THE LIBRARY
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CAL IFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
Date Due
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
V • "
i >^r .„• .
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
BY
FREDERICK L. HOLTZ, A.M.
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND NATURE-STUDY
BROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS
NEW YORK CITY; AUTHOR OF
" NATURE-STUDY MANUAL "
Nefo f|orfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1917
All rights reserved
COPYRIGHT, 1913,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and clectrotyped. Published September, 1913. Reprinted
December, 1914; June, 1916; March, 1917.
JfortonolJ
J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick <fc Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
Education
Library
73
PREFACE
THIS book is designed for the experienced teacher
and for teachers in training. It presents an analysis of
the nature of geography as a science, and of the peda-
gogical principles involved. Upon this is based the
discussion of the special method of the teaching of
geography. The treatment is rendered concrete by
examples from classroom experience.
While a general review of the subject matter of geog-
raphy is out of the question in a book of this kind,
there is considerable that will serve to review and im-
press at least the general principles of the science.
The book begins with the subject and method of
home geography, and then proceeds with the discussion
of the work of the higher grades, in such a way as to
indicate the growth of the subject in the pupil's mind.
This plan lends itself well to a logical development of
the theory and method of teaching and to the organi-
zation of the science of geography.
854764
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. THE AIMS OF GEOGRAPHY
Practical and cultural values.
II. CHILDREN'S INTERESTS IN GEOGRAPHY
The pedagogical vs. the scientific order. Stages
of children's mental growth. Studies of children's
interests in geography. Comparison of interest in
human and physical aspects of geography. Commer-
cial interest. Interest in maps. Interest in rela-
tions. The social motive.
III. THE OBSERVATIONAL AND ORAL METHOD OF IN-
STRUCTION
First instruction should be observational and with-
out textbook. Value of oral method. Development
method. Teacher's function.
PAGES
1-5
6-12
13-19
20-29
IV. HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK ....
Necessity for textbook. Limitation of textbook.
How to study. How to organize study. Assign-
ments. Necessary to know whole course of study.
V. HOME GEOGRAPHY 30-43
Synthetic growth of geographical knowledge from
home environment. Purpose of home geography :
To appreciate home locality ; to serve as principle of
study of foreign parts. Field lessons — advantages
and disadvantages. Concrete illustrations in class-
room.
VI. LESSONS IN HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 44-59
Points of the compass. Occupations and trades.
Place of primitive life in geography. Correlations
with nature-study. Home civics. Historic studies.
Hills and valleys. The brook. Weather study.
VII. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 60-71
Need of concreteness. Pictures. How to study.
vii
Vlll
CONTENTS
Lantern slides. Stereoscopes. Specimens. Col-
lections by pupils. Experiments.
VIII. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 72-82
Recent development of this branch. Evolution-
ary treatment Relation of physical to descriptive
geography. The causal treatment. An example —
The Great Plains. Comparison of treatment of
physical geography in upper and lower grades.
Approach from human standpoint in lower grades.
Unrelated physical geography out of place in the
elementary school. The scenic phase.
IX. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 83-95
Outdoor lessons. The model. Modeling. Phys-
ical maps: Photo-relief, color-physical, contour.
Special maps. Order of maps. Map study the
basis for political geography. Profiles.
X. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY . . > . . 96-119
Formerly overemphasized. Too abstract for be-
ginners. Should, in primary geography, be limited
to observational studies, untechnical. Rendering
mathematical geography concrete. Observations.
Form of the earth. How to make earth's dimen-
sions concrete. Possibility of profitably omitting
some topics usually taught. Change of seasons.
Heat belts -vs. zones. Mathematical geography for
upper grades. Should be simplified. Use of the
globe. Solar models. Diagrams. Sample lessons.
XI. THE CAUSAL RELATION 120-141
The principle of the causal relation. Evolution
of geographical features. Geographical conse-
quence. Geographical influence on human life.
Examples : Rivers, topography, climate. Abuse
of the causal principle. Man as agent in modify-
ing environment. Geographical influences in his-
tory. Sequential order of study.
XII. POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY . . 142-155
What constitutes this branch? Should receive
chief emphasis in the elementary school. Geog-
CONTENTS
IX
raphy divided into primary and advanced courses.
Comparison of scope and treatment of the subject
in these courses. The human standpoint empha-
sized in lower; the causal order, basing on physical
geography, in the advanced course. First course
superficial, advanced course intensive. Commer-
cial geography emphasized in upper grades.
XIII. SUPPLEMENTARY READING 156-161
Most textbooks too meager. Supplementary
reading to add interest, to elaborate. Reference
work. School libraries. Geographical fiction.
Current events. Scrapbooks.
XIV. MAPS 162-174
What maps signify. Symbolic. The political •
map. Special maps. Comparative study of maps
to form composite of geography of a region. In-
troducing child to the map : Points of the com-
pass, room plan, from picture to map, scale, use of
horizontal map, hanging map, book maps. Im-
agination in map study. Map work should be
more than locative, should have large thought con-
tent. Maps for lower grades. Blank maps.
Memory-aiding associations. Map study in logi-
cal continuity. Necessity for drill. The globe an
aid in map work.
XV. MAP DRAWING 175-182
Psychology and purpose of map drawing. Va-
rious methods of teaching drawing. Progressive
maps. Printed outline maps. Maps for geograph-
ical expression. Sketch maps.
XVI. CARTOGRAPHY 183-204
Why flat maps are inaccurate. Projections:
Orthographic, globular, Mercator's, Mollweide's,
conic, and polyconic ; their construction, advan-
tages, and limitations. How maps are made. Ex-
ploration and survey (U. S. Coast and Geodetic,
U. S. Geological, U. S. Land Surveys). Scale of
maps. Printing the map.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES
Significance of geographical names. Element
of doubt Persistency of prehistoric names.
Study of names in Great Britain : Celtic, Roman,
Saxon, Danish, and Norse names. Names in
America : Indian, Spanish, French, English
names ; religious names, royal, second-hand
(European) ; names descriptive of physical fea-
tures ; aesthetic, biological, industrial, patriotic,
classic, proprietary, frontier names. The name
" America."
THE GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE .
Pedagogical value. Primary studies. Com-
parison of importance given it in various texts.
Example of treatment from human viewpoint in
lower grades. Intensive study in grammar grades.
Example of type study of an industry. Princi-
ples of commerce. Teaching statistics. Com-
parative reviews. Commercial observations, col-
lections, sketch maps, diagrams, tabulations.
Supplementary readers. Investigations in com-
merce by children. Current news.
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY
Necessity for a general course in geography,
and an intensive one. Necessity of careful se-
lection for intensive treatment. Emphasis of
native country. Study by geographical units.
Type study and examples. Topical method. Re-
gional geography. Comparative geography and
review by comparison.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY
The relations of geography. Organization of
geography by reduction to general principles.
Inductive geography. Definitions. Concepts
vs. words. How the principles of geography are
derived. Functions of principles. Summary of
principles pupils of the eighth grade should
possess.
PAGES
205-221
222-237
238-253
254-272
CONTENTS
XI
CHAPTER
XXI.
PAGES
273-289
XXII.
CORRELATION
The early narrow view of geography. Function
of correlation in geography. Home geography
correlated with distant geography. Geography a
distinct unity though correlated. Nature-study
and geography. Arithmetic and geography. His-
tory and geography. Correlation with literature.
The aesthetic side of geography.
THE EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 290-308
Early Semitic geography. Homeric geog-
raphy. Later Greek and Roman geography.
Geography in the Middle Ages. Monastic
geography. The Saracens. Marco Polo. The
quest for the Isles of Spice. Oriental trade
routes over land and sea before the fifteenth
century. The Portuguese discoveries, Africa and
the East Indies. The Norsemen. Columbus. Ma-
gellan. Motives in exploration, chiefly commer-
cial. The era of scientific exploration. Captain
Cook, Australia. African explorations. The
Polar Regions. Future geographical exploration.
XXIII. THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY AND
THE HISTORY OF ITS PEDAGOGY
Geography as a science. The data for geog-
raphy. Mathematical geography the oldest
branch. Herodotus. Eratosthenes. Strabo.
Ptolemy. Pedagogy of the Ancients. Geogra-
phy in the Middle Ages. The rise of modern
cartography. Copernicus. Pedagogy of geogra-
phy in the Middle Ages. Modern philosophical
geography. Varenius. Newton. Laplace. Anthro-
pogeography, Herder. Instruction in elemen-
tary geography in the eighteenth century. Co-
menius. Rousseau. Basedow. The beginnings
of home geography. Textbooks. Correlation of
geography with the new natural sciences. The
school of Ritter. Humboldt. Ratzel. Recent
309-320
Xll
CONTENTS
tendencies and the " new geography." Regional
geography. The high position of geography
to-day. Not sufficient emphasis on the human
side.
XXIV. SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS OF GEOGRAPHY . 321-340
Early colonial texts. Catechism form. Sailor's
geography. Memoriter method. Unadapted.
1774, Morse, the Father of American Geography.
1825, " Systematic " geographies. 1830, Begin-
nings of home geography. Burdensome map
study. 1850, Too much system, formal texts.
Influence of Guyot, 1850-1870. Graded texts
beginning with home geography. Simplified
map work. Much map drawing with diagrams.
Introduction of commercial geography, 1870.
State supplements. 1890, the " new geography,"
based upon physical geography. Causal treat-
ment. Neglect of human side. 1900, Textbooks
more pedagogical in method, finely illustrated,
signs of a return to the human aspect of geog-
raphy.
XXV. LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS . . . . 341-351
Books for teachers. Books for children,
graded.
INDEX . 353-359
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The grand distinction between Man and other creatures is
that he can take advantage of his environment, so as to modify
his development in any desired direction. — MILL.
Practical value. — Geography has a place in the cur-
riculum on account of its practical utility and cultural
value. Its usefulness is apparent from the mere state-
ment of the definition of geography as the description of
the habitat of man, and of his physical and psychical
adjustment to his environment.
Geography teaches place relations. This knowledge
is applied in daily life in finding one's way about the
home community, in reading and conversation, in send-
ing letters or parcels, and in business.
The commercial world depends upon geographical
information. The importer must know where his wares
may be obtained, and by what routes they may be
shipped most cheaply. The fruit commission man, for
example, must be in touch with California, Florida,
B 1
2 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Cuba, and Spain. From all these regions he can get
oranges. He must know in what season in each country
the fruit is ripe. Even to the fruiterer at the corner,
and to the housewife who buys the fruit, such geograph-
ical knowledge would not come amiss.
The manufacturer must know the source of his raw
materials, the markets for his products, and the routes
of shipment. The exporter, likewise, must be familiar
with routes and markets, else he might be "carrying
coals to Newcastle." Knowledge of transportation
facilities is immensely important hi modern commercial
life. The shortest and most economical routes must be
chosen to meet competition.
Geography teaches us about our own country — its
natural advantages, resources, and beauty; its great-
ness and possibilities, and also its limitations, which
enables us individually or as a nation to make better
adjustments to our physical environment. The study
of foreign regions is but a complement of home geog-
raphy. As citizens of the United States we should be
acquainted with the geographical conditions of the
countries with which we have commercial dealings, or
historical and political association. Many useful lessons
for home application may be learned from the study of
foreign countries.
Geography teaches the interdependence of the dif-
ferent sections of our nation — how the East depends
THE AIMS OF GEOGRAPHY 3
upon the West for its foodstuffs ; how the West in turn
gets most of its manufactured articles from the East;
how the cities and the rural sections balance each other ;
in short, it teaches us "how the other half lives." In
this way it tends to develop in the student a social
sympathy, a feeling of relationship to others, a certain
sense of civic duty that help toward good citizenship.
The development of patriotism and good citizenship
should be a chief aim in the teaching of geography.
Moreover, a knowledge of world geography should
broaden our international sympathies and make for
universal peace. Countries that do not know each other
are suspicious of each other. On the other hand, a
knowledge of geography encourages international travel,
commerce, confidence, and interdependence.
Geography helps us in understanding and appre-
ciating the frequent geographical allusions in our daily
reading, in the newspapers, in literature, and history.
Current events are meaningless in proportion as we are
ignorant of the places where they occur, or of the geo-
graphical conditions affecting them. History depends ab-
solutely upon geography to give it definiteness. When
the geographical setting of an historical event is known,
it has additional meaning and interest.
As a final practical aim of geography may be men-
tioned the ability to use geographical books, apparatus,
models, diagrams, maps, and tables in after-school days
4 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
in the pursuit of further geographical studies, or in
occasional need of interpreting these data in general
reading.
Cultural aims. — Turning to those aims of geography
that consider something beyond niere utility, namely,
intellectual pleasure, mental strength, refinement, and
growth of character, the subject, it will be found, has
much to offer. It should be noted that some of the pre-
ceding utilitarian aims have also a cultural side, as the
development of the social sense and patriotism, and the
appreciation of history and literature.
Geography contributes to the enjoyment of the
natural elements and forces, the beauty of scenery,
and the ways of life of the people, both in our local
walks and in more extended travels. One should read
the geography of the places to be visited, their history
and literature, if one wishes to get the most pleasure and
satisfaction out of travel.
The subject of geography is intrinsically very interest-
ing. Books of travel, exploration, and of descriptive,
general geography may be very pleasant and entertain-
ing reading. In fact, in the beginning when geography
had not yet been accredited as a distinct subject for
schools, and efforts were made to introduce it, this was
one of the chief arguments of its advocates. Sir Thomas
Elyot, in the Governour, 1531, writing about cosmography
(what geography was then), says :
THE AIMS OF GEOGRAPHY 5
"For what pleasure it is, in one hour to behold those realms,
cities, seas, rivers, and mountains that uneth [scarcely] in an old
man's life can not be journeyed and pursued ! What incredible
delight is taken in beholding the diversities of people, beasts,
fowls, fishes, trees, fruits, and herbs : to know the sundry manners
and conditions of people, and the variety of their natures, and that
in a warm study or parlour, without peril of the sea, a danger of
long and painful journeys. I cannot tell what more pleasure should
happen to a gentle wit than to behold in his own house every thing
that within all the world is contained." — WATSON.
Geography as a discipline tends to establish certain
habits of thinking, a geographical method of looking at
the relations of the earth and man. There is a great
mass of facts for concrete reasoning, and much oppor-
tunity for working out the abstract relations that exist
between these facts. The logic of the causal relation,
the method of comparison, the grouping of geographical
facts, the generalization of principles, are some of the
forms of reasoning required in geography. These habits
of thought should be valuable not only in the study of
geography itself, but in history, and in the geographical
experiences of daily life.
Geography is no longer something to tax the memory
merely. The thought content is as great as in any other
subject, affording the best of opportunity for inspiring
the imagination and cultivating clear, logical thinking.
CHAPTER II
CHILDREN'S INTERESTS IN GEOGRAPHY
Arrangement of subject matter. — Textbooks of geog-
raphy fall into two general classes. The first may be
called scientific or logical, the other psychological or
pedagogical. In the former the facts of the science are
arranged according to their natural, logical sequence, in
modern days chiefly along evolutionary or causal lines,
beginning with the astronomical and ending with the
human side. The other class of texts recognize that the
scientific order is unintelligible and uninteresting to the
beginner, and that since the child's mind is quite dif-
ferent in its range from the adult's, the subject must be
adapted to it in scope, arrangement, and method of pres-
entation. The growth of this principle was slow and
is not fully in force to-day.
Adaptation of texts. — The earlier textbooks were
lacking in any attempt to come down to the level of
the child, the only difference being that a beginner's
text must be smaller than the adult's. So textbooks were
made for children by abridging those intended for
maturer students. Such abridgment, however, is not
satisfactory.
6
CHILDREN'S INTERESTS IN GEOGRAPHY 7
Since about a century ago, when the teaching process
itself was first subjected to study, much has been learned
as to methods of instruction. The greatest thing brought
out by this study is that instruction must be adapted to
the mental capacity and interests of the learner.
Mental stages. — It is agreed among psychologists
and educators that children pass through several periods
or stages of mental growth, and that the studies and
methods of instruction for one stage are not necessarily
suited to another.
So far as teaching geography is concerned, while it
must be remembered that they overlap and shade into
each other, these stages are as follows:
The observational or perceptive stage. — At this period
the child learns through his physical senses and thinks
objectively and concretely. This is also the stage of
learning the names of things. The reflective or reason-
ing ability is not yet marked.
The memorizing and imaginative stage. — The child is
now able to go beyond the range of direct experience.
His memory is retentive, perhaps more than at any other
period ; and his imagination is active. He can take the
facts in his memory and recombine them into new rela-
tions through the imagination. He is not so dependent
upon observation for his knowledge, and pictures and
books become intelligible to him, because he has ac-
quired the necessary sense experience in the first stage.
8 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The reflective stage. — In this the reasoning ability is
more mature, and the tendency to reflect on facts and
to seek their relations is stronger. At this stage the
children want to know the " Why " of things, and the
abstract is of greater interest.
The teaching of geography must follow this order
of the child's development. Upon it, if the teaching is to
be economical and efficient, both the subject matter and
the method of instruction must be based. The great
fault with the older books, and with much recent instruc-
tion, is that they force little children to think in the way
of adults. We have given to little beginners textbooks
on the technical, logical plan. The consequence is that
the child does not appreciate the subject ; it is unintel-
ligible and dull. In this respect geography is " one of
the worst taught subjects in school." (Gibb.) Dr. G.
Stanley Hall calls it " the sick man of the curriculum."
" As an example of a science which might be full of life,
and which may be taught as a string of the baldest and
crudest and dullest facts imaginable, geography is
preeminent." (O. Lodge.)
Children's interests in geography. — It is a current
maxim in education that in order to secure the co-
operation of the pupil, and to teach along the line of
least resistance, and at the same time most efficiently,
it is necessary first to secure his interest. Real effort in
study is proportionate to interest. Secondary interests,
CHILDREN'S INTERESTS IN GEOGRAPHY 9
such as reward and punishment, are not meant here,
but rather a liking for the subject itself.
Several profitable studies have been made by W. S.
Monroe, Anna Buckbee, Sarah Young, C. Brodeur,
David Gibb, and others to discover the geographical
interests of school children. " If you could travel,
where would you like to go, and why would you like to
go there? " or an equivalent question has been put to
thousands of children. The children ranged through all
school grades of geography. Monroe found that out of
4000 children in Massachusetts, the greatest number
preferred to visit cities, especially those near by and
frequently mentioned. Of these 355 wanted to visit
New York City; the second largest number, 72, Boston.
The older children preferred foreign cities, Paris, Rome,
London. The next strongest interest, again chiefly
among the older pupils, was in states and countries.
California, Florida, Canada, England, China, and Japan
were the favorites. The reasons assigned for desir-
ing to visit these places were : to see friends or rela-
tives, to visit a birthplace, some national or historic
interest, an agreeable climate, the fruit, and in some
cases art and religion. Of the 4000 only 200 wanted
to see physical features, such as the ocean, moun-
tains, etc.
David Gibb made similar studies, in 1907, and found
the interests for different grades were as follows :
10 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Grade IV — People, land and water forms, animals,
buildings, China, Japan, Holland, ships, relatives.
Grade V — People, water, animals, cities, buildings,
land, products, Japan, maps, plants, occupations,
manufacturing.
Grade VI — People, buildings, occupations, water,
land, scenery, animals, products, manufacturing, climate,
maps, ships.
Grade VII — People, land, cities, occupations, ani-
mals, products, water, art, buildings, history, plants.
Grade VII fl — [People, water, animals, cities, land, build-
ings, plants, occupations, products, manufacturing, art.
From these studies we may get some idea of what
children think about in geography. These data, how-
ever, are not absolute. It is evident that interests vary
with locality, nationality, current events, with other
subjects in the curriculum, and with the treatment of
geography in any particular school. There is no question
that people and their ways appeal most in geography;
and that to beginners, the life of children in other lands
is especially attractive. Jane Andrews' Seven Little
Sisters will long remain a children's classic.
Application of the principle of interest in teaching. —
Geography throughout the elementary school must have
a human center. To throw the emphasis where it belongs
in the elementary school, it should be defined as A De-
scription of how Man lives upon the Earth.
CHILDREN'S INTERESTS IN GEOGRAPHY 11
Beginners in geography should study about people,
their customs, houses, clothing, sports, family life, and
about land and water features of the vicinity which they
can study observationally.
The commercial sense comes later (fifth, sixth, seventh
grades), and then occupations, manufacturing, products,
processes, should be studied. In these grades maps
appeal. And since memorizing is easy, the great bulk of
places and facts necessary for conventional and practi-
cal use in later life should be drilled on here. The im-
agination should be fed with descriptive geography rich
in interest.
In the last years of the course the causal relation,
historic associations, and the commercial principles of
geography are of greater interest. The facts previously
learned may here be analyzed and generalized. .Physical
geography can be used more fully as the basis for the
political. The heroic side of geography — discovery
and exploration — should be touched upon, and the biog-
raphies of great explorers read. The more complex
relations of human life, as shown in art, religion, society,
and government, are now more interesting and better
understood.
As the pupils mature and feel themselves a part of
society the social motive may be appealed to. This has
more of a moral force. It is a sort of educational con-
science, which makes the pupil realize he owes it to
12 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
himself and society to learn those things that will give
him a proper standing with his associates, and will
enable him to do his share of society's work. In this
respect geography is eminently valuable. W. T. Harris
placed geography next to history in social importance.
By following the natural interest of the child, the
study is more than mere task work. It is the psycho-
logical course. Any other method will make the subject
unintelligible, therefore uninteresting and dull to the
pupil. Interest lacking, the pupil resorts to the method
of learning by rote even what he does not understand.
Keep alive the glow of curiosity. When ennui takes
the place of lively curiosity, geography becomes drudgery.
The wonder motive should prevail throughout the whole
course.
CHAPTER III
THE OBSERVATIONAL AND ORAL METHOD
OF INSTRUCTION
Real basis of geography. — Geography is so generally
associated with a textbook that it is easy to overlook
the fact that the foundation for the subject is not a
book at all, but the real physical features and forces
of the earth, the plants and animals and living people.
It is these that a beginner should study, and these
realities should be used throughout the course as a check
on the books. Geography should be studied objectively,
concretely, as far as possible.
Their natural curiosity prompts the children to note
and examine the multifarious aspects of human life,
occupations, industrial processes, natural phenomena,
earth and water features, and scenery, to formulate some
sort of definition of these things, and to create in their
minds something that corresponds to a map of the
home locality. These definite, concrete concepts must
necessarily be the basis for studying the geography of
inaccessible regions, which has to be learned through hear-
say, especially from books. The only conception a child
can form of a mountain, if he has never seen one, must
13
14 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
be through the imagination, aided by pictures, and com-
parison with such elevations as he may have actually seen.
Concrete teaching. — This self-instruction through
observation should constitute the method of Home
Geography (Chapter V). The pedagogical value of
this method is universally admitted, though by no
means universally practiced, and is generally dropped
after the first steps in geography have been taken.
In every grade, throughout life, interest in the real world
should be maintained by reference to the actual geogra-
phy of daily experience.
The child comes to geography with a fairly large mass
of facts gained thus from actual experience in his home
locality in the years before school begins. This ap-
perceptive basis is further increased by the nature-
study of the first years of school. In learning these
things books were not used. The method of instruction
hitherto employed should be continued when geography
is begun.
First instruction oral. — At the beginning, instruction
in geography should be oral. This lends itself best to
the observational method of learning. It possesses the
advantage of the personal quality given it by the teacher.
It is a more flexible method than the textbook, and per-
mits of variations and quick adaptations to the exigencies
of the recitation. A teacher who has thoroughly
prepared herself and is gifted with a fair imagination
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 15
can usually make a topic more vivid and impressive
than the impersonal, impassive textbook.
Unfortunately, we give pupils, Wen in home geog-
raphy, a text, and then the vicious effects of cramming
are soon realized. In some countries, Germany for
example, pupils do not have such large, finely illus-
trated textbooks. They may have a mere epitome, or
probably none. The teacher presents the subject
orally, elaborating, illustrating, explaining, and enriching
by correlation with history, art, and science.
Children like the personal element in geography.
A teacher should draw upon her travel experiences
to make her teaching vivid and interesting. Short,
simple word pictures of famous places or scenery, or
sketches of human life in different countries, if based
upon personal experience, are always entertaining
to children. Likewise, pupils should be encouraged to
tell what they have seen on their journeys. By so doing,
the air of unreality possessed by the world in the book
will, at least for the moment, disappear.
There is danger, however, that too much work on the
part of the teacher will leave the pupils mentally passive.
To prevent this they should be taught to think actively,
to think geographically. They should use their own
observations and knowledge to make inferences and
judgments. They should be given little geographical
problems to work out.
16 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Eliciting. — To this end the usual method of eliciting
can be admirably employed. Through appropriate,
thought-encouraging questions pupils can be led to
observe the natural environment, specimens, experi-
ments, pictures, maps, etc., and to form their own opin-
ions as to the geographical relations shown. In a field
lesson on a Stream, the teacher can thus get the pupils
to see for themselves that water runs according to the
slope, fast or slow ; that it gathers in its course sediment,
which it drops again at certain places. The relation
between the motion of the water and the occurrence of
deposit may thus be worked out. The subject of Rain
may be developed, without telling very much, by per-
forming suitable experiments in evaporation and conden-
sation. - Or, by eliciting, alone, pupils may from a
physical map determine conditions of topography,
climate, drainage, and other features. It is, in gen-
eral, better to let the pupil thus see or find out facts
for himself, than for the teacher to do all the talk-
ing on the subject. If properly conducted, this
method gives the pupil initiative, and power to at-
tack and work out geographical facts and relations
for himself.
Development with textbook. — Even when textbooks
are used there is still much opportunity for oral instruc-
tion. The usual method of " reciting " on the book
is only a pitiable apology for oral instruction. The
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 17
teacher who is not a slave to her book, who has a wider
knowledge of the subject through collateral reading,
and a knowledge of broad underlying principles, will
not teach thus. She will appreciate the fact that parrot-
ing of ill-digested or totally misunderstood book state-
ments, or even giving back the words of the book
though understood, is not sufficient. She will do more
than just " hear recitations."
Supplementing the text. — There is plenty of chance
and need for the teacher to do some real, oral teaching,
even when the pupils have studied the lesson in a
book. For what has been studied must yet be developed,
explained, illustrated by picture or word description;
comparison must be made with the concrete experience
of the pupils; or cross references to previous lessons
that serve to elucidate must be brought out. In other
words, the recitation, though based upon a book, should
be considered an opportunity for thoughtful discussion
of what has been assigned. It is safe to assume, in the
more difficult lessons, involving abstract principles,
causal connections, and correlations, that such are not
fully appreciated, and need further discussion and organ-
izing. This is the teacher's opportunity. As far as
possible, let the pupils work out their own salvation. But
there will always be need for developing and organizing.
It is not too much to say that the teacher should present,
in addition to what is given hi the briefer textbooks, as
18 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
much more of material which has a proper bearing on
the topic.
Oral development before book study. — Many diffi-
cult lessons should be taught orally before they are
assigned in a text. In this case, presentation by develop-
ment is usually best. The principles and data of pre-
vious lessons needed for appreciating the new should
be recalled. By directions and questions, the pupils
should be led to think out the new lessons for themselves.
The teacher presents the illustrative material, guides
the course of the lesson, and arranges the matter so
that the pupils make the necessary inferences, find the
geographical data desired, form definitions, or generalize
the geographical principles involved. After that the
textbook will be understood, and is useful for review
and drill. This is the German method, and it is ad-
mittedly the best.
This discussion has been presented to emphasize the
importance of oral instruction and to insist upon a
rational use of the textbook. It does not mean that the
teacher must plan courses or lessons outside of the book.
She may follow exactly the order of the book, and yet
carry out the above suggestions. No textbook can take
the space, however, to recall the foundation facts for each
lesson, nor give all the elaboration needful, or give the
pupil the necessary application and drill. These must
always be supplied by the teacher.
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 19
Oral work in topical study. — In the topical and type
study method (Chapter XIX) in upper grades, however,
the teacher (or supervisor) needs to make her plan
different from that of the ordinary text. This suggests
another opportunity for independence from the textbook
and for oral instruction.
CHAPTER IV
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK
Necessity for the textbook. - - The limits of Home
Geography are comparatively narrow. To know about
the regions beyond the horizon of actual experience,
dependence must be placed on hearsay evidence, that of
eyewitnesses (explorers and travelers), authors (com-
pilers), and teachers. This must necessarily remain
the chief means of acquisition of geographical knowledge,
and herein lies the main danger of geographical in-
struction.
Pedagogy of textbook. — Textbooks, to-day, are more
than books on subject matter. They represent the
methods and advice of the best instructors. This a
teacher should bear in mind before trying to improve on
the scheme and making out a course of her own. The
approach to the subject, the general arrangement and
order of topics, and the general relations and principles
to be derived from this order, are all the result of practi-
cal teaching experience and wisdom. Many textbooks
not only give explicit directions to the teacher as to teach-
ing methods, but also take into account the pupil's
difficulty, and provide for it by careful arrangement and
20
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK 21
typography, and sometimes by definite hints for study,
suggestions for self-testing, questions and exercises to
stimulate pupils to make applications, and references for
collateral reading. Teachers will do well to follow these
authors' suggestions seriously.
Shortcomings of textbooks. — The ordinary elemen-
tary school textbook in geography cannot, however,
do justice to the subject. The science is altogether too
comprehensive and rich in content to remain interesting
after being condensed into the limits of books of the
usual size. By the unavoidable compression, the living
juice of the subject — that is, the incidental allusions to
history, the references to science for explanation, the
numerous cross-references needed to knit together old
facts and new, — these must all be left out, and the result
is the usual formal, terse, laconic, uninteresting text-
book, the dry bones of the subject. The essential facts
are all there, to be sure. But they need the living voice
of the teacher to make them real and vivid. They must
be largely supplemented to become interesting. There
are some textbooks in use now that attempt to supply
what these others lack.
Supplementary readers are a device to furnish ad-
ditional matter, and to infuse life and interest. (Chap-
ter XIII.)
The textbook cannot, moreover, do justice to the pupil.
It is an unconscious, inanimate teacher which cannot see
22 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
when a pupil flounders ; which does not stop to permit
reflection; which does not repeat, and in somewhat
different language, to give the pupil another chance to
grasp its meaning; which does not see when the pupil
has forgotten, at least for the moment, some facts of a
previous lesson necessary as an apperceptive basis for the
new, and so does not make helpful cross-connections ;
which does not stop to clinch the facts learned by means
of the necessary drill. The living teacher only can do
all this.
The mode of presentation in a textbook of geography
is usually a formal, rather dogmatic statement of prin-
ciples, and a laconic, descriptive narrative. Rarely,
unless it be by map study, does a textbook elicit or
develop a lesson. The tendency, therefore, particularly
with young children, is to read the text without reflection
and judgment, and to rely too much on the easier and
quicker method of committing to memory.
The textbook presents in clear, systematic, though
usually uninteresting form, the essential facts of the
subject. School geographies are generally mere epito-
mes. As a "Leitfaden," a sort of daily reference book
with which to work out assignments for lessons, and for
reviews of orally presented lessons, textbooks are highly
useful. " After all, the textbook is as good or as bad as
it is allowed to be." (Conwentz.)
The teacher should repeat often to herself and to her
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK 23
pupils that the book is but a means, not an end. The
book is not geography itself, but about geography,
and it is necessary for the reader to project his imagina-
tion to the real people, the real occupations, the real
scenery, and earth features and forces so meagerly
and faintly represented by the printed page.
The geography the first information book. — It is a
noteworthy point that the first book given to pupils,
from which they are to get information or facts, is a
geography. True, they have readers, spellers, and
other books before this, but these are chiefly to develop
the art of expression. Geographies are given for the
study of facts. But the pupils have not yet learned to
study for information. In fact, they still have their dif-
ficulties with the mechanical side of reading. Only in
recent years has this matter of study been taken up in
General Method. Some few of the later geographies
have valuable hints to the pupil advising him how to
use the text.
The introduction of the textbook should be gradual.
Home geography requires no text. The first geography
should be taught orally. But in the first course in general
descriptive geography a book should be used. The
first lessons in the book should be studied in the reci-
tation, in school. Let the teacher tell her pupils the
purpose of the book, and ask them to read silently,
for the thought, a paragraph or so, and then aloud. The
24 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
teacher should test the pupil to see if he has understood
what he read by requiring him to repeat in his own words.
It is important (some definitions excepted) to demand
that the pupils paraphrase and not use the identical
words of the book. The pupil should be taught to dis-
tinguish the difference between words and ideas. It is
in such study that the true function of the teacher lies
- to guide and assist the pupil in learning for himself.
Sympathy, patience, skill, and ingenuity are all required
for this.
The teacher herself should show an attitude of interest.
This will make the pupils more enthusiastic. A teacher
who " hates " geography and shows it cannot hope to
succeed in interesting others in it.
During such study lessons the teacher should use
illustrative material, appropriate stories, and descrip-
tions drawn from outside the text. She should explain
and elaborate and make thoroughly interesting what the
textbook has treated so briefly.
Methods of study. — As the pupil gets older he may be
permitted to base his preparation more and more upon
the text and other books. By this time he should have
learned to study independently. He should not try to
memorize the words, but should seek to retain the
information contained in them, the facts, the ideas.
While reading a paragraph or a page he should con-
sciously try to find out " what the author is trying to tell
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK 25
him. " He should know how to read a portion thinkingly,
then close the book and tell himself what he has learned.
It is a good plan to note down a brief, logical memoran-
dum of each portion as acquired. This should not be a
copy, but the gist of the matter, in the pupil's own lan-
guage. The teacher should show the pupil how to make
outlines, synopses, or summaries of study. One reading
is usually not sufficient to clinch the study. The first
reading is to dig out the isolated facts ; the second, to
organize them into a whole or unity. This organizing
is often best done in class with the aid of the teacher.
