliary have.
The Pluperfect tense uses the auxiliary had.
The Future Perfect tense uses the auxiliary com-
binations shall have and will have.
When these tenses are used in the passive voice
or the progressive form, some form of the verb be
is added to these auxiliaries.
The Progressive form of the verb consists of
the present participle used with some form of be.
The Emphatic form of the verb is used in the
present and past tenses, and is made by combin-
ing do in the present tense and did in the past
tense with the simplest form of the verb.
The Principal Parts of a verb are the present
tense, the past tense, the present participle, and .
the past participle. The past tense and the past /
participle of most irregular verbs are not inter- I
changeable.
K. PRIM. — 2
1 8 GRAMMAR
A Participle is a form of the verb used like an
adjective.
An Infinitive is a form of the verb having usu-
ally the use of a noun and sometimes that of an
adverb or an adjective. To is the sign of the
infinitive and is usually expressed with it. When
an infinitive has a subject, it is always in the objec-
tive case.
The Gerund is a form of the verb ending in ing
and used like a noun. (The gerund is sometimes
called a verbal noun and sometimes the infinitive
in ing.)
USE OF VERB FORMS
The tenses of verbs in dependent clauses are
usually dependent upon the tenses of the verbs
in the principal clauses.
/ Present facts and unchangeable truths demand
the present tense.
The person and number of a verb are deter-
mined by the subject.
Two singular subjects connected by and demand
a plural verb.
A compound subject expressing but a single
idea, however, sometimes takes a verb in the singu-
lar. Example : The end and aim is this.
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor
demand a singular verb.
VERBS 19
When a verb has two or more subjects differing in
person or number, it agrees with the nearest subject.
When a sentence begins with the word there used
as an expletive (or apparent subject), the verb agrees
with the real subject. Example : There are two boys.
Collective nouns sometimes take a singular and
sometimes a plural verb. If the individuals mak-
ing the collection are considered, the verb is plural.
If the collection is thought of as a unit, the verb
is singular.
USE OF SHALL AND WILL
Shall in the first person and will in the secondX
and third persons denote mere futurity.
Will in the first person and shall in the second r
and third denote volition.
Similar statements are true of should and would.
In asking questions shall must always be used
with a subject in the first person. In the second
and third persons we use shall and will accord-
ing to the answers that we expect. When we
expect the answer shall, we use shall in asking the
question. When we expect the answer will, we
use will in asking the question.
The proper use of shall, will, should, and would
in indirect discourse may be determined by turning
the sentence into the direct discourse and choosing
the proper word according to the rule.
20 GRAMMAR
With all three persons, would is used to express a
wish. Also would is used without regard to future
time, to denote that an action is customary ; as, " He
would often fish for days in succession."
Should is used with all three persons in condi-
tional clauses. Also it is sometimes used in its orig-
inal sense of ought ; as, " You should not do that."
I know that, in point of fact, you will always enjoy writing,
and I shall always enjoy reading your stories ; indeed, you
shall go on writing them, and I will go on reading them,
even though you should not use " would " as you should, or
as you would if you should use " would " and " should " as
Shakespeare or Mr. Matthew Arnold would.
— From " A Private Letter," EDWARD ROWLAND SILL.
The Conjugation of a verb shows its changes in
form to express mode, voice, tense, person, and
number.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ROW
INDICATIVE MODE
PRESENT TENSE. — Active Voice
Singular Plural
1. I row We row
2. Thou rowest You (ye) row
3. He rows (roweth) They row
Passive Voice
1 . I am rowed We are rowed
2. Thou art rowed You are rowed
3. He is rowed They are rowed
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ROW 21
< PAST TENSE. — Active Voice
I. I rowed
We rowed
2. Thou rowedst
You rowed
3. He rowed
They rowed
Passive
Voice
i. I was rowed
We were rowed
2. Thou wast rowed
You were rowed
3. He was rowed
They were rowed \
FUTURE TENSE.— Active Voice
I. I shall row
We shall row
2. Thou wilt row
You will row
3. He will row
They will row
Passive
Voice
i. I shall be rowed
We shall be rowed
2. Thou wilt be rowed
You will be rowed
3. He will be rowed
They will be rowed
PERFECT TENSE,
— Active Voice
i. I have rowed
We have rowed
2. Thou hast rowed
You have rowed
3. He has rowed
They have rowed
Passive
Voice .
