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•Wniversiti? of Mieconein

The Principles of
(i>4utomobile Body^ Design

Covering the Fundamentals of
Open and Closed Passenger
Body* Design, with Chapters on
the Design of Commercial Bodies

Br KINGSTON FORBES, c^M. E.

Illustrated with six hundred twenty- three half- tone

plates and line drawings

1922
WARE BROS. COMPANY

1010 Arch Street
PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Copyriirht, 1922

By- WARE BROS. COMPANY

PHILADELPHIA

270728

OCT 26

*• ■ • •

(^L^'Toy^ ^

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface 9

"The Body Engineer and His Relation to the Industry."

I. EVOI^UTION OF THE AuTOMOBII^E BoDY 15

II. Modern Types of Open Bodies 21

III. The Principles of Body Design 27

IV. Chassis Parts to be Considered in Body Designing 32

V. Radiator Design 38

VI. Hoods, Hood Sili^s and Hood Fasteners 48

VII. Touring Car Body Design 57

VIII. Roadster Body Design 66

IX. Generai, Construction of Modern Bodies 74

X. Body Wood Work 82

XI. Body Metai, Work 88

XII. AuTOMOBii^E Hinges 102

XIII. Automobile Door Locks 1 12

(Including Door Handles)

XIV. General Automobile Hardware 125

(Except Locks and Handles)

XV. Fenders 147

XVI. Windshields 158

XVII. Top Design 172

XVIII. The California Top 205

XIX. Trimming or Upholstery 215

XX. Closed Body Design 238

XXI. Principles of Truck Body Design , 252

XXII. Principles of Truck Body Design (Continued) 264

XXIII. Special Truck Bodies 274

XXIV. Truck Cabs 287

6 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

PAGE
Appendix 295

A Perfected Contract Form 296

Comparison of Different Types of Glue 298

When Should Lumber Be Taken from the Kiln? 299

Lumber Used in the Vehicle Industry 302

Substitutes for Ash in Automobile Bodies 305

Strength of Screw Fastenings in Plywood 307

Useful Tables of Weights for Truck Designers 309

Weight of Bar Steel per Foot 311

Metric Conversion Tables 311

Wire Gauges 312

U. S. Standard Gauge for Sheet Iron and Steel 313

Weights of Liquids 314

Weights of Ores 315

Weights of Miscellaneous Materials 315

Angle of Slide of Various Materials 316

Development of the Moderate-Priced Closed Car 317

Harmony in Car Upholstery 322

Index 328

THE PRINCIPLES OF
AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

PREFACE

The lack of information on body engineering and the demand for reprints
of the articles which were published in "Motor Vehicle Monthly" led me to
re-arrange and re-write these articles so that they could be incorporated in book
form. Body engineering has made tremendous strides in the last few years and
the writer has endeavored to collect all the data possible which would interest the
body engineer and the student.

The possibilities of this profession are very good, and it is hoped that the
book will be of help to the student as well as the engineer. The scope and aims
of the body engineer were outlined in a paper by the present writer, read before
the Society of Automotive Engineers, in New York, January 12, 1921, and the
following extracts will make this preface complete:

THE BODY ENGINEER AND HIS RELATION TO THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY

In choosing the title for this paper it was hoped that a note could be struck
which would bring to the attention of the industry the broadness and scope of
body engineering. Also to outline the way this side of the industry can best be
considered and developed. Body engineering has, of course, to look for mass
production or big business for its greatest encouragement. This is the age of
big business, and the automobile industry is a big business, in fact one of the
biggest, and not far from being actually the biggest in the country. Big business
makes demands for organizations which the small business does not need. Small
items in a small scale production can be easily handled, or they about handle
themselves. Small items in great production are of tremendous importance, for
as a chain is as strong as its weakest link, so is big business.

If a thousand cars are made in a day and a shortage occurs in one of the
smallest items it is possible that the entire production is held up, incurring the loss
of thousands of dollars. This emphasizes the point of importance of every
detail in large business in a way which no one can fail to grasp. For instance, if
a change in design could be made by the body engineer that would permit cutting
the leather for the trimming to 15 per cent, waste instead of 20 per cent., a saving
of $1,000 and over per day would be made on a car production of 1,000 cars per
day. In a small shop or custom shop a few feet of leather more or less would not
make a difference, but it means so much in a large production that this and every
other detail must be considered very carefully.

10 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Body engineering is really a broader field than the title conveys, as will be
shown in the outline of this paper. The body engineer's relation to a body manu-
facturing plant, a large car manufacturing plant, a small car plant and a custom
shop demands different classes of engineers. In the main, the body engineer is
responsible for the external appearance of the entire car. If it is a custom-built
car, a preliminary sketch of the complete car is made and very often this is all the
body builder, top maker and trimmer has to work on, so he gets the car to look
as nearly like the sketch as possible. A body plant very often submits designs
for a complete car, but generally has only the body to build. In order to work
out his ideas or combinations of ideas the body engineer of the small plant relies,
to a great extent, on the companies which make his bodies. In a large plant where
bodies and all other metal parts are made, the body engineer has to consider the
manufacturing details involved in all parts that he designs.

Just to cite an instance : There is a distinct difference between the mechanical
side of the automobile and the general appearance or the artistic side. No one
would ordinarily combine the story writer and the illustrator together in more
than a co-operative spirit. The success of the story does not depend upon the
illustrations, or znce versa. But having a good story properly illustrated gives a
wider field for its sale.

So it is with a car ; the mechanical condition and limitations have to be taken
in hand by the body engineer, and it does not stretch the point at all in saying that
its first qualification must be an artistic one. The proof of this statement is
demonstrated in the 1921 cars now being displayed. The body engineer, for the
company specializing in custom body work, must apply artistic principles to every
car he has to create, each car, calling for individuality of its own, draws heavily on
his power of creation. But the body engineer for the large production has to
satisfy 100,000 people with perhaps one design. There is a distinct difference
between that and satisfying the individual as the custom engineer must. Now we
know that the tastes of 100,000 people are not all the same even though some of
our movie stars have practically an unlimited following. The design then for the
100,000 is not the bizarre design, but one that will come as near as possible to
being acceptable to the majority.

It is often remarked that the so-and-so car does not quite suit the person talk-
ing and invariably he remarks that there is a certain characteristic that he favors.
Take several such individuals and see what all their ideas pertain to and it will
be found none will agree on any specific design. But if a car of established
popularity is shown practically all will be satisfied with it. The point to make
is that the simplicity of the car's design and absence of jarring notes can only
be evolved by painstaking effort. The layman can not appreciate the work
behind the smooth finished product, as the effort is not as apparent as the finished
carvings on historic buildings and churches that show the effort required by their
intricately embellished carvings.

Art in the generally accepted term applies to pictures, carvings, etc. Art as
applied to an automobile has to be manifested in the arrangement and shaping

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 11

of sheet metal units on frames. The requirements of art have one other standard
to match up to, and that is, can the result required be accomplished by economical
manufacturing ? One thousand cars or more a day do not allow for fancy hand
decorations or carvings. Art has to be satisfied by huge metal presses and metal-
forming machines. To achieve results the practical side of the body engineer
must be as heavy as his artistic side, as they must work hand in hand to avoid
disappointment. While we have definite lines upon which the artist bases his
work, his success does not depend upon geometrically arranged lines, nor can the
composition of his pictures be worked out with a slide rule. The mechanical
side of the car is quite amenable to slide rule practice, but the body lines are
not. This is one of the reasons why body engineering has an indefinite position
in the industry.

In large production it is not even possible to control the metal parts to a
very fine degree owing to variations in the grades of metal and fluctuations in
the presses. The upholstering, top design and painting, including enameling, all
have bearings on the final results and have to receive the attention of the body
engineer. The main trades which govern the body engineer's work are wood
working, sheet metal working, metal machine work, braces and hardware, trim-
ming, top building, painting and enameling. As the practical side of the engineer
is emphasized, he should be familiar with all these trades and they are all peculiar
in being professions that can not be learned by correspondence courses. In fact
there are practically no schools or instruction books covering the modern phases
of this work. r

The body engineering department could be divided into six main divisions
as shown in the following layout:

1. Body construction, open and closed.

2. Sheet metal, body metal, fenders, hood, radiators, etc.

3. Trimming.

4. Top building.

5. General hardware and mountings.

6. Painting and enameling.

All these arts covered by the six divisions dovetail into one another and must
be considered in the preliminary design. For instance, the radiator and hood
can really be considered the starting points for the car body design, and when
these are established the main body construction is worked out for the dash or
cowl line back.

The exterior lines of the body must be pleasing to the eye, at the same time
the passenger capacity has to be arranged to give ample room and comfort to the
required number of passengers that the body is being constructed for.

In order to give ample comfort, satisfactory trimming has to be arranged
for. Comfort depends on leg room, body room and positions, and well arranged
cushions and back springs with soft padding, with suitable cloth, plush and
leather covering.

12 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Passing on to the top, if it is an open body the lines and windshield must
be considered in order to permit a top to be made that will give adequate protec-
tion and at the same time be pleasing in appearance and of course harmonize
with the rest of the car.

The fenders and side aprons and radiators and mud pans can add or detract
a lot from the car's appearance, and must be worked out to blend with the other
larger elements in the car craftsman's shift.

Under general hardware comes a lot of small parts, such as window regu-
lators, door locks, windshields, hinges, etc., not very large in themselves but im-
portant in providing ease of operation and satisfactory service to the car owner.
What is there more annoying on a car than defective locks, rattling doors, and
hard-working or leaky windshields. And last but not least comes the painting,
and when this is properly done it adds tremendously to the final results. In
working out the design the panels, molding and corners should be made so it
will simplify painting. Modern mass production methods use sprays and flow-
ing operations, and if there are bad corners, mouldings and holes, these will
seriously interfere with the paint, and cause varnish and dirt runs. If it is
planned to have molding arranged in different colors from the main panels they
must be arranged to give harmony and not produce discordant lines.

In the foregoing I have endeavored to show the broadness of the body
engineering field of effort, and as the production increases the detailed accuracy
required along these lines becomes more and more necessary. It will require
organized departments to be able to handle this work. The grouping previously
referred to can be made into department divisions. This can be controlled by
a separate engineer, if the amount of work warrants it, and one or more men to
keep the work in progress. A general drafting force with chief draftsman and
checker are also required.

Modem accounting and production system demands detailed information
about every piece which goes to make up a car, and this entails a lot of detail
drafting work. Every piece of wood, top material, side curtain material, rein-
forcement and wadding, trim material, leather, imitation leather, binding ; ounces
of hair, tacks, nails, etc.; every screw, nail, pieces of hardware. This means
engineering information is required with blue prints and specifications. The old
method used to be to make paper patterns of all parts and let the manufacturing
departments control their own work, and whenever duplication of parts was
required, additional paper patterns were made and sent out. Long ago it was
found that no progress could be made in manufacturing without proper engineer-
ing records and blue prints.

I venture to say that there are several modern auto plants that have no
definite engineering control of the material purchased and fabricated in the
groups outlined, and this material runs into millions of dollars per year.

While the art of coach building is as old as the ages, it was brought to a
manufacturing basis only a few years ago when buggy production hit its high
mark. The advent of the automobile brought up entirely new problems and the

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 13

automobile body engineer is practically a recent accession to the engineering pro-
fession. The importance of the body engineer can be measured by his designs
and by his control of the materials and fabrication of the material required on
the automobile body. It is not sufficient that a beautiful and readily marketable
design be produced, for it must also be possible to make it economically and
without waste of material.

The future holds out big opportunities for the body builder and engineer.
Competition will be keener than ever, not only among the body manufacturers,
but also among the car manufacturers. The automobile competition will be the
body engineer's opportunity. With the stabilizing of chassis construction, the
external body and allied construction will become one of the biggest factors in
marketability and stimulation of sales.

Painting comes under body engineering, but the subject is such a broad one
that it would require a volume by itself, so it was thought advisable to omit it
from this book.

KINGSTON FORBES.

March, 1922,

THE PRINCIPLES OF
AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

CHAPTER I
EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE BODY

Since the time when the first gasoline engine was adapted to the road vehicle,
the progress of development of the mechanical features of the automobile has been
rapid and sure, while the exterior features of the car, which can be classed as the
running gear and the body, did not keep up with the development of the chassis.

When the chassis and engine had been brought up to a high degree of effici-
ency, attention was brought to bear upon the body and other features of the car
that had any reference to the comfort of riders and the improvement of the car's
external appearance.

The possibilities for many improvements were soon noted and acted upon, the
result being that the automobile departed frcJm the ways and appearances of the
horse-drawn vehicle and took on a distinctive style of its own.

The change was revolutionary, as the passenger-carrying conveniences had
been designed by basing the construction on the experience gained in making horse-
drawn vehicles, and the new design and construction called for altogether different
conditions.

A new industry of vast proportions was created which had to develop new
machinery and new methods to cope with the requirements of the automobile body
and its component parts. The methods used to manufacture only a few years ago
seem crude when compared to the methods that are now in vogue ; also, the costs
were high compared to the new costs. New industries have sprung up so quickly
around some of the component parts that the great majority do not know about
them, as few have had time to write about or describe them.

The various phases of development in the body and the running gears, as the
other parts are called, will be dealt with briefly in this volume. These parts
have now arrived at the stage where improvements are hard to make and
new designs are hard to create, and when this stage is reached, analytical study is

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

required to accomplish any further improvements. Progress is generally made by
basing new developments on previous practice, and if the early developments are
not known, the work is carried on upon an insecure foundation.

The aim of this book is to furnish the foundation so that past results can be
considered while new ideas are being developed. That the time is here when a

Fig. 1.
A typical body of about the year 1903

new field of effort is opened up is demonstrated by the cars of 1921 and 1922, as
shown at the automobile shows. These shows could be classed as body shows,
because the important developments shown in the cars over the previous season

Fic. 2
A typical body of about the year 1905

were in the refinement and improvement of the body design, running gear and
equipment.

America's methods of manufacture have done a great deal toward the devel-
opment of the automobile, as they have produced cars in vast numbers and at a

Fig. 3
A typical body of about the year 1908

price that brings them within the sphere of the majority of people. The result is
that the cars are built in great quantities of one design, as this makes it possible
to develop ways and means to produce cheaply. The development of the auto-
mobile must necesisarily hinge around that class of car that manufactures in quan-
tities, and not around the special hand-made production.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

It requires a great deal more work to develop a car for quantity production
than it does to make one special car. Every detail must be considered as every
penny counts when the quantity produced runs into the thousands. There are
greater possibilities in the design and production of the manufactured car, conse-
quently most of the work in this book has been done with large production in mind.

Fic. 4

A typical body of about the year 1912

but of course there are many of the problems which apply just as well to the sample
or custom car as they do to the quantity production one.

It is very interesting to trace the development of the automobile body from
its early stages up to the present beautiful streamline designs. The first model,
dated about 1903, consisted of a box-like structure with two seats on it, conveni-

Fic. 5
"Boatlinc" shape

Fig. 6
"Streamline" shape

ently located adjacent to the steering lever or wheel. In Fig. 1 is shown a line
sketch of a typical body of this period. This would be considered in present-day
terms as a roadster, and is the prototype for our present two-passenger cars. Be-
tween the above period and 1905 a variety of body types were made and accom-

FiG. 7
Representative shape of a touring body

modations for two additional passengers provided. Some of these four-passenger
bodies had a door at the rear for extra passengers to get in and out ; this did not
prove satisfactory, as it cut down the room for a back on the rear seats, and the
passengers had to sit face to face, making it almost a jaunting car effect. In Fig.
2 is shown a sketch of a typical car of this period. It will be noted that a great

18 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

many corners and mouldings are provided. The design savors a good deal of the
horse-drawn vehicle, to which a buggy type of top is fitted. The car shown for
the 1908 period in Fig. 3 has a body that is very similar to the 1905 period ; the
only difference is the slight improvement in outline and detail, and a smoother
line is shown throughout the design. In the 1912 style shown in Fig. 4 is seen
the advent of the "four-door" type, and a windshield fitted as periiianent equip-
ment. The four-door type of body marks the coming of an "automobile" body and
the breaking away from the buggy and kindred horse-drawn vehicle types. This
body has capacity for five passengers, and has four doors.

The 1914 models show the streamline type of body. This has five-passenger
capacity and four doors that operate. The windshield brackets are set on the body
and make the windshield a permanent part of the car. The dash is made smaller
and the hood larger, so that the two are of the same size and present an unbroken
line from the radiator to the back of the body. The name "streamline" dates from
this period when the bodies were made to match the front of the hood and present

Fig. 8
Approximate type of modern body

a clean, smooth appearance. The title "streamline" has been much abused, as
any body that eliminated the offset hood and dash took that name. Boatline would
be a name that would be more descriptive of the style, as the front end of the car
is always the narrowest part, as in a boat shape. See Fig. 5, which illustrates a
boat shape. A true streamline shape would take on the proportion of a fish or
torpedo, the widest parts of this being the front end, as shown in Fig. 6. The
theory of a true streamline body is that it will go through the atmosphere with
the minimum degree of resistance ; the air displaced by the maximum cross sec-
tional area must be permitted to close back again without creating a vacuum. This
is accomplished by the tail-like end of the fish or torpedo body. This is illustrated
by the lines that are shown outside of the torpedo-like shape in Fig. 6. These lines
represent air, and show how the air is parted easily and allowed to flow Imck to the
natural condition gradually. In Fig. 5 the lines will be seen to leave a gap at the
end of the body. This is a vacuum that this style of body would create, and has
a tendency to pull the body back. In Fig. 7 is shown a representative shape of a
touring car body. This, it will be noted, has a decided wedge shape, and a vacuum-
creating back. It is obviously impractical to adapt the torpedo-like shape to a
touring car body, so that as a comparative name the term streamline is a misnomer.
For the 1916-17 period, Fig. 8 shows the approximate type of car that is so
familiar now. This has the long, straight lines, with a hooded front set back.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 19

This tends to smooth down the necessary projection of the seat back and give the
appearance of a continuous line along the top of the body. The projecting wind-
shield brackets are also eliminated, so that the windshield attaches to the body
without any unsightly projections. This brief review of the body developments
describes the periods when these changes went into general effect on the American
cars. Some makers can claim that they had any one of these types several years
previous to the times stated, and this may be true in a few cases, because up to a
few years ago the European designs were followed by the majority of manufac-
turers. Consequently the general American styles at the beginning of the great
war were several years behind the European ones. Since that time we have more
than caught up with European design.

CHAPTER II
MODERN TYPES OF OPEN BODIES

The modern type of body is, without question, a so-called streamline one, and
these lines are long and sweeping, with a clean cut line without any projecting
portions or surfaces. A body can conform to this description and yet be made in
a variety of forms. The most modern body is a degree of design which has no
rules by which its merits can be differentiated. The variations from the long,
sweeping lines are many, and it is individual taste that determines their preference.

In studying the body types that are marketed by the manufacturers for the

Fig. 9
The full-rounded type

last two or three seasons, it is found possible to divide the types into five divisions,
viz: The first, the full-rounded type; second, the semi-rounded type; third, the
angular type; fourth, the semi-angular, and in the fifth are grouped the miscel-
laneous types that have retained characteristic lines of their own.

Fic. 10
The full-rounded type

In analyzing these groupings it is found that the full-rounded and semi-
rounded types comprise 70 per cent, of all models, while those that retain char-
acteristics of their own, in class five, comprise about 20 per cent. The other 10
per cent, are angular and semi-angular. If numbers proved the popular type, the
full-rounded type would be called the most popular, but we find that in the small
10 per cent, class the designs are all new ones, which would probably indicate the
trend of future design.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

To illustrate the types outlined, two representative cars in each group will be
shown in Figs. 9 to 18. Taking up the first group, termed the full-rounded type,
Figs. 9 and 10 show typical examples in this group. Starting from the radiator,
which has a round front and a rounded top, the curves are carried along the hood,

shroud and the sides of the body, almost to the back of the seats. This type pre-
dominates, and 40 per cent, of the cars use these lines.

In the semi-rounded type, the radiator is round in front, and generally the
top of the hood and the shroud carry out the same round lines. But the decided

curves stop at the front door, the sides of the body having a flat edge, and in some
cases a bead or a small rounded corner. This type accounts for 30 per cent. In
Figs. 11 and 12 are shown typical designs in this class.

The angular type of designs which are shown in Figs. 13 and 14 are "new"
designs, the predominating feature being a decided tendency to flat surfaces and
sharp corners. In Fig, 13 it will be seen that the radiator has sharp c

24 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

the sides and at the top, and that these sharp comers are carried all the way back
along the body. In Fig. 14 the sharp line starts at the radiator and extends as
far as the windshield, and then runs up.; the back of the body has angular comers

as well. In the semi-angular group, Figs, 15 and 16 are presented, and show
the predominating body lines to be long and straight, with a small rounded comer.
These have proved very popular designs.

Under group five are shown Figs. 17 and 18, representing the Pierce-Arrow
and Packard, but since these sketches were first prepared both of these companies
have. changed their body lines considerably. In making their changes they have

retained one of the most prominent features of their individuality, and that is the
radiator shape. In both cases the radiator shape stamps them as well as their
names, so familiar with the design is the public. As soon as you leave the radia-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

tor and hood the body takes on the lines of the semi-angular groups. From a
body standpoint it would be difficult to find many cars today with enough pecul-
iarities to really class them in the miscellaneous group. However, it will serve
a useful purpose if we put the ledge type bodies in this fifth group, starting with
the Packard, Willys-Knight, Paige, and Essex. If we were analyzing foreign
cars there would be a large field to select from for inclusion in this group.

Fig. 17
Pierce-Arrow body lines of a few years ago

"The body designs of 1922" would perhaps be the best way to designate the
photographs from 19 to 31. While they are modern in 1922, when this book
is being written, in a few years they may be out of style. So the pictures may
serve as a record of the types made in 1922. Figs. 19 and 20 show the latest
designs of Pierce-Arrow and Packard. It will be noted that they have similar
characteristics to the old design shown in Figs. 17 and 18. The Cadillac shown in
21 typifies a substantial car, well balanced, without any radical features whatever.
In Fig. 22 is shown a Buick, a popular car in the medium priced field. It is note-
worthy by its appearance of grace combined with substantiability. Fig. 23 shows
the Franklin sedan, which is an air-cooled engine car, so it has slightly different
radiator and hood lines, which tends to give the car a different appearance from
the average car.

Fig. 18
Packard body lines, about 1916 period

Figs. 24, 25 and 26 show the Lafayette, Lincoln and Willis-St. Claire cars,
all of which were developed and put on the market in 1920-21. It will be noted
that they are all conservative in their body lines. All the cars shown have been
6, 8, or 12-cylindered cars of a good wheelbase. It is harder to get a good appear-
ance with a short wheelbase four-cylindered car, so to make this fact more clear,
photographs of the Ford, Dodge, Overland, Buick and Allen are shown in Figs. 27
to 31. These are popular cars and show well what lines can be worked out
with short wheelbase and with a conservative cost in mind. If a long wheelbase
is used, as it is on some high-priced cars of four cylinders, the body problem be-
comes identical to the 6, 8, or 12-cylinder car.

CHAPTER III
THE PRINCIPLES OF BODY DESIGN

It has been shown in the preceding chapters how the designs of bodies for the
automobile developed up to the present pleasing type, and in the succeeding chapters
are shown how the present general designs vary to conform with the circumstances
governing the limitations of the design and capacity of the body.

The propelling and carr>'ing structure of the automobile, which comprises
the engine, frame, spring, axles, etc., are assembled into a group which is termed
the chassis. The chassis, then, is that part of the vehicle that the body must be
adapted to.

The body of the car starts at the back of the engine, and rests on the frame
from the dash backward. The design is obviously governed by the chassis. Know-
ing the operating ability that is required, the engine and chassis proportions, the
tire size and wheelbase are determined to give the desired ability. When this is
done, the body, hood and fenders are designed to give the best appearance possible,

Fig. 32
A characteristic chassis layout

at the same time to give the maximum of possible comfort. The proportioning
of the body becomes the principal consideration, as its design governs the pro-
portions of the other parts that go to make the complete car appearance.

In Fig. 32 is shown a characteristic chassis layout, and it is apparent that the
body must be back of the engine and that it may extend to a convenient distance
past the rear wheel. The front seat is located to provide a comfortable seat in re-
lation to the steering wheel and the hand control levers. On a touring car design
the available distance at the rear of the front seat is to be used to provide a com-
fortable rear seat. Comfortable seats can be made in a variety of ways, and the
room available will govern the methods used to obtain them. In Figs. 33, 34, 35
and 36 are shown average seating conditions under different circumstances. It
will be noted that the higher the seats are, the shorter the distance is from the
dash to the seat back, and the lower the seat is, the longer this distance has to be.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The average seating position for a five-passenger car, taken from a large num-
ber of cars, would be the condition shown in Fig. 37, and a seven-passenger seat-

4.eir

Fig. 33 Fzc. 34

Figs. 33 to 36 show average seating conditions under different circumstances

ing position as shown in Fig. 38. The seating conditions have to be worked out
to suit the cars, and these vary a great deal because of the different types and
sizes of engines used.

Fig. 35

There are four main types of engines in use, the four, eight, six and twelve,
and these all give different conditions that affect the body design. In order to
properly analyze these conditions the diagram in Fig. 39 has been made, and this

Fig. 36

shows an outline of a typical four-cylinder car. The main conditions that affect
the body design are the parts that are divided off at A, B, C and D. These symbols
are used so that a number of different cars can be measured and tabulated under

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

these letters. The figures for three popular four-cylinder cars and two eight-
cylinder cars are shown under this form:

No. of cyl.

185^

27%

106

104

122

. 8954

30^

120

86H

28^

115

No. of cyl.

Z7V2

125J4

84^

26^

37hi

122

875i

36H

124

26^

122

26^

135

In Fig. 40 is shown a typical outline for a six-cylinder car. The outline of
the hood is noticeably longer, and the wheelbase increases accordingly. Three
different six-cylinder cars and two twelve-cylinder cars have been measured up
and the dimensions indicated.

Fig. 37
Average seating position for a five-passenger car

By comparing the figures of the four-cylinder cars against the eight, it will
be noted that the lower figure being 76, and the higher 91, there is a difference of
15 inches in dimension A. In dimension B the difference is 7j4 inches; in C

Fig. 38
Average seating position for a seven-passenger car

there is a difference of 3^4 inches, and in the wheelbase the difference is 18 inches.

In the same way, by comparing the six-cylinder car against the twelve, we

note a difference of 10J4 inches, the lowest being 83j4 inches and the highest 95

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

inches. Dimension B varies 2 inches, and dimension C, 5 inches ; the wheelbase,
13 inches. The main body dimension A runs from 76 inches on a four to 95 inches
on a twelve, this big difference being caused by the four-cylinder car being kept
as small as possible, while the twelve is made as large as possible, which accounts
for the great difference of 19 inches. A good average dimension for A would be
86 inches, and would apply on a moderate wheelbase on either four or six-cylinder

cars.

Fig. 39
Outline of a typical four-cylinder car

The seat and leg room having been considered, the width of the body that can
be obtained will be defined. The front seats on touring cars and roadsters are
generally constructed to accommodate two passengers, and have a width of 40
inches. The modem body lines tend to make the front seat wider, and so the seat
width may run more around 42 inches. In the roadster the front seats are made
even wider, so that three people can get in it when necessary. The rear seat on
a touring car is generally made to take three people, and to do this comfortably as
much space as possible is provided in it. The available space is limited by the dis-
tance between the rear wheels.

Fic. 40
Typical outline of a six-cylinder car

The standard track width for American cars is 56 inches, that is, the dis-
tance between the centers of the wheels. In the diagram, Fig. 41, the rear end of
the body is shown, and also its relation between the rear wheels. It is seen that
depressions have to be made in the sides of the body to clear the wheels. These

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

depressions are called " wheelhouses," and have to be made about 48 inches wide.
If the wheelhouse is 48 inches, and 2 inches are allowed for clearance on each
wheel, It equals 52 inches. The tire dimension being 4 inches, this will equal 2
inches on each side, making 2+2+52=56. Now, if the wheelhouse is 48 inches,

\L 4S-47— 4;

Fig. 41
Rear end of body showing its relation to rear wheels

the best width possible is between 46 and 47 inches. This only allows from J^-inch
to 1 inch on each side for trimming. If the cushion is raised above the wheelhouse,
it makes a very ungraceful looking seat, which is not satisfactory with the present
style of bodies. Then, again, the cushions will have to have the extensions run-

Pio. 42
Average condition obtained at the dash

ning out, and these would not be deep enough to give riding comfort. A depth
of 8 to 10 inches is given on the cushion springs in order to have a comfortable
seat. From the foregoing the reasons for the 46-7 dimensions are explained.

The diagram shown in Fig. 42 illustrates the average condition obtained at
the dash. The width of the dash must be sufficient to allow ample clearance for
the feet when operating the pedals. The modern tendency is to have a wide dash,
and the figures given are average ones, such as provide clearance.

CHAPTER IV

CHASSIS PARTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN BODY

DESIGNING

The first consideration for the body engineer when making a design for a
body is to find out the details of the chassis upon which the body is to be assembled.
Most car builders furnish chassis blue prints which have practically all the infor-
mation required by the body builder.

If the request calls for a body design alone the car manufacturer will be ex-
pected to provide body hood line, front and rear fender, running board location,,
wheelhouse clearance and also frame clearance. If a new car is to be designed,
in all probability the radiator, hood, dash shape, front and rear fender, sides,
aprons and running board location have to be designed and located by the body
engineer. In the latter case the body engineer will require the wheelbase, tire size,,
height of frame from the ground and the shape of frame, and the dash position,
which, of course, will be located so as to give enough room for the engine.

Fig. 43 shows a chart that has the information necessary for a "style draw-
ing," A represents the wheelbase or distance between the center of the front wheel
and the center of the rear wheel. B is the diameter of the front tire. B 2 is the
diameter of the rear tire. C is the height from the ground to the top of the frame
when the car is carrying the complete load that it is designed to carry. D is the
height from the ground to the top of the frame at the rear of the seat with the car
completely loaded. E is the distance from the front of the frame to the center
of the wheel. F is the distance from the center of the wheel to the front of the
dash. G is the distance from the dash to the back of the wheel. H is the height
from the top of the frame to the under side of the steering wheel. I is the diameter
of the steering wheel. The front pedals should be located if the seats' backs are
to be correctly placed, and dimension J will give this.

With the information given in this chart, accurate style drawings can be
made. It very often happens that the information suggested above is not available
and the body engineer has to use his own judgment in making the preliminary
sketches. When the style of the body has been determined, further information
will be required, starting in with the frame. This should be laid in on the body
drawing, and all cross members, rivets and all other projections liable to cause
body interference carefully inserted on the drawing.

Automobile chassis frames vary considerably, as shown in Fig. 43-A. There

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

are three general types of frames, 1st: Flat frame with parallel side rails, 2nd:
Flat frames with the sides rails tapering from the back to the front, 3rd : Frames
with the "kick-up" in the rear, either taper of parallel side rails. The first class

-wr

» 1

ij 1 1

.I t

I i i '

=«

Fic. 43' A
Automobile chassis frames vary considerably as shown in these top and side views

of frames permit of making flat sills and simplify the body construction. The
second class permits the use of flat sills, and also makes it possible to have a nar-
rower sill than the first type of frame. The frames that have "kick-up" require
a built-up body sill. The kick-up is provided to give axle clearance.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Starting from the front of the body the details which have to be considered
in a body layout will be taken up. The dash must be located to give ample clear*
ance from the engine and any of its component parts, allowing for any possible

Fic. 44
An example of interference between dash and engine

manufacturing variations. It is a common fault to try to get all the body room
possible and then have trouble with engine interference. See Fig. 44.

The toe boards are laid out to allow the proper clutch and brake pedal travel,
and the sides of the shrouds must give clearance for the pedal pad. (See Figs.

^ Fig. 45

The toe boards are laid out to allow proper clutch and brake pedal movement

45 and 46). The toe and floor boards must also clear the engine housing and
transmission as indicated at X in Fig. 45. In leaking up the toe and floor boards
suitable cut outs have to be made for the foot pedals, starter pedals, accelerator

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

pedal, speedometer cable, steering column, gear shift lever and the emergency
brake levers.

Sometimes the battery is located in the body, but generally it is supported in
the frame. There are several locations for this unit. It can be set in the right
or left side of the frame near the front seat heel board or in the rear under the

J 1 ^ > J \ ^SF> 1 V >

Fig. 46
Suitable provision must be made for all controling levers

tonneau floor boards ; in the left or right side of the frame. A good location is
on the outside of the frame, between the running board and the frame, under the
side apron. As a last resort it can be carried on the top of the running board.
The point to be made is that the battery location must be determined so that suit-
able provision is made for it and the body construction carried out accordingly.
When the general outline of the body has been laid out, the position of the body

JfOVS/N^

Fig. 47
A special housing at rear of body to clear the rear axle housing

hold-down bolts should be considered, care being taken to see that they are located
in accessible places so the bolts can be assembled easily and with plenty of room
for the wrench to turn in tightening the nuts.

In most cars there are brake rods extending from the point adjacent to the
transmission to the rear axle, and as the axle moves up toward the body, care
must be taken to see there is no possibility for brake rods hitting any part of the

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN yj

body when the springs deflect. It is very often necessary to make a special hous-
ing at the rear of the body to clear the rear axle housing, as shown in Fig. 47.
The size of this housing varies, so it must be considered on all bodies, provision
being made for ample clearance for the part when the axle is up as high as it can
possibly go.

In some cars the gasoline tank is in the frame or under the front seat. This
must be located. However, in most of the modem cars the gas tank is in the rear
and hung between the side rails on the frame. The gasoline tank has gauges and
filler cap. These must be accessible so the body must not extend back so far that
it will interfere with them. There are always some lighting wires which have to
be attached or fastened to the under side of the body, and the tail lamps wire at
the rear generally require a cut-out in the rear sill.

CHAPTER V
RADIATOR DESIGN

The radiator, as well as being one of the important factors that determine
the lines of the car, is one of the main mechanical parts, too. Its function on the
chassis should be clearly understood, so that in contemplating a design the factors
that govern the size and shape of the radiator will be properly considered. On the
earlier design of car the radiator was arranged to comply with the mechanical re-
quirements, and a shape was laid out that was considered suitable. Then the chas-
sis was turned over to the body designer to put the body on.

:/^

,! i: l! i!i

rtr-

p-i I ' II 1 1

' I

llii '

1 I

UOJ-

^ .A^k.J.iJ4

Fic. 48
The mechanically ideal shape for a radiator would be rectangular or square

With the demand for improvements this condition has been changed, and in
most cases the radiator shape is considered in its relation to the general design
required. As the present-day automobile is the sum total of all its parts, to get
the final result it is readily seen how essential it is to have a thorough understanding
as to what can be done with the radiator before the new ideas are applied. There
are a few cars yet that adhere to their original design of radiator. Some are re-
tained because their original patterns happen to work out very well in the latest
design, but the majority are retained because they are known trade marks of cer-
tain cars and therefore possess considerable advertising value. The object of this
chapter is to explain the basic principle upon which the radiator design depends,
and then to review the shapes and designs for the different types of radiators, past
and present. If the existing shapes are known, the new designs can be worked
out, basing their shapes on the designer's ideas.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

«
^

)\\

■ 00

D. .1

i^i-i

40 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

When the various shapes are grouped together as shown in this chapter, it
will be seen that almost every possible variation of shape has already been tried,
and it will at once be appreciated how necessary it is to have the different shapes
for reference and for study, as it will require a very thorough familiarity with
existing shapes before a new and original shape can be created.

Before starting a design for a radiator the mechanical and manufacturing
limitations should be considered, because it would be of no use to create a beauti-
ful design for a radiator if it could not be made, or if it would not function prop-
erly. It is not within the scope of this book to go into all the mechanical and scien-

1 f

-\ r

L , J

Fig. 53
Difference in the shape of a shell after each of seven operations

tific values of a radiator. Only the fundamental parts of the radiator need be con-
sidered in order to analyze the possibilities of designing or developing its general
external appearance.

In order to lay out a radiator, the heat-dissipating requirements of the engine
it is to be used with must be known. Then the type of core must be considered,
as there are a number of different styles of cores and they have different relative
efficiencies. Having decided upon the type of core, and its efficiency being known,
the frontal area can be determined. If the frontal area required by the core is too
large, it may be possible to reduce the area by increasing the depth, or, vice versa,
the depth may be decreased to obtain a larger front. The larger front is the most
desirable, as the efficiency per weight of material is higher than in the small front

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

reONIS— PAST AND PBESENT

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

rf».66

/^"^

Tf& . 6S

;*'/©. iP

/•/6

FfO. 7Ji

FiO

F/6 7S

FfO. 76

FtG

Tie. 7d

>*/* W

776 <?<?

ryvei

SHAPES AND DESIGNS OF AUTOMOBILE RADIATOR FRONTS— PAST AND PRESENT

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

//&. GZ

Tie. 63

^-/a. sc

>v«. 34-

>/ff S7

Tio. j65

FfO, 69

F/G 90

riG SI

F'O 9Z

F-fO $3

F'G 94 rt(K 9 J

SHAPES AND DESIGNS OF AUTOMOBILE RADIATOR FRONTS— PAST AND PRESENT

/Vg 97

44 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

type with a greater depth. The size of the core being decided upon, the top and
bottom tanks must next receive attention.

The capacities of the tanks must be within certain limits. An engine with a
circulating pump can do with smaller tanks in the radiator than an engine that de-
pends on natural circulation, or what is called the thermo-syphon system.

The mechanical construction of a radiator can be divided into five main parts,
viz., the core, the upper tank, the lower tank, the shell, and the brackets that hold
the shell on to the other portions. The two tanks are connected by the core, which
is composed of a number of tubes with radiating fins of a tubular construction
that will present the greatest possible surface to the air, so that the heat of the
water flowing through it will be rapidly dissipated. The tanks and core are con-
tained in the shell, and the unit as a whole is suitably attached to the car frame.

The mechanically ideal shape for a radiator would be rectangular or square.
This would give the maximum capacity per weight and be the most simple to con-
struct. In Fig. 48 (page 38) is shown a simple rectangular-shaped radiator.

It is important to see that the radiator is designed so that it will not unduly
constrict the effective size of the core, and also tp see that it can be made as simple
as possible. To illustrate how the core's efficiency is interfered with, two radiators
are shown in Figs. 49 and 50 that constrict the upper tanks so that extensions are
necessary in order to get an effective number of tubes in it. It is readily seen that
the cost of manufacture is greatly increased by these designs, and the number of
tubes is reduced and the efficiency of the radiator correspondingly impaired.

Having studied the inner workings of the radiator, the outside or the shell
can now be taken up. When the factors that govern the inside of the radiator are
known, it is possible to make the necessary compromise to obtain the desired ex-
ternal design in conjunction with the required efficiency. The outer shell of the
modern radiator is made of steel, and is formed to shape in dies. In the case of
small quantities it is made of sections joined together, but as the production is so
large even on the average cars, dies are generally made to produce the entire shell
from one piece of steel. This method is by far the most satisfactory and the most
economical one from the maker's point of view. But, to make a shell from one
piece requires an immense press and large dies, and then in order to make the
shells successfully the design must be governed by certain conditions that are re-
quired to make the dies work properly.

To obtain the best results in drawing a radiator shell the design should be
one that will give a uniform draw all around. The best shape for an ideal draw
in the dies would, of course, be circular, but a circular shell would not give an
economical condition for the tanks or the best possible efficiency of the radiator ;
so, speaking for the average shell, the design will be rectangular with an easy run-
ning top, and a full radius will be allowed at each corner. The front edge of the
shell will have a radius ; the sides will be two or three degrees tapering. This will
allow the shell to come off the punch easily, and also come out of the die readily.

In Fig. 51 is shown a drawing of a good design of radiator shell. Upon look-
ing at the front view it will be seen that the top and bottom have good, easy curves.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

and the radii at the comers are large, with the sides alone being flat. In the top
view is shown how the sides bevel off to the front. The section shown at A A, Fig.
52, shows raised portion on the top of the shell for the radiator filler base to go
through. This raised portion has a uniform height from the plane of the shell's
taper on top.

FiG 96

r/G 99

FfO 100

Tfu 101

r/o loz r/&. 105

Shapes and designs of automobile radiator fronts — past and present

The crowned front has an easy curve, the object of this being to stretch the
metal so that there will not be any wrinkles in it, and also to set the metal so that
it will retain the desired shape. For the same reason all surfaces of the shell have
slight crowns in them. For instance, the section B B shows the crown at the bot-
tom of the shell. To make a shell similar to the design shown in Fig. 51 it takes
seven operations ; these are as follows : No. 1 blank. No. 2 draw, No. 3 trim. No.
4 second draw, No. 5 expand, No. 6 take out front. No. 7 pierce the holes in sides
and top.

46 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In sketch No. 52 is shown what the shell looks like on the second operation,
and in the sections, Fig. 53 (numerals from 1 to 7) are shown the difference in
the shape of the shell after each stage of its seven operations. When the funda-
mental principles of the radiator's construction are understood a design can be
worked out that they will prove satisfactory, providing the different points are kept
in mind and the design made accordingly. The primary condition having been
studied, the next problem is what shall the shape be, and in order to assist the
choice of the shape the various styles of radiators have been grouped together
and are shown in sketches from 54 to 103, beginning on page 41.

Eight groups have been made. The first group has been called the angular
top; the second, the flat top; third, round top; fourth, flatted round top; fifth,
V-f ronts ; sixth, miscellaneous ; seventh, round and oval shaped fronts ; eighth, mis-
cellaneous foreign types. Group 5, V-fronts, could be subdivided again into two
groups, the first to have sharp V-fronts and flat shaped tops, and the second to
have round top with V-fronts. As far as the front view is concerned, the shapes
are of all the types grouped from 1 to 8. The sketches show fifty different types,
and each one has some characteristic that the others have not, and, while these do
not show every type of radiator made, they show the great range through which
the designers have worked to get new and desirable designs.

In group No. 1 are shown sketches of the Pierce-Arrow ; Fig. 54, Fig. 55,
National ; Fig. 56, Studebaker ; Fig. 57, Stutz ; Fig. 58, Chevrolet ; Fig. 59, Cadillac ;
Fig. 60, Overland. While they are all of the same general outline, not one of
them could be mistaken for the other.

In group No. 2, the Peerless, Fig. 61, has an angular side, but also has a flat
top, while the Ford, in Fig. 62, has a flat, shooting top, and the Murray, in Fig.
63, has an even more decided flat, sharp-cornered top. This shape is similar to
a number of English cars, viz., Rolls-Royce, Lanchester, Edge, Armstrong.

Group No. 3 is a rounding top class, and, starting with the Marmon, Fig. 69,
with not quite a complete radius at the top, and then the Kissell, Fig. 65 ; Mitchell,
Fig. 66 ; Buick, Fig. 67 ; Wescott, Fig. 68 ; Empire, Fig. 69 ; Haynes, Fig. 70 ; and
Reo, Fig. 71 ; these all have decidely rounded tops. The Reo, in Fig. 71, has a
small, sharp point at the top only, and could not be termed a V- front.

Group No. 4 comprises the Hudson, Fig. 72; Mercer, Fig. 73; Chalmers,
Fig. 74 ; Chandler, Fig. 75 ; Dodge, Fig. 76 ; Hupmobile, Fig. 77 ; King, Fig. 78 ;
and the Saxon, Fig. 79. Each one in this group can be easily recognized by its
characteristic.

In group No. 5 are the V-fronts. The first one is the Owen Magnetic, Fig.
80; next is the Singer, Fig. 81. These are the only ones with the "V" portion
starting at the extreme top. In Fig. 82 the Apperson has a top rounding over to
the V. The Moline-Knight, Fig. 83, is similar ; so also is the Paige, Fig. 84. The
Scripps-Booth, Fig. 85, has a flat portion going to the V. The Maxwell, Fig. 86 ;
is not strictly a V, as the top portion alone is crowned V-like. The Pathfinder,
Fig. 87 ; has a decided V-f ront.