Blackboard synopses or summaries are a useful help.
The younger pupils cannot make these unaided, though
older children should. The teacher should in the recita-
tion help to bring out the relation of the various ideas
of the lesson, arranging them in a synopsis, as main
topic, subordinate topics, coordinate topics, etc. ; or
welding them all together into a general principle.
This unifying work, so often sadly neglected or taken for
granted, is the climax of the lesson. After all, the im-
portant thing is not so much to learn the thousand and
one facts of geography, as their relations, and the prin-
ciples they embody.
If geography is as serious business as this, no wonder
that school officers often suggest that no home work
be assigned in it, but that it be studied at school under
the guidance of the teacher.
26 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Methods of assignment. — The success or failure of the
lesson is largely due to the way it has been assigned. In
spite of ridicule, the practice of assigning the new lesson
as " so many pages " still persists. Some of the old
geographies of a hundred years ago were thus divided,
without reference to the unity or natural relations of
the subject, into "lessons," each about as much as could
be mastered daily, the end coming anywhere, perhaps
in the middle of a topic.
Time is not wasted in the careful assignment of a
lesson, — in fact, just the reverse. For beginners, the
teacher may very profitably read aloud through the
lesson, dwelling on this point or that, to elucidate, or show
which is the important, which the incidental, and finally
briefly summarizing.
Or, if the pupils are older, as an aim or interest a sort
of title may be given to the lesson, in the light of which it
is to be studied : "In to-morrow's lesson you will learn
how came to be located, and why it grew to be such
a large city." " The next lesson tells you what the people
do for a living." " This lesson tells you how irriga-
tion is carried on."
Again, pupils may be given sets of definite, properly
organized questions, the answers to which they are to
find in the text: " Where is Alaska? To whom did it
formerly belong? What native peoples live there?
Learn about their houses, clothing, food, amusements,
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK 27
home life." Etc. This suggests the proper emphasis, and
leads to definiteness in preparation.
A similar plan is to write a synoptical outline as a
guide for study in which, through heads and subheads,
the proper relationships may be indicated.
Older pupils should occasionally be given little
geographical problems to work out : " The next lesson is
The Rainfall of the Western Half of the United States.
Study the rainfall conditions from the coast to the Great
Plains. First review page — , which tells about the pre-
vailing winds in that latitude ; page — about rain ; and
page — about the topography of that section. Refer
also to the relief map, page — . Then read the new
lesson, from the bottom of page — to the middle of page
— , connecting with the old lessons above-mentioned.
Note where the greatest rainfall occurs, and find the
reason; where the least, and why. Compare your
reading with the rainfall map, page — . Also read
page — of Supplementary Reader."
To these suggestions may be added that the lesson,
especially if it is a difficult one, should sometimes take
the form of an oral development. After this the pupil
may review the matter in the text.
In topical and type studies great care must be used
to give definite directions as to what to study, and where
to find it. Here the consecutive order of a textbook may
not be followed, but the material may have to be gathered
28 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
by the pupils from various parts of the textbook, from
supplementary readers, magazines, encyclopedias, and
other sources. The pupils should be taught how to
use an index and table of contents; though, to begin
with, references should be assigned definitely by page.
Such careful assignments not only tell the pupils what
to study, but teach them to discriminate, and above all
to see that the textbook is not an end, but a means.
They do much to provoke interest in the new lesson, and
prevent the textbook work from becoming purely me-
moriter, than which nothing can be more stupid and dull.
Relation of lessons to the course. — It is obvious that
the method of assignment and presentation indicated
require that the teacher do more than merely study
each lesson at the same time as the pupil. It is a shift-
less, hand-to-the-mouth policy, where the teacher assigns
merely by so many pages, or the next section, without
clearly knowing what these are about. It is disastrous
to the children. The teacher owes it to herself and her
pupils to have a wider view of her subject than this.
Naturally, by teaching the same grade work year after
year she gets the relations of the lessons in her grade.
But in teaching a course the teacher should know its
scope, order, and relation to the work of the grades
below and above. She should read far enough ahead of
her class to see to what to-morrow's lesson is leading.
In this way the lessons are not isolated, and dislocated ;
HOW TO USE THE TEXTBOOK 29
but are organized to carry out a definite scheme of
presentation.
The suggestions here offered are not intended to in-
crease the burdens of the teacher, but rather to assist her
to systematize and economize her school energies. In
the end, the methods that economize and make efficient
the pupils' efforts are an economy and satisfaction to
the teacher.
CHAPTER V
HOME GEOGRAPHY
"In the place where a child lives should he first find his
orientation in reality and study the region in all its relation-
ships."— RlTTER.
Synthetic growth of geographical knowledge. — The
earliest study of a child is getting his bearings in the
world. Sight, touch, and hearing teach the child the
first rudiments of space relations. The narrow circle of
the horizon of the infant thus enlarges from the cradle to
the home, then to the garden, in widening reaches. Then
the home block is explored, and a mental map is made
of it. The children on the block, and the grown people,
their games and their work ; the corner grocery ; the black-
smith's and the carpenter's shop near by ; the wagons and
cars coming from outside his known world and vanishing
again into regions unknown ; the flowers, trees, birds,
insects, and other life; the weather, pleasant and un-
pleasant ; the winds for paper windmills and kites ; the
cold that makes good sleighing and skating ; the beautiful
moon and stars, — all these and many more — all true
geographical matter, the little child gets acquainted
with, and this for the most part without instruction from
30
HOME GEOGRAPHY 31
others, though frequently his irrepressible curiosity leads
him to some unfathomable problem and he questions
his elders, "Why?"
First geography by observation. — This early self-
instruction through personal experiences and direct ob-
servation is the most vivid and real geography possible,
and furnishes the concrete basis upon which the less
tangible geography of regions beyond the reach of ex-
perience must rest.
This getting acquainted with the home region is Home
Geography. We talk about beginning it in the third
or fourth school year. The fact is, the child began it
years before, and we but continue the study. Being a
natural mode of learning, one in which the child is
practiced, it should be continued in school to still further
enlarge the view of the world.
Home geography is the study of the occupations,
historic associations, and civic life of the community;
it includes the first lessons on land and water forms —
hills, valleys, brooks, rocks, soil, scenery ; on the weather
and the seasons. It is a very simple study, and there is
nothing technical about it.
The scope of home geography varies according to
the location and conditions of the school. The home
geography of a place should have something peculiar
to that place. The historic factor of one locality would
differ from that of another ; the industrial factor would
32 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
show some difference ; the physiographic features would
be more alike, probably, though with differences. Home
geography connects with and includes the nature-study
of previous grades, the animals and vegetal life, and the
natural phenomena. These all help to paint the local
picture.
For knowledge of locality. — Home geography, a
composite study of many local elements, is taught that
the pupils may come to know their local environment,
and so, even as children, and later as citizens, appreciate it
the more, and adapt themselves better to it. One of the
most powerful primal instincts is the love of home.
Even national patriotism is but a phase of this feeling.
It is therefore of the highest civic importance that the
geography of the home be taught.
As a basis for world geography. — From a pedagogical
standpoint, also, home geography is the only rational basis
for advanced geography. Ziller was first to recognize
this as a working principle of geography teaching. It
is through what we know of the home district that we
judge the world. By imagination, the wayside stream
is expanded into a mighty river ; the local hills become
the Alps; the ordinary simple relations with the shop
and store become manufacturing and international com-
merce. The simple concepts of home geography are the
types with which we compare the features of foreign lands.
Here the need of real observation and personal experience
HOME GEOGRAPHY 33
is clearly seen. The concepts thus formed are not ab-
stract, hazy, vague, and unreal, but definite and real.
By continuing the method of observational study, the
school can add to such stock of definite notions. What
the child has " picked up " untaught, or self-tutored,
may be studied further in detail, and added to, and new
relations may be shown therein, or new lines followed.
Home geography in upper grades. — A more intensive
course in home geography should be given in the upper
grades when the pupils can appreciate the more complex
relations of commercial and civic life, and know more of
history. It is true that local physiography is studied in
the upper grades, but the human side is neglected.
The center of each person's world is the home locality.
The rest of the world is important only so far as it is
related to the home region. The place where people
spend most of their lives is worthy of a deeper study
than can be given it in the primary grades. It is a
mistake to drop home geography there. In every grade
it can be made use of to add vividness and reality to
general geography.
In European practice home geography is realized
more fully by studying geography on the radial plan;
that is, starting from the home region along certain
lines of historic, political, or commercial interest to more
distant centers, and returning to start anew in some
other direction to again connect with other centers
34 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
more or less closely associated with the home re-
gion. A very practical unity is thus furnished for
the subject.
The synthetic method in geography : Induction. —
In general, in home geography the child proceeds from
the known to the unknown in enlarging, concentric
circles, or lengthening radii. This is the Synthetic
Method, building up a larger whole from the details. It
is also Inductive : from a group of related facts the child
makes simple generalizations, which he applies deduc-
tively to new cases. He may not be conscious of the
logic of his thoughts, and just how he gets his generaliza-
tions, nor may he be able to state these in words, and
yet he has some concepts and principles useful for
daily application.
Field lessons. — The ideal way to teach home geog-
raphy is without a textbook. The book habit usually
vitiates its spirit. The best way to form correct con-
cepts of real things is not to read about them in a book,
but to observe the things themselves. Just as travel is the
ideal and most pleasant way of studying foreign places,
so travel at home is the ideal method of studying the
home environment. Field lessons, excursions, visits to
historic places, visits to museums and other places of
interest, collecting trips, are under the right conditions
delightful, proper, and very pedagogical methods of
learning home geography.
HOME GEOGRAPHY 35
Every one travels more or less about the home locality.
Our walks and rides about town are, however, usually
limited to our routine paths of business and occasional
pleasure, and most of us could find many places of human
or natural interest with which we are still unfamiliar.
It is a common remark, especially in larger places, that
visitors who come for sight-seeing know more of a place
than the natives. Many delightful discoveries can be
made by going out of our usual path occasionally, going
to our destination by one route, returning by another.
The exploring instinct, if kept alive, will do much to
add pleasure and interest, to vary the monotony of rou-
tine, and to increase the appreciation of the home com-
munity.
Field lessons in country and city. — In rural districts
field lessons on earth features and earth forces, on vege-
tation and animal life, and the country industries will be
most feasible. In cities the human phase of geography
is most easily observed, though the physical is by no
means lacking. It is surprising, when one seeks for it,
to find so much of nature in the heart of a big city. The
city-bred teacher is apt to overlook it. We see that in
which we are most interested. The city inhabitant is
most interested in man and his ways. Perhaps that is
all the more reason for teaching a city child how to find
nature also.
Field lessons are not necessarily far afield, and are not
36 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
difficult to give. The following lessons can be taught
in the schoolyard, the street in front of the school, a
vacant lot near by, in the school garden, on the school
roof, or a park close at hand ; weather and sky studies,
different kinds of plants and animals and the conditions
of their life, rocks and soil, processes of tillage and culti-
vation, weathering, erosion and deposit, the story of a
pebble, history of glaciated rock, minerals, land and water
forms, etc. The neighboring streets display a wealth
of topics from human geography, — races, nationalities,
customs, costumes, various trades and shops, many
products and manufactures, intercourse, transportation
and commerce, evidences of the civic organization, etc.
It is a mistake to go miles for what may be found close
at hand.
Since near-by field lessons will entail no difficulties as
to time, permission from school authorities and parents,
long distances and carfare, dangerous crossings, etc.,
there is little excuse for teachers in cities near large parks
or in the outskirts, or in village and country schools for
not giving field lessons. But it is well to remember that
the mechanical difficulties of mass teaching, and the
ordinary routine of a large school system, render field
lessons at a considerable distance well-nigh impossible.
Much is usually made of the European practice of taking
pupils on long walking trips, or even excursions of several
days. This is, however, generally only in the smaller
HOME GEOGRAPHY 37
places and special schools, and with older students. It
is absolutely foolish and dangerous to undertake long
field trips with little children through large cities.
Every parent knows the responsibilities of trying to
manage his own flock on such occasions, and has a perfect
right to refuse to let his children go on a long trip with
a large class, under the management perhaps of only
a single teacher. It is highly commendable, however,
for a teacher to chaperon a small, enthusiastic group of
pupils who are especially desirous of making a field trip.
Much is also made of visiting shops, factories, and
other industrial places. This also is desirable, if done
without compulsion and with real interest, by small
parties. But if the practice should become universal,
these industrial plants, and many public institutions,
must close their doors to such visits because of too great
interference with the regular business. So long as the
thing is not overdone, such visits are usually not denied,
and often welcomed. It goes without saying that per-
mission should always first be sought to visit places
not generally open to the public. This avoids disap-
pointment and trouble, and often secures a pleasant re-
ception, official guides and instructors.
Again, it must be remembered that a visit to a flour
mill, for example, is not only a very risky thing on
account of the many dangerous belts and cogwheels
of the machinery, but is generally absolutely worthless
38 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
from the standpoint of a study of the process. Here,
as in many another modern industrial plant, the process
is so specialized, and divided up, and carried on in so
many different parts of the mill, that a child, or even a
grown person, would get practically no concept of the
actual process, except of its marvelous complexity and
system.
In visiting museums and collections, too much should
not be attempted. The visit should be for the study of
a limited portion of the exhibit of special geographical
interest, related to the current work.
So it is necessary to use common sense about field
lessons. Where it can be done easily and safely,
and does not require too great a sacrifice of time, they
should be given occasionally. Otherwise, they had bet-
ter be dispensed with.
Observational geography without field lessons. — It
is fortunate that the average child, even a city child
in the most congested section, is in the habit, and has
been for years, of using his eyes and ears, and has al-
ready, on entering school, a foundation of real geographi-
cal experiences so great that all the field lessons possible
under adverse conditions would be but " a drop in the
bucket " in comparison. It is the accidental and inci-
dental observations of daily life that furnish the child
his real geography. Children should be encouraged to
be interested in what goes on around them, to watch
HOME GEOGRAPHY 39
the life and the occupations of the community, -and to
note the local physical features. The show windows
with wares on display (sometimes showing processes of
manufacture) ; the open door of the blacksmith's,
shoemaker's, and carpenter's shops; the ships at the
docks; the drays hauling the merchandise of the world
through the streets; the bridges, ferries, trains; the
telephone and telegraph; public parks and pleasure
resorts; zoological gardens and museums; the local
hills, valleys, and streams, all appeal daily to the child's
curiosity. He knows, perhaps, where the Soldiers'
Monument is, and the flour mill, though he may
not know the history of the former, nor the process
in the latter. But the history of the monument may
be just as well taught in school, and the process of
making flour can be shown, even more clearly than in
the mill itself, by the simple experiment of grinding
some grain, according to the primitive method, be-
tween two stones.
Illustrative material in classroom. — Even where
field lessons cannot be safely or economically given,
reliance should be placed on the pupil's store of direct
knowledge, and with this foundation of reality, the topics
of home geography should be further developed by means
of specimens, experiments, pictures, and other illustra-
tive material. Thus the teaching may be still concrete,
and not by the book.
40 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Sometimes " the mountain may be brought to Ma-
homet," — experiments on evaporation and condensa-
tion bring the rain into the schoolroom, teaching, in
fact, something not so clearly seen in the natural process
outside. A river may be made in a sand tray, and would
show, more easily, because under much better control,
than the Hudson or the Mississippi, the processes of
erosion, transportation, and deposit. True, a sand
tray river and mountain are pathetic imitations of the
real thing, but are the next best thing when the real
river or mountain is inaccessible. Better these symbols
than word symbols alone. A sand model of a moun-
tain, of course, would be out of place in a Swiss school,
or in Denver. In the country, where a brook flows
near the school, or in the city, if there is one in an easily
accessible park, or suburban district, the schoolroom
brook would be a farce. The wise teacher would wait
for a rainy day for observation of the brook in the gutter.
Preparation for a field lesson. — Field lessons require
careful preparation. The teacher should know her
subject matter. She should visit the place and note the
best ways and means of getting there, the difficulties to
be encountered, the abundance or absence of data for
observation, etc. She should plan the order of study
to give it unity.
A definite aim should be given for the trip. "We shall
look in at the shoemaker's shop to see how shoes are
HOME GEOGRAPHY 41
made." " It has stopped raining. Let us go outside and
look at the water running in the gutter to see what it can
teach us." "We have been reading about the Indians.
We are going to the museum to look at Indian weapons,
tools, clothing, etc." Such a prelude will focus at-
tention, and give a definite purpose.
Management of classes. — The shorter outdoor lessons
may be given in school hours. Longer ones had better
be taken after school, or on Saturdays. Some school
authorities set aside certain days to be used for field
lessons. Sometimes the last period of the day is used and
the time extended to after school hours. For trips out of
school hours no compulsion as to attendance should be
exercised. For trips involving any responsibility the
parents' consent should be secured, and any trips after
school hours should be announced beforehand to the
parents. In the poorer communities carfare and other
expenses must be taken into account.
Children should not be taxed beyond their strength
on excursions. If the distance is too great for walking
there and back with ease, it must be abandoned, or
transportation provided. In large cities this is a special
problem. It is possible to charter special street cars,
sight-seeing automobiles, or boats. Otherwise there is
always the liability of a large party being divided in
trying to secure passage in public conveyances.
It is useless to try to take a class of forty or fifty pupils,
42 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
except on shorter trips in the immediate vicinity of the
school. For more extended trips, the teacher should have
assistance, or the class should be divided into manage-
able sections. Sometimes mothers may be invited to
help supervise the children. This stimulates interest in
the trip.
A good disciplinarian will have no special trouble on
field trips. Naturally the pupils will feel less restraint on
such occasions than in school, but they should attend
strictly to the business in hand, and remain in a more or
less compact body near the teacher, ever ready to respond
to her directions and her discussions of the topic of study.
Unless the trip is planned with care and executed with
promptness, firmness, and common sense, and with its
purpose always in mind, it is apt to turn into a "lark"
for the pupils, and, as Samantha Allen would say, "a
pleasure exertion " for the teacher.
Method of instruction. — The presentation of the
outdoor lessons may be less formal than in school, but
should follow in general the same practice. The pupils
should be led to see things for themselves, and to think
about them. Questions and directions by the teacher
should guide the observation and reasoning. Physical
features and forces are best studied thus by develop-
ment. Industrial and historical topics are better treated
in a simple lecture by the teacher. The children should
be allowed to contribute whatever they can. Field les-
HOME GEOGRAPHY 43
sons should be reviewed and amplified in school after
the trip, and application should be made of what was
thus learned. Textbook study and supplementary
reading should follow a field trip.
Theoretically, a field lesson should precede the study
of the topic in school. Then the trip is one of discovery.
Practically it is common to take a class on an excursion
after one or several topics have been studied, and an
interest in them has been aroused. Then the trip be-
comes one of verification or corroboration of the previous
study. This method economizes in the time spent on
the trip. A considerable amount of subject matter can
thus be covered.
CHAPTER VI
LESSONS IN HOME GEOGRAPHY TO
ILLUSTRATE METHOD
A few concrete examples of subject matter and
method of presentation are given below, not to furnish* a
course, but to illustrate the foregoing chapters, and to
bring out special points in method.
Points of the compass. — The sun is the most common
means of orientation used in life. Note the place of
sunrise and sunset, and the direction of the sun at noon.
Also find north. Fix the names of these directions.
The directions may be marked in the schoolroom with
letters on the walls, or with crosslines on the floor or
ceiling. A weather vane on the school, or on a pole in
the yard, helps to make a habit of getting one's bearings.
Locational ideas in geography rest upon this basis of
orientation. In home geography application of the
points of the compass should be made in pointing towards
familiar places, or in going to them.
An interesting exercise is to determine the noon shadow
of a vertical stick placed in a south window, or in the
schoolyard. The north and south line can thus be de-
termined with fair accuracy.
44
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 45
The pupils are old enough to be interested in the mag-
netic compass. This should be shown and its operation
taught. The pupils would like to make their own com-
passes from magnetized knitting needles, watch spring,
or other hard steel. A compass used on a field trip
would add interest and assist in mapping out the district.
Finding the north by the North Star is also an interesting
exercise. The well-known fact that moss and algas grow
more abundantly on the shady, damp, north side of
trees, rocks, walls, etc., may also be brought out by
observation.
Bird's-eye view. — In many cases it is possible to get a
general view of the locality from some high hill or build-
ing, perhaps from the roof or upper windows of the
school. This is a very instructive lesson for locating
the different sections of the community, prominent local
natural features, buildings, etc., and for getting relations
otherwise not easily seen. Use the points of the com-
pass. This study is excellent as a basis for the concep-
tion of a map.
Occupations and trades. — Children know enough
about the commoner occupations to serve as a basis for
an indoor lesson. The aim is not so much to learn a
special trade as to teach certain principles of geography,
— about raw material and the finished product ; division
of labor ; interdependence of people ; value of invention,
labor, and money, in industry ; need or demand (market),
46 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
buying and selling ; communication, transportation, and
commerce. It must be remembered that some of these
terms may be out of place in home geography. The
principles they stand for need not be forced upon the
attention of the children. The teacher, however,
should keep them in mind, as the geographical purpose
of these industrial lessons. These generalizations will
not come all at once, in the first lesson. Only after many
lessons, perhaps only after months, do these facts gradu-
ally dawn on the pupil's mind. Even though the tools,
materials, and processes are soon forgotten by the pupil,
he will retain a useful residue for the further appreciation
of other industrial studies.
To the child, carpentry, blacksmithing, bread-making,
are not as interesting as the carpenter, the blacksmith,
and the baker. It is the personal element, the human
element, that appeals. Therefore such lessons should
be presented for the most part, or at least introduced,
from the personal side.
These lessons should be based on the previous ex-
perience of the children, perhaps on preliminary, indi-
vidual observations, under direction, or, if convenient,
by the whole class visiting the place of the trade or
occupation. Specimens of the commercial materials
used, possibly tools and pictures, add to the reality
of the schoolroom lesson. Some of the processes may be
illustrated by simple experiments.
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 47
Primitive methods of primitive peoples appeal more
to the child than the highly specialized modern pro-
cesses. Nothing could show more clearly the making of
flour than the simple schoolroom experiment of crushing
and grinding wheat between two stones, and sifting the
flour from the bran, as some Indian tribes and other
races still do. This is the process of the modern mill
in epitome. The threshing process is just as simply
shown by rubbing some heads of wheat in the palm of
the hand, thus shelling the kernels. Then by blowing
away the chaff the winnowing is illustrated. A child
would get very little from a visit to a spinning factory,
yet the process may be nicely shown by twisting some
parallel fibers of cotton or other material between
the fingers till a firm, strong yarn or thread is formed.
The complicated modern weaving process can be beauti-
fully typified on the ordinary school hand loom.
Sometimes these primitive arts are appropriately
studied in correlation with studies of primitive peoples,
as, for example, the story of Hiawatha. A natural and
artistic setting is then given to such a study. Children
also like to make believe they are primitive people, or
Robinson Crusoes, and their imaginary necessities may
be used to stimulate their inventiveness in working out
experimentally these simple arts.
Nature- study and geography should be correlated in
these industrial studies. Through the former, the pupil
48 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
should learn the origin and nature of the more common
animal and vegetable materials used in commerce, —
wheat, corn, pine, flax, cattle, sheep, iron, copper, granite,
marble, etc. (See Chapter XXI, Correlation of Nature
Study and Geography.)
Begin the teaching of industries with the study of
local types like the following :
The blacksmith. — Where is the shop ? Describe the
smith ; appearance, strength, clothing. Why " black "
smith ? Quotation from Longfellow's The Village Black-
smith to interest the children in his personality. Do
you like to look into his shop ? Why ? What is it like ?
What does he do? Describe the forge and bellows
(drawings), the anvil, tools. The melody of the anvil.
The sparks. Why must the iron be heated? (Experi-
ment with sealing wax, glass, or pieces of iron wire.)
What does the smith make of the iron? Process of
making a horseshoe. (Show shoe, nails.) How a horse
is shod. For whom does the blacksmith do this
work? Why does not every man shoe his own horse?
•
How do other people serve the blacksmith? Why is
a blacksmith shop likely to be found at country cross-
roads? (Illustrate the study with appropriate anec-
dotes.)
The grocer. — In this study of foods begin at the
home : The family need. Trace foodstuffs from the
grocery back to the market; to the truck garden out-
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 49
side of the town ; to the farms ; perhaps to other parts
of the nation; and even to foreign lands. Ideas of
ultimate sources of food supply, shipment, means of
transportation, commerce, are taught by this lesson.
Transportation. — Study the delivery of packages from
the store. What is a delivery boy? A truckman?
An express company ? Assistance from beasts of burden.
Importance of the horse. Other animals used in other
lands. The need of good roads and streets. Simple
sketch of road-making process. Brief study of some
principal roads leading out of town. Whither do they
lead? Are roads always straight? Why not? Hills,
lakes, rivers, as obstacles, and how avoided or sur-
mounted. Why does a road often go around a hill?
Why located in valleys of rivers or mountains ? Sketch
of traffic as observed by children. Different kinds of
vehicles, and their uses. Different kinds of things
transported. Trace some of these staples from farm,
forest, or mine to city ; from shop and factory to homes
and stores; from the steamboat landing and the rail-
road station to the factory or store, etc. Follow with
the study of shipping and railroads.
Such lessons should at least teach the worth of labor,
and the interdependence of man and man. Keep the
local color — do not teach in an abstract, colorless way.
Try to get children to call up in imagination the familiar
places referred to.
E
50 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The fruit stand. — Ask the pupils to observe the
variety of fruits and nuts offered for sale. Let them note
the labels, or inquire of the dealer as to the source of
various fruits. Thus they will discover oranges from
Florida, figs from Turkey, dates from Algeria, blueberries
from Cape Cod, nuts from Brazil, pecans from Louisiana,
apples from New York, etc. Perhaps the pupils will
bring specimens of fruit to school for an exhibit. The
materials should also be used in the nature lessons.
This study of fruits may be used as an approach to foreign
geography. Many a child, like Mignon, has longed to
fly to the land where the oranges grow.
Civics from home geography. — Children are not old
enough to appreciate the subject of local government in
its official and legal aspects. There is, however, a side
that appeals ; and through this, rudiments of civics may
be presented. The administrative side interests pupils.
The policeman on his post, the firehouse around the
corner, the postman who brings the daily mail, the street
cleaner, the ash man, etc., mean more to the child than
mayor, treasurer, aldermen, judges, etc. They come
more directly and frequently into the child's life, and the
work of these public servants may teach pupils a respect
for law and order, and simple duties as little citizens.
The heroic element in the lives of these men should
be shown. The instinct of hero worship in the child
will respond to it.
Historic studies. — These should be based upon visits
to historic places of the locality, historic buildings, and
monuments. There is no place so young that it does
not have something of a past, though it may glory
chiefly in its future. The early, primeval condition,
incidents of its founding, reason for its location, brief
sketch of great events in its history, simple sketches of
its great men, buildings of historic interest, monuments to
commemorate men and events, are topics to be studied.
The study of history has not in these grades gone
very far, and the teacher must be careful not to take
the pupils beyond their depth into events they never
heard of, and in which they are not interested. The
reality of the scenes and incidents must be preserved
by constant attachment to familiar objects and places,
familiar names of families still represented, by relics
and heirlooms loaned for the occasion, by facts the chil-
dren may be able to gather from their parents, grand-
parents, and " the oldest inhabitant." It should be the
aim to develop through such lessons a sort of local
patriotism.
Hills and valleys. — These should be studied in a
field lesson, if convenient. Hills and valleys give the
child a notion of topography, " the face of the land,"
" the lay of the land," so important in the map study
later on. The actual climbing " up hill and down dale "
gives the child muscular sensations useful in appreciat-
52 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
ing the geographical side of the matter. The bird's-
eye view and the expanding horizon are also valuable.
To children who have never seen mountains, hills must
stand as prototypes.
Follow a street, road, or path among the hills. Note
how it conforms to the valley. Why ? Leave the valley
and climb a hill by the shortest route. Note the exertion.
Change the ascent to a zigzag and note greater ease with
gentler slope. Note how the roads choose the lowest
grade or zigzag up the slopes. The study will emphasize
the fact that hills are obstacles to travel and traffic.
Note where the town is situated. Some towns for a
special reason are located on the tops of hills, but most
towns are on lower ground. Why?
As the hill is climbed, note the water courses. Whither
do they lead? Perhaps a stream occupies the lowest
part of the valley, certainly in rainy weather. Let
pupils trace the drainage. Let them see how the
tributary streams come down the side valleys. Note
the hills that separate one such tributary from its neigh-
bor. The term divide or waterparting may be used.
Arrived at the top, survey the landscape, the lay
of the land as a bird sees it. Locate familiar places.
Find directions with compass. Note the relation of the
city to the surrounding farm lands. Note how " all the
roads lead to Rome." Refer to the travel and traffic.
Note the enlarged horizon. Suggest idea of distant
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 53
towns beyond the reach of vision. Perhaps a train may
be seen winding out of the town. Where is it going ?
The sense of freedom, the stronger breezes, the beauty
of the landscape, the sky and atmospheric effects, should
all be enjoyed. Is there any difference in vegetation on
the north and south sides of a hill? Why?
Note the hillside industries, — wood chopping, grazing ;
orchards and farms on the lower slopes ; perhaps quarry-
ing or mining.
As the descent is finished, again note the beauty of the
hills, and the valleys between. Note the more imposing
height, the sky line, the restricted horizon, the shadows
and light effects, the beauty of forest-clad hills as com-
pared with the balder heights from which the forests
have been cleared.
On the level prairie this lesson would be impossible.
In the heart of a metropolis likewise. Yet here too, in
less aesthetic fashion, the idea of slope may and must be
taught. The land is nowhere so level that water will
not run off. In cities the paved streets are graded so as
to slope from the middle to the sides, and toward the end
of the block. These " hills," or slopes, together with
models of sand and pictures of real hills, must be used
to develop the idea of topography.
The brook. — This is a good subject to stimulate the
imagination. The average city child and teacher is
more apt to think of Tennyson's Brook than of the real
54 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
thing ; of the brook " in the country " or " in the moun-
tains," but not in the city.
If the school is conveniently situated near a brook, the
best way is to take the class to it. In a congested city
district, however, this is impossible. Fortunately,
there is everywhere at hand a concrete, though prosaic,
example of a " brook " ; that is, the rain or snow water
running in the gutters. ^Esthetics aside, nothing better
can be found than this to teach the essential geographical
notions about streams, — source, slope, divide, water-
shed, tributary, velocity, erosion, sediment, transporta-
tion, deposit ; and even falls, rapids, deltas, and lakes.
The children of the city play in the gutter-brook, wading ;
floating imaginary ships and toy boats ; making bridges,
dams, waterfalls ; and even setting up miniature water
wheels. Thus the childish play in the gutter is the
basis for ideas of navigation, water power, commerce,
and the physiography of streams. The city field lesson
should be started at the gutter, and not in imagination
in the country.
The prosaic features of a brook may be farther repre-
sented in a sand tray. If the teacher semi-seriously
suggests, " This is a hill," " This is a rain storm "
(sprinkling on water), " And this is a river," the imagina-
tion of the children will make believe that a larger ex-
ample is before them. This classroom experiment shows
finely all the physical features of running water.
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 55
The physiographic side of a brook should not be
taught too technically, in the abstract, nor should it be
left unconnected with the human side. The study should
be very simple. " What a brook can do," or " The work
of the brook," suggest the treatment better than " ero-
sion, transportation, and deposit." The main physio-
graphic facts to be learned at this stage are: that
water flows downhill, and faster down the steeper slopes ;
that running water can wear off and wash away mud,
sand, and gravel, and that these are dropped here and
there when the water stops flowing, or flows slowly;
that valleys are dug out ; that hills are worn down, and
lakes filled by the sediment ; that waterfalls are formed
by certain natural or artificial obstructions. The
ordinary map terms applied to streams in common geog-
raphy should be learned.
As before stated, the inanimate side of geography is
not as interesting to children as the living. A technical
study of such things as drainage conditions, erosion,
transportation, etc., would be a rather bare picture to
the child. The human and the scenic or aesthetic side
need to be emphasized to complete the picture.
There is a peculiar fascination in running water.
Children and grown people feel its spell. The pictur-
esque setting of most natural streams ; the variable mo-
tion of the water ; the different sounds of ripples, falls,
and clinking pebbles ; the distinct unity of character, or
56 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
individuality ; its coming from " somewhere " and going
"somewhere" catch the fancy. It is a curious and
significant fact that streams are described in terms of
human life, — a stream has a head and a mouth. It
can run and fall. Streams pay each other tribute, or rob
each other of their watersheds. A brook laughs. A
stream even typifies the career of human life. From
time immemorial streams have been associated with
the life of man. No wonder they have a peculiar in-
fluence and interest. Poets and painters have always
found their muses by the banks of running water. A
little of this sort of thing should pervade the lesson on
the brook in home geography.
After the notion of what a stream is has been developed,
and the ordinary map terms used in connection with it
have been taught, then the brook should be given its
natural setting " in the country " or " in the mountains."
Let the pupils relate their vacation experiences with
brooks, and have them tell what they like about it.
Show numerous pictures of brooks in various moods and
of different types. The study should not be limited to
the water and bed merely, but the banks, valleys, and
surrounding scenery; the rocks and cliffs; the trees,
flowers, and ferns ; the birds and other animal life asso-
ciated with the stream should all be connected with the
brook to make a unity such as the brook usually presents.
Its relations to human life should by all means be
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 57
brought out : the uses of the stream as a water supply for
man, or a drinking place for cattle, for fishing, boating,
water power, and its scenic value. Before leaving the
subject, the stream should be enlarged to the dimensions
of a river, and further uses suggested, such as navigation,
irrigation, etc. The reverse of the picture, the flooding
and destruction of land and other property, and the
necessity of fording, ferrying, or bridging, should be
shown.