I. I have been rowed
We have been rowed
2. Thou hast been rowed
You have been rowed
3. He has been rowed
They have been rowed
PLUPERFECT TENSE. — Active Voice
i. I had rowed
We had rowed
2. Thou hadst rowed
You had rowed
3. He had rowed
They had rowed
Passive
Voice
i. I had been rowed
We had been rowed
2. Thou hadst been rowed
You had been rowed
3. He had been rowed
They had been rowed
22 GRAMMAR
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. — Active Voice
1. I shall have rowed We shall have rowed
2. Thou wilt have rowed You will have rowed
3. He will have rowed They will have rowed
Passive Voice
1. I shall have been rowed We shall have been rowed
2. Thou wilt have been rowed You will have been rowed
3. He will have been rowed They will have been rowed
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE
PRESENT TENSE. —Active Voice
Singular Plural
1. If I row If we row
2. If thou row If you row
3. If he row If they row
Passive Voice
1. If I be rowed If we be rowed
2. If thou be rowed If you be rowed
3. If he be rowed If they be rowed
PAST TENSE.— Active Voice
1. If I rowed If we rowed
2. If thou rowed If you rowed
3. If he rowed If they rowed
Passive Voice
I. If I were rowed If we were rowed
2 If thou wert rowed If you were rowed
3. If he were rowed If they were rowed
PERFECT TENSE. — Active Voice
1. If I have rowed If we have rowed
2. If thou have rowed If you have rowed
3. If he have rowed If they have rowed
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ROW 23
Passive Voice
1. If I have been rowed If we have been rowed
2. If thou have been rowed If you have been rowed
3. If he have been rowed If they have been rowed
PLUPERFECT TENSE. — Active Voice
1 . If I had rowed If we had rowed
2. If thou had rowed If you had rowed
3. If he had rowed If they had rowed
Passive Voice
1. If I had been rowed If we had been rowed
2. If thou had been rowed If you had been rowed
3. If he had been rowed If they had been rowed
POTENTIAL FORMS WITH MAY AND MIGHT
PRESENT TENSE.— Active Voice
Singular Plural
1. I may row We may row
2. Thou mayst row You may row
3. He may row They may row
Passive Voice
1. I may be rowed We may be rowed
2. Thou mayst be rowed You may be rowed
3. He may be rowed They may be rowed
PAST TENSE. — Active Voice
1. I might row We might row
2. Thou mightst row You might row
3. He might row They might row
Passive Voice
1. I might be rowed We might be rowed
2. Thou mightst be rowed You might be rowed
3. He might be rowed They might be rowed
24 GRAMMAR
PERFECT TENSE. — Active Voice
1 . I may have rowed We may have rowed
2. Thou mayst have rowed You may have rowed
3. He may have rowed They may have rowed
Passive Voice
1 . I may have been rowed We may have been rowed
2. Thou mayst have been rowed You may have been rowed
3. He may have been rowed They may have been rowed
PLUPERFECT TENSE. — Active Voice
1. I might have rowed We might have rowed
2. Thou mightst have rowed You might have rowed
3. He might have rowed They might have rowed
Passive Voice
i . I might have been rowed We might have been rowed
2., Thou mightst have been rowed You might have been rowed
3. He might have been rowed They might have been rowed
IMPERATIVE MODE
PRESENT TENSE
Active Voice Passive Voice
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Row thou Row ye Be thou rowed Be ye rowed
Do thou row Do ye row Do thou be rowed Do ye be rowed
INFINITIVES
Active Voice Passive Voice
PRESENT : To row To be rowed
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE : To be rowing
PERFECT : To have rowed To have been rowed
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE : To have been rowing
ADJECTIVES
PARTICIPLES
Active Voice
PRESENT: Rowing
PAST: Rowed
PERFECT : Having rowed
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE : Having been rowing
Passive Voice
Being rowed
Rowed
Having been rowed
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE
By omitting the past participle, rowed, from the
passive conjugation of row the various forms of
the verb be may be seen in different modes and
tenses ; the past participle of be is been.
ADJECTIVES
An Adjective is a word that modifies a noun or
pronoun.
f Descriptive
r Demonstrative
Pronominal j Interrogative
Classes \ I Indefinite
ADJEmvEsf « {££-
k Articles, — #, an, the
( Positive degree
Comparison \ Comparative degree
I Superlative degree
A Descriptive adjective is one that names some
quality of an object,
26 GRAMMAR
A Pronominal adjective is a pronoun used adjec-
tively. There are three kinds of pronominal adjec-
tives : demonstrative, interrogative, and indefinite.
The Demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these,
those, former, latter, same, such, yon, yonder.
The Interrogative adjectives are which and what.
These adjectives are also used relatively. Example :
I know what book you wish.
The principal Indefinite adjectives are each, every,
either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, none, no,
both, much, more, most.
The Cardinal Numerals are one, two, three, four,
five, etc.
The Ordinal Numerals are first, second, third,
fourth, fifth, etc.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
The three forms which adjectives may assume
are known as degrees of comparison, and they are
called, respectively, the positive, the comparative,
and the superlative.
The Positive Degree of the adjective indicates
the simple quality of the object without reference
to any other.
The Comparative Degree of the adjective indi-
cates that two objects are compared.
The Superlative Degree of the adjective indi-
cates that three or more objects are compared.
ADJECTIVES 27
Adjectives compared regularly add er or r to the
positive to form the comparative and est or st to
the positive to form the superlative. Some adjec-
tives are compared by prefixing more to the positive
to form the comparative, and most to the positive
to form the superlative.
A few adjectives are irregularly compared : —
Positive Comparative Superlative
good, well better best
bad, ill worse worst
little less, lesser least
many, much more most
old older, elder oldest, eldest
late later, latter latest, last
fore former foremost, first
far farther farthest
(forth) further furthest
, ^ \ outmost, outermost
(out) outer, utter
[ utmost, uttermost
Some adjectives express such qualities that they
do not admit of comparison. Examples : dead,
universal, three-cornered.
USE OF ADJECTIVES
It is easy to distinguish between adjectives and
adverbs by determining what they modify. If a
word modifies a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective.
A Predicate Adjective is one that modifies a noun
or pronoun by the help of a verb.
28
GRAMMAR
ADVERBS — Classes
ADVERBS
An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
Adverbs of place and motion :
here, there, up, down
Adverbs of manner :
thus, well, truly, squarely
Adverbs of time and succession :
then, always, next, first
Adverbs of measure and degree :
much, little, scarcely, very
Modal adverbs :
surely, indeed, not, therefore
Conjunctive adverbs :
where, when, while
When adverbs are compared, they are compared
like similar adjectives.
Some adverbs do not admit of comparison.
Two negative expressions, such as not hardly,
not scarcely, not but, should not be used together
to denote negation.
PREPOSITIONS
A Preposition is a word connecting a following
noun or pronoun to some other word in such a
way as to make a modifying phrase. The noun
ADVERBS — CONJUNCTIONS 29
or pronoun so connected is called the object of the
preposition, and is in the objective case.