In group No. 6, miscellaneous, comes several different characteristic designs.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 47

Fig. 88 is the Packard ; Fig. 89, the Winton ; Fig. 90, Olds ; Fig. 91, Novara ; Fig.
92, White ; Fig. 93, the Liberty ; Fig. 94, Bour-Davis.

Group No. 7 has not many adherents. The Phianna, Fig. 95 ; the Buss type.
Fig. 96; and the Delauney-Belleville, Fig. 97; are the only exponents in this
country.

In the foreign groups are shown some radical designs to illustrate some more,
phases in the trend of radical design. Fig. 98 is the Belgian Metallurgique. Figs.
99, 100, 101, 102 and 103 are various types used on European cars, and show a wide
range in ideas. No attempt will be made to create a new design ; this will be left
to the designer to interest himself in, as the collection of shapes in this book will
illustrate very aptly what there is before the man who desires something new and
original in radiator shapes upon which a new body line can be developed.

CHAPTER VI
HOODS, HOOD SILLS AND HOOD FASTENERS

The automobile hood primarily forms a cover for the engine and its parts,
and in order to do this it has to extend from the radiator to the front end of the
body. Suitable ledges are provided on the radiator and the body for the hood to
rest upon. The hood in its simplest practical form consists of four main parts, two
upper sections right and left, and two lower sections right and left. The four
pieces are hinged where they attach to one another so that the hood may be easily

Fig. 104
The four sections indicated, with the right side lifted up. Note hinges at A, B and C

lifted up from either side of the car and folded up so that there is ready access to
the engine. See Fig. 104, which shows the four sections with the right side lifted
up and note that it is hinged at A, B and C.

It is generally necessary to provide ventilators to allow the heated air to get
out readily all along the sides or at the ends or on top as the case may be. The
ventilators are generally located in the lower side sections, but sometimes they are
put in the upper section or a plain centerpiece is provided at the top into which

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

ventilators are set. This makes it necessary to add a fifth section to the hood and
an extra hinge. In Figs. 105 to 108 are shown four different styles of "louvres,"
as these ventilators are called. Fig. 105 is the prevailing type. Fig. 106 is located
at the top and, while efficient, is expensive to make. Fig. 107 is located in the
top section and Fig. 108 is a circular-shaped louvre on the sides.

The hood is generally made of steel, 22 or 20 USS gauge thick, but aluminum
is used on some high-priced cars, the gain being a saving of a little weight. When
aluminum is used, steel reinforcements have to be used while a sheet steel hood is
satisfactory without reinforcements. In Fig. 109 is shown a scale drawing of a

Fig. 105

Fig. 106

Fig. 107

Fig. 108

In Figs. 105 to 108 arc shown four different styles of ventilating slits or "louvres," as they arc

properly termed

hood that is patterned after a very successful design. Upon examination it will
be seen that the front end is lower than the back and that the front is also nar-
rower. This is a prevailing condition, as the body designs demand this tapering
effect. The top section is made in a die which forms the cone-like taper in it, and
at the same time turns up the hinge section at the top and bottom. The sides are
practically straight and flat; the back end of the side hinge is located ^-inch
higher than the front, so that it will appear straight to the eye. If it were actually
level it would appear that the back were lower than the front, owing to the hood
being wider at the back than at the front. At the rear end of the hood a bead is
formed to stiffen it and make a finish on the end (see section CC). The lower
sections have the ends turned over and folded down flat to stiffen them (see sec-
tion AA). The top hinge sections as shown in the drawing (section BB) is inter-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 51

esting because it is formed up from the hood and provides a stiflfening rib as well
as a hinge. The lower hinge is formed right out of the metal too, and is a very
simple construction. The top hinge uses a 2-inch joint while the lower requires
a 1-inch. The small top view shows the cutouts that are necessary for the clip
that secures the hood to the body and radiator.

In section DD is shown how the louvres are depressed in the hood. One-half
the depression is on the outside of the hood and the other half in the inside, the
object of this is to get a maximum opening without having an unsightly projec-
tion on the outside. In the sectional view shown at the rear comer a depression
is illustrated ; this is for a leather or rubber washer which is attached to the corner
of the hood to prevent the hood scratching the paint off when it is let down hur-
riedly and might strike on the shroud. The holes shown in the side of the hood
are for the handle and hood fastener brackets.

— Is ^

Fic. 110 Fig. Ill Fic. 112 Fic. 113

Fig. 114 Fig. 115 Fig. 116

I mil !

I ^ 1 t t^ TT

Fig. 117 Fic. 118 Fia 119

Various types of hood hinges, beads and methods of fittingr the hood to the body

In designing a hood the hinges and the cutouts must all allow the paint or
enamel to be readily applied. The majority of the medium-priced car makers
enamel the hoods and it is necessary to have as few projections and holes as pos-
sible so that the enamel will not collect and also make dirt runs. When the hoods
are enameled all attachments, such as hood fasteners, brackets and handles, should
be applied after the hood is finished, as the workmen could not enamel the hood
with these parts in place. The rods used in the hinges are rust-proofed by
Sheradizing or Parkerizing so that they will always work freely.

While the foregoing outlines a good standard design of detail construction
the various other designs will be interesting to review. Starting with the top
hinge the earliest type of hood hinge was a piano type, which was riveted to the
two sections of the hood as shown in Fig. 110. This, it will be seen, projects
above the hood line and makes an unsightly appearance, and as the car lines are
desired smooth as possible this is not satisfactory.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In order to get the hinge flush a method was worked out as shown in Fig. 111.
The hood section is formed down and the hinge is riveted to it ; as this makes the
hood stiffer a smaller rod can be used in the hinge. Very similar results are ac-
complished by making the hinge like that shown in the hood drawing, Fig. 109,

^mn

Fic. 120
General shape of wood hood sill

and at the same time at a greatly reduced cost. The side hinges, constructed as
shown in the drawing. Fig. 109, are of the simplest design possible, but they have
two criticisms. One is that they are not water tight, and the other is that they
show the notches. In Fig. 112 is shown a section of a hinge that is used a great

^£cr/o^ jO^-u

S£CTt^f>f

Fig. 121
Sectional views on A-A and B-B of above diagram

deal, and this makes a neat appearance and is water tight. Another way of getting
this result is shown in Fig. 113. A piano type hinge is used and securely locked
in each section of the hood as shown.

There are several different methods of putting a bead or finish on the front
or rear end of the hood. In Fig. 114 the end of this metal is turned over on to

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

itself; in Fig. 115 a molding is pressed in. With this style the edge is liable to
catch on the body, so the section CC shown in the hood drawing, Fig. 109 is better.
In Fig. 116 the bead is set up so that it will not catch on the body and also to pro-
vide more clearance at the body. In connection with these moldings the method
of fitting the hood has a great deal to do with the results they give, for instance
there are three principal ways of fitting the hood on the body. The first, shown
in Fig. 117, provides a depression in the cowl for the hood to rest on. With
this style the hood finish shown in Fig. 109 is adapted. The second method, shown
in Fig. 118, provides an aluminum strip or molding, against which the hood fits.
With this style the hood finish shown in Fig. 114 or Fig. 115 is adaptable. The
third method is to let the hood rest on top of the cowl, which does not have a *
depression, as shown in Fig. 119. With this method the hood finish shown in
Figs. 114, 115 or Fig. 116 can be used. It will be noted that a belt or lace is set

Fic. 122
Showing hood plate or casting on top of the sill

under the hood ; this is to prevent squeaking as the hood works back and forth when
the car is in service.

The hood sills are strips of wood or metal so formed as to fit on top of the
frame underneath the hood. They run from the dash-board of the body to the
bracket of the radiator, or in some cases run beyond and a short distance down the
frame, where it begins to curve down to the front spring hanger. These sills are
attached to the frame and make a good finish and also a convenient place to attach
the hood fasteners.

There are three general designs worth considering, the first being the one
made of wood. The general shape of a hood sill of this type is shown in Fig. 120.
It will be seen that at the body end the sill projects to the outside of the frame
while on the radiator end the sill projects to the inside of the frame. The hood
line is shown dotted in and this is what determines the shape of the hood sill to the
greatest extent.

The hood sill shown in Fig. 121 is the second type and is made of steel formed

54 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

up as shown in the section AA. In section BB is shown the depression made for
the hood fastener. This saves the addition of a hood plate or castit^ on top of
the sill as is necessary in the third style shown in Fig. 122. The general shapes
are identical, in each case the sections alone beit^ different. In the last case the

A I

Fig. 123
Bolt and wing nut fan

Faslener hookin;

section is just a plain angle, and obviously this is a cheap construction but does
not give the finished appearance of the second type, although it is very extensively
used.

The hood fastener is the device used to secure the hood to the car. The hood
must be held down well and so clamped that it does not rattle. There are several

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

different ways of doing this, and a few of the fasteners that are in most general
use will be described.

In Fig. 123 is shown a bolt and wing nut fastener. The sketch is self-ex-
planatory — to relieve the hood the wing nut is turned up. There is a serious ob-

jection to clamping the hood down rigidly because when the car is in service the
frame distorts, which tends to throw a great strain on some parts of the hood. The
"hook-on" fastener is perhaps the most used type of any at the present time and it
is made in several different detail variations.

56 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In Fig. 124 and Fig. 125 are shown two of these types of fasteners. One hooks
on to a bracket and the other on to a stud. The principle upon which these work is
as follows : When the handle is raised it compresses the spring and the barrel, and
the bracket is so set on the hood that the fastener has to be raised to hook it on,
and when this is hooked on the tension of the spring tends to pull the hood down
and keep it in position.

In Fig. 126 is shown a concealed type of fastener which is a very neat design,
as only the handle is visible from the outside. This same handle obviates the neces-
sity of a hood handle for raising the hood. When the fastener is in position it is
hooked on to the sill and the spring is composed so that it tends to pull the hood
down and hold it securely.

In Fig. 127 is shown another concealed type of hood fastener. This consists
of brackets attached to the cowl and radiator. These brackets have flat springs
in them so they will engage with the rod in handle section, which is attached to
the hood.

CHAPTER VII
TOURING CAR BODY DESIGN

The general types of bodies and the principles upon which the main dimensions
are developed have been shown in the previous chapters. The various details that
have to do mostly with the general appearance, capacity and convenience of a body
will now be gone into.

A touring car may be any sized car and have any capacity from two upwards,
but the word touring car is accepted usually as meaning either a five or seven-
passenger car. There are cars in the market which provide room for from four
to six or seven passengers. There is very little difference in the general design
between a 4, 5, 6 and 7-passenger car. Some manufacturers give a seating ar-
rangement at the rear for two passengers instead of three. This permits them to
make the body a little narrower at the rear than it would be with 5 or 7 passengers.

It was shown in the preceding chapter that the wheels require a definite
clearance, consequently the best possible arrangement of the rear seat cannot make
it reiilly comfortable for three extra heavy people. In making up the seat for two
only, ample room can be allowed for this seat. In either the 6 or 7-passenger car
the two extra seats are located between the l>ack of the front seat and the rear
seat. These extra seats are generally folded up when not in service. The seating
capacity being determined, the number of doors required and their location should
be considered.

There are eleven different ways to provide means for getting in and out of
a touring car, and these are as follows:

Two doors — one front right hand ; one rear right hand.
Two doors — one front left hand; one rear left hand.
Two doors — one front left hand ; one rear right hand.
Two doors — one front right hand ; one rear left hand.
Two doors — two rear doors with a front divided seat.
Three doors — one front left; one rear right; one rear left.
Three doors — one front right ; one rear right ; one rear left.
Three doors — one front right; one front left; one rear right.
Three doors — one front right ; one front left ; one rear left.
No doors at all — steps provided to get in and out of the body.
Four doors.

(2.

(3;

(4:

(6:
(7:
(8;
(9;
(lo:
(11

From these eleven diflferent combinations there are five that can be considered
practical. No. 1, one front right hand and one rear right hand. With a left hand

58 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

control all passengers and driver can alight on the right side on to the sidewalk ;
the driver will have to climb over the passenger in the front seat to get out or the
passenger will have to get out first unless the front seat is divided. Then the
driver can go around and get out of the rear door if divided front seat is provided.
No- 3, one front left hand and one rear right hand. In this combination the driver
can get out without disturbing anyone, but the front passenger will have to wait

until the driver is out before he can alight, unless there is a divided front seat,
which is the better of the two arrangements, if a two-door type of body is to be
used. If the front seat is not divided the first arrangement is the better. No. 5
is a divided front seat arrangement, and calls for two rear doors, right and left.
No. 7 has one front right and two rear doors right and left, with or without divided
front seat. No. 11 combination has four doors.

In the five arrangements enumerated three have two doors, one has three
doors and one four doors. The two-door types are used for economical reasons,
while the three-door one is used when a tire is carried on the side of the car and
blocks the left hand front door.

All of the eleven different methods have been tried at some time or other,
but when they have all been carefully considered there is only one satisfactory

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

way and that is to have four doors, because under certain conditions it is found
convenient to get out of the car from every side. For instance a left hand control
car with a door or doors on the right side will permit the passengers to alight on
the sidewalk, but if there is not means for the passengers to alight on the left side
there will be a large number of car owners forced to walk around their cars to
get into their houses, as a great number of houses have their garages on the left
side of the house, and under these conditions he will want to be able to get out on
the left side as well as the right. The four-door types should be considered as
standard.

The locations of the front doors from the dash are determined by the room
required to get into the car without interfering with the steering wheel, and also
by the amount of the projection required at the side of the seat. The rear door's
position is determined mostly by the distance from the back of the front seat and
the position of the fender wheel house. While a wide door is always desired the

•-8

N
\

1
1

1
•

-10 — •

Fig. 130
The double-cowled body cuts down the width of the doors

above factors govern the width of the doors. On a two or three-door car, where
the left hand door is omitted, the position of the wheel is not important, but in a
four^door car the left hand door is of no use if there is not sufficient clearance
between the post and the wheel to allow a person to pass through.

The distance A shown in sketch 128 should be about 12 inches. The dimen-
sion B should be sufficient to provide a comfortable side support for the driver.
In the rear door the distance C is the actual space available for the passengers to
get in and out, but the door generally extends ahead a little way, as shown in
Fig. 129. In the average car the door goes back as far as possible to the fender.
When there is ample room for a wide door the shape is about the same as the
front door, as shown by the dotted lines, but when the wheelbase is short it fol-
lows the line of the fender as shown in the full line.

The bottoms of the doors are shaped in two ways, sharp and rounded. The
sharp or square door is something that varies with the style. The rounded edge
door is used as standard by the majority, as it permits of a stronger door and
threshold joints.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

- .1

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 63

The position of the hinges on the doors is another condition that varies. The
front and rear doors can either be hinged from the front or rear post; so it is
possible to have four different combinations, first front door .hinged at front, rear
door hinged at front ; second, front door hinged at rear, rear door hinged at rear ;
third, front door hinged at front, rear door hinged at rear; fourth, front door

Rolls-Royce (port boJj; with fairly high sides

hinged at rear, rear door hinged at front. The most used method is to hang all four
doors at the front. The next method, and really the best one, is to hinge the front
doors at the front and the rear doors at the rear. Hinging the rear door at the rear
gives a much better opening to get through and affords some protection from the
rear fenders.

Pio. 135

Low-sided body on Locomobile chassis

The double cowled body cuts down the width of the doors as shown in Fig.
130 ; the effective opening is reduced by about 8 inches, while the entire door width
is reduced about 6 inches. This is shown very cleariy by the dotted lines that
represent the ordinary seat back, so while the front seat cowl adds greatly to the
appearance of the car it reduces the effective door opening at the rear and unless
the body has a liberal length this cowl is not practical.

64 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The height of the side of the body is something that has to be determined be-
fore the general outline can be laid out- The 1922 Ixidies have medium high
sides and this is possible because the prevailing high radiator and hoods. In sports
cars the seats are usually lower so the body sides can be low which tends to give
the car a racy or sporty appearance. The overhang of the body as shown in Figs.

131, 132, 133, with their dimensions 21, 24 and 23 respectively must be watched
closely on a small car. This must be reduced to the limit to save weight but on a
large car more overhang can be provided if necessary as it will balance up well.

A 19Z2 Buick body wilh low cut lides

Two good examples of sport bodies are shown in photc^aphs, Figs, 134
and 135. Fig. 134 shows a Rolls-Royce sport body with fairly high sides, while
Fig. 135 shows a low sided body on a Locomobile. A 1914 Buick is shown in Fig,
136. This is a well balanced and gracefully curved body. The 1922 Buick body
is shown in Fig. 137.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

FITTING ENGINE HOOD TO BODY

The method of fitting the engine hood on to the body is an important point
and there are three ways how these are generally accomplished. The first method
is to depress a ledge in the shroud as shown in Fig. 117, page 51; the hood
rests on this depression and leaves a space between it and the shroud for it to work
back and forth when the car is in use. The second method is to fit an aluminum
rim around the shroud, against which the hood is fitted. When the hood works
in service it rubs against the right rim, which does not show at the place where
the hood rubs. (See Fig. 118). The third way is to let the hood rest on top of
the shroud, which has a lacing attached as shown in Fig. 1 19.

Fig. 138
An example showing hood and shroud out of alignment

The shroud is carefully worked out so that the hood will clear the metal,
when it works in service, and not scratch the paint. This last method is the most
satisfactory, as it makes a neater appearance than the other two. It also allows
for variation in the hood assemblies because there are no lines for the edge of the
hood to match, and a slight variation is not noticeable, whereas in the first and
second methods, if the hood or the shroud is out of line at all and do not match
one another, it is very noticeable, as shown in Fig. 138.

The foregoing covers the features not described in the previous chapters and
in order to see what the rules outlined will give, when applied to a touring car
body design, a scale drawing of three types of bodies are shown in Figs. 131, 132
and 133. The first is a small body on a short wheelbase of 106 inches, and is
typical of the four-cylinder car class. The second is a medium sized car on 119-
inch wheelbase, and the third a large seven-passenger six with 128-inch wheelbase.
These will cover the average car conditions, and will be good examples of body
designs within the limits of their chassis.

CHAPTER VIII

ROADSTER BODY DESIGN

The roadster of today has, in most cases, a body that can carry two people
and perhaps three, if they are crowded. The roadster has a wide range of utility,
its functions running from the business car to the sport or pleasure car. The first
bodies used on motor cars were box-like affairs with two seats. After the cars
became further developed it was found that 5 to 7 passengers could be transported
almost as easily as two, so the bodies were lengthened accordingly. As the auto-
mobile was perfected it became more a means for transportation than for pleasure,
and this resulted in the 5 and 7-passenger cars becoming the most popular. Con-
sequently the roadster is now almost in the special car class and there is a much
smaller number of these made than of the 5 or 7-passenger car. In fact there are
some companies that do not make roadsters. The two-seated car is ideal for the
doctor or business man who has to do much traveling. It is also ideal for the
extremes in sport cars and lends itself to the designer's and builder's skill in
planning and making a beautiful car.

The first consideration in a roadster is the two or three-passenger type which
is manufactured in regular production. These have the same front ends or cowls
as the touring car and in some cases use the same steering wheel and seat position,
the only difference being in the rear end and door width. If a lower car is desired
than the regular type a larger wheel is used and dropped down. In Fig. 139 is
shown a drawing of the average roadster. This is not one of the radical designs,
but a type that would be successful in large production, as it will suit a high
average of people. The door hinge arrangement can be made in four ways, al-
though there are only two generally used, and these are the first two of the
following :

1. Both doors hinged at the front.

2. Both doors hinged at the rear.

3. Right doors hinged at the front and the left at the rear.

4. Left doors hinged at the front and the right at the rear.

Photographs 140 and 141 show the Buick four-cylinder and six-cylinder road-
sters. These are typical of the class just mentioned and all show balanced three-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

68 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Bukli Sii-cylinder

Large Road*ter with ofCiei

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

passenger single seat roadsters. Two compartments are provided, one inside the
body behind the seat back, and the other in the deck. Access is obtained to the
latter by a large door in the deck.

In Fig. 142 is shown a large roadster that has an offset driver's seat and
room for two passengers on the side seat. This was a very popular type of car
and it is a good example of balanced design. There are occasions when there is
a desire to carry more than one or two passengers in roadsters so this led to the
development of extra or emergency seats. By lengthening the body a third seat
can be inserted similar to that roadster shown in plan view in Fig. 143. This
type of roadster is called the "clover leaf" because the position of the seats is
similar to a three-leaved clover. A good example of clover leaf roadster body
design is shown in the photograph 144. This particular car has a compartment
in the body for the top to fold into, so the body has a very clean cut appearance

Fig. 143

Type of Roadster called the "clover leaf," because the position of the seats is similar to

a three-leaved clover

when the top is down. In order to meet the demand for emergency capacity for
the roadster several body designs were worked out so the body could be used for
both, a two-passenger roadster and a four or five-passenger car.

Paige Motor Car Co. developed the roadster shown in Fig. 145, 146, 147 and
148. In Fig. 148 the car is shown as a typical two-passenger roadster. The top
is concealed so that the body has a smooth and clean appearance. A plan view of
the car is shown in Fig. 146, which shows how the rear part is all folded away when
it is not in use. When the rear compartment is required it folds out as shown
in Fig. 148, providing a very comfortable seat, as shown. When the seat-back
is in the position shown there are two doors available, one on each side of the
body, so the car is converted into a regular touring car type. The top used with
this type of body is unique, as it is really a fabric stretched across bars raised out
of the body. This is illustrated in Fig. 148.

Another type of convertible roadster is shown in Figs. 149 and 150. This
body has a divided front seat, and when the rear back is lifted up two seats are
provided to which access is obtained by going through the divided front seat.
The picture. Fig. 149, shows the top up and rear compartment closed ; the small

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 71

picture below shows the car with top drawn and compartment closed. The top
is shown up in picture 150, and the seat back raised to provide the two extra seats.
The smaller picture below shows the seats in use but the top down. This makes
a very convenient arrangement.

The custom built roadsters frequently have a small seat in the rear com-
partment as shown in the photograph. Fig. 151. This, of course, is a "fair
weather" seat only as the top does not reach over it. Seats are also made to attach
to the side of the body and running board. The car displayed in Fig. 151 is a
special design and a very sporty appearing car. It will be noted that the running

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

■
I.'

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 73

boards are left off and altimintim steps provided instead. Such construction is
very popular in this class of car.

A sharp line roadster with the wide back deck, which is very popular at this
time, is shown in Figs. 152 and 153. This car is a good example of the custom
made roadster. The special equipment constitutes one of the selling features over
the standard or production roadster. The paint is special selected color and the
top is khaki. Cowl lamps, mirror, cigar lighter, special selected radiator cap,
plated windshield, cowl ventilators, wide doors, outside door handles and special
trimming arc the main features to be considered for a special roadster, such as is
produced in custom shops.

CHAPTER IX

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN BODIES

The modern body is constructed in a number of different ways. The methods
used, and the designs, are governed by the results required. The first type is the
combined wood and steel body, and this is the design that is used more than any
other and is the one analyzed in this series. The others are as follows : (2) wood
and aluminum construction; (3) cast aluminum construction; (4) all steel
construction.

The second type is produced much the same way as the steel and wood is,
the difference being that the aluminum is used instead of steel, and a heavier wood
frame-work has to be" made. The main reason for using aluminum is that it is
easier to form than steel and when only a few parts or perhaps the body is to be
constructed the aluminum can be worked out to a greater advantage. It has the
advantage over steel in the fact that it is lighter and if the body is made carefully
it can be made lighter than the steel one. The aluminum is rust-proof and is pre-
ferred by some on this account.

The third type, the cast aluminum body, is used by a few manufacturers who
desire to make a body without regard to expense and produce a design of body
that will adapt itself to this construction. The cost of aluminum and the difficulty
of casting large panels successfully makes this method of manufacturing bodies
prohibitive to the majority of companies.

The fourth type, the all-steel body, is something the manufacturers and de-
signers have been thinking of for a good many years. A number have been made
successfully and otherwise ; some are being made today and are in use and proving
very successful. There are many advantages for an all-steel body. The most
important is that it can be enameled and baked. For a low-priced car the operation
of enameling is very economical and produces a very fine finish. To enamel a
semi-steel body and carry the heat to the proper temperature would prove disastrous
to the wood frame.

A few of the problems attached to an all-metal construction are: first, to
get the metal formed to obtain uniform sweeps at the various parts. Another con-
dition IS to fasten the steel parts together. Spot welding is used for this, but the
spots are liable to show on a finished surface and they are also very liable to fail
if they are not properly made. As steel is to be substituted for the sills and
strainers, etc., the body is liable to be heavier than the semi-steel one.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

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76 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The all-steel body is perhaps the body of the future, but up to the present
time they have not been designed so that they can be produced any cheaper or more
reliable than the semi-steel body. Steel construction, to a certain extent, is very
economical, but there is a dividing line where it becomes more expensive to produce
an article out of sheet steel than of some other material, such as iron or wood. The
price of steel has continued to increase so that it is still the most economical to use
wood or other material in preference, as the advantage gained by using steel does
not justify the extra expense.

The modern body in its finished state is composed of a great number of parts,
so in order to make the study of its construction possible, a system of grouping
the units of which it is composed will be outlined. This system will act as a very
comprehensive guide. Two bodies of the type of semi-steel construction are to
be considered, a touring car and a roadster.

Front end view of body pBrtidly disassembled for ihippinc purposes

Drawings of these are shown in Fig, 154 and 155, these drawings show clearly
the construction of the bodies and the parts which go to make it complete. Photo-
graphs of a body are shown in Fig, 156 and 157. These show a body partially
disassembled for shi|)ping purposes. The unit is very conveniently grouped so
that all parts are shown.

The touring car design may be taken up first and divided into groups. Each
group will be composed of all the necessary parts that go to make it a unit, so that
when all the units are assembled the result is a completely equipped body.

These assemblies or units, of which there are five, are as follows :

1. Shroud Assembly. 4. Door Assemblies.

2. Side Assemblies. 5. Front Seat Assemblies.

3. Rear Seat Assemblies.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In unit No. 1, the shroud assembly, there are the following assemblies and
parts :

1.1

Shroud Panel

1.7

Windshield Brackets right

1.2

Dash Panel

1.71

Windshield Brackets left

1.3

Toe Blocks

1.8

Miscellaneous

1.4

Door Post front right

1.81

Hinges right

1.41

Door Post front left

1.811

Hinges left

1.5

Shroud Bar

1.9

Toe Boards

1.6

Shroud Bar Bracket

1.91

Floor Boards

In unit No. 2, side body assemblies, there is a right and a left group. These
will be listed together as follows.

2.1

Side panel right

2.351

Threshold bar rear left

2.11

Side panel left

1.8

Miscellaneous

2.2

Sill right

1.81

Hinges right

2.21

Sill left

1.811

Hinges left

2.3

Door post front rear right

1.82

Lock strikes

2.31

Door post front rear left

1.83

Bumpers

2.32

Door post rear front right

1.84

Dove tails female

2.321

Door post rear front left

2.40

Door jambs

2.33

Door post bar front right

2.41

Door plates

2.331

Door post bar front left

2.5

Scuff plates front right

2.34

Threshold bar front right

2.51

Scuff plates front left

2.341 Threshold bar front left

2.6

Scuff plates rear right

2.35

Threshold bar rear right

2.61

Scuff plates rear left

In unit No. 3, rear seat assemblies, there are the following assemblies and
parts :

3.1

Rear seat panel

3.54

Seat bottom

3.2

Door post rear, rear right

3.55

Heal board or filler

3.21

Door post rear, rear left

3.6

Hoor boards

3.3

Door post brace right

1.8

Miscellaneous

3.31

Door post brace left

1.82

Lock striker

3.4

Top rail

1.88

Top iron right

3.41

Trim rail

1.881

Top iron left

3.42

Cross end sill

1.84

Dove tail female

3.43

Strainers and trimming spring

1.83

Bumpers

slats

1.87

Hinges seat lid

3.5

Seat frame

1.89

Top holder iron right

3.51

Seat raiser front

1.891

Top holder iron left

3.52

Seat raiser rear

1.9

Seat trimming blocks

3.53

Seat lid

1.91

Door jambs

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

4.1
4.11
4.2
4.21
4.1
4.3
4.31

1.85
1.86

In unit No. 4 door, there are four
Front door right
Front door left
Rear door right
Rear door left
Doors front right and left
Front door pane! right
Front door panel left
Front door frame right
Front door frame left
Miscellaneous
Door dove tail male
Lock right

assemblies :

1.861 Lock left

4.2 Rear door right
Rear door left
Rear door panel right
Rear door i>atiel left
Rear door frame right
Rear door frame left
Miscellaneous
Door dove tail male

1.86 Lock right

1.861 Lock left

4.21
4.5
4.51
4.6
4.61
1.8
1.85

t body [>artullr diunsemblcd f

In unit No. 5, front seat a&semblies, there are the following parts and

5.1

Front seat panel

5.3

Seat frame

5.2

Top rail

5.31

Seat lid

5.21

Trim rail

5.32

Seat bottom boards

5.22

Strainer and trimming s|)ring

5.4

Door post brace

slats

1.8

Miscellaneous

5.23

Seat risers front

1.87

Hinge seat lid

5.231

Seat risers rear

1.9

Seat trimming bloclcs

Having described the various groups and parts that go to make them up,
there is another grouping that can be made, and that is of the materials used. For
instance, the body is composed of wood, sheet steel, malleable iron, or steel castings
and steel forgings, and machined steel parts. These can be conveniently grouped
as follows:

No. 1 Body frame wood No. 4 Miscellaneous parts classified as

No. 2 Body sheet steel parts hardware, such as locks, hinges.

No. 3 Body castings and forgings strikes, dove tails, bumpers, etc.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

O s

_ I

3 t

80 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Groups 1 and 2 will be treated in detail in a subsequent chapter and also
groups 3 and 4 as there is a great deal of work on these parts to make them com-
plete for assembling, and the details of their manufacture is very interesting. The
method of enumerating these groups is the decimal system and it will make a
convenient way of classifying details and data on these various parts. In Figs.
154 and 155 the parts and their groups are shown, giving a clear idea of the re-
lations of the different parts being described. It should be remarked, however,
that in manufacturing bodies the parts will not all be able to be assembled in the
factory in the way enumerated, as different problems come up that call for special
arrangement of parts. This grouping was composed for reference, parts list and
specification work, more than for manufacturing assembling. The method of
assembling the above body can be outlined as follows:

The side sills are set into a jig, see Fig. 158, and the door posts, door post
bars, side panels and thresholds are assembled to them. At the same time the
hinge sections, dove tails and strikes are also assembled to the posts, a gauge being
used so that they are accurately located. These sill assemblies are next set into
another form like that shown in Fig. 159, and clamped into position so that another
stage of assembling can be accomplished. In this second stage the shroud bar
and bracket, the shroud panel, windshield bracket, and the front seat assembly
are attached. The body is next moved to the third form where the rear seat
frame, strainers and back panel are fitted as shown in Fig. 160.

The fourth form used is for assembling the front and rear top irons and
when this is done the body is ready for the door hanging operation which can be
termed the sixth operation. The doors go through a separate operation of as-
sembling which is of interest, and that is fitting the panels, lock, hinges, dove tails
and strikes. A suitable clamping arrangement is provided to hold the panel in
place while the door is being nailed, and while the door is still clamped in position
the hinges and the other parts are located accurately by means of suitable gauges.
To hang the doors, as this fitting operation is called, the body is set on a truck as
shown in Fig. 161, and this same truck carries the body through the seventh and
final operation of finishing, which is the operation of filing and soldering up all
the bumps and dents. •

The foregoing covers the parts used and the methods of construction of a
touring car body, the roadster will be subject to the same conditions and will use
identical parts to a certain extent. In order to have a list to check the roadster
parts against a typical roadster, body construction will be outlined in the following
six headings:

1. Shroud assembly 4. Door assemblies

2. Side assemblies 5. Front seat assembly

3. Rear seat assembly 6. Rear deck assembly

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 81

The unit No. 1 shroud assembly is composed of the same parts as listed on the
touring car. The unit No. 2 will be composed of the following :

2.1

Side panel right

2.4

Door jambs

2.11

Side panel left

2.5

Scuff plate right

2.2

Sill right

2.51

Scuff plate left

2.21

Sill left

1.8

Miscellaneous

2.3

Door post front rear right

1.82

Lock strike

2.31

Door post front rear left

1.83

Biunpers

2.34

Threshold bar right

1.85

Dove tail female

2.341 Threshold bar left

In unit No. 3 there are no parts classified in this design ; if it were a chummy
or clover leaf design there would be a grouping under No. 3.
In unit No. 4 there are the following parts :

4.1 Front door right complete 4.41 Front door frame left

4.11 Front door left complete 1.8 Miscellaneous

4.3 Front door panel right 1.85 Door dove tails male
4.31 Front door panel left 1.86 Lock right

4.4 Front door frame right 1.861 Lock left

The unit No. 5 front seat is slightly different from that of a touring car.
The front seat is not used, so the list starts with :

5.2

Top rail

5.4

Door post brace

5.21

Top trim rail

1.8

Miscellaneous

5.22

Strainer and trimming spring

1.87

Hinge seat lid

cleats

1.88

Top iron right

5.23

Seat riser front

1.881

Top iron left

5.24

Seat riser rear

1.89

Top holder iron right

5.3

Seat frame

1.891

Top holder iron left

5.31

Seat lid

1.9

Seat trimming blocks

5.32

Seat bottom boards

Unit No. 6 is an additional assc

imbly and composes :

6.1

Deck panel

1.8

Miscellaneous

6.2

Deck panel frame

1.83

Bumpers

6.3

Deck door complete

1.91

Hinge deck door

6.31

Deck door panel

1.92

Lock deck door

6.32

Deck door frame

1.93

Deck door prop

This completes the list for the roadster shown in Fig. 155. The construction
which has been outlined in these lists is taken from a modern type of body that is
produced in great numbers. The majority of bodies produced in America are
made very similar to the construction outlined, although every designer will have
detail modification to suit the conditions and his ideas.

CHAPTER X

BODY WOOD WORK

The first automobile bodies were constructed entirely of wood, but it was
soon found that metal panels could be formed up much easier than wood ones and
they replaced the outer wood panels for general body construction. With the use
of metal panels, the wood construction of a body came to be confined to a frame
upon which the metal was attached. This is the principle upon which the
majority of bodies are constructed today. In the previous chapter the body was
divided into five units. These units had the following wood parts in them.

Unit No. 1 — Shroud assembly

1.4 Door post front right
1.41 Door post front left

1.5 Shroud bar

Unit No. 2 — Side body assembly

2.2 Sill right
2.21 Sill left

2.3 Door post front rear right

2.31 Door post front rear left

2.32 Door post rear front right
2.321 Door post rear front left

2.33 Door post bar front right

Unit No. 4 — Doors

4.4 Front door frame right
4.41 Front door frame left

1.9 Toe boards
1.91 Floor boards

2.331 Door post bar front left

2.34 Threshold bar front right
2.341 Threshold bar front left

2.35 Threshold bar rear right
2.351 Threshold bar rear left
1.91 Door jambs

4.6 Rear door frame right
4.61 Rear door frame left

Unit No. 5 — Front seat assembly

5.2 Top rail

5.3

Seat frame

5.21 Trim rail

5.31

Seat lid

5.22 Strainers and trimming spring

5.32

Seat bottom boards

slats

1.8

Miscellaneous

5.23 Seat raiser front

1.9

Seat trimming blocks

5.231 Seat raiser rear

By outlining the wood parts in this manner the various pieces can be taken
in proper order and be described and analyzed.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In unit No. 1 the first part to be considered will be the shroud bar, shown in
Fig. 162. This can be made from ash, elm or maple wood and is a plain bar
shaped to suit the shroud under which it sets. The toe and floor boards are made
from maple wood and fit in the rabbet provided in the toe blocks and the front
end of the sill. They are generally made in four sections, called the upper and

Fig. 162
Shroud bar

lower toe boards and the front and rear floor boards. The toe boards have to
have cut-outs in them to clear the various parts of the car that project through
them, such as the steering colimin, foot pedals, starting pedals, etc. The floor
boards may have to have cut-outs in them for the hand control and brake levers.

Fig. 163
Typical set of floor boards

Fig. 164

Door post made by the
"separate piece" method

also muffler cut-out pedal. A typical set of floor boards is shown in Fig. 163.
The front door post is made of ash, elm or maple, and is shaped on the outside
to give the desired sweep to the body, and on the inside for the correct flare for
the door.

There are two ways of making these door posts. The first is to make them
in separate pieces as shown in Fig. 164, and the other method is to machine the
door post door frame and threshold out of one frame. The door is band sawn

84 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

out of the frame. The advantage of this method is obvious as a great deal of
time, labor and material is saved. The older method would entail wasting stock
on each post machined and then the door would have to be framed and machined
separately. This line-up made a considerable number of operations.

The new method of machining developed, perhaps, from the machines made
to shape door frames. This machine consists of two knives made to revolve at
a very high speed ; the knives are so made that they will cut the desired sweep

on the door frame as it passes over them. The door frame is securely clamped
in a heavy frame that slides on irregularly shaped guides that give the desired twist
in the sweeps, while the wood is being machined. This is shown in Fig. 165. This
method of machining was perfected to the extent that it is possible to machine
the door and the door post all at one time. This, of course, made the machine
larger, but now one pass over the knives completes door post and door together.
The frame-up is made like that shown in Figs. 166 and 167.

Fig. 167 shows the door post which remains after the door frame, which

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 85

is shown in Fig. 166, is cut out. The completed door is shown in Figs. 168 and
169. The door is shaped on the outer edges in a form as shown in Fig. 170, and
in Fig. 171 it is shown being hand sawn out of the frame.

In describing the methods of door making all the door posts, door frames,
and thresholds are fully covered, so that in taking nn't No. 2 the only parts to
need descriptions are the sills, post bars and door jambs. The sills are the main
part of the body frame as all the body structure rests upon them. The chassis

^/^ /0

frames vary a good deal, so that means various types of sills. The two most com-
mon are an off-set or up-set sill and a plain flat sill. The flat sill as shown in Fig,
172 is simply constructed from one piece of timber, machined to suit the conditions
required, and is generally made two inches thick. The up-set sill has to be built
up from three pieces as shown in Fig. 173.

There are some sills constructed that are built up like that shown, in Fig. 174.
This constitutes a very strong sill but makes it both thicker and heavier than the
solid construction of about Ij^-inch thickness.

In unit No. 3 there is the top rail and trim rail cross end, sill strainers and
trimming spring slats, seat frame and raisers. The top rail is made from ash

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

"Hic door ti ibsped on Its outer edgn In ■ form

I I I 1

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 87

bent up to the desired shape; the trimming rail is bent, too, iti this case, as it
comes round the comers. The cross end sill is of maple or ash and is a straight
piece that requires no comments, as it is a simple machine Job. The strainers are
maple or ash, machined to conform with the sweep of the back panel. The slats
are straight pieces attached to the strainers in a convenient position for the trim-

Onc of tbe procesui of door-niking. Stwing tlie door out of the frime

ming springs. The seat frame is a plain frame of ash or maple, machined to the
desired shape.

The unit No. 4 has been covered by the door description and calls for no
further comments.

In unit No. 5 the conditions are similar to those described in the third unit,
so that further description is unnecessary.

CHAPTER XI
BODY METAL WORK

In dealing with the metal parts of the bodies the sheet steel pieces will be
taken first and then the forgings and the castings. In the previous chapter the
various ways of making a body were taken up and analyzed, and in order to
avoid duplication in the detail descriptions of all the different designs of the parts
one acceptable design will be treated only. In doing this the details and their con-
struction can be described in proper rotation. The type of body under considera-
tion is the one shown in Fig. 154.

The sheet steel parts used in this body are shown in the following list :

Shroud Door panel rear right

Dash Door panel rear left

Hood ledge Rear seat side panel, right and left

Instrumental plate Rear seat back panel

Toe block Rear seat bottom plate

Front seat heel board Rear seat heel board and raiser

Front seat corner panel Cushion retainer front

Front seat back panel Cushion retainer rear

Side panel right Scuff plate front right

Side panel left Scuff plate front left

Door panel front right Scuff plate rear right

Door panel front left Scuff plate rear left

The shroud is one of the most difficult pieces to make of all the metal work
on the body. It generally has a very complex surface which taxes the die maker's
skill in reproducing. The Fig. 175 shows the shape of a typical shroud in the con-
dition that it is after coming from the dies, and before the final minor operations
are made on it. This is the way the shroud looks coming from the die that forms
it in one piece.

To produce shrouds in this manner a huge press is necessary, and very costly
dies, and unless the quantity to be made is very large they cannot be produced
economically this way. Fig. 176 shows a shroud die in the press. The methods
used for smaller numbers is to make the shroud in three sections, viz. : First, the
top ; second and third, the right and left sides. These pieces are welded together
by the oxyacetylene process, and the joints hammered down and filed smooth. In

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Fig. 177 the sections, where the joints are made, are shown by heavy lines. A
welding form is made to set the three pieces into, so that they are accurately
located before being welded.

These forms can be made in two ways. The first, and perhaps the simplest,
when small quantities are to be made, is like that shown in Fig. 178. This con-
sists of a wood form shaped to fit the inside of the metal, and at the point where
the joints are made iron castings are let into the wood. The hinged strap-like
casting is swung down and clamped over the metal so that it securely holds it on
each side of the joint. Then the welding torch is applied along the gap in the
center where the two ends of the metal meet. When the welding is made these
straps are swung out of the way and the shroud is ready for the next operation of
hammering and filing.

eftLARG£D V/£W

SPOT WSLD
/

^£CTtON A A

Vic^. 175

Shape of a typical shroud in the condition in which it comes off the dies and before final

operations are made on it

The dash is next to be attached and this is accomplished by spot welding the
flange to the shroud as shown in Fig. 175 and sections. After this is done the slots
for the hood ledge lace are punched in and then the shroud is ready for assembling
to the body. On this particular design of shroud the flange on the rear at the top
of the hinge post and the flange at the bottom of the sill have to be turned over by
hand when it is being attached to the body. The dash in some cases is made from
one piece of metal and in others two pieces are used. In section Fig. 179 is
shown the construction of a one-piece dash, and in section Fig. 180, the two-piece
construction. In the first instance the flange, by which it is attached to the cowl,
is formed up all in one piece ; with the dash in the second instance it is a separate
piece, spot welded or riveted to the dash. The difference between these two
methods is that the two-piece construction does not take as large a die as the other
and is more economical for small quantities.

90 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The holes and cut-outs have to be made to suit the instnunents, etc., as re-
quired in the design. The large opening is to provide clearance for the steering
column and foot pedals. It will be noted that a flange is provided all around this
large cutout and that ribs are pressed at convenient places in order to stiffen up
the metal and permit a light gauge being used. No, 16 USS gauge is usually
satisfactory for this part.

The instrument plate' in this design is made of No. 18 USS gauge and is
formed to fit the body shroud bar, and the ends are flanged to fit on the face of the

n th« die read]' for

door post. The screws and bolts that attach the hinge to the body go through the
flanges. The cutouts are provided as required by the instruments. Where steer-
ing column brackets attach, a 3/32 plate is spot-welded so that ample reinforcement
is provided for the bolts that fasten the bracket to the plate. If this reinforcement
were not used the bolts would tear an elongated hole in the light metal and the
steering column would work loose. The construction of this plate is clearly shown
in Fig. 181.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 91

Toe Block. These can be constructed like the design shown in Fig. 182.
No. 18 USS gauge steel is used. The outer edge is shaped to conform with the
shroud ; the inside is depressed to form a combination of the rabbet and the sills

in which the toe and floor boards rest. These blocks are riveted to the dash at the
top and attached to the sills by wood screws.

Front seat heel board. This heel board or seat riser can be made of all steel
or may have steel comer brackets only. The first construction is shown in Fig.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

183 and the second in Fig. 184. The first method is slightly stronger than the
all steel board, as the wood board forms a tie brace for the body sills. The sketches
shown on next page are self-explanatory.