These relations to life should not merely be summarized
as a conclusion to the lesson, but should be dwelt on in
a study of concrete, local examples, and developed from
the study of pictures and through supplementary reading.
Considering the vast importance of streams as geograph-
ical factors, such study is by no means excessive.
Weather study. — There certainly is no excuse for
not studying this observationally. The weather cannot
be escaped. It is everywhere. The purpose of weather
study in the nature work of the primary grades is chiefly
aesthetic, and should remain partly so in the upper grades.
But there the informational side predominates. There
should be enough study to appreciate the aesthetic ele-
ments of even bad weather, to be familiar with various
weather phenomena, and to know their relations well
enough to judge when to carry an umbrella, or when it is a
good day for the wash, and when to make hay. Also,
the purpose is to teach some general principles of weather
68 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
and climate so necessary for the understanding of the
biological conditions in different parts of the globe.
In home geography weather vane, thermometer, rain
gauge, and calendar should be taught through use.
The simpler weather phenomena, heat, cold, rain, snow,
wind, clouds, and the changing seasons, are suitable
topics, and these should be taught by observation out-
doors and by indoor experiments. The work must,
however, be kept simple.
It is customary to make weather calendars or weather
charts. These are useful in showing how such records are
made, and in stimulating observation of weather and
the use of weather instruments. This study should not
be carried on too long. Very often these tables are
a waste of time, dull and unprofitable. It is a mistake
in the elementary school to make records throughout
a whole term. A few weeks of consecutive observation
will serve the purpose. To continue it invites lack of
interest. The beginning of winter, the coldest period,
windy March, and showery April are the most interest-
ing times for weather study.
Through the simple weather study of home geography
should be taught certain generalizations as to the
association of temperature, wind direction, and the state
of the skyr as indicative of different kinds of weather.
The south wind is hot and muggy. The east wind and
overcast sky mean rain. The indications for each
HOME GEOGRAPHY TO ILLUSTRATE METHOD 59
locality should thus be learned. A little can be taught
about the work of the Weather Bureau, and pupils
may be encouraged to look up the forecasts as shown in
the daily press, and to become familiar with the local
signals of flags and whistles.
CHAPTER VII
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL
Geography should be concrete. — The more vivid and
real the subject can be made, the more it appeals to the
children, and the better it is understood. To children of
the plains, mountains are hard to realize without models
and pictures. And the unlimited view of the plains
is just as difficult to imagine for children shut up in
narrow mountain valleys. Geographies tell about locks
and canals, but few pupils can understand how a ship
is locked through, without the aid of pictures. The
cotton gin is rightly given an important place in com-
mercial geography. But how many children know just
why it has to be used, how it is constructed, and how it
works ? Reference is made to a host of natural products,
manufactured articles, etc., that are mere empty names
to one who has never seen them. Occupations, customs,
dress, architecture, interest the child in the study of
foreign lands, but only in so far as he is able to picture
them.
From these examples is seen the necessity of assisting
the imagination to form concepts of those facts in geog-
raphy which cannot be seen and studied at first hand.
60
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 61
To bring before the class adequate and suitable illustra-
tive material is as much a duty of the teacher as " read-
ing up " on the lesson. The amount and character of
the material for visualizing the lesson may be taken as
an index of the teacher's earnestness and ingenuity, and
even of her appreciation of the subject.
In the chapters on home geography, the purpose and
treatment of the field lesson were considered. There
now remains to be considered the following kinds of
illustrative material, some of which is actual and some
only representative :
Pictures, next to the real thing, stand foremost in
interest and usefulness. Children are always fond of
them, and study them to the least detail. By the modern
photo-mechanical and color-printing methods results
of marvelous accuracy and beauty are obtained. Being
photographic they may generally be considered authentic,
and are so regarded by children. The half-tones in the
text corroborate the words of the book. Not only that,
but they often teach more. They should, like the text, be
assigned for study, and should be used in the recitation.
The teacher, however, should select pictures from other
sources to supplement those of the text ; and, better still,
display larger views that may be placed before the class
and seen by all at once. European schools are pro-
vided with large type pictures of races, occupations,
physiography, and scenery which are immensely useful.
62 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
But there are no such type pictures made in this country.
Such as are used are imported. There are, however,
numerous medium-sized pictures obtainable from
various sources. Some may be purchased from view
companies. Many may be gathered from magazines
and newspapers. Frequently excellent pictures used for
advertisement may be obtained from commercial houses,
real estate companies, steamship lines, and railroads.
The picture post-card fad, also, is a good thing for
geography.
The teacher should be on the lookout for pictures,
and make a collection. Pupils are usually glad to help.
This collection should be made useful and available by
a proper method of classification and filing. They should
be mounted on stiff paper, and properly labeled. Look-
ing for a picture in an unsorted collection is like looking
for a needle in a haystack. Some teachers paste their
pictures in a scrapbook with reading matter. This plan
is not so good as keeping them loose and classified in
pigeon-holes, drawers, or envelopes.
Study of pictures. — It is not enough to simply display
a picture to the class. It should be studied and described
by the pupils, and a lesson should be drawn from it.
Perhaps the picture is an Eskimo scene : What sort of
clothing do the people wear ? Why ? What else in the
picture shows that it is cold? Are their houses made
like ours? Of what are they made? Why do you
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 63
think they use snow? Look at the scenery. Do you
see trees ? Now can you tell why they make houses of
snow ? What else do you notice in the picture ? Yes,
the Eskimo is a good boatman. Notice his boat.
Would that be made of wood ? It is made chiefly of
skins. Where do these come from ? Yes, that is a seal,
and that a polar bear. What has the man in his hand ?
What is it used for ? What uses would he make of the
animals he kills? Etc.
In this lesson the picture serves as the basis for the
development of the facts to be brought out.
It is a good practice for cultivating observation and
expression to have the pupil describe a picture at length,
so far as he is able.
Children like to listen to a good description of a picture.
Sometimes the teacher should do the describing, using
plenty of descriptive words and phrases, not neglecting
the scenic or beauty aspects, and remembering the
children's natural interests. This description should
be lively, vivid, and picturesque. It should not be
merely a passive description of static appearances,
but should suggest life and activity, and the thoughts
and emotions naturally aroused in such situations as
are depicted.
In some studies a single picture cannot show all that
is needed. A series should be used, particularly with
such topics as represent action, development, changes,
64
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
processes, — as, physiographic changes, manufacturing
processes, agricultural processes, etc.
Blackboard drawings. — In this connection it should
be urged that teachers use every opportunity to sketch
on the blackboard as an aid in teaching. Simple outline
drawings may be made of
natural earth features; maps
may be sketched from mem-
ory; diagrams showing rela-
tionships, processes, develop-
ment, etc., may be drawn.
Even though these pictures,
maps, and diagrams are in
the book, there is an advan-
tage in reproducing them.
They are a wonderful help
in creating and holding at-
tention, and in teaching many
They should, as a
rule, be drawn at the moment
they are referred to, and comments should be made
upon them by the teacher as she draws them. Colored
crayons help to differentiate the parts of a drawing.
Pupils also should be taught to reproduce the simpler
diagrams, and to make necessary maps on the board.
Visual memory. — The psychological reason for the
high teaching value of pictures is that they enable the
FIG. i. Diagram showing opera- tOnicS
tion of a canal lock.
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 65
eye to convey impressions to the mind, which in simply
listening or reading must depend on the imagination and
memory to construct the objects of the scene. The
picture does this much more quickly, vividly, and ac-
curately, and, what is very important, a visual memory
persists with most pupils longer than any other. The
popularity and educative value of pictures is attested
by their almost universal use in every kind of book,
paper, advertising, etc.
The lantern slide and moving picture are also very
popular. Where facilities permit, both of these should
be used in teaching geography. In this way much
" tarry at home travel " may be accomplished. Such
pictures, where the necessary facilities exist, may be
shown by the regular teachers. School authorities should
provide for this purpose more liberally than in the past.
Rooms should be arranged with dark shades, and pro-
jection lanterns of the simpler types should be installed.
Many teachers give a personal touch, which pupils gener-
ally like, by having slides made of their own photographs,
taken on their travels. Sometimes outsiders, as high
school teachers, travelers, and lecturers, may be induced
to give a travel talk with pictures. The travel lectures
given to the general public by accepted authorities should
be recommended to the pupils for attendance. These
lecturers have contributed much toward the popularizing
of geography. It is the realistic character of the large
66 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
pictures on the screen, particularly if colored, that make
them so valuable. The geography teacher should at-
tend these lectures to get out of a rut, and to learn not
only the art of popular exposition, but some very good
pedagogy. The intensely human treatment of geography
by the public lecturer will be noticeable.
Lantern slides may be rented from view companies,
and often large loan collections are under the control
of the school authorities.
The opaque projection lantern is another means of
adding interest and pleasure to the work. By this,
without going through the labor and expense of making
slides, one may take a photograph, postal card, or even
a picture in a book and project it upon the screen in
original colors.
The stereoscope produces the most wonderfully realistic
effects by combining two pictures of the same object,
from slightly different angles of view, similar to what
occurs with binocular vision. This instrument, with sets
of views, should be found in every school. They are
inexpensive. The disadvantage of these stereographs is
that the work with them must be individual, not collect-
ive, as with the lantern slide. To allow group work,
schemes have been proposed for providing sets of ten
or more of each series of views. The plan is too ex-
pensive and cumbersome. It is better to place the
stereoscopes and stereographs in the classroom or the
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 67
library, where they may be looked at by the children
individually. Or particular views may be sent singly
around the class.
To avoid oral repetition, it is a good plan to write a
brief description or explanatory remark on an attached
card, calling attention to the principal points to be noted.
Stereographs may be obtained at book stores, photo sup-
ply houses, and view companies.
i Children delight in making collections. — This tend-
ency should be turned to good account in getting them
to assist in collecting pictures from all sources. It is
an excellent plan to let them illustrate geographical
exercises or notebooks with clippings and pictures. In
making a book of geographical views, the pictures should
be classified by topics, — river scenes, mountain scen-
ery, cities, buildings, people, products, etc. When a
foreign country is studied, or any other topic, the pupils
might make a book of pictures of that topic. It is also
well to suggest a more systematic arrangement of the
pupils' private postal card albums.
Geographical specimens. — A touch of reality is
given to the study of a foreign country by having some
material object from that land. A piece of granite
from the top of Mt. Washington, a shell from the South
Sea Islands, a coconut from Brazil, a piece of sugar
cane from the plantations of Cuba, a Chinese newspaper,
a Japanese fan, etc., are worth having at the time re-
68 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
lated topics are studied, if only to catch the attention
and hold the interest. But specimens do far more than
this. They take the subject matter out of the realm of
the abstract, stimulate the imagination of the pupils,
and help them to project themselves in thought to the
regions whence these objects came.
Sometimes a specimen is simply employed incidentally
for the sake of interest ; and sometimes it is essential, in
order to get a true conception of the topic under study.
When China is being studied, a Chinese teacup, though
not necessary, adds interest. But a cotton plant
from the South, when the Southern states are taken up,
is a real aid to the appreciation of the staple industry of
that region. And it is practically useless to discuss the
composition and appearance of granite without the
rock and its constituent minerals. Here the specimens
teach the lesson. Geographical specimens may play a
large or only an incidental part, but they always add
interest and serve to make the subject tangible.
A teacher on her travels should collect geographical
specimens and souvenirs for use in teaching. By a
little questioning, pupils may be found who have at
home interesting geographical material, which they would
be only too glad to lend the teacher for use in class.
Here, again, advantage may be taken of the children's
collecting instinct in the formation of a school collection.
A geographical collection or cabinet is a useful adjunct.
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 69
This may be gathered through the teacher's and pupils'
efforts, and through purchases by the authorities.
There ought to be a common collection for all the
classes of a building. Thus the classroom collections
may be pooled, and a larger stock secured. In fact, as
material for one is often useful in the other subject,
the nature and the geography collections should be com-
bined. Among suitable articles for such a collection
are : historic relics (books, papers, weapons, pictures,
etc.) ; raw materials and different stages of manufactured
articles (foods, fabrics, metals, etc.) ; botanical and
zoological specimens or products not perishable in
nature (grains, fibers, pressed plants, ivory, horn,
mother of pearl, starfish, etc.) ; rocks and minerals, to
illustrate physiography.
Such a collection should be classified and labeled.
The labels should state the name of specimen, where
obtained, and by whom given. The collection should be
kept in neat order, and clean. If possible it should be
placed so that pupils could observe it in their leisure
hours. Finally it should be used.
Geographical experiments. — An experiment is a ques-
tion addressed to nature. In an experiment things are
put under certain conditions " to see what will happen."
There is need and opportunity for experimentation in
geography, especially in physical geography. Some-
times it is inconvenient or impossible to observe certain
70 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
phenomena or relationships in the field, or to wait for
their natural occurrence. Then, often, they may be
artificially reproduced in the classroom.
The process of rock disintegration and soil formation
may be nicely represented by rubbing two stones to-
gether and grinding off particles. The porosity of stone
and absorption of water may be shown by immersing
a brick or a piece of sandstone in a jar of water. The
solvent action of natural waters may be suggested by
the effect of acid on marble. The action of run-
ning water may be illustrated in a sand tray. The
study of the convection of air (winds), the evapora-
tion and condensation of vapor, and the pressure of
the atmosphere can only be made clear by simple experi-
ments in physics.
Some of the industrial processes can be elegantly dem-
onstrated in their simplicity by classroom experiments.
Flour making, cotton ginning and spinning, tanning,
dyeing, weaving, making pottery, etc., may be thus
shown. Agriculture, irrigation, and some of the prin-
ciples of forestry may be represented in the school garden.
In mathematical geography experimental possibilities
are indicated by the shadow stick, the noon altitude
of the sun, and the compass.
The experimental method is excellent to develop the
questioning attitude on the part of the children. They
are too prone to accept the dogmatic statements of
71
teachers and books. The experiment shows them that
they can find out something independently.
When experiments are used to discover facts and prin-
ciples, the reasoning is inductive. Often, however, the
experiment is used to prove the word of the teacher or
the book, in which case the deductive method is used.
Geographical concepts increased by illustrative ma-
terial. — In conclusion, the teacher has, in pictures,
specimens, experiments, and field observations, an
invaluable aid in geographical instruction for rendering
it realistic, vivid, and entertaining, and for making it
more concrete and more easily understood. At the same
time pupils get the benefit of personal observation and
inference, and learn to depend not wholly upon the
teacher and the text. This illustrative material may be
used as effectively in the upper grades as in the lower.
The stock of concrete geographical concepts may be
continuously increased thereby, and a surer foundation
laid for that portion of the subject which cannot be
actually seen.
CHAPTER VIII
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Definition. — That portion of geography dealing more
particularly with the forms of land and water and the
states of the atmosphere, with the natural forces acting
upon them, and with the relation of plant and animal
life (including human) to their environment, is called
Physical Geography. The emphasis in this phase of
geography is usually on the inanimate side, and Man
receives a rather brief consideration.
The natural environment of man must ever be of con-
cern to him. It is that which sustains him, and largely
determines his occupations and habits of life. A proper
understanding of physical geography is, therefore, the
best foundation for the appreciation of political.
The greatest advance in geography as a science in re-
cent times has been in this field. The older geographers
confined themselves to a static description of the earth ;
that is, to locative and scenic descriptions of physical
features, especially coasts, rivers, and mountains. But
since the development of the sciences of geology, mineral-
ogy, and biology, physical geography has become
72
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 73
dynamic ; that is, the earth is no longer treated as per-
manent and unchanging, but as constantly subject to
various modifying forces. The evolutionary or develop-
mental conception of the earth has been grasped, and
mountains, valleys, rivers, etc., are no longer treated as
everlasting, and unchanging in form and character.
These features are now considered as having a growth
or development. The forces or agencies that made
them are now taken into account. Mountain folds are
thrown up by the stress of forces within the crust.
But they are subject to erosion and decline. Rivers
tend to grade toward sea level. Lakes fill up and dis-
appear. In short, the earth is no longer considered as
an inactive, inert thing, but pulsating with mighty
forces, alive, as it were.
Modern physical geography teaches far-reaching
relations; for example, topography and drainage, alti-
tude and temperature, mountain trend and rainfall,
climate and vegetation, and the dependence of man
upon his physical environment. In order to teach geog-
raphy well the teacher should know at least the rudi-
ments of these great principles. This branch of geog-
raphy is considered so important that many schools
for the training of teachers make it a requirement in the
course.
Place of physical geography in the elementary school.
— Geography, so far as the elementary school is con-
74 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
cerned, is a study of how man lives on the earth. This
involves a study of those features that influence or con-
trol his distribution over the earth, his occupations,
and very civilization. Descriptive geography should
be taught in the light of this fact. This may seem too
philosophical by far when we consider children's interests
and mental ability ; but it is not necessary to force the
pupils to see these great relations all at once or all to-
gether. Certainly very little toward this can be accom-
plished in primary geography or home geography, and
even in the eighth grade, pupils are incapable of grasping
the whole truth. The teacher, however, should know
these principles, and teach the subject in the light of
them, and should try to have the pupil ultimately appre-
ciate something of them. The facts of geography should
be presented in their natural relationships. Beginners
will for the most part note merely the facts, and not
their relationships. But older pupils care also for the
abstract relations and principles involved, and these
from repeated examples will gradually dawn upon them.
One thing must be remembered, physical geography
by itself has no place in the grades (except possibly in
the uppermost) . It may be properly taught as a separate
science in the high school, but in the grades below, what-
ever physical geography is taught should be connected
with the political side.
The " advanced " geographies of the upper grades
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 75
usually begin with an introductory sketch of the funda-
mental physiographic facts and principles, which are
then deductively applied in the following descriptive
geography.
In the grammar grades the pupils gradually formulate
the relations of man and nature, and get a philosophic
glimpse of the organization and unity of the science
impossible in grades below. Here pupils are old enough
to appreciate somewhat the causal relation existing
between location, surface, elevation, drainage, climate,
vegetation and animal life, and human beings. The
physical features may be used to develop or interpret
human industries, mode of life, dress, and other human
activities and characteristics. See Chapter XI.
The Great Plains. — An excellent example of the value
of physical, as an explanatory basis for descriptive geog-
raphy, is the study of the Great Plains of the United
States.
Topography and climate. — The Great Plains are a
high, fairly level plateau extending north and south
through the United States, just east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. They slope gently toward the Mississippi Valley.
Their vast extent and levelness gives them their name.
The United States lie in the belt of prevailing west-
erlies, which bring moisture from the Pacific Ocean.
Owing, however, to successive mountain systems, which
begin at the very coast, and rise higher and higher
76 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
farther inland, the moisture of the westerlies is condensed
as the winds rise over the mountains, so that by the time
they pass the Rockies they contain comparatively little
moisture. As the winds descend on the eastern side of
the Rockies they become warmed by compression and by
the warmer temperatures of the lower altitudes, their
moisture capacity is increased, and they become drying
winds instead of rain-bringing.
The precipitation on the Great Plains is therefore very
slight, from ten to twenty inches per year. There are
long periods of drought, especially in the summer. The
climate is semiarid.
The consequence is that the vegetation of this region
is limited to such species as are able to withstand the
excessive dryness of the soil and atmosphere. Sage
brush covers large areas of the plains, especially in the
north. Farther south, in the warmer belt, cacti of
various kinds flourish. Only along the streams can trees
exist. Even the grass is not able to produce a continuous
sward, but grows in tufts here and there, and hence is
called bunch grass. This grass, owing to the dryness of
the air after the middle of the summer, dries up quickly
and retains its nutritious quality. That is, it becomes
cured into natural hay, which the light snows of winter do
not completely cover.
Ranching industry. — This peculiarity of the climate
and vegetation have made possible the great cattle or
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 77
grazing industry of the Plains. Upon these immense
stretches, where in days past the bisons and antelopes
roamed in vast numbers, thousands upon thousands
of cattle, sheep, and goats find a fair pasturage. But
owing to the sparseness of the grass, these grazing grounds,
or ranches, must be large. This makes the homes of
the settlers far apart, and the region is thinly settled.
Farming, as it is carried on in moister lands, cannot be
practiced here on account of the aridity. The United
States Department of Agriculture has introduced drought-
resisting plants from other countries, such as alfalfa,
macaroni wheat, millet, etc., and has tried to develop
native wild species, the cactus, for example, into more
useful forms. Such crops can be grown by the dry-
farming method, and much progress has been made in
the West in their cultivation. Another method of farm-
ing in this dry land is by means of irrigation. By this
method water is drawn from rivers into canals and dis-
tributed over the fields. Thus the water supply is sure,
and many kinds of crops can be raised. Irrigation from
rivers in this way can be carried on only in their valleys.
By means of dry farming and irrigation many more
people are enabled to live on the Great Plains than by
ranching alone, and many towns have developed in the
more agricultural sections. Still, the general aspect
of the Plains is that of a semidesert. The treeless,
grassy lands stretch away monotonously to the horizon.
78 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The ranchers live a seminomadic life, as they drive their
herds about for new pasturage. There are farming
communities and towns in only the more favorable loca-
tions, oases along the water courses.
Physical geography, in home and primary geography,
requires a different treatment. Here the physical
features are first studied to familiarize the child with
the local environment. Owing to the immaturity of
the pupils, the relation between causes and consequences
cannot be very thoroughly studied. The work should
be chiefly descriptive of the static aspect of land, water,
and the atmosphere, leaving for higher grades the
origins and results of natural forms and conditions.
Here and there the more obvious of these relations may
be studied. Thus it is customary in primary geog-
raphy to study a little about the origin of soil, the
effects of running water, and the causes of wind and
rain.
Specific, concrete, and human interest. — The ap-
proach and general treatment of the physical features in
home geography should be from the human standpoint,
even from the child's, and the study should again find
an application in life. For example, in studying a
brook, begin with the child's experiences with a brook
(perhaps only a street gutter during a shower). The
childish play has taught definite ideas of the motion of
the water, its force, ripples, waves, eddies, rapids, falls,
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 79
the melodies of running water, the beauty of light and
shade. The sport of playing at ships, bridges, dams,
water wheels, etc., is basal for appreciating later the
commercial utilization of streams. The study must not
stop with the physical treatment merely, but should be
brought into relation with man again in the study of
the practical uses to which streams are put, and also
by reference to their detrimental qualities.
In the physiographic description, care should be taken
to use untechnical language, and to make the reasoning
about causes or results very simple and practical. The
local flavor should be retained. Instead of learning
about brooks in general, some local stream should be
taken specifically. The study should be observational,
based upon actual field observations, well-remembered
facts, classroom experiments, diagrams, models, and
pictures.
It is best in home geography to teach physical geog-
raphy in connection with some concrete example, as
incidental to a description of the same, than to present
it in the abstract. Thus erosion may be studied in
connection with The Brook of the neighborhood.
Weathering should be studied in connection with local
soils in the school garden or near-by fields. It is better
to study the facts of physical geography as they are
needed. Let them be used in explanation of the politi-
cal and industrial features of the vicinity.
80 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Physical geography explanatory of lif e conditions. — In
the Primary Course of Descriptive or General Geography
physical geography should be subordinate. The human
or life side, national occupations and characteristics,
is the main thing. Instead of introducing a study of a
country with topography, climate, rivers, etc., in syste-
matic order, it is better to start with some trait of the
people, some historical association, some occupation, a
description of the plants or animals. The scenic aspect,
though physiographic, depends upon the subjective
impressions of the beholder, and is an interesting ap-
proach at times. The introduction to a country might
vary. In Australia the curious animal life, in England the
historical connections with the United States, in the
Southern states the cotton industry, in Japan the silk
industry, in Switzerland and Scotland the scenery, might
be the first topics.
The physical geography should come in as explanatory
of the political, and should be brought in only for this
purpose, or else is better left out. Just enough physical
geography should be brought in to answer the few Whys
the pupils will be likely to ask at this stage. Why the
climate is as it is (latitude, altitude), why the streams
take the course they do (topography), why the people
live mostly in certain regions and not in others (topog-
raphy, climate, resources), why certain plant and
animal industries are possible in certain regions (topog-
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 81
raphy, climate, soil), why cities were located at certain
places and have developed (ports, falls, resources), and
similar queries.
Study of Holland according to this method. — Holland
is a favorite country with children. Why? It is not
the delta of the Rhine, but the Dutch people, that
appeals. Reference to stories about the Dutch, Hans
Brinker, etc. Study interesting costumes. In New
York City there would be a special interest in the Half
Moon, the early settlement, and the Dutch gabled houses
still existing. Study of pictures of Dutch village scenes,
canals, and windmills. Some Dutch industry, such
as pottery, etc. The Dutch dairy industry. Why good
pasturage (level land, sufficient rainfall). Why the land
is so flat (delta). Why easy to dig canals. The peat
industry. Why the land is marshy (low). Compare
with local tidal flats and marshes. Building of dikes
to keep back the sea. Why the windmills. Why called
Netherlands, etc.
The scenic phase of physical geography is important. —
A knowledge of the physical geography of the scenic
elements in the local landscape, or of the scenery in
travel, adds greatly to an appreciation and enjoyment
of the same. The older pupils can get a deeper insight
into the earth, but younger children enjoy the super-
ficial elements. In home geography they should be
taught to look for and enjoy the sky in calm and in
82 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
storm, at night and in the morning; the wind et-
fects of drifting clouds, swaying trees, and billow-
ing grass or grain fields; the enchantment created
by mists, haze, or distance ; the colors of the landscape,
and how they change with varying lights ; the horizon
line of the plain, or the hill country ; the boldness of the
hills, and the dreamy vastness of the plains ; the beauty
of the lakes and the grandeur of the ocean; the life
and action of running water; these and many other
elements of scenery should be appreciated. If physical
geography did not add something to the pupils' power
to discover and enjoy these things, it would scarcely
have fulfilled its function.
Teachers should learn to describe in vivid word paint-
ings different types of scenery to impress them upon the
pupils, who should cultivate the power to image them
again behind the words of the text, or the symbols of
the map.
Pictures are a great aid in presenting the aesthetic
aspect of geography. Some of them should be displayed
for days, and the larger and finer ones permanently, if
possible.
The teacher will find enjoyment and inspiration in this
phase of geography by reading such authors as Scott,
Irving, Bayard Taylor, Sir John Lubbock, John Muir,
Burroughs, Russell, S. E. White, J. C. Van Dyke, and
other writers on scenery.
CHAPTER IX
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY
That physical geography should be studied directly,
if practicable, goes without saying. Certain topics,
such as weathering, the action of running water, weather
phenomena, earth and water forms, glacial soil and
glaciation, the adaptation of vegetation to the environ-
ment, should be studied outdoors. Previous outdoor
observations and experiences of the children should be
recalled. Many natural objects, such as minerals, dif-
ferent kinds of rocks, ores, and various physical phe-
nomena, such as the action of frost, water, and friction
in wearing down rocks; erosion and deposit, evapora-
tion and condensation, convection of air, etc., should be
shown in the classroom as specimens or experiments.
The function of the field lesson was discussed on page
34, and illustrative lessons suggested. The field lesson
is particularly valuable in physical geography, not only
rendering the subject concrete, but providing the oppor-
tunity of studying the earth features on the imposing
scale of nature. Book study cannot impress size, dis-
tance, and magnificence like field study. The duration
83
84 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
and fatigue of one walk will impress distance better than
the use of the map scale and verbal description. The
grandeur and beauty of the local environment can only
be fully appreciated and enjoyed by actually experienc-
ing it.
Physical geography of home locality. — It is fortunate
that physical geography thus requires the study of the
real thing. In this way the home geography of the lower
grades is continued. The local features have to be taken
as examples in these field trips, and thus physical geog-
raphy is brought home, and not left in the abstract.
This local study of physiography is made very practical
by connecting the familiar landmarks of hills, valleys,
streams, etc., with the local history, the industries, and
the life of the community.
Sooner or later, however, inaccessible regions must be
taught, and some representative illustration has to be
employed.
The model. — The most effective of these is the model.
This, for certain purposes, is more valuable than a map
or a picture, in that it is in three dimensions, and the up
and down, the high and low character of the surface, can
be represented. Models should be used very early.
Let the children reproduce the hills and valleys of their
home geography. The home locality may be modeled
by the teacher and the pupils, a very interesting piece
of creative imagination. By such local studies the
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY 85
pupils become familiarized with the interpretation of
models in general.
Relation to map study. — Models are generally used
as the basis for the study of the continents. They are
excellent for showing the great plains, plateaus, and
slopes, and for developing the drainage. The eye mem-
ory is greatly helped by the construction of even a very
crude sand model of a continent. The model should
precede the map, and helps to interpret it.
Accuracy. — Models are most accurate in elevation
and general detail when representing small areas. The
larger the area modeled, the more do the minor elements
in the relief disappear. A mountain five miles high, if
correctly represented on a globe four feet in diameter,
would be hardly noticeable, being only about one
thirtieth of an inch above the general spherical surface.
In order, therefore, to represent large areas, like con-
tinents, in appreciable relief, it is absolutely necessary
to exaggerate the same. In some of the best relief
models of the United States the elevations are magnified
ten times.
There is no very great harm done if younger pupils
have an exaggerated notion of relief as drawn from
models, or even from their own imagination. Older
pupils should have these incorrect notions modified.
The teacher, of course, must know the error in the
model.
86 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Expert and homemade models. — There are excellent
and instructive models on the market, but most of them
are as yet too expensive for the common school. Such
models may sometimes be made available for children
by visiting geographical laboratories in high schools or
museums.
For ordinary purposes, however, a homemade model
will serve very well. This may be made by the pupils,
or if something better and more permanent is desired,
by the teacher.
Sand model. — The best material for a temporary
model is moist sand. The clay-modeling trays, com-
mon in elementary schools, may be used for holding the
sand. Shallow tins, or oilcloth, or heavy paper, to pro-
tect the desks, may be used. Any clean sand will do.
Dry sand usually slides and rolls too easily, and must
be slightly moistened, but should not be wet and soggy.
Place a double handful of sand on each pupil's tray.
Modeling a continent. — Write the directions below
on the board, or, for younger children, give orally and
let them imitate step by step the teacher's modeling.
See that they follow the order :
1. Flatten out the sand to a thin layer, about an eighth
of an inch thick or less, all over the tray. Put the excess
of sand in one corner.
2. From a wall map or textbook map of simplified
form, trace the outline of the map to be drawn in the
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY 87
sand. With a stiff piece of paper remove the excess of
sand.
3. Copying the model or interpreting the physical
map, next build up the plateaus, not the mountains,
using care to keep the various plateaus roughly in propor-
tion as to area and altitude (follow color scale). The
plateaus may be quickly built up by dropping double
handfuls of sand along their general location, and then
smoothing down gradually with the hand. Plateaus,
plains, and slopes are the main features to represent in a
model, hence care should be used in their representation.
4. (If time permits, or it is deemed desirable.) Put
on the principal mountain ranges. This is best done by
gently scraping a little of the plateau between the fore-
fingers into a slight ridge. Be careful not to make the
mountains too steep or too high, a common tendency
with beginners. The usual practice of making moun-
tains by sticking on dabs of sand held between the
thumb and fingers is sure to make them too high, jagged,
and steep. Few mountains have a slope exceeding
thirty degrees.
5. The rivers and lakes may be traced with the pencil,
but should not be dug down through the sand to sea level.
Bits of blue yarn and pieces of blue paper may be inserted
for the rivers and lakes to heighten the effect.
Such modeling is a useful exercise in review. Older
pupils might reproduce a model from memory as a test
88 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
of their knowledge of general topography. General
relations of height, not accuracy of outline, should be
the criterion.
It is not worth while for the pupils to model every
continent. Enough should be done to give them a mus-
cular and ocular appreciation of what relief is, that they
may interpret more readily relief and physical maps.
Sketch models. — The teacher, however, should
model maps more frequently. These generally need
not be more than mere sand sketches thrown together in
a few moments, while she is teaching the topography.
The children enjoy the manual exercise of modeling
for its own sake, and welcome it as a relief from the routine
of book work, but it may easily be overdone. Where
there is sufficient time, a few more permanent models
may be made of better material. The following plastic
media have been found useful :
Paper pulp : Tear old newspapers into bits and soak
in water for a day. Stir and churn till reduced to a pulp.
Squeeze out the water, and it is ready for use.
Salt and flour : A mixture of these, two measures of
flour to one of salt, is stirred together with enough water
to make a paste.
Plasticine, used for art work, though somewhat ex-
pensive, is an excellent medium.
Putty makes good, durable models.
These materials should be used on stiff cardboard,
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY 89
or on wood as a base. They often last for years and serve
very well for demonstration purposes. A good size
for class use is about eighteen by twenty-four inches.
A rim or frame should be made around the model to
protect it from injury.
Modeling according to scale. — A more scientific yet
simple method, which the teacher might employ for
making a permanent model, is the following :
From a contour map, or from published tables of ele-
vations determined in public surveys, the heights of
many points all over the map may be obtained. Draw
the map on a board. Determine on some arbitrary
scale, say, one tenth of an inch to a thousand feet.
Drive wire brads or small nails into the map, at the
places the elevations of which have been determined,
leaving the nails exposed to a height equaling, ac-
cording to the scale, the elevations to be represented.
Then carefully work in the plastic material flush with
the nails. The surface will need retouching, grooving,
and peaking to render it more realistic. When dry,
the model should be given several coats of paint, and
streams, lakes, boundaries, etc., represented in ap-
propriate colors.
Physical maps far exceed models in general usefulness
and convenience. Models are effective for topographic
features, but are not of much use if they represent a
large area on a small scale, and if large, they are too
90 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
heavy. Maps are light and compact. In the causal
study of geography of the upper grades, physical maps
are the foundation for the study of the descriptive
geography.