Following are a few common prepositions : —
at
on
above
except
after
since
about
during
against
through
within
throughout
but
till
without
among
by
to
across
beside
down
under
around
below
for
with
between
near
from
into
like
until
in
of
off
over
upon
before
behind
CONJUNCTIONS
A Conjunction is a word, or group of words, used
to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
CONJUNCTIONS —
Classes
Coordinate
Subordinate
Conjunctions of place and
time : before, until, when,
where, as soon as.
Conjunctions of cause and
condition : because, if,
though.
Conjunctions of end or pur-
pose : that, so that, lest.
Conjunctions of comparison :
as, than.
30 GRAMMAR
A Coordinate conjunction is one that connects
elements of equal rank. The principal coordinate
conjunctions are and, or, nor, but, therefore, also,
moreover. Paired conjunctions, like either — or,
neither — nor, not only — but also, both — and, are
called Correlative conjunctions.
A Subordinate conjunction is one that connects
elements unequal in rank.
The subordinate conjunctions when, where,
wherein, whence, whither, while, until, etc., which
indicate a time or place relation, are sometimes
called Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs.
USE OF CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinate conjunctions should connect elements
of equal rank and of similar construction.
The conjunctions as and than are followed by
the same construction that precedes.
In a negative declarative sentence the proper
correlative for as is so. Example : " He is not so
wise as his brother."
Like should never be used as a conjunction.
INTERJECTIONS
An Interjection is an exclamation expressive of
feeling ; it is independent of the other parts of a
sentence.
SENTENCES 31
SENTENCES, CLAUSES, AND PHRASES
SENTENCES
According to their meaning, sentences are clas-
sified grammatically as declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory.
I A Declarative sentence makes an assertion.
An Interrogative sentence asks a question.
An Imperative sentence expresses a command,
entreaty, or wish.
An Exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation.
According to their construction, sentences are
classified as simple, complex, and compound.
A Simple sentence has but one clause.
A Complex sentence has one principal clause
and one or more subordinate clauses.
A Compound sentence has two or more prin-
cipal clauses ; it may have also one or more sub-
ordinate clauses, in which case the sentence is
both compound and complex.
The Subject of a sentence names that about
which something is asserted.
The Predicate of a sentence asserts something
about the subject.
The simple subject (noun or pronoun) with all
its modifiers makes the complete subject. The
simple predicate (verb) with all its modifiers and
complements makes the complete predicate.
32 GRAMMAR
CLAUSES
i t
A Clause is a group of words containing a sub-
ject and a predicate and forming a part of a
sentence.
Clauses are classified according to their rank as
principal and subordinate.
A Principal, or Independent, clause is one that
forms an assertion by itself.
A Subordinate, or Dependent, clause is one that
is used like a single part of speech ; namely, a
noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Noun clauses may be used as the subject of a
verb, the object of a verb or a preposition, in appo-
sition, or as a predicate noun. Examples : —
Subject : That he made the error is true.
Object of verb : I knew that he made the error.
Object of preposition : He traded with what money he had,
In apposition : The fact, that he made the error, is known.
As predicate noun : He is what he seems.
Adjective and adverbial clauses are used like
simple adjectives and adverbs.
Subordinate clauses are usually connected with
principal clauses by relative (conjunctive) pronouns,
conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions.
Direct quotations forming a part of a sentence
are subordinate clauses, though they have usually
no introductory connectiveo
CLAUSES, PHRASES, PUNCTUATION 33
PHRASES
A Phrase is a group of words used like a single
part of speech, but not containing a subject and a
predicate.
According to their use in the sentence, phrases
may serve as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
According to their construction, phrases are clas-
sified as prepositional, participial, and infinitive.
An Infinitive Phrase consists of an infinitive with
its subject, object, and modifiers.
A Participial Phrase consists of a participle with
its object and modifiers.
A Prepositional Phrase consists of a preposition
and its object.
CAPITALS
Every sentence and every line of poetry should
begin with a capital letter.
Names of the Deity, proper nouns and adjec-
tives derived from proper nouns, and titles, should
begin with a capital letter.
The pronoun / and the interjection O should be
written with capitals.
PUNCTUATION
I. Independent elements are set off by marks of
punctuation, usually commas or exclamation points.
K. PRIM. — 3
34 GRAMMAR
2. Explanatory elements that do not restrict
the meaning are set off by marks of punctuation,
usually commas.
3. Explanatory elements that are restrictive are
not set off by marks of punctuation.
4. A semicolon or a comma may be used to
separate the clauses of a compound sentence con-
nected by a conjunction. If that conjunction is
but, one of these marks must be used.
5. If the compound sentence has no conjunc-
tion to connect its independent clauses, the semi-
colon should be used in its place.
6. If any one of the clauses of a compound
sentence contains commas, the members them-
selves should be separated by semicolons.
7. A series of elements in the same grammat-
ical construction is to be separated by semicolons
if any one of the series contains commas. Other-
wise the series may be separated by commas.
8. Such a series if introduced formally is usu-
ally preceded by a colon or by a comma and dash.
9. A colon is used to precede an additional
statement used for explanation or illustration.
10. A colon is used to precede a direct quota-
tfcn introduced formally. A quotation introduced
informally is preceded by a comma.
n. Short phrases or single words may be itali-
cized instead of quoted.
PUNCTUATION 35
12. Single words or broken phrases when quoted
do not always need the initial capital letter or the
introductory punctuation mark.
13. Quotations within quotations demand single
quotation marks.
14. Marks of parenthesis are used to include
matter having the slightest possible connection
with the rest of the sentence. Any mark of punc-
tuation to follow the word preceding the paren-
thesis is usually placed only after the last mark of
parenthesis.
15. A dash, or a comma and dash, may be used
to set off matter having a slight connection with
the rest of the sentence.
1 6. The dash is also used to show omission of
letters or figures.
17. The hyphen is used to separate the parts of
compounds and to connect divided syllables.