Front Seat Back. This is a simply constructed panel with or without a flange
on the top, according to the design. In Fig. 185 is shown a panel with a top flange

^ECTIOf^ A A

Fig. 181
Construction of reinforcement plate for steering column bracket

having a decide'd "round" on the corners, and in Fig. 186 is shown outline of a
panel that is a flat plate. In the first design the panel is painted, so that the flange
has to be nicely finished, but in the second design the back is covered entirely with
leather and an unfinished plate is sufficient.

Fig. 182

Toe block, riveted to the dash at the top and
attached to the sills by wood screws

Side Panels. These are formed in the dies to fit on the front door post and
rear door post, and have flanges drawn on them on four sides. See Fig. 187. This
shows a typical side panel. This is a difficult stamping to make as the flanges must
all be accurately formed and the sweep of the body has to be properly matched

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 93

Up. The radii in the comers must be properly formed ; otherwise it is certain the
doors will not fit well.

Door Panels. These consist of plates that are formed to conform with the
sweeps of the body and are from J4 to 7/16-inch larger than the openings in the

bodies for the doors. They attach to the door frames by suitable flanges. There
are two methods of making these, in general use; the first and older method is
specially adaptable to small quantities and its construction made is shown in the

section Fig. 188. The outer plate is bent down on to an angle and the angle
provides the means of attaching it to the door frame.

In Fig. 188 is shown the method of making the door panel and flange out of
one piece of steel. This is the method perfected and patented and known as the
England door panel. The process of making panels this way is very economical

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

for large production only, as the die equipment is expensive. All the four doors,
front right and left, and rear right and left, are constructed and made the same
■way.

Rear Seat Panel. This is the lai^^est of all metal panels and requires a lot
of careful die work to make it properly. The general way to construct this is to

flanges drawn on four lida

Oii(1in« of » panel tbal ia > flit plate

make it of three pieces, two sides and one rear piece, as shown in Fig. 189. This
requires three sets of dies and fixtures. These three pieces are welded together
by oxy-acetylene torch in a similar manner to the method described for making
a shroud in three pieces, A welding form is made as shown in Kig. 190, and into
this the panels are located by straps so that the assembly will be accurate. Clamp-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

ing straps are swung down and hold the metal firmly while the two sections are
being welded together. This joint has to be hammered down and filed smooth.

There is another way to make this panel and that is to form the side and back
out of one piece and insert the depression for the wheels. This makes a three-

^CCTfON A A

Fig. I8S

The outer plate is bent down on to an angle and the angle
provides the means of attachment to the door frame

piece back, but it eliminates the welded joint in the back. These wheelhouse sec-
tions are spot-welded in position, and this is a simple operation. This construction
is shown in Fig. 191. The drawback to this method is the difficulty of getting a

Fig. 189
Rear panel made in three pieces, two sides and one rear piece

properly shaped panel. Some manufacturers are producing backs successfully
this way.

Rear Seat Bottom. This is a flat panel made from No. 18 USS gauge fitted
tinder the rear seat to provide a compartment for carrying things. The princi-

96 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

pal reason for making this of steel is that it gives a little more space than if wood
were used and it permits making a depression in it for the axle housing, which will
rise up under extreme deflections of the springs and require additional clearance.
This seat bottom is shown in Fig, 192. The hump will be seen and also the radiat-
ing ribs. These are pressed in for a double purpose ; the first is to stiffen the panel
and the other is to prevent rumbling when the body "weaves."

tCTIOMTmOKHAA
'MII/6 ltewlV£lD/N&
tM£ H/OffJ(S£ETtt£e/t
-./fOeVCM THICIAMPS

Heel Board or Raiser. When the sills have to be upset as in the design under
consideration it produces a very convenient and economical design to make a sheet
steel plate to extend from sill to sill, and either combine a seat raiser in its con-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Fig. 193
Typical design of heel board or raiser

^^7M

Fig. 194
Cushion retainer

Fig. 195

Another design for
cushion retainer

Fig. 196
Cheapest design of sheet metal scuff plate

Fio. 197
Section of drawing shown in Fig. 196

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Fig. 198
Scu(T plate of polished alurainunip attached by French head wood acrews

»»»♦»

ttttl

FiC. 199
Scuff plate of aluminum with etched design or car name

^U7/0N THROUGH /\

» < ■mill I

WW 9 5^ ^

Fig. 200
One of the best designs for a scuff plate, with section through A A.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 99

struction or else attach it to the wood raiser. In Fig. 193 is shown a section of a
typical design ; this can be made from No. 18 USS gauge.

Cushion Retainer. In the design under consideration the seat frames are

FiO«. 201. 202, 203
Eiunple of all steel bodj construclion <Edward G. Budd S Co., Fhiladdphi*, P>.)
Shawi dilfercni viewi of Mine body lo lh>t the eonttructlon can be eaailr seen.

made of wood and it is necessary to attach a cushion retainer to the edge of the
frame to keep the cushions in position. The simplest construction is to use a flat
piece of round edge strip steel, fastening it to the frame by wood screws, as sho\vn

100 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

in Fig. 194. Another design, shown in Fig. 195 for a cushion retainer, is made
from No. 20 USS gauge sheet steel. This makes a strong and nicely finished re-
tainer, but is more expensive to manufacture. When the heel plate is made like
that shown in Fig, 193, the cushion retainer is made by forming in the plate.

Fios. 204. 235. 2

ScufF Plates. Sheet metal plates are attached to the tops of the threshold
around the door openings, to cover the flanges of the panels where they turn over
on to the wood. These are termed, "scuff plates" because they are also a protect-
ing plate, as the feet catch on this part of the body when the passengers get in and

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 101

out of the car. As there are a variety of ways of designing a scuff plate the
several types in general use will be described. The cheapest design is to make
them of sheet steel and nail them on, painting them the same color as the body.
This IS shown in Fig. 196 and section 197. It will be noted that the plate extends
well up to the door post on each side. The reason for this is so as to cover the metal
flanges of the panels, as there is a tendency for the metal to crack where the curved
comers are drawn in the dies, and this scuff plate will extend up past this corner
and effectively cover any cracks.

The next thing in order is to make a flat plate of aluminum and polish it,
attaching it by French head wood screws to the threshold as shown in Fig. 198.
This same style of plate can be engraved with a pattern on it, and the car's name
also can be added like that shown in Fig. 199, and still be further improved. In
Fig. 200 is shown one of the best, if not the best, design for a scuff plate. This
is made of aluminum or aluminum alloy and can be either plain, embossed or en-
graved. The principal feature about the design is the small ridge raised upon the
inside. See the sectional view. This has a double purpose, the first to provide a
scuffing ridge and the second is that the ridge closes up the gap or space between
the bottom of the door and the threshold, making a much neater finish than the
other type.

After looking over the sheet metal parts on an automobile body the question
that presents itself is that inasmuch as there are so many metal parts the wood
might as well be left out. But there is a long stretch between the all metal body
and the wood one, because it requires a very skillful construction to make a metal
sill and to stiffen up the door frames and posts without adding excessive weight.
As a matter of reference the photographs from No. 201 to 206 have been added so
that the general construction of an all steel body can be appreciated. It will be
noted that on one body wood door frames are used, and also that on both bodies
all the toe and floor boards are made of wood. There are also a certain number
of wood inserts made for attachment of the trimming ; apart from these few items
the bodies are all steel.

CHAPTER XII
AUTOMOBILE HINGES

The hinges that are used for the doors of the automobile body can be divided
into two types, the outside and the inside. The outside hinge has a projectingf
portion that is visible on the outside of the body, while the inside hinge has its
working portion concealed inside the door and leaves nothing on the outside to be
seen. This latter type is generally called a concealed hinge and is used extensively
on all modern bodies. These two types of hinges are made in a great variety of
ways, and there are none that can be called the standard type.

A great deal of energy and money has been spent trying to evolve a hing^e
that will be very simple, efficient and cheap, and a number of patents have been
granted for different designs that have been developed. A number of the different
types that have been marketed and constructed will be described in this chapter,
so that the work that has been done in this field can be reviewed and this may assist
the designer should a new design of hinge be contemplated.

The first hinge used on the automobile was the type that had proven satis-
factory on horse-drawn vehicles. This was of the flat butt style that is used so
extensively on doors of all kinds in buildings and houses. This style hinge shown
in Fig. 207 has proven very satisfactory and is used today on a great number of
cars. From a mechanical standpoint they are very efficient, but from a viewpoint
of neatness in appearance they are decidedly wanting, as they project from the side
of the body, making an unsightly appearance and breaking up the smooth appear-
ance of the outside of the car.

In Figs. 208, 209 and 210 are shown an approved design of flat butt. This
is so shaped that the notches in the knuckles are concealed and make a better ap-
pearance than the type shown in Fig. 207. Apart from the above consideration
of the outside hinge it has one advantage and that is that it permits the door to
swing out from the body and keeps the top of the door level with the top of the
body, while a concealed hinge allows the door to drop as it swings open. This
condition is best illustrated by the sketch in Fig. 211 and Fig. 212. Fig. 211 shows
the outside hinge swinging the door square, and Fig. 212 shows the door using a
concealed type hinge and swinging out and dropping down. In order for a con-
cealed hinge to allow the door to swing square the pillar would have to he made
heavier so the hinge could swing as shown in Fig. 213. This condition is shown
exaggerated to illustrate the description. It will be noted in these three Figs.,
211, 212 and 213, that the pins in each type of hinge must line up, in other words,

I03

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

104 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

le type hinge. Wilh th» ityle h

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

105

a center line must go through the points in which the door pivots ; otherwise the
door cannot swing.

The distance marked X in Fig. 213 will depend upon the amount of turn-under
in the body, and in almost any case, even with a moderate turn-under, the post

Fio. 215

Similar in construction to Fig. 214, but the two parts, instead of being

riveted, contact on one face.

would have to be made too thick to be practicaL A door swinging out square and
level looks better than the dropping door, but the principal advantage of the straight
swinging door is that in fitting side curtain supports or a winter top, the door
extension will work much better.

7^ frt\\ 1

# €i ^

DOOR POST 5ECJI0r^

^UTION ON A. A

Fig. 216
Illustrating construction of a type of concealed hinge

In order to get the doors to swing square and yet not have an unsightly pro-
jection an outside hinge is often used at the lower section of the door. This is
especially necessary on a closed type body where three hinges are generally used
at each door. The two upper ones are concealed ones, while the lower is of the
outside type.

106

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

To meet the above conditions the outside hinges shown in Fig. 214 and Fig.
215 have been developed and, as it will be noted, they are as neat as any projecting
hinge can be. The hinge shown in Fig. 214 is of a knuckle style and does not have
the advantage of being able to take the door off readily as the style shown in Fig.
215 does.

SODf fVSrsiCTION

The hinge shown in Fig. 214 is made of two parts, a forged steel eye-bolt
and a malleable iron bracket. This bracket is machined to fit on the bolt and is
riveted in place so that it can turn freely. The hinge is held in place by a nut and
washer on the end of the boh, which is long enough to project through the door

eirOOVC FOR CUa/iANCE A7 CCHTCROf r/tspoeft-

FlG. 219

post In order to prevent the Ixilt pulling down on the panel and throwing a
buckle into it, a small casting with a circular machined boss is let into the post, the
boss projecting through the clearance hole in the panel. When the hinge bolt nut
is tightened, it pulls down on the iron bracket and so does not harm the panel.

The hinge shown in Fig. 215 is of similar construction to the first one, but
the two parts, instead of being riveted together, contact on one face. The pin in

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

107

the door section prevents them coming apart and allows the door to be taken off
by lifting up on it so that the pin clears the hole in the bolt head. A plain steel
washer is attached to the post under the metal, a hole being bored in the metal to
clear the flange of the bolt. This eliminates the casting and answers the same
purpose of preventing buckling.

The concealed hinge has been developed so that it can be very easily con-
structed and easily made. The principles upon which a hinge is laid out are as
follows: It consists of two main sections called the door section and the body

Fig. 220
The construction of the body section is of the simplest possible form, as shown here.

€U®

® ®

BOIfV FOSrseCT/OAf

DOOR PO^J SECTION

A 6ar£W6 00 IN'THi^t
^^ COUNHR'^Um HOLES'

Fig. 221

A hinge that has the same door section as that shown in Fig. 220, but the body section

is made so that when the two screws at A are taken out in the upper

and lower sections, the door can be removed

section. The door section is an L-shaped section with a flange to attach to the
door. This section swings or pivots on a pin that is either integral with the door
section or the body section. See Fig. 216 and Fig. 217. The body section consists
of a suitably-shaped bracket that can be secured to the post and provide the means
to support the door section. See Fig. 218.

To illustrate the working clearance required, a door post is shown in Fig. 219.
Two sections are shown, one for the upper hinge and the other for the lower one.
The lower one is 2 inches back of the upper one, owing to the turn-under of the
body. By measuring the distance between the inside surfaces of the two sections
the angles that the door will make when it is open can be obtained. The principal

108

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

considerations in laying out a hinge, are the door opening, panel and clearance
between the flange of the door and the shroud panel. These points are marked
A, B and C in Fig. 219. In this layout the door opening A is 5/32-inch, the corner
clearance B, 3/32-inch, and the door flange clearance C, 3/32-inch. The comer
clearance at the hinge is ample, but if a point is taken between the two hinges
where the body sweep is at its maximum, there is only 1/16-inch amount of

® ®

Fig. 223

Popular ty]>e of concealed hitij^e which is close

working and very stronf?. (Soss Mfg. Co.,

Brooklyn, N. Y.)

Fig. 222

Body section that has both the upper and
lower section brackets attached to it

Fig. 224

A hinge which reverses the practice illustrated
in the other designs here considered

clearance. In order to take care of this condition a part of the door frame is
machined out as shown, so allowing the hinges to be made with a minimum amount
of swing.

The construction of the body section is the simplest possible form as shown
in Fig. 220. This is made from a piece of strip steel formed up as shown, and the

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 109

door section which is riveted to it is also made of sheet steel as shown. In order
to set this hinge either the door section is attached to the door and then the body
section is attached, or vice versa. The body section is set in the body and then the
door it attached. These operations are rather awkward and <]o not make a good

(Pan

a Mfg. Co-,

assembling proposition. In case the door has to be removed it is necessary to take
out the screws and bohs in either of the sections, which takes a lot of time. When
the door is to be replaced it has to be readjusted, as the hinge cannot be set accur-
ately. From the foregoing it is seen that some means should be provided to permit
the door to be easily detached and set back again.

secT'on ^■v A-ft

Hinge made of malltabtc i

d by takini o

In Fig. 221 is shown a hinge that has the same door section as that shown in
Fig. 220, but the body section is made so that when the two screws shown at A are
taken out in the upper and lower sections the door can be removed. The recess
in the door section insures that the door will go back in the same place without
any trouble. Both of these hinges in Figs. 218 and 220 are substantial when con-
structed properly, and they are also economical to manufacture.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN'

In Figs. 216 and 217 are shown designs of hinges that i>emiit the door being
taken off without having to remove any screws. The door section has a pin
secured in it. This pin sets into a hole in the body section, as shown in the illus-
tration. The dotted line shows the position the door section takes by lifting up

mOR IN POSITION

Fig. 22Ci

on the door, and which disengages the pin from the body section, permitting the
door to be pulled right out. The door section is made of malleable iron and the
pin on which it works is of steel, pressed into the iron. This door section sets on
the side of the door frame, and it is bolted on, the bolts going right through the

door frame. In Fig. 216 is a door section of similar design, only the flange is so
located that it fastens to the back door frame. With these parts wood screws
have to be used to fasten it to the door, as bolts cannot be used. In Fig. 222 is
shown a body section that has both the upper and lower section brackets attached

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN HI

to it. It is made of steel plate and has malleable iron brackets riveted to it. The
advantage of having the body sections all in one is that they are both bound to. be
accurately located when they are fitted to the body. In Fig. 223 is shown a hinge
constructed from two malleable castings. This is a very simple construction but
necessitates having the body section in two pieces. The design is substantially
the same as the previous bnes described. A Soss type of hinge is shown in Fig.
223. This is a very closely working hinge and very strong. Its construction is
unique, as the working parts are built up of a number of pieces of steel so shaped
as to give the desired movement. Fig. 224a is a Parsons concealed hinge, which
is very largely used.

The hinge shown in Fig. 224 reverses the condition from the previous
design described. On this design, the knuckle is part of the body section. The
door section consists of a flat plate only. This plate has a keyhole-shaped opening
in it which engages a groove cut in the edge of the body section knuckle. To re-
move the door it is lifted up until the knuckle pin disengages from the slot.

Fig. 225 shows a hinge made of malleable iron. The door is removed by
taking out two screws in each door section. The hinges insure a correct alignment
by the body section and door section, having a slot and a male portion projecting
into the slot ; this is shown in the section on A A. A sheet steel hinge is shown
in Fig. 226. This has both the door and body sections tied together into one as-
sembly, the object being to insure each section hinging with the other when they
are fitted to the door and body respectively. The door is removed by taking out
two small screws. The illustrations show the door removed in Fig. 227 and in
position in Fig. 226.

A concealed type of hinge for doors that have large tum-unders is shown in
Fig. 228. This hinge is especially adaptable to the doors of closed bodies and is
designed to do away with the outside hinge generally used at the bottom of these
doors. It will be seen that there are quite a number of parts to it and that it does
not look as strong as an outside hinge. But with three hinges on the door this
should stand up all right. Its design is very ingenious and as far as the author
knows is the only hinge on the market to meet the condition that this one does.

CHAPTER XIII
AUTOMOBILE DOOR LOCKS

The door lock which is applied to the door of the automobile body has to meet
a number of conditions in service that an ordinary type of lock which is used on the
house doors, does not receive. Notwithstanding this, the principles of the auto-
mobile locks that are in general use are very similar to a common house lock. An

I _~ . ** '^^ ^ "* T^^TT"^" "* ^^ ""i" ^^ r

[

Fig. 229
One of a type of locks most generally in use

automobile door must be held securely by the lock, and not open under the strains
and "twists" set up in the body when the car goes over rough roads.

The parts must be substantial and fitted so that they will not rattle. The lock
must operate easily when opening and closing the door and at the same time should

112

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

113

not have a projecting handle on the outside of the door or one on the inside that will
catch in the clothing, or be liable to open the door by accidental contact. With the

/^n

Fio. 230

Fic. 232
Figs. 230 and 232 show typical rotary
lever locks similar to the one in Fig. 229.
The bolt, however, is operated by a rotating
movement of the rod.

above conditions to be met, simplicity of design and ease of application on the car
must be added, as the car builder must have a practical lock to conform with rapid
production assembling conditions.

IH THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Lock Levrr Throw, (Jus. N. Smith & Co., Dnroil)

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

I. N. Smitb & Co.,

116

THK PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

With a view to improvement on the locks already m use, a large number of
new designs have come on the market recently, but so far they have not gained
very much favor. The type most in use is shown in Fig. 229. This style, with de-
tail modification, is used by approximately a large percentage of the car builders. It

A comloralivcljr new t/pe o( lock. Note We nooK-iike
end^ on the bolt

will be seen that it consists of a body or base plate with a sliding bolt operated by a
pivoted lever. Two springs are used, one to throw the bolt out and the other to keep
the lever stationary while the bolts work in upon striking the door post. It will be

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

117

noted that if the lever were fast to the bolt it would move back when the bolt
moved back, and if a person's hand were on the door near the lever while the door
was being closed it would receive a sharp and painful blow when the lever flew
back.

Fig. 239

A novel lock composed of a hinged bolt catch which is operated

by two bars pivoted together

In Figs. 230 and 232 is shown a lock that has a sliding 1)olt similar to the
design shown in Fig. 229. The bolt, however, is operated by a rotating movement
of the rod. The curved handle shown is either pulled or pushed toward the center
of the car. This pulls the bolt back and allows the door to open.

!i 1

!! !

^ir

J°o

Fic. 240

A lock in which all the parts are of steel stampings with the
exception of the bolt, which is of malleable iron

This method of operating a lock is preferred by some, and there are also
movements worked out to operate the bolt by pulling up or pushing down, but
these actions are not as popular as the standard sideways action of the door lock
shown in Fig. 229.

118 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODV DESIG-V

When it is desired to open the door from the inside with a rotary movement
and use the type of lock shown in Fig. 229 the lever can be cut off and a clip
welded on so that a rotary handle like that shown in Fig. 233 will engage it. A
new development of the 229 lock is shown in Fig. 234. This construction is very

simple. The lever engages a hook-end attached to the bolt which projects outside
of the bolt housing. Provision is made for an outside handle by adding the die
casting which engages with the lock bolt. A lock with an expanding bolt is shown
in Fig. 235. This has a piece inserted in tlie end of the bolt so that when the bolt

lit. opcraled by pullmg up on Ihc
Ihc small lever, which in turn dra«
hack the bolt

engages with the body strike the inserted piece projects out like a tongue and tends
to pull the door tighter and prevent rattles. A very compact and simple lock for
truck cabs is shown in Fig. 236. One of the simplest of automobile locks is the
adaptation of the lock 229 so it can accomodate outside door handles. By examin-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

119

ing Fig. 237 it will be seen that the lock construction is just the same as 229, only
a tumbler and housing are added. This addition gives all the conditions previously
outlined and also allows the use of an outside door handle which will operate the
lock with either a right or left turn. There are a number of door locks made which
can be operated one way only, either a right or left turn.

There is a new design of lock that has several new points over the old types.
It works on an entirely new principle ; the bolt comes out upon hitting the strike,

.5 Mfg. Co.. Brooklyn. N. Y.)

instead of going in, as it does in the type shown in Fig. 229. This lock is shown
m Fig. 238. It will be noted that the bolt has a hook-like end. This hits on the
strike shown at A, and when it passes the point on the strike it flies backward and
catdies securely in position. When the door works back and forth in service the
bolt works with it. This gives a condition of engagement that will prevail no

THE PRINXIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 121

matter how much the body twists and weaves ; the door cannot open unless the
lock is operated. The action of operation is a straight pull or push on the lever
to open the door.

A novel lock design is shown in Fig. 239. This is composed of a hinged bolt
catch which is operated by two hars pivoted tc^ether. When the bars are in normal
position they lock the catch rigidly, and in order to close the door a spring strike
has to be used. This is pushed in when the catch hits it and flies back when the
bolt has passed the point, giving a state of engagement similar to the regular lock.

The position the catch takes when the door is closed is shown in the sketch. To
open the door pressure is exerted on the pin A, Through a suitable button and
connection it throws the bars out of line and permits the catch to swing back, as
shown by the dotted lines; the door is then free to open. The spring shown on
the top of the left-hand bar returns the catch to a locked position ready to catch
when the door is closed.

In Fig. 240 is shown a lock in which all the parts are of steel stamping with the
exception of the bolt, which is malleable iron. The bolt is of the regular sliding
bolt type and it is operated by an upward pull on the handle. It will be seen that
the bell crank is operated by the pins engaging on the bottom of the slot in the
upper arm. The lower ami engages in the s'ot in the bolt and pulls the bolt back
when the door is o]>ened.

122 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The lock shown in Fig. 241 and 242 is of very simple construction, consisting
of a base, a coiled spring, a stop plate, and a handle. The handle forms the bolt
and when the rounded end hits on the lock strike the handle is pushed back, allowing
the door to close. The position the handle takes when the door is closed and locked
is shown in the lower sketch. A lock that has a round bolt is shown in Fig. 243.
This bolt is operated by pulling up on the handle which operates the small lever,
and this in turn draws back the bolt. The style of strike used with this lock is
shown in the small section at the right of the lock.

Cylinder Key Lock (Firro SMraping & Mfg. Co., Milcl.tll Locking Handle (Min

Deiroit) Co., Pbibdelpliia:

Ferra Stamping & Mfg. Co.'s Key Locli No. 824. and Mitchell Locking Hai

The style or vogue of the automobile affects the style of door locks. At
one time all cars had outside door handles and then came a demand for flush ex-
teriors, so that all outside handles were eliminated. With the improvement of side
curtains difficulty was encountered in getting in and out of the car unprovided with
outside door handles so that the present vogue is to have an outside handle. Door
locks which will accomodate these handles have to be used. The door handle
consists of a bar with a square ended shaft in it, which must be long enough to
reach the tumbler socket- An extension plate is fastened to the handle by a lock
plate or washer so the handle can not pull off. The construction of a door handle
is clearly shown in Fig. 244. The designs of door handles vary considerably and
there are a great number of different designs now carried by the automobile hard-
ware manufacturers, some of which are shown in Figs. 245, 246, 247 and 248.

The closed car door lock has the same basic principle of construction as the

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Open body lock. Fig. 229, has, only it is much stronger and inside and outside lock-
ing devices have to be incorporated. The lock shown in Fig, 249 can be locked

from the inside by turning the knurled knob or locked from the outside by the
cylinder lock which operates the same locking pawl as the knob docs. The ilhis-

124 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

tration shows how the cylinder lock is attached. A cylinder lock is shown in Fig.
250. It will be noted that the shaft has a square end to engage the lock and that
it is connected to the cylinder lock loosely, so it can take care of misalignment.

In 250B is shown a rotary lever lock with an automatic release on the inside,
This unusual lock presents many advantages, and was first introduced to the trade
in the winter of 1921-1922.

A number of different types of locks have been shown which cover a good
many ideas that have been worked out in the endeavor to improve the lock design.
Some of these locks are giving good satisfaction, some have not been so popular.
The idea of giving this description of various types is to supply a record of the
developments in this important fitting of automobile bodies.

TED

CHAPTER XIV
GENERAL AUTOMOBILE HARDWARE

Under the heading of general automobile hardware will be grouped the door
lock strikes, and as this chapter follows the chapter on door locks, the strike will be
the first piece described.

LOCK STRIKES

The lock strike or "strike," as it is commonly termed, is a fitting that is pro-
vided to make the operation of closing the door as smooth as possible. When the

FiC. 251

Where powiblc a long
strike is used

Fig. 252

Sometimes a shorter
strike is necessary

Fig. 253

Strike which provides a
safety catch

Fig. 254
Typical spring catch

door closes, the lock bolt has to be thrust back, and in order to do this easily a
suitable bevel is provided that will make a sliding contact. The length of the
sliding face of the strike is governed by the thickness of the door frame and lock
pillar. When it is possible, a long strike like that shown in Fig. 251 is used, but

125

126 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Fill. 25S, ZSti and ZS7 Uli

well-known methods of fitting llit

I o

Fint door coaditii

I 11

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 127

JO@l

FigMB

FlS-B/u

Ferro StBmping Co's, dovetail door bumptr

'ris.269

128 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

where the limitations of the design make a small strike necessary, a type similar to
that shown in Fif . 252 is employed. In the first case the strike is used with a lock
that has the end of the bolt rounded off, and in the second case the lock bolt has a
straight bevel, the strike having its front edge rounded oS,

In Fig. 253 is shown a strike that provides a safety catch. This holds the
door in a partially closed position on the first notch in case the door is not swung
to with sufficient force to insure it closing tight. Several different types of spring

^)\m:\

strikes have been worked out, one of which is shown in Fig. 254. This is made
from a strip of steel formed up and hardened and tempered. The drawback to
this type of strike is that it is very liable to break under the hard usage that it gets.

and if the hardening and tempering is not very carefully done it will prove
unreliable.

When considering the type of strike to be used the construction of the door
and door frame will govern the design to some extent. Apart from the varying

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 129

thickness of the posts there are three methods of fitting the door into the frame.
The first (shown in Fig. 255) is to let the door set flush in the opening with just
sufficient clearance around it to allow it to work. The second condition is to have
a flange on the door panel which will conceal the opening of the door. The body
post will have a rabbet in it, as shown in the section sketch in Fig. 256. The third
type eliminates the rabbet, as shown in Fig. 257. With this latter type is generally
used the strike shown in Fig, 251, while in the second type the strike shown at Fig.
252 is used. The first type is not favored very much, and takes a modification of
the strike used on the third style.

DOOR BUMPERS

The door bumper comes next in order and consists of a means for regulating
the distance the door shall swing in when the door is closed. When the door is
slammed shut a fairly rigid contact has to be provided to insure the door closing
to a definite position each time. This is especially necessary when a flanged door
is provided, as the flange would strike on the body every time the door was closed
if a stop were not provided. The early method of doing this was to set a metal
plate on the body posts at convenient points and at the points of contact on the
door were set screws which could be turned in and out as desired, to provide the

130

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

right degree of engagement. This arrangement gave a hard closing door, as the
shock of closing the door was taken by solid surfaces. In order to eliminate this
condition rubber stops or bumpers were used in place of the solid contact.

The earlier design of rubber bumpers consisted of a small circular pad of
rubber with a nail in the center as shown in Fig. 258. From this there has been

Fig. 278

Fig. 279

a great variety of different forms of bumpers devised. A number of designs
have been developed that have springs in them to take up the shocks. There are
some that have both springs and rubber, but the most satisfactory bumpers that
have been devised are of rubber. The bumper design is affected by the door post
construction in a similar manner to the strike. The first door condition would

Fig. 280

The illustrations on this page show three different kinds of finger plates

and hole brackets that are in common use

need a bumper similar to that shown in Fig. 259, while the second would take
one like that shown in Fig. 260 ; in Fig. 261 is shown one that could be used in the
third case. In the following will be shown a number of bumpers that will be of
interest to the designer.

In Fig. 262 is shown a standard design that is used very extensively. This
sets into a recess provided in the door rabbet and is held in place by a wood screw.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

131

It has a good area of contact and makes a very satisfactory bumper. This is
shown in position in Fig. 263. The design shown in Fig. 263 meets the same condi-
tion as the previous one, only the rubber is made adjustable by the slot in it, the
screw holding it fast in the desired position. The bumper shown in Fig. 264 is
used on a door without a rabbet and consists of a semi-circular piece of rubber.
The sketch in Fig. 259 shows how it sets when, the door is closed. In Fig. 265

Fig. 281
A conventional design of foot rest with nickel plated rod and nickeled or enameled end brackets

is shown a bumper that reverses the conditions just cited ; instead of the rubber
bumper going into a steel pocket the metal male section goes into a semi-circular
rubber. This makes a very effective non-rattling bumper. A spring type of
bumper is shown in Fig. 266 and in Fig. 267 is shown a round rubber bumper
set in a permanent bracket, the idea being that the rubber can be turned to present
a new face should any section of it become worn.

dtab

Fig. 282
Foot rest made of two end brackets and a center board, covered with a suitable material

THE DOVETAIL

The dovetail is provided on a door to insure its closing in the right position,
and to relieve the strains that would be imposed on the hinges by the weight of the
door distortion of the body or by passengers leaning or sitting on the door. When
the hinges have been strained the door will drop on opening and then be hard to
close. The dovetail consists of two sections, a male and female. They are generally
made of composition metal, but can be made of malleable iron or steel.

132

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In Fig. 268 is shown a typical design of dovetail that is used very extensively.
The female section is attached to the door and the male section to the door post.
The cross section shown in Fig. 269 is taken through the door post, dovetail and
door frame. The male section is V-shaped and is so set on the door that it will set
tight into the female section, which has a V-shaped groove to correspond. A

Fig. 283
A solid type robe rail that has proved acceptable

Spring type is shown in Fig. 270. This permits very easy engagement and com-
pensates for distortion in the body. The female section of this consists of a sheet
steel retainer which holds in position a formed steel spring. This spring is hardened
and tempered. The male section is formed up out of sheet steel and into a V
shape. A bumper can be designed to act as a dovetail, like that shown in Fig. 271 >

Fig. 284
This robe rail folds against the back of seat as shown in Fig. 285

the bumper may be formed like that shown in Fig. 265, which makes the bumper
perform the function of a dovetail as well as of a bumper. A design of this type
is very effective when it is new, as it prevents any rattling of the door, which is
liable to occur in the type shown in Fig. 269. To make this bumper effective a
liberal-sized rubber must be used.

On closed cars a heavy dovetail is used. A very successful design is the dove-
tail shown in Fig. 272. This consists of a die-cast housing with metal -protected
rubber insets. A metal housing goes over this and makes a finish as well as holding
the parts in the housing. The male section is cast metal and shaped as shown.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

133

BODY BOLT WASHERS

Body-holding bolt washers are a detail of interest, as it is very important to
have the body fastened securely to the chassis frame. Carriage bolts, }i or 5/16-
inch diameter are mostly used ; the J^-inch size is the better. It is necessary to
have a liberal-sized washer under the head of the bolt so that it will not pull into
the wood. A cheaply-manufactured washer can be made from 1 x 5/32-inch strip
steel, about 1J4 inches long, as shown in Fig. 273. This is used with a bolt that

Fic. 286
Fig. 285 — Robe rail folded against back of seat. See Fig. 284.

Fig. 286 — Flexible robe rail which can be detached at one end and the robe
placed ui)on it before it is buckled again.

Fic. 285

fits the body hole properly, but if the hole is enlarged it is not very satisfactory.
A very simple and satisfactory system is to have a ^-inch hole in the body and use
a circular washer. Fig. 274A, with a square hole that will fit the head of a carriage
bolt. The large hole in the body permits the lining up of the hole in the chassis
with the body hole, while the washer prevents the possibility of the body shifting,
as it fits the bolt. The condition outlined is shown clearly in section 274.

TOP STRAP FASTENER

Another detail that is very important, which at the same time appears to be
quite trivial, is the means provided to attach the top strap to. The top imposes
a great strain on the top straps in service, and if it is not secured to a substantial
construction, something will tear loose. Three methods of securing the top straps
are shown in Figs. 275, 276 and 277. The first, shown in Fig. 275 is used where
no adjustment is provided in the straps, and consists of a steel bracket with an ear
that is bent over to provide a support for the bolt. This bracket is attached to the
body by two stove bolts that go right through the rails or rail, and has a plate and
nuts underneath. This distributes the strain of the straps onto the body rails.
The staple fastened over the head of the bolt is to prevent the bolt being accidentally
pushed back into the trimming. If this happens, the trimming would have to be
pulled oflF to get the bolt back again.

The second method, shown in Fig. 276, is adaptable to straps that have a
buckle adjustment, as they can be threaded into the eye that is provided. This

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

eye or loop is made from steel or malleable iron, and is held in place by a bolt or
bolts going right through the body rails.

Tbe third system. Fig. 277, is to use a plate similar to Fig. 275, only one ear
of the plate is tapped out so that the screw can be turned into it. This does away
with the necessity of using the carriage bolt and makes an easy assembly.

FINGER PLATES
On the majority of cars it is desired to have ready access to the mechanical
parts under the floor boards in the front part of the car. In order to do this the
one or two boards, as the case may be, are left loose in the body so that they
can be readily pulled up. In order to raise the board a catch or hole is provided in
the board, and in Figs. 278, 279 and 280 are shown three different kinds of finger

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 135

plates and hole brackets that are in common use. In Fig. 278 a spring catch is
shown that hinges to the position shown in lower sketch, and provides a means
for pulling up the board. The bracket shown in Fig. 279 is made from a non-cor-
roding alloy and is so shaped as to permit a finger being inserted into it. The curve
is put in so that dirt and grease will not collect in it. The finger plate shown in
Fig. 280 provides a little more room for the fingers than the one shown in Fig.
278. It consists of a hinged plate with a small spring attached to keep the plate in
position. A piece of leather or cloth is tacked over the bottom of the hole to pre-
vent dirt collecting in it.

FOOT RESTS
In the majority of touring cars, and in some roadsters, a foot rest is provided
for the convenience of the passengers. In Fig. 281 is shown a conventional design
of foot rest which has a nickel-plated rod and nickel-plated or enameled end
brackets. The rest shown in Fig. 282 is made from two end brackets and a center
board, covered with a suitable material. A rest of this type is very comfortable,
as it gives more surface to support the feet. There are a great variety of designs
and types of foot rests. The design and location is largely a matter of individual
taste. The two types illustrated are representative of the styles most in use.

ROBE RAILS

A robe rail is provided on almost all touring cars, and it is generally attached
to the back of the front seat. The types in use can be divided into three styles :
First, the solid ; second, the folding, and, third, the flexible. In Fig. 283 is shown
a solid type robe rail located in the position that is generally acceptable. The fold-
ing rail is shown in Fig. 284. This rail folds down against the back of the seat
when not in use as shown in Fig. 285. The flexible rail, shown in Fig. 286, is
favored by some because it can be detached at one end and the robe set on it before
it is buckled again. The details of these rails vary, but a more elaborate descrip-
tion is unnecessary.

VENTILATORS

Ventilators have been used on and off by car manufacturers ever since the
four-door body was made. While it is a great convenience for the passengers in
hot weather, it is difficult to attach to a modern car without breaking up the lines
and surfaces. The ventilating type of windshield has taken care of the ventilating
conditions to some extent, but it is not as effective as a regular ventilator fitted
on to the top or sides of the shroud. In Figs. 287 and 288 are shown different
types of ventilators that are used. A type of ventilator that is designed
to attach to the shroud is shown in Fig. 287. It is opened and closed by moving
a circular plate around so that the openings in it register with the opening in the
other plate of the ventilator which it sets against. A fine meshed gauze screen is
used to keep dust and water out. The small screen circular cover is set to catch
ihe air. The ventilator shown in Figs. 289, 290, 291 is of rectangular shape ; this
is hinged so that it may be pulled out as required. When it is pulled out it will

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

catch the air ; the fine gauze metal covering keeps the rain and dirt out. This type
is more adaptable to fit on top of the shroud, but it can be used on the sides.

In Fig, 293 is shown an auxiliary device for ventilating. This is an attachment
that can be put on the door post to hold the doors open and so permit the current
of air created by the car, when it is moving, to enter the compartment. This de-
vice is especially effective when the doors are hinged at the back, but if the door

(C. W. Henvis. Philaddpliia

is hinged at the front the ventilating windshield has to be relied upon to force
the air down into the compartment and out at the doors. The device illustrated
consists of a bar with two hinged ball ends. These ends engage in two plates that
are attached to the door post and door frame of the car respectively. These post
plates have keyhole slots in them that permit the ball end to be readily slipped into
position. The enlarged view in the sketch shows more clearly how this bar sets
in position, and the section shows the construction of one end.

A later development in ventilation is shown in Figs. 289 and 290. These con-
structions are very practical and simply made, and easily operated. They permit
a liberal sized opening to be used. The top cowl ventilator shown in Fig. 289 is

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 137

operated by means of the projecting lever, while the ventilator which goes in the
side of the cowl, Fig. 290, is operated by a knob that is puslied in to operate. It
is made so it can be stopped at any point, allowing whatever degree of ventilation
desired. Fig. 291 shows the upper ventilator assembled to the body. In order to
provide proper ventilation for a closed car, one or more ventilators are put on the

roof. When one is used it is put in the rear and when two are used one goes
at the front. When two are used it is generally to take care of the double com-
partment body, such as a sedan with the front seat divided off. A roof ventilator
is shown in Fig. 292.

A windshield wiper or cleaner is becoming a part of the car's regular equip-
ment, and is certainly a very useful article in rain stonus. There are a large num-
ber of different kinds of windshield wipers, some typical designs being shown in
Figs. 294, 295 and 296. Automatic wii>ers are shown in Figs. 295 and 296, The
first is operated by the engine suction and will swing back and forth when the valve
is opened, and the second. Fig. 296, is electrically operated.

Rear vision mirrors are becoming standard equipment on closed cars anil are
used quite extensively on open cars. Like the majority of automobile equipment

138 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

tliert are a large number of companies making them. A typical rear vision mirror
is illustrated in Fig. 297.

Closed cars, such as town cars, limousines and landaulets, are equipped with
a speaking tube or telephone. Modem electrical development has provided very
efficient equipment, one of which is known as the "autophone." The complete
equipment for a car is shown in Fig. 310. The mouth piece is made in any design
to match the exterior hardware finish. (See page 14(3),

SUNSHADES FOR OPEN AND CLOSED CARS
Sunshades, or visors, for automobiles are becoming very popular. While tlicy
have been in use more or less for several years, it is only within the last twelve
months that they have made such rapid strides in gaining popularity. As far as
closed cars are concerned the visor can be classed as standard and necessary equip-
ment. Very few closed cars are marketed nowadays which do not have a sunshade
as regular equipment. On the closed cars a three-piece windshield has been

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN IJ9

[jractically standard equi])iiK;nt for several years excepting on some of the cheajwr
cars. This shield was generally constructed with the third glass hinged so it could
l)e raised or lowered in a certain range similar to that shown in Fig. 298. The
main idea was that it gave extra protection to the inner windshield in bad weather
and if it were necessary to drive with the inner glass open the outer one could lie
set so it would prevent the rain from coming in. These things it would accomplish
to a slight degree and when it became dusty it would help to protect the passengers
from the full glare of the sun when driving against it.

The average car owner is accustomed to driving on trips which take him in
all directions; for instance, if he took, a trip north or south he would not get
very much of the direct rays of the sun in his face, only when he was angling or
riding east or west which would only be for a short time if his main direction was
north or south. Should his trip take him east in the morning and west in the
evening he would find the direct rays of the sun very trying. There are many
people who have fairly long trips to and from business who go east to business in
the morning and west back again and they wouki always be driving against the
rays of the sun. Numbers of people have gotten along without a sunshade, but if
they ever installed one they would never be without one again. Of course no
shades arff made one hundred per cent, perfect or efficient, because the undulation
of the road makes the line of sight vary in a manner similar to the light from the
headlights which throw their lights into the sky going up hill and into the road
going down hill. In skelches Figs. 299 and 300 are shown how the line of sight
varies.

It may well be asked why visors are not universally adopted for the open car
as well as for the closed ones. The answer is that the accessory houses are selling
a lot of them. The average open car has quite an extension of the top over the

140 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

windshield so it is not so necessary to have a visor as this extension gives a fair
amount of sun protection. This condition is shown in Fig. 301, H more pro-
tection is desired it is very easy to buy a visor and fixtures, as there are a large
number of new designs of suitable shades.

The sunshade for a closed car can be made in a large number of different
ways, several of which are shown in sketches No. 302 to No. 306. In Fig. 302 is

shown a semi -permanent style of shade. It consists of two brackets with a fabric
cover stretched over them and secured by curtain fasteners. This will allow
the driver to remove the fabric shade or else roll it up so it will not be in the way.
The ty])e shown in Fig. 303 is ]>erinanent : the cloth can not he easily removed and
adjustments are impossible.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

141

In Fig. 304 is shown one that can be folded out of the way when not required.
The body is of cloth and it works on a roller similar to a house spring-shade roller,
which will roll up when jerked slightly to release the catch. The shade shown in
Fig.- 305 is made of metal and is adjustable to pnly a small amount as shown. The

holes in the bracket permit about 20 degrees of movement which will take care of
all ordinary requirements. The shade in Fig. 306 is made of parts similar to those
used with the first glass-tjpe windshield, but instead of using a glass a board is
inserted.- The brackets on the side allow it to be adjusted as desired. The same

In this sketch ii

S'"b;"'™':,r

general construction can be used as shown in Fig. 306 except that instead of wood
a sheet of glass is employed. This glass can l>e either blue, green, opaque, or
brown ; and it can be made of two colors, the upper portion opaque and the lower
brown, blue, green or any other color desired. This type of shade is quite

142 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

attractive in appearance, but it is not very much more efficient than a cloth one, for
while it is |X)Ssible to see through them it is also possible for the sun's rays to
jjenetrate slightly.

The average open car does not have sufficient of the top projecting over the
windshield to protect the driver from the direct rays of the sun, consequently

«!'?«t''wT^~'

indshirld but » board

there are quite a nmnber of companies manufacturing sunshades suitable for use
on a touring car, which niake an assembly similar to that shown in Fig. 307. This
is made from a metal frame and side supporting brackets. The under side of the
frame can be covered with green imitation leather, as it makes a much better
appearance than the black.