Photo-relief map. — One form of physical map is the
photo-relief map, made theoretically by photographing
a relief model placed so as to show one-sided illumination
of the mountains, thus causing them to stand out
bright on one side, dark on the other. They are usually
represented in half-tone. A common way is to paint a
relief map in black and white so as to get the photographic
effect. Such relief maps are almost like a picture of
the naked earth seen in bird's-eye view, shorn of the
vegetation and the works of man. The half-tone color
also strikingly brings out the bare earth effect, so that
they are excellent maps for teaching the fundamental
relief features of the earth. They are often used to show
drainage also.
The color-physical map represents relief by different
colors, a particular color for a certain range of elevation:
from o to 500 feet, green ; 500 to 1 500 feet, yellow ; etc.
In modern methods of cartography some beautiful
color-physical maps are produced. Unfortunately, all
makers do not use the same color scheme, though there
is a movement toward international agreement. Chil-
dren should be taught to refer to the legend or explana-
tion on the map, and to estimate elevations thereby.
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY 91
FIG. 2. — Photo-relief map showing relief and drainage.
From Heeler's Model, by permission of the Central Scientific Company.
92
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
At any rate they should appreciate the general meaning
of the color scale, and be able to pick out at a glance
the highlands or the lowlands.
Contour map. — The chief objection to the color-
physical map is that the colors are not shaded or blended
to correspond with the gradual change of elevation.
This is overcome in a measure by the use of the contour
map, in which, beginning at sea level, all points of
certain equal altitudes are connected by lines. Thus
FIG. 3. — Representation of relief by contour lines.
there may be the loo-foot level line, the 2oo-foot line,
etc. Such lines are called contour lines. The explana-
tion on the map states the value of the contours, varying
according to the purpose, 10, 100, 1000 feet, etc. By
contour lines the relief can be very accurately represented.
Where the lines crowd together, there is a steep slope ;
but where they are far apart, the ascent is gentle. Ra-
vines, valleys, ridges, and peaks stand out beautifully
on a contour map. Contour maps are the highest per-
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY 93
fection in the art of relief representation. Yet they
are rather complex in appearance, and somewhat difficult
to translate, and therefore hardly in place in the elemen-
tary school. In the seventh and eighth grades pupils
should be taught that such maps exist, and should be
interested in their use, and learn how to read them;
but no general use need be made of them. Most ele-
mentary school books do not contain such maps ; yet the
dividing line between two different adjacent colors on a
color-physical map is a true contour line.
There is a combination of color-physical maps with the
contour map, which is a beautiful and excellent form,
used chiefly in some government surveys of this and
other countries.
Features besides those of relief may also be shown
by the physical map. — On the same map are generally
found the surrounding waters (sometimes showing
depths), lakes and rivers, latitude and longitude. Also
divides, isotherms, ocean currents, winds, and vegetation
limits are sometimes shown. It is customary, however,
to show most of these on special physical maps for the
study of only one or a few related features. Thus we have
rainfall maps, temperature maps, wind and current maps,
maps showing zones of life, etc. In this way overcrowd-
ing is avoided. But a short time ago one and the same
map combined all the physical and political features.
Order of different maps in study. — It is customary
94
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
) Coot Huge
California Valley
Pacific Oc«an
Sierra We»ada
Mountains
Wuitob
Mountains
Great Plaint
UiMia*ippt
Appalachian
Piedmont Plain
Co.* piain
to present a continent or country
in a photo-relief map, color-physi-
cal map, and political map, in the
order given. In addition there are
usually other maps for special fea-
tures. In this way an otherwise
very complex map is analyzed and
simplified and made easy for ref-
erence, and at the same time ir-
relevant features are excluded, and
™ do not distract from the main
point.
The profile is a diagram showing
a vertical section through a region,
or the elevations of the surface line
along a certain route, as, for ex-
ample, a cross section of North
America in the latitude of San
Francisco, a longisection through
the Panama Canal, a plan show-
ing the rise and fall of the Erie
Canal. The idea of profile may be
taught by cutting through a sand
model and viewing the edge. Cuts
thus made through North America
through various latitudes and also
in a north and south direction are
very instructive.
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL IN PHYSIOGRAPHY 95
Profiles are not used sufficiently in the elementary
school. Teachers will find in them a valuable aid in
teaching relief. Pupils should be taught to interpret
profiles, and likewise to draw them. The pupil who can
make a fair profile of the United States in various lati-
tudes shows that he knows well the relief map or model.
Profiles are the quickest way of sketching the general
relations of relief. They are excellent for showing the
direction of slopes, for grades of railroads, canals, and
drainage levels (as the Great Lakes). Naturally they
are exaggerated vertically, but, with the necessary
caution, are not misleading.
CHAPTER X
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY
Overemphasis of mathematical geography. — The
reason for the great stress usually laid on mathematical
geography does not lie in the pedagogical usefulness of
this branch in the elementary school, but rather in its
history and hi its relation to astronomy in the higher
schools.
In ancient times geography and astronomy were
not separated. Geography was a part of astronomy.
Mathematics was employed in the service of astronomy
in determining the space relations of the earth, its
movements, and its form. In the Middle Ages geog-
raphy had fallen so low that it was taught as a part of
geometry. This mathematical emphasis prevailed to
the beginning of the nineteenth century, and, unfor-
tunately, has not quite disappeared at the present
time.
Mathematical geography too abstract for the beginner.
— So far as the elementary school is concerned, very
little mathematical geography is needed for a basis.
It is unpedagogical to begin the study of geography
with the astronomical or mathematical phase. This
96
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 97
may be the logical beginning of the science of geography,
but the child, not the logical requirements of the subject,
must be considered. It is destructive of any real
interest, and is forcing a child beyond his capacity,
to compel him to begin geography with what is abstract
and to him far from his experience. The space rela-
tions of the earth, conceptions of its size, conceptions of
its motions, are, on the whole, beyond his comprehen-
sion. Latitude and longitude and degrees are to the
beginner unintelligible, because, for one thing, he has
not had the necessary arithmetic.
It is futile to teach these things to beginners, and
judging by the very meager results from much effort, it
is often futile to teach them in upper grades. Children
readily learn to parrot off the usual bald statements
about mathematical geography in the ordinary texts,
but do not really understand them.
Child study has accomplished one excellent thing, the
reduction of the amount of mathematical geography
to be taught, and its postponement for a time. The
child now begins with something concrete, tangible,
and capable of direct observation; that is, with home
geography, and not with something abstract, imaginary,
" unreal," and difficult. This does not mean that
the simple, observational study of the sun, moon, and
stars may not be taken up even in primary grades,
under nature-study. But the abstract and mathemati-
98 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
cal treatment of form, space relations, time relations,
and motions are not for beginners.
When to introduce mathematical geography. — A
time arrives when some reference must be made to the
earth as a whole. Even in home geography there is
mention of places beyond the horizon of the community,
of countries beyond the seas, and of the uttermost parts of
the earth. The idea of the world as a whole dawns upon
the child, and he then needs some information about it.
At this point mathematical geography usually begins.
The essential facts in mathematical geography in the
primary course are the spherical form of the earth, some
concrete notions of its size, the poles and the equator
for orientation, the points of the compass, rotation and
its results, revolution and its results. Zones are usually
included, but in these grades heat belts are really meant
by this term. If the dimensions of the earth, distance
from the sun, axis, astronomical zones, latitude and
longitude, meridians and parallels, and the study of the
seasons based upon the inclination of the axis were not
taught until the seventh year, nothing would be lost to
the pupil.
Little of this is subject to direct observation. — Day
and night, and the phenomena of the seasons, the
appearance of the sun, moon, and stars, and a little of
their change of position in the heavens, are all that can
be observed directly by the pupils. The rest must
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 99
be taught dogmatically, and backed up by argument, or
" proof," that appeals to young minds.
The rotundity of the earth, for example, is really a
fascinating topic, owing largely to the dramatic history
of Columbus and Magellan. Their voyages make an
excellent introduction to the study. Children by the
seashore, or by the Great Lakes, have the opportunity
others do not have, of observing the " proof " of rotund-
ity in the gradual disappearance of a ship sailing out-
ward, the mast being the last to disappear over " the
shoulder of the earth." Elsewhere the children must be
satisfied with models (globes), and the " proof " is still
further weakened by being only an argument by analogy.
The best proof of rotundity capable of being grasped
by beginners is that of the shadow of the earth on the
moon during an eclipse of the latter. It is first necessary,
however, to explain the phenomenon of an eclipse.
Of the many arguments for the rotundity of the earth
some are only analogies, and some are incomplete proofs.
Conceptions of dimensions of the earth. — To say
that the earth is eight thousand miles in diameter, and
twenty-five thousand miles in circumference, is meaning-
less to a child. These numbers may be memorized, but
are not really conceived, nor are they of great use till
much later in the course. But if they must be taught,
it is far better to let a child figure out some concrete
example, such as how long it would take a train to go
•KAt'HIXG GEOGRAPHY
speed, say, fifty miles per
vessels or modern steamers
hour) require for an actual
b Jules Verne's Around
more modern records.
mcrete notion of the earth's
•pn.
'tne equator are to a beginner chiefly
, climatic In meaning, and should be mainly taught by a
description of the temperature and life conditions there.
The locative notion can only be derived by analogy from
globe study. Spin a ball or orange. The point in which
the spinning sphere turns is a pole ; and directly opposite
is another. The idea of equator is readily grasped, as
an equal divider.
The term axis is really of no use in primary geography,
and when introduced here serves only to confuse. The
usual way of teaching the idea of axis is to compare it
with an axle, which leaves a bad picture in the eye
memory, hard to eradicate and to correct. An un-
pivoted ball, orange, or other round object, set spinning,
will much better teach the abstract character of the axis.
Latitude, longitude, parallels, meridians, and prime
meridian are out of place in primary geography. An
examination of two of the most recent and foremost
textbooks of primary geography revealed that one does
not teach the terms at all, and that the other defines them,
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 101
but makes no application of them in the text. The map
studies and map descriptions in neither refer to latitude
or longitude, and yet all the maps, except a few relief and
sketch maps, show these lines. They, would be simpler
without them.
Day and night. — The effects of onesided illumination
'••"\.'** v '•;• "V;
and rotation may be nicely shown by nJe&p^ of a 'globe
experiment. The books generally recommittal ''^dark-
ened room and a lamp for the experiment. This is
usually impossible, or out of the question. Excellent
results may be had by drawing all the ordinary shades
but one, and this also partially, thus preventing cross-
illumination. A black globe is very effective.
In spite of a general acquiescence in the principle, the
pupils will find it difficult to imagine the earth actually
in rotation, and are rarely conscious of its direction. A
good way to realize this is to watch the sun near the
horizon at sunrise or at sunset, and then " forcibly "
to make one's self think of the earth as doing the moving.
The sensation of rotation is thus quite marked.
In the study of the change of seasons pupils should
note the varying phenomena of changing length of day,
the changing temperature, the response of vegetation
and animal life, and how man's life is regulated by these
conditions. This side, rather than the mathematical
or astronomical, should be impressed.
During early spring or early fall some observations
102
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
may be made with the shadow-stick on the height of the
noon sun from week to week. (It does not pay to do it
daily.) From this it may be shown that the sun is
higher or lower on successive dates, and this should be
correlated with the changing temperature. A further
R
FIG. 5. — Shadow-stick and protractor.
causal study involving the inclination of the axis and
revolution is out of place in primary geography.
Heat belts vs. zones. — The customary picture of
the earth divided into five zones is an easy one to re-
member, and as heat belts, fairly correct for beginners.
Zones are, however, strictly speaking, not heat belts at
all, but light belts, or astronomical divisions. The true
heat belts are much more irregular, and are not constant
in position on the earth, while the light zones are fixed.
Zones are determined by the position on the earth of
certain light rays from the sun on certain days of the
year, and by the inclination of the earth's axis. The
boundaries of the zones do not vary. But the boundaries
of heat belts are shifting isotherms of great irregularity,
owing to the changing seasons and the modifying
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 103
influences of land and water. The term zone should
disappear from primary geography and heat belt should
be substituted.
The best way to present the idea of heat belts to begin-
ners is to tell or read stories of the climate, the vegeta-
tion, the animal life, and the human life of typical
climatic regions. The reason for the unequal distribution
of heat, if any be given here, would have to be given
dogmatically, as by citing the varying height of the sun
above the horizon as one proceeds from the equator
to the poles.
Mathematical geography in upper grades. — Further
than this in mathematical geography, it is not profitable
to go with beginners. The pupils of the seventh and
eighth grades are, however, more interested in, and
better prepared for this subject. Here the subject is
usually extended and reviewed. But even here too much
is generally expected. The explanation of the change of
seasons, based upon the inclination of the axis, and rep-
resented by diagrams, is beyond the capacity of the
average child in the eighth grade, and is a severe
tax upon the high school and college student. Even
here the result is generally not a concept of the real earth
swinging along its orbit in space, but simply a mental
image of the seasons diagram in some book.
The fact of the varying length of day from the equator
to the poles should be taught, but the reason therefor is
too difficult for average pupils.
104 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The international date line also is beyond their
capacity.
The moon's phases do not belong in geography at all.
With these eliminations the subject of mathematical
geography becomes an easy one for both pupils and
teacher. It has always been a bugbear to teachers
because of the inward realization that the pupils do
not really comprehend much of it.
Observational basis. — Because of its abstract charac-
ter it is necessary to present the subject by means of
observations, models, diagrams, and pictures in as con-
crete a fashion as possible. As above suggested, some
direct observations on the appearance of the heavenly
bodies, the daily course of the sun, and the changing
altitude of the sun during the year are possible. These
observations should be made some time before a topic is
to be considered in class. Thus, leading up to a study of
the seasons, pupils should make a weekly record of the
noon altitude of the sun for perhaps a month in advance.
The accompanying changes of temperature, and the
adaptation of plant and animal life, should also be
noted. Thus an interesting, solid basis will be laid for
the more abstract discussion of the seasons.
The globe is invaluable in the study of mathematical
geography. A six-inch paper globe serves very well.
Larger globes are attractive, but more expensive and
unwieldy. There is a fascination about a good globe,
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 105
and it should be left where pupils may examine it at
leisure. They will discover much for themselves. A
good globe, however, should not be soiled, or marked with
pencils.
A black globe is very useful, especially for teaching day
and night, and latitude and longitude. Such a one
may be obtained from school supply establishments, or
readily made by painting a common globe with a flat
black paint, or better still with black slating. A wooden
ball dipped in black ink does very well.
Expensive mechanical solar models are out of place,
and also out of the question in the elementary school.
The relation of the sun and the earth may be well repre-
sented by holding two globes or balls in the proper
relation, and moving them in the proper manner. Such a
physical representation by models should always pre-
cede the use of diagrams and abstract descriptions of the
topic.
Diagrams in mathematical geography are themselves
symbolic and represent relations and motions which to
the child are imaginary. The model must therefore act
out these relations and motions to interpret the diagram.
The season diagrams as usually given, if they do not leave
erroneous impressions, are too difficult for the average
pupil, unaided by models. Yet diagrams, once under-
stood, are beautiful representations. They may be
used to emphasize certain features, or to represent what
106 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the mind, as well as the eye, sees. It is this last charac-
teristic that makes them especially useful.
With the caution above given the teacher should be
free to make much use of diagrams, more in the upper
grades than in the lower. Diagrams should be drawn
while the topic is being discussed. They are a sort of
graphic shorthand that expresses a good deal. Pupils
should be taught to explain or interpret diagrams, and
also to draw them.
Inductive development before textbook study. -
These lessons in mathematical geography are perhaps
the most difficult for pupils to get from a textbook.
They should therefore be first orally developed or ex-
plained by the teacher before being assigned in the book.
They ought to be taught inductively as far as may be ;
that is, the pupil should discover these important re-
lations, rather than have them presented dogmatically,
either by the book or by the teacher. Care should
be exercised that the technical terms have a real meaning
for the pupil.
The points in method outlined in this chapter may be
illustrated by the following lessons.
Latitude and longitude. — On a black globe make a
mark (an island). Ask a pupil to tell where it is.
It will be impossible to locate it except by reference to
some other known fixed marks. The pupils have
learned poles and equator. The above mark (island)
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 107
may be located then with reference to these. But more
accurate locating is needed. How shall this be done?
Construct parallels (one every 10 degrees) ; note
their relation to the equator, and to each other. Give
their names. What do they help to indicate ? (Distance
from the equator.) Now that the pupils have the con-
cept, give it a name (latitude) . How shall we designate
or distinguish the parallels ? Here review the necessary
arithmetic, that is, circular measure. Draw a circle
around the globe through the poles. How many degrees
in it? How many degrees from pole to pole? From
equator to pole? How far is the first drawn parallel
from the equator? (10 degrees.) Etc. Now how may
we distinguish the parallels ? (By stating the number of
degrees each is from the equator.)
Show how parallels may be drawn in both N. and S.
latitude ; how both sets are numbered from the equator.
What is the latitude of the equator ?
Where is the island drawn at beginning of lesson?
Locate it by latitude. Can it be definitely located now ?
Why not ? (It may be anywhere in the parallel.) Refer
to the way in which we locate houses in a city by giving
street and cross street, and suggest advisability of having
another set of guide lines than parallels to help locate
on the globe. Such lines may be drawn. The circle
already drawn through the poles is such a one. Now
proceed in a similar way to draw, say at every 15 degrees,
108 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
other lines (meridians) from pole to pole, to number in
degrees, from one selected (principal) meridian. Com-
pare with numbering of parallels. Briefly explain why
the meridian of Greenwich (London) was chosen. What
do the meridians help to show? After the concept of
longitude is attained, give its name. Now locate the
sought-for island by longitude ; by longitude and latitude.
Now, for clinching, compare the two sets of lines. In
what direction do they run ? How far ? Their distance
from each other ? What does each indicate ? What is
the greatest latitude ? Greatest longitude ?
Then apply in simple exercises in locating places on a
globe.
Pass on to a map. Discover the two sets of lines.
Show pupils how to estimate between the lines. Practice
use.
Show how the parallels and meridians are further used
as state or international boundaries ; as the basis for the
United States Land Survey, and even for laying out
the streets and lots of a city ; how used as the basis for
making a record of discoveries and making maps of these
records. Such facts will impress on the pupils the reality
and usefulness of these lines.
Are these lines visible on the surface of the land or the
sea ? How, then, does the mariner know his latitude and
longitude? Emphasize the fact that the schoolroom is
traversed by parallels and meridians. Can they be
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 109
seen ? They cannot be seen on the earth, but by look-
ing at the sky.
Give a simple explanation of how latitude may be
found from the altitude of the North Star. (See any text
in mathematical geography or astronomy.) Pupils in
the eighth grade can get a notion of this. They may
find the latitude from the sun at the equinox.
The explanation of how longitude is found will have
to be deferred till after the lesson on Longitude and Time.
Fifth grade lesson on the seasons. — This is most
appropriately studied at the turning of the year, in
spring or autumn.
The lesson should be begun a month beforehand
by the pupils making preliminary observations on the
sun's altitude at noon with shadow-stick (Fig. 5), its
horizon position, the length of day and night (obtainable
also from almanacs) , correlated with weather study (tem-
perature changes), and observations on the responses by
nature to the changing seasonal conditions. Figure 5
shows a simple form of shadow-stick. Place in a south
exposure at noon with vertical stick, S, toward the sun.
S will then cast a shadow along the base, B, which may
be measured on the scale. The angle of the rays, R,
with the horizontal may be measured by placing the
center of the protractor, P, at the end of the shadow and
drawing the string over the top of the stick, S. The
angle may then be read on the scale of the protractor.
110 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Refer to present season. Name all. Let pupils
characterize each as to temperature, length of day and
night, the state of vegetation (budding, full leaf,
flowering, fruiting, harvest stage, leaf coloring, leaf fall) ,
the response by animals (migration, hibernation, thick-
ness of plumage or fur, storing of food, building homes) .
How does man adjust his life to the changing seasons in
the city? What games are played in different seasons?
How does the farmer in the country vary his work during
the year? The close relationship of life to the seasons
will be emphasized by these references. Pictures will
greatly add to the interest.
What is- the source of the heat on the earth ? Prove
heating power of sunlight by holding hand first in sun-
beam, then in shade. Why do we take the shady side of
street in summer ? Why carry parasols ?
Compare temperature at night, morning, noon,
evening, and connect with position of the sun and
£ F A C D
FIG. 6. — Diagrams to explain varying heat effect of rays of light at
different angles of incidence.
the slant (angle) of the rays as they fall on the earth.
Use the diagrams (Fig. 6) to explain heating value of
sun's rays. In the diagram on the left two sunbeams
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 111
of equal size (cross section) are represented, one falling
on the surface, EC, at a smaller angle than the other.
There is the same amount of light and heat in both, but
the more nearly vertical beam covers less surface, AC,
than the other. The light is thus more concentrated,
intense, and the heating effect greater than on EF.
In the diagram on the right, the same thing is shown
in another way. AC is a surface on which eleven rays
fall at right angles. If this surface is now turned into
the position AC', so that the light falls at a small .angle,
only six of these rays strike it. The amount of light or
heat received by AC' is thus only T6T that received in
position AC. This diagram gives a more mathematical
demonstration than the other, and is easily compre-
hended by the children.
When is the heating effect of rays the greatest?
(When striking perpendicularly.) How does the heating
effect of the rays vary with the slant? Now make
application to the variation of temperature during a day
and connect with altitude of sun above horizon during
the day. Consider next the shadow-stick data. These
show that the shadow at noon is getting shorter in
spring (longer in autumn). Why is it getting shorter?
(Because sun is higher in the heavens.) How does the
angle of the noon rays compare with the angle several
weeks ago ? (It is greater in spring.)
Connect with the preceding about relative heating
112 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
effects of rays more and less slanting. Why is it warmer
in May than in April? (Because the rays are more
vertical.)
Briefly explain revolution, using models. Do not
refer to axis. Tell of duration of journey around the
orbit. Refer to the four seasons. Give the first day of
each season. How far apart are the successive dates?
Place the earth (globe) in these relative positions. Also
represent in diagram. Explain that as the earth goes
about its orbit the slant of the sun's rays varies from
season to season. The reason for this (position of axis)
should not be given in this grade, as it is too difficult.
Another reason for the variation of temperature,
which children of this grade can appreciate, is the chang-
ing length of day and night. How would the heating
effect of the sun when shining only 10 hours in Decem-
ber compare with the effect shining nearly 15 hours in
June?
Correlate with reading of stories of the calendar, and
the naming of the months.
Eighth grade lesson on seasons. — It is customary to
assign this topic in the textbook. This is pernicious, as
the pupil will in this way very probably get no true con-
cepts of the terms employed, nor of the problem as a
whole. The topic should be presented in class, illus-
trated concretely with models, experiments, and dia-
grams, and developed or explained step by step by the
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 113
teacher. After this it may be safely assigned for drill
in the textbook.
The new terms, revolution, orbit, ellipse, plane of
orbit, axis, direction and parallelism of axis, should all
be made clear and concrete before attempting the ex-
planation of the seasons. Introduce with a sketch of
the relation of the earth to the sun. By concrete
comparisons give some notion of the immense distance
to the sun. By use of model first, then diagram, show
the manner of revolution, and the path, the orbit. The
usual picture of a very long, narrow ellipse for the earth's
orbit with the sun at the center is misleading. As a
matter of fact, the orbit is so slightly elliptical that its
difference from a circle is not very noticeable. The
sun is not at the exact center, but eccentric, yet so
slightly that it need not be referred to. Children are
apt to use this eccentricity of the sun as a reason for the
seasons. So it had better be omitted. Try to get
the pupils to picture the plane of the orbit.
The next point to teach is the inclination of the axis.
Visualize this by means of rulers placed on the table
(used as plane of orbit). While the inclination is re-
ferred ultimately to the plane of the orbit, it is really
measured by the angle between the axis and a perpen-
dicular to the plane of the orbit. Next refer to the north-
ern end of the axis always pointing approximately to
the North Star (how find this?) during a revolution,
114 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
with the consequent parallelism of the axis to all its
positions. This may be illustrated by means of rulers
properly held, also by revolving the earth about a sta-
tionary object (sun), but care must be taken by the
teacher to keep the axis in correct position ; a diagram
may also be used to show this. The discussion of the
lesson proper may now proceed. The demonstration
should be presented from that side of the room which
will place the axis of the globe in its correct position
(pointing toward North Star), and yet give the class a
view of the inclination of the axis, or else the globe may be
frankly placed so as to give this last view, and the North
Star may be imagined directly in line with the axis. Have
some object for the sun. Place first in either summer or
winter position. Compare northern and southern hemi-
spheres. Do they face the sun equally ? Which is turned
away ? (Say the northern.) Place in the northern sum-
mer position. How is the northern hemisphere placed
now with reference to the sun? (Turned toward.) In
which of these two positions does it get more light and
heat? What season would this be? What season for
the northern hemisphere in the other position ? Place the
globe in the autumn or spring position. Note that the
northern hemisphere is turned neither toward nor away
from the sun. What would be the conditions of light
and heat in this position? (Intermediate.) What
season might it be? If passing from winter to sum-
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 115
mer? Drill on seasons for this hemisphere all around
the orbit.
Next compare the southern hemisphere with the north-
ern in relation to the sun. How do the seasons compare ?
When the northern hemisphere has summer, the southern
hemisphere has— — ? Why? Etc. When we in the
northern hemisphere have spring, the southern hemi-
sphere has — - ? When we have June, the south-
ern hemisphere has ? (June also.) We celebrate
Christmas in December. When do the people in the
southern hemisphere celebrate it? (Same month and
day.)
Another reasoning is based upon the distribution of
the vertical rays of the sun. With a device holding a
number of knitting needles parallel, to represent the
sun's rays covering half the globe, the slant of the rays
in the two hemispheres may be made clear. Refer to
the fifth grade lesson in seasons and review relative
heating capacity of more slanting and less slanting rays.
(Fig. 6.) Note in the northern summer position where
the rays fall most vertically ; least so. Conclude as to
seasons here. Note even distribution of light in the
spring and autumn positions.
After the models have been used to teach the above,
diagrams may be used. The teacher should be sure
the pupils understand them and the point of view from
which each represents the earth and orbit.
116 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The diagram (Fig. 7) is the best for the eighth grade.
Though distances and size are necessarily out of propor-
tion, the general relations are correct. The orbit is
shown, as should be, practically a circle. The sun is
slightly eccentric, nearer to the earth in northern winter.
M»roh 21
September 23
FIG. 7. — Seasons diagram representing the earth as seen from a point in
space directly above the center of the orbit.
It is better to represent the sun by the word Sun, or by
S, than to draw a circle for it, as it would be too much
out of proportion with the earth.
The diagram shows the earth, etc., in a bird's-eye view,
from directly above the center of the orbit, at a very
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 117
great distance. The northern hemisphere is here shown.
The inclination is represented by the eccentricity of the
pole and parallel circles, they being shifted in each posi-
tion of the earth toward the right in the diagram ; that is,
the axis must be imagined pointing to the North Star.
This diagram is particularly good to show the tilting
of the northern hemisphere toward the sun in June, and
away from it in December, and the non-tilted position
in March and September.
It is also excellent to show the illumination of the
northern hemisphere. It shows the unequal division of
each parallel circle by the circle of illumination (line
between night and day) in summer and winter ; the equal
division in spring and autumn. From this can be seen
why daylight is longer in summer, shorter in winter;
and why days and nights are equal in spring and autumn.
Furthermore, the diagram is good to show the condi-
tions of illumination in the polar region in the different
seasons. By means of it the polar night and day can
be explained. The relation of the Arctic Circle to the
sun can thus be brought out.
The diagram (Fig. 8) shows the earth as viewed from
an immense distance, from a place in the plane of the
earth's orbit, that is, directly from the side. It is par-
ticularly good to show inclination of axis, the tilting of
the hemispheres toward or away from the sun, the
parallelism of sun's rays, the angles at which they strike
118
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the earth, the illumination of the polar regions, and the
contrast of the two hemispheres. It is easy to draw.
It shows well the relation of the tangent ray to the Arctic
Circle, and of the vertical ray to the Tropic of Cancer
June tt.
December ai.
FIQ. 8. — Seasons diagram showing the earth as seen from a point out-
side of the orbit but in the plane thereof.
and Tropic of Capricorn. Its disadvantage is that it
cannot be used to show the light relations in spring or
autumn.
The diagram (Fig. 9) is often used, but is apt to be
misleading unless the point of view is explained, and
June 21
FIQ. 9. — Seasons diagram showing the orbit in foreshortened perspective
as seen from a point beyond and a little above the orbit.
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 119
unless it is used after the two preceding diagrams. It
represents the earth and sun as seen from a point in
space off to one side of the orbit, and a little above it.
It shows the orbit therefore in foreshortened perspective
as an ellipse. Pupils should be warned on this point
not to picture the orbit thus, but rather as a circle.
With these cautions the diagram may be used, though
it does not really contribute any more or as much as the
other two. As usually shown in the books, like the
diagram, the spring and autumn positions are repre-
sented, and the illumination of both poles at the same
time is indicated. (The perspective is, however, violated
here.)
With such explanation of the diagrams, after or in
connection with the demonstration with the models,
they become somewhat intelligible to the pupil, though
it is a question whether the average eighth-grade pupil
ever thoroughly grasps them. But they are found in
the books, and some attempt should be made to render
them meaningful.
The teacher should practice these diagrams with care
so as to be able to reproduce them with fair accuracy.
NOTE. — The subject of zones, polar night and day,
length of day in different latitudes, etc., should be left
out of the lesson on seasons, and taught in a following
lesson, if necessary.
CHAPTER XI
Comparison of the old and the new geography. —
Modern geography is more than a mere catalogue of
facts ; it is also a study of the relationship of these facts,
which to the maturer mind makes the subject so in-
teresting. The old "sailor's geography" answers the
questions What? and Where? the modern geography,
also the question Why? The first two questions call
for the exercise of the memory chiefly ; the last, for the
exercise of the reason also.
Causal relation in geography. — The great principle
underlying the science of geography is that of the Causal
Relation, also variously called the Principle of Cause and
Effect, Geographical Sequence, Geographical Conse-
quence, and Geographical Control or Influence.
This modern phase of geography has been brought
about by the application of the scientific method. This
was made possible by the marvelous development of
geology, meteorology, biology, anthropology, and sociol-
ogy during the last century. The study of earth forces,
earth structure, and life conditions and interrelations
has applied far-reachingly to the explanation of geo-
120
THE CAUSAL RELATION 121
graphic facts, such as the origin of surface features,
scenery, climate, distribution of vegetation and animal
life, and the characteristic adaptations of man to dif-
ferent regions.
The cause, origin, or explanation of geographic facts is
a chief feature of the modern science of geography.
The principle of origin, growth, development, modifi-
cation,— in short, the Principle of Evolution, — has been
applied to geography. The dynamic character of the
earth and its life have been recognized.
Geographical consequence. — Not only are the causes
or the origins of things looked for in geography to-day,
but the mind is also directed forward to the results or
consequences. Every present fact is, in a measure, the
cause of some consequent fact, as well as being itself the
effect of some preceding. The new geography traces
this chain of cause and effect as far as may be. The ob-
servation of previous causes operating to produce
certain results, leads us to predict of the future what
has been true of the past. Thus we may anticipate.
The explanatory principle unifies geography. — It is this
explaining of geographical events and features, and this
anticipation of future developments, that renders modern
scientific geography so fascinating. From a mass of
chopped-up, inchoate facts, geography is transformed
into an organic whole by this unifying principle. In-
stead of requiring the memory to retain a mass of un-
122 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
related facts and incidents, the principle of causal rela-
tion stimulates the reason to seek out the relationship of
these facts, and to reduce them to some common prin-
ciples, to simpler terms, or to classify them in categories
more easily kept in mind.
The human significance of geographical relations. —
Geography is distinguished from physiography and
geology by the emphasis of the human element. To be
sure, the extra-human part of geography is also studied,
but this is only with regard to its importance in explain-
ing or understanding the relations of human life to the
earth. This puts a different aspect upon the relation-
ships of geography. River action has its geological con-
sequences, but in geography the question is, What is
the significance of these consequences to man ? Moun-
tains are the result of crushing, folding, and uplift, due
to the contractional forces within the earth. But this
statement has, strictly, no place in geography, unless
employed to bring out some feature of human life,
as, for example, that mining is made possible by the re-
sulting exposure of the strata; that mountains are ob-
stacles to travel and intercourse ; etc.
Geographic influence. — This peculiar geographical
aspect of the principle of the causal relation is commonly
called the Principle of Geographic Control, or Geographi-
cal Influence, referring to the bearing of geographical
conditions upon human life. In other words, the features
THE CAUSAL RELATION 123
and forces of the environment are studied in relation
to man's life. The same thing is expressed from the
human standpoint by speaking of the adaptation of man
to his environment. In modern geography, then, the
environment is studied that the lives of the people may
be understood. A national costume, a national occupa-
tion, racial stature, and even a racial, spiritual trait
may find an explanation as the direct or indirect influence
of the environment, or as the adaptation of man to the
natural conditions of his habitat.
Examples of geographic influence. — The following
few examples of this close causal relationship between
man and nature may illustrate the foregoing :
Rivers, since man began, have played an important
part in the history of his civilization. In ancient times,
as to-day, rivers were used as the seat of human settle-
ments. The mere physical necessity of water to drink
would keep man near the streams. Streams erode
valleys and deposit flood-plains, both of which are useful
to man. Valleys are the easiest routes of travel because
of the gentle natural grade. Even to-day the railroads
follow the river valleys. Flood-plains, being level, make
communication easy.