1 8. The apostrophe is used to indicate the pos-
sessive case and omitted letters in contractions ;
followed by s the apostrophe indicates the plural
of letters, figures, signs, and words regarded as
things spoken or written.
19. Italics — indicated in writing by underlining
— are used for emphasis, foreign words, and titles
of books.
RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRIN-
CIPLES OF RHETORIC
The Forms of Composition are narration, descrip-
tion, exposition, and argument.
NARRATION
The Plot of a story or drama is the series of
incidents which form the skeleton of the story.
The principal requirements of a good narrative
are the following : —
1. The story should develop one or more of the
following : plot, situation, character.
2. The story should have interest.
(a) It should begin attractively and as directly
as possible.
(£) It must move, and not simply "mark time."
(c) It may be made effective by dramatic situa-
tions and turning points.
(d) It may use description, but the description
must be closely connected with the story
and must not hinder the movement.
(e) It should discriminate in the number and
the importance of details.
36 ,
FORMS OF COMPOSITION 37
(/) It may make effective use of the elements
of suspense and suggestion.
(<£•) It should have no inconsistency in the
speech or the actions of the characters.
(^) It should not be hindered by episodes.
(*) It should have an effective ending.
DESCRIPTION
In every good description a point of view should
be established.
The description should be governed by the point
of view.
The general outline of the picture should, as a
rule, be given first.
The number of details should be so few and so
significant as to make a vivid picture.
The order of the details should be determined
by the character of the object to be described.
EXPOSITION
Exposition is a form of composition designed to
explain.
The important characteristic of exposition is
clearness.
The main points may be stated in various ways
in order to make them clear.
Exposition makes large use of illustration.
38 RHETORIC
ARGUMENT
Argument is a form of composition designed to
prove the truth or the falsity of a proposition.
A Brief is a summary of an argument showing
the development of the argument by a series of
headings and sub-headings.
The first step in the argument should be to
define the terms of the proposition or to determine
the facts in the case.
State reasons to establish facts.
The conclusion should be warranted by the
premises.
Illustrations may be used effectively, but not
conclusively.
Analogy should be used for illustration, not as
a basis for conclusions.
Arguments should usually be arranged in the
order of their strength, the strongest last.
LETTER WRITING
Every business or social letter should show these
divisions : the heading, the salutation, the body of
the letter, the complimentary close, and the signa-
ture. Business letters should have an introductory
address before the salutation.
The Heading consists of the place and the date.
LETTER WRITING 39
The Salutation and the Complimentary Close
should be appropriate to the person addressed.
Postal cards need no salutation or complimen-
tary close, but the date should never be omitted.
All business notes and letters should be as con-
cise and direct as possible.
Formal Invitations are written in the third per-
son and have no heading, salutation, or conclusion.
Informal Invitations are written in the first person.
All answers to invitations should be written in the
same person that is used in the invitation.
BUSINESS LETTERS
24 Oberlin St.,
Worcester, Mass.,
Aug. 15, 1904.
The Denholm-McKay Co.,
Worcester, Mass.
Gentlemen : Please send to the above ad-
dress ten yards of muslin like the inclosed sample,
for which I inclose check for two dollars and fifty
cents ($2.50).
Yours truly,
MARY I. BROWN,
Address : —
Mrs. John L. Brown.
40 RHETORIC
24 Oberlin St.,
Worcester, Mass.,
Aug. 15, 1904,
American Book Co.,
New York City.
Dear Sirs : —
Inclosed you will find a postal order for one
dollar ($1.00), for which please send me one copy
of each of the following books: The Ancient
Mariner, Burke's Conciliation, The Milton Lyrics,
Julius Ccesar, Macaulay's Second Essay on the
Earl of Chatham.
Yours truly,
CHARLES E. STORY.
\
POSTAL CARD
I will send you the pictures which
you require.
H. P. THORNTON.
July 4, 1904.
LETTER WRITING 41
INFORMAL INVITATION AND ANSWER
2 June Street,
Roxbury, Mass.,
Aug. 5, 1904.
Dear Luke : —
Charles and I are to have a boating party
next Thursday evening and we are eager to have
you with us. We shall start from our house at
half-past seven, and we hope that nothing will
prevent your joining us at that time.
Very sincerely,
CARRIE MAYNARD.
25 Endicott Street,
Boston, Mass.,
Aug. 6, 1904.
Dear Carrie : —
It was very kind in you to think of me
for the fun on Thursday, and you may be sure
that I shall not miss such an opportunity. I'll be
with you promptly at 7.30. With many thanks,
I am
Most sincerely,
LUKE P. BRIGHAM.
42 RHETORIC
FORMAL INVITATION AND ANSWERS
Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Browne request the
pleasure of Miss Thompson's company at dinner,
at 21 Woodland St., on February the twenty-
third, at half-past seven.
Miss Thompson accepts with pleasure the invi-
tation of Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Browne for
dinner on February the twenty-third.
Miss Thompson regrets that a previous engage-
ment prevents her acceptance of the kind invitation
of Mr. and Mrs. Charles !£. Browne for February the
twenty-third.
EXCUSE FOR ABSENCE
3 Decatur Street,
Worcester, June 5, 1904.
Dear Miss Carter : —
Will you kindly excuse Harry's absence
on Thursday, June 2.
Very sincerely,
MARY E. SHATTUCK.
THE PARAGRAPH
A Paragraph is a division in composition treating
only one part of the subject. A paragraph must
conform to the same rules that should govern the
PARAGRAPH — SENTENCE 43
whole composition ; that is, it must show unity,
massing, and coherence.
Unity demands that all the thoughts in a sen-
tence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall
cluster about one main idea.
Massing demands that the important thoughts
shall be placed in prominent places.
Coherence demands that thoughts shall be closely
connected.
The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated
absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the
appearance of the page, and the comfort of the
reader must all be considered. In a dialogue
a new paragraph is begun with each change of
speaker.