THE PRINXIPl-l'S OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 143

Any top builder would find it profitable to be able to make up a set of sun-
shades. Any new top he makes should include a shade of some kind, and it will
be found that the customer will appreciate this added touch to the work and be
f|uite willing to [>ay for it. If the top is not collapsible the sunshade brackets can

be fastened on to the top bow. Should it l>c fitted to a collapsible top the shade
will have to be attached to the windshield posts. Sketch Fig. 308 shows one way
that this can be worked out at a reasonable cost. Fig. 308 A is a sunshade of a
popular style recently put on the market.

144 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

nical window reaulnfr. "Perftcl" Mindow rtguUlor

. Smith & Co., Dtltuit) (I'cifccl Window Rtgulslur Co., Ntw York)

Center partition I'^scmbly

^■^

Rear quarter assembly
1 Figs. il2 to JI6 are made liy Tcrnsttdi Mfg. O:. nelio

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

145

WINDOW REGULATORS
This chapter on "general hardware" would not be complete without mention-
ing window regulators. They constitute, in fact, a very important item. It used
to be "good enough" to have the windows operated by straps, and while the straps
are still used quite extensively for the rear quarter windows, very few cars are
built without a mechanical lift in the doors. There are several different types of
window regulators, but they are all patented constructions, consequently they are

Fig, 309 .\

rO..'win<!ov, regulator

146 THE PRINXIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

of different design. Among others, there are the Perfection, Temstedt, Smith.
Dura and Perfect. These are made in different lengths and assemblies, so that
they can be adapted to any conditions. W^en their installation is conten]j>latcil
detail blue prints are furnished for the body engineer's information. The Perfect
regulator is shown in Fig. 311 and in Fig. 312 is shown a standard Temstedt

regulator. An offset design is shown in Fig. 314 and Fig. 315 is a center partition
assembly. Fig. 316 shows a rear quarter assembly.

The Dura regulator, in its latest development, operates by turning or rotating
a handle, similar to the other tyi>es. Fig. 309 is the new window regulator intro-
duced by Joseph N. Smith & Co. during the winter of 1922. A factory blueprint
of same is shown in Fig. 309.\.

CHAPTER XV
FENDERS

The rear fenders of the latest designs have a small wing fitted in the rear, this
closes up the small opening that is left between the back of the body and the rear of
the fender. While it is only a sniall wing it prevents a great amount of dust and
mud from being drawn up the back of the car by the vacuum caused by the car's
displacement in the air. There are a number of different ways to design a rear
fender wing, but the design shown in Fig. 318 is one of the best. It will be noted
that it extends well down to the end of the fender at the rear and then runs along
under the body and bolts against the frame. It is riveted or bolted on to the fender
and fastened by screws or bolts to the bottom of the body.

PxG. 318
One of the best ways to design a rear fender wing

So far the touring car fenders have been described, and so the roadster
fenders must be considered next. When designing the roadster fenders it is general
practice to use the same front fenders that are used on the touring car. This
avoids making two sets of front fenders, and is a decided economical factor in
manufacturing automobiles. As it has been considered preferred practice to use
the touring car front fender only, the rear fender will be described. There are
two methods used to attach the rear fender to the car, and this will be used to
mark the difference in the styles.

147

148

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The first design, and the most popular one, is to make the fenders along the
same lines as the front ones, that is, to have a formed wing inside and carry the
fender on suitable irons that attach to the frame. This is shown in Fig. 319. In
the second design the fender attaches to the body somewhat in the same way that
the rear fender on the touring car does. This design is shown in Fig. 320. This
design is easier to make and to assemble to the car, consequently it is cheaper. It

Fig. 319

Rear fender with formed wing inside, carrying the fender on suitable irons

that attach to the frame

does not look as well as the first design and also the body must be designed to suit
it. When the body is not shaped to fit this second design it is very difficult to make
it look well.

While the general practice in roadster fenders has been outlined in the fore-
going, the designers, in their endeavors to make their roadster distinctive, have
made a great variety of different fenders. These are interesting for reference,
and for those who want to spend the money to get distinctive results, so in Figs.
321, 322, and 323 are shown various types that are representatives of their class.

Fig. 320
Rear fender attached to the body, as is the practice with many builders

The methods used to attach the fenders to the car have gone through some
interesting stages in their development. The front and rear fenders were supported
on forging irons that were attached to the frame. The front fender irons were
very heavy and had long arms that extended to the front and rear of the fender
and riveted to it ; the iron was attached to the frame by bolts or set into a taper
socket. The rear fender iron also had extended arms that fitted to the fender in a
similar way to the front ones.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

149

The front fender irons were then simplified and metal plates used instead of
arms to attach the iron to the fender, and next the metal plates and forged irons
were eliminated and a pressed steel iron used. The pressed steel iron is now used
on a large number of cars. It is much easier to make than forged iron and is
lighter. The front fender iron is now very largely used to carry the headlights
and so saves the weight of the forged steel headlight supports. In Figs. 324, 325
and 326 are shown three different phases in the developments of the front fender
irons, these illustrations show the basic designs.

Fig. 321

Fic. 322

Fig. 323

Figs. 321, 322 and 323 arc interesting for reference, as they are types representative of

distinctive treatments of the fender problem

In Fig. 324 it will be noted that the fender wing is short and that it is secured
to the irons by small strips of steel. These are bent over the iron and riveted to
the wing. This clamps the wing up tight to the iron and holds it from rattling.
The fender shown in Fig. 325 has a larger and longer wing. This extends down
to the frame and is secured to the frame by a bracket that bolts on to the frame and
clamps the wing tight against it. By clamping the wing down in this way a rear
iron can be dispensed with. In Fig. 326 is shown the same style of fender having

150

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Kic. 324
Here the fender wing is short and is secured to the irons by smalt straps of steel

Fic. 325

This fender has a larger and longer wing that extends down to the frame

and is secured by a bracket

Fig. 326
Same style of fender as Fig. 325, but attaches direct to frame by four bolts, without brackets

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGX

151

the wing clamped to the frame. The iron, which is of pressed steel, attaches to the
frame by four bolts. The fender is fastened to the iron at the top only by two
rivets. In Fig. 327 is shown a side view of the fender iron, and the dotted lines
show how the headlight is attached to it by bolts. The rear fender iron shown in
Fig. 324 has been eliminated and the fender is fastened on by cap screws as shown

Fig. in

^ Side view of fender iron, the dotted
lines showing how the headlight is attached
to it by bolts

Fic. 329

This rear fender has the bottom end
built forward under the running boards
two carriage bolts holding the fender in
place.

in Fig. 326. The roadster rear fender iron went through the same development
as the front fender iron. In Fig. 326 is shown how a pressed steel iron is made
to carry the modem front fender.

The running board fills the space between the front and rear fenders and
makes a suitable stepping place for passengers when getting in and out of the car.

Fic. 328
Front fender set on top of the running board and held in place by three carriage bolts.

It is Standard practice to extend this board from fender to fender without a break,
supporting it by suitable irons fastened to the car frame. The fenders attach to the
front and rear of this board, and as there are a variety of ways to do this, two
methods have been chosen to show the best means to accomplish it. In Fig. 328 is
shown the front fender setting on top of the running board and held in place by

152

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

three carriage bolts. The rear fender shown in Fig. 329 has the bottom end built
forward under the running board, two carriage bolts set down under the linoleum
on the board and hold the fender in place. The section shown in Fig. 330 explains
this. A finished plate fastens over the tops of the bolts by two screws and covers
the holes the bolts make in the linoleum. In Fig. 331 is shown the front fender
having its end bent down and an extension plate welded to it, an angle is bolted
to the running board and against this the fender is held by bolts going through it

Fig. 330
Section showing detail of Fig. 329

Fic. 3ii

A method of fastening rear fender to the
running board.

Fig. m
Section showing detail of Fig. 331

"> ■>

.; ;

Fig. 331

Front fender having its end bent down and an
extension plate welded to it.

Fig. 334
Section showing detail of Fig. 333

into the fender extension, the sketch in Fig. 332 shows this very clearly. The rear
fender fastens to the running board in a similar manner, and an angle is bolted
to the board, and the fender has an extension that matches the angle on the board.
Bolts go through them both, and securely fasten the fenders at the bottom. This
is shown in Figs. 333 and 334. The first method described is a very satisfactory
one for economical manufacture, as the parts are easily made and quickly as-
sembled. The second method is more complicated, but permits of a uniform bind-
ing being attached to the board on all four of its edges. This makes a better look-
ing, but more expensive, finish than the first method.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGX

153

The side aprons, or running board skirts, are metal covers that interpose be-
tween the lower edge of the body and the running board, and protect the board
from mud that would otherwise splash up. In the earlier cars the space between
the frame and the running board was left open. This allowed the mud to splash

Fig. 335
A side apron that is a good example of current designing practice, showing method of attachment.

up the boards. To prevent this a metal cover was provided and this has now
become a standard American practice. The apron fills up the space under the
body and between the front and rear fender, and makes a clean and smooth finish,
instead of leaving an unsightly gap exposing the springs and running board sup-
ports between the bottom of the body and the running board.

Fig. 336

The older method was to bolt the side apron on to the running board. A half-oval moulding
was welded to the side apron and this was countersunk for French head bolts.

The side apron is made from light sheet metal which is generally 22 U. S.
gauge. It is so formed that the top edge rests on the car frame under the body,
and the lower edge extends down to or past the running board. The front end of
the apron has a larger exposed surface than the rear, owing to the fact that the

154

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

body gets wider at the back. In order to make the car look balanced, the apron is
pulled in closer to the frame at the front end to give it an appearance of being about
the «ame size as the rear. In order to do this the running board has to be made
wider at the front. The side apron shown in Fig. 335 is a good example of the pre-
vailing design and shows in the section how it sets under the running board and
on top of the frame, while the ends project inside of the fender and is bolted to
the flanges on them.

Fig. 337

A cheap method of assembling a side apron to a car, which does not protect the running boards

from the mud which works in between them and the fender.

There are a large number of ways to fasten the fenders to the side apron, and
the method shown in Fig. 335 is one of the best. The old method used was to bolt
the side apron on to the running board and to the side apron a half oval moulding
was welded, and this was countersunk for French head bolts as shown in Fig. 336.

A very cheap method of assembling a side apron to a car is to have the ends
cut to match the contour of the fenders, allowing a slight clearance. The fenders

Fig. 338
Front end of the frame with wheel, fender and hood in their relative positions.

have flanges turned on them that project under the side apron. No screws or
bolts are used to fasten the apron to the fender. The fender flanges prevent the
gap from being noticeable, but do not protect the running board from the mud
which will work in between them and on to the fender. In Fig. 337 is shown this
style of side apron.

THK PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 155

The different styles of fenders have been described, starting from the earlier
types and tracing the progress up to the present practice. In studying a subject the
past history is always interesting, and in some cases will save a designer a lot of
time when he can start his work from the modern designs, for, knowing what has
gone before, he will be able to avoid the errors of the earlier designs.

In starting a design the lasic princi|>les should be considered first. When
these are known the conditions that are to be determined in relation to the design
that is planned are quickly located. In the diagram shown in Fig. 338 is outlined
the front end of the frame with wheel, fender and hood. "A" stands for the dis-
tance from center of the wheel to the top of the frame when the spring is com-
pressed or loaded so that the bumper strikes the frame. "B" is the distance from
the top of the frame to the top of the tire, and "C" the clearance that is required
between the top of the tire and the fender for non-skid chains ; "E" will be the dis-

1 thai the fender

tance to locate the top of the fender alwve the frame. Where D equals radius of the
wheel, E equals D plus C minus A, C is generally made between IJ/J to 2 inches.
The front edge of the fender should line tip with the front of the tire, and the rear
end should line up with the back of the engine bonnet. A point that must be
watched is marked F. This distance should exceed thedistance C just enough to
ni.ike the fender appear to have an equal amount of clearance all around the wheel
from the front back to a point where the fender starts to leave the wheel line an<l
bend towards the board.

156 THE PRIXCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BObV DESIGN

The rear touring car fender is shown in the diagram Fig. 339. G equals the
distance from the center of the wheel to the top of the frame when the spring is
compressed so that the bumper on the axle strikes the frame. "H" is the distance
from the top of the frame to the top of the wheel, and **C" is the distance required
for chain clearance. The distance J is the height to locate the top of the fender
above the frame. The radius of the wheel is K ; then J=K+C — G. The fender
starts at the running board and generally has a clearance C equal to 2 to 3 inches,
similar to the top. As this point only varies in a vertical plane, it is located as close
as possible.

The rear fender follows the same principles as the front ; also the roadster
rear fender uses the same rules to start the designs from. The widths of the front
and rear fenders are generally made the same and the over-all width is practically
standard. The track or tread has l^een standardized in America to 56 inches. Pre-
vious to this a 60-inch track was used in the South. The over-all width depends
on the size of the tire. Taking a 3^-inch tire, the width of the car over the tires
will be 56+3^^=59^, while with a 5-inch tire it will be 56+5=61, a difference
of Ij/^ inches. This is not very much. It is average practice to allow 3% inches
from the side of the tire to the outside of the fender. This will give an over-all
width of 66 inches on a 3V^-inch tired car. and 67]/^ inches on a 5-inch tired car.

In Fig. 340 is illustrated how the front fender looks with a 3 J/^ -inch tire and
an allowance of 3% inches from the outside of the tire to the outside of the fender.
These measurements are obtained by measuring at the track of the wheel. By tak-
ing measurements at the track the main clearance is obtained, owing to the fact
that the front wheels toe out at the top while the rear wheels do not do this.

By inspecting the sketch in Fig. 341, of the rear fender and rear wheel, it is
seen that the fender has ample overhang to it now. Comparing it to the front
fender in Fig. 340 it is seen that the tilt of the wheel cuts down this projecting
overhang, but this is as much as can be allowed to meet the conditions explained
above. These points that have been enumerated are the basic principles of fender
design, the shape and lines are worked out from these determining points in ac-
cordance with the designer's ideas.

DEFECTS OF PRESENT FENDER DESIGN

The developments of the fenders have been traced up to the present styles.
While these are effective and blend with the beautiful lines of the modern car, they
leave much to be desired to be called "ideal." They protect the car and its occu-
pants well under certain conditions only. On bad, muddy roads the car is quickly
covered with mud, and even on fair roads the car is soon bespattered, if only mod-
erate speeds are indulged in. After a rainstorm in the city, pedestrians are spat-
tered with mud if the traffic is at all plentiful. A small collection of water, that
is hit by an automobile traveling at medium speed, is splashed for a good distance
in all directions. In towns that have narrow streets, not only do the sidewalks

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 157

get splashed with mud, but the store windows also are subjected to a liberal
bath of mud. When it rains the mud appears like magic, even on the cleanest
appearing streets in the cities. Of course this condition is very much aggravated
on unpaved streets.

A few years ago the officials in Paris, France, offered prizes to those who
could invent fenders or attachments for them that would prevent splashing at
certain speeds. The results of their trials were not satisfactory ; the only device
that was anywhere near efficient was a brace-like attachment that swept along the
ground at the side of the wheels. From the foregoing it is seen that here is a
problem that has yet tq be solved to make a fender that will protect the car, its
occupants, and pedestrians as well.

The majority of automobile fenders are finished in black by enameling. This
is the prevailing way of finishing the fenders and side aprons. It is both an eco-
nomical method and gives a lasting finish. A fine, hard coat is obtained by baking
and this gives a high gloss. A great advantage to the manufacturer is that the
enamel is not easily marred in handling and in assembling on to the cars. A
painted fender would require a lot of extra care taken so that it would not be
marred in its progress through the factory. While the tendency in the higher
priced cars is to finish the complete car in one color, this cannot be considered for
the low and medium priced cars until a satisfactory process of color enameling
is discovered.

CHAPTER XVI
WINDSHIELDS

The windshield is a comparatively modern fitting and it is only within the last
few years that it has become a necessary part of the automobile. The first shields
detracted very much from the general appearance of the car, as they did not har-
monize with the rest of the construction,- and to have a shield fitted to a car made
it look freakish. Now that the windshield is standard equipment on virtually all
cars, an automobile has an unfinished appearance when it does not have one on.

The development of the various types of windshields was a very rapid one, as
the increased efficiency of the automobiles permitted higher speeds and some pro-

FiG. 342

One of tlie earliest types of windshields, fitted to brass or steel frames that clamped on the

dash and were braced by long rods on the sides.

tection had to be provided against the dust and wind. When the designers found
that the shield was necessary they soon discovered means for adapting a construc-
tion that would give a harmonizing appearance with the rest of the car.

The earliest type of shield, as shown in Fig. 342 consisted of suitable sized
glasses fitted to brass or steel frames that clamped on to the dash of the car and

158

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

159

were braced by a long rod on each side, either extending toward the front or to-
ward the rear of the car. The shields were generally constructed in two sections,
the upper one had a suitable hinge upon which it could be swung down, giving a
clear view to the driver or passenger over the top of the lower shield. This type
of shield is still used to a considerable extent, but the method of attaching it to the
car is greatly improved.

Fig. 343

The air impinges on the straight shield
in this manner.

Fig. 344

The slanting shield reduces the necessary
length of the top, resulting in better vision.

The desire to do away with the top straps that either extended to the front
of the frame or attached to the cowl, resulted in the development of the side arm
or "standard** type of shield. These standards were made high enough so that the

Fig. 345
The properly slanted windshield permits a very pleasant riding condition.

top could attach to them by means of a suitable bracket. With this development
a single glass shield was the most popular. This glass was attached to the stand-
ards in such a manner that it could be swung up out of the way. This meant a
large sized glass in most cars, and difficulty was experienced in holding it up

160

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

when a free draft was desired. This sized glass was so heavy that it was fre-
quently jarred down with the vibration of the car. The next design in develop-
ment had two glasses, both of which hinged on the posts, so that they could be
swung in any desired position. This type can be classed as the prevailing one
for the present automobile. With a shield of this design a ventilating condition

Fig. 346

The double shield can be closed in bad weather and in good weather opened at the

top, while the lower portion deflects the air.

is obtained for the body by pulling the lower glass backward about two inches
past the top of the shroud or bracket. This causes a current of air to be deflected
downward into the compartment. For this reason this type of shield is termed
the ventilating type ; besides the ventilating feature there is a rain vision condition

Fic. 347

Under this condition there should be a ventilator in the top or an open window in the rear

to avoid unpleasant air currents.

obtained by swinging the upper shield outward so that a gap of 2 inches to 3 inches
is left between it and the lower one. This deflects the rain and permits the driver
to look out between the two glasses, giving unobstructed vision.

For convenience of reference the different designs will be divided into five
groups: First, the non-ventilating and folding upper glass; second, ventilated

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

161

l^^^-^~"^^itll

O.S
♦* >

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CO ^

119

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O S
♦* O

J: V

w S
•— O

.2 «

•I 8

«d
u „

' O

.25

c
It

s
cr

OS
V

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«8

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JE3

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♦* JS

162

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

lower glass, top glass folds down; third, single glass; fourth, ventilating lower
and rain vision upper; fifth, miscellaneous designs.

The modern windshield comes under class four, with variations in the de-
tails of its construction to suit the car which it has to be adapted to and also to
meet the designer's ideas. The tendency is to set the shield on an angle to a
vertical line. The arriount of inclination varies from 10 degrees to 30 degrees.

Fig. 352 Fic. 353

Showing the range of action with the joints located in different positions. It is obvious
that the locations shown in the right haAd figure are the better.

While a sloping shield offers less resistance to the air, this is not the principal
reason for the manufacturer sloping it, as it is more a feature of modern style
than a mechanical improvement. A car with a sloping shield has the appearance
of being able to go fast, just as the sloping lines are in keeping with the knife-like
shape that is associated with all devices for fast traveling.

Fjg. 354

This double glass V-type shield is being used on some of the

custom-made cars.

Fic. 355

.\ "spectacle" type of shield that has

been fitted to a few roadster and

sports bodies

In Fig. 343 is shown how the air lines impinge on the shield when it is straight,
causing a direct interference. The air shoots up, creating a cross draft and an
unpleasant back draft in the rear end of the car. In the sloping shield shown in
Fig. 343, the air lines flow easily over the windshield and off at the top, blending,
to a great extent, with the upper air currents.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN" 163

There is yet another advantage of the sloping shield, and that is that the length
of the top is reduced as shown by the distance marked A in Fig. 344. By cutting
off the front end of the top, a better road vision is obtained. This is shown in Fig.
344, by the lines B'B'. The table (page 164) was prepared by M. E. M. Vance and
published in "The Automobile" July 26, 1917. It shows the reduction in percent-
age of the shielded area as a definite sized shield sloped, starting from 10 degrees

It is attached to Ihc

and progressing by 2 degrees at a time, until an angle of 30 degrees is obtained.
The corresponding reduction in wind resistance is shown for each position. It
will be noted that a moderate inclination does not appreciably reduce the pro-
jected area of the shield, but it results in quite a reduction of air resistance. The
table follows at top of the next page :

164

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Angle of
Plane
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30

Reduction of
Projected Area
(Per Cent.)
1.5
2.2
3.0
3.9
4.9
6.0
7.3
8.6
10.1
11.7

Reduction of
Air Resistance
(Per Cent.)
3.0
4.2
5.8
7.6
9.5
11.6
14.0
16.4
19.2
22.1
25.0

13.4

The idea of a sloping shield is not a new one. The Berliet Co., of Lyons,
France, fitted a sloping windshield to their cars in 1909, and called it the Berliet
wind screen. They developed the shield to have a certain relation to the line of

Fio. 358

This car has the triangular side glass frames on each side of the windshield, and an adjustable extension

to deBect air currents away from the interior of the body.

sight of the driver, which would cause the air waves to be deflected over the head,
relieving eye strain and eliminating the use of goggles. In 1911 they had fitted
both rain vision and folding top shields to their cars. In a limousine body they
arranged a ventilator in the top of the body-, over the driver's head, so that the air
would not be deflected on to his head and neck. This is what will happen on an
ordinary style of shield. The Berliet Co. description of their shield development
is as follows:

"As the speed of the car increases the wind resistance increases as the square
of its velocity, which is a very considerable factor in power consumption. For this

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 165

reason the size of the windshield should be made as small as possible, and its
shape should be designed to reduce as far as possible the surface exposed to the
wind. These considerations led to the development of a small single piece shield
which was set on an angle of about 17 degrees and as closely as practical to the

A lyiiical dcwgn of windshield wing as The rear windjhield swings don-n

steering wheel. It was found with this design that the air currents were projected
upwards sufficiently to deflect the currents directly in a line with the top of the
shield and in so doing did away with the direct draft on the rider's face to a con-

siderable extent. This would only apply in case the top were down. If the top
were up, an unpleasant back draft would be created. The drawback of a single
shield like this is that it does not afford proper protection in bad weather, so a
double shield was evolved which would permit using the upper glass for rain

166 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

I)rotection in bad weather, and in cold weather it could be closed up tight. In
good weather one upper glass is swung out of the way and the lower glass will
deflect the air. By either lowering the top or raising the curtain in the back ot

the top a very pleasant riding condition is obtained. This is illustrated in Figs,
344, 345 and 346.

It is seen that the developments along the lines that the Berliet Co. worked
has produced the shields that we have for the present day car equipment. In
order to complete the study of the windshield the earlier types will be briefly
described. The shield shown in Fig. 342 comes in the first group, and shows how
the shield was first ada|>ted to the automobile, A filler board was attached to the

cowl, or an extension was made on the cowl, which had a groove in it that would
conform to the curve of the shield frame. This shield was set on to this part and
clamped into position by two or more metal clamps. This secured the bottom
firmly but would not support the top, so an extension brace was fitted to the joint
of the shield. This extension was either carried down to the frame or fastened

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 167

to the cow!. In Fig, 348 is shown a shield that comes in the same group as the
one just described, this shield is used on a cheap car that is made in great quantities.
The construction of the shield is essentially the same as that shown in Fig. 342,
the only difference being that it is attached by screws and rivets to the corner
brackets on the cowl, and that it is supiiorted rigidly enough by these brackets so

that the braces are eliminated. There is another feature, and that is a ventilating
condition can be obtained by folding the upper glass back, as shown in the dotted
lines. The lower edge of the upper glass projects above the upper edge of the
lower glass and so catches the air and deflects it downward into the compartment.

Fic 364 A
.\ standard, patenltil lype o( rear windshield. (TonnMU SliiclJ Co., N*w York Cily.)

The second group is illustrated by the shield shown in Fig. 349. This shield
has a friction joint in each of the standards which allows the shield to fold over,
as shown by the dotted lines. Each glass frame is also adjusted as they swing on
friction joints. To be successful this shield nuist have a very substantial joint

168

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

in the post in order to keep it rigid when it is in its upright position. Otherwise
the wind resistance and vibration will shake it loose.

The third type is shown in Fig. 350. This is only adaptable to a short shield,
as it is very difficult to keep the friction joint tight enough to hold it up for a
clear vision.

The shield shown in Fig. 351 is of the type described as "standard." The
glass frames have a working range as shown by the dotted lines. A detail of im-

Fic. 365

Fig. 366

Fig. 367

Fig. 368

Fig. 369 Fig. 370 Fic. 371

The seven figures on this page illustrate ways of making windshields weatherproof by
means of fillers, usually of rubber, between the glass frames and the standards.

portance in the design of the shield is to have the friction joints located properly.
The Figs. 352 and 353 show the range of action with the joints located in different
positions. It is obvious that the joints located as shown in Fig. 353 are the better,
as a more extended range of vision is permitted in the upper glass when it is swung
up, and also a better ventilation position is afforded on the lower glass.

In another group are classed designs of shields that- are very interesting,
as some of these may be the acceptable shields of the future. A V-type shield,

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 169

shown in Fig. 354 is being used on a number of custom-made cars, the main idea
being novelty of appearance and a shield shape that will conform with the car
lines. A spectacle type of shield that has been fitted to some special roadsters
is shown in Fig. 355 and in Fig. 356 is a modification of this type made in the
form of an oval glass that attaches to the steering column.

There are several companies who are making cars with shields that have
small triangular side glass frames on each side of the windshield. These are
especially adaptable for a sloping shield as it will be seen in Fig. 357. By using

Fig. 372r

A weather strip is often fitted in between the top of the windshield and
the car top. A close joint should be made the entire length

of the rubber strip.

the side shield it gives better vision to the driver especially in bad weather when
the side curtains have to be used. It is much easier to get a good fitting side cur-
tain with this shield as the curtain has a straighter line to attach to. The shield
construction shown in Fig. 358 has a further extension on it that can be adjusted
to deflect the air current so that they cannot enter the car. The common name
for these extensions are windshield wings. These wings can be used in connection
with any windshield and are very popular. A number of cars are using them for
standard equipment. A typical design of windshield wing is shown in Fig. 372B.
In Figs. 361 and 362 are shown three types or shields designed to protect the rear
seat passengers of a touring car. In Fig. 359 is shown a shield that attaches to
the back of the front seat. This swings down out of the way when not in use, as
shown in Fig. 360. When it is in operation it can be set at any desired position
by sliding it back and forth on two rails. Side glasses are provided to afford pro-
tection from side winds. In Fig. 361 is illustrated a shield that can be lowered
into the back of the front seat when it is not wanted. It is operated by a handle
which raises or lowers the shield as desired. When the shield is down there are
two flaps that fold down and cover up the slot in the seat. The shields shown in
Fig. 362 may be called auxiliary devices, as they afford only individual protection.
A tonneau windshield is an efficient device for protecting rear passengers,
and it is surprising that it has not been used more extensively. A protecting
shield for the rear passengers will be a part of the standard equipment before very
long. Another tonneau shield of interest is shown in Fig. 363. This consists of
a shield on the end of a cowl-like cover, that fits over the doors of the body. This

170 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

is hinged at the rear of the front seat, and is folded back when the rear passengers
wish to get in and out. A car fitted in the same manner was exhibited by the
Alin & Liautard Co. in 1914, and has been duplicated by special body builders on
some recent American models. In Fig. 363 is shown the shield in position on the
car, and in Fig. 364 is shown folded up to allow the passengers to enter and leave
the car. It will be noted that the glass is adjustable so it can be set in any desired
position.

In 364 A is pictured the "J- H." tonneau windshield, which has become
exceedingly popular.

The automobile has ceased to be a fair weather vehicle, and consequently the
demand is for complete protection from bad weather conditions and the cold. In
order to make the windshields completely weather-proof, rubber fillers are being

FlO. J72A
cunom made cm. (JOMph N. Smith & Co.. DclioiL)

fitted between the glass frames and the standards. The shapes and sizes of these
rubber fillers depend upon the shape of the shield. Sometimes they are attached to
the glass frames and sometimes to the standard. (See Figs. 365 and 366.)

With the advent of the swinging lower glass a weather strip was made neces-
sary ; two cross sections of typical weather strips for the lower glasses are shown
in Figs. 367 and 368. Several methods have been devised to make a weather-tight
joint between the upper and lower glass. The first system was to have the upper
glass overlap the lower one, as shown in Fig, 369. This works fairly well, but does
not keep the cold air or rain from blowing up between the glasses. In Fig. 370 is
shown a section of the upper and lower glasses with a rubber filler inserted between
them. This method is used very extensively, as it makes a good close joint between
the glasses. There is one trouble, and that is to get the shields to have a uniform
space between them as any distortion of the body reduces or increases this space,
and when this gap is reduced it is liable to cause a fracture in the glasses.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILK BODY DESIGN 171

The system shown in Fig. 371 overcomes these objections, and the only factor
that is to be watched is to see that the glasses are set square in the standards so tliat
a close joint is made along the entire length of the rubber. On the top of the shield
a rubber weather strip is sometimes fitted, and this will work very well when a
level surface is provided on top for this strip to fit against. This condition is
shown in the Fig. 372. The weather strip is attached to the frame in the same

Pic. 372 B.

.\ lyjiicfll design of wLndshidd wiiiB-
(.\ul,iniorivc Ac«Morie>, Inc.. Kokn.no. Intl.)

manner that it is fitted to the bottom of the lower glass frame. When it is raining
or snowing the glasses of the shields are quickly fogged, so that it is difficult to
see through them. In order to get any vision the shield is opened by raising the
upper glass upward and outward to the so-called rain vision position, making it
possible to see between the two glasses. This method is satisfactory providing
it is not raining very hard, and also, in case of snow, the cold air coming in is not
objectionable.

In order to avoid the inconveniences that an open rain vision shield causes,
a wiping attachment can be used. This device is fitted so that it can be operated
from the inside of the car and cleans off the rain or snow from the outside glass
by a backward and forward movement of the hand. -Automatic windshield wipers
are also on the market, as shown on pages 137 and- 138.

TOP DESIGN
CHAPTER XVII

A collapsible top is used on the greater number of the automobiles of today,
and while there is an ever-increasing demand for the closed type car, the touring
car, with a folding top, still retains its popularity. A folding top on a car gives
a freedom to the passengers that is second only to being out walking, and when
country travel is indulged in in fine weather, the pleasures are greatly increased if
the top can be folded away, giving an unobstructed view in all directions.

The first tops used on the automobile were adaptations from the horse-vehicle
tops, and as the automobile tops were long, curtains had to be used on the sides

Fig. 373
Typical desiKH of top common before the general adoption of the

"one-man"

type.

•ESt^

Fic. 374

This top consists of two front and two rear socket assemblies, right and left. The sockets are

made of steel and so shaped as to accommodate the wood bows driven Into them.

of the top to afford proper protection. The developments of the earlier tops were
not of much interest and a detailed description will not be taken up.
The top shown in Fig. 373 is a typical design of top that was commonly used pre-
vious to the adoption of the "one-man" type. The top illustrated in Fig. 374
consists of two front socket assemblies, right and left, and two rear assemblies,

172

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 173

right and left. These sockets are made of steel aii<l so shaped as to accommodate
the wood bows that are driven into them.

In this top four bows are used. The front and rear sockets are set on to the
top irons provided on the body. A water -proof cover is laid over the top of the

bows and then stretched tight by attaching the rear bow to the back of the body
by two straps, and at the front two straps run from the front bow to convenient
places on the chassis or body. These straps are pulled up tight so that the cover-
ing will be well stretched and so make a smooth appearing top.

To close the top down, the front sockets have to be taken off the body iron
and attached to the front member of the rear socket. This is accomplished by

Fis 376.

having a bracket attached to the sockets that has a hole in it the same size as the
front body iron has. The pin on the end of the front socket will then fit into
this at the rear, the same cotter pin being used to hold it in position as is used
when the top is in its open position. This is shown very plainly in Fig. 374.

174

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

These sockets are known as the Du Quesne. Photographs of the sockets
are shown in Figs. 375 and 376. Fig. 375 shows a four bow type and Fig. 376, a
roadster type. In this type the front bow comes off and attaches at point marked
X, when the top is folded down. A strap is riveted to the socket as plainly shown ;
this carries the cotter pin which keeps the socket in position.

To operate this top successfully it was necessary to have one person on each
side of the car. Each person would take ho!d of a front socket so that it would
be raised or lowered evenly. On a large top it was difficult for even two men to
manage. If a sudden storm came up the chances were that the passengers would
be thoroughly wet before they could get the top uj).

Fig. ^77
Typical layout for bow socketn.

In order to overcome these objectionable features socket constructions were
worked out where the front end was supported by suitable members from the rear
bows. The front members were so designed that they would balance one another
when the operation of raising or lowering the top was performed. The theory
was that one person should be able to raise or lower the top while in the car.

In the first designs of this "one-man" type top the construction was prone to
run to a good many levers and cables, which gave trouble by catching in the cloth
and getting tangled in operation. When the construction was developed to
work easily it was found difficult to get the desired outline on the top, as the lever
and bars had to maintain certain definite relations to one another.

To meet the conditions demanded, further movements had to be developed and
the parts simplified. This has resulted in the type of sockets that are now most
generally used. In Figs. 375, 376 and 377 are shown three typical layouts
for sockets. They are all used very extensively. It will be seen that they all
have a truss construction while the covering forms the tension cords. The
rear end is anchored by straps to the back of the body while the front end is se-
cured fast to the windshield.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

175

Fi6. 378

Fig. 57S

\ '

Fig. 560.

Fi6. 381

Typical desierns of bow sockets whose points of Interest nre referred to on page 176.
(Manufactured by the Brewer-Tltchener Corp., Cortland, N. Y.)

176 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

TYPES OF MODERN BOW SOCKET CONSTRUCTIONS

In Figs. 378, 379 and 380 are shown types of modern socket constructions.
Figs. 378 and 379 are four bow sockets and Fig. 380 is a five bow socket. It will
be noted that the third bow in socket Fig. 378 is attached to the fourth while in
Figs. 379 and 380 the fourth socket is fastened to the third. When the third bow
is attached to the fourth more space is allowed in the side of the top than there
is when the fourth is attached to the third.

The bow sockets shown in Figs. 381 and 382 is a slightly different construc-
tion than those shown in Figs. 378, 379 and 380. The braces are longer and the
lower strut is made of two pieces which allows the No. 2 socket to set between it.
The manufacturing name for this type is the Pioneer. Fig. 382 shows the posi-
tion the sockets take as they are folded up. Roadster three bow sockets are
shown in Figs. 383, 384 and 385. The Pioneer type is shown open and closed
in Fig. 383 and 384 respectively. The main difference between the Pioneer type
and the one shown in Fig. 385 is the location or point of attachment of the No. 2
bow. In Fig. 385 the No. 2 bow is fastened near the top of the socket while Fig.
383 is attached half way down. This makes a difference in design of the side
quarters as indicated by the dotted line.

The top illustrated in Figs. 386 and 387 has a socket which has recently been
developed. It has a spring inserted inside one of the tubes. This spring applies
pressure through the levers and members so that the operation of raising and
lowering the top are assisted to a great extent. This spring makes the top almost
automatic, as it raises the top and also prevents it dropping too quickly when it is
let down. This principle applied to a long and heavy top makes its operation easy
to a remarkable degree.

When an automobile top is designed there are a number of conditions that
have to be considered, and these are outlined in the following :

The first factor is to decide what head clearance is desired. This is deter-
mined by the distance from the cushion to the point in the top that will come directly
above the passenger's head. This is shown in Fig. 388, where a dimension B for
the front seat calls for 38-38j^, while on the rear seat the letter (A) is from 38
to 40. It can be estimated that the cushion will compress at least 1 inch when the
passengers are on it, but if the cushion is an extra soft one and allows the pas-
sengers to sink in deeper, the necessary allowance should be made.

The windshield height is the next thing to be decided upon, as the height of
the windshield determines the amount of road vision the driver and passengers
will have. The trend of design is to get the top as low as possible and also have
the windshield short, but these should not be brought down too low, otherwise
the driver's and passengers' vision will be obstructed. With these points estab-
lished the outline of the top can be laid in. The back is set in the desired relation
to the body line and at the front the line will terminate to suit the windshield.

The shape desired at the front and rear are taken up next, and as the back
presents the larger surface to the eye it will be worked out first. The shape of the

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 177

178 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

back bow and the height at which it sets determines the appearance of the back,
so the bow outline is laid in as desired. The other bows are so shaped that they
will carry a uniform degree of outline throughout the complete length of the top.
The importance of the shape of the top when it is up has been emphasized and
the next consideration is to insure that it has the correct shape when it is folded
or let down. The bows must be wide enough to clear the body and they should
not project too far at the rear of the body. The line that the top is set in when
it is folded should conform to the general lines of the body design. It is common
practice to carry the spare tire at the rear, and when this is the case care has to
be exercised to see that there are no bows setting over the tire so it would interfere
with getting the tire on and off the tire carrier.

The best way to arrive at satisfactory results is to make a preliminary layout
and then submit this to the company which is to make the sockets, and as there
are pecuharities in each socket manufacturer's constructions, it is advisable to
have them go over the design and see if their constructions can be adapted to the
requirements.

The bows used are made from ash or oak, which is machined and bent to the
shapes required. While various sized sections are used, the lj4 by 1 is the most
popular. The ends that are to be driven into the sockets are shaved off so that
they will conform to the taper end of the socket, as shown in Fig. 389. In specify-
ing the shape of the bow to the bowmaker, the width, height, section, radius and
crown are required. The dimensions A, B, C, D and E required are shown in
Fig. 390, and when they are given in the same manner as shown the bow-maker
will have no trouble in understanding the requirements. .

The different sections shown in Fig. 391, A, B, C and D, give a good idea
of the shapes that are required for the bows used at different parts of the top.
These sections show the comers of the bows removed on the edge or edges that
come in contact with the covering. If these corners were left sharp the edges in
time would cut through the top material. In Fig. 392 is shown how these corners
set in the top.

The use of a tubular socket is standard American practice. The European
practice is to use a slat iron or bracket construction and the bows are attached by
wood screws. By making the top construction this way the parts are made slightly
smaller and in some cases neater, but the cost and time required to make them
offset any advantages they may possess.

A typical wood bow and bracket socket construction is illustrated in Fig.
391-A. This car has the top bows with a natural finish and the brackets or ends
bronze, nickle-plated. The photograph does not show the sockets to advantage,
but they look much better than the enamel steel sockets, when the sockets are
exposed. The general trend is to have the top material cover the outside of the
sockets.

On the front bow a suitable fastener has to be attached to secure the top to
the windshield, and as there are several different methods used to do this it will
be interesting to review them. The most common type of fastener is one similar

THE PRINClPLr.S OF AUTOMOIUI,!; iiODV DHSIGX 179

to that shown in Fig. 393, which consists of a hialleable iron bracket with a screw
that has a convenient shaped head, preferably with winged extensions. A sectional
view in Fig. 394 shows how this set screw engages with the pin on the windshield.
Another type along similar lines to that just described is shown in Fig. 395. On
this fastener the winged head screw clamps a ring on the ball end of the shield.

In Fig. 396 is shown a tc^gle lever arrangement for clamping the top to the
shield. The fastener shown in Fig. 397 is a semi-automatic, as the slide is ojierated

by a spring that pushes the slide ahead and into a slot that is located on the wind-
shield bracket as shown in the sectional view. To disengage the top this slide
is pushed inward, which disengages the slide from the windshield post, leaving
the top free to rise. This is a very simple arrangement and when it is properlj'
fitted works in a satisfactory manner.

The back bow has to be braced in position by back brace straps. There are
several ways of arranging these straps ; some of these methods will be described.

The first method is to use a double strap that is looped into a suitable fastener.
The loose ends of the strap are nailed to the bo«- as shown in Fig. 398. The

180

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

second method is to attach the straps to the top of the bow and let them come
down over the inside of the bow as shown in Fig. 399. The third method is to
use a single strap with a buckle to allow for adjustment as shown in Fig. 400. A
fourth style, shown in Fig. 401, is to use a double end of strap that is Y-shaped
where it attaches to the bows. This can be fastened either to the inside or outside
of the bow. Style number five, shown in Fig. 402, is to attach a loop to the bow

FiC. 386

This top has a socket which has recently been developed. It has a spring inserted inside one

of the tubes. The spring is shown in the figure below.

and put either a leather strap or cotton strap through it and the fastener on the
body, the ends of the strap to be fastened together with a suitable buckle.

The back and side curtains will next be described. The back curtain attaches
to the top of the rear bow and to the back end of the body. It is generally made
of one piece, the upper end being nailed in position and the joint it makes with

Fig. 387
The spring referred to under Fig. 386, applies pressure through the levers and merabers
BO that the operations of raising or lowering the top are assisted to a great extent.

the top cover is covered by a suitable molding, while the lower end is attached
either by nailing or by suitable detachable fasteners as shown in Fig. 403. There
are some designers who like to have the back curtain in three pieces, as shown in
Fig. 404, in order to permit the center section to be raised in hot weather. The
reason for raising this portion is to permit the air to pass right through the car
and not have any back drafts.

Another style of back curtain which is largely used has extensions on each
side that run to the back bow socket. These are called gypsy curtains. They

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

181

protect the rear passengers to a great extent from the dust. In the design shown
in Fig. 405 these gypsy sides are extensions of the back curtain. There is another
method of making these, and that is to put small, separate triangular curtains in

Fig. 388
Method of determining head clearance in designing an automobile top.

and fasten them to the back curtain and bow socket as shown in Fig. 406. While
this is not as good a job as making them integral with the back curtain, they answer
the purpose very well in providing protection.

Fig. 389

Bow ends that are to be driven Into the sockets are shaved off so they will conform to the

taper end of the socket.

A suitable light has to be provided in the back curtain. This can be made
by cutting a hole in the fabric and sewing a piece of celluloid over it. In putting
in a celluloid light several small lights are used more practical than one large one

Fig. 390

The dimensions A, B, C, X>, E, when given In the same ma-nner as here shown will
give the bow maker a thorough understanding of the reQttirements.

because the celluloid hardens and cracks in service and the larger the light the more
trouble it will give. Back curtain lights can be made in all sorts of shapes and in
Figs 407 to 412 are shown some of the designs that have been used. Back curtain

THF. PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

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THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

183

lights made of glass are becoming very popular as they are more ornamental and
give better vision than the celluloid ones do. The glass light has one drawback,
and that is its weight, consequently the sizes of the lights are smaller than when
celluloid is used.

The light with the rounded end like that shown in Fig. 413, and the rectangular
light shown in Fig. 415, are good, conservative shapes which can be worked in

Fig. 391

The different sectionH A. B, C. D, give a good idea of the shapes required for the

bows utsed at different parts of the top.

practically any design and would be good shapes for the curtain builder to carry
in stock. They should be about 6 x 20 or 8 x 24 for the general run of work, as
they give a good rear vision in these sizes.

In making the following sketches, Figs. No. 416 to No. 427, of back light
shapes, no attempt is made to vary the shape of the back to harmonize with the
different combinations. These sketches are merely a collection of light designs
arranged for the benefit of designers or students, and while it may seem that the
draftsman tried to lay out as many designs as could be conceived, they are all

Fig. 392
This drawing: nhows how sharp bow corners set In the top.

taken from actual tops that have been built, and in no cases are they merely
imaginative designs. The aim of each top builder has been to create a back light
that is different from the existing lines.