The rivers abound in fish, and the valleys in game,
which to primitive man or early settlers are the main
subsistence. When agriculture began and animals
were domesticated, the alluvial plains along the streams
124 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
became still more useful to man. Through agriculture
and animal husbandry many more people could live
on the same area than before, and hence dense popula-
tions sprang up in the valleys of great rivers, as, for ex-
ample, the ancient civilizations of the Euphrates and
Tigris valleys. And to-day the Nile Valley, the Valley
of the Yangtse Kiang, and of the Mississippi teem with
people. Centers of trade or cities developed here and
there, especially along the rivers.
Gradually manufacturing developed, fostered in some
cases directly by the streams, as in the higher regions
where water power was available.
The riparian races learned early the art of navigation
as a result of their familiarity with the water. This
was the beginning of river commerce. The commercial
development of a nation depends much upon the number
and the length of its navigable rivers. This was formerly
more the case than it is in this age of railroads. Rivers
are the natural arteries of trade, domestic and foreign.
Rivers, being more or less impassable, have long been
used as political boundaries, and in this way have had
much to do with the segregation of peoples. Segrega-
tion tends to conservatism in occupations, customs,
dress, etc.
On the spiritual side it may be said that rivers have by
their beauty, majesty, and mystery been the inspiration
of painters, poets, and composers.
THE CAUSAL RELATION 125
The topography, or the lay of the land, also very much
influences the life of man. Travel and intercommunica-
tion are easier on the level than in the broken surface
of a mountainous region. If the map of any country
be examined, it will be noticed that the cities and towns
are scarcest in the plateau and mountain sections, and
densest in the great plains and river valleys. A map
showing the density of population makes this still more
apparent. A railroad map, likewise, clearly shows
how the routes of travel avoid the rough country. In a
broken country towns and individual settlers tend to
live apart, sociability being attended with too much
tedious travel. The result is conservatism, a backward
and backwoods type of civilization, out of step with
the progress of the plains people. This simplicity
or backwardness of civilization is seen in many places,
the plateau of Mexico, the mountains of Spain, the
plateau of Thibet, the Cumberland Plateau of Tennessee,
the Highlands of Scotland, etc.
On account of the diversity of topography in a land
or different lands, there arises a differentiation of indus-
tries, and a division of labor. The industries of the plains
are agriculture, herding on a large scale, manufacture,
and commerce. The chief mountain industries are
lumbering, grazing on a smaller scale, mining, and quarry-
ing.
Nations of the plains are more open to attack and
126 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
pillage from their neighbors. This either leads to sub-
jection, or to the strengthening of their military power.
Large nations are eventually built up by conquest and
fusion. In a mountainous region there is more of a
tendency for a country to remain apart and independent.
It is easier to defend a mountainous country from in-
vasion. Hence we find interesting examples of small, in-
dependent countries surrounded by powerful neighbors,
as Switzerland, Montenegro, and Andorra in Europe.
Russia and the United States are examples of nations
that have spread largely by annexing foreign territory.
Climate. — Some of the most far-reaching consequences
are due to climate. If the world had but one climate,
and one kind of weather, it would be very monotonous
indeed, in plant and animal life, in the occupations and
customs of man, in his dress, and probably in his very
color and physique.
1. Sun, source of heat. — To trace the study hi
proper sequence, it is necessary to begin with the sun,
whose rays of light are converted into heat as they strike
the earth. These rays strike the equatorial regions more
squarely, the polar parts more glancingly, the result
being a gradation of temperature from the torrid equator
to the frigid poles. The situation is complicated by
the inclination of the earth on its axis, with consequent
seasonal variations as the earth revolves around the sun.
2. Winds. — The unequal heating of the atmosphere
THE CAUSAL RELATION 127
by the sun is the primary cause of winds. The water of
the earth is evaporated by this same heat, only to be
condensed in the cooler altitudes into clouds, and these
are drifted about by the winds. In general, the winds
blow prevailingly in a definite direction in a given latitude,
their direction being primarily determined by convection
and modified by the rotation of the earth.
3. The rainfall of a region depends upon the temper-
ature and the prevailing winds. These climatic factors
are much modified by the changes of the seasons, by the
distribution of land and water, by local disturbances in
barometric pressure, etc., but nevertheless there is a
definite, though complex, relation between them.
4. The topography of a country affects its climate,
for as the elevation increases, the temperature decreases.
Also the trend of the highlands is an important factor in
modifying the temperature, but especially affecting the
distribution of the rainfall. The moisture of the at-
mosphere condenses on the windward side of mountains,
leaving the other side more or less arid.
5. Climate and vegetation. — The temperature,
wind, and moisture conditions being thus very .complex
and widely different in various parts of the world, the dis-
tribution of vegetation, which depends upon these factors,
will be varied. Thus we have the tundra vegetation
of the polar lands, the conifer belt next, then deciduous
hardwoods, and finally tropical vegetation. Tern-
128 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
perature is the chief factor in this distribution from north
to south. The factor of moisture affects this still more.
The rainfall of polar regions is least, that of the tropics
the greatest. The luxuriance of tropic vegetation is
largely due to the moisture in the soil and the air.
6. In the United States thedistributionof rain
isunequal. This country lies in the region affected by
the prevailing westerly winds. Owing to the north and
south trend of the highlands in the west, the moisture
is greatest near the Pacific Coast, on the windward
side of the Coast Range and the still higher Sierras
and Cascades. Descending on the other side of these
last-named ranges, the winds are drying, producing as a
consequence the arid conditions in the Great Basin.
Only on the tops of the Wasatch and other high Basin
Mountains does a little rain fall in this otherwise rainless
region. Again farther east on the still higher and
colder Rockies some more of the latent moisture of the
westerlies is condensed. But the winds continuing east-
ward fall on the eastern side of the Rockies, and here
again are drying, because they are warming up, and they
render the Great Plains semiarid. Thus the western
half of the United States is divided into a number of
north and south belts of varying rainfall.
7. Variety of vegetation in the United States.
— These variations in the United States of temperature
from north to south, and of rainfall from east to west, have
THE CAUSAL RELATION 129
brought about a great variation in vegetation. On the
mountains near the Pacific are the densest and tallest
of forests, with conifers flourishing more toward the north,
native hardwoods toward the south, and introduced
citrous trees. In the somewhat drier valleys of Wash-
ington and Oregon thrive the hardy fruits, hops, and
grains; and in a similar valley in central California,
grains, grapes, and semitropical fruits. In the desert
of the Basin, toward the north, the sage brush abounds,
while farther south the cacti are typical. Where
little rain falls on the tops of the Wasatch Mountains
there is a fringe of forest growth, and on the Rockies are
extensive, though somewhat open, forests of conifers
and hardwoods. Then come the Great Plains with their
semidesert vegetation described on page 75.
The eastern half of the United States is more variable
in climate, and the differences in temperature from
north to south are more marked. The resultant vegeta-
tion differences are well indicated by the staple agri-
cultural crops, — the small grains (rye, barley, oats, and
wheat), hay, flax, and potatoes in the north, next the
famous corn belt, then the tobacco belt, and then the
subtropical cotton, rice, and sugar cane along the Gulf,
where also flourish the orange tree and palm.
8. Climatic distribution of animals. — The ani-
mal life is affected directly by temperature and moisture
conditions, and by the character of the vegetation. For
130 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the sake of brevity, suffice it to call attention to the dis-
tribution of the fur-bearing animals and domesticated
sheep in the north; cattle, horses, and swine farther
south ; and to recall the study of the grazing industry
of the Great Plains, page 75.
9. Man in relation to climate. — Thus far in this
causal study only the non-human side has been referred to.
The whole purpose of the study thus far was to lay a
foundation for the following study of the adaptation of
man to the varying conditions imposed upon him by
the differences of climate.
Climate is probably the most important geographic
"control" that affects man. He is directly affected by
the weather and climate, and seeks to shelter himself
from the elements. While primitive races go naked in
the tropics, in colder regions they clothe themselves
in furs and fibrous fabrics. Possibly the very com-
plexion of man is the result of climatic conditions, for
in the warmer latitudes the world around the races
of man are more swarthy.
(a) Shelter. — The severities of the climate cause man
to seek a shelter, be it the protection of a tree, a cave,
a skin tent, a dugout, an igloo of snow, or a house of logs,
boards, brick, or stone.
Man must adapt his ways of life to the passing seasons.
He "makes hay while the sun shines," and lays up a store
for the winter. He is thus forced to be provident.
THE CAUSAL RELATION 131
(b) Wind. — Of the winds man makes direct use in
sailing, windmills, etc. Formerly, before the days of
the steamship, routes of marine commerce were de-
termined by the prevailing winds. Winds have to be
taken into account in the blowing of dust in the streets,
in the encroachment of sand dunes, the drifting snow
in winter, in disastrous storms and hurricanes. They
are beneficial to man in bringing rain from the sea,
and in tempering the heat and the cold by circulation.
(c) Migration. — Man may modify his circumstances
somewhat, or perhaps he can adapt himself better to
conditions. Thus races may migrate to a more congenial
climate, and individuals travel from one region to
another to escape the severities of climate. Southern
California, Florida, Bermuda, and the Riviera are
favorite winter resorts; while Alaska, the Wilds of
Canada, the Maine Woods, and Norway are sought for
cooler summers.
Altitude has a minor effect on temperature, yet it is
important. In all lands the mountains are sought
during the heat of summer. The plateaus of Central
Mexico, Ecuador, India, and Africa, even in tropical
latitudes, are endurable, though the ameliorating effect
may in part be due to the lesser humidity of the air.
The trend of the Alps cuts off the cold winds from the
north of Europe, and renders Cisalpine Italy delightful
by contrast. The Himalayas act in a similar way.
132 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
(d) Weather. — The daily climate, that is, the
weather, is of concern to everybody, affecting the routine
of work, and the planning for pleasure. So important is
a foreknowledge of the weather that the government
spends millions of dollars annually in the study of the
weather for daily forecasting.
(e) Rain, life conditions, industries. — Man
may endure the heat of the equator, and the extremes of
arctic cold, but water he must have, water to drink,
water for his cattle and his crops, water for power pur-
poses and for navigation. Therefore he avoids the
deserts. In general, the map showing the distribution
of rainfall would serve to show the density of popula-
tion. Roughly speaking, the more abundant the rainfall,
the more people may make a living in a region. More
migrations have been caused by rainfall conditions than
on account of temperature.
The rain is our ultimate drinking supply. Some may
be caught directly for this purpose, but most of it is ob-
tained indirectly from the off-flow and from underground
sources. Locally great engineering works have been
constructed for the supply of water for cities or com-
munities. The Romans conducted water thus by means
of an aqueduct, the ruins of which still stand. Modern
New York City brings its water from the Catskill High-
lands.
But more interesting, from the human standpoint, is
THE CAUSAL RELATION 133
the indirect influence of rainfall through the determina-
tion of vegetation and animal life, and in this it is usually
combined with other factors of climate, especially tem-
perature. Natural vegetation and agricultural crops are
impossible without water. Different kinds of plants
require varying amounts of water. Forests require
at least twenty inches of rain per year, and this mainly
in the growing season. Where less rain falls, prairies,
steppes, or deserts prevail. The prairies are covered
with a continuous growth of sod of grass, aster, golden-
rod, wild sunflower, etc. The steppes generally have a
sparse grass growth in tufts here and there interspersed
with other drought-resistant plants.
Where there is sufficient rain to maintain forests, the
forest industries, lumbering, turpentine, rubber, tan bark,
the furniture and implement industries, prevail. The
forest regions are usually well suited for animal hus-
bandry and ordinary agriculture, and so the trees
are generally cleared away in the course of time to
permit farming.
Different agricultural crops require different amounts
of moisture, and can endure different degrees of drought.
This, with the varying temperature conditions, chiefly
determines what kind of crop shall be raised in a locality,
whether rye, wheat, corn, macaroni wheat, alfalfa,
tobacco, cotton, rice, sugar cane, coffee, rubber, etc.
The fact of irrigation emphasizes the controlling
134 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
power of water. By irrigation man attempts to modify
otherwise unfavorable conditions, by artificially supply-
ing water to his crops. In this way considerable arid land
has been reclaimed and made habitable.
Animal husbandry, like agriculture, is conditioned
strictly by climatic conditions. Grazing or herding
can only be conducted where grass will grow. The
cattle industry thrives well in agricultural regions, and
is conducted in a small way by individual farmers
throughout the world, as in Holland, England, New
England, in the Central states, etc. But the cattle
industry on a large scale, with herds of thousands, like-
wise the great sheep and goat herding, are carried on in
regions too dry for ordinary farming, in the semiarid
steppes of Argentina, Mexico, Spain, Russia, South
Africa, Australia, and on our own Great Plains. This
specialization of the agricultural and herding industries
in different regions was brought about mainly by the
difference in rainfall.
The forest, agricultural, and animal industries provide
many of the raw materials required by the manufacturing
industry. This is to a great extent independent of
climatic conditions, and yet is influenced thereby. The
success of the manufacturing occupations, of course,
depends upon the production of the raw materials.
The cotton manufacturer in England watches carefully
the crop conditions (weather, etc.) of the cotton crop in
THE CAUSAL RELATION 135
the United States. The miller is concerned about the
success of the wheat crop.
Some manufactories are located in the heart of the
regions that produce their raw materials, as flour mills
in the wheat country, and furniture factories in the hard-
wood section. However, the ease of modern transporta-
tion and market opportunities may interfere to keep the
source of raw material and the factories that use them
far apart.
Certain special manufactures require definite climatic
conditions. The sun-dried bricks of ancient Babylon
and the adobe of the Zuni require a dry climate to make
them and to preserve them. In southern California
there is a long dry season, which is utilized in the open-
air drying of fruits. The niter industry of South America
depends upon desert conditions. It is even said that
the cotton industry of England developed on the western
side of the Pennine Hills partly because here the greater
moisture of the atmosphere made the cotton fiber less
brittle and less liable to break in the process of spinning.
The salt industry of many parts of the world depends
upon the possibility of open-air evaporation in a dry
climate.
(/) This study of the climatic control may be
summarized in stating that the world is composed of
many climes, which tend to create a great variety of indus-
trial, social, and cultural conditions, a great variety of oc-
136 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
cupations, a grand division of labor, an interdependence
of region upon region, class upon class, an interchange of
commodities or commerce, and a mutual helpfulness.
Abuse of the causal principle. — Useful as this prin-
ciple of the geographic influence is, it must be employed
with caution. As a rule, geographic facts are not due to
one simple cause, but to a combination of causes, the
influence of each of which may be difficult to judge
proportionately. Sometimes one factor works favorably,
while others are adverse. The causal principle may be
pushed too far. For example, a city may be situated
on an excellent harbor. It may be far from the truth to
say that this harbor determined the location of the
city. The real reason may have been very different,
and there may be other good harbors or better in the
vicinity. We may say truly, though, that the excellence
of the harbor contributed to the commercial development
of the city.
The human equation. — Again, in trying to explain
the human features of geography, the human reason,
inclination, and even whim may be more important
factors than the natural conditions. Ignorance and per-
versity even determine locations of industries or towns.
The sociological factors governing some of these human
institutions are often very far removed from the physical
environment.
The establishment of some manufacturing industries
THE CAUSAL RELATION 137
is sometimes seemingly out of place, when the physical
conditions merely are considered. The saving factor
is often the human qualities of good management,
inventiveness, skilled labor, economy in production,
and even patriotism (supporting native industry).
Again, there are cities with actually poor location
which yet thrive. Harbors may be made artificially,
power may be transported in the form of coal, or trans-
mitted as electricity, tunnels or bridges may make the
place accessible, etc. Countries are found where the
mountainous topography has not been a hindrance,
apparently, to development, as in the case of Switzer-
land. Isolation is not always a bad thing. England's
insularity was for centuries a guarantee against in-
vasion and permitted a peaceful development.
Care must be exercised not to make too sweeping
generah'zations about the influence of the physical en-
vironment. The case must not be pushed too far.
Obvious physical influences should be noted, but the
human factor must not be neglected. It is worth while
in geography to appreciate the "effect of man on nature."
Man makes some changes in his environment, and directs
the course of nature somewhat along the lines of his
choice. He is constantly changing the map of the
world. To be sure, this is mainly a political feature,
yet the distribution of races is thereby affected. He
likewise affects the distribution of plants and animals
138 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
by the extermination of game, forests, and harmful
kinds of plants and animals ; by the importation of
foreign species to new regions. The small grains, and
the domesticated animals, have been carried the world
over from their original home in Asia, while American
maize, tobacco, and potato have spread likewise.
Man's intellectual adaptation to his environment. —
Man modifies the topography to a certain extent. He
grades and levels the land for his cities and roads. He
tunnels the mountains and rivers. He changes the
courses of rivers, and makes canals that divide con-
tinents, constructs irrigation canals, deepens natural
waterways, builds breakwaters, bridges chasms and
streams. He modifies the climate by artificially heating
his houses, and can even prevent light frosts in his or-
chards by means of smudge fires. Even distance is
annihilated by the modern methods of communication
and transportation.
Yet even in these human efforts the influence of nature
is seen. The uneven topography necessitated the level-
ing ; the insurmountable mountain had to be tunneled ;
the river barrier required the tunnel or the bridge ; the
narrowness of the isthmus suggested the possibility of
the canal ; the shoals of the river or harbor would not
have been dredged had the water been deeper, etc.
The "overcoming of nature" by man is simply another
adaptation of man to nature, an intellectual or "psychic
THE CAUSAL RELATION 139
adaptation." Still, for purposes of history and human
geography it is well to consider this adjustment as an
achievement of man over his environment.
The general effect of man's efforts to modify his
physical surroundings is concentrated locally, and,
on the whole, is insignificant in comparison with what
he cannot change. And yet, on the course of human
affairs, these works of man may have a wonderfully great
influence. The course of history is made as much by
man himself as by the physical environment.
The principle of causal relation in teaching. — The
discussion and illustration of the causal relation in geog-
raphy in the preceding pages were intended for the
benefit of the teacher. It is not intended, by any means,
to suggest that children should study geography thus
intensively, for this is beyond their capacity, and outside
their interest. For children such a treament may readily
become too speculative and too difficult. The teacher,
however, should know these relationships of geography,
and should present the subject, especially in the upper
grades, with the whole organic unity of geography in
mind. The most obvious and simple causal relations
•
will appeal to the child, and should be pointed out.
In the more complex relationships the facts should be
presented in the causal order, but the pupil need not be
pressed to work this out. Many such relations will
gradually dawn on the pupil as other similar cases are
140 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
considered, and the geographic consequence of facts
studied many lessons back may be noticed in a future
lesson. At any rate, if the subject is properly presented,
a grammar grade pupil will get a general realization of
the close dependence of man on nature, and should be
able to point out specifically some of the more obvious
geographic influences.
One method that helps to bring this about is to study
a country by topics hi causal sequence, — location, sur-
face, climate, drainage, vegetation, animal life, mineral
resources, industries, human institutions, and history.
It will help pupils to learn and to remember. It will
enable them to work out little geographical problems
that may be set for them. Grammar grade pupils, at
least, should be conscious of this causal sequence, which
should be used in map study as well as in the text.
This logical treatment may become tedious even in
higher grades. The non-human side is pressed too
much to the front. Children are especially interested
in the human aspect of geography. This is especially
true of beginners. It is not wise, therefore, always to
begin with physical geography. The discovery of the
region, its history, the racial characteristics, interesting
architectural features, national customs, national dress,
etc., may often be a better starting point for a lesson.
The point to observe is that the physical and industrial
geography of a country should be studied sequentially,
THE CAUSAL RELATION 141
and where profitable, reference may be made to other
causal relationships, such as the effect of the physical
features on history, or the relation between dress and
climate, etc.
The place for the causal study of geography is in the
upper grades. Still even in the lower easily perceived
connections should occasionally be remarked, as, Why
does the Eskimo wear furs? Why does he not make
his house of wood? Of what advantage is it for a city
to be on a big river? On a good harbor? Near a coal
mine ? Why are prairies good for farming ? What use
does a city make of near-by waterfalls ?
Even where the statement of the causal relation is
not required from the pupils, the facts should be set
forth connectedly in that relation, as, " Chicago is
situated on Lake Michigan, in the center of a great farm-
ing and manufacturing section, and has 2,200,000 people."
" Cotton grows in the moist, warm region about the
Gulf of Mexico." " On the vast treeless plains are great
herds of cattle." " The people of the eastern states
cleared away the forests for farming purposes." Later
on the reason will appear.
CHAPTER XII
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGPxAPHY
Political geography. — That phase of geography which
deals with the division of the earth into nations and
other political parts, with the races of man, and the
various activities of human life, including the industrial,
social, civic, and even educational and religious phases,
is generally called political geography. This branch
plays an important part in the elementary school.
It does not stand by itself alone, however. In the pre-
ceding chapters the place and value of mathematical
and physical geography have been considered. It was
there shown that, in spite of their importance as distinct
sciences, they were to be subordinated, in the elementary
school, to political geography, or at least taught in
connection with it.
Descriptive geography. — " It is unsatisfactory to
rend apart geography into separate branches; it then
becomes dry bones." (Mill.) The natural blending of
the various branches of geography in the depiction of
the appearance and conditions of a region or country,
and in the account of the inhabitants, their mode of life,
142
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 143
and their national characteristics, is known as descriptive
geography.
The chief geographical interests of children, young or
old, as was seen in the chapter on Interests, are human —
such as racial and national peculiarities, various modes of
living in different lands, occupations, adaptations of
man to his environment, the life in cities, etc. Political
geography presents this phase of the subject, and so
conforms to the interests of children. The knowledge
it teaches, of the social environment, is also very practical.
For these reasons, textbooks in geography for children
are chiefly political, or rather of the blended descriptive
type. In this, physical geography is used to picture
the location, topography, scenery, the climate, and
resources, and to help understand the human life in
that setting. The simple observational home geography
of beginners is really descriptive geography.
Primary and advanced geography. — Descriptive
geography for the elementary school is usually divided
into two courses (sometimes three). The first is called
primary or elementary geography. This generally be-
gins with home geography. Then follows an applica-
tion of its simple principles to a rough sketch of the
world as a whole, in which the human side is particularly
emphasized. In this "first round," except in home
geography, the treatment should be a rather dogmatic
presentation of facts. That is, the pupils at the age of
144 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
eight to ten are not mature enough to reason out easily
the relationships of geographical facts, and often would
not appreciate them if pointed out. So the treatment
should be chiefly a positive statement of facts put as
interestingly and vividly as possible, in order that
the memory may retain them better. Of course simple
and evident relationships should be worked out, and
facts regarding distant regions must be interpreted and
judged in the light of the geographical knowledge gamed
through the direct study of home geography.
In primary geography all continents and principal
countries are visited, and the general, great, striking,
and interesting facts, from the child's standpoint, are
considered. Through the study of human life in many
lands, the essential facts of occupations, manufactures,
natural resources, climatic conditions, and surface fea-
tures are concisely treated. Instead of applying the
causal principle rigidly, it is better generally to work
back to the causes from their consequences in human
life. In this way the perspective will present man in
the foreground, with the physical features as a setting.
The map work is, of course, to be associated with the
descriptive text. (See page 172.)
The essential facts of the subject learned in primary
geography. — It is important to remember the function
of primary geography. Aside from details of fact, more
extended correlation, fuller appreciation of the interrela-
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 145
tions of geography, and the generalization of abstract
principles, the pupil should have at the end of the primary
course all the essential facts of geography that he will
have at the end of the advanced course, — the distin-
guishing characteristics of the nations, their chief prod-
ucts, the general facts of world topography, and the
chief locational facts necessary for daily use in life.
This is accomplished in the primary course by the
conciseness with which it is taught, by the rather
dogmatic treatment ; and on account of the readiness of
pupils in these grades to accept such treatment, and
the ease with which they retain facts in the memory.
This period is, therefore, the most suitable for acquiring
the great mass of locative and distributive facts essential
in geography. This does not mean a mere cramming by
rote of the textbook. The main point to remember is
that at this stage geography answers particularly the
questions What? and Where? and every means should
be used to add interest to the work, to awaken thought,
to fix by means of thoughtful associations, and even
to work out the more simple causal relations.
An example from primary geography. — The following,
taken from a well-known text, is an example of the treat-
ment of a country in the primary course :
146 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
SWITZERLAND
Language and government. — Switzerland is the only country
of Europe, thus far studied, that has no seacoast. Neither has
it a language of its own. Notice what countries surround it.
Although it is very small, most of the inhabitants of the southern
part speak Italian, those in the west, French, and those in the
north and east, German. The most common language is German.
This is the only European country that you have studied,
except one, that is not a monarchy. Its people, living among the
mountains where they could easily defend themselves, or hide
from their enemies, declared themselves independent of kings
hundreds of years ago, and the country has long been a republic.
Agriculture. — The many lofty mountains seriously interfere
with agriculture. The Alps extend completely across the country,
and the Jura Mountains skirt the northwestern boundary. These
mountains are so rugged that, except in the valleys, few people live
among them. Between the two mountain districts, however, is
a narrow plateau, where the surface is much less rugged. It is here
that most of the people dwell.
One of the leading farm products is grain, raised mainly on the
plateau. On the lower lands, especially near the German border,
there are extensive vineyards. There is excellent pasturage for
cattle and goats among the mountains, and these animals are
raised there in great numbers. In spring and summer, as the
snows melt from the mountain sides, the goats and cattle are
pastured higher and higher. Such pasture is called an alp, and
this is the origin of the name of the range, the Alps.
Lumbering and manufacturing. — Where the slopes are too rugged
for farming, there is much forest. Therefore, lumber is an impor-
tant product of the country.
Although there is no good coal in Switzerland, the Swiss do a
large amount of manufacturing. Among the principal products
are wine, butter, and cheese. Wood carving is also an industry
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 147
in which many of the Swiss find employment. During the long
winters, the wood from the mountains is shaped into toys, clocks,
and other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock ?
The Swiss have become widely known for their manufacture of
textile goods, such as lace, linen, silk, and cotton goods. They
also make much jewelry, especially watches. In some of this
work water power is used, for an abundance of power is supplied
by the mountain streams. A great deal of manufacturing, how-
ever, is done by hand in the homes of the workmen, rather than
in large factories. From these facts you can readily see that the
Swiss people must be very skillful, progressive, and well educated.
Entertainment of tourists. — In the lofty Alps there is some of
the grandest scenery of the world. Their snow-covered peaks,
their glaciers descending into the valleys, and the lakes in their
midst are wonders that many people like to view. Tens of thou-
sands of people go to Switzerland every summer to enjoy the
climate and the scenery, and one of the chief occupations of the
Swiss people is to take care of such visitors.
Chief cities. — The capital of the Republic is Berne. Other
important cities are Zurich, Basel, and Geneva, three manufactur-
ing centers.
The advanced descriptive geography of the sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades differs from the primary more
in the point of view and the treatment, than in subject
matter. The subject is that of the first course studied
more intensively, in detail, and with the reasons for the
facts (causal relation) generally considered; history,
literature, and nature-study are more called upon
(correlation) to enrich the subject, and to assist in its
comprehension ; the subject is also studied more formally
(sequential order of topics); many principles of geog-
148 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
raphy are developed as a working basis for further study ;
certain important, typical features are studied in detail
as a standard of a class (type study) ; more use is made
of the comparative method of study ; and more use is
made of other sources than the textbook, such as supple-
mentary readers and reference books. In succeeding
chapters some of these methods of presentation are
taken up.
Some additional mathematical geography is introduced
which was too difficult for the lower grades, and physical
geography takes a much larger place in advanced
courses, being used more in explanation of the political
features. In fact, in some curricula elementary physical
geography is introduced more for its own sake, in the
seventh or eighth grade. Commercial geography is of
greater interest to pupils of this age, and therefore
industrial topics receive a larger treatment, and this is
sometimes enlarged, in the eighth grade, into a separate
branch. (See Chapter XVIII.)
Detailed study of a country in advanced geography. —
The general difference of advanced and primary geog-
raphy may be well seen from a comparison of the ac-
count of Switzerland, page 146, with the following taken
from an advanced textbook. Note how the interest is
aroused and held, the sequential order of topics, the
causal relation, the emphasis of physical and commercial
features, the comparison with other lands, the interpre-
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 149
tation of the human facts by the physical environment,
the correlation with history.
The study begins with a statement of the historical
and the geographical importance of the British Isles and
then proceeds to explain this position as follows : *
The prevailing westerly winds also partly account for the great-
ness of the United Kingdom. Two days out of three these winds
blow across the British Isles ; and, since they have crossed a vast
expanse of warm water, they greatly temper the climate. Indeed,
the winter season is milder than that in northern United States,
and the summer is cooler.
The prevailing westerlies, bearing an abundance of moisture,
so distribute it over the islands that no section suffers from
drought. Yet the western portions receive more rain than the
eastern, because the damp ocean winds reach them first.
As already stated, the mountains of Great Britain, like those of
New England, are so old that they are worn very low. While
these uplands rarely rise more than one or two thousand feet above
sea level, there are occasional higher peaks of hard rock. For
example, the granite peak of Ben Nevis, in Scotland, the highest
point in the British Isles, is forty-three hundred feet in elevation.
The Scottish Highlands are so rugged and barren that few people
are able to live there.
Where the rocks are softer, and less disturbed by mountain
folding, there are lower and more level tracts. . . .
The coast line of the British Isles is very irregular, as may be
seen from the map. State the reasons. How does the coast com-
pare with that of New England ? Since the mountainous western
portion had more deep valleys for the sea to enter than the level
1 Maps, illustrations, suggestions, review questions, and title topics,
as well as references to pages, maps, and illustrations, are omitted.
150 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
plains of the east, there are more good harbors on the west than on
the east coast. On both sides, however, the mouths of the larger
rivers usually make good ports. Why ?
Another reason for the importance of the United Kingdom is
the fact that these islands have great natural resources, and have
therefore developed important industries. In our study of the
United States we found that the people are mainly engaged in
lumbering, agriculture, fishing, mining, manufacturing, and
commerce. There is almost no lumbering in the British Isles,
for, although in early times a large part of the land was wooded,
little forest now remains; and lumber is, therefore, one of the
leading imports. . . .
Since no portion of the British Isles is arid, the ranching industry
is not developed there as in the western United States. Much live
stock is raised, however, . . . and the British Isles are noted for
their great number of fine cattle, sheep, and horses. . . . The
Shetland Islands are famous for Shetland ponies ; and on the three
Channel Islands, — Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, near the
French coast, — three breeds of cattle which are well known in
the United States have been developed.
The importance of grazing is partly explained by the fact that
much of the surface, like that of New England, is too rocky or
mountainous to be cultivated. Besides this, some of the plains in
eastern England, although too sterile for farming, make excellent
pasture land. The mild winters and the damp air, which en-
courage the growth of grass, further favor stock raising. In addi-
tion, the cheapness with which grain is raised in other countries,
like the United States, and carried to the British Isles, has made
it less necessary for the British to use their land in raising grain.
The cool summer climate, of advantage in some respects, is
unfavorable to many kinds of farming. For example, it prevents
the production of corn, cotton, tobacco, and grapes, which
require warm summers. More hardy products, however, such as
oats, barley, and wheat, are easily raised. Turnips, potatoes,
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 151
beans, and peas are other important crops; also hops, which,
together with barley, are used in the manufacture of beer. Owing
to the many towns and cities, truck farming is of great importance.
Since the early inhabitants had to cross the sea in order to reach
these islands, and since most of their descendants have lived either
on or near the coast, it is natural that many of the British should
adopt a seafaring life. This sort of life has also been encouraged
by the fact that food fish abound on the shallow banks of the
North Sea and of the ocean to the north and west of the islands.
More than one hundred thousand men and twenty-five thousand
boats from the British Isles are employed in fishing.
Among the fish caught are cod, haddock, and herring, as off
the coast of New England and Newfoundland. . . . Many fishing
hamlets are scattered along the coast ; but the fishing industry
here, as in our country, is becoming centered more and more in
the large towns, which possess the capital for large vessels and
expensive fishing outfits. The chief fishing centers, like Boston
and Gloucester in Massachusetts, are LONDON, HULL, and GRIMSBY
in England, and ABERDEEN in Scotland.
One of the resources of the British Isles which early attracted
people from southern Europe was the tin in southwestern England.
This metal is not mined in many parts of the world, but has always
been in great demand. Even before the time of Caesar, ships from
the Mediterranean came to England to obtain tin for use in the
manufacture of bronze.
On the other hand, the abundance of two other minerals, coal
and iron ore, reminds us of our own country. The one small island
of Great Britain produces three fourths as much coal as all of
our states together ; and the United States and Great Britain are
the two leading coal-producing countries of the world. While
most of the coal is bituminous, that in southern Wales is more
like our anthracite. Large numoers of miners in the United States
are Welshmen who have come from that section.
Iron ore is also abundant and favorably situated. None of
152 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the British iron ore is far from coal ; and in some places the same
shaft is used to bring both coal and iron to the surface. Limestone
is also abundant and near at hand. This reminds us of the condi-
tions at Birmingham, Ala., which is named after BIRMINGHAM,
England, because they resemble each other in having an abundance
of coal and iron ore near together. The extent of the mining in-
dustry in the United Kingdom is indicated by the fact that more
than half a million persons are employed underground. . . .
Considering the abundance of coal and iron ore on the one hand
and of wool' from the millions of sheep on the other, it is clear that
Great Britain has materials for extensive manufacture. As in
New England, the hilly sections have abundant water power due
to the glacier, and this also has favored manufacturing. Later,
when the use of steam became known, the abundant stores of
coal were of great importance. . . .
From the spinning and weaving of wool it was easy to turn to
the manufacture of cotton goods ; and on the western side of the
northern mountains we find a great cotton-manufacturing in-
dustry. Dampness is one of the points in favor of that section,
for in a dry air cotton is in danger of becoming too brittle to spin
and weave easily. Another reason why this work is best developed
on the west side of the island is the fact that it is nearer the United
States, from which so much of the raw cotton comes.