THE SENTENCE
Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as
periodic, loose, and balanced.
A Periodic sentence is one that holds the thought
in suspense until the end. Example : In all his
long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old
boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the
streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was
upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he
showed the same simple, democratic nature.
A Loose sentence is one in which there is no
attempt to show suspense; the different parts
44 RHETORIC
may come in where natural ease of expression
suggests.
A Balanced sentence is one in which contrasting
thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example :
God made the country and man made the town.
The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely
to result in artificiality of expression unless used
with care. The loose sentence gives ease and
naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily
change to slovenliness of expression in the hands
of a careless writer.
Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity,
massing, and coherence.
Unity demands that the sentence shall have one
main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by
putting together ideas that should be separated, by
making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making
ideas coordinate that are not of equal importance.
Examples of lack of unity : —
1 . The words are very simple and I think it very strange
that a tinker could write such a good book.
2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we
came to a pasture.
3. In the hen yard were two beehives and it was there that
we spent much time.
Massing in the sentence demands that the main
thought shall be placed where it will " readily catch
the eye."
CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS 45
Coherence demands that the parts shall be so con-
nected that the thought will be clear and compact.
The length of sentences is governed by the effect
to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, em-
phasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight
and rhythm.
A well-constructed sentence keeps the same sub-
ject as long as possible.
All modifying elements should be placed as near
as possible to the words they modify.
A Dangling Element — one that modifies nothing
— must be avoided. Example: Looking into the
water, a fish was seen.
A " Squinting Construction " is one that is so
poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally
well the part preceding and the part following.
Example : Will you say to Mr. Brown, when he
comes, I will be ready.
Redundancy — a weak repetition of an idea —
must be avoided.
Verbosity or Prolixity is the fault in sentence-
making caused by using needless words,
CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS
Good usage — the usage of the best writers and
speakers — sanctions only words that are in repu-
table, national, and present usage.
46 RHETORIC
The term Barbarism is applied to unauthorized
language. Some offenses against good usage are
the following : - —
1. Obsolete words, words gone out of use.
2. Provincialisms, words peculiar to some locality.
3. Colloquialisms, words peculiar to familiar con-
versation.
4. Solecisms, ungrammatical expressions.
5. Archaisms, expressions which would be obso-
lete except for their occasional use in poetry.
The term Impropriety is used to designate repu-
table words misapplied.
Slang is a general name for current, vulgar, un-
authorized language. It may take the form of
barbarism or impropriety.
Use the fewest and simplest words that the
subject will bear.
Specific words are usually more forcible than
general terms.
Foreign and technical terms should be used with
care.
Use idioms wherever it is possible.
Whatever may be the thing one wishes to say, there is but
one word for expressing it ; only one verb to animate it ; only
one adjective to qualify it. It is essential to search for this
word, for this verb, for this adjective, until they are discovered,
and to be satisfied with nothing else.
— FLAUBERT (Advice to Maupassant).
FIGURES OF SPEECH 47
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Figures of speech are used to make language
more effective. The common figures are meta-
phor, simile, allegory, personification, apostrophe,
metonymy, euphemism, hyperbole, antithesis, irony,
climax, onomatopoeia, and alliteration.
Metaphor and Simile are figures based on resem-
blance ; metaphor implies the comparison, while
simile expresses it, usually by either like or as.
Metaphor : —
"Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with
snowflakes."
Simile : —
" Lightsome as a locust leaf,
Sir Laimfal flashed forth in his unscarred mail."
" The gentlemen choristers have evidently been chosen,
like old Cremona fiddles, more for tone than looks."
Allegory is a prolonged metaphor used to teach
some abstract truth by the use of symbols. Ex-
amples: Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ; Spenser's
Faerie Qucene ; Psalm Ixxx., in which the "vine"
stands for the people of Israel.
Personification attributes life to inanimate objects.
When the object is directly addressed, the figure is
called Apostrophe.
48 RHETORIC
Personification : —
" The little brook heard it and built a roof
'Neath which he could house him, winter proof."
Apostrophe : —
" But, O Grief, where hast thou led me ! "
Metonymy is the substitution of one name for
another which it suggests. Examples : —
" She keeps a good table."
"The pen is mightier than the sword."
Euphemism is a softened way of expressing an
unpleasant thought.
Direct : He is a liar.
Euphemistic : He is purposely inaccurate in his statements.
Hyperbole is effective exaggeration.
" her eye in heaven
Would through the airy region stream so bright,
That birds would sing and think it were not night."
Antithesis is a contrast of words or thoughts.
Examples : —
" Better be first, he said, in a little Iberian village
Than be second in Rome."
" Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." fu ...
Irony is hidden satire.
" 'Tis pretty, sure, and very probable,
That eyes, that are the frail'st and softest things,
Should be called tyrants, butchers, murderers."
POETRY 49
Climax states a series of thoughts in the order
of their importance, the most important last.
A reversal of this order is sometimes used for
humorous effect and is called Anti-climax.
Example of Climax : —
" It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him
is an atrocious crime ; to put him to death is almost parricide ;
but to crucify him — what shall I call it ? "
Onomatopoeia emphasizes the meaning by adapt-
ing the sound to the sense. Example from Cata-
ract of Lodore : —
"And sounding and bounding and rounding,
And bubbling and troubling and doubling,
And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling,
And clattering and battering and shattering."
Alliteration repeats the same sound in successive
words. Examples : —
" .Silently out of the room there glided the ^listening .ravage,
Bearing the xerpentV skin and Deeming himself like a serpent,
^Finding his jinuour way in the t/ark to the depths of the
forat."
POETRY
The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure.
Poetry is usually expressed in verse, though not
all verse is poetry, and much of poetic beauty is
often found in prose. The diction of poetry is
K. PRIM. — 4
SO RHETORIC
usually more condensed, picturesque, and archaic
than that of prose.