Those lights shown in sketches which have sharp comers like Figs. 418, 420,
421, 422, 424 and 425, are all hard to make, owing to the difficulty of fitting the
glasses. Then again the sharp corners are apt to localize the vibration and cause
cracks. From the standpoint of vision, of course, they are of no benefit and in
some cases where bevel glasses are used will cause unpleasant light reflection. If
a quantity of tops are to be made it will be advisable to choose a simple design,
similar to those shown in Figs. 413 and 415, as it will be a great time and labor

184

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

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THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DEvSIGN

185

saver, both in cutting the glass and making the frames. In addition to this they
make a much more simple job when it comes to fitting the fabric on around the
frames. One of the main troubles with these back lights is to keep the water out,
and it is obvious that it is a great deal easier to make a tight fitting glass in a
simple frame than in one of the more comphcated shapes.

Pig. 402

The fifth method la to attach a loop to the bow and put a leather or cotton

strap through it and the fastener on the body.

Fig. 403
One piece back curtain.

Fig. 404
Three piece back curtain, permitting center section being rolled up In warm weather.

In studying the various light shapes it is apparent that the long, narrow form
of light is the predominating type. The only reason for having a light in the rear
is to allow the driver and passengers to look out, and to best accomplish this
result would be to have a large back light as in the closed cars. This would be
quite heavy and expensive, so the next best thing is to have a long, narrow glass,
set at a convenient height. A large, round glass like that shown in Fig. 428 would
not allow the side passengers in the rear seat or the driver to see out of it.

• 186

THE PRINCIPI,KS OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Some designers like to put in double lights like those shown in Figs. 416
and 417. This is better than one small center light, as it permits the driver and
passengers a wider range of vision. The oval type of light shown in Fig. 417 is
the most popular and gives a better vision than the round one.

Fig. 405
Back curtain with extensions running to the back bow eocket.s. These aro called "K-vpsy" curtains.

Having examined the general design of the lights it will be well to take up
the various constructions that are used to make them. First of all, the commer-
cial construction will be discussed. Under commercial construction comes the
startdard light frames that are made and kept in stock by the jobbers. There are

HN 'MMHimi Ml n n i in s ih ' m r

Fig. 406
Sometimes "gypny" curtnins are put In as separate, triang^ular curtain?

a number of companies which make back and side light frames, some of the best
advertised makes being the Johnston, Brewer-Titchener, Soss, Perfection and
McAvoy.

While the manufacturers have a wide assortment of designs, they neces-
sarily limit their lines because of the great expense in getting the dies and tools
made for each design.

The Johnston light consists of three sections, the glass, metal or outer frame.

THE PRIXCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

187

and the inner frame of wood. The inner lining and outer covering are nailed to
the wood frame and then the metal frame is set on the wood and fastened to it by
machine screws. This clamps the outer covering of the top securely to the wood
frame and also provides a retaining ledge for the glass. This is shown very
clearly in Fig. 429. The glass is shaped into place and a retaining strip or bind-

Fic. 407

Fic. 408

111111

Fig. 409

These three drawings and the ones on page 188. show different shapes and arrangements

of back curtain lights.

ing is nailed in place. This strip can be made of rubber composition, covered
with cloth, cane covered with cloth, or strips of linoleum covered with cloth. A
light brad is used to attach this frame.

The Brewer-Titchener style light is composed of three units, a metal outer
and inner frame and the glass. Studs are riveted in the outer frame and these
are projected out far enough to go through the inner frame, which is secured by

188

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

means of nuts turned on the studs. In applying these lights a large hole is cut in
the fabric to match the glass opening, and also a number of small cuts are made
to match the studs in the outer frame.

The fabric is now laid in the outer frame, then the glass is put in place and
the inner frame put on, and when these nuts are tightened down they clamp the

Fic. 410

Fic. 411

Fig 412

These throe drawlngrs and the ones on page 1S7, sho^' different shapes
and arrangements of back curtain ligrhts.

frame, glass and fabric securely. A similar procedure is necessary on the McAvoy
lights, the only difference being that these are aluminum alloy castings and are
held together by screws that go through the rear frame and turn into the outer
frame. This is shown in Fig. 430. Projections are made on the outer frame that
match corresponding depressions in the inner frame. These are used to pinch the
fabrics when the frame is tightened up.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

189

On the lights described there is a bright finished rim shown on the outer
frame. If a smooth finish is desired, a wood frame like that shown in Fig. 431
can be used. This frame is shaped to the desired outline and is thick enough to
hold the glass and still leave a ledge wide enough for the retaining binding. To

Fig. 413

Fic. 415

The light with the rounded end like that shown in Fig. 413, and the rectangular light shown
In Fig. 415, are good, conservative shapes for the curtain maker to carry in stock.

They can be worked into practically any design.

put this light in the back, the fabric is cut out and turned inside the frame, and
then the lining is also brought up and tacked into it. When this is done the glass
is slipped in and the retaining binding put in place.

The side curtains are made from a material to match the top covering and
back curtains, and so arranged that they can be opened conveniently above the

190 THK PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODV DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

191

J92 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

doors so that the passengers can get in and out. Suitable lights made of pyralin
are provided and. so arranged as to give a maximum amount of vision for the
passengers. There are two arrangements of side curtains covered by patents
called the "jiffy" and the "Collins," both of which are used extensively. The

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jifly style of side curtain is shown in Fig. 432. The material is so sewn together
that it will quickly fold up into a compact space. A cable is provided inside the
top and the curtains are strung on to it, so that a movement ahead or backward
folds or unfolds the curtain very easily. The curtains are usually divided into
three sections on each side, and when they are not in use they fold up and fasten

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

193

on to the top bows by straps, the right and left section folding together at each
place. This is shown in Fig, 433.

The Colhns system, as shown in Fig. 405, provides a small wire loop, for the
curtain to be attached to, the idea being to keep the curtains located adjacent to
the part of the top and body that they attach to. See Fig. 434. As each of the

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three curtains is of a different shape a lot of time is saved in putting them up when
they are located by these loops and straps, as without any locating straps it takes
quite a little time and trouble to sort out the curtains when it is desired to put
them up.

In order to attach these curtains to the top suitable, quick detachable fasteners
have to be used and a brief description of these will prove interesting. A fastener

194 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

of a type widely used is shown in Figs. 435 to 439. Fig. 435 shows the fastener
used when it has to be attached to the solid part of the body or top, and as it is
seen is attached by two screws. This, and all the styles, are made in what is called
double and single type. The single type is for use where only one thickness of
cloth is to be attached to it, while the double will take two thicknesses.

•Jltty" Btyle ot detuchable Bide curtain*.

The eyelet and plate shown in Fig. 440 are the parts that attach to the cloth.
The prongs are clinched down over the plate as shown in Fig. 441. The type
shown in Fig. 436 has a wood screw end on it for use when it is desired to screw
it into the wood, while that shown in Fig. 439 has a metal thread for screwing
on to a metal section. In Fig, 438 the fastener has a plain stud on it. This is used
where it is desired to rivet it to a plate. A type to attach to cloth is shown in Fig.
439. This has two prongs which fasten over a plate as shown. The Murphy

iy]K of fastener is in operation at right angles to its normal ])Osition as sliown in
Figs. 442 and 443. Fig. 442 shows the fastener in position in an eyelet ; in Fig.
443 it shows the head turned and locking it in position.

While the catch portion of the various makes of fasteners is different, the
liack portions that attach to the various parts are similar to constructions described
in the Murphy. The "lift the dot" fastener is one used very extensively and can

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

195

l)e adapted to practically any conditions. They are made with the different backs
to suit the part they are to be used with. In Fig. 444 is shown the main portions
of this type of fastener. The catch part has a small wire spring in it that snaps
over the ball-shaped end of the other portion. The stud is attached to one part
and the fastener to the other part that is to be fastened. It will be seen that a plate
and prongs are provided to clinch over the material.

The Carr glove fastener is used a great deal on parts of the top and side
curtains. These fasteners are made to attach to the cloth on wood and in metal.
The principle of their construction is shown in Fig. 445. This is made of three

Fic. 434 Fig. 435 Fig. 436 Fic. 437 Fic. 438 Fic. 439

Method of attaching curtains by small wire loop, as in the Collins system. See Fig. 406
A type of curtain fastener that is widely used is shown in Fiflrs. 435 to 439.

parts — a caj), clasp and stud. The cap has an extension that clinches over the
clasp portion. The clasp has a small wire spring in it that snaps over the stud
when it is engaged. The Cinch fastener is shown in Fig. 446. By depressing
the small knob it permits the curtain to be removed. There are three parts, the
catch, plate and washer, shown in Figs. 447, 448 and 449, respectively. This con-
struction is very ingenious and positive in action.

Fig. 440 Fig. 441 Fig. 442 Fig. 443

Parts and oporation of fasteners are described on page 194, opposite.

When the top is folded, a suitable method of holding it securely in ])osition
has to be used. The earlier method was to strap the pockets in position as shown
in Fig. 450. The rest is attached to an iron which projects from the body. A
top holder that is now in general use is called the Bair top holder. This consists
of two main malleable iron sections with a suitable lever on the top which clamps
the main section tight on to the bows and holds them securely in position. In Fig.
451 is shown this holder in position and the dotted lines show it partially open.
The holder attaches to an iron which projects from the body and fits into a socket
in the body iron.

196

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DEvSIGN

The holder shown in Fig. 452 has an extension on it. This is cut on an angle
as shown so by tightening the cap screw shown it will be held very securely. The
body iron which is used with this type of socket is shown in Fig. 453. When it
is desired not to carry the top holders on the body they may be easily removed
by loosening up the cap screw. In order to make a finish on the body the cap
shown in Fig. 454 is used to plug the hole. There is a spring tension in the bottom
that keeps it in place. In Fig. 455 is shown a new style of front top iron. This
is fastened in the body in the regular way, but instead of the top iron stud being
fastened to the iron it is made detachable as shown in Fig. 456. The stud uses
the same locking system as the top holder which is a splint end section. The

jri^//.

Fic. 444

y% #

Fig. 445

Fig. 448
Fig. 449

Fig. 447
Thorn- flmall drawings represent the construction and show the method of operating certain

typical fasteners. Descriptive text on page 195.

advantage of using this style of iron is that the top stud can be put on after the
body is painted so there are no studs projecting from the body while it is being
painted and trimmed.

There are a number of different styles of holders on the market besides those
described, but they are not used as extensively as the Bair type, so they will not
be taken up at this time.

With the top folded it is necessary to provide a cover to keep the dust from
collecting in it. The cover used is called a "top boot" and is made from a cloth
similar to that used on the top covering. The boot is made to fit snugly over the
sockets and extends as far as the trimmings on the seat back. In order to hold
it in position two or more straps are fastened to the front upper edge and two or

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 197

more to the front lower edge. These straps pull down over the seat trimming,
and are secured to the seat frame under the cushion, as shown in Fig. 457. In
order to make a neat appearance on the sides two extensions can be provided
that run to the nut on the top iron. A fastener is located on this which helps to
hold it in position.

The standard type of top has been described in most of its phases. There
is another design that deserves some comments and that is the top that is con-
structed to fold into a compartment in the back of the body. There is (or was,
at least) one manufacturer who is supplying a top of this kind as regular equip-

ment. In order to make a satisfactory installation of this type of top, the body
has to be specially constructed, and the general design adaptable to it. In Fig.
458 is shown a car design that has them worked out to get these results. It will
be noted that there is no visible evidence of the top when it is folded away, as it
is on the car illustrated.

Another type of body that has a compartment for a top is shown in Fig. 459.
The lines show the general construction of the top. It will be seen that the lines
and shape of the top are different from the regular car top. This is caused by
the conditions that have to be worked out to make the top fold close to the body
and so keep the compartment from getting too large or cumbersome. The ad-
vantage of a top of this type is the protection that the top gets from dust ; it also
does away with cloth covers and loose flaps, and in some cases it is possible to raise
and lower the top quicker as the top holders, top cover and socket holders do not
have to be manipulated. The disadvantages are that the shape of the top is not as
good as the jegular type and that the body construction is complicated and the lines
of the car are changed by the addition of the compartment.

198 THK PKINCIPLliS OF AUTOMOBILE UODV !)I-;SICN

THE PRINXIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN' 199

The Victoria top is quite popular on cars for use in the city, as it has a strik-
ing appearance and is very adaptable for city use. The construction is identical
to those tops that were used on carriages. The general fomi of construction is

to use from three to five bows with outside joint irons to hold it in position, as
shown in Fig. 460. The object of the design is to have a top that alTords pro-
tection from the sun, and it does not obstruct the vision as much as a regular top
does. It is also possible to fold it down when an open car is desired, and then it

200

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Fig. 460

Tho general form of construction of the Victoria top Is to have
from three to Ave bows with outside Joints.

Fig. 461
A solid construction, eliminating the Joint Iron. This top cannot be folded.

Fig. 462
A car with detachable winter top. which can be fitted very closely.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 2UI

has the appearance of a regular folded top. The best grade of leather is generally
used to cover the top. It is not advisable to fold it down, as the leather will crack
or show the line of the fold, and for this reason these tops are not folded very often.
To afford proper protection in case of rain an extension curtain is provided
that will attach to the windshield, and then provision is made for side curtains.
This is shown in Fig. 460.

There are two methods of building these tops. One is what is termed a
shifting rail and the other is where the top is built so that the covering fastens
to the body. The shifting rail type has a rail that fastens to the body, the top
covering being fastened to it. This permits the top being taken right off the body.
When this shifting rail is used the rail makes the top project over the sides of the
body. This has a tendency to make the top appear larger, as sho^vn in the illustra-
tion in Fig. 460. For this reason it does not look as well as the top that is built

202 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

on to the body. The increasing popularity of the Victoria top has caused manu-
facturers to devise a top construction that is solid, eliminating the joint iron so that
it cannot be folded, and then setting a fancy shaped glass in the sides as shown in
Fig. 461. This gives a Victoria effect, but with smooth lines and simpler
construction.

The winter top is a construction that has been developed to afford more pro-
tection to passengers in the winter, and as the automobile is being used, to a great
extent, all the year round, the detachable winter top construction is being used
quite extensively. The winter top virtually converts a touring car into a closed
car. There are a number of well-constructed tops on the market that make a very
convenient adaptation for winter use.

This ArtBchafite top, iwcn fmin li«i«ilTi In tli* mmttntlmi. conidila of k tdoiI trameirork
ulth eompo«Hlon or mplal paneM. tldea and roof. The Domposltlon panel li

One manufacturer has made a specialty of a detachable top on his cars for
several years. The body is- especially arranged so that the top can be fitted very
easily. This top and the details of the attachment are shown in Fig. 462. A
great variety of winter tops have been marketed of various designs. Unfortunately
the majority of them were very crudely constructed, and they did a great deal
towards retarding the development of this business. From these early attempts
there has evolved a top that is now proving satisfactory and acceptable. See Figs.
463, 464 and 465.

A brief description of a type of top now being used will be given. The top
consists of a wood framework with composition or metal panels, sides and roof
as shown in Fig. 466. The composition panel is generally used, and this is cov-
ered with a good grade of imitation leather. The top, back and side quarters are

THE PRIN'CIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

boSy. rsady for v

204 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

attached together and fastened to the windshield at the front, and to the rear top
iron at the rear. The rear side glasses are set in a permanent frame which is
attached to the top and body by small steel plates. The center posts from which
the upper part of the door swings are fastened to the body and top by suitable
steel plates. The upper sections of the doors are attached to the top of the car
door as shown in Fig. 467. A handle is provided in this upper section to operate
the door from the outside. This has an extension on it on the inside that attaches
to the regular door lock handle. This device is necessary, as the majority of
automobiles have the door lock handles on the inside of the doors.

The glasses in the doors are constructed so that the upper half can be lowered
when desired, as shown in Pig. 464. On some of the winter tops they are arranged
so that the upper door frames, side posts and rear quarters can be removed for
summer use, giving a "Springfield" effect, and to provide against sudden storms
a set of side curtains are fitted. These fold up and set in a pocket in the top lin-
ing. Pig. 468 shows a top assembled on to a car ready for the paint.

The permanent top construction has not proven as popular as was expected.
One of the reasons was the poor appearance the first designs gave to the car.
This was sometimes caused by the top builder not making the top the right pro-
portion. It was found very difficult to adapt a permanent top to many of the
open bodies, as their contours or lines and construction did not lend themselves
to a permanent top installation. There is a gap between the open body and the
closed which led to the development of the so-called "California top" design.
These tops can be really classed as permanent ones, but they were built to follow
along the lines of the regular collapsible top, though elaborated upon considerably.
The succeeding chapter describes the latest tops.

CHAPTER XVIII
THE CALIFORNIA TOP

The California top is a recent development which originated and developed in
the West. It is really an elaborated cloth covered top either with a permanent
non-folding frame or a folding frame. The majority of tops use a solid frame, as
it permits making better outlines and forms a better support for the glass lights.
A fancy grained or colored covering is used and this combined with nickeled trim-
mings and plate glass gives a very novel and distinctive appearance. The real
beauty of these tops is not brought out by photographs, as the general finish and
color all play an important part in making these types of tops pleasing and popular.
The photographs Figs. 469, 470 and 470- A show three characteristic California
tops.

The first consideration in laying out a top is to get a side view or what the
designer calls the "side elevation," as this is really the most important part of the
California type top. The contour and arrangement of the side determines the
whole design of the top. Fundamentally the roof determines the side view, and
the roof is proportioned to extend from the windshield to the rear of the body, and
must be wide enough to cover the sides of the body. Its height from the body
must be sufficient to allow ample head room for the passengers. This is a point
which is often overlooked by designers, who are intent on getting a definite outline.

A fine appearance is always desired, but if it sacrifices the comfort of the pas-
sengers it is of no practical value, and instead of being a product, which has a high
market value it will be a "white elephant." Should it be sold and the owner hits
his head and is otherwise made uncomfortable, there will be a dissatisfied customer
who will do a lot of harm to the business.

To illustrate what is meant, the drawing shown in Fig. 471 gives a typical
five-passenger body with a California type top on it. On the front seat there are
37 inches head room or clearance between the cushion and the lowest projection
on the top, which is the cross bow. About 1 to lj4 inches can be figured on for
deflection on the cushion so there are actually about SSyi inches for head room or
clearance. For the rear seat there are 38 inches, and with the cushion depression
added, about 39j4 inches for the passenger clearance. In Fig. 472 is shown the
same body with a fancy design of top on it. The designer has cut the back comer
off and also lowered the front a little to get a rounding effect, and at the same
time he has not raised the sides at all, but retains the overall height. The result
is that all the headroom he has for the front seat is about 36 inches, and about

205

THE PRIN'CiPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODV DESIGN 207

36 inches for the rear seat. This is entirely too little and the man who is a trifle
above the average height cannot wear a felt or derby hat. The first bad bump the
car encounters he will hit his head.

In laying out a top the outside, or top lines, are to be determined at first.
After this is done the width, or sides, should be worked out. This is not quite as
simple as it seems at first glance, and it will require considerable judgment to obtain
good results.

Every make of car has peculiarities which must be considered separately.
For instance, sketch Fig. 473 shows the front end of a tyjiical open touring car,
and it will be noted that the front of the top is considerably wider than the wind-

shield, as indicated by X-X ; one of the first thoughts will be to cut this down.
Before this is done the relative widths of the windshield and the body must be
considered. If the body and shield are wide it is possible to make the top narrow
at the front; but if the body is narrow care must be exercised. If the top is
made too narrow the driver will not have proper clearance for his arms when
the side curtains are up.

The width of the windshield is governed by the width of the body at the
front, while the width of the top is determined by the width of the body at the
rear, as it has to be wide enough to clear the body when the top is folded down.
This latter condition does not, of course, apply to the California top. Fig. 474
shows the average width of top compared with lines of the body.

Coming back to the side elevation, there are the varying heights of the sides
of the body to consider. In sketch Fig. 475 is shown a top fitted to a low sided
body. It is apparent that head room has to be provided disregarding the height
of the side of the body. Consequently there is a larger opening between the sides

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

209

of the body and the quarters of the top, making a large side curtain necessary.
In Fig. 476 is shown the same shape of top, but the body sides are higher and
consequently we get much better balance in the design with a corresponding
improvement in the appearance.

In an ordinary folding top the sides of the back curtains are generally ex-
tended to make what is termed a gypsy curtain, as shown in Fig. 477. With the

Fic. 471
Typical flve-poflsen^er body with a California type top. This denlgn g\\ea ample head room.

Fic. 472

Same body as shown in Flgr. 471, but with a top of more "fancy" Ktyle. The rounded back

cuts down the rear seat head room to about 36 Inches on the rear seat. The rounded

front also reduces the front seat head room to the same number of inches.

California type the entire space from^ the back of the top to the rear door may
be used for support and frame for side lights. This side curtain offers, perhaps,
the best chance of all to designers of California tops to display their ability in
design. The skillful arrangement of the side lines of the quarters and back sup-
port, combined with the properly proportioned side or rear light, will accomplish
wonders in making a California top right.

It will be quite interesting to the designers to examine a number of side

210 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

elevations or views, of California tops which have been built, so that they may
start their design with a knowledge of what has already been done. It is always
desirable lo be original, so for the designer's reference a number of the most
striking designs have been collected and outlined in sketches 478 to 484.

The body and top designer has always to contend with the general construc-
tion of (he car, its size and wheelbase, when laying out the bodies and tops. When

the top is laid out, the length and type of body play a very important part, and con- "
seguently a top that would look fine on a large car may not do at all on a smaller
car, and vice versa.

The top shown in Fig. 478 is what we would call a rounded effect, and has
a large side light. The rear end has a radius and the front end is curved in with
a radius similar to the rear. The glass is set in a frame which can be taken cMn-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 211

::>^

212 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

213

Fig. 481
Thli top has comparatively straight lines with a solid side and an unusually elaborate side fflaaa

Fi& 482

California top, which looks much like the ordinary collapsible top. with the exception

of the large triangular side light.

Fig. 483
A rounded type of top with a fancy shaped side and side light.

also rather ornate In design.

The back light is

214

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

pletely out of the sides of the top if it is required. This means that the rear end
of the top must be strong enough to support the roof with the glass removed.
The roof has a well rounded front and rear end and so harmonizes with the side
lights. In Fig. 479 the roof of the top is partially supported by the side construc-
tion and so differs quite radically from the one shown in Fig. 478. All the lines on
the top shown in Fig. 479 tend to give a straight effect, approximating quite
closely the average closed body lines.

Fig. 484

Victoria type of top made on a solid frame. This is a "smart-looking" Job and
can be built more easily than a regular Victoria top.

A roadster type is shown in Fig. 480, which has a solid side frame and a
rounded roof, with a fancy shaped side glass. The top shown in Fig. 481 has com-
paratively straight lines, with a solid side and a very elaborate side glass. In
sketch 482 is outlined a top which compares very much to an ordinary collapsible
top with the exception of the large triangular side light. The side on the top is
solid.

A rounded type of top is shown in Fig. 483 with a fancy shaped side and
side light. A Victoria type of top made on a solid frame is shown in Fig. 484.
This makes a very smart looking job and can be built much easier than a regular
Victoria top. Dummy hinges are shown, but these may be omitted if desired.

H^^^j^^

CHAPTER XIX
TRIMMING OR UPHOLSTERING

The interior finishing and upholstering of the automobile body is generally
the last consideration in the car. It is, however, the first consideration of the
passengers. A perfectly constructed car would not be acceptable without com-
fortable upholstery. Modem cars are expected to act efficiently and tJie deciding
factor of a sale is often the cushion and trimming arrangement. Comfort or
ridability is the first consideration of the upholsterer and next comes art in de-
signing and the selection of the materials used.

Upholstering is a trade dating back several centuries and the automobile
takes from the experience of this trade and adapts whatever it requires to its use.
The automobile trade applies the term "trimming" to the art of covering and
arranging the car's cushions and appurtenances, so the term "trimming" will be
used throughout this chapter.

Two distinct divisions can be made in trimming. These are open body and
closed body trimming. Each has its separate problems but uses the same principles

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 217

netbod of truiilDg ih« door aDd back ot Front hhI Id b tourlDK car or "nhaeti

218 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

throughout the main part of the work. The open bodies do not require as much
work to trim as the closed because there is less surface to cover. The shapes
of the cushions and backs are very similar and the springs are practically the
same. The open bodies use leather or imitation leather throughout, whereas closed
bodies use a large variety of covering materials. Figs. 485 to 489 show typical

examples of open car trimming. A seven-passenger touring car is shown in Fig,
485 and a roadster in Fig. 486. Closed car trimming is we'l illustrated in Figs.
490 to 493. These will be taken u|) in detail further on.

The materials used for trimming cover a wide field of manufacture and de-
serve very careful attention, especially in large production work, because they

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 2t9

are expensive. Some of the materials used will be briefly described. Open car
trimming uses leather and imitation leather for the main covering.

Leather as used for trimming, can be obtained in a variety of grades and
grains. Hand buffed and machined buffed in long or pebble grains are used mostly.
Specially treated hides in all colors and grains are obtainable for special cars.
Brown morocco is perhaps the most popular among the special grades.

For economical trimming imitation leather can be used. Imitation leather
is one of the modem developments and it is only within recent years that imita-

tion leathers could be made which closely imitate the grain of leather and give
satisfaction in appearance and durability. While they are very good they do not
quite compare with the genuine leather for lasting service and durability, conse-
quently they are mostly used in places where they are not subject to extraordinary
wear, such as door and door pillar, covering rear of seats, etc. Closed cars very
seldom use leather except for the driver's seat in limousines. The materials used in
closed cars depend on the style, bedford cloth, cotton worsted cloth, tapestry cloths,
mohair, velour, cotton velour, velvets and silk, are all used when desired.

The body is of course, the foundation that the trimmer has to work to, but
the most important thing for the trimmer to do is to arrange the hack and cushion
springs. A brief consideration of the springs will be of interest.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

III

■

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

221

SEAT CUSHION SPRINGS

Modern car springs are arranged to give a long, easy action, or expressing
it in another way, the nodes of vibration are long, and this means when a car meets
a rut or lump in the road the passenger load will be deflected with a long, easy
motion and not the "choppy" action which was formerly so unpleasantly familiar
to users of motor cars.

Cushion springs are provided to prevent the passengers getting jolts when
the chassis springs act, and they also absorb vibrations which the stiff chassis

Fig. 494

Fig. 495

Fig. 496 Fig. 497

In Figs. 494 to 496 are Illustrated the shapes of the cushion springs referred to on page
226. In Fig. 497, is shown a section through a typical "double-deck" spring construction.

springs won't absorb. There is a wide range of opinion regarding the most
desirable qualities a cushion should have. An easy-riding cushion, to the majority
of people, is a very soft cushion or a cushion that feels very soft when it is sat
upon.

If the cushion is too soft it is very uncomfortable in the summer time; if
it is too hard it does not have the luxurious feeling which seems to be so desirable.
However, if the cushion is too soft a sharp bump on the road will allow the springs
to collapse completely and the passengers will go through and hit the seat bottom.

222

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Cushion spring constructions, as the frame works are called, use coiled
springs in some form or other. This means that the passenger load is supported
by a compressed coil spring and when sudden jolts are encountered the spring
is further compressed; but as soon as the shock is over they tend to return to
normal, and if their action is not retarded in some way the passenger is raised

Fig. 498
The "Marshall" type springs are each enclosed in a cotton cylinder, the

springs being packed closely together.

up or thrown very suddenly and with all probability of hitting the roof of tlie car.
The various types of cushion springs which are manufactured and used will be
^analyzed so it will be possible to have a good working basis for the development
of designs. It will be necessary to pass over the many small variations in the

7^^

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/^ /^ <^ ^^ ^^ /^ r^

\ >*V >^V ^K J'K J'K ^K

Fig. 499
A typical .spring assembly with U-section metal base.

spring design in order to make a suitable grouping of the main principles of
construction.

The types will be classified into five groups ; first, single cone ; second, double
cone; third, cylinder; fourth, double deck; and fifth, the Marshall spring. The
first type, the cone or "single cone," as it is called, is used a good deal on omnibus
cushions and shallow cushions of all types. The object of making the spring

THE PKIXCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

223

cone-shaped is to make it stiffer or to give it more resistance as it is compressed.
This spring is suitable for shallow seats and for vehicles that do not have a high
range of speed. Its average height is 4 inches.

Fic, 498 A

Fig. 499 A

Fig. 500 A Fig. 501

The springs are clipped Into the base as shown In the enlargred section, Fig. 498-A. Another
method Is to have a section like that shown in Fig. 499-A. The cushion cover Is held on
the spring by tacking the lower edges, as in Fig. 600-A. The outer spring clips to
the inner edges of these bases, the other springs are held in place by V-strlps

as shown in Fig. 501.

For the ordinary passenger car which has to travel a wide range of speed
it is necessary to supply a deep spring so it will have an opportunity to absorb
the extreme shocks that it is subjected to. The average height for this type is
6 inches. The gauge wire used on both single and double cone varies from No.

Fic. 502
The centers of the springs are tied together with wire or clips similar to

the manner shown in this diagram.

I0y2 to No. 9 (old English or Birmingham wire gauge), number 10 being used
the most. The cylinder type spring has its center portion wound parallel but has
the upper and lower coils enlarged to make a satisfactory attachment to the spring
frame. The wire sizes used in the cylinder springs are similar to those used on
the double cone.

224 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

'NT^V^^^TI^'i^'YP'^iT'^Vv^T^

XXX

W^a> K^ Vl^ k^ \^ ^J> ^j^ Vi^
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ A^

XXX\K

w1 w w ^ w
^-K ^^ /^ Hn ^tn

d by Italher or metal rllp», ni Inrtlealpd In Fig. I

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 22S

The cylinder type spring is designed to give a uniformly easy action when
under load, while the double cone spring stiffens up quickly, having a tendency
to give the throwing action that is so undesirable. The coil size on the cone spring
runs from 2^ inches at the center to 3J4 inches at the largest diameter, and on
the cylinder spring it runs from about 2j^ inches in the center with 3J4 inches

for the outer coil. In sketches 494, 495 and 496 are shown the shapes of the
springs referred to. Double deck spring constructions have been developed to
enable the cushion to be made very luxurious and soft. This result is obtained
by having two sets of springs, one on top of the other ; hence the name of "double
deck," Double cone springs are generally used and the upper springs are very
light, about No. 12 gauge, while the lower springs are made from No. lOj^ to
No. 9 gauge.

226

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

In sketch No. 497 is shown a section through a typical double deck construc-
tion. It will be noted that the total height of both sets of springs must equal the
height of the ordinary spring construction. Marshall springs are very popular
and they have been used for years on furniture, but their adaptation to automobiles
is comparatively recent. They consist of a large number of small cylinder springs

Fic. 508

The modern type of cylindrical-shaped spring' has to be spaced close together to

Rive proper aupportingr surface for the hair.

Fig. 509

Cloth laid upon double cone springs

showing area In shaded lines where

there Is no support on spring.

Fig. 510

Note that the shaded areas when the

cylindrical springs are used are

much less.

packed together. Each spring is enclosed in a cotton bag so that they are pre-
vented from rubbing against one another and catching in the coils. This type of
spring gives a very easy-riding cushion when it is made up properly. In Fig. 498
is shown a section of this type of spring. The finished cushion heights are practi-
cally the same as those previously described. Having described the main types of
springs, the methods used to fasten these will be reviewed.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

227

PRINCIPLES OF CUSHION SPRING CONSTRUCTION

The size of spring constructions varies according to the size and shape of the
seats they have to fit into. Front cushions are generally narrower and shorter than
the rear, and for the ordinary type of springs such as described in classes 1 to 4
there are generally about 36 springs, arranged in four rows of nine in a row. In
the Marshall springs about double the amount of springs are used. For the rear
cushions about forty-two springs are used, as this is generally a much larger
cushion than the front, and the springs in a Marshall are increased accordingly.

Fig. 311
A sectional view of a trimmed back.

In order to hold the seat springs together various methods are used. Wire
frames or U-section steel strips are probably the most used methods, and then
comes the wood base frame. In Fig. 499 is shown a typical spring construction
assembly consisting of U-section metal base. The springs are clipped into the
base as shown in the enlarged section in Fig. 498-A. It will be noted that the
outer edge of the frame is open, to allow for the end of the cushion facing, which
is clamped between the edges.

Another method is to have a section like that shown in Fig. 499-A. This is
made of sheet steel, but it has a wood insertion that is just large enough to hold
tacks. The cushion cover is held on the spring by tacking the lower edges as
shown in Fig. SOO-A. The outer spring dips to the inner edges of these bases;
the other springs are held in place by U-strips as shown in Fig. 501. The upper
section of the spring is made in a similar manner to the bottom, only it is not nec-
essary to make any provision for holding the covering on the top. The covering

228 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

can be likened to a bag, this is pulled over the spring and clamped at the bottom
only. In order to further support the spring, various kinds of brace wires are
inserted; for an example refer to Fig. 501. The centers of the springs are also
tied together with wires or clips similar to that shown in Fig. 502. The braces
and clips are arranged to equalize the strains imposed upon the springs and make
as many springs as possible help carry the load.

Some spring constructions have a wood base or frame instead of the metal
construction and still have brace wires and ties similar to those described. On
the old types of construction a wood frame was used and the springs fastened
to the base with staples, while the tops of the springs were tied together with
cords. Sometimes a burlap cover was used and the springs were fastened to it
with cord. These two methods are shown in sketches 503 and 504 respectively.
The detail arrangements shown apply especially to the methods used to hold the
springs in position. Now covers are also used on top of the springs to hold the
trimming up and also to make the cushion construction stronger. A covering of
mattress wire is used very effectively as it combines utility with economy, as it is
possible to make the pads on the springs lighter without detracting from the riding
qualities of the cushion.

Cushion spring coverings can be made in a variety of ways ; the old method
which is generally used with the wood frame that has the springs tied to cover,
is to lay on the burlap some picked hair from 4 inches to 6 inches high and then
the leather or substitute leather cover is pulled down over this. If the biscuit
type of top is used the cover will be tied to the burlap with tufting buttons.

Biscuit type tops for moderated priced cars are made in presses. The cover-
ing material is laid on a wood form with all the buttons set through it ; loose hair
is then laid on this to the proper height and a piece of burlap on top. The press
is operated by compressed air or hydraulic power, and it is brought down till it
compresses the hair so that the buttons can be clinched over. After this operation
the press is released and the top is ready to be assembled to the spring. This
top is tacked or clinched to the spring according to the type that is being used.

With the advent of the plaited type of trimming a different line-up was de-
vised. A burlap foundation was used on which to sew the plaited leather, and
this gives a series of plaits that have to be filled with hair or cotton batting. When
these plaits are filled we have a condition similar to the pressed hair top, inasmuch
as it can be assembled over the cushion spring. If a fabric or mattress wire top
is used, this stuffed, plaited top can be stretched over the cushion without any
other padding, but when a plain spring is used a pad of some kind is desirable.
This pad can be made from interlaced hair or mixed cow hair, according to the
class of job required.

For facing or skirts, short pieces of the covering material can be sewn to-
gether to match the width or plait on top. Cotton batting can be used to give
some fullness to these plaits and the backing of burlap or duck can be sewn all
together. For the back and parts of the sides a good grade of heavy imitation
leather can be used.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

229

The foregoing description covers the plain or auto type of cushion. For the
Turkish cushion a similar procedure can be taken, with the exception that the
plaits must be carried continuously from the top to the bottom. At the front a
roll must be provided on the front edge of the cushion. The Turkish cushion is
luxurious in appearance, but is obviously more expensive and harder to produce
in large quantities. It is probably better adapted for custom work.

BACK CUSHION SPRINGS

The trimming of the modem automobile seat back has for its foundation a
combination of springs which are either made up in a frame or conveniently
attached to the framework of the body. Luxury is not the prime reason for this,
as it is necessary for the comfort to provide a suitable shock absorber. A fast-

FiG. 512

In order to economise In the use of hair, several constructions have been developed,
one of which Is shown here and another in Fig. 513.

moving vehicle coming in contact with an uneven surface in the road would give
the passengers a very severe jolt if suitable cushioning were not provided. The
forgoing is meant to show the reason for the use of springs in the back of an
automobile seat.

The depth or thickness of the rear cushion, in most cases, is limited by the
amount of space there is in the body for the seating arrangements. In most cases
the driver's seat is thinned down so that the door clearance can be made as large
as possible. Then, again, the rear passengers are given the benefit of greater
luxury as the ladies and older people generally ride there. On chauffeur-driven
cars the rear passengers are given all the room that is possible, and the front seat
back is cut down accordingly.

Back springs can be grouped into two types; the first, double cone springs,
and the second the "Marshall" cylindrical spring. For convenience of handling.

230

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

all the springs, except the "Marshall" type, are arranged in a frame of wire or
strip steel, making an assembly called a spring construction. In Fig. 505 is
shown a typical back cushion construction of double cone springs. This is as-
sembled in the body and secured by leather or metal clips as indicated in Fig. 506.
Cross bars of wood called slats are arranged in the body conveniently, behind
the rows of springs, to support them. If a unit spring construction is not used
each spring has to fasten to the slat by staples and they are tied together at the
front with cords as shown in Fig. 507.

The cushion back construction shown in Fig. 505 has double cone springs
secured at the bottom to U-shaped steel strips which are fastened to the border
wires. At the top the border wire is fastened to springs which are clipped to-
gether. Clips are also provided in the center of the springs to help distribute the
strains, and to prevent the springs bending up under load.

Fig. 513

In order to economize In the use of hair, several constructions have been developed, one of
which Is shown here. Another construction la Illustrated in Fig. 512.

The double cone spring construction types just described are the cheapest
to buy, as the bell-shaped end expands out so it fills up the space in the back,
forming a support for the hair without using up a lot of spring wire. The modern
type of cylindrical-shaped spring has to be spaced close together to give proper
supporting surface for the hair. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 508. It is
obvious that more wire is required to make this type of construction than the
double cone, and consequently the cost is greater. In the double cone spring con-
struction from 13 to 15 gauge wire is used, and about 32 springs are required
for the average-sized back. "Marshall," or nested style springs use 15, 16 and 17
gauge wire and require about 60 springs for the average back.

For custom work, the "Marshall" spring is easily among the best types, as
it is made up in convenient lengths and sewn in a continuous cloth sack. These
strips can be built up to any desired shape by folding the strips up. In an analy-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

231

sis of the merits of the two types of springs it is easily seen that the cylinder type
of spring is the best. For instance, refer to the sketches 509 and 510. In Fig.

509 is shown a piece of cloth laid upon double cone springs which show the areas
in shaded lines where there is no support on the spring. The areas shown in Fig.

510 on the cylindrical spring are much less. This gives more support to the pas-
senger's back and at the same time, as there are more springs to carry the load,
the wire can be lighter, giving a much easier riding spring-

Back springs, of course, vary in detail according to the manufacturer's ideas.
A few of the most interesting variations will be outlined. In the sectional view of
the trimmed back shown in Fig, 511 a conventional back spring of either "Mar-
shall" or double cone is set in, and the leather is pulled over it to give the desired
shape, and to round over the top loose hair is packed in. In order to economize
on the hair several constructions have been developed, two of these are shown
in Fig. 512 and Fig. 513.

232 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Formed wires are used on the construction shown in Fig. 512. These are
extended to the top of the back and hold up the trimming and hair so that a well
formed top is made. In Fig. 513 this same result is obtained in a better way by
making the top row of springs form a graceful curve. Back cushion sprii^
of the double curve type are likely to be bent out of shape in service and this

results in a bad appearing back. To overcome this trouble vertical trace wires
are used to prevent the sprii^ from falling down as shown in the cross section
sketch No. 514. Tie clips are used between each spring to hold laterally.

Fabric woven wire or mattress type tops are being used quite extensively to
cover the double cone spring. This is shown in Fig, 515 stretched over the top
of the springs and supports the hair and trimming and overcomes the condition
shown in Fig. 509, where loose hair is used on the top.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 233

Some combination back and cushion springs have been made where the mat-
tress type covering was stretched over the back and cushion sprii^, the idea
being to make deflections work in unison and overcome chafing the passenger's
back. There are two faults with this method, one that the cushion spring, having
a greater load than the back spring, tends to pull out of shape, and the other
is the difficulty encountered in trimming or covering the springs.

Several styles of combined cushions and hack frames have been developed
where the back and cushion springs were attached to a frame which was fitted
into grooves, so it could move up and down with the main load carrying springs
underneath the lower section of the frame. This is shown in Fig. 516. When
the seat is wide the springs tend to tilt and cramp when one passenger is riding

on it. It also adds a number of parts to the body, and, as it is hard to move out
of the car, it is practically impossible to use the compartment under the seat.

Cushions and back springs are arranged to absorb road shocks but they must
be covered with suitable pads to make them comfortable to sit on. Hair and cot-
ton can be used for this purpose. Curled hair has been used in the upholstery
trade for a long time, and it is only of recent years that cotton has been fabricated
to substitute it. Curled hair is made in various grades and it requires an expert
to determine the mixture and the grade. Curled hair must be clean to work, hold
together well and be elastic or springy. To satisfy these specifications it must have
a large fraction of long horse hairs. Curled hair put on the market is generally
composed of horse tail hair. Horse mane hair, cattle tail hair, hog hair, and
cattle hair are mixed in accordance with the price it is to be marketed for, and also
mixed to give it hard and soft qualities.

The new style of trimming has developed a process of making hair pads.
This is loose hair piled up to a uniform height and interlaced or woven to a burlap

234 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

foundation. These pads can be cut to any shape and will replace the pads or bags
of hair which used to be made up to cover back springs. Strips can also be made
of interlaced hair the right width and weight to fill out the pipe or plaits of
cushion tops or back.

The pipe fillers are inserted into the pipes with appropriate tools and when
in place make a uniform filler. This development of pads has simplified trimming
operations considerably and resulted in a more uniform output in production work.

Cotton fabricated and mixed with hair is easily worked into pads or sheets,
and with normal market conditions can be manufactured and sold at a low cost.
It is much used on low priced cars as the cheaper grades of cotton can be worked
up to satisfy the conditions required. It is also used on high grade work, in which
case the finest cotton is used. On closed body work it makes an ideal pipe filler
as it is so soft. Behind the pipes a cotton or hair pad can be used if desired.
Cotton can be formed up in strips suitable for the pipe. Fig. 517 shows the cotton
used and the method of inserting it into the pipes. Cushion and back pads can be
made in any width of shape and come in rolls like that shown in Fig. 518. The
pipe fillers are made 3 to 4j4 inches wide ; weigh 2j^ to 6 ounces to the running
yard. They can also be made heavier or lighter if desired. Quilted pads have
been developed that can be used instead of pipe fillers. The pipe or cotton pocket
is dispensed with and the leather sewed up in 4-inch strips leaving off the flaxen
or burlap backing. The quilted pad fits right behind the leather and gives the pipe
effect. Another method would be to sew the leather right on to the pad as shown
in Fig. 519. The cotton pad is sewn between the cotton sheetings so it cannot
get away and must give a good evenly fitted pipe effect.

Trimming styles have varied a great deal from year to year. Sometimes the
changes were only in detail and at other times were radically different. The pre-
vailing style, and one that seems to meet all the requirements of automobile service,
is the French buttonless plait style. Since the adoption of this method of trim-
ming ninety per cent, of the manufacturers have taken it up, and the result is
that this style may be termed the standard one for automobiles. The photographs,
Figs. 490 and 491, show a typical example of the French plait type of trimming.
It will be seen that the plaits are used on the seat backs, sides and the tops of the
cushions. The reason for the popularity of the plait trimming is its smooth, clean
appearance, and the absence of holes or deep qrevices permits it being easily
cleaned.

Types of trimming, other than the French plait, that are still being used are
shown in the photographs. Figs. 492 and 493. Smooth cushions and backs like
that shown in Fig. 492 are very hard to make properly and they have a tendency
to show wrinkles as soon as the hair packs down a little.