Since the British climate will not permit the cultivation of
cotton, it is necessary to import all that is used. It requires over
two billion pounds a year to supply the mills. Although much
cotton is now obtained from Egypt, India, and other parts of the
British Empire, our Southern States still supply the greatest
quantity. The center of the cotton manufacturing is MAN-
CHESTER. What other cities do you find situated near by ? ...
The three industries connected with cotton, wool, and iron have
made Great Britain one of the great workshops of the world. The
most important is cotton manufacturing; iron ranks next, and
wool is third.
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 153
What has thus far been said applies chiefly to Great Britain;
but Ireland forms a striking contrast to Great Britain in several
respects. In the first place, it is mainly a country of farms instead
of manufactures. . . .
First among the coastal cities to be noted is LONDON, on the
east side, with BRISTOL opposite it on the west coast. North of
London is HULL, with LIVERPOOL on the opposite side; and in
southern Scotland is EDINBURGH, near the coast, paired with
GLASGOW on the west. On the south side the two most important
ports are SOUTHAMPTON and PORTSMOUTH. What are the two
principal cities of Ireland ? Locate each.
Steamships, railway lines, and canals connect the various cities,
carrying immense quantities of freight. In Great Britain and
Ireland there are nearly four thousand miles of canal and over
twenty-three thousand miles of railway.
London, the capital of the empire and the largest city in the
world, is situated on the Thames River. Like many other British
rivers, the Thames has a wide, deep mouth, owing to the sinking
of the land. London is located upon its banks as far inland as
high tide allows vessels to go, or fifty miles from the open sea.
The advantage of this position lies in the fact that, while it is in
the interior of the island, it has direct water communication with
foreign countries.
(Then follows a description of London, comparing
with other chief cities.)
While we have learned many facts about the British Isles,
some important questions are not yet fully answered. For example,
why does this little country possess more colonies than any other
nation of the earth? Further, why should it have the greatest
foreign trade? And why, the greatest number of vessels upon
the sea?
Some of the reasons in answer to these questions are as follows :
154 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The fact that Great Britain is so small — no point in the island
being more than seventy miles from salt water — is a reason why
many of the British have become sailors. It is not surprising,
therefore, that they have been great explorers.
Nor is it to be wondered at that, as these explorers discovered
new parts of the world, they laid claim to them in the name of
their mother country. In this way, and by war, Great Britain
came into possession of the Thirteen Colonies of North America,
and of Canada, India, Australia, much of Africa, and many other
places. At present her territory includes about one fifth of the,
land surface of the globe, and one quarter of its inhabitants.
These colonies and dependencies help to explain Great Britain's
enormous foreign commerce ; for the colonies have found it more
to their advantage to trade with the mother country than with
other nations, which speak a different language and have less
understanding of them or sympathy with them. The colonies
sell raw products and foodstuffs to the mother country, and she
sends to them clothing, steel goods, and other manufactured
articles. It is largely the exchange of goods with these colonies
that has made the foreign trade of Great Britain nearly twice that
of any other nation. Next to her colonies, Great Britain's greatest
trade is with the United States.
Some of the reasons why this little island owns more vessels
than any other nation have already appeared. In fishing, ex-
ploring, and making settlements, a large number of ships have
been needed; and many warships have been required for the
proper defense of her widely scattered colonies. Another reason
for so large a navy is the fact that the British Isles are cut off from
all other nations by water. For defense, therefore, the British
must rely upon warships rather than upon a standing army.
Further than this, the British are actually forced to own many
ships. Here are over forty million people living on two small
islands, from whose soil it is impossible to obtain the necessary food.
They must send ships away for their flour, meat, sugar, tea, coffee,
POLITICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 155
etc. ; and they must send abroad for much of their raw materials
for manufacture. Also, in order to pay for the raw materials and
food, their manufactured goods must be shipped to all parts of
the world; otherwise such extensive manufacturing would be
impossible. From this it is plain why a very large number of
vessels must be employed ; and there are two reasons why the
British, rather than other nations, should own them. In the
first place, such trade is profitable ; and secondly, when they own
their own vessels, they can send them where and when they will,
and are therefore independent in case of war.
These facts, coupled with the remarkable energy of the British,
are the principal reasons why the United Kingdom greatly surpasses
all other nations in number of warships and merchant vessels.
The comparative examination of primary and ad-
vanced textbooks by different authors would be profit-
able. Unfortunately some of them do not fully accord
with the principles of pedagogy.
CHAPTER XIII
The need of an attractive presentation. — The interest
aroused by the study of geography depends upon the
inherent attractiveness of the facts to be learned ; upon
how they are told ; how elaborated by association ; how
rendered vivid by description ; how pictured to the eye ;
how humanized by allusion to human affairs; and
upon how these facts are connected with each other,
with other studies, and with daily life.
Baldness of most texts. — A mere summary of the
facts to be learned in a course of geography would be
about as interesting as the dictionary. Geography
should read like a story. The chief reason why this
subject has no interest for so many is that the ordinary
textbooks are so meager and laconic in their treatment,
and so little is done by the teacher to elaborate the text.
If the teacher did her part, filling in the mere dry bones
of the text with the life and blood of interesting matter,
then such an epitomized form of textbook would suffice.
This is the European method. In this country, however,
geography is based too much upon the text alone.
156
SUPPLEMENTARY READING 157
Supplementary readers. — To furnish the additional
subject matter, to infuse life and interest into the subject,
we have supplementary readers. These are not written
in the brief, categorical style of the textbook, but are
often real books of travel, full of local color and human
interest. They are specific, not general.
Some of these supplementary readers adopt the plan
of representing children touring the countries described,
which insures more the child's viewpoint of looking
at the world. Many of these books take up special
phases — the industries, the foods of man, domesticated
animals, the dwellings of man, or the means of trans-
portation. Some treat of the sky, of the weather, the
land and water. Some are biographical, and some deal
with discovery and exploration. A host of nature readers
are useful in geography. There are also books of original
descriptions by great travelers and writers.
Uses of the supplementary literature. — By correlating
such literature with geography, the breadth of the
subject is materially increased. Supplementary readers
may be used in various ways. In primary geography
only the simpler kind can be read by the pupil himself,
and this should be done chiefly in class. The teacher
should occasionally read from them to the pupils. The
same thing may be done in upper grades, but here more
independent reading should be expected. In the seventh
and eighth grades a little reference work can be at-
158 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
tempted, but the references should be very definitely
assigned. This is good for the topical study and type
study methods. Other texts, standard reference books,
and encyclopedias should also be used in such refer-
ence work. Encyclopedias, however, should be used
with care, as, for grammar grades, much in them is too
abstruse.
School libraries should be well stocked with good
supplementary literature in geography. Of such books
as Carpenter's Geographical Readers there should
be sets for a group or a whole class, for permanent use.
Books of travel, discovery, exploration, etc., should be
given to children for home reading, or for their leisure
time in school. There are also good books of geograph-
ical fiction, such as Robinson Crusoe, The Swiss Family
Robinson, Tlie Mysterious Island, Treasure Island, Around
the World in Eighty Days, and many others, that should
be placed within the children's reach.
In upper grades, where it is likely to be more ap-
preciated, descriptions of scenery, architecture, etc.,
may be read by the teacher from such authors as Cooper,
Scott, Irving, George Eliot, Stewart Edward White,
John Muir, etc. In this way the aesthetic appreciation
of geography may be cultivated, an aim of no small
importance when interest in the study is considered.
The imagination is not greatly stimulated by the prosaic
descriptions of topography in the ordinary textbook,
SUPPLEMENTARY READING 159
and yet that is just what is needed to picture the beauty
of physical forms, and to develop the habit of imaging the
scenes described. See also page 284, on the aesthetic
side of geography.
Current events taken from the daily papers and other
journals are another form of supplementary reading.
The special value of such reading, aside from developing
the habit of reading the news, is that it impresses the
reality of geography. The facts of the textbook seem
so remote, rather unreal; but an interesting current
event happening in a place previously mentioned in the
book takes that place out of the book and gives it in
the pupil's mind a definite existence it never had before.
Again such reading is an application of school geography
which gives the pupil a mental satisfaction, and a realiza-
tion of the usefulness of the subject.
Various children's and youths' journals are either
exclusively devoted to presenting current news, of
interest to young people, or at least give some space
thereto. In many classes of geography the pupils
club together for subscription to such juvenile news-
papers, which are used in connection with reading,
history, and geography. By reading the news of the
world the pupil enlarges his experience to a participation
in the affairs of society at large and the world as a
whole.
Current events may be brought up as they bear ap-
160 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
propriately on the daily lessons. Or, a definite time on
a certain day may be set aside for comment upon them.
It is necessary to teach discrimination in such reading,
and in this case only such news as has special geograph-
ical significance should be discussed in the geography
class. Other news may be correlated with history. In
the lower grades the teacher must guide in the selection
of these topics, and in the higher grades this may be done
by a committee of pupils appointed to edit the news
items brought in by the class. An interesting plan is to
have a weekly newspaper prepared in this way, to be
read to the class, and to furnish food for discussion.
In treating current events it is not enough to simply
read the news item and to tell where it occurred, or even
to show it on the map. Enough more should be taught
about the physiography, and the political conditions of
the region, to give a proper basis for the full appreciation
of the subject. For example, Peary's Discovery of the
North Pole needs for a proper setting reference to lati-
tude, longitude, polar night and day, the aurora, the gor-
geous atmospheric effects, the ice field, the animals of
this region, the Eskimo, the routes leading to the Pole,
the hardships of the explorer, etc. Ordinary maps,
polar maps, the globe, and pictures of the Arctic scenes .
should accompany the account.
It is profitable to take some progressive event, such as
the cruise of the American fleet around the world, or
SUPPLEMENTARY READING 161
even an automobile or walking race across the continent,
and follow the course on the map.
For current events, sketch maps on the board or on
paper will be found very useful, even better than regular
maps. Special maps showing details which cannot
readily be found on ordinary maps may often be found
in the news journals. These maps should be enlarged.
An interesting method of treating current events is to
make a scrap book containing news clippings, illustrated
with newspaper and magazine pictures, postal cards,
etc. Children always like to make these collections.
A comparative examination of the news items brought
in by -the children would reveal to the teacher the chil-
dren's special interests in geography, and so might lead
her to teach the subject more pedagogically and more
successfully.
M
CHAPTER XIV
MAPS
"The root of all geographical ability lies in being at home
with maps." — MACKINDER.
Maps are more or less symbolic representations of the
earth on a flat surface by means of lines, characters,
signs, and colors. A photograph, painting, or drawing
may be made of some part of the earth's surface and
show with much truthful detail surface configuration,
scenery, the habitations, and the works of man. The
smaller the area represented, the better the study of the
detail. The larger the area, the more the details become
lost in the perspective, and only the larger, general
features, such as ground plan, topography, and distribu-
tion of land and water, can be shown.
Some maps are wholly pictorial, showing a bird's-
eye view of considerable areas, a city, or a state,
with suggestions of scenery, houses, ships at sea, etc.
Such maps are frequently used for beginners, and also
are much seen in popular magazines and newspapers.
From such pictorial maps one may proceed to others
more and more symbolic. The houses and streets of a
city are replaced by lines, dots, or circles ; the pictures
162
MAPS 163
of hills and mountains by conventional characters or
hachuring and shading ; the variation in elevation is
represented by different colors, or by contour lines.
Maps a shorthand record of geographical knowledge. —
Maps are the chief aid of the geographer. Primarily
they serve to show the form, extent, location, direction,
and the internal and external relations of a region.
Many other features regarding climate, vegetable and
animal life, and human life may also be shown. Maps
are the resultant record of actual discovery, exploration,
survey, measurement, and development of a region, and
depict in shorthand what would take many pages of text
to describe. " The fundamental conceptions of the geog-
raphy of a country should be built up from the data fur-
nished by maps rather than from textbooks." (Geike.)
Political map. — The most common form of map is
the political. This emphasizes the human relations. It
shows the location of towns and cities, routes of travel
and commerce, telegraph lines, canals, and the artificial
divisions of the earth into nations and their civic subdi-
visions. The physical features of latitude and longitude,
the shape of the region, lakes and rivers, the seacoast
and mountain ranges, are generally shown also. Owing
to the many place names such maps are apt to be over-
crowded and confusing, and the physical features are
often apparently lost, at least not conspicuous.
Special maps. — In commercial geography political
164 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
i
maps are much used to show the distribution of mineral
resources, vegetation regions, crop areas, density of
cities, railway systems, etc. These features are some-
times shown in special maps, each in a different map,
being thus emphasized, to the neglect, perhaps, of the
rest.
Physical map. — Since it is too confusing or impossible
to represent everything on one map, it is customary to
use the political map to show the artificial, human
relations, and the physical maps (described on page 90)
to represent topography, climatic conditions, etc. The
physical features, also, are often analyzed and shown
on special maps.
Comparative study of maps. — By means of these
special maps, showing some one feature analyzed out by
itself, that feature may be studied without any confusing
irrelevancies. Care should be taken, however, that
these separate maps are again superimposed mentally
to bring out the proper relations between them, or to
show their composite effect. Thus the rainfall map
should be associated with the wind map, and with the
topographical, the vegetation, and the industrial maps.
Introduction to the map. — The map being a chief
means of learning geography, the pupil should be in-
troduced to it early, and taught how to interpret it, to
translate it into words. For this it is necessary to teach
him what a map is, and what its various symbols mean.
MAPS 165
A prerequisite for map study is an idea of direction.
This is usually taught in nature-study before geography
is begun. The simplest and oldest method of fixing the
points of the compass is by reference to the rising and
the setting sun, and the sun at noonday. The word
orientation is derived from this. The Orient is the land
of the rising sun. To orient oneself is to get one's
bearings. See page 44.
The points of the compass being known by beginners,
the first study may be made of a map. To make the map
concrete and intelligible two common methods are
employed : the first is to show the pupil a photograph or
other picture of a region, one containing both land and
water features being good, and then a map of the same
region, requiring the pupil to discover the various
features shown in the picture.
The other way to get the pupil to appreciate the map
is to let him draw one for himself, a very simple one, the
map of the schoolroom. The approximate dimensions
of the room are found, the minor irregularities being dis-
regarded. The points of the compass are noted. The
pupils are told to draw a floor plan of the room. The
teacher using a sheet of paper like the pupils' shows
them or directs them step by step how to proceed.
As for scale, fourth grade children are scarcely ready
in their arithmetic to appreciate its significance. All
that is really necessary here is to see that the picture
166 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
must be much smaller than the room. The teacher may
tell the class to represent the length of the room by a
certain number of inches. The rest will then follow
according to scale, if proportions are observed. The
pupils may need some assistance in placing the plan
properly on the paper. Each wall is drawn as directed,
and properly named according to the points of the com-
pass. The teacher's and the pupil's own desk may then
be sketched in, keeping the proper relations. The term
map may then be used instead of plan. Each line and
symbol drawn is now significant to the child. He knows
the real things they stand for.
A further step is to draw the school block with the
neighboring treets. By pacing the comparative lengths
may be obtained. The block is drawn in proportion, and
the school correctly located. In this study, again, the
points of the compass should be observed.
Next a real map of the locality should be presented.
First find the school block, the neighboring streets, and
familiar objects ; then streets and places farther off,
perhaps seen or heard of; and then new and unknown
features may be discovered.
It is important in this early map work, especially in
home geography, to lay the map horizontally, with its
directions corresponding to the points of the compass.
That is, the north of the map should be placed toward
the real north. Placed in this way the map may be used
MAPS 167
to find the direction of familiar or less known places.
The pupils can then readily point to these places, or
possibly go to them. If such a study of the locality
were made on the roof of the school, from upper win-
dows, or some high hill commanding a view of the sur-
rounding region, it would be very effective.
The map is, however, for convenience hung on the wall.
The pupils should learn how this changes the relations of
the map to the real points of the compass. The map
is least out of correct relation with the points of the
compass when hung on the north wall. By comparison
with the map in the horizontal and correct position,
the fact may be brought out that when suspended, and
also when placed in books, the north is usually at the
top of the map, the south at the bottom, east at the
right, and west at the left hand. Sometimes, however,
maps are found with the north not at the top, in which
case there is generally some guide, as a cross mark or
other design showing the directions.
In locating and describing directions on the map
pupils should not be permitted to say " up " when they
mean north, and " down " when they mean south. Up
and down may be used in map study only to refer to
topography, elevations, slopes, drainage, river courses,
and the like. The Nile flows down, north. The trunk
railroads across the United States go from the Missis-
sippi Valley up the gently rising prairies to the Great
168 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Plains, and still higher up over the Western mountains,
and then down to the Coast.
Imagination in map study. — In all map work, espe-
cially in the early home geography, the real geographical
experiences of the pupils in the territory shown should
be recalled hi order to make the map meaningful and
concrete. Begin the first map study with the vicinity
of the home and school, then trace out routes of travel
and well-known landmarks. Pupils should try to
imagine, to see, the real streets, stores, factories, public
buildings, streams, hills, etc., indicated by the symbols on
the map, which is easy if he has seen them. In the same
way he should try to picture the things shown on the
map with which he is not so familiar. The use of pic-
tures and vivid oral description by the teacher are an
assistance in getting beyond the mere map.
In the more advanced geography it is just as essential
to bring up in the mind's eye the lay of the land, the
scenery, the vegetation, the occupations of the people,
the architecture, etc. The map study of the outline
of North America should leave the pupil with a picture
of the level, frozen tundra of the Arctic Coast ; the bleak
promontories of Labrador ; the " stern and rock-bound
coast" of New England ; the sandy pleasure beaches and
the low and swampy shores from New York to Florida
and along the Gulf Coast; the arid mountain shore
of western Mexico and lower California; the narrow
MAPS 169
fringe of coastal plain with the snow-capped mountains
beyond in the stretch from California to Alaska; the
fiord coast of the Northwest with its thousand islands,
the forest primeval of conifers, and the gleaming glaciers.
Colonel Parker used to speak of "the terrible habit of
not seeing beyond the map." The pupil who believes
that the earth looks just like the map, or perhaps does
not associate the map at all with the earth, has very bar-
ren results from his map study, — as barren as that of the
author of a textbook mentioned by Rousseau, who defined
the earth in this way, "The earth is a globe of papier-
mache." Mere bounding and locating in map work
is apt to be mechanical unless imaging the reality is
practiced.
Thought in map study. — " Map reading is not rinding
names merely, nor knowing what the different characters
stand for. The content, the thought, the geistiger In-
halt, must be read in : boundaries, natural and political,
nature of the coast, islands, sounds, trend of mountains,
declivity, drainage, passes, plateaus, plains, etc. Be-
tween the lines should be read generalizations and prin-
ciples of physiography, commercial geography, etc."
(Trunk.)
The wall maps and maps in the textbook for primary
geography should be simple in outline, and should
present only the most important physical and polit-
ical features, not much more than is taken up in these
170 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
years. Overcrowded maps are very confusing and
time-wasting.
Conduct of map study. — The first map study should
be conducted by the teacher to teach the children how to
use a map, how to read it, and to show what may be
inferred from it. The pupils may, or may not, have
their books open at the map. The teacher points out
and names the data to be learned. The pupils are re-
quired to find them again on the wall map, and perhaps
also on their text maps. As new map symbols are used
they should be explained. Pupils should be taught the
use of the scale and the table or legend of explanations.
For purposes of drill and review blank maps and
sketch maps, not giving the names of the places and phys-
ical features, are excellent. In using these, too great ac-
curacy of location should not be demanded of beginners,
approximation being sufficient.
Much of the map study consists in locating and
bounding. This is an essential function of map work,
but requires judgment in determining what is important
and what is not, else it is apt to run into perfunctory,
thoughtless routine. Much time may be killed in this
way that should be devoted to descriptive study or to
thinking out geographical relationships. The object
of locating and bounding is, of course, to teach space
relations, or situation, that the other geographical sig-
nificance of the places thus treated may be better ap-
MAPS 171
predated. That is, locating and bounding are not an
end in themselves. They help to fix the mental image of
the map, a very important thing, but that is not their
whole function.
Memory-aiding associations. — In studying confines
and situations, interesting and profitable associations
should be brought in, both to make the work attractive
and to give additional knowledge. A brief reference to
the historic or commercial relations with a neighboring
country, and racial differences; a suggestion of the
appearance and character of the surrounding waters,
or of the bounding mountains; the natural and polit-
ical reasons for boundaries being where they are; the
physical, political, and industrial effect of border moun-
tains,'rivers, etc.; the historical cause for the founding
of a city ; the advantages and disadvantages of the site
chosen for a city, — are profitable allusions. It is not
necessary for pupils to commit to memory these asso-
ciations. It is sufficient for the teacher to make the
commentaries or to develop these associations in passing.
By doing this the map work acquires a significance
impossible without it ; it helps the memory to retain the
map image ; and pupils learn to look for broader geo-
graphical principles involved in locative relations. Also
many of the associations brought out will be retained
by the children without effort.
, Telling the meaning of names is another good way to
172 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
attach interesting memory-aiding associations to the
map work. See Chapter XVII.
Map study should be conducted logically and sys-
tematically. — Map questions should not be asked in
promiscuous order, for thus a chaotic jumble will result
in the pupil's mind. Physical features of location,
extent, configuration, surface, climate, drainage, dis-
tribution of vegetation and animal life, and the mineral
resources should be taken in sequential order, and
should precede the study of the political features,
location of cities, means of communication, etc. The
map and the text description of a country should go
together. By a systematic study like this an organized
unity, a rational relationship, the influence of the envi-
ronment, and the adaptation of man are more readily
and clearly perceived by the pupil than from a "hit or
miss" order of map questions. (Of course, for purposes
of mere drill such a miscellaneous order is permissible.)
Causal relations in map study. — The map work should
not be simply to answer the questions of the old " sail-
or's geography " of What ? and Where ? The question
Why? should frequently be asked, especially in the
upper grades. From maps alone many of the funda-
mental principles of physical and political geography
may be developed. Why are there so few cities in
Labrador? Why are there so few in Nevada? Why
does the Southern Pacific Railroad go by way of
MAPS 173
El Paso? Why has Chicago become so large? Etc.
Such questions exercise the reason as well as mere
memory.
Overemphasis of map study. — In the old geography
there was much insistence upon a vast amount of map
work, chiefly locational. It was assumed necessary to
get the capes, bays, rivers, mountains, countries, cities,
«tc., fixed in mind before the description of the country
was taken up in the textbook. In some of the older
texts the map of the whole world was first memorized
before any descriptive study was undertaken. In this
day this is considered mere unthinking drudgery, and
text and map are closely associated. Pupils should be
taught to put the map work and the text together.
Such a map habit, if well established, is useful in later
life in locating current events, in reading history and
literature.
The reaction. — The overemphasis of map work in
former days has led to the present reaction toward sim-
pler maps, fewer map questions for the sake of the map
alone, and more association of map and text. In prac-
tice, however, there is danger that the very necessary
map study may be slighted. Such work is fundamental,
and must be done, or the descriptive matter will lose
definiteness of location, and also the logic of many causal
relations. Drill is very necessary, not only in locations
of states, cities, physical features, and the like, but also
174 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
in fixing the relation of the physical features to each
other and their effect on human life.
Maps should be supplemented with globe study. -
One criticism must be made of the use of maps : Through
the unvaried use of the map representing the earth in the
flat an incorrect and inadequate notion of the earth
and the relation of the lands is given.
This may be corrected by the globe in connection
with the map. It is a good plan, in general, when begin-
ning the study of a new continent, to study its relations
as shown on the globe. Location, extent, latitude,
longitude, comparative area, and the relation to pre-
viously studied continents may thus be correctly seen.
The globe is useful also in many other lessons in
descriptive geography, especially in the study of com-
mercial relations, marine commerce, transoceanic tele-
graph lines, imaginary routes, polar studies, etc. Usually
the globe is brought out during the study of mathemat-
ical geography and then relegated to the closet.
If we wish to get the pupil beyond the flat map to the
round earth, we must use the globe. Ask pupils to point
toward Europe and they will point out horizontally to the
east, that is, in a line tangent to the earth, which would
land them out in space, instead of pointing east and at
the same time somewhat downward, so as to point
through the earth. For Americans China is not simply
west, but on the other side of the earth, down.
CHAPTER XV
MAP DRAWING
Purpose. — Map drawing is the usual accompani-
ment of the study of geography. It is done for two
reasons, — as a means of map study, and as a means of
geographical expression.
The pedagogical reason for requiring the drawing of a
map for study is that in the reproduction of a map the
pupil observes with more care the details of direction,
proportion, relationship, physical features, etc., than by
merely studying a book or wall map ; that by such
detailed observation he will know the map more thor-
oughly ; that by such care in study and drill in drawing,
the map will be impressed more indelibly on the eye-
memory. " We all carry mental maps in our brains."
(Trottner.)
Map drawing is easily overdone. — When this object
is attained there is no further need for such careful,
time-consuming work. There was a period in the last
generation when map drawing was overdone. Pupils
generally enjoy this creative handwork of making
maps, and the temptation is to let them draw much.
Very nearly as good map knowledge, however, may be
175
176 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
acquired by the proper study of printed maps in books
and for the wall, or by the use of printed outline maps.
Moreover, a map may be drawn accurately and beauti-
fully and still with so little thought on its geographical
content that the pupil gains little or nothing more than
the benefit from an exercise in drawing and painting.
The meridian net method. — Various methods have
been suggested for drawing maps. Some would have
maps drawn scientifically according to latitude and
longitude. This is undoubtedly the best method for
maturer students in high schools and colleges, and may
be tried in a simple way in the upper grammar grades
to teach more fully the meaning of meridians, parallels,
surveys, and the principles of cartography. Some
teachers require the memorizing of the latitude and longi-
tude of the salient points of a map to be drawn so that
memory or sketch maps may be quickly made with fair
accuracy. Some have students construct their own
meridian nets, and some use blanks with the meridians
already drawn, and still others use blanks with the me-
ridian net and the salient points of the map already
checked in.
The method of squares. — Another method, not so
geographical, but aiding in producing an accurate copy,
is to rule the map to be copied with lines dividing it
into squares, and then reproducing these on the desired
scale on the paper on which the map is to be drawn.
MAP DRAWING 177
The squares assist in getting direction and proportion
more accurately. This method should not be applied
to books not owned by the pupil, as the map is more or
less ruined thereby. Printed outline maps may be sub-
stituted in such a case.
Construction diagrams undesirable. — Another for-
merly used mechanical method, having nothing to rec-
ommend it, except that it served fairly well for memory
maps if the pupil could remember the scheme, was to
construct arbitrary " construction diagrams " for block-
ing out the proportions of the areas to be drawn.
Simple copy method. — These methods are too diffi-
cult for the elementary school, or too mechanical. The
best method is to let the pupil copy the map as he
would a picture on a blackboard or in the drawing book
in the art lesson. If drawing is taught in the school, as
is most likely, the pupils already have the necessary
principles of drawing, — getting directions and propor-
tions, the two essentials in map drawing.
The simpler maps (such as in Frye's Grammar School
Geography, Supplement) should be used for copy, or
pupils may be advised to disregard the minor irregulari-
ties of coast and river, and of boundaries, but to note
carefully the general lines of the outline, etc. The map
should be neatly spaced on the paper. The drawing is
begun, preferably, at the northwest corner, chiefly to
avoid smearing, and that one may see the portion already
178 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
drawn. The outline is sketched in very lightly at
first. Before proceeding far, the lines already drawn
should be compared critically with the copy map.
Should this line go farther north or south ? Does that
line run exactly northeast, or more nearly toward the
north? By asking oneself such questions the lines as
sketched may be checked with the original, and if not
correct, should be essayed again. After direction of
lines, the next most important thing is their proportion-
ate length. With beginners, nothing need be taught
about scale. Simply the direction to make the map
of a certain size, or as large as the paper will allow, is
sufficient. The older pupils should learn to draw accord-
ing to scale. To make a copy half or twice as large as
the original, every line of the copy must be made half or
twice as long as the original. The first line drawn deter-
mines the scale. The next line in a new direction
should now be drawn in the same proportion or scale.
By thus always judging proportionate lengths with the
parts already drawn, and keeping directions true, the
map will remain correct in shape.
After the outline is thus sketched in, and retouched
lightly to satisfaction, it may be traced or lined in
more heavily.
After the outline is drawn, the mountains should be
put in as a guide for drawing the rivers. Rivers
should be drawn carefully to conform to the slopes of
MAP DRAWING 179
the land, and special attention should be paid to their
divides. The location of the other features involves
no difficulty.
Great accuracy in map drawing should not be expected
of children. Even the best of printed maps are far from
accurate. For fixing the map relations thus by draw-
ing, pupils should be expected simply to do the best
they can.
The early map drawing should not be left to the pupil
alone, but should be done under the supervision and
direction of the teacher, who should guide and assist
with the mechanical difficulties, arid, what is important,
at the same time teach the geographical facts of the
map.
Progressive maps. — For a systematic study of a
country covering several days, it is often a good plan
not to finish a map all at once, but to spread it over
the period of study, each day recording on the map,
and thus organizing, what was studied that day. Such
a slow-growing map is called a Progressive Map. It is
one of the best means of summarizing and organizing
in geography.
Coloring, shading, and finishing. — Maps are the
most tangible evidence of a pupil's study of geography,
hence they are always displayed in exhibits of school
work. The temptation, therefore, is to embellish them
more than is really necessary for the purposes of geog-
180 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
raphy. An unconscionable amount of time may be
wasted thus, in coloring, wave-lining, shading, lettering,
etc., that might be better employed in reading the
descriptive text. For most purposes a simple pencil
drawing is sufficient. Sometimes for better distinction
of political divisions, or for indicating elevation, or to
represent distribution features, the map may be either
shaded in black or painted. Care should be taken to
select harmonious, rather neutral, tints. The color
should not be applied too thickly, a common fault with
beginners. If colored crayons are used, or shading in
black is attempted, the work should be done smoothly,
not in scratchy lines. In using water colors, care must
be taken to avoid running over the edges, and to prevent
water lines. The drawing of elaborate frills or ripples
along the coasts should be discouraged. If the map is
to be inked in and lettered in ink, this must be done
after the coloring. For most purposes it will do to write
the names in neat script. Printing is more difficult, and
does not look well unless uniform. If many data are
to be recorded, the writing must be small, to prevent
a confused or cluttered appearance. As a rule, the
writing or printing looks better if not written at all
angles, but if written in parallel lines. This also saves
space. Of course, this is not always possible. When a
map is full of data represented by lines, characters, or
colors, a legend or table of explanations should accom-
MAP DRAWING 181
pany the map. Sometimes to avoid crowding, cities,
etc., are simply numbered or initialed, and the explana-
tion given in the legend.
Printed outline maps. — The drawing of fine maps is
such a slow, time-consuming process that it has rightly
been reduced to a minimum in the school requirements.
A great labor-saving device are the printed outline maps
now in common use, though once condemned as much
as Emmy Lou's system of drawing by tracing through
tissue paper. They may now be obtained from various
publishers for all the continents, the United States,
sections of the United States, separate states, and even
cities. The pupils line them in more heavily and fill
them with the data studied. The advantages are uni-
formity, accuracy of outline, and saving of effort and
time. They may be used for both the first studies of a
map and for reviews. The disadvantage, which may
be guarded against by thoughtful study, is that they may
be filled in too mechanically, and that the visual image
created by them is not as definite as that acquired
through copy.
Maps to test the pupil's knowledge. — The other
purpose of map drawing, besides that of getting the
idea of the space relations of the map, is to express
geographical knowledge. By means of a memory
sketch map a pupil can give the teacher a fair idea of
his understanding of the subject. Pupils should not
182 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
only recite in words, but also by means of maps on paper
or on the board.
Sketch maps. — Such maps should be either sketch
maps from memory, or rilled in on the printed outline
maps. They should take but little time, great accuracy
being out of the question. Yet this need not matter,
so long as the map is recognizable, and the pupil has
not been careless, and the general relations of things
are fairly well observed.
Such sketch maps are very useful for illustrating top-
ical papers, reviews, drills, and tests.
Blackboard sketches by the teacher. — The teacher
herself should make much use of sketch maps on the
blackboard during the recitation. Such sketches help
to analyze difficult relations in the ordinary wall maps,
or emphasize special features, serve sometimes as excel-
lent substitutes for wall maps when these are not handy,
take the place of printed blank maps for purposes of
drill and review, and are in general indispensable.
CHAPTER XVI
"Ninety-nine out of a hundred form their idea of geography
from the map, not the globe, yet do not know the inaccuracies
of the map." — MORRISON.
There are no correct maps possible except on the
globe, and here only theoretically, for globe maps
also may contain inaccuracies of human judgment in
discovery, compilation, and construction. They are
too small to take account of the minor details. The
ordinary globe also does not allow for the oblateness of
the earth. Still, globe maps are the most correct of
all in principle. Flat maps are always more or less dis-
torted, therefore untrue. Globe maps are the only kind
that represent the meridians and parallels in their
correct relations. On globe maps alone is the scale of
distance the same in all directions and in all parts.
Globe maps alone represent areas correctly.
Globes therefore are very valuable in geography. —
Naturally they are the best representation of the earth
for mathematical geography. Aside from such use
globes show best the relations of the continents, their
location on the sphere, their comparative areas, and then*
183
184 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
correct shape. The globe is best for showing the hemi-
spheres, land and water, northern and southern, eastern
and western. The. globe is useful in studying com-
mercial routes, and real or imaginary journeys around
the world. It should find more frequent use in political
geography than is the case.