The materials of poetry are taken from external
nature, from imagination, and from human life.
Blank Verse is that which has no rhyme.
KINDS OF POETRY
Poetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, and
dramatic poetry ; sometimes a fourth class is added,
— didactic poetry. Epic and dramatic poetry are
alike in that the essential element of each is a
story; but in epic poetry the author tells of the
acts and words of others, while in dramatic poetry
the characters speak and act for themselves.
EPIC POETRY
Epic poetry includes five varieties, as follows : —
1. The Great Epic must have a noble subject,
serious treatment, a hero, events largely under
superhuman control, and a consistent plot. The
interest lies in the action. Examples : The Iliad
and the Odyssey; Paradise Lost.
2. The Metrical Romance differs from the great
epic in its theme, which is less serious ; its meter,
which is lighter; and its control of events, which
is mainly human ; the love element is more promi-
nent in this form of the epic. Examples : Scott's
Marmion and The Lady of the Lake.
POETRY 51
3. The Tale is a simple form of narrative poetry
telling a complete story. Examples : Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales ; Tennyson's Enoch Arden.
4. The Ballad is a direct, rapid, and condensed
story, having peculiarities of phrase and poetic
accent. The common ballad meter is iambic tetram-
eter (pp. 55, 56) alternating with iambic trimeter,
in stanzas of four lines each. Examples : Chevy
Chase ; Coleridge's Ancient Mariner.
5. Pastorals and Idylls have a great deal of de-
scription, often of simple country scenes, mingled
with the narrative. Examples : Goldsmith's De-
serted Village ; Tennyson's Idylls of the King.
DRAMATIC POETRY
Dramatic poetry tells a story by means of char-
acters speaking and acting in such a way as to
develop a plot. The drama is divided into acts,
often five, the fifth act showing the results of the
plot which has been developing.
The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and
comedy.
Tragedy deals with the grave situations and
problems of life and engenders in the spectator
noble emotions.
Comedy deals with the pleasanter and more
trivial side of life and chooses its subjects from
everyday follies, accidents, or humors,
52 RHETORIC
An Opera is a tragedy or a comedy in which the
characters sing their parts.
The following are special forms of comedy : —
1. The Farce presents ridiculous and exagger-
ated situations and characters. It is usually short.
2. The Melodrama is a form of comedy employ-
ing music to some extent, and using situations that
are very romantic and sensational.
3. The Mask is an old form of comedy intro-
ducing much of the spectacular, some music, rural
scenes, and supernatural characters.
LYRIC POETRY
Lyric poetry expresses the deepest emotions or
sentiment of the poet. The lyric, as the word
suggests, was originally designed to be sung to
the music of the lyre.
Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows : —
1. Song may be either sacred or secular.
2. The Ode is the loftiest form of lyric, and ex-
presses great range and depth of feeling. This
range of emotion often varies the meter. Ex-
amples : Tennyson's Ode on the Death of the Duke
of Wellington ; Lowell's Commemoration Ode.
3. The Elegy laments the fleeting condition of
human affairs. Examples : Gray's Elegy Written
in a Country Churchyard ; Milton's Lycidas ; Ten-
nyson's In Memoriam.
POETRY 53
4. The Sonnet is a short poem of fourteen
iambic pentameter lines, and had originally a pre-
scribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great
English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton,
Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning.
What is a sonnet ? T is the pearly shell a
That murmurs of the far-off murmuring sea ; b
A precious jewel carved most curiously ; b
It is a little picture painted well. a
What is a sonnet ? 'T is the tear that fell a
From a great poet's hidden ecstasy ; b
A two-edged sword, a star, a song — ah me ! b
Sometimes a heavy-tolling funeral bell. a
This was the flame that shook with Dante's breath ; a
The solemn organ whereon Milton played, b
And the clear glass where Shakespeare's shadow falls : c
A sea this is — beware who ventureth ! a
For like a fiord the narrow floor is laid b
Mid-ocean deep to the sheer mountain walls. c
— R. W. GILDER.
5. Many lyrics have none of the special aims
already mentioned. These may be called Simple
lyrics. Example : Burns's To a Daisy.
DIDACTIC POETRY
Didactic verse is not the highest type of poetry.
Its aim is primarily to instruct. Example: Pope's
Essay on Man.
54 RHETORIC
Poetry that teaches a moral truth is not neces-
sarily to be classed as didactic verse.
One form of didactic poetry is satirical in its
tone, thereby adding sharpness to the truth of
the intended teaching. Example : Lowell's Biglow
Papers.
METER
Verse is composition arranged in regularly recur-
ring accents and pauses.
The unit of measure in verse is the Foot. Every
foot in poetry (except the spondee, the pyrrhic foot,
and the tribrach) has one accented syllable and
one or more unaccented syllables.
Every line of verse has usually at least two
pauses. One comes in the body of the line and
is called a Caesura, or a caesural pause. The other
comes at the end of the line and is called the final
pause. Both these pauses must be observed in
reading verse.
Reading verse to show its meter is called Scan-
sion.
Accented syllables may be marked by a macron
(_) or by the acute accent ( > ). Unaccented sylla-
bles may be marked by a breve (^).
POETIC LINES
Monometer = line of one foot.
Dimeter = line of two feet.
POETRY 5 5
Trimeter = line of three feet.
Tetrameter = line of four feet.
Pentameter = line of five feet.
Hexameter = line of six feet.
Heptameter = line of seven feet.
Octameter = line of eight feet.
POETIC FEET
A foot of two syllables with the accent on the
first is a Trochee, or a Trochaic Foot (_ w).
A foot of two syllables with the accent on the
second is an Iambus, or an Iambic Foot (w _).