A "pipe and button" style is shown in Fig. 493. This is similar to the French
plait only it has deep depressions where the buttons are located. Buttons are used
at the intersections. The reason for dividing the surfaces of the trimming is to
make small pockets for the hair so that it will not pack down so readily and become
lumpy. On the French plait style the hair is arranged by tufting and the plaits are

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

235

generally filled with cotton. This works very well and does not become Itunpy.
As the cushions, seat backs and sides are the principal surfaces to be trimmed,
the car's trimming style, therefore, is determined by them.

In order to take up the parts used and the surfaces that are trimmed on a
roadster or touring car the following list has been arranged :

Backs —

Front Seat Back Trimming ;
Auxiliary Seat Back Trimming ;
Rear Seat Back Trimming.

Spring or Spring Construction —
Front Seat Back ;
Auxiliary Seat Back ;
Rear Seat Back.

Cushions —
Front Seat Cushions, Springs or Spring Construction ;
Rear Seat Cushions, Springs or Spring Construction;
Auxiliary Seat Cushions, Springs or Spring Construction.

Front Seat Rear Trimming.

Auxiliary Seat Trimming.

Cowl Trimming.

Hand Pads for Doors and Body Panels.

PROPER FORM OF SEAT BACKS.

Seat backs vary a great deal in their contour, and opinion as to just what
the back shape should be is very much divided. The writer's opinion is that the

Fig. 520

Correctly shaped seat and
wrongly shaped back.

Fic. 521

Correctly shaped back and
wrongly shaped seat.

Fig. 522

The right combination — a

correct seat and a correct

back.

bottom shoidd be slightly full to conf rom to the curve in the spine. This applies
especially to men. If the passengers are women the back should be almost
straight. The back should make a little less than a right angle to the cushion, the

236 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

cushion being from I Y2 to 2^ inches lower at the back than at the front. The
width of a front seat which is of normal height should be from 17^^ to 18i/^ inches,
while the rear should be from 18 to 19 inches. It is a mistake to make the rear
cushion much wider unless it is set very low. The figures are quoted to omfonn
to the average individual.

Where it is possible, the cushions and back trimming should be fitted to the
individual. Three seat and back conditions are shown in Figs. 520, 521 and 522.

Fig. 520 shows the wrong position for back and correctly shaped seat. In Fig.
521 is shown correct back but wrong scat, while in Fig. 522 is shown a correct
seat and back. It will be noted that the mean angle is practically a right angle.
The extra support for the spine is obtained by having the row of springs, which
comes at a point where the hollow of the back would rest, made a little heavier
than the other rows. This will give the correct support when under load and at
the same time will not show a lump in the trimming when the seat is not in use.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

237

Seat side and body side trimming is arranged to match the back and cushion
trimming, and it is backed by a pad or layer of hair or a substitute. The edges
are bound with suitable bindings to make a finish.

Door trimming is generally stretched and pasted over a ragboard foundation,
which is tacked to the door and bound with a binding. When pockets are required
a cut-out is made in the ragboard and a suitable flap tacked on before the binding
is assembled. In Fig. 523 is shown a typical door trim.

Fig. 526

Top trimming on the front seat that has the double cowl. The leather In this
case is Mtretched tightly over the wood center rail.

Front seat backs are generally provided with a scuff pad and sometimes they
are covered completely with leather. Figs. 524 and 525 show typical examples
of these two methods. The backs just described are ones used on five-passenger
cars. When auxiliary seats are used there is a slightly different condition, as
the auxiliary seats generally fold into recesses at the rear of the front seat. Fig.
526 shows the top trimming on the front seat that has the double cowl. The
leather in this case is stretched tightly over the wood center rail. The auxiliary
seats are generally so small that springs cannot be used, so the back and seat are
covered with a hair pad and trimmed to match the rest of the car.

CHAPTER XX

CLOSED BODY DESIGN

At the time of writing this book the closed body development is being
governed by two distinct trade conditions. One condition is the special designed
bodies that the custom body builder produces for the individual who wants a
distinctive car and spares no expense to get the best in appearance and workman-
ship. The second condition is the large production closed body made by the
manufacturers with unlimited amount of resources that make possible low produc-
tion costs. The first condition, and the one which really laid the foundation of
the closed body, produces the luxury car, while the second condition takes from
the custom body builder the principles of construction and adapts them to the low
priced car, leaving out everything but the parts and trimmings necessary, and
then manufacturing the cars in large quantities. Not long ago, to own a closed
body was almost the badge of a millionaire, but modem manufacturing has brought
the closed body within reach of a very large class of people. Since the automobile
is now a necessary means of transportation the closed body supplies the real
demand for a car when all round serviceability is concerned.

The closed body is really the automobile industry's biggest problem because
the car the people need the most is the closed car, and as soon as the engineers
and manufacturers can provide enough cars at an acceptable price the open car
will be superseded and placed in the special or luxury car class. In Figs. 527
and 528 the photographs are shown of two cabriolets, typical examples of custom
made body work. They are designed to be driven by a chauffeur and have the
rear adaptable so it can be opened up in good weather. In Fig. 529 is shown a
special sedan. The landaulet, limousine, brougham, berline and similar con-
structions come tmder the luxury or "special" closed body types. The closed
bodies which are now being manufactured in large quantities could be practically
called two types, the coupe and sedan, or 4-passenger closed body and seven-pas-
senger closed body. Most coupes have a seating arrangement whereby four pas-
sengers can be carried, and the sedan will carry six on the small chassis and 7
or 8 on the large chassis.

The automobile of the future will be in two classes — the close-coupled four-
passenger closed car, and the seven-passenger closed car. All the other cars will
be in the "special" class. The photograph 530 shows a typical four-passenger
car on a six-cylinder chassis and photograph Fig. 531 a seven-passenger car. A
good example of the existing demand for automobiles with closed bodies is shown

238

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Bolh cin on thli ]

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

. t24-ineh whcelhaic.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 241

in the 1922 line of the Buick closed cars shown in Figs. 530 to 535. The coupe
and sedan shown in Figs. 530 and 531, as previously described, are four-pas-
senger and seven-passenger models. Fig. 532 is a three-passenger coupe, and Fig.
533 is a five-passenger sedan. All of these models are in six-cylinder chassis, the
three-passenger coupe and five-passenger sedan being on 116-inch wheelbase
chassis, and the four-passenger coupe and seven-passenger sedan on a 124-inch
chassis. The coupe. Fig. 534, and sedan, 535, are on a 109-inch wheelbase four-
cylinder chassis.

In Fig. 536 is shown a picture of an unfinished four-passenger coupe. This
gives a good idea of the construction. The panels are all steel excepting the post
covering, where altiminum is used because it is easier to handle. The roof is
made of composition supported by slats. A seven-passenger sedan is shown in
Fig. 537. This is designed to permit removing the center and rear door posts so
that a clear vision can be obtained when desired. This is a four-door body and
it entails the use of many parts to get the clear vision. In Fig. 538 is shown a
five-passenger sedan with only two doors. This has detachable posts and works
out to better advantage than the four doors. In Fig. 539 all the posts are removed
so it can be seen how open the job is made under this condition. At one time it
was thought it was desirable to have this clear vision construction, but it invited
so many complications in its construction that it was expensive. It also weakened
the body to have the removable posts. The result is that there are very few bodies
made now with these detachable features.

NOMENCLATURE OF CLOSED BODIES

As the closed car had developed from the horse-drawn vehicle it is quite
natural that many of the names for closed bodies are derived from their prototypes
used before the automobile was a reality. While on the subject of names it is
worth mentioning in order to avoid discussion, that the modern closed bodies have
suffered severely in being christened. A number of names have been applied and
some accepted, which really were wrong in the light of previous practice, but as
they have been generally accepted the easiest thing is to use them. The Society of
Automotive Engineers has suggested the standardization of the following names
for closed cars :

Coupelet — Seats two or three. It has a folding top and full height doors
with disappearing panels of glass.

Coupe — An inside-operated enclosed car, seating two or three; a fourtli
seat facing backward is sometimes added.

Convertible Coupe — A roadster provided with a detachable coupe top.

Convertible Touring Car — A touring car with folding top and disappearing
or removable glass sides. ("Phaeton" has been suggested recently as a better
name than "touring car.")

Sedan — A closed car seating four or more, all in one compartment.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

244 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Convertible sedan — A salon touring car provided with a detachable sedan top.

Open sedan — A sedan so constructed that the sides can be removed or stowed
so as to leave the space entirely clear from the glass front to the back.

Limousine — A closed car seating three to five inside, with driver's seat outside
covered with a roof.

Open limousine — A touring car with permanent standing top and disappearing
or removable glass sides.

Berline — A limousine having the driver's seat entirely enclosed.

Brougham — A limousine with no roof over the driver's seat.

Landaiilet — A closed car with folding top, seats for three or more inside
and driver's seat outside.

In order to make sure that there is no misunderstanding, the illustrations
from 540 to 554 show the constructions which compare with the Society of Auto-
motive Engineers' names.

The various body types will be examined in the order that the names were
arranged. First of all comes the coupelet. In Fig. 540 is shown a good example
of the modem design of this type, and in Fig. 541 is shown an earlier type. While
the general construction is the same the latter type has been worked out to suit
the trend of design. The seating arrangement is the same, the main difference
being in the back of the top. This is made to have a flat roof on one and a rounded
back and roof on the other. The rounded back is covered with leather while the
flat top has a duck covering. The rear door pillar is made detachable, and when
it is removed, the top let down and the door glasses lowered, the body is as open
as a roadster.

The coupe shown in Fig. 542 has a permanent roof with the front and rear
side windows made to operate. The rear door posts can be made in two ways,
removable and stationary, the latter method being better and more modern.

A convertible coupe is shown in Fig. 543 and is a construction which is so
designed that the upper section or top can be detached at the belt line, allowing
the car to be used as an ordinary roadster. In order to have a satisfactory top
the lower section of the body must be specially constructed so that it will fit on
and make a good joint. At its best it does not compare with a regular closed
body, but is an improvement over the "winter top."

The convertible touring car as shown in Fig. 544 is practically obsolete, and
was the original Springfield type of body. The sedan classed as an open sedan
was marketed as its development. The sedan body shown in Fig. 545 is designed
to seat from four to five and sometimes six passengers, all of them being in one
compartment. It is a permanently closed body with either two, three or four
doors. The earliest designs had a divided front seat, which allowed the eliminating
of two doors, having one door at the front left and one at the rear left. By hav-
ing but two doors the body construction was made much lighter and stronger.
The modern type of sedan body is made with four doors and a solid front seat

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 245

The reason for this is that it will allow the passengers getting out much easier
from either side of the car. A divided front seat would not leave very much
room for passage between them, therefore there was a certain amount of incon-
venience attached to a two-door body. Another feature in favor of a solid front
seat and four doors is that in case of an emergency three passengers can be ac-
commodated in the front seat. The windows in each door can be lowered, and
also the windows on each rear side of the rear seat.

An open sedan, which is shown in Figs. 538, 539 and 546, is sometimes
termed a Springfield type body, but there is a point that could be used for a dis-
tinction between them. The difference is in the manner the side windows are
closed. In the sedan the pillars are removable between the doors, and the windows
drop down in the side of the frame. While the Springfield type construction has

a folding upper frame on the doors and at the rear the glass frame is pulled right
out and stored under or at the back of the seat. A number of sedans were made
with four doors, the posts between the doors being solid and only the rear posts
were removable at the belt line.

The convertible sedan, as shown in Fig. 547, is designed along the same lines
as the convertible coupe previously described.

The limousine shown in Fig. 548 is the "exclusive car" and it is made for city
use, to be driven by a chauffeur. The passenger compartment is made to seat three
on the rear seat and sometimes has two folding auxiliary seats. The top is ex-
tended over the driver's seat and a short door, like a touring car door, is fitted.
The windows in the doors and side can be operated at will. The open limousine,
sometimes called the touring limousine, as shown in Figs, 549 and 550, is built
along the same lines as a sedan, with four doors and solid driver's seat, and dif-
fers mainly by having a glass behind the front seat that can be raised or lowered,
when closed dividing the car into two complete compartments.

246 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Composilion roof, supportid by stati

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

b all the poau Temoved m it c

248 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRIN'CIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 249

"Springfield" typr ssdan

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The berlini hu the chaufr«ir'» (
pFnnanFmly divided {ram Ibe

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

251

There is but a small detail in the variation between a touring limousine and
a berline. See Fig. 551. The latter has the driver's compartment permanently
divided off from the rear, thus giving limousine accommodations at the rear and
full protection to the driver at the front.

Fig. 553
The landaulet Is a closed car alonflr the same lines as a limousine, but the rear
part of body can be folded back. Sketch shows rear opened up

Fic. 554

This sketch represents the same bod^ as the one shown in Fig. 553 above, but with the
rear closed, fully protecting the passengers in the worst weather

The brougham is generally built with a smaller rear compartment than the
limousine and is sometimes called a town car. It is a type very popular at present
and much used by women. A typical design is shown in Fig. 552.

The landaulet is a closed car along the same design as a limousine, with the
door and side windows operating. The back end of the body can be folded back,
giving an open car effect at the rear. This type of body is adapted for city use
and for driving in the park. In Fig. 553 is shown the landaulet with a back opened,
and in Fig. 554 it is shown closed.

CHAPTER XXI
PRINCIPLES OF TRUCK BODY DESIGN

The development of ihe gasoline engine, like the invention of the steam
engine, has revolutionized the world, through its assistance in annihilating or
reducing distance.

A city which is but a short distance from another is quickly reached by motor
transportation. Commercial transportation had to rely upon the steam railroads
for its handling and in comparatively short distances several days would elapse
in getting freight cars loaded, started, located and unloaded. With a motor truck
the material can be hauled direct from door to door at a considerable saving of
time.

Then again there is the town or village a few miles from the railroad, which
had to rely upon hauling by teams to and from the depot, a motor truck can do
this trucking in a fraction of the time a team would take.

A short time ago a strong line divided the truck from the passenger car, btit
now buses are made from trucks and so designed as to carry twenty or more

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Same type of exprera body as shown in Fig, SSS, but <vllh canopy top

people in them. Motor truck body styles are not much different from those used
on horse-drawn vehicles, but unlike their brothers the passenger cars are not
subjected to the modification of season style changes. They are, however, going
through a process of evohition as new ideas are worked out from time to time
which make the truck better fitted to the purposes for which it is intended, or
improves the construction so it will give better service.

The truck body is a big problem for the engineer, as each different trade or
business feels that it has to have a body equipment that suits their purpose. This
means that all trucks above the light class, demand more or less special equipment.

254 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Some of the different businesses that utilize trucks are dry-goods, lumber, oil,
furniture, coal, ice, building trades, packers, laundries, undertakers, farmers, milk,
fiour, florists, etc. The army uses a number of different types of trucks, and every
large city has to have an equipment of trucks adaptable for miscellaneous purposes
around the city.

TRUCKS CLASSIFIED INTO THREE MAIN CROUPS

In order to conveniently study the different types of trucks, three groups will
be made. The first group covers the express type body ; the second group the
platform and its combinations, and the third, special body construction. The
express body is the most adaptable to any commercial type body, and it is made
in a number of sizes and varies greatly in the details of its construction. There
are two divisions ; first, the open express ; and second, the closed express. In Figs.
555 and 556 are shown examples of express cars. The first is the open body, and
the second the same body with a canopy top fitted to it.

THE EXPRESS OR PARCEL BODY
The first class of commercial car to consider is the small four-cylinder car,
that has a light express body fitted to it, and is used for grocery stores and similar
business purposes where the loading is light. This class of body or car would
well be called a package wagon. In Figs. 557 and 558 are shown typical four-
cylinder light delivery or package delivery cars. It is of very simple construction
and can be made very light so that it can be used on a small chassis. The driver's

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

255

3eat is attached to the front end, which also has the toe board risers and floor
boards attached, making it an easy body to assemble on a chassis.

The construction consists of sills, floor boards, side boards, flare boards, and
end or tail gate. A partition in the front end provides a place for the gas tank
and tools, and the cover is formed by the seat frame.

Fig. 559.

Fig. 560.

Figs. 559 and 560 show skeleton views of a panel express body and an open express body with canopy top.

Both drawings show the different locations which require brace irons.
(Courtesy Eberhard Mfg. Co., Cleveland, Ohio)

The hardware, which is always a very important item on a truck body, con-
sists of floor board plates of strip steel ; flare board and tail gate binding of strip
steel; flare board and side board braces of malleable iron; tail- gate hinges of
malleable iron ; and tail gate chain with malleable iron hooks. Fittings for trucks

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

BODY DATA SHEET

Type of tubHlI>— Sled Ri

Oui Ordtr No. . Our Coil No. DaW

The ibove data should be given to enable tia lo get out and

Fig. !62.

a body data thttt used by a well-known truck body manufacl

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 257

are manufactured by several large concerns who have a complete line of parts
adaptable to most designs.

A canopy top is almost indispensable for a truck that will have constant
service. This top is supported by four or more posts, a construction which is
satisfactory for short bodies. The top consists of wood frame with cross ribs
and slats running lengthwise. The slats should be close enough together to sup-
port the top covering without the slats showing through. For a covering a ten-

Enprns body with canopy top. This is a {nur-|>ost body, but additional posts may be added if Ursircd

ounce black duck material can be used. For side curtains a lighter duck can be
employed. An eight-ounce fabric will be found to give good service. In fitting
up a top it is very essential that well-designed brace irons be used in the corners
where the posts attach. Another point to be watched is the attachment of the posts
to the body. These should be fastened very securely and can be clamped with
brackets.

Unless the body maker or car manufacturer intends to produce large quanti-
ties of truck bodies it would not pay him to make up patterns and equipment to

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 259

manufacture miscellaneous truck body irons, when they can be obtained from
stock from the companies which specialize in making the parts. In Figs. 559 and
560 are shown skeleton views of an open express body with canopy top and a
panel express body. These drawings show the different locations which require
brace irons. All the irons and parts shoAvn can be obtained from the stock of the
parts manufacturer.

The open express body shown in Fig. 560 is made so that the canopy top need
not be used unless required. It requires the following parts :

Size 10-inch side panel ; 5-inch flare board
6 pieces body brace and flare board irons
4 pieces flare board and post irons
3 pieces end gate hinges

1 pair end gate springs

2 pieces end gate spring guards
2 pieces body brace, rear end

1 pair seat brace and handles

2 pieces comer irons, top of seat
1 pair jointed lazy back irons

6 pieces body and chassis connections

1 set footboard plates

2 pair top rail comer irons
10 pieces roof rail corner irons

2 pieces top rail corner plates, front
2 pieces top hood braces
1 pair sill braces

It will be noted that the canopy top irons on the posts are made so that they
can clamp right on the flare board of the body. The panel body shown in Fig.
559 is a complete unit and it is much better to make this with solid sides than try
to make a top which is detachable from the base. The following is a list of irons,
which are shown :

1 set Acme door lock

4 pieces door hinges, upper and middle

2 pieces door hinges, lower

1 pair rear post, inside body braces
6 pieces side post, inside body irons
8 pieces roof rail corner irons
1 pair front arch stay braces

1 pair rear post, top rail corner irons

2 pieces top rail comer plates, front
2 pieces seat and body comer irons
1 pair joint lazy back irons

1 set foot board plates

6 pieces body and chassis connections

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The open express type of body is very adaptable and even in small sizes can
be used for a number of purposes. A common addition to this body is to add
wire mesh or expanded steel to the sides so they will b^ completely enclosed. This
allows packages and boxes to be piled the full height of the inside of the truck
without danger of their falling out. This type of body is shown in Fig, 560. It
will be noted that side curtains are provided to protect the load in rain. It is com-
mon practice for the car manufacturer to use the touring car chassis with a few
changes for light package wagons. In some cases the front end, consisting of

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODV DESIGN 261

cowl, windshield and front door, are worked into the body construction as shown
in Fig. 561. There is one objection to this practice and that is the touring car
cowl and seat arrangement take up more room than seat construction made like
that shown in Fig. 557. It is generally necessary to obtain as much room as pos-
sible in the truck body, so it becomes important to cut the seat and teg room down
to the minimum.

When a truck body is to be ordered for a chassis it is necessary to furnish
the manufacturer with the general chassis dimensions. For reference and general
information the chart shown in Fig. 552 covers the information required. This
chart is a copy of one used by a well known truck body manufacturer.

262 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Recent development in trucks seems to point to the medium weight or what
could l>e called "light trucks" becoming the most popular. One of the reasons
for this is that the development of pneuttiatic tires has made it possible to carry
heavy loads, which had to be carried by solid tires in the past. The use of pneu-
matic tires for light trucks has demonstrated a much greater increase in all around
efficiency. The loads are carried with less shock to the truck and much higher
speeds are possible.

The cord tire which is now being used so much gives good mileage even on
the heavier trucks when used. The increased speed possible on trucks with
pneumatic tires has made the medium weight truck one of the most used types,
if not the most used type on the market. The speed wagon chassis is generally

Open cxprns body, willi enclosed cab for Ihc driver

of ample proportions so bodies with good loading space can be fitted to them. It
is also possible to build a large variety of different styles of bodies for them.

Like the smaller trucks, the express type body is the most used because of its
great adaptabiUty and also because the manufacturer can make this body in quan-
tities and satisfy a large percentage of the demands from the trade. The general
run is similar to the smaller bodies, but it is heavier and generally has six posts.
In Figs. 563 and 564 are shown express bodies with and without canopy tops.
This is only a four-post body, but extra posts can be easily added if required.
One feature in which the heavy and light bodies differ is that the heavier body is
generally made as a unit without the driver's seat, tool-box or floor board. The
reason for this is that the speed wagon chassis should have a driver's seat in it
complete as first made so that it can be sold that way if necessaiy. This arrange-
ment will permit any type of body being fitted to the chassis without disturbing
the front end at all. The chassis unit with seat will look like Fig. 565.

In Figs. 566 and 567 are shown two of the designs of speed wagons. Body
constructions permit the top and posts being removed as the posts are set into

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 263

the sockets and are held by a bolt which can be easily loosened and the top pulled
off. Side racks or extensions for grain and other purposes can be readily fitted
by utilizing these sockets.

Full paneled bodies of all kinds are used on the speed wagons. Two types
are shown in Figs. 568 and 569. The design shown in Fig. 568 has open sides in
the front. In Fig. 570 is shown an open express body with an enclosed cab for
the driver. This is a very practical arrangement, especially for the States which
experience bad winters.

CHAPTER XXII

TRUCK BODY DESIGN (Continued)

Trucking is a very old art and the horse drawn vehicle used for hauling all
kinds of material and merchandise can give us plenty of pointers in design.
There is, however, one thing to remember, that is the difference between the
speed of a horse drawn vehicle and a motor propelled one; consequently, there
are road shocks and vibrations which the motor truck encounters that never
occurred in a horse drawn vehicle. The aim of every truck builder is to supply
a truck which will carry as heavy a load as possible at the lowest cost.

Starting with the truck chassis itself, it must be as light as it can be made,
and yet be capable of withstanding the service and load it is designed to carry.
In trying to develop a truck which will stand up, some designers have not spared
expense or material, and in some cases the truck has a good weight to move in
its own component parts before any load is applied. In making a body it must
be sturdy and strong but it must be light as possible, so the problem is not how
much can be put on the body but how little and still obtain satisfactory results.

The second group of truck bodies covers the platform and stake bodies.
Platform truck bodies are used in the heavier types of trucks although the
speed wagon and rapid transit trucks can use the smaller platform to advantage
in some businesses. There are some truck body manufacturers who make a

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

265

platform body so that it will serve as a foundation for a large number of dif-
ferent body styles. This is a very practical construction, both from the sales
and from the manufacturing standpoints. It enables a dealer to make prompt
deliveries without having to carry a large stock of bodies, thereby permitting
them to handle the bodies for a less cost to the consumer.

Fic. 572.
Clearance* provided to raise the body 5 or 6 inches higher than the ordinary express body

Fig. 573.
Side strains often exert a leverage by being imposed against the stakes, as shown here

The platform body is really a combination of platform and suitable stakes
or sides fitted to it. The platform is really the basis for the large varieties of
fittings which when combined with the platform define the name of the body
tyj>e. In Fig. 571 is shown a truck with the driver's seat and cab with a typical

266 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

New York Stake Body

Clrvfland Suke Body

Cmcinnati Stake Body

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

platform mounted at the rear. This construction differs from the express type
principally in the greater width that can be obtained with it. This width is
gained by extending the platform over the wheels to a width equal to the width
of the general standard for fenders, which is 66 inches. Of course, the width
can vary to suit the body requirements and can be made as wide as required,
but for general use they should not exceed 70 inches or else they will be difficult
to handle in narrow streets. In permitting the body to extend over the wheels,
allowance must be made to have it high enough to clear the wheels when the
spring compresses. Extra space must be figured on for chain and mud ho(^

268 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

clearance. By providing this clearance, as shown in Fig. 572, the platform or
bottom of the body is raised 5 or 6 inches higher than the ordinary express body.
When the body shown in Fig, 571 is examined it will be seen that the plat-
form is supported by cross sills which rests on sills which fit along the frame.

These are called sub-sills, and they are used to raise the body so it will have the
proper wheel clearance. The platform consists of an outer frame with substan-
tial floor boards. The rear end sill has to be made especially rugged and be well
braced, because in loading and unloading it has to stand a lot of shocks. On
both sides and across the rear end pockets are provided to carry the stakes.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

e ri.iir>.1alion for bodies Kuch » are tbown in Fii). 584 am] 5S5

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESION

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 271

There are several methods used to make stake pockets. One is to make them
of malleable iron and rivet them on the hiside of the reinforcement that goes
round the outside of the body. Another way is to have malleable iron pockets
bolted or riveted on the outside o£ the frame re-enforcement. Some bodies
have holes mortised in the wood frame.

The success of the body depends on the method used for the framing and
attaching the stake pockets, because the frame supports all desired loading, and

Stakea and Gate Ends for Catlle Transpart!

the stakes have to support all the side strains that the load imposes. These side
strains often exert a leverage by being imposed against the stakes as shown in
Fig. 573.

The arrangements of the stakes have a number of names given them in accord-
ance with their popularity in different sections or towns in the country. The
New York, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Boston and Chicago are shown in Figs. 574,
575, 576, 577 and 578 respectively. The New York type shown in Fig. 574 has
two, three or four sets of stakes with a board across the front two stakes. The
Cleveland, shown in Fig. 575 has a wide side board running along the bottom of
the stakes. In Fig. 576 is shown the Cincinnati type. This has single stakes and
sometimes has a name board attached to the two front stakes.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

The Boston type shown in Fig. 577 has double connected stakes with a space
left between them. The front two stakes having a name board attached to them.
In Fig. 578 is shown the Chicago type ; this has front and rear combination stakes
with high extension and solid board at the bottom. A space is left between the
combination stakes where a single stake is placed, the front center single and rear
stakes being connected with a chain. In Fig. 579 is shown a good design of stake
body which can be accommodated to a wide range of trades. The mounted body
shown in Fig. 580 is very similar to that shown in Fig. 579, the main difference
being in the wide base boards and absence of connecting locks or hooks.

It is good practice to use a hook or lock to prevent the plates from jumping
out when traveling over rough roads. A malleable iron standard lock is often

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 273

used and in Fig. 582 is shown a hook type fastener. Some makers fit the stakes
tight so they can not work out and do not put the hooks on them.

Some of the possibilities of a stake body are shown in Figs. 583, 584 and
585, which show an express body built up in the platform by mounting sides and
then a canopy top. In Figs. 586 to 591 are shown a complete combination suit-
able for general use, but more especially for the farmer. Fig. 586 is the platform.
Fig. 587 express body sides. Fig. 588 stake sides, Fig. 589 stakes and gate ends
for cattle transportation, Fig. 590 sides and ends for carrying grain and Fig. 591
a canopy top. Photograph 592 shows express type sides fitted to a heavy truck,
making it adaptable for heavy work like hauling dirt and gravel.

CHAPTER XXIII
SPECIAL TRUCK BODIES

In previous chapters the common or general type of truck body has been
taken up and grouped as well as possible, and all the body types not described
have been left for this article. This group is the third section which was
arranged for consideration. There are body designs without number that have
developed to accommodate the different lines of business. In fact most manufac-
turers of medium heavy trucks market their chassis without bodies and have
bodies made to suit the purchasers' requirements. The large truck manufacturer
keeps an organization especially to accommodate the purchasers' requirements
in body construction and equipment. For example, fire engines, oil tanks, water
wagons, water sprayers, road cleaners, and dumping equipment, telephone repair
equipment, light wire equipment, wrecking and hoisting equipment. All the
equipments mentioned require mechanical engineering and cannot be readily
classed with body design, but they have to be considered in connection with motor
trucks.

The construction of special bodies will be governed by their design. Most
special bodies will be built with the sub sill bases and platform construction as
a foundation. Panel and closed truck bodies will be narrow and governed by the
same conditions as the express body which is narrow enough to provide wheel
clearance. Transportation of persons and material is the only reason for trucks
being made, and for carrying a large number of people the truck has been used
to good advantage.

There is one direct connecting link between the motor truck and the body
engineer, and that is the development of sight-seeing buses, omnibuses, jitney
buses and touring vans. All of the above bodies are being extensively used and
mostly on ordinary truck chassis, and in the writer's opinion there will be a big
development along the lines of equipment of vehicles for transportation used as
supplements to the railroads.

The modern sight-seeing bus has a long body with side doors and front end
similar to touring car, only it is much longer. A long fabric top is fitted, also side
curtains, making it a complete car, only on a large scale, similar to that shown in
Fig. 593. This type of bus is used in those sections of the country which offer
picturesque or novel scenery that will interest sightseers and take them out of the
city. For city use a more simple construction is used, a long body with seats
crosswise on it, without doors or top. These are patterned after the buses used

274

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 275

Fic 593

noflern fony-lwo piMfnger alght-KeliiK boily.
(Flt»aibbon A Crl.p, Inc., Trenion, N. J.i

A trplo.1 Engllgh dauble-decked bus whicb 1b growing Id popularity li

276 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

in England, where hundreds have to be used in the city because no trolley lines
or elevated lines are permitted. These buses are growing in popularity all over
the country, as in clear weather the upper deck affords a fine view of the city and
streets it traverses and gives the passengers a bracing open-a:r ride. Fig. 594
shows a typical bus o£ this type.

The jitney bus is a development o£ recent months rather than of years and
from a vehicle, automobile or body standpoint has no set canons. A jitney bus
can be and is any vehicle that will run on wheels and carry four, five or more
people. The touring car used for this purpose cannot compete with a speed
wagon chassis with special passenger body on it because the latter can carry so
many more people each trip.

Buses used in this business are made as simple and cheap as possible because
competition is so keen that expensive equipment cannot \k afforded. A typical
bus construction suitable for jitney service, bus service, or short country trips is
shown in Fig. 595. The buses shown in Figs. 596 and 597 are special ones
developed for hotel and community service. In Fig. 596 the bus is equipped with
luxurious upholstery and has striking lines, while the bus shown in Fig. 597 is
well laid out for service and provides plenty of accommodation, fine large windows
and protection against any kind of weather.

An American army truck body .is shown in Fig. 598, This body is very sub-
stantially constructed and is really of the platform type, because the sides are
detachable from the base or platform. The entire body is made so that it can be
knocked down, and packed into a compact unit. The sides are high and give good
carrying capacity; for weather protection hoop bows are used with a cloth cover-
ing, giving somewhat of an effect of a prairie schooner when the covering is on
the fop. For army or any field work a truck body of this design is the most
practicable of any that have been developed.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

I H

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

280 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 283

There are big possibilities ahead for the motor truck designer and builder
to develop equipment for the farms. There has been some movement in this
direction but there are vast opportunities in this field. One large company has
developed a farm wagon which has a wide utility. Most of the equipment devel-
oped for farm service and transportation has been along the lines of special
bodies on standard trucks. One of the most adaptable forms of bodies developed
is shown in Fig. 599. The manufacturer calls this the "Everyway" body. The

body shown in Fig. 599 is adapted for carrying stock. The stakes are 60 inches
high and have a rope threaded through loops in their ends to prevent the cattle
from attempting to climb out over the sides. In Fig. 600, the sides of the body
are 611ed up with slats so they make a high grain-tight body that can be used for
handling grain or any other loose material.

■In Fig. 601 is shown the same combination as Fig. 600, only the side brackets
are adjusted to let the sides down so that they make an angle of 30 degrees,
making the body adaptable for handling sacks, bales of hay, etc. Grain can also
be hauled to the extent of the side height. When the side brackets are dropped

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

I
i
I

§i

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 285

a on a llcht truck chuslL

286 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

down as shown in Fig. 602 and the sides set at a right angle to the body they
adapt it for carrying passengers or for hauling crated and boxed fruit and
vegetables. The posts and back rail can be removed as shown in Fig. 603 ; then
the body can be used for carrying loose hay. The Comstock gate makes it suit-
able for heavy, loose grain. The "Everyway" body is very cleverly worked
out and should appeal to the farmer who is favorable to combination equipment.
It also furnishes food for thought to the body designer.

The special body equipments for commercial and general utility, like con-
tracting and city use, convey a big field. A few bodies are shown in Figs. 604
to 609. These give the readers some idea of the possibilities in truck body
design.

In the heavy truck field a dumping body is perhaps the most used and typical
examples of these bodies as are shown in Figs. 604 and 605. All steel construction
prevails on this class of body. A novel body is shown in Fig. 606. This, beside
being very large, has a sleeping compartment on top of the driver's cab. Moving
wagons are large closed bodies. A good example of a furniture moving body is
shown in Fig. 607. Truck chassis have been used extensively for ambulances
and typical examples of this type of wagon are shown in Figs. 608 and 609.

The truck trailer is used a good deal and deserves some attention because
of the possibilities there are of its extensive use. The body equipment is gener-
ally very simple and is of the platform type with side stakes, similar to that shown
in Fig. 610, but there is no limit to the construction used. There is a company in
Detroit which has a large trailer with canvas covered body that is used to haul
closed bodies to nearby cities. The trailer is especially adaptable for hauling
bulky material of light weight as the amount carried can be doubled for the same
running expenses. Time is saved and also one driver can control the truck and
trailer, whereas, if two trucks were used two drivers woiild be required.

CHAPTER XXIV
TRUCK CABS

Motor truck development has been so rapid that many things have been in
a measure overlooked. The touring car took a long time before it arrived at its
present state and similarly the truck has to be developed and perfected step by
step. One of the things that truck development is now demanding is the better
protection and comfort of the driver.

The driver's seat and room have been cut down to the minimum in order
to allow for a maximum loading space. When the seat and leg room are crowded
up and improperly shaped seats and cushions are used, drivers cannot be expected
to operate their trucks as efficiently as if they would if they had ample accommo-

dations. The latest trucks developed have full spring cushioned seats and backs
like that shown in Fig. 611. This is a good selling feature because the driver, if
he were consulted, would quickly choose the truck which afforded him the most
comfort. The old standard shape for seat back consists of a board with a hair
or cotton pad covered with leather.

If the truck is to be operated in all weathers some means must be provided
to protect the driver. Collapsible fabric tops and fabric side curtains are but
makeshifts, and in constant service soon become torn. A truck for all around
service should have a closed compartment for the driver. This compartment
can be made in several ways and has to be arranged to match up the body that
387

288 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

is to be used. When the body has a canopy top the compartment has to be built
into it. If a panel body is used it is only necessary to fit full ■6oots at the front
to enclose the cab.

The seat construction shown in Fig, 61 1 is designed for quantity production
and also to permit use of the truck with or without a cab. In fact it can be used
for canopy top bodies, open express bodies without a top or with a fabric
passenger car type top, or a top like that shown in Fig. 613. In Fig. 612 is

Driver"! nb, with Ihe Hat ihown

shown the seat in two parts, the lower section, which is the support, makes a
good tool compartment.

A full back is used, with springs, and a high seat cushion made in two sec-
tions. This makes a very comfortable seat arrangement. In Fig. 613 is shown
how the seat is adapted by bolting on sides and a top making a very neat open

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 289

type cab. The substantial windshield construction should be noted. The shield
sways both inward and outward. For bad weather side curtains have to be used.
The commercial possibilities in a design of this kind are shown in Fig. 614, where
all main parts are shown dismantled ready for crating in the box, the parts of
which are laid around it. In designing body equipment the knock-down feature
is a very important one, as it makes the freight rates lower and is more con-
venient all around.

The ideal truck condition provides a cab or compartment for the driver so he
is protected under all conditions. The wide variety of trucks used calls for a
more effective protection for the driver than fabric curtains can give. Even for
short hauls the cab with properly designed doors will give better efficient^, as

fabric curtains with celluloid soon get torn with the rough usage the average
truck driver will give them. The cab shown in Fig. 615 is the next step in the
combination of seat shown in Fig. 611. One side of this cab is omitted to show
the interior. The completed cab is shown in Fig. 616. It will be noted that a
large windshield and liberal sized lights are provided in the doors and sides next
to the driver's seat.

There is a big market for truck cabs which are economically but strongly
made so that they will give the maximum service for the least cost. The cab
shown in Fig. 616 is also shown in Fig. 617, but mounted on a chassis. A truck
chassis like that shown in Fig. 617 has a wide market because any type of body
can be fitted behind the cab. A larger cab is shown in Fig, 618, mounted on a

290 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

chassis with a platform and stake body behind it. The combination will be seen
to work out very welt. A well -developed all-steel cab is shown in Fig. 619. A
large adjustable windshield and liberal sized quarter lights are used, with deep
cushions and spring back heavily padded. The cab shows that considerable atten-
tion has been paid to its details, as it shows a very clean cut finish.

Fin. «is, «i« B

The possibilities of interchangeable manufacturing of truck cab bodies and
parts is exemplified in Figs. 620, 621 and 622. In Fig. 620 is shown a small
panel body on a Ford. The front end or driver's compartment is made from the
same parts as shown in the cab in Fig. 619, the rear end of the body being the

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Fig. 61S
body behind It.

A wall dcvEloped all-atec) cab in •>-]

292 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

only part needed. In Fig. 621 a canopy top body is shown. This body used the
same parts of the cab as Fig. 620, only the roof is replaced by the canopy top
extension. This makes a very practical combination. In Fig, 622 is shown an

OpeD expren body with cab attached. The c

Open express body with the cab attached. The body construction is novd because
the outer sill extends out from the body to make a running board and fender.
The brace system insures very strong side panels. The body width is the same
as the cab and the whole makes a very neat design.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 293

In hot weather the side doors can be removed or fastened back against tlic
sides of the body. The windows in the rear sides, by the seat, can be either re-
moved or stored in racks in the cab, or dropped down, depending on the construc-
tion and design of the cab. When the design arranges for these conditions the
cab is very comfortable in the summer. The cab shown in Fig. 616 has a small
hand ho!e for signalling. This is covered by a slide.

An improved cab, of wood and steel construction, is shown in Fig. 623. I'his
cab has sliding doors, which slide into pockets and automatically lock in either
open or closed position, while the windows slide and fold into the back of the cab,
and are locked in ail positions. The rear window is made to drop. These cabs
are strong, yet light in weight.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 295

APPENDIX

Comprising some useful data
for Automobile Body Designers
and Builders.

296

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

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THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLUE

Table prepared by U. S. Forest Products Laboratory

Particular
compared

Animal
glue

Casein
glue

Casein
from milk

16-20
cents

35-55

Mixed cold

with rapid

stirring

Vegetable
glue

Cassava
starch

Blood
glue

Liquid
glue

Source

Cost per lb.
1920

HideSybones,
horns, etc.

Dried
Blood

Animal glue
or fish parts

$l-$5
per gal.

No data

25-42
cents

10-12
cents

cents

30-100

Spread in
sq.ft«per lb.

How mixed

25-35

35-50

Mixed with

alkali and

cold or hot

water

Soaked in

water and

melted

Mixed cold

No
preparation

Cold or

warm

usually

applied

by hand

Cold

How
Applied

Warm with
brush or

mechanical
spreader

Cold with

brush or

mechanical

spreader

Cold with
mechanical

spreader
not by hand

Cold with
brush or

mechanical
spreader

Tempera-
ture
of press

Cold, or

with
hot cauls

Cold

Equal to

medium

grade

animal glue

Hot

Strength
(in sbear
test)

High grades
stronger

than

strongest

woods

Equal to

medium

grade

animal glue

High

strength in

pljrwood

Not used for

joint work

Best grades

equal to

medium

grade

animal glue

Low

For repair

work and

small

articles

WatSer
resistance

Low

High

Low

High

Cbief uses
in wood-
working

For strong
joint work

For water

resistant
plywood or
joint work

For veneer

work

because of

cheapness

For water

resistant

veneers

A useful table showing the Properties of Glues. Prepared by Forest Products Laboratory.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 299

WHEN SHOULX) LUMBER BE TAKEN FROM THE KILN ?

The two things which a dry kiln operator must be able to prove at the end
of a kiln run are that his lumber is as dry as is required and that it is free from
invisible seasoning stresses which would cause warping when the wood is resawed
and shaped into body parts or other products.

Neither of these points can be proved by examination of the outside of the
lumber. They are easily determined, however, by the following tests which have
been devised by the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin.

Before the lumber is removed from the kiln, choose a fairly representative
board from each truck load of stock. Cut four 1-inch cross-sections (A, B, C, D)
from the board at least 2 feet from the end.

Use section A to find the average moisture content of the dried stock. To do
this, weigh the section immediately after cutting, on a balance accurate to one-tenth
of one per cent., and then dry it on a steam pipe or in an oven 212 degrees F. until
it reaches constant weight. The weight lost during this drying is the weight of
the moisture which was in the section. Divide the weight of the moisture by the
weigh of the oven-dry section and multiply by 100. This will give the percentage
of moisture in the section and also in the stock in that part of the kiln from which
the sample was taken.

For high grade uses, the moisture content of any board in the kiln should not
vary by more than 2 or 3 per cent, from the final moisture content specified.

Use section B to find out whether the stock is uniformly dry from center to
outside. In order to do this the section must be cut apart and the moisture content
of the inside and outside found separately. If the stock is Ij^ inches or more in
thickness, cut the section parallel to its edges to get an outer shell of material J4
inch thick.

Trim the remaining block equally on all four sides to leave a core one-half
inch thick. If the stock is less than 1 J^ inches thick, cut section B so as to get an
outer shell and inner core each one-fifth the total thickness of the section. Find
the moisture content of each piece by the method used for finding the moisture*
content of Section A.

The moisture content of the inside and outside of the stock should be
equalized by steaming, if necessary, to within two per cent, before the lumber
leaves the kiln.

The third and fourth sections, C and D, are for casehardetiing and moisture
distribution tests. Saw section C parallel to the wide faces of the original board
to form tongues or prongs, leaving about one-half inch of solid wood at one end
of the section. If the stock is less than two inches thick, make two saw cuts ; if it
is more than two inches thick, make five saw cuts.

From sections having six prongs break out the second prong from each side,
leaving two outer and two central prongs. From sections having only three

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 301

prongs remove the center prong. In section D saw one central saw kerf to form
two prongs. Stand the sections on end in some convenient place in the shop to
drv.

Observe carefully the action of the prongs from the moment of sawing. Do
they bow in or out or remain straight on the saw ? Do they change shape after
room drying?

If the prongs remain straight both on the saw and after room drying, the
lumber is perfectly seasoned, being free from stresses and uniformly dry
throughout.

If the prongs remain straight on the saw but turn in after room drying, the
moisture distribution is uneven, the surface being drier than the inside. A short
steaming treatment to balance the moisture content should relieve all stresses.

If the prongs turn in on the saw and do not turn out after room drying, the
lumber is "casehardened" and is drier outside than inside. Use a steaming or high
humidity treatment to moisten and soften the surface. The shrinkage of the
outside in redrying should relieve the interior tension and cause the stresses to
disappear.