Why flat maps are inaccurate. — The flat map attempts
the impossible, — to represent a spherical surface in the
plane. If one should peel off half an orange rind intact
and then try to flatten it out, it would tear and split
along the edges, or if it were elastic and tenacious enough,
it would stretch around the margin. In either case the
hemisphere would, be greatly mutilated, modified, or dis-
torted. The same thing happens in attempting to flatten
out a globe map.
Maps, the ordinary flat kind, are at best makeshifts
or approximations of the real map of the earth. Some
sorts are nearer the truth than others. A brief sketch is
here given of the commoner methods of designing maps
and charts, illustrating various ways of getting around
the difficulty of distortion. Only the maps commonly
seen in school will be described, in order that the teacher
may realize their defects and limitations, as well as their
proper function.
Cartography is the art of compiling, designing, and
drawing maps. A chart maker is a cartographer.
Many learned men from the days of the ancient Greek
CARTOGRAPHY
185
mathematicians have suggested various designs or pro-
jections for representing the earth in maps.
The orthographic projection is an early form. Im-
agine a plane tangent to the globe, and lines to fall
perpendicularly on this plane from every point of the
globe. Where these lines intersect the plane, there are
the projections of the points of the globe map. These
FIG. 10. — Construction of the orthographic projection.
projected points will constitute the orthographically
projected map on the plane. The globe map may thus
be thought of as being projected, transferred, or thrown
direct upon the plane. In A (Fig. 10) the earth is seen
from the pole and the meridians are projected on MN.
B is the earth in equatorial aspect, with the parallels
186
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
projected on MN. C shows the meridians and parallels
on the projected map.
Another way to conceive such a map is to look at a
globe with distinctly marked meridians and parallels,
from a considerable distance, the line of sight being in
the equatorial plane. The globe will look flat like a
disk, and its lines will look as in the diagram (Fig. 10, C).
Note that the parallels appear as straight lines, so also
the central meridian, and that the meridians are more
and more curved as they proceed outward. The me-
ridians and parallels are also crowded by foreshorten-
ing at the margins.
Limitations of the
orthographic projec-
tion. — It is evident
that regions in the
margin of the hemi-
sphere are contracted
and distorted, and
that only the middle
portion of the map is
fairly accurate. This
form of projection is
not much used for
Fio. 11. — Map of Africa drawn in or- school maps, Save for
thographic projection.
Africa, which is favor-
ably placed in the center of the hemisphere, and for
CARTOGRAPHY
187
polar maps. This projection was invented by Hippar-
chus, a Greek astronomer and mathematician, who lived
about 150 B.C.
The globular projection is the most common for
hemisphere maps. It was devised by De la Hire, of
FIG. 12. — Construction of globular projection.
France (1704). Imagine a transparent half globe, with a
transparent plane covering the cut surface, and the eye
on the diameter at right angles to this plane, and at a
distance from the plane slightly greater (1.7) than the
radius of the globe. Project the points of the globe map
on to the plane along lines passing from them directly
to the eye. The eye would see the equator as a straight
line, the parallels as half ellipses; meridians running
naturally without crowding, both equally spaced. The
projected map appears on the plane of projection as the
eye thus sees the meridians and parallels.
188
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Merits of this projection. — Such a map nicely simu-
lates the appearance of a globe with its curving meridians
and parallels, and suggests the rotundity of the earth.
It is, however, not on the same scale throughout. It
FIG. 13. — Western hemisphere in globular projection.
will be noted that the distance between two parallels
on the central and a marginal meridian are not the same,
as is the case with real parallels. The error is about
i to i£. The marginal parts of the map are there-
fore stretched.
Mercator's projection, among many others, was de-
vised by that brilliant Flemish- German, Gerhard
Kramer (1512-1594), who revolutionized the art of
CARTOGRAPHY
189
map making, and started the great German school of
scientific cartographers that
has continued to the present
day. (Mercator is the Latin-
ized version of Kramer, a mer-
chant. During the Middle
Ages it was not fashionable
for the learned men to use the
vernacular in their writings,
and they even signed their
names in Latin, the language
of science and culture.) Mer-
cator's plan of projection may
be considered as follows:
Imagine a cylinder tangent
to the globe at its equator
(Fig. 14). From the center
of the globe draw radii
through the various points A,
B, C, etc., of the globe map
to the tangent cylinder. The
places where these radii ex-
tended strike the cylinder are
the projections of these points
of the globe map. Now im-
agine the cylinder cut open
along one side, and unfurled. The projected map will
FIG. 14. — Construction of
Mercator's central, cylindri-
cal projection. The globe
map within is projected
upon the cylinder. Note
great stretching, especially
near the poles.
190
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
then appear on the outside surface in the flat. Parallels
appear here as straight lines, and the meridians likewise,
at right angles to the others.
Defects and merits of this projection. — The most
glaring fault of the projection is at once seen in the fact
FIG. 15. — The world in Mercator's projection. Areas are distorted, but
directions are correctly represented.
that the meridians do not meet, as they should. Hence
the poles cannot be represented. Note how the spaces
representing equal differences of latitude get larger
and larger, indicating a great stretching polewards.
This rapidly increases as points nearer the pole are pro-
jected, while the pole itself can only be projected at
infinity. Also note that the polar regions are stretched
out east and west as long as the equator, again a tremen-
dous distortion. The Mercator projection, then, greatly
exaggerates the higher latitudes in all directions, which,
of course, increases their area unwarrantably. The
extent of polar distortion is well seen by comparing
CARTOGRAPHY 191
Greenland with South America on a Mercator map, and
then again on a globe map. In the Mercator map it is
represented larger than South America. In Fig. 14 the
globe map of North America is represented thrown
radially on the surface of the cylinder. The resultant
stretching is evident from a comparison of the two
maps.
In spite of this tremendous distortion the Mercator
projection has its merits. The regions nearest the line
of tangency of the globe and cylinder, the equator, are
represented with fair accuracy. On the equator every-
thing is placed in exactly the same relations as on the
globe, for here projection and globe coincide. For
points near the equator there is not much deviation from
the truth. For a latitude embracing the tropics and
most of the temperate belts, that is, the most inhabited
part of the globe, the distortion is not unendurable.
This projection is also called the central-cylindrical.
Unmodified, this projection requires maps unduly long
from north to south. Various arbitrary modifications
have been devised to reduce the distortion in the higher
latitudes. It was Mercator's distinction to invent a
plan by which the distortion in longitude is kept equal
to that in latitude. The result is that the Mercator
projection gives the correct compass bearings of places
with reference to each other. That is, what is shown
directly east or southeast of New York City, for example,
192
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
is really east or southeast. Hence this projection is
much used for sailing charts for mariners.
Another advantage of this map is that it presents
the whole world at once to view, which is very useful in
studies of distribution over the world of physical features,
such as heat belts, isotherms, winds, rainfall, ocean cur-
rents, etc. ; and for other distribution studies, such as that
of races, resources, industries, crops, commercial routes, etc.
It is to be regretted, however, that it is used so much in
FIQ. 16. — Mollweide's equal-area or homolographic projection. Shape is
distorted, but areas are proportional. By permission, from Gannett,
Garrison and Houston's Commercial Geography, American Book Co.
the texts of elementary schools, for through it very incor-
rect notions of shapes and areas are liable to become fixed.
It goes without saying that such maps should never be
used for the first study of the shapes of the continents.
Mollweide's equal-area projection. — There is a modi-
fication of the globular, called Mollweide's homolo-
graphic projection, Fig. 16, which uses a diameter about
CARTOGRAPHY
193
twice that of the globular and the parallels are not
curved. This represents both hemispheres of the
earth in one view, with the advantage over Mercator's
projection in that areas are on the same scale throughout
(hence it is also called equal-area projection), and shows
comparatively little distortion of shape. This is being
used considerably in recent books. It is a good pro-
jection where a comparison of areas is desirable, as in
studies of distribution of natural resources, etc. The
designer of this method was Mollweide, 1805.
The conic projection is similar to Mercator's, except
that a tangent cone is used instead of a cylinder. When
FIG. 17. — Construction of the conic projection.
the cone, with the globe map projected in a manner
similar to Mercator's process, is opened and spread out
flat, the meridians appear as straight lines radiating from
194
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the poles, and the parallels are concentric arcs with the
pole as center.
Obviously this projection has limitations like the last,
FIG. 18. — The world in conic projection.
though somewhat different. The region at the line of
tangency of the cone and the globe is correctly rep-
resented, but the dis-
tortion increases on
either side of this line.
The flaring edge of the
cone soon stretches the
map in all directions,
and towards the pole
there is some east and
west, but chiefly pole-
ward, stretching. The
conic projection is
much used in school
maps. The maps of
Fia. 19. — North America in conic pro- ,
jection. smaller areas, such as
CARTOGRAPHY
195
the British Isles, Mexico, the New England states,
Germany, etc., are generally thus represented.
Polyconic projection. — The conic projection has many
modifications. One of much merit is the polyconic.
As above stated, the conic projection is fairly correct
D
FIG. 20. — Construction of the polyconic projection.
near the line of tangency of the globe and the cone. If,
now, instead of a single cone, a series of superimposed
cones be used, each tangent to the globe at a different
latitude, more such fairly accurate portions of the map
may be obtained. The polyconic projection, in general,
embodies this principle. Hassler (d. 1843), °f the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, devised this method.
This is an excellent projection for representing large
196
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
areas, such as continents. On such maps the meridians
are not straight, but curve toward each other. The
parallels are not quite concentric, but spread apart
somewhat toward the margins of the map. The ad-
vantage of this map is that it shows very little distortion
for the larger areas, except a little at the margins of the
map. The same scale
can be used for all parts
of the map and in all
directions, except at
the periphery. It is
reasonably accurate for
a width of 40 degrees
of latitude.
For fixing correct
form and relative areas
the polyconic projec-
tion is the best, aside
FIQ. 21. — North America in polyconic from the globe itself,
projection.
North America, for ex-
ample, should be pictured as shown in this projection,
and not as in the Mercator. The simple conic projec-
tion is the easiest to draw where pupils have to make
their own meridians and parallels.
Modified projections. — As a matter of fact, in actual
cartography the projections are not made as above indi-
cated. Tables have been computed for measuring off
CARTOGRAPHY 197
the parallels and meridians, and many such tables are
greatly modified from the geometrical requirements of
the projections in order to suit the exigencies of the shape
of the page or chart, and some are juggled very arbitrarily
indeed. There are many different ways of making the
polyconic projection. As an instance of the scientific
juggling, note the Mercator projection.
There are very many other projections, each with
claims for general or special purposes. But the above
are the ones most commonly seen in school maps.
The teacher should be aware of the errors and limita-
tions of maps, and also of the advantages and possibil-
ities.
The data for maps. — A map presupposes a survey
of some sort. The cartographer uses the data given
him by explorers, sailors, travelers, and others, in the
construction of his map. The correctness of the map evi-
dently rests upon the accuracy of these eyewitnesses ; on
the exactness of their instruments and methods of meas-
urement and computation of distance, time, elevation,
latitude, longitude, etc. ; on the thoroughness and extent
of their exploration and investigation ; on their knowledge
of the natural conditions and resources; and on their
general truthfulness and reliability. The human judg-
ment is not infallible, hence maps are constantly under-
going modifications, revision, and refinement as previous
mistakes are discovered, or new data are added. A
198 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
glance at the earliest and latest map of North America
well shows this progress.
Records of discoveries. — Explorers, like Stanley,
Sven Hedin, or Peary, in traversing a new region,
keep notes of their observations, and also estimate or
measure distances, note compass bearings, determine
latitude and longitude (location), and generally make
sketch maps of their journeyings.
The earliest explorers simply follow the coasts or
rivers of the newly discovered lands. The Hinterland,
or the region farther inland, is then penetrated later,
often in connection with commercial development.
In this way, the maps which were first largely blanks,
are gradually filled in as the necessary data are collected.
Government surveys. — There are, however, more
scientific and systematic surveys than these reconnais-
sance records of discoverers, explorers, and commercial
agencies. Nearly all of the most enlightened govern-
ments have made very accurate surveys of their coastal
lines and interiors. The United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey is for such a purpose. This survey
determines with refined instruments the latitude and
longitude of the salient points; computes distances
and areas mathematically from very accurately measured
base-lines (usually segments of a meridian) by the method
known as triangulation, in which even the earth's curva-
ture is taken into account; elevations or contours are
CARTOGRAPHY 199
taken with delicate leveling instruments; the minor
irregularities of the coast line are laid out by compass,
and are measured with tape; and the depths of the
navigable waters are sounded.
The United States Geological Survey is also an
accurate survey to note, especially, the topography,
mineral resources, hydrography, and other data. The
country is surveyed in sections, called rectangles, over
every mile of which surveyors and geologists actually
travel.
Survey of public lands. — The United States Public
Domain, that is, the old Northwest Territory, acquired
as the result of the Revolutionary War, and other
acquisitions since then, is all surveyed by the United
States Land Office surveyors, preliminary to free dis-
posal, or sale to settlers. The system in use was de-
vised by General Rufus Putnam, of Revolutionary
fame. The first step is to select, determine, and " run "
a standard meridian by the solar compass, and a base-
line or standard parallel at right angles thereto (Fig. 22).
Then guide meridians and other standard parallels
are run parallel to the first, at distances of twenty-four
miles. The twenty-four mile squares are then sub-
divided into sixteen townships by means of minor
meridians and parallels. Each township, six miles
square, the political unit for some purposes, is further
subdivided by means of north and south lines and east
itifcr
es into thirtyjlix sections, which are one
juare (Fi^oN^J. ^|rese are again divided into
* <S?
FIG. 22. — Diagram showing the use of meridians and parallels in the
survey of the public lands of the United States. The larger rect-
angles are townships. The correction line is made necessary by the
convergence of the meridians. Diagram shows method of naming
and numbering.
quarter sections. This is as far as the government survey
goes. Any further subdivision is made by local officials.
A section comprises one square mile, or 640 acres.
CARTOGRAPHY
201
An average farm in the Middle West is a quarter section,
1 60 acres (Fig. 24).
6
5
4
3
2
1
7
8
9
1O
11
12
18
17
16
15
14
13
19
2O
21
22
23
24
30
29
28
27
26
25
31
32
33
34
35
36
Section, / 0
SZOtfcrcs
FIG. 23. — A township divided into sections. Method of numbering.
All the intersections of these lines are appropriately
marked by permanent " monuments," or located by
reference to fixed objects.
Since meridians approach
each other toward the poles,
the sections at the northern
edge of a twenty-four mile
square are narrower, east and
west, than those at the south-
ern edge, and the difference
FIG. 24. — Showing subdivision
would be considerable when of a section.
v-o
202 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
sections several hundred miles apart are compared, if
nothing were done to prevent this. To correct for this
convergence of the meridians, a new start is made at
every fourth parallel, by again measuring off guide me-
ridians every twenty-four miles east and west from a
standard meridian. Such a parallel is known as a cor-
rection-line. The meridians on opposite sides do not
correspond, except at the principal meridian.
City surveys for streets and lots are based upon the
original United States Land Survey, but the surveys
are made with much more care than for rural regions,
owing to the value of real estate, and the danger of build-
ings not being on property lines.
Surveying is an ancient art. — Babylonian records
show that land surveys were made there 4000 years ago.
And in the ancient empire of the Nile, owing to the
periodical obliteration of boundary marks by the flooding
of the river, it was found necessary to appoint geom-
eters, or surveyors, to relocate private claims. The
Romans had a government land survey. But it is only
in modern times that surveying has become an exact
science.
Maps made from surveys. — Sometimes the sur-
veyor himself draws the map from his own measure-
ments and records. At other times the data of a land
survey are turned over to cartographers to compile
into a map.
CARTOGRAPHY
203
The cartographer decides upon and constructs his
projection of meridians and parallels, and then by records
of latitude and longitude puts in the salient features, and
FIG. 25.
FIG. 26.
FIG. 27.
FIG. 28.
Berlin and vicinity on a scale of 25,000- 1,000,000' 2,500,000' and 20,000,000
respectively.
after that by scale of miles and data of directions fills
in the minor details.
204 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Scale of maps. — In maps on the scale of an inch to
the mile every creek and farmhouse can be shown.
In town maps the scale is often 20 inches to the mile.
In maps of (the ratio to actual, natural dimen-
200,000
sions), a common scale for wall maps of the smaller
areas on large scale, only the larger irregularities of
the coast, the larger streams, and the more important
towns can be shown. A map of North America on this
scale would have to be about 144 feet wide and 166
feet long. A map of this continent as usually shown
in the school books, 8 by 10 inches, is on the scale
of about i : 40,000,000. Compare Figs. 25, 26, 27, and
28.
Mechanical process of making a map. — The map is
first drawn by hand. It may be reproduced by pho-
tography on a zinc plate which is then etched, and from
this an engraving is made. The map is sometimes made
from a copper plate etching. Colored maps are usually
printed with lithographic stone or lithographic zinc
plates, some with many colors necessitating the same
number of printings. The cost of making a map in an
ordinary school atlas may run from fifty to a hundred
dollars. Cartography has developed from its earlier
crude processes to a highly specialized science and a
beautiful art.
CHAPTER XVII
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES
'Tis good to muse on nations passed away
Forever from the land we call our own ;
Nations as proud and mighty in their day,
Who deemed that everlasting was their throne. — SANDS.
Significance. — Many names on the map are full of
significance if their etymology and origin are known.
It adds interest and pleasure to the dull study of place
geography to discover such meanings. It should be the
aim of the teacher to explain, when possible and when
profitable, the names of countries, cities, rivers, moun-
tains, etc. Such meanings may add interesting geo-
graphical facts, or historical or other important associa-
tions, the knowledge of which would enliven and enrich
the study, and often would tend to keep the facts in
remembrance.
The etymology of many geographical names may be
found in any complete dictionary. Isaac Taylor's
Names and their Histories is an excellent reference for the
names of Great Britain and Europe, and Bui. 197, United
States Geological Survey, The Origin of Certain Place
Names in the United States, by Gannett, for this country.
205
206 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Geographical names often go back into antiquity far
beyond the era of historic record. In fact, for some
historic and ethnographic studies the geographic names
of a region are the only clew. Thus it has been said
that geographic names are fossil history.
It must be remembered that many of these names have
suffered much change, by mispronunciation, misspelling,
mistranslation, by a gradual change of meaning of roots,
by abbreviation, or by mere degradation ; also that the
etymology of many such names cannot be determined
with positiveness, and that there is much difference of
opinion among authorities regarding derivations. In
spite of this element of doubt, which is especially im-
portant hi considering the prehistoric names, fairly good
assurance may be felt about the etymology and signifi-
cance of geographical names in general, particularly con-
cerning the names in the newer countries, where the
historic or physiographic reasons for the name are still
quite apparent.
The first geographical names were probably those of
landmarks, such as rivers, mountains, etc., and were
used by primitive man in his wanderings. They were
usually nouns, simply signifying the feature, such as
don (river), loch (lake), ben (peak), sometimes, as to-day,
coupled with an adjective prefix or suffix. It is remark-
able how persistent these old names are, particularly those
of rivers and mountains, lasting to the present day. Thus
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 207
Celtic roots persist in various parts of Europe from
which the Celts passed away in prehistoric days. This
race was probably one of the first, impelled by love of
adventure and conquest, or crowding at home, to emerge
from Asia. Celtic names occur all over southern and
central Europe. The Celts had several root words for
running water, — awn, dur, wysg, and don being modern
Celtic-Welsh forms. These are believed to occur in
the names of many European streams, as the Ofanto in
Italy, the Inn in Germany, the Rhine (ren-avon, swift
water), the Seine (sen-avon, slow river), the Garonne, and
several Avons in England. The root wysg occurs in
the Welsh word meaning stream, in the English Esk,
Usk, Ouse, Oxford, and even in the Thames (tarn eisis,
broad river) ; and in the continental Aix, Weser,
Wisbach, and others. The root dur is found in the
Doura in Spain.
In the same way the extent of the incursion of each
wave of migration, the Greek, the Roman, Teutonic,
Slavonic, and Saracen may be seen in the names of the
map of Europe.
When a conquering race came into a land previously
peopled they retained many of the names given to phys-
ical features by the aborigines, as may be seen by the
great retention of Indian names in the New World.
The later names in the older countries are those of
cities and states. The first races of Europe had no
208 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
settled habitation, or definite tribal boundaries. It is
this class of names that are especially full of historic
meaning. The various racial invasions, for example
those into England, as also the different periods of settle-
ment in America, are thus well marked by superimposed
sets of names.
Names in Great Britain. — i. Celtic. — The remnants
of the Celts are represented in the British Isles by the
Irish, the Welsh, and the Highland Scotch. At one
time they extended over all England. The ancient
Britons, whom Caesar partly conquered, 55 B.C., were
Celtic. Their names are found in England and Scotland.
The numerous Avons as stream names are examples.
It is redundancy to speak of the River Avon. Other
Celtic names appear for river (see above) .
Dun (don) is the word for a hill, usually fortified.
This is a common name on the map of Great Britain, as
Dundee, Dumfries, the Downs (dunes, hills) ; and
London (llyn, a pool, and dun, hill-fort), which dates
back more than two thousand years.
2. The Romans left their impress on the English map
in the various Chesters (castrum, a fortified camp), -
Chester, Chichester, Dorchester, Winchester, Leicester,
Worcester, etc.
3. Saxon. — The geography of the next invaders, the
Saxons, is indicated by many place names ending in
tun (ton), a farm inclosure, or village; and names end-
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 209
ing in ham, home, farm village, as Aelfredston, Bilston,
Darloston, Boston, Norton (Northtown), Easton, Sutton
(Southtown), Weston, Merton (town by the sea) ;
Walsingham, Cheltenham, Oldham, West Ham, etc.
The termination burgh (burg, borough, bury}, a fortified
town, is also Saxon and appears in Salisbury, Peter-
borough, Shrewsbury, Bury St. Edmunds, Glastonbury,
Canterbury, Bury. It is evident that some of these
places were named after people, as in the case of Jones-
ville or Smithtown to-day.
4. When the Danes came they brought with them the
names by, a town, and thorpe, a village, which we see
attached to several English towns, — Appleby, Whitby,
Derby (by the water), Rugby (Rockville), Al thorp and
Winthorp.
5. Norse. — The English and Scottish coast is dotted
with towns ending in ness, nose, headland, as Skeg-
ness, Sheerness in England, and Inverness and Caithness
in Scotland. The Naze, Oxfordness, and Dungeness are
still used as names for capes. These names were given
by the plundering Norsemen or Vik-ings (from wk, a
creek, inlet, or bay on the Scandinavian coast). From
vik are derived the many towns ending in wick or wick,
as Wick, Berwick, Norwich, Ipswich, Sandwich (Sandy
Creek), Greenwich, all towns on the coast or on rivers
near the mouth, except a few like Warwick, which is
inland. The English word yard is garth in Norse, in
210 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
which it means an inclosed or fortified place. From this
come Fishguard and Applegarth.
Thus is history written on the map.
The map names of America should be of particular
interest to American pupils. The non-Indian names are
of so recent origin, and historically so well established,
that their meaning and form have changed but little,
and their interpretation is therefore less liable to
error.
i. Indian. — The Indian aborigines lived on both con-
tinents as numerous scattered tribes in more or less
permanent sections or domains. The American race
is usually ascribed to the Mongolian stock. The tribes
have a common root language, but many dialects have
developed in different regions. This is shown by a
study of the names of various parts of North America.
In the Northwest are the ugly-sounding Aleut names,
like Alaska, Skagway, Yakutat, Kadiak, Sitka, Kutlik,
etc. The western United States coast tribes had better
sounding ones: Tacoma (the highest, near heaven),
Wallula and Willamette (Wallamet, running water),
Shasta (a tribe of Indians), Tuolumne. The Indians
of the Basin, the Shoshone group, are represented by
Shoshone, Winnemucca, Utah (the mountain), Idaho
(gem of the mountains). The fierce Sioux tribes had
names like Dakota (allies), Iowa (sleepy ones), Missouri
(muddy water), Nebraska (shallow water), Kansas (wil-
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 211
lows), Omaha (up-stream), Topeka (a good place to dig
potatoes), Oklahoma (home for all Indians). The Al-
gonquin tribes of the Ohio Valley and the Upper Great
Lakes gave us Minnesota (much or cloudy water),
Minnehaha (laughing water), Michigan (big lake),
Illinois (a tribe), Ohio (beautiful river), Wisconsin
(rushing water), Chicago (skunk cabbage), Kalamazoo,
Sheboygan, Erie (wild cat tribe), Allegheny (the fairest
river), Kentucky (the prairies). The mighty Iroquois
tribes of the Lower Great Lakes and the Hudson gave us
Ontario (beautiful lake), Mohawk (muskrat), Genesee,
Cayuga (long lake), Oswego (broad valley), Niagara
(neck or strait; thundering water), Manhattan (of
doubtful origin, some authorities giving it as " little
island " ; others, as " the place of drunkenness," refer-
ring to Verrazano's carousal with the Indians). The
Indians of the Gulf region had the mellifluous, allitera-
tive Tallahassee (old town), Chattanooga (eagle's
nest), Alabama (the clearing), Mississippi (father of
the waters), Natchez, Altamaha, Appalachicola, Okifi-
nokee, and Appalachian (near the sea). The names of
Mexico are largely Aztec, — Mexico (home of the god of
war), Mazatlan, Tepic, Zacetecas, Popocatapetl, Tlax-
cala, and Tehauntepec.
Many Indian names are translated literally, — Big
Stone Lake, Spearfish, Red Cloud, Pipestone, Red
Lodge, Medicine Lodge, etc. Also many through
212 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
.mispronunciation, mistranslation, or degradation have
but slight resemblance to their originals in the Indian
language. Thus Ouachita (buffalo country) has be-
come Wichita.
The names of half the states are Indian, the majority
of the rivers of the Mississippi System and the Eastern
states, most of our lakes, and legions of counties, town-
ships, and cities. These names will persist long after
the Indian has ceased to exist as a separate tribal
entity, and will be historic evidence of the once continen-
tal sway of the Red Man. Practically all these names
had some significance, even to the Whites, at first, re-
ferring chiefly to physical features, but they are already
being used generally without understanding. Neverthe-
less, they are still interesting on account of their alien
origin, their alliterative or musical sound, and the
piquancy of their forgotten meaning.
2. Spanish. — The succession of explorers and im-
migrants in America is plainly marked on the map.
First came the Spaniards, who together with their
spoliation of the Aztecs and other Indians combined a
certain religious zeal and devotion attested by the many
sacred names they bestowed on their discoveries and
domains: San Salvador (so named by Columbus in
gratitude for his deliverance from the dangers of his
first voyage), San Juan Bautista (St. John the Baptist),
St. Augustine, San Antonio, Corpus Christi (Body of
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 213
Christ), San Diego, Los Angeles (La puebla de laNuestra
Senora la Reina de Los Angeles, the city of Our Lady, the
Queen of the Angels, was the lengthy original title), San
Jose, Santa Maria, San Francisco, Sacramento (the
sacrament). The name California was given after
the name of a fabled isle of precious stones in a Spanish
novel popular at that time. Many Spanish names refer
to some physical characteristic of the place. The
numerous Salinas speak of the salt deposits in that arid
zone (Arizona) . El Paso is The Pass (Ute Pass) between
the Rockies of the United States and the Sierras of
Mexico. The groves of cotton woods (Alamedo, Alamo)
and white oaks (Albuquerque), and the "fertile plain"
(Las Vegas) , were grateful oases in this land of drought.
The Spanish name for mountain is Sierra (a saw), and
thus we have Sierra Nevada (white). Colorado means
red, and Rio, river (Rio Grande).
3. French. — The trail of the Frenchmen leads from
the St. Lawrence to Lake Superior, and from there
down the Mississippi to New Orleans. They got along
more amicably with the Indians than did the English,
and as lonely traders and still lonelier missionaries
they paddled their birch canoes up the larger streams,
and on the Great Lakes, and carried them over the
portages, or around falls and rapids. They lived in the
Big Woods in savage teepees, cut off from civilization
by a thousand miles of wilderness.
214 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The French, also, showed their piety in a religious
nomenclature of places, of which St. Lawrence, St.
Anthony Falls, Sault (falls) St. Marie, St. Paul, St.
Louis, are examples. Detroit (a strait), Fond du Lac
(end of the lake), and Prairie du Chien (prairie dog) are
French. Unlike their Anglo-Saxon brethren the French
did not give their own names to their discoveries. Their
modesty has been rewarded by later generations naming
in their honor many spots along the old French routes
of discovery, — Champlain, Marquette, Duluth, Joilet,
La Salle, Hennepin, Le Sueur, etc.
4. English. — Next came the English occupation
with a great blanket of English names.
(a) Religious names. — The Puritans, who came
to avoid religious persecution, and to live their lives in
accordance with their beliefs, showed their fervor also in
giving religious names, — Salem (Jerusalem), Providence,
Concord. And of a later date are the many Bethels,
Bethlehems, Jordans, Zions, Zion Cities, Lebanons,
Canaans, Shilohs, Goshens, Carmels, Tabors, etc.
(b) Royal names. — The Puritans were always in-
clined to be rather independent and democratic ; but their
Cavalier cousins south of the Mason and Dixon Line
were more friendly to the king and the nobility. In
the North we find few names in honor of royalty or the
nobles, but in the South we have Virginia (Queen Eliza-
beth), the Carolinas and Maryland (after Charles I and
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 215
his queen), Georgia (George II), Charleston (Charles II),
Jamestown (James I), Annapolis (wife of James I),
Elizabeth City, Va., Georgetown, Baltimore, Delaware.
Albany and New York (Duke of Albany, Duke of York,
later James II) are examples in the North.
(c) European repetitions. — Isaac Taylor thinks
that English names are uninteresting and prosaic, and
do not generally show appreciation of natural beauty.
Be that as it may, they must have been treasured in the
hearts of the emigrants, who on coming to the new coun-
try still paid homage to the mother country by repeat-
ing them on the American map. So we have in New Eng-
land and elsewhere the names of Plymouth, Boston,
Bath, Portland, Exeter, Portsmouth, Dover, Manchester,
Lynn, Cambridge, Gloucester, Worcester, Springfield,
Northampton, Northfield, Norwich, New London, Dan-
bury, New Haven, New Britain, Windsor, Reading,
Chester, etc., all good old English place names. The
names of some eighty English towns thus suffice for a
thousand American places.
The same thing was done by the Dutch in New Neth-
erlands, New Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Flushing, and
Brooklyn ; by the Swedes in New Sweden (Delaware) ;
by the Germans in Hanover, Berlin, New Ulm, Frankfort,
etc. All these borrowed or second-hand place names
have no special fitness or significance, except that they
reveal the cosmopolitan sources of our immigrants, and
their Heimweh or love for the old home.
216 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Curiosities in geographical nomenclature are the nu-
merous names taken from classic history, even mythol-
ogy. A one-time surveyor-general of the state of. New
York, an admirer of the Ancients, was responsible for the
names of Troy, Utica, Syracuse, Rome, Ithaca, Pal-
myra, Corinth, Marcellus, Camillus, and Athens which
appear on the map of the state. These names have
been much repeated in other states, with others added.
We have Cairo and Memphis reproduced on the Missis-
sippi ; Carthage, Hannibal, Cincinnati, and Alexandria.
From mythology are taken Olympia and Phoenix;
and we have the Eureka of Archimedes many times.
Philadelphia may be added as a happy invention on
the classic model.
5. Native. — But Americans have coined or in-
vented a host of names for themselves, repeating the
practice all over the world in all ages.
(a) Descriptive. — Just as in prehistoric times the
Phoenicians named a rocky islet Tyre (Heb. Tsor, a
rock), so in most recent times the most natural way of
naming a place is by reference to some physiographic
feature. Thus we have Little Falls, Portage, Lockport,
Niagara Falls City, Atlantic City, Ocean Grove, Sulphur
Springs, Lake City, El Paso, River Falls, Iron Mountain,
Grand Rapids, Detroit, Terre Haute (High Ground),
South Bend, Rockford, Salt Lake City, Death Valley,
Butte (an abrupt peak), Little Rock, Hot Springs,
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 217
Montana (mountainous), Maine ("the mayn land"),
Rhode Island (from a roode Eylandt, red island, in the
Bay), Rocky Mountains, Bad Lands, etc.
Many names contain adjectives or phrases descriptive
of the beauty of the place : Fairview, Belleview, Buena
Vista (good view), Bellaire (good air), Greenfield, Ever-
green, Point Pleasant, Eau Claire (clear water), etc.
Many rivers are named after the color of their waters,
as Red, Green, White, and Black ; and mountains have
ever been thus called, as the Blue Mountains, the Green
Mountains (hence Vermont), the White Mountains, the
Black Hills, etc.
(6) Biological. — Another large class of American
names are biological, indicating the kind of animals,
trees, or other vegetation that once abounded in the
vicinity, examples of which are Buffalo, Beaver Dam,
Bear River, Big Horn Mountains, Snake River, Goose
Lake, Pelican Rapids, Eagle City, Musselshell River,
Eel River, Cape Cod, White Oaks, Albuquerque (white
oaks), Cottonwood, Alamo (cottonwoods), Baton Rouge
(red stick, cedar), Pine Bluff, etc.
(c) Industrial. — Some American cities are named
after some natural resource, or the chief industry " that
has made them famous " : Farmingdale, Wheatland, Port
Tobacco, Pomona (after the Goddess of Fruit), Clean,
Oil City, Petrolia, Carbon, Carbondale, Minersville,
Galena (lead ore), Leadville, Silver City, Golden, Glovers-
218 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
ville, Mechanicsburg, Linoleumville, Emporium, — not
all that might be asked for a name always, but perhaps
good advertising.