A foot of two syllables, both accented, is a
Spondee, or a Spondaic Foot ( ).
A foot of two syllables, neither accented, is a
Pyrrhic Foot (w w).
A foot of three syllables with the accent on the
first syllable is a Dactyl, or a Dactylic Foot (_ w w).
A foot of three syllables with the accent on the
last syllable is an Anapest, or an Anapestic Foot
(w - _).
A foot of three syllables, no one accented, is a
Tribrach.
A pyrrhic foot and a tribrach are made up of
unimportant words and unaccented syllables.
Some lines show two or more kinds of feet.
Such lines are said to be mixed.
A line is named from the prevailing foot*
56 RHETORIC
w _ = iambus.
_ w = trochee.
= spondee.
w w = pyrrhic foot
_ w w = dactyl.
w w — = anapestic foot,
w w w = tribrach.
^y __ vy — vy -^ v^ _—
I wanjdered lone|ly as | a cloud
(Iambic tetrameter.)
Heard the | lapping | of the | water
(Trochaic tetrameter.)
This is the | forest pri|meval ; the | murmuring |
pines and the | hemlocks
(Dactylic hexameter.)
Oh, young | Lochinvar | is come out | of the West
(Anapestic tetrameter.)
One more unfortunate
(Dactylic dimeter.)
This was | the no|blest Ro|man of | them all
(Iambic pentameter.)
DONETS— RHETORICAL AND GRAMMATICAL 57
"Don'ts," — Rhetorical and Grammatical
Dorit use :
bound
most
real
funny
verbal
aggravating
mutual
quite
some
good
except
bring
can
transpire
leave
effect
love
propose
mad
like
something
illusion
statue
laid
set
for determined
for nearly
for very
for odd
for oral
for provoking
for common
as an adjective
for somewhat
for well
for accept
for carry or take
for may
for happen
for let
for affect
for like
for purpose or intend
for vexed or angry
as a conjunction
as an adverb
for allusion
for statute
for the past tense of
for the past tense of
58 GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC
Don't use: —
health} for healthful
team for carriage or wagon
calculate for intend
learn for teach
allude for mention
not with scarcely, hardly, or but to indi-
cate negation
different than, scarcely than, or hardly than
a noun or pronoun as object of the verb be
the nominative case for the object of a preposition
ain't for is not or am not or are not
will with / or we in asking questions
quantity for number
awfully for z/^;j
myself except as an ap positive or a reflex-
ive pronoun
that as an adverb instead of so
a little ways for a short distance
worse for more
witness for see
fix for arrange or repair
party for person
t he se?cc\di those with £/«rf and ,r0/T
a plural pronoun or a plural verb with such words
as each, every, either, neither, some one, somebody.
any one, nobody,
between for among
HELPS IN WRITING A THEME 59
between to refer to one object
had with ought
woman with widow
got with have to indicate possession
HELPS IN WRITING A THEME
The choice of a subject should be determined
by your knowledge and your interest. You must
choose a definite subject and the title must be ap-
propriate. After the subject is chosen, make as
many notes of available thoughts as possible. Ar-
range these notes in an outline. Then, with no
particular care as to details, write freely all that
you have to say. This fluent writing will help to
keep the essay free from stiffness. When this
first rough draft has been made, the refining proc-
ess should begin. Then much thought and care
should be taken to insure that the theme has an
attractive beginning and a forcible ending; that
there is proportion between the parts of the essay ;
that matters of importance are elaborated; that
unimportant details are omitted; that there is a
good division and arrangement of paragraphs;
that there is a nice construction of sentences ;
and that the details of spelling, capitalization,
and punctuation are correct
INDEX
Abstract nouns, 6.
Active voice, 16.
Adjective pronouns, 13.
Adjectives, 25-27.
Adverbs, 28.
Agreement, of nouns, 9; of pro-
nouns, 13; of verbs, 18, 19.
Allegory, 47.
Alliteration, 49.
Analogy, use of, in argument, 38.
Anapest, Anapestic, 55, 56.
Antecedent, 13.
Anti-climax, 49.
Antithesis, 48.
Apostrophe, figure of speech, 47,
48; punctuation mark, 35, 9,
10, 13.
Apposition, 7, 8, 9.
Archaisms, 46.
Argument, 38.
Articles, 25.
As and so, use of, 30.
Auxiliary verbs, 15—17.
Balanced sentence, 44.
Ballad, 51.
Barbarism, 46.
£>e, conjugation of, 25,
Blank verse, 50.
Brief, 38.
Business letters, 39, 40.
Caesura, 54.
Can, use of, 16.
Capitals, use of, 33.
Cardinal numerals, 26.
Case, 7-9.
Clauses, 32.
Climax, 49.
Coherence, 43, 45.
Collective noun, 6, 19.
Colloquialisms, 46.
Colon, use of, 34.
Comedy, 51, 52.
Comma, use of, 33, 34.
Common noun, 6.
Comparative degree, 26.
Comparison, of adjectives, 26, 27;
of adverbs, 28.
Complete predicate, 31.
Complete subject, 31.
Complete verb, 15.
Complex sentence, 31.
Complimentary close, of a letter
39-
Composition, forms of, 36.
Compound nouns, plural of, IQC
Compound sentence, 31.
Conjugation, 20-25.
Conjunctions, 29, 30.
Conjunctive adverbs, 28, 30.
Coordinate conjunctions, 30.
Correlative conjunctions, 30.
62
INDEX
Dactyl, Dactylic, 55, 56.
Dangling element, 45.
Dash, use of, 35.
Declarative sentence, 31.
Declension, 11-13.
Defective verb, 15.
Demonstrative adjectives, 26.
Demonstrative pronouns, 13.
Dependent clause, 32.
Description, 37.
Descriptive adjective, 25.
Dialogue, paragraphing of, 43.