302 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

LUMBER USED IN THE MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRY

• The rapid increase in the proportion of closed cars manufactured is an out-
standing feature of the automobile industry. An official of a large company
recently expressed his belief that in five years one-half of their output would be
closed cars. Already one out of every eight pleasure cars of a well-known make
is a sedan or coupe. - This means a large consumption of lumber, as the closed car
takes from two to three times as much lumber as an open car, and a better grade
of lumber is required to insure rigidity and freedom from warping in the closed
body. An engineer of the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin,
recently visited a number of manufacturing plants to determine what woods are
now being used in the automobile industry, to what extent substitution of one
species for another is taking place, and what troubles manufacturers are having

•

Table I. — Kinds of Wood Used in Open Cars.

Sills, longitudinal and cross Ash, hard maple and occasionally elm, red gum, mag-
nolia and soft maple

Floor boards Sound and wormy oak, hard and soft maple, red gum,

beech, wormy chestnut, elm

Seat risers, or "heel boards" Hard and soft maple, red gum, yellow pine

Seat hoards, or seat frame Hard and soft maple, red gum and numerous other

species

Seat lids Maple, gum, elm and numerous other species and ply-
wood

Pillars and posts Hard and soft maple, ash, elm, sycamore and red gum

Seat rails (arm and back) Ash, elm and maple

Strainer slats, or "spring slats" Maple, ash and gum

Doors Hard and soft maple, ash and elm

Trim rails Rock elm

Running boards Wormy oak, yellow pine, maple. Douglas fir

Steering wheels Walnut, maple, red gum

Spokes Hickory

Rims ("felloes") Hickory

Top bows Oak

Dash Cottonwood and maple

with wood. He found that maple leads for use in the construction of bodies, elm
is next, and ash is third. More 2 and 3-inch stock is used than thinner materials.
The following comments are to be noted in connection with the use of various
woods.

Maple — At most of the plants visited by the representative of the Forest
Products Laboratory, maple was used for body sills, (in one plant practically the
entire framework and even the floor boards of the car were made of maple),
although ash is used for sills at some of the plants. Maple is cheaper and is

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 303

generally more uniform in quality than ash, and warps less than elm. In one plant
birch was suggested as a substitute for maple, but it is more expensive. Maple is
said to hold screws less rigidly than elm because it is less fibrous and after use the
screw hole becomes enlarged and smooth, permitting the screw to come out easily.
One company preferred birch to maple in sedans because they claimed it would
take and hold varnish better, especially on rounded comers. Maple was also said
to split more easily than elm, making it difficult to saw curves with economy.

Bint — seems to be the principal wood used for the framework of open bodies.
Soft elm is used except for the trim rails, which are of rock elm or a good grade
second-growth soft elm bent to proper shape. Soft elm works easily, holds screws
well, and does not split easily. Stock up to 4 inches in thickness is used.

Table II. — ^Amount of Lumber Used Annually in the Manufacture and Shipment of
Passenger Cars and Motor Trucks. Based on 1919 Production.

Total output of passenger cars 1,660,000

Average number of board feet of lumber used

per car 160

Total lumber used in passenger cars 265,600,000 bd. ft.

Total output of motor trucks 316,500

Average number of board feet of lumber used

per truck, including body 200

Total lumber used in motor trucks 63,300,000 bd. ft.

Total number of passenger cars exported 66,400

Average number of board feet of lumber used

in export crating of a passenger car 660

Total lumber used in export crating of passenger cars 43,824,000 bd. ft.

Total number of trucks exported 15,825

Average number of board feet of lumber used

in export crating of trucks 760

Total lumber used in export crating of motor trucks 12,027,000 bd. ft.

Grand total 384,751,000 bd. ft.

Ash — ^Ash was formerly used almost exclusively in automobile work, but due to
its greatly increased cost it is now used only on high-priced cars, and on cars with
closed bodies which command a relatively high price. Ash is preferable for use in
framework of closed cars because it holds its shape well. At one plant trouble
was experienced with maple as compared with ash, and this made the cost of maple
equivalent to that of ash. A tough sill is required to reinforce the steel frame.
That the wood actually reinforces the steel frame is shown by the fact that breaks
in the frame usually occur at the front end of the wood sills, that is, near the dash.

Birch — The use of birch is probably increasing in automobile manufacture.
Some manufacturers report its use in sills and frames. It is preferred to maple on
exposed painted parts because it is said to hold the paint better. It is said to be as

304 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

good as maple as far as mechanical properties are concerned and better in season-
ing properties, but usually it is slightly more expensive.

Hickory — ^This species is used for spokes and rims only.

Gum — ^An appreciable quantity of red gum is used for various parts, such as
foot risers, foot boards, strainer slats and floor boards. It is also being used for
frames and steering wheels.

Other Species — ^Among the other species used for minor parts of automobiles
are the following : Wormy oak is used for running boards, floor boards and foot
risers. For top bows second-growth, at least so-called second-growth oak, is used
principally, although some elm is now used. Sycamore is used to some extent for
posts and pillars. Yellow pine is used for floor boards and running boards.
Douglas fir has been used for the same purpose as yellow pine. Basswood, cotton-
wood and yellow poplar are used for minor parts.

Table 1 shows the kinds of wood used in the different parts of an automobile,
based on a study of these companies which made bodies for a number of auto-
mobile manufacturers.

Jt is estimated by the Forest Products Laboratory that the total amount of
wood used in the construction of automobiles and motor trucks in the United
States amounted to 384,751,000 feet B. M. in the year 1919. The total consump-
tion of wood used in the industry is roughly estimated in the accompanying Table
2. (See Table 2.)

The amount of lumber used in each car varies from 75 feet B. M. for a small
open car to 200 feet B. M. for a medium-priced touring car. An average given by
a large body manufacturing corporation is 140 to 150 feet B. M. for open cars for
each body. A small sedan requires 225 feet B. M. and a large sedan, not including
running boards, uses about 310 feet B. M. One company stated that the average
waste was about 30 per cent., including drying losses, cutting and minimum jointer
waste, although others place the waste as high as 40 per cent.

In automobile work first and seconds are used nearly exclusively. One com-
pany used 75 per cent, first and seconds and 25 per cent. No. 1 common. A large
body company used 40 to 50 per cent, first and seconds, and the rest No. 1 common
of maple, elm and oak. Another company making high-priced cars will take only
20 per cent, of No. 1 common.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 305

SUBSTITUTES FOR ASH IN AUTOMOBILE BODIES

Ash has always been considered the most desirable wood for use in auto-
mobile bodies. It combines the properties of moderate weight, easy workability,
high degree of toughness and comparative freedom from warping. On account of
the high price of ash, however, other woods are gradually replacing it in many of
the less expensive cars.

The following description prepared by the Forest Products Laboratory gives
some of the advantages and disadvantages of the substitute woods as compared
with forest grown ash for automobile construction :

Maple. Hard maple is used for sills in many cars, and in some for the
framework of the body and even the floor and running boards. Maple is fully as
strong and stiff as a beam or post as white ash, but is not as shock-resistant. It is
usually cheaper than ash and runs more uniform in strength. Maple warps very
little, in this respect being superior to elm. On the other hand, maple is more
difficult to season without checking than ash or elm, and it is said not to hold
screws so well in motor car bodies. On account of the smooth, fine texture of
maple, paint and enamel rub off it more easily, especially on carved surfaces which
receive considerable wear, than off birch, which is slightly more porous. Because
of its smooth-wearing qualities and comparative freedom from slivers, maple is
preferred to all other woods for the floors of delivery trucks.

Elm. The principal use of elm is for frames, seat backs and doors ; very little,
if any, is used for sills. White is preferred to rock elm, except for some of the
bent parts, because it is more easily worked and is less subject to warping. For
the same reasons lumber from old white elm trees, usually called "gray elm," is
preferred to that from younger or vigorously growing trees. Old white elm is not
so strong or tough as ash, on the average, but it varies less in strength than ash,
especially that which comes from the Southern swamps.

Birch. Yellow birch is a close rival of maple. It is used for sills, framework
and many minor parts. It is said to hold the paint better than maple on exposed
parts.

Hickory. The true hickories are used almost exclusively for spokes and
felloes. Te pecan hickories, which are somewhat inferior as a class to the true
hickories, might be used in body construction, although their hardness and
tendency to twist would perhaps prove a serious drawback.

Red Gum. Red gum is too weak and soft for the sills and other major parts
of the frame, but is used for floor boards, seat risers and other minor parts. One
of the principal drawbacks to the use of gum is its tendency to warp with changes
in moisture content. Quarter-sawed gum gives less trouble in warping than plain-
sawed g^um.

Oak. In automobile construction no distinction is made, as a rule, between
the different species of oak or even between the red oak and white oak groups. In
truck bodies, oak is one of the leading woods, being used for sills, cross sills,
frames, floors and stakes. In pleasure cars oak is rarely used for the frame or sills.

306 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Wormy oak is used for running boards, floor boards and seats and some sound
oak for instrument boards and battery boxes. Top bows are made almost exclu-
sively of oak, second growth being preferred.

Southern Yellow Pine. Under this heading are included longleaf , loblolly,
shortleaf and some of the minor Southern pines. These have been found adaptable
for running boards, floor boards, seat boards and a number of small parts in the
seats and frames.

Other Species. Cottonwood is used for dash boards of pleasure cars and
the boxes or bodies of trucks. Sycamore, beech, basswood, yellow poplar, cuciun-
ber, tupelo, gum, chestnut, Douglas fir and western yellow pine have also entered
into car body construction to a small extent.

The comparative merits of the different species in the four properties most
important in automobile construction are given in the following table, the strength
of forest-g^own white ash being taken as 100. Actual strength values of these
species are to be found in Department of Agriculture Bulletin 556, "Mechanical
Properties of Woods Grown in the United States."

Strength of Woods Used in Automobile Construction in Per Cent, of the Strength of

Forest-Grown White Ash.

HasDWOODS Strength Shock

as a beam Stiffness resisting Hardness

Species or post ability

Ash, white, forest grown 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Ash, black 71.3 79J 90.1 62.3

Ash, white, second growth 122.5 117.6 119.6 118.9

Basswood 59.1 80.6 40.5 29.6

Beech 93.5 96.9 96.0 90.0

Birch, yellow 104.8 116.8 120.6 80.9

Chestnut 66.0 71.9 534 49.2

Cottonwood 60.6 79.0 54.3 35 3

Cucumber 85.4 112.4 n:j 54.9

Elm, rock or cork 98.8 92.9 140.5 101.6

Elm, white 792 79.5 89.5 57.1

Gum, red 80.7 91.5 75.5 590

Gum, tupelo or cotton 81.4 82.5 63-5 11 :^

Hickories, pecan 103.5 103.8 119.7 139.6

Hickories, true 126.6 1202 173.9 1504

Maple, red 90.0 101.2 78.7 75.4

Maple, silver 66.9 68.5 71.7 64.3

Maple, sugar 104.7 105.9 90.5 103.0

Oaks, all kinds 92.6 101.3 94.9 104.5

Poplar, yellow dLZ 93.8 41.5 37.9

CONIPBRS

Fir, Douglas, Pacific Coast 95.7 122.1 59.9 58.3

Pine, loblolly 93 7 105.6 71.0 60.0

Pine, longleaf 112.2 122.1 IIH 74.8

Pine, shortleaf 94 1 100.6 69.7 64.0

Pine, western white 75.5 99.7 53.8 37.0

Pine, western yellow 67.0 75.6 42-9 41.0

Spruce, Sitka 69.5 94.1 (A,Z 44.9

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN 307

STRENGTH OF SCREW FASTENINGS IN PLYWOOD

If the screw fastenings in plywood construction are to be as strong as the
plywood itself, it is important to adapt the size of screw, spacing and margin to
the particular species and thickness of plywood used. Tests made at the Forest
Products Laboratory have shown that the commonly-used plywood species may
be divided into the following groups, all woods in any one group requiring the
same screw fastening to develop maximum strength.

GROUP f GROUP U GROUP UI

Low D^rnaHn Moilum DmuUy High DtmU^

BMMood Honlock Ad^ hUidk H«ckb«ity A«h, white

Cedar, SpvoUtk Pino, mgar Aib, pumpidn IfagBoBa BewJi

CoCtoBwood Pine, wliito Elm, wUte Mahoguy Birch

CyprMs, bdd Poplw, ydlow Gvm, bbcfc Maple, •oft Cheny, black

Dooflas tu Redwood Gun, cotton Sycamore Ebn, cork

Fir, true Spcuoe, Sitka Gum, red Wahi|rt, black Maple, hard

SIZE AHD SPACING OF SCREWS FOR MAXIMUM STRENGTH IN PLYWOOD

Specie* ThickaoM Gauge Screw leufth in inchee Margin Spadng

of of pljrwood (mudber) SpoeU* fetMng point in in

plywood in inches of acrew Whfte ath Struct inches inches

3/30 4 i i i i

3/24 5 i ill

3/20 6 i 111

CROUP I 3/16 ' i I I i

S/lO 9 1 * S I

3/3 II I li I I

3/80 5 I i i 1

V" • I 111

3/20 7 S I I I

GROUP n 3/16 • I 1 i I

3/10 to 1 li I S

3/3 12 >J tj ! I

3/30 . 6 I i I I

3/24 7 I 1 if

3/20 8 1 li i I

GROUP lU 3/l6 li ii I I

3/10 II ij l| 1 i

3/8 * 13 l| 2 I 1

The screw sizes, margin and spacing for use with each species and plywood
thickness will be found in the accompanying table. The gauge is the smallest that
can be used with the thickness specified and not cause failure through breaking of
the screw when the full strength of the plywood is developed. The length of

308 THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

screw is the shortest which will prevent the screw from pulling out before the full
plywood strength is reached. The margin is the smallest distance from edge of
hole to edge of plywood which will insure against failure by shear. The spacing
is the distance from center to center of screw holes which gives maximum strength
per linear inch.

About equally good results were obtained with flat-headed screws without
washers, and round-headed screws with washers. Round-headed screws without
washers proved an inferior means of fastening. The spacing given in the table
is for screws in a single row, but staggering is recommended wherever possible.

In the tests the size of frame members to which the plywood might be
attached was necessarily a secondary consideration, and the block of wood in
which the screw points were held was simply made large enough to prevent
failure occurring in it. Until further information is obtained, designers must take
particular care that the frame is not split or weakened through the use of the size
of screw and the spacing necessary to make the fastening as strong as the plywood.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

309

USEFUL TABLES OF WEIGHTS FOR TRUCK DESIGNERS

BULK FREIGHT

Wt. Lbs.

Asbestos, per cu. ft 192

Asphaltum, per cu. ft 87

Ashes, of soft coal (solid), per cu. ft 43

Bricks, per 1,000 4,500

Bricks, soft, per cu. ft 100

Brick, common, per cu. ft 112

Brick, hard, per cu. ft 125

Brick, pressed, per cu. ft 135

Brick, fire, per cu. ft 140-50

Brick, sand lime, per cu. ft 136

26 ordinary bricks equal 1 cubic foot 118

Clay, per cu. ft 120-150

Clay, per cu. yd 3,240-4,050

Cement ( Portland) , per barrel 380

Cement (Portland), per bag 94

Cement (Natural), per barrel 285

Cement (Natural), per bag 94

Concrete, per cu. ft 120-155

Earth (rammed), per cu. ft., equals 110

Earth (rammed), per cu. yd., equals 2,970

Emery, per cu. ft 250

Fuel Oil, per cu. ft 54

Gravel, per cu. ft., equals 80-110

Gravel, per cu. yd., equals 2,160-2,970

Gold or Silver ore, per cu. ft 154

Gold or silver ore, per cu. yd 4,158

Granite, per cu. ft 160-170

Grain, wheat, per bushel 60

Grain, oats, per bushel 30

Grain, corn, per bushel 56

Grain, rye, per bushel 60

Garbage, per cu. ft 50

Hay, baled, per cu. ft 95

Hay, pressed, per cu. ft 25

Iron, cast, per cu. ft 446

Iron, grey foundry, per cu. ft 450

Lime, per struck bushel 75

Lime, per cu. ft 55

Mortar, per cu. ft 110

Mud, per cu. ft 102

Marble, Italian, per cu. ft 169

Marble, Vermont, per cu. ft 165

Oil, petroleum, per cu. ft 55

Plaster of Paris, per cu. ft 93-113

BULK FREIGHT (Continued)

Wt. Lbs.

Sand, per cu. ft 110

Sand, per cu. yd 2,970

Salt (Syracuse), per struck bushel 56

Salt (Turks Island) per struck bushel 80

Stone (various) , per cu. ft 175

Stone (various), per cu. yd 4,725

Sand stone, per cu. ft 155

Steel, per cu. ft 490

Slate, per cu. ft 175

Tar, per cu. ft 62

Water, salt, per cu. ft 64

Water, rain, per cu. ft 62

ARTIFICIAL ICE

4 X 10 X 24
6 X 12 X 26
8 X 15 X 32

11 X 11 X 32
8 X 15 X 44

10 X 15 X 36

10 X 20 X 36

11 X 22 X 32
14 X 14 X 40
11 X 22 X 44
11 X 22 X 56

Wt. Lbs.

....100
....100
....150

150

...200
... .200
....200
....300
....400

COAL

Wt. Lbs.

1 bushel (Bitum. coal), 1.55 cu. ft. equals.. 75

Anthracite coal, 1 cu. ft. equals 66

Bituminous coal, 1 cu. ft. equals 55

Cannel coal, 1 cu. ft. equals 50

Charcoal, 1 cu. ft. equals 20

Coke, 1 cu. ft. equals 32

SNOW

Wt. Lbs.

Fresh snow, 1 cu. ft. equals 5-12

Wet and compacted, 1 cu. ft. equals 15-50

ICE

Ice, 1 cu. ft. equals

Wt. Lbs.
...5754

310

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS
FARM PRODUCTS

Lbs. per bu.

Barley 48

Beans 60

Blue Grass Seed 14

Bran 20

Buckwheat 50

Clover Seed 60

Com, shelled 56

Com, on cob husked 70

Corn, kaffir 56

Corn, unhusked 74

Corameal 50

Cotton Seed 32

Flaxseed 56

Hemp Seed 44

Millet 50

Oats 32

Onions 57

Peanuts 22

Peas 60

Popcorn 56

Potatoes 60

Potatoes, sweet 55

Rye 56

Timothy Seed 45

Tomatoes 56

FARM PRODUCTS (Continued)

Irbs. per bu.

Turnips 55

Wheat 60

WEIGHTS PER CUBIC FOOT

Coal 50 lbs.

Barley 39 lbs.

Com Shelled 45 lbs-
Corn on Cob 30 lbs.

Cotton 93 lbs.

Flax 93 lbs.

Hay 4 lbs.

Hemp 93 lbs.

Oats 26 lbs.

Potatoes, Piled 42 lbs.

Rye 45 lbs.

Wheat 48 lbs.

WEIGHTS OF ANIMALS

Calf 150 lbs.

Cow 1000 lbs.

Hog 240 lbs.

Horse 1300 lbs.

Lamb 75 lbs-
Sheep 110 lbs.

Steer 1200 lbs.

Man 150 lbs.

SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF PACKAGES

Eggs 30 X 12 X 12" 30 dozen 52 lbs.

Milk 14' dia. 26" high 10 gallon 115 lbs.

18% X 14^ X 12" 12 qt. case 63 lbs.

Empty with bottles 33 lbs.

20 pt. case 54 lbs.

Empty with bottles 33 lbs.

Tub 30 lbs.

Tub 60 lbs.

18J4 X 14% X 10'

Butter 131/2 X WAr

WA X 15".

Cheese

\6% X 6^" Box

.30 lbs.

15J^

Box 60 lbs.

X 15"

Hay 46x30x 26" Standard Bale 210 lbs.

43 X 24 X 18" Small Bale 120 lbs.

Straw 43 x 30 x 26" Standard Bale 180 lbs.

Cotton 27 X 27 X 54 Standard Bale 515 lbs.

SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF BARRELS

Apples 20^" Bilge 17j^" head 28^" stave ..

Flour 21 " Bilge 18 " head 28^" stave . .

Sugar 25 " Bilge 2054" head 30 " stave . .

Salt 21 "Bilge 18 "head 29 "stave..

. . 150 lbs.
..200 lbs-
..300 lbs.
..280 lbs.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

RULE FOR CALCULATING WEIGHT
OF STEEL BARS, ETC.

HkTioK Um number of inibia indna in anr
bar. to mtd Um weifiit in ateel, multbly bf the
deonml JS83 if exact weUit ia dcMred; or
muhqilT 1^ J if a praotieal wright. auA aa
you an liu^ to get, is wanted. For the weieht
of WTOu^t non, multiply the cubic bchea by
.38. F«r the vd^t or east iron, multiply the
eubio bebea by .26.

WEIGHT OF BAR STEEL PER FOOT

IS. 40
17.30

19.20
21.20
23.60
25.70
28.20
80.60
33.18

u.oo

88.64
41.60
44.67
47.80
64.40
61.40
68.90
76.70
86.00
08.70
108.80

13.06
13.60
IS. 10

16.63
18.30
20. IS
22.06
24.10
26.12
28.30
30. 4«
32.70
3fi.20
37.64
42.72
48.30
64.60
60.80
66.80
72.00
SO 80
88 30
96 10

12.71

14 24

15 88
17 66
ig.45
31.Stt
23.28
26.36
27.60
30.28
32.10
34.66
37.06
39 68
46.12
S0.84
66.W

. 03.62
70.60
77.80
86.16
93.12
101.06

METRIC CONVERSION TABLES
U. S. TO METRIC

inch = 25.4001 millimeters
foot ■= 0J04801 meters
yard = 0.914402 meters
mile = 1.60935 kilometers

square inch =i 6.452 square centimeters
square foot = 9290 square decimeters
square yard = 0.S36 square meters

cubic inch ^ 16.387 cubic centimeters
cubic foot = 0.02832 cubic meters
cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meters

Weight
grain = 64.7989 milligrammes
av. ounce = 28 J49S grammes
troy ounce = 31.10348 grammes
av. pound = 0.45359 kilogrammes

Capacity
fluid drachm = 3,70 cubic centimeters
fluid ounce = 29.57 milliliters
quart = 0.94636 liters
gallon = 3.78544 liters

METWC TO U. S.

meter = 39.3700 inches
meter = 328083 feet
meter = 1.09361 yards
kilometer = 0.62137 miles

square centimeter := 0.I5S0 square inches
square meter — 10.7640 square feet
square meter = 1.196 square yards

cubic centimeter = 0-0610 cubic inches
cubic meter = 35.314 cubic feet
cubic meter t= 1.308 cubic yards

Wsiglit
milligramme — 0.01543 grains
kilogramme = 15432.36 grains
hectogramme ^^ 3.5274 av. ounces
kilogramme = 2.20462 av. pounds

milliliter = 0.27 fluid drachms
centiliter = D.336 fluid ounces
liter = 1,0567 quarts
dekaliter = 2.6417 gallons

312

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

WIRE GAUGES

in decimal purU of an Inch

«J

SCO

lihi

0000

.46

.454

1.512

.3938

40.94

0000

000

.40064

.425

1.415

.3625

34.73 _

000

.3648

.38

1.265

.3310

29.04

.32486

.34

1.132

.3065

27.66

.2803

1.000

.2830

21.23

.227

.26763

.284

.946

.2625

18.34

.219

.22042

.259

.863

.2437

15.78

.212

.20431

.238

.793

.2253

13.39

.207

.18194

.22

.733

.2070

11.36

.204

.16202

.203

.676

.1920

9.73

.201

.14428

.18

.600

.1770

8.03

.199

.12849

.165

.550

.1620

6.96

.197

.11443

.148

.493

.1483

6.08

.194

.10189

.134

.446

.1350

4.83

.191

.090742

.12

.400

.1205

3.82

.188

.080808

.109

.363

.1055

2.92

.185

.071961

.095

.316

.0915

2.24

.182

.064084

.083

.276

.0800

1.69

.180

.067068

.072

.240

.0720

1.37

.178

.05082

.065

.217

.0625

1.05

.175

.046257

.058

.193

.0540

.77

.172

.040303

-049

.165

.0475

.58

.168

.03589

.042

.140

.0410

.45

.164

.031961

.035

.117

.0348

.32

.161

.028462

.032

.107

.03175

.27

.157

.026347

.028

.093

.0286

.21

.155

.022571

.025

.083

.0258

.175

.153

.0201

.022

.073

.0230

.140

.151

.0179

.02

.067

.0204

.116

.148

.01594

.018

.060

.0181

.093

.146

.014195

.016

.053

.0173

.083

.143

.012641

.014

.047

.0162

.074

.139

.011257

.013

.044

.0150

.061

.134

.010025

.012

.040

.0140

.054

.127

.008928

.01

.0333

.0132

.050

.120

.00795

.009

.0300

.0128

.046

.115

.00708

.008

.0266

.0118

.037

.112

.006304

.007

.0233

.0104

.030

.110

.005614

.005

.0167

.0096

.025

.108

.005

.054

.0133

.0090

.021

.106

37. -

.004453

'• • • •

• ••'■••

a03

-38

.003965

• • • •

'.•«•*.

.101

.003531

• • • •

•

.099

.003144

• « • •

......

.092

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

313

•

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Of OODiO « Ol ^ 0«»«D l>«<0

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314

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

WEIGHTS OP LIQUIDS

Weight in

Potinds per

Galloo.

Name of Liquid

Add, muriatic (40%). . .

Add. nitric (91%)

Add. sulphuric (87%)..
Alcohol, ethyl (100%). i
Alcohol, methyl (100%)

Alcohol, pure

Bensene

C^hlorofonn

Bther

Bther, sulphuric

Pud-otI

Gasolene

Ice

Kerosene

Linsred oil

Lubricants

Lttbricatinff oil

Lye. soda (66%)*.

Mercury

Molasses

Muriatic add (40%)...

Naphtha

Naphtha. No. 2.

Nitric Add (91%)

Oil

Oil. mineral.....

Oil, ve^table

Olive oil

Petroleum

Petroleum, refined

Rape oil

Rigolene ,

Sea water

Snow, freshly fallen. . . .
Snow, wet (compact) . . .
Sulphuric add (S7%) . . ,

Tdr

Turpentine

Turpentine oil

Vinegar

Waiflr. pure

Whale oil

Wine

Weight in
Pounds per
Cubic Poot.

75.0

94.0

116.6

49.0

no.o

49.6
46.0
96.0
46.0
45.0
54.6
45.0
56.0
52.8
58.7
57.0
57.2
106.0
848.7
93.5
75.0
43.1
44.1
94.0
52.0
57.0
58.0
57.5
54.8
50.3
57.5
30.0
64.0
8.0
30.0
115.6
62.4
54.0
54.3
62.4
62.4
57.6
62.3

10.02

12.56

15.50

6.55

6.88

6.63

6.14

12.70

6.14

6.01

7.20

6.01

7.48

7.00

7.84

7.62

7.65

14.17

113.46

12.50

10.02

5.76

5.89

12.56

6.95

7.62

7.75

7.72

7.32

6.72

7.72

5.21

8.55

1.06

4.01

15.50

8.34

7.21

7.25

8.34

7.70

8.32

Number
of GaUoos
in 3 Tons.

588.82
477.72
387.00
916.08
872.00
904.05
987.19
472.44
987.19
998.31
833.31
998.31
802.11
857.18
765.30
787.38
784.29
423.42
52.88
480.00
588.82
1,041.66
1.118.67
477.72
865.23
787.38
774.18
778.77
819.66
892.83
778.77
1.151.63
698.73
05.660.37
M.496.25
387.09
719.40
832.17
827.58
719.40
719.40
•779.28
721.14

Number
of GaUoos
in 5 Tons.

981.35

796.20

645.15

1.526.88

1.453.45

1,506.78

1,628.66

787.41

1,628UI6

1.663.88

1,388.88

1,633.88

1,336.89

1,428.57

1,275.51

1.312.33

1,307.18

705.70

88.13

800.00

981.35

1,736.10

1,697.75

796.20

1,442.07

1.312.33

1.290.32

1,297.95

1,366.12

1,488.00

1,297.95

1,919.35

1.169.59

e9.433.95

^2.483.90

645.15

1,386.96
1,379.31
1,199.04
1,199.04
1.298.70
1.201.92

a There are 750 cubic feet in 3 tons and 1.250 cubic feet in 5 tons,
cubic feet in '3 tons and 333.30 cubic feet in 5 tons.

b There are 200

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

315

WEIGHTS OP ORES.

Name of Ore.

Weighrin
Pounds per
Cubic Poot.

Weight in
Pounds per
Cubic Yard.

Number
of Cubic Peet
in 3 Tons.

Number

of Cubic Peet

in 5 Tons.

Blende

253
237
237
418
262
262
253
465
325
281
465
237
315
259
262
259
325
253
418
253

7,831
6.399
6.399

11.286
7.074
7.074
7.831

12.555
8.775
7,587
. 12,555
6,399
8,405
6.993
7.074
6.993
8.775
7,831

11.286
7.831

23.7
25.2
25.2
14.3
22.8
22.8
23.7
12.9
18.4
21.3
12.9
25.2
18.4
20.8
22.8
20.8
18.4
23.7
14.3
23.7

39.5

Brown hematite. . .
Brown iron ore. . .

Cassiterite

Chalcopyrite

CoDoer

42.1
42.1
23.9
38.1
38.1

False galena....^..
Galena

39.5
21.5

Hematite^

30.7

Iron (average)

Lead

35.5
21.5

Limonite

42.1

Magnetite

Manganese

Psmtes. copper....

Pyrolusite

Red hematite

Sphalerite

31.7
34.7
38.1
34 7
30.7
39.5
23.9

Zinc.*.'...'."

39.5

WEIGHTS OP MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS.

Name of Material.

Cork

Pats

Plour, loose

Plour, pressed

Garbage

Hay

Lard

Leather

Paper 4

Powder, shaken ....

Rosin

Rubber

Rubber goodc

Rubbish (rags, etc.) .

Straw. . ^.....

Street sweepings ...

Sulphur.^

Wool, pressed

Weight in

Weight in*

No. of

Pounds per

Cobfe Yds.

Cubic Yds.

Cubic Poot.

Cubic Yard.

in 3 Tons.

in 5 Tons.

60.5

1.633

3.66

6.10

15.0

405

14.70

24.68

58.0

hSM

3.82

6.38

28.0

756

7.93

13.22

47.0

1.209

4.72

7.88

42.6

1.150

5.21

8.68

20.0

540

11.11

18.51

50.0

1.593

3.76

6.25

50.0

1.593

3.76

6.25

58.0

1.566

3.82

6.38

62.3

1.682

3.56

5.93

68.6

1.852

3.23

5.39

59.0

1.593

3.76

6.25

94.0

2.538

2.36

3.93

7.4

200

30.00

50.00

20.0

540

11.11

18 51

81.5

850

6.99

11.76

125.0

8.375

1.77

2 96

82.0

2.214

2.71

4 51

316

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

ANGLES OP 8UDB OP VARIOUS MATBRIALS.

Name of Material.

Ash«»dry

Aahea. moist

Ashett wet

Afephalt

Cinders, dry;

CinderSt inotst

Cinders, Wet .....••■«
Cinders and day

Coal, anthracite

Coal, bitttminoos

Coke

Concrete

Angle of
Slide in

83
86
80
46

40
88
84
81
80
46
25
80

Name oCMaterial.

Angle of

Slide in

Earth, loose
Earth, padcsd
Garbute
GravcT. .
Ore

Ore. run-of-the-mine

Rubble

Sand, dry

Sal)d. No. 2, ft broken stone

Shingles « .

Stooe

Stone, broken

Stone* crushed

Stone, nin-of-the-mine. . . .

30
86-40

80
86-40

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

317

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERATE-PRICED CLOSED CAR

The far-sighted body engineer realized a
long time ago that the ultimate development
of the automobile would be a completely en-
closed car. This car would have a perma-
nent roof and glass side windows, either ad-
justable for ventilation, or removable for
fair weather traveling. Development work,
along this line, for providing all-season
bodies has been going on for years, and a
large number of body types have been made
and manufactured.

There have been a good many factors
which have governed the engineer in the past,
and there are still a lot of conditions to con-
sider. Some of the factors are engineering
problems, some are selling and some might
be termed psychological. The engineer was
not, as a rule, expected to worry about sell-
ing problems or psychology, for the manage-
ment, which included the sales division, con-
sidered this their own field. This condition
is very well remembered by automobile engi-
neers who have worked through the develop-
ment of the automobile from its first concep-
tion. Psychology and sales influence did not
affect the car in its early struggle, because the
problem was to make the car run and keep
it running. When this had been accom-
plished, the management and sales managers
began to make the car suit their plans.

About this time the exterior appearance
became an important factor, and inasmuch as
the body engineer controls the general ap-
pearance of the car he had to work close to
the management and produce what they
wanted. "Pleasure" cars were being built
and the industry was in its long clothes, and
still using the nursing bottle. Manufacturers
were so busy filling the demand for cars
that little heed was paid to tomorrow until
the war conditions and the government de-
cided that the automobile was a luxury, and
acted accordingly. In a very short time the
industry grew up and found that it had the
name of producing "luxuries," whereas it
had made a very essential mechanical contri-
bution to the world's advancement. By chang-

ing the word from "pleasure" to "passenger"
car the useful side was emphasized, but to the
public who were using cars it was evident
a long time that the car was not a luxury
in the true sense of the word, any more than
a house, a train or trolley was.

The industry was developed on the open
car, with the closed car having the status
of a dty, or limited use and "luxury" vehicle.
Scientific and large production manufactur-
ing brought the price of the cars down and
rendered it possible to sell a closed car for
a price which made it feasible for a large
percentage of car users to obtain them. In
the early stages the closed car was practi-
cally a hand-made and so-called "custom
shop" product. While a large percentage of
people stored their cars in the winter months,
an open car satisfied their requirements, but
the perfection of the mechanical construction
made it possible to use the car the entire year
around; so better protection and more com-
fort were demanded for winter driving.

Closed car development is only in its in-
fancy. Originally the closed car was used
only in the cities and on good roads at a low
speed. The car of today must be capable of
withstanding high speed driving on all kinds
of roads. This means it must be substan-
tially built to stand terrific shocks which a
car will get in all-round driving. The pub-
lic is car-wise, and would buy the closed car
if they can purchase adequate transportation
for a fair cost. The best value for the dollar
will always get the market, but dollar value
must also be consistent with general appear-
ance, so the car must have a pleasing and at-
tractive exterior, comfortable interior, and
be constructed to cover the car's require-
ments, which have been proven acceptable in
the development of the automobile. In other
words, the doors should allow the passengers
to get in and out easily; plenty of leg room
and head clearance; comfortable seating ar-
rangement; good vision and proper ventilat-
ing facilities are necessary.

The situation boils itself down to whether

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

J-8

^^^

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

319

the present type of closed car can be made
cheap enough and in quantities large enough
to replace the open car entirely, or will a
new type closed car body be developed.

Take any popular-priced six-cylinder car
and examine the five-passenger closed body
and the five-passenger open body. There is
a difference of about $700 between them. This
difference is practically all in the body, be-
cause the chassis is usually the same, with
the exception of the rear springs. The fol-
lowing list will permit an examination of the
main differences between an open and closed
car:

Open Car
Body wood construc-
tion, lumber re-
quired 130 b, ft.

Mall, iron braces ..30 lbs.

Sheet steel 20 lbs.

Glass 5.3 sq. f t.

Hardware door light door

locks lock

Outside Yale lock none

Door handles light

Door dovetails light

Door bumpers light

Strikes light

Window regulators . .none

Door hinges two on

each
door

Door light none

Dome switch none

Sunshade fittings .none

Fittings to operate
rear quarter light. none

Upholstery cush-
ion springs light

Back springs standard

Material for backs
and cushions .... leather

Door covering .... imitation

leather

Head lining none

Side trimming leather

Carpet, front none

Closed Car

350 b. ft.
60 lbs.
15% more
33 sq. ft

heavy lock .

Yale lock

heavy

All doors
1 each door

three
yes
yes
yes

yes

special
standard

fabric

fabric
fabric
fabric
yes

Open Car

Carpet, rear medium

grade

Foot rest good

Robe rail metal

Door straps leather or

cotton

Pull-to handle none

Hand pad leather

Tops cloth and

metal
sockets

Closed Car

good grade

first-class

fabric, metal
fittings

fabric and
cotton

metal or
rope type

none

Part of con-
struction
wood frame
and compo.
board

Drip moulding none aluminum

Painting More time and coats on

closed body, also more
surface, requiring more
paint

This list is interesting for a general com-
parison between the open and closed bodies,
and the first question is, what can be dis-
pensed with without sacrificing utility. One
thing that must be kept in mind is that labor,
which will be a considerable item, does not
show in this list, neither does the overhead,
which includes factory and selling expenses,
also dealers' profits. Every item which is
simplified or omitted will reduce the over-
head charge in proportion to the extent of
the changes made. By examining the items
separately some idea can be obtained for re-
ducing cost.

1. Wood construction depends upon body
lines. By simplifying the lines less lumber
will be used, because the parts, especially the
posts, can be cut out of small stock lumber.
Costs increase considerably as the stock re-
quired becomes larger than 4x4. For the
main construction it will not pay to use in-
ferior or an unsuitable kind for the sake of
economy.

2. Malleable iron. This material is used for
braces. These could be closely analyzed and
lightened where possible, but strength should
not be sacrificed under any consideration.

320

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

3. The amount of steel for the body panel
is entirely governed by the size of the body
The weight should be kept to the minimum
by using the gauge which experience has
shown practical.

4. Glass. The amount of glass is governed
by the general design. The design can be
worked out to have a high belt rail and low
top rail. This will cut down the length of
the glass. The width can be controlled by
making the body as compact as possible. The
rear quarter glass can be made short. The
rear back light can be considerably reduced.
An open car can get along with about 130
square inches, whereas the closed car uses
about 500 square inches.

In proportioning the glass size, economy
can be effected by keeping in mind that glass
is sold in even dimensions, increasing by 2
inches at a time. For instance, a glass meas-
uring 21 X 19 will cost the same as one
22 X 20, and the size should be either in-
creased to take the advantage of the amount
which has to be purchased, or reduced to
18 X 20. There could be 80 square inches
saved by reducing the size to 18 x 20.

5. Door locks can be simplified for closed
body use.

6. Yale locks could be eliminated, as they
are not used on open cars; switch locks and
transmission locks would, no doubt, be used
in any case.

7. The door handle could be simplified.

8. Door dovetails. This is a very im-
portant detail and should not be changed if
its efficiency is impaired in any way.

9. Door bumpers. Small item — ^there is not
much to be done with these.

10. Strikes can be made of malleable iron
and lightened.

11. Window regulator. Straps could be
used if felt desirable from sales standpoint,
or a simple operating device similar to a
Clement type regulator used in some cars
on the rear quarter light.

12. Door hinges. The outside type forged
steel can replace expensive concealed ones on
the low-priced closed car.

13. Dome light. A convenience, not abso-
lutely necessary ; none are used on open cars.

14. Switch could be eliminated by hooking
wire on to the instrument light.

15. Sunshade. Very useful and can be
made very cheaply.

16. Rear quarter light could be made per-
manent In most designs this light only drops
a short distance and is very rarely used for
ventilating. This light can be reduced in
size.

17. Cushion springs. Same springs as are
used in open cars could be used in closed
ones.

18. Back spring. Same springs as are used
in open cars could be used.

19. Trimming material. Cloth or leather
can be used. Cost will be affected by mar-
ket conditions.

20. Door covering. Cloth or imitation
leather to suit back and cushion material.

21. Head lining, coated drill or cloth.

22. Side trimming. Imitation leather, real
leather, or cloth to suit general trimming.
The sides of the body and posts could be left
untrimmed and painted instead. This is a
doubtful economy, because the workmen
would have to be carefully watched. The
posts would have to be finished very care-
fully. Painting the posts and panels between
would not be a very easy task, and when it is
all done it is questionable whether there
would be any economy over the trimmed
style.

23. Use rubber mats or linoleum for
economy.

24. Carpet should be used.

25. Foot rest design cheapened.

26. Robe rail. Rope type the most econom-
ical.

27. Door straps. Standard construction.

28. Door pull-to handle. Metal type can be
used.

29. Hand pads. Applies to open cars only.
3b. The tops of closed cars are covered

with aluminum, composition materials and
slats with imitation leather. Imitation leather
on slats is the cheapest.

31. Drip moulding can be made of steel and
screwed on. This is not the best method, but
it can be used for economy.

32. Painting. The finish on the average car
is none too good, but the closed body could
have the same finish as the open cars; then
there are the extra surfaces to be covered.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

321

The system of manufacturing should also
be carefully analyzed, and if a line system of
progressive assembly is to be used, the de-
sign should be worked out to enable the best
production results. One manufacturer makes
various sections of the body and trims them,
and then bolts the sections together. This is
a new phase and should be closely watched.
So far, the success of the closed body has
been in its careful framing and jointing.

Trimming methods could be simplified
without having sectional assemblies.

Detachable trimming could be made so it
would only require a few screws, nails or
tacks to assemble it in the car.

In Fig. 1 is shown a closed car laid out
to show how the glass sizes could be cut
down without affecting the car's utility. The
roof, it will be noted, is like some of the old
type cars and has a deep, rounded side. This
cuts off about two inches of glass all around.
It does not affect the head room or vision.
The belt line has also been raised and this
saves two inches of glass on the bottom.

^mm

322

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

HARMONY IN CAR UPHOLSTERY*

Harmony in car upholstery is a subject
closely allied to color harmony in general;
however, the decoration of car interiors is a
new art in the sense that it is an old art
newly applied.

A car interior requires different treat-
ment from that accorded a house interior;
in fact, we must approach the subject
from an entirely different angle because
of its more or less public nature. Further-
more, owing to quantity-production methods
that have made possible the extensive use of
the closed car, it was essential in the past to
exert extreme caution in designing fabrics
for car builders that would prove acceptable
to the greatest number of different person-
alities. The result caused restraint in con-
ception to be the guiding principle. Unfor-
tunately this rule was not always recognized.
The interior of a car has been treated at
times as a piece of furniture to be uphol-
stered as a boudoir with satins and hand-
made lace, and all too often as a signboard
whereon to write in blazing colors and pat-
terns someone's ostentatious bad taste. It
is time for a return to first principles. Good
taste is an elusive quality, one of appraisal
rather than of creation. The color scheme
is the prime consideration in the correct
decoration of motor-car interiors. The
fabrics to be used are of importance also, but
I will discuss the subject of color first.

In a broad sense color includes light and
shade, and it is synonymous with light. It
is safe to say that no subject has been more
abused than color and I shall endeavor to
clarify the entire subject of color harmony,
or at least to convey a rudimentary knowl-
edge of the subject so that the underlying
principles, as applied to car interiors, can be
understood.

The chief use of color is to beautify and.
by its harmony, to appeal to the esthetic
instinct. I believe that all persons possess
esthetic taste, at least to a slight degree. We
all know that taste is a matter of mental de-
velopment. For instance, the child and the

savage naturally prefer gaudy, brilliant
colors, but more mature and refined persons
prefer somewhat subdued shades and tints.
Many persons possess a natural color-sense.
However, color knowledge is attained easily
in sufficient measure to enable one to deter-
mine readily which colors are harmonious,
and which are not.

Color Harmony

Science maintains and proves every day
that the orderly separation and co-ordination
of simple facts will reduce the mysteries of
yesterday to commonplace simplicities. Let
us see what can be done toward simplifying
the language of color and to define, in a
measure, color harmony and its psychology.

We have the three pure colors of red,
yellow and blue, as the basis of all other
colors; they are elements in themselves, and
cannot be produced by mixture. Therefore,
they are called primary colors; each of
them in its full intensity differs widely from
the others in tone and quality. A number
of other colors are in the spectrum and are
termed binary or secondary colors. They
are formed by mixing equal parts of two
primary colors. For instance, when we mix
equal parts of red and yellow, we produce a
binary color, orange; yellow and blue mix
to form the binary color, green; and blue
and red mingle into a binary color, violet,
thus completing the circle. We now have
six colors and have widened the field con-
siderably.

In the application of colors to decorative
design, the binary or secondary colors are
vastly more interesting than the primary
colors. Any color with two component parts
is more interesting than a purely elemental
color. For instance, orange has greater
decorative value than either yellow or red.
green has more "quality" than either
blue or yellow and violet is decidedly more
interesting than either red or blue. Like the
primary, the secondary colors can be com-
bined effectively with any or all of the

* By R. S. Quaintance, Manager of Sales Promotion, Bridgeport Coach I«ace Co., Bridpreport, Conn. A
Paper read before the Body Section, Society of Automotive Engineers at .the Annual Meeting in New York
City. January 11, 1922.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

323

neutral tones, white, black or gray. It is
possible also at this stage to harmonize
colors by using complementary or opposite
colors.

Complementary colors are those which, if
all colors were arranged around the circum-
ference of a circle in proper order, would
be exactly opposite the primary colors; in
other words, by drawing a line from the red
through the center of the circle, we would
find that green is the complementary color.
A primary and a complementary color form
the strongest possible contrast to each other.
It is not possible to find a color more dif-
ferent from red than green; they have
nothing in common. However, these same
colors have the peculiar power to enhance
each other when placed side by side. Each
seems to gain strength. A red apple looks
redder when it nestles among the green
leaves and the leaves look greener near the
red apple. Another peculiar thing about the
complementary colors orange and blue, yel-
low and violet and red and green, is the fact
that they destroy each other when mixed
together as in paints. A mixture of equal
parts of any two complementary colors pro-
duces a neutral gray.

Color Psychology

To appreciate color harmony, it is neces-
sary to know something of the psychology of
color and the influence it exerts upon the
emotions. It is a well-established fact that
the entire personality is stimulated or de-
pressed by colors, and very many data are
available on the effects ,of visual color-
stimulus upon the blood pressure, upon mus-
cular, mental and nervous activity and upon
the mood, and these effects are evident in
many ways.

The esthetic significance of color was
recognized many centuries ago; in fact,
much of the psychology of color appears in
mythology. Xenophon reports a conversa-
tion between Socrates and Parrhasius in
which the esthetic value of color is shown
to have been appreciated by the early Greeks.
Plato also discusses the beauty and symbol-
ism of color and reveals his acquaintance
with its ability to excite emotional response.
The influence of color is positive, and so is

the difficulty to analyze it. Has not every-
one felt the influence, the purity of freshly
fallen snow and experienced a feeling of re-
sentment or guilt when this beautiful white
cloak is wantonly soiled or disturbed.

The meaning of colors, their language,
already is established by common consent
throughout the ages. We cannot ignore it.
Not all can understand the causes of some
of their sensations of happiness or comfort,
but many of them are definitely traceable
to the proper use of color. The recognition
of beauty of color and the finer feeling to-
ward colors are dependent in large measure
upon the taste of the beholder. To repeat
taste is largely a matter of mental develop-
ment. The eye loves color. Whether con-
scious of it or not, all people react or respond
to the influence of color. Color has power
to attract attention, to stimulate emotion, to
animate and cheer or to quiet and depress.

Color is not as well understood as it
should be for the reason that artists have
maintained it as their own private preserve.
They built a barbed-wire fence about it and
put up a sign reading, "Thou shalt not tres-
pass." They contend that, aside from a few
general principles of color harmony, the
realization of satisfactory color arrange-
ments depends on esthetic instinct.

The phase of color study which the charts
cannot touch is a kind of inner shrine that
we may term its psychology. Wholly apart
from color sources, dimensions or harmonies,
what are the effects different colors exert on
personal feelings and emotions? Why do
we feel cheered and enlivened by light tones
of color and depressed by the darker tones?
Why, for instance, is red a more exciting
color than blue? Why do we speak of colors
as warm or cold when there is no physical
sensation of heat or cold? Why are orange,
yellow and red called advancing colors and
blue and violet termed retreating colors?
All these and many other questions are
answered in the study of color psychology.

It has been known for centuries that colors
are either warm or cold, and scientists have
established definitely that some colors are
retiring and others are advancing. Colors
are either stimulating or depressing, as well
as either warm or cold. It is seen readily.

324

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

when looking at the spectral band, that
colors on the red side are warm and the
colors on the blue side cold. We think of
sunshine as being warm. Yellow is the
color of the sun ; hence, a tint or shade con-
taining yellow is called a warm tint or shade.
It gives us the feeling of vitality and
warmth. It is the symbol of action, of cour-
age. Red stimulates and excites. When we
are stirred with strong emotion, such as
anger, bashfulness or hatred, the red blood
leaps from our hearts and flames in our
cheeks. Red is far more attractive than
yellow and is conducive to the thought of
heat, an element that is lacking in yellow.
Who has not felt the cockles of his heart
warm and expand before an open fire? In
a room otherwise dark and gloomy, it seems
a living thing. Gilbert K. Chesterton ex-
presses our attitude toward an open fire in
these characteristic words:

"A queer fancy seems to be current that an
open fire exists to warm people! It exists
to warm their hearts, to light their darkness,
to raise their spirits, to cook their chestnuts,
to tell stories to their children, to make
checkered shadows on their walls and to be
the red heart of a man's house and hearth,
for which, as the great heathen said, 'a man
should die\"

Color Values

Red is a warm color of great power.
Yellow, orange, the browns and their neigh-
boring hues and tints are warm colors. All
of the brighter colors are symbols of light
and warmfh and in this sense yellow is
gaudy, gay and enlivening and naturally em-
blematic of the sun.

Blue logically is associated with serenity,
sedateness and cold calmness, and probably
has been so associated through centuries of
contemplation of the sky or heavens. Due
to its being the color or the sky, it is char-
acterized as dignified and soothing. It sig-
nifies melancholy as well as sedateness. Blue
is everything that yellow and red are not.
It is quiet reserved and cold. We speak
of the icy-blue stillness of the Far North, of
cold, steely-blue eyes, and of having the
"blues" when we are conscious of a lack of
enthusiasm over life's affairs. In fact, cold-
ness is the outstanding feature of blue and

is communicated in varying degrees by all
colors than contain blue components.

The cold colors are predominantly restful.
However, they may be either agreeable or
disagreeable. Their associations determine
their agreeableness and these generally
operate through sub-conscious channels.
The warm colors generally are stimulating.
But, as there are various degrees of stimulus,
the warmer color also may be either agree-
able or disagreeable.

Just why certain combinations of color are
pleasing and others disagreeable, or even
shocking, it is difficult to say. The question
can be answered by stating that the combi-
nation is either harmonious or discordant.
Harmony is merely a pleasing arrangement
of colors; this is analogous to harmony in
music, which is produced by pleasing ar-
rangement of musical notes. In music, we
know that rhythmic experiences or sounds are
much more agreeable than those which are
non-rhythmic. We must apply the same sort
of rule to color. As an art, coloring is on
an equal plane with music. However, as an
exact science, music is far in advance.

Color Schemes

It is a well-established fact that the eye is
pleased with a group of colors that show all
of the primary colors in at least some degree.
In color sensations the presence of all three
colors appears to complete the color circuit.
It is very difficult to explain this, and it
must be accepted as a fact. As an instance,
doubtless everyone has, at some time or
other, tried the experiment of gazing in-
tently at a round disc of strong red on a
white background. If the red disc is sud-
denly removed and one continues to gaze at
the white background, a green disc will ap-
pear. Green is a combination of yellow and
blue. The eye has supplied the complement
to the color that so filled it a moment before
proving that certain colors seem to call for
or demand certain other colors.

Color harmony cannot be achieved by
selecting any two or more colors from the
spectrum at random. It is essential that the
colors chosen be at equal intervals from each
other. We find, here, an analogy in music

Two harmonious colors can be chosen
from a color circle by selecting two com-

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

325

plementary colors as has been described ; that
is, two colors exactly opposite to each other
on the color circle are harmonious. I will
now describe how to locate three-color har-
monies by using an equilateral triangle to
insure an equal interval between the color
steps. If we place the triangle with the apex
at yellow, the other two angles will locate
the other colors in the color scheme, red and
blue ; and in traveling around the color circle,
we locate the secondary and the neighboring
colors. Having a proper regard for area,
the three colors in each group can be used
together in respect to the hue and luminos-
ity of each color, in any value or intensity,
and with gray, white or black, and can be
depended upon to produce harmony. How-
ever, do not misunderstand me; the primary
and secondary colors located by this simple
method would not be suitable for use in
closed-car interiors.

Another method of arriving at a color
scheme that combines all the primary colors
but in far more subtle proportions is by vary-
ing the interval. Just as there are different
intervals in musical harmony, the majors
and the minors, there are different intervals
in color harmony. This gives us what is
termed a split complement. The three points
of this triangle can be made to travel around
the color circle and locate the different split
coAiplements. These combinations contain
also all of the elements of the straight com-
plement or all of the primary colors; but
they are present in different proportions.

Decoration of Car Interiors
It cannot be emphasized too strongly that,
in the natural expression of refined taste,
the purer color must be used sparingly and
with great care. The tints and shades or
tones are to be favored. The chief function
of the purer color is emphasis only or, if
one can so refer to it, the purer colors are
for punctuations only. While it is agreed by
most students that complementary colors are
harmonious, there are certain conditions
that must be considered, chief among which
is area. For instance, green is the comple-
mentary of red. For certain purposes this
combination is an excellent one. When ap-
plying it to a closed-car interior, we must
neutralize the dominant hue.

Professor Munsell has compiled a color
chart which shows that red is twice as strong
as green in what he terms "chroma.'' In
this instance we will regulate the area; so
that our dominant color is green and con-
siderably lowers the value of the red by
darkening it. The green itself might well be
grayed, preferably to* an olive, and we then
find, in appl3ring the two complementary
colors to a closed-car interior, that the color
scheme has worked out to an olive-green
cloth with a maroon stripe. It is a combination
that is suggestive of spring and of the garb
of nature and is representative of life, youth
and freshness; a combination of warm and
cold colors that is agreeable and restful,
since the maroon stripe supplies sufficient life
to tone-up the combination.

In passing it may be well to remark that
nature supplies a wealth of harmony which
must be studied to be appreciated. The stu-
dent will observe quickly that nature em-
ploys a relatively small amount of pure
colors. Even the beautiful sunsets are
devoid of pure colors; all of the beautiful
effects arise from ever-changing combina-
tions of tints and shades.

A point to be borne in mind in regard to
harmony in car upholstering is the fact that
the less obvious the color element is, the
more quality the different lones possess.
This is applicable equally to color harmony
in other fields.

The wanner tones are to be preferred for
use in a closed car as against the colder
tones. By those who have understood the
subject, the warmer tints have been selected
with a view to making the interior cheerful
and inviting in its appeal, and to make it as
pleasant as a well-appointed drawing-room
in its season of greatest usefulness, winter.
The same interior can be made cool, quiet
and restful during summer, by the use of
slip-covers iiaving a color scheme based upon
the cold side of the color circle. Slip-covers
serve other purposes, chief among which is
the protection of the upholstery from dust
and dirt during periods in which the windows
frequently are lowered when driving.

A still different kind of color harmony that
I am sorry to say, is extremely popular with
many car-builders, is what is termed a mono-

326

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

chromatic group. This is made up of two
or more tones of the same color. It is the
most unobtrusive and conservative harmony
scheme possible. It is always safe, but sel-
dom interesting. There is, however, an even
more severe treatment, that of employing a
single solid tone. T,his practice requires
painstaking care in the selection of laces,
curtains, curtain cords and other trimming
accessories to insure perfect matching I
have seen some excellent examples of this
type in the products of custom body-build-
ers, but I do not commend its use to large
manufacturers. This treatment would not
wear well with some personalities; it would
become extremely monotonous and probably
tiresome.

In the mono-chromatic harmonies, those
employing two or more tones of the same
color and any other schemes except the solid
tone, it is possible to give the interior that
natural balance of light over darkness that
is considered of prime importance in all
decorative fields. In this case the floor cov-
ering would be of the darkest shade, the body
cloth a trifle lighter, and the trimmings and
head lining, if one is used, of a still lighter
shade. In interiors of this nature it is pos-
sible to make the color scheme interesting by
the use of one or more bright spots such
as an enameled handle or vanity case, or by
using other interior fixtures. This should
be of a color complementary to the domi-
nant color. If we must have mono-chro-
matic car-interiors, let us at least liven them
up. If we insist that the cloth manufacturer
supply us with fabrics containing two or
more neutral shades, then let us save the
interior; let us liven it up by the intelligent
use of spots of color in the other interior
fittings.

I wish to urge, however, that we be rea-
sonable. Judging from the descriptions I
have read of the cars shown at the recent
Paris Salon, our European friends have
achieved some remarkably grotesque dis-
cords in this line; apparently, this is a re-
action from the recent war. Some of the
cars shown must have been extremely ludi-
crous; nevertheless, we can learn much from
the Europeans. Not all of their creations
are to be classed as freakish; in fact, all

Latins are more artistic than Saxons, as a
rule and, generally, they are much more fond
of color.

Fabrics

There are three general types of fabric,
cotton, wool and mohair. Of the first, cot-
ton, little need be said. Cottons are used
generally in the cheaper cars only, although
the cotton velours had an extensive run in
the medium-grade cars during the war period,
as did the cheaper cottons also. These vel-
ours, while giving a rich luxurious effect,
are not really serviceable. The mohairs
woven from the hair of the angora goat
are extremely serviceable and have enjoyed
several years of popularity. But the fabric
that seems to be the most desirable from all
angles of style, wearing quality and appro-
priateness is the various kinds of woolen
cloths. They vary in weaves and weights
and a particular type can be found for any
upholstery purpose.

A point to be borne in mind when selecting
fabrics is that any pronounced figure will
soon grow extremely tiresome. The eye re-
quires complete rest in a closed car, rest
from the continuous motion outside. The
influence of the interior should be one that
is felt rather than seen; for this reason the
brocades, tapestries and chintzes, or other
furniture upholsteries, have no place in the
correctly appointed motor-car. The pattern
should be small and unobtrusive and appear
in the body lining only.

Some manufacturers have experimented
extensively with woolen cloths and today
are weaving a cloth on looms especially de-
signed for automobile fabrics. Special fin-
ishing machinery has been built to impart a
broadcloth finish to all woolen cloths. A
fabric that promises to become extremely
popular is the new worsted cloth. Some of
this is all worsted, and some grades are only
worsted-faced. These cloths trim well and
have unusual wearing qualities. Another
new fabric that has great promise is the
mohair sateen, a flat woven mohair. This
can be made in a wide variety of shades and
various patterns and, strange as it may
sound, it is guaranteed by the manufacturer
to outwear the car.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

327

In conclusion, I want to enter a plea for
more color; more color in interior and
more color in the exterior. We literally
have worked the funereal color, black, to
death. For years we have painted the
majority of our cars black. We have had
too much of it. We should brighten the cars
with color. As a result of the continued
practice of using black, we have killed many
an owner's pride in his car. When one
drives home in a new car in these days, it
is impossible to feel that one is creating any
stir in the neighborhood. In fact, one's
neighbor is apt to remark over the back
fence, "I see you got the old bus washed up."

Recently, while in Havana, I was very
agreeably surprised to note the difference of
a long line of automobiles from that notice-

able here. Every car in the line was clean
and shiny and fully half of the cars were
painted in colors other than black. They
are very fond of color in Cuba but, to be
frank, they know how to use it. A parade
of automobiles in Havana is an interesting
thing to watch.

Much attention has been devoted in the
automotive industry to the subjects of line
and form. Color has not yet played a lead-
ing part, but, sooner or later, color will come
into its own and be on an equal plane with
line and form. When this occurs and the
automotive industry comes to an apprecia-
tion of the commercial value of beauty in
color, we will find that color will not only
supply the atmosphere and the drapery, but
play a dominant role.

INDEX

^ Pace

Alignment of Shroud and Hood 65

All-Stcel Body Construction 99-100

Ambulance, U. S. Army, on Light Truck

Chassis 285

American Methods of Manufacture 15

Animals, Weights of 310

Apron, Side, Cheap Method of Assem-
bling 154

Aprons, Fender, Side 153

Art in Quantity Production of Automo-
biles 10

Ash, Substitutes for, in Automobile

Bodies 305

Assemblies or Units in Touring Car Design.76
Assemblies, Upholstery, in Open Cars.. 235
Assembly, Body, Jigs or Forms Used in.. 79

Assembly, Cushion Spring 222

Assembly, Shroud, Side Body, Rear Seat,

Front Seat and Door 77-78

Assembly Units for Roadster Body 80

Assembly, Variation in Hood Assemblies

Allowed for 65

Autophone, "Klaxon Stentor" 146

Axle Housing, Clearance of Body for 37

Axle Housing Depression in Rear Seat
Panel 96

Back Curtains 180

Backstay Straps, on Tops 179

Bar, Shroud 83

Barrels, Weight and Size of 310

Bars, Steel, Rule for Calculating Weight

of 311

Bars, Steel, Weight per Foot 311

Battery, Location of 36

Berline, Definition of 244

Boards, Floor 83

Bodies, Angular Designs 23

Bodies, Closed, Illustrations of 242-243

Bodies, Closed, Nomenclature of 241

Bodies, Dump, Angle of Slide for 316

Bodies, Enclosed, Trimming Materials

Used in 219

Bodies, Full-Rounded Types 21

Pace
Bodies, Modem, General Construction of. 74

Bodies, Modern T3rpes of. Open 21

Bodies, Open, Trimming on 218

Bodies, Platform or Stake 264

Bodies, Special Truck 274

Bodies, Semi-Rounded Types 23

Bodies, the Different T3rpes (Closed)

Illustrated 248-260

Body, All-Steel (Budd & Co.) 99

Body, Approximate T3rpe of Modem 18

Body Assembly by Means of "Jigs" 80

Body Bolt Washer 128

Body, Boston Stake 267

Body Builder's Chassis Drawing 33

Body, Chicago Stake 267

Body, Cincinnati Stake 266

Body, Cleveland Stake 266

Body, Closed, Design of 238

Body, Closed, Development of the Mod-
erate-Priced 317

Body, Closed, the Industry's Biggest

Problem 238

Body (Commercial) Combination 265

Body Constmction, All-Metal 74

Body Constmction Types 74

Body Data Sheet (Commercial) 256

Body Designs of 1922 25

Body, Dump, All-Stcel 282

Body, Dump, With Mechanical Hoist 282

Body Engineer, His Relation to the

Industry 9

Body Engineer Should Be Familiar with

All Body Trades 11

Body Engineering a Broad Field 10

Body Engineering Field Analyzed 12

Body, "Everyway," Five Changes 279

Body, Express, Parts Used in 259

Body, Furniture Moving 284

Body Irons on Panel Express Body. ...255

Body Layout Details 35

Body, New York Stoke 266

Body, Open Express 257

Body, Open Express, Illustrated 252

Body, Roadster, Assembly of 80

Body, Sedan, Prize Winner at New York
Exhibition, 1922 240

329

350

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Pagb
Body, Sightseeing, for Forty-two Passen-
gers (Fitz Gibbon & Crisp, Inc.) 275

Body, Speed Wagon Type 260

Body, "Springfield" Type 245

Body, Stake, Possibilities of 273

Body Wood Work 82

Bolt, Body 128

Bolts, Position of Body Hold-Down.. 36

Boot, Top 196

Bow Dimensions for Ordering from

Makers 178 and 183

Bow Socket Constructions, Types of

Modern 176

Bow Sockets 173

Bow Sockets (Brewer-Titchener Corp.). 175

Bow Sockets, European Practice 178

Bow Sockets, Layout for on Touring Car. 174

Bows, in Top Construction 178

Brake and Clutch Pedal Travel, Allow-
ance for 35

Brake Rods, Allowance for 36

Brougham, Definition of i 244

Buick Bodies, 1914 and 1922 Models

Compared 64

Buick Roadsters, Four and Six-Cylinder. .68

Bumpers, Door 126

Bumpers, Door , 129

Bumpers, Door, Early and Present

Designs 130

Bumpers, Door (Temstedt, Mitchell,

Ferro-Stamping) 128

Burlap Foundation in Cushions. . . .. . .228

Butt Hinges .;..... 102

■ • • \^ . ■ • • •••

Cab; Seats, in Trucks ..,. . ...;;,.. . :: . . . .288
Cab, Truck, with Sliding Doors < High-
land Body Mfg. Co.)........; 293

Cabs, Truck .287

Cabs, Truck, Interchangeable . . . . ..... .290

Cabs, Truck, Market for... 289

California Top, a Good Design of
r*,X Barley Motor Car C(x.)., ..;:......... 208

California Top, Built into the Car Body
(Lcach-Biltwell) . . ... .:......... . . . .207

Oilifornia Top, Laying Out a. .... i 207

California Top, Origin and Development'

' 'of ........205

California Top, Side Elevation ......205

California Tops ...205

California Tops, Metal Frame Glasses in. 206
California Tops, Side Curtains on 209

Page
California Tops, Side Elevations of .211-214
Canopy Top, Detachable, for Commercial

Body 272

Casein Glue, Comparison with Other

Glues 298

Celluloid Curtain Lights 181

Chassis as Furnished with Seat and Tool

Box (Commercial) 258

Chassis, Body Design Governed by the... 27
Chassis, Commercial, Body Builder's

Drawing of 256

Chassis, Definition of 27

Chassis Drawing for Body Builder's Use.. 33

Chassis Frames and Body Sills 34

Chassis Layout, a Characteristic 27

Chassis Parts to be Considered in Rela-
tion to Body Design 32

Chassis, Perfection of the 15

Chassis, Rowe, with Omnibus Body 278

Chassis, Truck 264

Chassis, Variation in 32

Closed Car, Development of the Moder-
ate-Priced 317

Cloth, Bedford 219

Cloth, Cotton Worsted 219

Cloth, Tapestry 219

Cloths, Woolen 326

"Clover-leaf" Designs, Roadster 69

Clutch and Brake Pedal Travel, Allow-
ance for 35

Coach Building, an Art as Old as the Ages. 12

Coal, Weights of \ .....309

"Collins" System Side Curtains....',. ^.193

Color Harmony in Upholstery 322

Color Psychology 323

Color Schemes 324

Color Values 324

Combination Platform Bodies 269-270

Contract Form, for Automobile Body
Builders, as Used by Smith-Springfield

Body Co 296-297

Convertible Roadsters Described;... .;.... 69
Cotton, Fabricated, in Seat and Back

Cushions ^ ..... r .:.-... . . . .234

Cotton in French Plait U^pholstery..-./.. 234
Coupe, Construction of . : . . .'....; ..,-". ) :244
Coupe, Convertible, Definiticm of .-. . . .*; . .241
Coupb)- Definition 'of-"v ^«". .-. . />.-#"'. v. . I '. v'i241
Cbupc in Course of COft^ttuctib*, .'...:. .246
Coupelct, Constructfoh of ...:... .^ ..;. .244

Coupclct, Definition of .241

Cowl Ventilators (G. W. Henvis) .... 136

Curled Hair 233

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

331

Page
Curtain, Back, One and Three-piece.. ..185

Curtain, Back, Side Extensions on 181

Curtain Fasteners 193-196

Curtain Lights, Choosing a Design for... 183

Curtain Lights, Glass 183

Curtain Lights, Method of Installing. . ..181
Curtain Lights, the Different Shapes of.. 185

Curtain, Side, on California Tops 209

Curtains, Back and Side 180

Curtains, "Gypsy" 180

Curtains on Truck Cabs 289

Curtains, Side, "Jiffy" and "Collins".... 192

Cushion and Back Combined 233

Cushion, Back, Construction of ,..229

Cushion Retainers 99

Cushion Spring Coverings 228

Cushion Springs ...221

Cushion Springs, Principles of Their Con-
struction , 227

Cushion, Turkish 229

Cushions, Curled Hair in 233

Cushions, Seat, Depth of 229

Custom and Quantity Production Com-
pared 10

Cut-outs for Pedals and Levers 36

Cut-outs in Shrouds for Instruments 90

Dash and Engine, Interference Between.. 35
Dash, Body Conditions Obtained at the. . .31

Dash Construction Illustrated 91

Designs, Variation in Current 27

Detachable Winter Tops, Construction of .202
Development of Bodies from 1903 to 1922. .17
Dies, Designing of, for Radiator Shells.. 44

Dies in Shroud Manufacture 88

Disappearing Top on Touring Car 197

Divisions of the Body Engineering De-
partment 11

I>oor Bumpers 126 and 130

Door Frames, Machining by the Modem

Method 84

Door Handle Construction 119

Door Hinges, Early Types 102

Door Locks 112

Door Panels 93

Door Post, Door Frame and Threshold,

Machining 83

Door Post, Made by "Separate Piece"

Method 83

Door, Relation Between Door and Steer-
ing Wheel on Touring Car 59

Door Trimming 237

Pacs
Doors, Double-Cowled Bodies Reduce

Widths of 63

Doors, Location of Front, on Touring

Car 59

Doors, Methods of Hingeing 105

Doors, Open Car, Process of Making

Wood Parts Explained 84

Doors, Position of Hinges on 63

Doors, Position of, on Roadster Body.... 66

Doors, Sawing Out of Frame 87

Doors, Shapes of Bottoms of 59

Doors of Touring Car 57

Doors, Working Clearance Required 107

Dovetail, Design and Construction of

Door 131

Dovetails, Typical Styles Described 132

Drafting Work in Detail 12

Driver's Cabs in Trucks 288

Dump Bodies, Angle of Slide for 316

Dump Body, All-Steel 282

Du Quesne Bow Sockets 173

Engineering Control of Material Purr

chased and Fabricated 12

Engines, Four and Six-Cylinder, and

Their Effect on Body Design ....28

Engine Hood Analyzed 48

Engine Hood Design .48

Engine Hood, Fitting to Body 65

England Door Panel 93

Equipment of Special Roadster Listed... 73
European Designs Followed Before the

War ....19

Evolution of the Automobile Body 15

Express Body, Parts Used in 259

Fabrics, Upholstery 326

Farm Products, Weights of Various 310

Fastener, Iron, Stake Truck .269

Fastener, Top to Windshield .178

Fasteners, Curtain (Murphy, Carr,

Cinch) 194

Fastener, Hood 53

Fasteners, Top Strap 133

Fender Design 148

Fender Design, Defects of Present. 156

Fender Design, Relation of, to Tires.... 155

Fender Wings, Ways of Making 147

Fenders, Black Enamel Finish on 156

Fenders, Different Styles of 155

332

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Pace
Fenders, Methods of Attaching to Car

and Running Boards 151

Fenders or Mud Guards 147

Fenders to Prevent Mud Splashing on

Pedestrians Needed 157

Fillers, Windshield 168

Finger Plates 134

Fixtures, Windshield 161

Floor and Toe Boards 35

Forms and Dies for Shrouds 88

Forms or Jigs Used in Body Assembly.. 79

Foot Rests 131-135

Frames, Automobile Chassis 34

Freight, Bulk, Weights of 309

French Plait Style Upholstery 234

French Plait Upholstery, Example of on

Electric Car 218

French Plait Upholstery, Examples of on

a Gasoline Car 219

Furniture Moving Body 284

Gasoline Tank, Position of 37

Gauge or Track Width of American Cars. 30

Gauges, Wire 312

Glass Curtain Lights, Metal Rim, Method

of Installing 188

Glass, Metal Frame, in California Tops.. 206
Glass, Saving by Careful Proportioning. .320
Glasses in I>oors of Detachable Winter

Top Jobs 204

Glue, Comparison of Different Types of .298
"Gypsy" Curtains 180

Hair in Cushions 233

Handle, Extension Lock, for Demountable

Winter Top Jobs 204

Handle, Locking (Mitchell Specialty Co.). 122
Handle, Lock, a Well-designed (Soss

Mfg. Co.) 119

Handles, Door, Made by Leading Manu-
facturers 120

Hardware, General Automobile 125

Hardware, Truck Body 255

Head Room in California Top 205

Head Room in Open Cars 176

Heel Boards 91

Henvis Type Cowl Ventilators 136

Hinge, Concealed (Parsons Mfg. Co.).. 109
Hinge for Doors with Large Tum-
unders Ill

Pacs
Hinge, Hood, Method of Making it Flush. 52

Hinge, Malleable Iron 109

Hinge, Sheet Steel 110

Hinges, Automobile 102

Hinges, Concealed Tjrpes 106

Hinges, Concealed (Soss Mfg. Co.) ....106
Hinges, Curved and Straight (Jos. N.

Smith & Co.) 103

Hinges, Hood 51

Hinges, Position of, on Touring Car

Doors 63

Hinges, Types of Automobile I>oor 104

Hoist, Mechanical, on Dump Body 282

Holder, Top (Bair) 196

Hood and Shroud, Alignment of 65

Hood, Engine, Scale Drawing of a

Typical 50

Hood, Engine, Fitting to Body 65

Hood Fastener, the Concealed Type 56

Hood Fastener, the "Hook-on" 55

Hood Fasteners, the Several Types Ex-
plained 55

Hood Hinges 51

Hood, Louvres or Ventilators in 48

Hood, Method of Putting a Bead or

Finish on .' 52

Hood Side Hinges 52

Hoods, Hood Sills and Hood Fasteners.. 48

Ice, Weights of 309

Imitation Leather 219

Improvements in Body Design and Con-
struction Now Harder to Make 15

Instrument Plate in Shroud Design 90

Interiors, Car, Decoration of 325

Iron and Steel, Sheet, U. S. Standard

Gauge 313

Irons, Rear Fender 151

Irons on Express Body (Eberhard Mfg.
Co.) 255

"Jiffy" System of Side Curtains 192

Jigs or Forms Used in Body Assembly.. 79

"Jitney" Bus, What It Is 276

Joints, Windshield 162

"Kick-up" in Chassis Frames 34

Kiln, When Should Lumber Be Taken
from the 299

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

333

PAGS

"Klaxon Autophonc" 146

"Knockdown" Body Disassembled for

Shipping 78

"Knock-down" Steel Bodies for Export

Shipment 76

Landaulet, Definition of 244

Landaulet, Features of the 251

Leather, Best Grades Generally Used on

Victoria Tops 201

Leather, Imitation, in Car Upholstery.... 219

Leather in Automobile Trimming 219

Leather, Meaning of a Saving of, in

Large Production Plant 9

Lever Lock for Coupe (Jos. N. Smith

&Co.) 114

Light, Curtain, with Wood Frame, Method

of Installing 193

Lights, Back Curtain 181

Lights, Curtain, Method of Installing... 188
Lights, Curtain, Method of Installing

Johnston Type 192

Lights, Glass, in Metal Frames 186

Lights, Rear Curtain, Arrangement of.. 187

Limousine, Construction of 245

Limousine, Definition of 244

Liquids, Weights of 314

Lock, a Compact and Simple, for Truck

Cabs (Jos. N. Smith & Co.) 115

Lock, a Novel T3rpe of 117

Lock, Cylinder Key (Ferro-Stamping &

Mfg. Co.) 122

Lock, Double-action (Ferro-Stamping &

Mfg. Co.) 116

Lock (Ferro-Stamping & Mfg. Co.) 121

Lock Lever Throw (Jos. N. Smith &

Co.) 114

Lock or Hook for Stakes on Stake

Bodies 272

Lock, Rotary Lever with Automatic Re-
lease Inside Body (English & Mersick

Co.) 123

Lock Strikes 125

Lock with Expanding Latch (Sears-Cross

Type, National Seal Co., Inc.) 115

Locks Affected by Style of Car 122

Locks. Door 112

Locks for Closed Cars 122

Louvres in Engine Hoods 48

Lumber, Amount of, Used in Cars 304

Lumber, Moisture Content and Case-
hardening of 300

Page
Lumber Used in Motor Vehicle Industry. 302
Lumber, When Should It Be Taken from
the Kiln? 299

"Marshall" Type Springs 222-226

Mass Production 9

Materials, Weights of 309 and 315

Metal Body Construction Problems 74

Metal Parts, Sheet, Used in Open Bodies. 88

Metal Work, Body 88

Metric Conversion Tables 311

Mirrors, Rear Vision (Brewer-Titchener

Corp.) 138

Mud Guards or Fenders 147

Nomenclature of Closed Bodies 241

Omnibus Body on Rowe Chassis 278

Omnibus, English Double-Decked 275

Omnibus, Hotel; a Luxurious (Collings

Carriage Co.) 277

Omnibus, the Modern Sightseeing, De-
scribed 274

"One-Man" Top, Early Designs of 174

"One-Man" Tops 172

Open and Closed Body Trimming 215

Open Bodies, Modem Types of 21

Open Cars, Kinds of Wood Used in.... 303

Ores, Weights of Various 315

Overhang, Illustrated by Charts 60-62

Oxyacetylene Welding of Shrouds 88

Packages, Sizes and Weights of 310

Packard Body Lines of About 1916 26

Pads, Cotton, Fabricated 234

Pads for Seat Cushions 228

Pads, Hair, in Upholstery Work 233

Paige, Roadster, Convertible 69

Painting Not Considered in This Book,

and Why 13

Panel, Rear Seat 94

Panels, Door 92

Panels, Side 92

Permanent Top Construction (See also

under heading "California Tops" 204

Piano Hinges on Engine Hoods 51

Pierce- Arrow Body Lines of a Few Years

Ago 25

334

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Pags

"Pioneer" Auto Mirror (Brewer-Titch-

ener Corp.) 138

Pipe and Button Style Trimming 234

Pipes, Upholstery, Filled with Fabri-
cated Cotton and Hair 234

Plates, Finger 130-134

Platform Bodies (Commercial) 264

Plywood, Strength of Screw Fastenings

in 307

Post, Door, Made by "Separate Piece"

Method 83

Press, for Dieing Out Shrouds 88

Production Cars, Development of 17

Production Held Up by Small Items 9

Quick-Detachable Curtain Fasteners 193

Radiator Design 38

Radiator Designs, Past and Present, Illus-
trated 41-45

Radiator Efficiency 40

Radiator Fronts Classified in Seven Typi-
cal Groups 46

Radiator, Mechanical Construction of.... 44

Radiator Shell, a Good Design of 39

Radiator Shells, Dies for Making 44

Radiator Shells, Process of Making in

Seven Operations 45

Radiator, the Mechanically Ideal 38

Radiator, Types of Core in 40

Rails, Robe, Design of 135

Rear Vision Mirrors 138

Regulators, Window 144-146

Retainers, Cushion 99

Roadster, a Custom-built 73

Roadster Assembling Units 80

Roadster Body Design 66

Roadster Body Design, Draft with Dimen-
sions Given 67

Roadster Body, Example of Trimming on216

Roadster, Buick, Compartments in 67

Roadster, "Clover-leaf" 69

Roadster, Position of Doors in 66

Roadster, Rear Fenders for 147

Roadster Seating Arrangements 66

Roadster with Offset Driver's Seat 69

Roadsters, Custom-Built 71

Robe Rails 135

Rolls-Royce Sport Body with High Sides. 63
Roof Ventilators 136

Pags

Running Board Skirts 153

Running Boards, Methods of Attaching
Fenders to 151

Screw Fastenings in Plywood, Strength

of 307

Scuff Plates, Aluminum, with Etched

Name Plate 98

Scuff Plates, Design of 97

Seat and Leg Room Considered 30

Seat Back, Front, Construction of 92

Seat Backs, Proper Shape of 235

Seat Bottom, Rear 95

Seat Construction, Driver's, in Truck

Cabs 288

Seat Cushion Springs 221

Seat Cushions 221

Seat, Driver's, in Trucks 287

Seat Panel, Rear 94

Seating Arrangement in Roadster Body. .66

Seating Capacity in Touring Car 57

Seating Conditions under Different Cir-
cumstances 217

Seats, Auxiliary, Upholstery of 237

Seats, "Clover-leaf" Arrangement in

Roadsters 69

Seats, Rear Compartment in Roadsters.. 71

Sedan, Convertible, Definition of 244

Sedan, Definition of 241

Sedan in Course of Construction 246

Sedan, Open, Construction of 245

Sedan, Open, Definition of 244

Sheet Iron and Steel, U. S. Standard

Gauge 313

Sheet Steel Hinge 110

Sheet Steel Parts Used in Open Body 88

Shifting-rail for Victoria Tops 201

Shroud, a Difficult Piece to Make 88

Shroud and Hood, Alignment of 65

Shroud Assembly . . . ; 77

Shroud Bar 83

Shroud Blank Shown in the Die, Ready

for Punching 90

Shroud Ventilators 135

Sills, Flat and Built-up 34

Sills, Hood 53

Sills, on Commercial Bodies 268

Sills, Upset and Flat 85

Sills, Various Forms of 86

Skirts, Running Board 153

Slat Irons 178

Socket, Bow, Constructions 176

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

335

Pack

Sockets, Bow 173

Sockets, Bow, Tubular 178

"Speed Wagon" Type (Commercial)... 262

Sport Body on Locomobile Chassis 63

Sport Body on Rolls-Royce Chassis 63

Spot-welding in Shroud Work 89

Springs, Back and Cushion 221

Springs, Body Allowance for Deflection

of 27

Springs, Cushion, Cylinder Type 225

Springs, Cushion, "Double-deck" Con-
struction 225

Springs, Cushion, Types of 222

Springs, Double-Cone, for Upholstery. .. .230

Springs, "Marshall" Type 222-226

Stake Bodies, Illustrated 266-267

Stakes, Arrangement on Stake Bodies... 271
Streamline Type of Body, Explanation of. 18
Steel and Iron, Sheet, U. S. Standard

Gauge 313

Steel Bars, Rule for Calculating Weight

of 311

Steel Bars, Weight per Foot 31 1

Steel Body Construction, Drawing to Illus-
trate 75

Steel, Light, Side Apron Made from 153

Strainers 87

Straps, Back Brace, on Tops 179

Strikes, Lock 125

Style Drawings from Chassis Blue Prints. 32
Sunshade Design and Construction... 139-143

Sunshades for Open and Closed Cars 138

Sweeps, Machine Method on Doors 84

Tables of Weights for Truck Design-
ers 309-310

Tank, Gasoline, Must Be Accessible 27

Tank, Gasoline, Position of 37

Tanks, Capacity of Radiator 44

Tires, Relation of, to Fender Design.... 155

tapestry Cloths 219

Toe and Floor Boards. 35

Toe Blocks > 91

Tonneau Shields .^. . 165-167

Tops, Collapsible , 172

Top Boot, Construction of r . . 196

Top, Canopy, on Truck -^ .:- .v. — ,257

Top Design :,, /. :'. .;. ,172

Top, Detachabre Canopy (Commercial):. 272

Top, Disappearing, for Touring Car 197

Top, California, Laying Out a 207

Top Fastener, to Windshield 178

Pace

Top Holder (Bair) 195

Top, Victoria, Construction of 199

Top, Winter, Construction of 202

Tops, Conditions Under Which They Are

Designed 176

Tops, Determining the Shapes of 176

Tops, One-Man Type 172

Tops, Preliminary Layout for. 178

Tops, Folding, the Earlier Types 172

Touring Body, Example of Trimming on. 21 7
Touring Body Partially Disassembled for

Shipping 78

Touring Car and Roadster Fenders 147

Touring Car, Arrangement of Seats in... 57

Touring Car Assembly Units 76

Touring Car Body Design 57

Touring Car Body, Height of Sides of... 64

Touring Car, Definition of 241

Touring Car, Door Arrangement 57

Touring Car Fender, Rear Diagram of.. 155

Track Width, Standard 30

Trades which (Govern the Body Engineer's

Work 11

Trailer, Truck, with Stake Sides 286

Trailers, Utility of 286

Trimming Materials 219

Trimming or Upholstering 215

Truck, An American Army 279

Truck Bodies, Classified 254

Truck Bodies, Platform or Stake 264

Truck Bodies, Special 274

Truck Body, an Engineer's Problem.... 253

Truck Body Design 252

Truck Body, Express 254

Truck Body, Grain 280

Truck Body Hardware 255

Truck Body, Hay, Loose or Baled 281

Truck Body, Livestock 279

Truck Body, Special Equipments for.... 286

Truck Body Styles 253

Truck Cab, with All Parts "Knocked-

down" for Crating ..289

Truck Cabs 287

Truck Cabs, Interchanegable ...290

Truck, Commercial, Development of... .252
Truck Driver, Protecting Him from the

Weather ..;...., ..,..,289

Truck for Gravel and Sand, Illustrate(d\.*273
Truck, White, 3-ton, with Driver's Sleep-
ing Quarters (Burton-Dixie Corp.) . .283
Trucks, Developing Equipment for

Farmers 283

336

THE PRINCIPLES OF AUTOMOBILE BODY DESIGN

Pac«
Trucks, Popularity of Medium and Light

Weight 262

Truss Construction of Modern Bow

Sockets 174

T3rpes of Bodies, Grouped and Classified. 24

Units Grouped According to Materials

Used 78

Upholstering Dates Back to Early Times. 215
Upholstery Assemblies in Open Cars.... 235

Upholstery Fabrics 326

Upholstery, Harmony in 322

Upholstery, One-Button Style, Examples
of, at New York Salon Show (Smith-
Springfield Co.) 220

Upholstery, Plain Style, Examples of.. 220

Vclour Cloth 219

Ventilator, Shroud or Cowl (G. W.

Hcnvis) 136

Ventilators, Roof (Watcrhouse & Free-
man Mfg. Co.) 135

Ventilators, Types of 135

Victoria Top, Construction of 199

Victoria Tops, Shifting Rail Construc-
tion of 201

Victoria Top on Solid Frame 214

Victoria Tops, Solid Construction of 202

Visor, "Monarch" (Monarch Carriage

(}oods Co.) 143

Visors, Sun, for Car Fronts 138

Washers, Body Bolt 133

Weights of Miscellaneous Materials.. 309, 315
Welding Form for Three-piece Rear Seat

Panel 94

Welding Form Used in Three-piece

Shroud Assembly 91

Wheelhouses 31

Wheelbase, Body Design as Affected by

Different 65

Wheels, Relation of Body to Front and

Rear 31

Window Regulator, Factory Blue Print

of (Jos. N. Smith & Co.) 145

Window Regulators (Jos. N. Smith &

Co.; Perfect Window Regulator Co.;

Temstedt Mfg. Co.; Dura Mechanical

Hardware Co.) 144-146

Pagb

Windshield, Angle of 162

Windshield Equipment 139

Windshield Height in Top Design 176

Windshield Joints and Fixtures 162

Windshield, Single Piece, for Rear Seat

of Victoria Body 165

Windshield, the Modem 162

Windshield, '^hree-way" (Jos. N. Smith

& Co.) 170

Windshield, Tonneau (Tonneau Shield

Co.) The "J. H." 167

Windshield Wing (Automotive Acces-
sories, Inc.) 171

Windshield .Wings 169-171

Windshield Wiper (Temstedt) 137

Windshield Wipers 171

Windshield Wipers, Automatic ("Mayo-
Skinner" and **Trico" 138

Windshields 158

Windshields, Berliet Type 166

Windshields, Early Methods of Support-
ing 159

Windshields, Early Types 158

Windshield Fillers 168

Windshields, Illustrations of Action of

Air Currents Against 159-160

Windshield Side Glasses 163

Wings, Windshield 169-171

Winter Top, Construction of Detachable. 202

Wipers, Windshield, Types of 137

Wire Frames in Seat Cushion Construc-
tion 227

Wire, Gauge Used in Cushion Springs.. 223

Wire Gauges 312

Wire, Mattress Top for Seat Cushions.. 228
Wire, Woven, for Cushion Tops, Illus-
trated 231-232

Wires, Cut-outs for 2>7

Wood, Ash 303

Wood, Birch 303

Wood, Elm 303

Wood, First Automobile Entirely of 82

Wood, Gum 304

Wood, Hickory 304

Wood, Maple 302

Wood Parts in Open Car Body Units 82

Wood Parts of Body in Detail 83

Wood Work 82

Woods, Strength of, Compared with Ash. 306
Woods Used in Open Cars 303

aioiosmosD

B89090514050A

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