Didactic poetry, 53, 54.
Dimeter, 54, 56.
Don'ts, 57-59.
Dramatic poetry, 51, 52.
Elegy, 52.
Emphatic form of verb, 17.
Epic poetry, 50, 51.
Euphemism, 48.
Exclamatory sentence, 31.
Excuse for absence, 42.
Expletive, 19.
Exposition, 37.
Farce, 52.
Feminine gender, 7.
Figures of speech, 47-49.
Foot (poetic), 54-56.
Future perfect tense, 17.
Future tense, 17.
Gender, 7.
Genitive case, 8.
Gerund, 18; possessive case with,
9-
Grammar, 5.
Heading, of a letter, 38.
Helps in writing a theme, 59.
Heptameter, 55.
Hexameter, 55, 56.
Hyperbole, 48.
Hyphen, use of, 35.
Iambus, Iambic, 55, 56.
Idiom, 5.
Imperative mode, 17.
Imperative sentence, 31.
Impropriety, 46.
Incomplete verb, 15.
Indefinite adjectives, 26.
Indefinite pronouns, 13.
Independent clause, 32.
Indicative mode, 16.
Infinitive, 1 8.
Infinitive in ing, 18.
Infinitive phrase, 33.
Inflection, 5.
Interjections, 30.
Interrogative adjectives, 26.
Interrogative pronouns, 13.
Interrogative sentence, 31.
Intransitive verb, 15.
Invitations, 39, 41, 42.
Irregular verb, 15.
Irony, 48.
Italics, use of, 35, 34.
Letter writing, 38-42.
Loose sentence, 43, 44.
Lyric poetry, 52, 53.
Masculine gender, 7.
Mask, 52.
Massing, 43, 44.
May, use of, 16.
Measure, nouns showing, 6.
Melodrama, 52.
Metaphor, 47.
Meter, 54-56.
Metonymy, 48.
Metrical romance, 50.
Mixed lines (of poetry), 55.
Modal adverbs, 28.
Mode, 1 6, 17.
Monometer, 54.
Mood, 1 6.
Narration, 36, 37.
Negative expressions, use of, 28.
Neuter gender, 7.
New conjugation, 15.
Nominative case, 7.
Noun clauses, use of, 32.
Nouns, 6-io; agreement of, 9.
Number, 7; of verb, 18, 19.
Object, case of, 8.
Object, indirect, 8.
Object of a preposition, 29.
Objective case, 8.
Obsolete words, 46.
Octameter, 55.
Ode, 52.
Old conjugation, 15.
Onomatopoeia, 49.
Opera, 52.
Order of words, 5.
Ordinal numerals, 26.
Paragraph, 42, 43.
Parenthesis, 35.
Participial phrase, 33.
Participle, 18.
Parts of speech, 5.
Passive voice, 16.
Past tense, 17.
Pentameter, 55, 56.
Perfect tense, 17.
Periodic sentence, 43, 44.
Person, 7.
Personal pronouns, 11-13.
Personification, 47, 48.
Phrases, 33.
Plot, 36.
Pluperfect, 17.
Plural form of nouns, 10.
Plural number, 7.
Poetic feet, 54-56.
Poetic lines, 54, 55.
Poetry, 49-56; kinds of, 50-54;
meter, etc., 54-56.
Positive degree, 26.
Possessive case, 8, 9.
Possessive forms of nouns, 8, 9.
Possessive forms of pronouns, 1 2,
13-
Postal card, 39, 40.
Potential mode, 16.
Predicate, 31.
Predicate adjective, 27.
Predicate noun, 9, 7, 8.
Prepositional phrase, 33.
Prepositions, 28, 29.
Present tense, 17, 18.
Principal clause, 32.
Principal parts of a verb, 17.
Principal verb, 15.
Progressive form, 17.
Prolixity, 45.
Pronominal adjectives, 26.
Pronouns, 1 1-14 ; agreement, 13.
INDEX
Proper nouns, 6.
Provincialisms, 46.
Punctuation, 33-35.
Pyrrhic foot, 55.
Quotation marks, use of, 35.
Redundancy, 45.
Reflexive use of pronouns, 12.
Regular verb, 15.
Relative adverbs, 30.
Relative pronouns, 13.
Rhetoric, 36.
Row, conjugation of, 20-25.
Salutation, of a letter, 39.
Scansion, 54.
Semicolon, use of, 34.
Sentences, classified grammati-
cally, 31; classified by struc-
ture, 31; in rhetoric, 43-45.
Shall and will, use of, 19, 20.
Should, use of, 19, 20.
Sign of the infinitive, 1 8.
Simile, 47.
Simple predicate, 31.
Simple sentence, 31.
Simple subject, 31.
Singular number, 7.
Slang, 46.
So and as, use of, 30.
Solecisms, 46.
Song, 52.
Sonnet, 53.
Spondee, Spondaic, 55.
Squinting construction, 45.
Strong conjugation, 15.
Subject, 31 ; case of, 7, 8.
Subjunctive mode, 16.
Subordinate clause, 32.
Subordinate conjunction, 30, 29.
Superlative degree, 26.
Syntax, 5.
Tale (poetry), 51.
Tenses, 17, 18; in dependent
clauses, 18.
Tetrameter, 55, 56.
Theme writing, 59.
Tragedy, 51, 52.
Transitive verb, 15.
Tribrach, 55.
Trimeter, 55.
Trochee, Trochaic, 55, 56.
Unity, 43, 44.
Verbal noun, 18.
Verbosity, 45.
Verbs, 14-25; use of, 18, 19;
number of, 18, 19.
Verse, 54.
Vocative, 8.
Voice, 1 6.
Weak conjugation, 15.
Will, use of, 19, 20.
Would, use of, 19, 20.
Words, choice and use of, 45, 46;
faulty uses of, 57-59.
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