(d) Biographical. — Another great class of cities in
the United States have biographical names. Many are
given in honor of presidents, governors, and other states-
men, army and naval leaders, or other great men dear to
the hearts of the people ; and some have been given in
admiration of foreign heroes or leaders, some of whom
have rendered this country service. It is said that more
cities and towns (65) are named after Franklin than after
any other man. If, however, counties and townships,
not to mention streets, are considered, Washington easily
leads (320). Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Jack-
son, Lincoln, Garfield, are great favorites. Lafayette,
Steuben, Pulaski, Pitt, and other foreigners are honored.
Seas, bays, straits, capes, and islands are often named
after their discoverers or explorers, as, Vancouver
Island, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Puget Sound.
This feature is especially noticeable in the more recent
discoveries of Australia, Polynesia, and the polar
regions.
The very name America came about in a similar way,
though partially based on an error. Amerigo Vespucci,
an Italian, made several voyages of exploration, following
up and extending the work of Columbus, 1499-1503. He
published the first printed account of the New World.
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 219
There was a German geographer, Waldseemiiller by
name, in France, who wrote a Latin book in 1507, in
which he said, " And the fourth part of the world having
been discovered by Amerigo or Americus, we may call it
Amerige or America," thus overlooking the prior claims of
Columbus. Dr. Penck suggests that the name America
is not inappropriate, as the name Amerigo means grain
(German, Emerich, Emmer).
To make some amends the country discovered as a
result of Columbus' vision is poetically called Columbia,
while we have the District of Columbia, and many places
called Columbus or Columbia.
If one turns to the map of the polar and sub-polar
regions he sees the names of the men who braved isola-
tion, hardship, cold, starvation, and death in quest of the
Northwest Passage, or the Polar Goal. Hudson's Bay
reminds us of the pathetic story of the fate of this dis-
coverer, cast adrift with his son in a small boat by his
mutinous crew. After him, also, we have Hudson's
Strait and the Hudson River. In the Arctic waters we
find the names of Davis, Baffin, Ross, Frobisher, Behring,
Franklin, Peary, and others.
(e) Proprietary. — Besides the many. places named
deservedly in honor of great men, there are in this coun-
try a host of cities and towns named after unhistoric
personages, perhaps an early settler, a great landowner
who owned the town site, a leading manufacturer, a
220 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
financier, or perhaps only a politician. Every one is
familiar with such names as Evansville, Stevenspoint,
Harrisburg, Youngstown, Brownsville, Barnesville,
Greenville, Pottstown, Smithtown, etc. It is these
names that irritated Matthew Arnold, and our own Emer-
son, because of their prosaic character and monotonous
repetition. But they represent a very natural method
of naming a place, and one which has been practiced by
all races. In England the many hams, tons, burgs,
burys, fields, and bys are for the most part composed of
these roots combined with family names. In Europe most
places have existed beyond the memory of man, and such
patronymics excite no question. Here, however, the
commonplace character of Smith of Smithsville, or of Mr.
Potts of Pottstown is still fresh in mind, and therefore
less romantic.
(/) Frontier types. — As a contrast to the eupho-
nious classic names are the appellations given by our pio-
neers, hunters, cowboys, miners, and lumberjacks, names
less polite, yet decidedly expressive and appropriate at
the time given. Thus, Stranger, Deadman's Creek,
Three Devils, Bonanza, Jimtown, Roundup, Stampede,
Gin Flat, Eight-mile, Hog Ranch, Billy Creek, etc.
Some of these destined to grow into importance become
ashamed before the world of their humble name and
origin, and petition the legislatures to change their
name to something more orthodox.
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 221
Application in teaching. — The mature student of
geography finds in the meaning and origin of geographical
names much of interest. While the teacher in the ele-
mentary school cannot apply such linguistic and historic
studies directly, she may give the pupils now and then
a translation, if profitable, and may to a certain extent
make the children feel that names do represent history,
race, and language ; and that many of the names on the
map are truly descriptive of geographical conditions.
Tracing the meanings of names is one of the profitable and
legitimate pastimes of geography.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COM-
MERCE
A distinct phase of geography. — So much of geography
deals with industrial occupations and trade that in the
high school and college it is differentiated as a separate
branch under the name of Commercial Geography.
Even in the upper grammar grades a special emphasis is
often placed on this phase of the subject. So far as
intrinsic interest, human importance, and rational unity
are concerned, it deserves such distinction. In the ele-
mentary school, it is, however, generally combined
and blended with the other phases of the study.
Commercial study in the primary course. — Industrial
geography has the pedagogical advantage of dealing
with human needs and human occupations. It springs
out of the necessities and activities of the home. It
is enacted in every shop, and is represented by the
traffic of the street and by the shipping of the harbor.
The child necessarily has considerable appreciation,
from observation and experience, of the industrial
life of the community. Home geography extends this
knowledge by a more thorough study of familiar, typical
222
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 223
industries and teaches a few general relations, such as the
sources of commodities, division of labor, raw material
and finished goods, buyer and seller, exports and imports,
etc.
In the "first round" of the world, in primary geogra-
phy, these elementary notions are applied in a broad view
of the conspicuous occupations of mankind in America and
the rest of the world. Through this the pupil learns of
modifications of methods employed in his own community,
of entirely new industries, and something of the inter-
dependence and interrelations of distant regions. He
also begins to see that man's occupations are determined
by natural conditions of climate, location, resources,
etc.
The approach in the lower grades should be, pref-
erably, from the human side. The industry should be
considered more as an outcome of human interest or
need, than as a causation by physical nature. The point
of view should be, What do the people do for a living?
rather than, What is the effect of nature on man's
mode of life? The latter treatment may be reserved
for the higher grades.
An industry should be studied somewhat intensively,
and as concretely or graphically as possible. It should be
an important, typical industry.
One and a half pages out of the four on New England,
in Dodge's Elementary Geography, are devoted to com-
224 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
mercial matters; and Tarr and McMurry's New Geog-
raphy, First Book, gives ten out of the eleven pages on
the same section. These data are given to show the vary-
ing importance attached to commercial geography in
the lower grades.
An example: Study of a ranch. — In the following
illustration taken from an elementary text, note the pre-
ponderance of the human element. Even the title
sounds better to a child than " A Study of the Cattle
Industry." This is, no doubt, a somewhat extreme
example, but if all the primary geographies were as
well adapted to the interests of children, the subject
would find greater popularity.
A RANCH
There is a belt of high plateau land east of the Rocky Mountain
foot-hills, stretching from Texas to North Dakota, which has very
little rain, not enough to make grain growing profitable, and so it
is devoted to grazing. Where the buffalo once fed in countless
numbers now graze thousands of cattle. . . . No hay is equal to
these grasses, dried where they stand, and waiting to be nibbled
through the winter months.
. . . But sometimes the cattle are in immense herds, and
feed upon great tracts of unfenced land, where it is necessary
for men to watch and care for them. These herders are called
cowboys.
The cowboys almost live in the saddle. They wear overalls
of leather and wide-brimmed hats, carry large revolvers and use
big spurs on their long boots. They endure rough fare, hard work,
and all kinds of exposure to the weather. . . .
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 225
The cowboy learns to throw the lasso or rope with great skill,
for he practices from boyhood. The rope is usually made of
leather or grass and is about forty feet long, with a noose at one
end, six feet or more in length. The coils of the rope are held in
the left hand, and the noose is swung around the head with the
right, and then forward and over the head or around the feet of
the animal to be caught. . . .
Cowboys are skillful riders. . . .
In summer the cowboy rides all day among his cattle to see
that they do not stray too far from good feed and water. Toward
night he drives them to the bedding ground. ... A few cowboys
are on duty to watch them. Wild cattle are easily frightened at
night ; then they jump to their feet and start to run away. . . .
As different cattle look much alike, it is necessary for the
owner to have his initials or some private mark on every animal in
order to prove ownership. . . . These marks, or brands, are written
on the hides of the living animals with a hot iron for a pen. . . .
The round-ups take place in the autumn and spring. The
cowboys come together from long distances, each one knowing
not only his own brand, but that of many neighbors. All the
cattle in a certain section . . . are driven to one central place. . . .
A man rides among them, and when he sees a cow or a steer with
his own brand upon it, he runs it out of the herd to a second man
who holds it.
A well-trained horse is a great help in doing this. Many of the
best horses for ranch business are bred in Texas. . . . The Texas
ponies are small, but tough, quick, and very intelligent. Some
of them are docile and willing, but others are apt to "buck."
When a horse bucks . . .
When the cattle are full-grown they are sent by rail to the stock-
yards of Kansas City or Chicago, where they are turned into
meat, which is shipped to all parts of the country. You owe the
roast beef you have for dinner to the grass that grows on the far-
off ranches and the labor of the hard-worked cowboys.
226 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
A more intensive study of commercial geography is
made in upper grades. The degree of detail of treatment
varies with the author, and with the times. In the
books of several generations ago very little was said on
this subject. The present is an intensely commercial
age, and the business world is continually crying for a
commercial education. This demand has been met more
or less by some textbooks of geography.
Authors are not, by any means, agreed as to how far
to go into the biology of commercial plants and animals,
or the technique of culture and manufacture, or the de-
tails of commerce. For example, Frye gives about ten
words to the subject of Irrigation ; Dodge, 90 ; Redway
and Hinman, about 100; King, 1300; Tarr and Mc-
Murry, 1700. This applies to advanced geography in
each case. The variation is in part due to the different
demands at different times, and partly to the author's
judgment.
Type studies. — Some authors believe that the
description of the cotton plant, for example, does not
properly belong to geography, but to nature-study or
botany ; that the technical processes of a flour mill, or
the details of a railroad business, are not geographical.
It is probable, however, that such correlations of science,
or trade technique, etc., will be generally regarded proper
in the treatment of a limited number of type studies of in-
dustries, for the purpose of geographical unity.
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 227
The balance between physical and commercial geog-
raphy and the other human phases of the subject varies
also according to the author's training and predilections.
Yet practically all recent writers give a large proportion
to commercial geography. Thus for the New England
states Frye's Grammar School Geography gives nearly
two out of three pages to commercial geography ; King's
Advanced Geography, twelve out of fourteen; Dodge's
Advanced Geography, six out of nine; Tarr and Mc-
Murry's New Advanced Geography, Second Book, eleven
and a half out of sixteen.
In advanced geography much more can be done with
the study of the relations of the industries, not only to
each other, but also to the natural environment on which
they depend ; and certain laws can be shown to underlie
the industrial and commercial activities of man. The
causal treatment lends itself well to commercial geog-
raphy. As a rule, the causal sequence — location, topog-
raphy, climate, resource, industry — should be followed.
This sequence is usually well marked, and pupils should
learn to use it as a principle of study.
To appreciate these broad connections of commercial
geography requires some maturity. The economic
aspects of natural science and geography do not appeal
greatly to younger minds, neither do the relations of
things. But in the grammar grades the interest in such
study is fairly well developed.
228 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Commercial geography, to be appreciated as a unit,
also requires a good general knowledge of the map of
the earth, climates, and peoples, which is another reason
for not pressing this subject in the lower grades.
Further, commercial geography is almost inextricably
blended with history, sociology, and economics, of which
the older pupils, even, have inadequate knowledge.
The relegation of commercial geography in this wider
sense to the upper grades makes it possible to employ
certain methods of instruction. In the first place, it may
be studied more intensively. The great industries and
commercial agencies may be studied as types in consid-
erable detail (see Chapter XIX).
Such a study requires a text of the completer sort,
or else the use of supplementary readers, reference work,
or classroom development by the teacher. In this way a
thorough description of the industry is given, providing
not merely a few dry statistics, but some principles of
industry in general, and stimulating the reason and the
imagination.
Type study of lumbering. — The following is taken
from a recent textbook for upper grades. The industry
is taken up after the map study, topography, glacial
effects, and climate have been considered as a setting.
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 229
LUMBERING
Extent of the forests. — In the days of the early settlers, most of
New England was covered with forests, and one of the first products
sent back to England was lumber. Now the woods have been
cleared away from much of the land, but where it is too steep or
too rocky for farming, large tracts of forest still remain.
For instance, there are large tracts of land in northern Maine,
New Hampshire and Vermont, as well as in parts of the three
Southern States (New England), that are still covered with timber.
Standing on the summit of Mount Katahdin, one sees only a vast
wilderness of trees in all directions. The nearest cultivated land
is twenty-five miles to the east, while the unbroken forest stretches
away much farther to the north and west.
Cutting of the timber. — Winter is the busy season for cutting
timber in this wilderness, for the swamps, which are numerous,
and in summer impassable, are then frozen. At that season, also,
the snows have covered the bowlders and fallen trees, and made the
surface level enough for sleds, loaded with logs, to be drawn
through the woods.
Usually fifty or more men are necessary to a logging camp.
With axes in hand, they go through the woods chopping down all
the trees large and sound enough for good lumber. The limbs are
then chopped off, and the logs are dragged by horses to the banks of
the nearest stream.
Floating the logs to the mills. — When the snow melts in the
spring, the cutting is over and another busy season begins. The
ice on the river breaks up, the streams are swollen by the melting
snows, and the logs are whirled off downstream in the swift current.
Frequently, however, this flood of water is not sufficient to carry
them. In such cases in order to provide more water, dams are
placed across the streams, or at the outlet of lakes. When more
water is needed, the dams are opened, and a flood is poured into
the stream. In this way immense numbers of logs are floated, or
"driven " downstream, forming what lumbermen call a "log drive."
230 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The work of driving logs is a very exciting one. The logs often
run on to rocks and shoals; and, as soon as one gets caught,
others are held back by it. If the "jam" is not speedily removed
the entire stream may become blocked. Such a condition is
called a "log jam," and it is the business of the log drivers to
prevent jams by freeing the logs that become thus lodged.
Some of the logs are stopped near waterfalls, far upstream
where they are sawed into boards, lath, shingles, etc*. ; but most of
them are carried to sawmills as far down the river as the current
will take them.
Hardships of the lumberman's life. — During the season for
cutting, the men go forth early in the morning and work until
late in the evening, eating and sleeping in log cabins. Their
beds are broad shelves of rough boards, covered with boughs
from the spruce and balsam trees ; and the camp is often so small
that they must lie side by side, with scarcely room to turn. There
is much exposure, too. The men may suffer seriously from the
cold, for it is often necessary to work when the temperature is far
below zero.
The work of preventing log jams brings even more exposure,
for the workmen must frequently wade into the icy water, and
ride upon the logs. One may often see a man carried along on a
single log, clinging to it by means of the sharp spikes in his boots,
balancing himself with a long pole. Now and then he must jump
from log to log, as a squirrel springs from tree to tree. In this
way the men are often wet from head to foot and may even be
thrown into the water and drowned. So many hardships are
connected with lumbering that a lumberman is said to become an
old man after a few years of service.
This account is illustrated with appropriate cuts.
Surely the pupil reading it must at least get a sympa-
thetic appreciation of this industry.
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 231
Principles of commerce. — The simpler underlying
principles of commerce should be taught. The specific
examples should be analyzed to reveal them. The teacher
should show how these principles recur again and again in
other cases, till the pupil begins to look for them himself.
In this way he will acquire a stock of working principles
helpful not only in the continuation of the study, but
also in appreciating and solving in later life the complex
industrial and civic problems of modern society.
These principles, like all others in the elementary school
geography, should not be taught in the abstract or in
a general way, but should be derived naturally from the
study of concrete, specific examples of industry and trade
relations. Neither should they all be presented in one
lesson. Months, even years, may be taken to develop
them all, but in the upper grammar grades they should be
organized and reviewed, and considered more in the
abstract.
Among such principles should be the following : The
needs of man, and how they a"re determined. The sources
of man's resources, and how they depend on topography,
climate, location, etc. Raw material and finished goods.
Division of labor. Value of machinery. Effect of labor
on cost. The law of supply and demand. How mar-
kets are determined. Routes of commerce in relation to
topography. The means of transportation and their
relative cost. The telegraph and other means of com-
232 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
munication. The importance of good harbors. What
constitutes a good harbor. The geographic causes of the
location of cities. What decides the location of an
industry. The laws of international trade. The tariff.
Other governmental control in commerce. See also
Chapter XX.
Statistics. — Commercial geography necessarily deals
with statistics of amounts of resources, values of manu-
factures, railway mileage, and the like. It would be folly
to require the pupil to retain these any great length of
time, even if they could be memorized. No doubt
there are a very few statistics of population, distance,
etc., worth remembering. But for the most part it is
neither wise nor profitable to memorize them. Statistics
are presented to give some comparative ideas of the
quantitative importance of the things to which they re-
fer. They are mere stepping-stones, once used, to be
forgotten, though the general notion they were to teach
it may be necessary to retain.
Statistics serve to show the relative values of our re-
sources, manufactures, means of transportation, etc.
They show whether our industries and commerce are
progressing or declining. They serve to show our
standing in comparison with other countries.
It should be remembered that textbook statistics are
often woefully behind the times. To be of any value,
their date should be considered. The teacher should
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 233
try to get the later returns from other sources, census
returns, government trade reports, yearly almanacs
of newspapers, etc., if the statistics in the textbook are
antiquated.
General review of commercial relations. — In practi-
cally all modern advanced geographies, and in some of
the elementary texts, there are, after the study of the
United States, or after the survey of the world, chapters
often called General Review, or Comparative Review,
which deal with a summary of the commercial data of
the United States, and a comparison with other countries
to show relative strength and the trend of international
trade.
Such a review serves not only as an organizing sum-
mary, but through the comparison of country with
country further facts of relative commercial strength,
and principles of commerce, commercial routes, and
means of communication are brought out.
Observational basis of commercial geography. — As
in other fields, observation and personal experience
count for a great deal in the study of commercial geog-
raphy. The subject should be made as practical as
possible, taken out of the pedantry of the textbook,
basing it wherever possible upon the real observations
of the pupil. The local artisans, the factories, the traffic
on the street, the shipping in the harbor, all can be used to
render the subject real. Individual observations should
234 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
be encouraged, preliminary direct studies assigned, and
occasionally safe and feasible visits made to factories
and other industrial plants.
A collection of commercial specimens is of great use.
Foodstuff s< fabrics, building material, etc., in the raw
and finished state, or showing stages of manufacture,
are useful. It is not necessary to make a large collection.
A few of the great staples to serve as types are sufficient.
Pictures of all stages of industry and of trade are
extremely desirable. Many excellent pictures may be
obtained as advertising from commercial houses. There
are a few school charts of the industries, but these are of
foreign make, and are apt to show out-of-date methods.
Some showing the primitive hand processes are good,
however. Current popular journals contain a great
wealth of up-to-date matter and pictures on many
phases of our industrial life.
Commercial maps. — It is an excellent plan for teach-
ers to make rough sketch maps on the blackboard, or,
better, on heavy paper, of the distribution of commercial
products, trade routes, and the like. The pupils also
should be required to draw commercial maps, generally
on the printed outlines. One kind of map always ap-
peals to the native instincts of children, the pictorial
or realistic map, showing the distribution of commercial
features by means of pictures or actual specimens pasted
or fastened on the map. A mineral chart or agricultural
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 235
chart could thus be used to enlist the activities of each
pupil in the class in the construction of a common
map. It is a good exercise.
Statistical diagrams. — The vast amounts of some re-
sources, products, or manufactures, etc., are so incon-
ceivable and meaningless that it is necessary to use some
method to interpret them other than mere statistics.
The usual device in many books of rectangles or squares
of proportionate areas to represent the different quanti-
ties is an excellent one, since it appeals to the eye and
the reason better than numbers. The secondary device
of using pictures of the things themselves represented,
in proportionate sizes, appeals still more to the children.
The circle with proportionate divisions is another good
statistical device.
Tabulation is helpful to the learner. If properly
tabulated on the board or on charts, interesting relations
which would not be seen otherwise may be shown. The
articles of commerce may thus be classified, the relation
between raw and finished goods shown, the source and
markets indicated, etc. Pupils should be taught to
make such tabulations themselves in order to better
organize their knowledge.
RAW MATERIAL
SOURCE
FINISHED PRODUCT
MARKET
Wheat
Mississippi Valley
Flour
Bran
Cereal goods
Europe
China
Africa
236 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Supplementary literature. — There are many good
supplementary readers pertaining to commercial prod-
ucts, manufacturing processes, and trade. The classic
F. G. Carpenter series of Geographical Readers, Cham-
berlain's series of How We Are Fed, Clothed, Sheltered,
and How We Travel; F. O. Carpenter's Foods and tlteir
Uses ; Rocheleau's Geography of Commerce, — are all for
the elementary school. The older pupils should be en-
couraged to write short papers on what they have read
on assigned topics. Current magazines, also, may be
used to good advantage.
"Research" by pupils. — A very practical bit of
" research " by pupils is to visit shops, factories, ware-
houses, docks, etc., to note the commodities there, and by
questioning the people in charge, or from the tags and
labels, learn of their source or destination.
A class in New York City wrote letters to the big
steamship companies, asking them to send the names of
ten leading imports and ten leading exports handled by
their companies, and then tabulated and had printed the
results of their inquiry.
Commercial news in newspapers. — Another good way
of rendering this study vital is to read the daily papers
for crop reports, commerce notes, shipping reports,
etc. To read the following in the paper is much more
interesting and real than to learn these facts from the
musty statistics of some textbook.
GEOGRAPHY OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 237
NEWS OF SHIPS AND PORTS
NEW YORK, Mar. i, 1912. — The New York and Porto Rico
Line's steamship San Juan arrived yesterday afternoon at the
East Central pier, Atlantic dock, from Mayaguez, Ponce and
San Juan. She brought 54 passengers and a cargo of oranges,
nuts, cigars, tobacco, bay rum, pineapples, grapefruit, cocoanuts
and sundries.
The Booth Line's steamship Benedict arrived yesterday at
Pier 4, Martin's stores, from Manaos, Itacoatiara, Para and
Barbados. She brought 4720 cases of rubber and 20,000 hectos
of Brazil nuts. Rubber is going up again and the Benedict's
cargo is valued at over $2,250,000.
The Joint Service steamship Indrawade arrived yesterday at
Funch, Edye & Co.'s pier, Bush's stores, from Yokohama, Yokkai-
chi, Moji, Shanghai, Singapore, Allepy, Cochin and Gibraltar, via
Boston. She brought a cargo of copper, porcelains, toys, paper,
carpet wools, straw braid, beans, bristles, wood oil, sago, gums,
pearl shells, gambier, gutta, rubber, coir, matting and general
merchandise, including sixty-six cases of discarded queues from
Hongkong.
The Booth Line's steamship Clement sailed yesterday from
Pier 4, Martin's stores, for Barbados, Para and Manaos. She
takes out a few passengers and a full general cargo, consisting
largely of flour, foodstuffs, provisions and lumber.
CHAPTER XIX
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY
In teaching geography one is confronted with a
dilemma, — the necessity of giving a good view of the
earth as a whole, and the importance of selecting and
emphasizing the most vital topics for thorough study.
The two problems are in a measure incompatible. The
attempt to study a vast multitude of facts in a general
course in geography necessarily leads to superficiality.
On the other hand, singling out the most essential topics
for more complete study teaches the geography of the
earth in spots only, leaving too much a blank.
The difficulty is usually solved by providing a general,
avowedly superficial, course, covering the whole globe,
for beginners, after they have finished home geography ;
and for the upper grades a more thorough, detailed
study of the same field, in which, however, certain great
topics are singled out for a still more intensive treatment.
(See Type Study, page 241.)
By thus rapidly traversing the world twice, continent
by continent, country by country, the pupil receives a
fair general notion of the relations of the world as a
whole.
238
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 239
Emphasis on geographical facts should be discriminat-
ing.— The facts of geography are not all equally impor-
tant, and should not be taught alike. Discrimination
should be used. Some topics should receive much more
attention than others. The geography of Japan is
vitally important to the Japanese, but not to American
children. To the latter the geography of America is
most essential. To American pupils the geography of
England is more important than that of Austria, for evi-
dent historic and economic reasons. Climatic features
are more important than earthquakes. The less vital
topics may be judiciously slighted to save time for
thorough study of the more essential.
Therefore the lion's share of the time is given to our
own continent and the United States. It is absolutely
necessary to do this for pedagogical, patriotic, historic,
and economic reasons.
When the pupils have first studied their own country,
which they can understand the best, they have a standard
of comparison, or a basis of interpretation, for the study
of foreign parts.
Within the study of the United States itself judgment
must be used in the selection of the essential and the
nonessential.
The textbook as guide. — To a great extent this
selection is made for the teacher by the author of the
textbook, or by the syllabus, or course of study. Still
240 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
much remains for the teacher to decide. Also some of
the textbooks do not keep the best balance of the
subject.
Geographical units. — Happily the older method of
studying the country state by state after the same mo-
notonous plan, and with much repetition about physical
features and industries, and the like, is giving way to
the more rational treatment by sections embracing groups
of states comprising either physiographical regions, or
commercial units, or both (see page 248). The North
Atlantic states constitute such a well-defined, natural
unit. By the map study each state gets sufficient indi-
vidual attention. The description is then given for the
group as a whole. The study would then take up these
topics common to all of them : the irregular coast
and its influence on the people, the mountainous charac-
ter of the section, glaciation, scenic aspects, the lum-
ber industry, the truck farms, the big cities, the water
power, and the manufacturing industries (cotton, leather,
etc.). The Appalachian portion provides mountain
studies, coal and iron mines, oil and gas wells, great man-
ufacturing cities. In the South Atlantic section are the
balmy climate, cotton, semitropical fruits, the negroes.
And so on across the continent, each region has its
characteristic features, natural and human.
It is these characteristic topics for the different
sections that deserve especial attention. Each important
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 241
topic should be thoroughly studied in the region where it
is most developed and most typical. Thus studied
intensively, it will serve as a basis for the understanding
of similar conditions elsewhere. There it may be re-
ferred to but lightly because already understood.
Thus the study of lumbering in Maine will serve
perfectly for the same industry in Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, and Canada. The study of glacial soil and
the effects of the glacier in New England prepares for
this feature in other regions. The study of a metropo-
lis like Boston or New York gives a picture repeated
in every other large city of the United States.
Type study. — This leads to the discussion of type
study. A type is a topic that stands for a group or a
class, a standard of comparison, and an interpreter
of other similar facts. Type study in geography means
the selection of representative topics or features of the
subject for especial emphasis or detailed study, for the
purpose of using them as illustrations of their class.
The confusing wealth of subject matter in geography
requires reduction into a scope possible to compass in
the assigned course. This requires elimination, selection,
grouping, and condensation. By careful discrimination
much of the less essential may be entirely cast out, or
•
judiciously slighted. The method of type study permits
the presentation of many facts under comparatively few
larger representatives.
242 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
This method has long been in use in other subjects,
especially literature, history, and science. Guyot and
Smith were probably the first in this country to employ
the method in elementary geography in 1866. The King
Geographies also have many excellent types, and others
of more recent date, notably the textbooks of Tarr and
Frank McMurry. Charles McMurry has in his Special
Methods in Geography made the principle clear and shown
its application in geography. The examples quoted on
pages 75 and 149 are types.
Examples of type study. — All kinds of geographical
topics lend themselves to the type method : a river
(Mississippi), a mountain system (Appalachian), the
prairies, the seacoast, the Great Lakes, a mine (coal,
iron), agriculture (wheat, cotton), the cattle industry,
manufacturing (flour, lumber, shoes, fabrics), commerce
(a railroad), a city. The following, taken from a recent
textbook, well illustrates the intensiveness, the detail,
the causal treatment, and correlation of the method :
IRRIGATION
. . . There are a few other, smaller sections (Cal.) where the
rainfall is sufficient for agriculture; but the only way in which
farming is possible in most parts of the West is by means of
irrigation.
The influence of irrigation is well illustrated in the region near
Denver, which lies in the midst of an arid plain. This plain is
crossed, however, by the South Fork of the Platte River, from which
a ditch, as large as a canal, is led out upon the plain. The river has
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 243
a rapid fall, but just enough slope has been given the ditch to allow
the water to flow. Thus the ditch soon runs on a higher level than
the river, and the land between it and the river is lower than the
ditch.
Water from the ditch may then be led out over these fields to
irrigate them. For this purpose ditches branch off from the main
canal, and each of these is divided and subdivided to supply farms
along its course. When a field needs water, one of the smaller
ditches is tapped and the field is flooded ; or else the water is led
into furrows a few feet apart. The method followed depends
upon the kind of crop that is under cultivation. As there is danger
that the supply of water may not last through the summer, res-
ervoirs are built to store the water of the spring freshets, and
when needed this is allowed to flow into the ditches.
Of course such an. arrangement is expensive, and each farmer
must pay for his water at a certain rate, as each tenant of a house
in a city pays for his water or gas. ,That a farmer can afford to
pay for water, however, is well shown in this case; for on the
upper side of the ditch, which cannot be reached by the water,
the land is only fit for grazing, while on the lower side there are
rich fields of grain, vegetables, and alfalfa. The latter, like
clover and hay, is fed to stock. It is one of the most important
crops in the arid regions, where there is much demand for fodder
for cattle, hogs, sheep, and horses.
Without irrigation, crops could not be grown in this vicinity.
It would then be necessary to bring farm products from Kansas,
Nebraska, and other states, a distance of several hundred miles.
It is evident, therefore, that irrigation must have had a great
influence on the settlement of the West.
(Then follows a sketch of the Rocky Mountain states
and Southwest, with the crops raised by means of irriga-
tion, and the development of the important cities in these
sections.)
244 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
The value of irrigation is well shown here (Southern Cali-
fornia). Before irrigation was introduced into Southern Cali-
fornia, this region could support very few people. Now, in Los
Angeles and vicinity, there is a population of over two hundred
thousand.
The description of these few'places serves to show the importance
of irrigation in the West. It is not to be understood, however,
that these are the only noted irrigated sections, for there are
many others. Most of the largest and best known are along
the large rivers. For example, irrigation is extensive along
the Yellowstone and Missouri rivers and their tributaries in
Montana; along the Snake River and its tributaries in Idaho;
along the Yakima and other streams tributary to the Columbia
River in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho ; along the Gila and Salt
rivers in Arizona ; along the Rio Grande and Pecos rivers in New
Mexico ; and along the Sacramento, San Joaquin, and other rivers
in California
The irrigation of Arizona deserves especial mention, partly
because of the extensive irrigation works that the government
has constructed there, and partly because of the climate. One of
the greatest irrigation works undertaken is the Roosevelt dam
in the Salt River, which will supply water for a large area near
Phoenix. The climate near this city and Tucson is such that even
semitropical fruits are produced. Here are raised oranges, lemons,
grapefruit, figs, olives, pomegranates, and even dates. . . .
So important is irrigation that it is introduced wherever possible,
and every year new irrigation systems are being built, some at
great expense. Since much of this arid region is public land, the
United States government is aiding in this work. There is,
in fact, a special department of the government in charge of it,
and every year millions of dollars are being spent in this way.
Enormous dams are built, forming lakes in the mountain valleys,
and these are filled in the spring when the snow melts. Then,
in summer, when the crops need water, it is let out of the reservoirs
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 245
into the irrigation canals. In this way the amount of farm land
in the arid West is being greatly increased. This is one of the
most important works in which our government is engaged.
The account is illustrated with appropriate cuts.
Advantages. — Type study is simply a very intensive
study of a topic in many relations. Its purely geo-
graphical, its scenic, biological, economic, historic,
literary, and other aspects are all considered, not as so
many separate studies, but all woven together to form a
composite picture, that presents a fuller, richer, and
better understood unity than the study of any one aspect
could afford.
It is assumed that the topic will be taught properly
with concrete illustrations, elaboration and explana-
tion. By such correlation, all-round study, illustra-
tion, and use of supplementary reading, the subject is
given freshness, vividness, and reality, and loses some-
what its dry, unreal, textbook character. It affords
a welcome relief from the monotony of superficiality by
a chance for a bit of thoroughness.
Another advantage of the type study method is that it
permits the application of the sequential or causal order
of study. Instead of the lesson being simply a list of
facts to be memorized, it becomes a thoughtful study, a
logical development with an organic unity. The many-
sided correlation with science and history not only
makes this causal study effective, but throws out many
246 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
suggestions that arouse the imagination, and force the
mind to take a broader outlook on the subject.
Modifications of the type. — In teaching by this method
it must be remembered that the types chosen must be
real types, selected with care, so that they may present as
many as possible of the characteristics of their class.
The study, however, should include some comparison
with others of the class to show that modifications are
possible. Thus when the wheat industry of the Missis-
sippi Valley is studied, reference might be made to the
variation of harvesting as practiced in the fields of
Washington and California; and to the harvesting,
threshing, and milling as still carried on by primitive
peoples.
The chief objection to the type method is that it is too
slow, and that only a few types can be studied thus
intensively. It is, in ordinary schools, futile to teach
only through types.. There is always need of general
geography to fill in the gaps left by the type method. In
fact, the types require the more general, diffusive course
as a background or setting.
In the type study method there may, also, be some
danger of overcorrelating and dragging in things that are
not germane to the subject. Type study is too slow to
permit much digression. Overcorrelation may render
the subject so elaborate that the pupil may " not see
the forest for the trees." If it be remembered that
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 247
correlation is not an end, but a means, of building a
unified whole of the topic, this danger is averted. The
subject should not be so elaborate that the pupil can-
not analyze it.
Types in the lower grades. — Type studies, or topical
studies, of the simpler kind may be made in the lower
grades. But, in general, this method requires a general
knowledge of the world as a whole, of history, and of
nature-study; the ability to read reference books and
supplementary readers easily and intelligently ; and
the power to reason and discriminate, — conditions not
found in the lower grades.
While some of the more modern textbooks in geog-
raphy aim largely to supplant the supplementary
reader by the almost complete type treatment, there are
still many briefer texts where this method must be
supplied by the teacher, with the aid of wide reading on
her own part, and the extensive use of supplementary
readers by the pupils. In this case the type method
affords the independent teacher an excellent opportunity
of breaking away from " the bondage of the text," and, as
•it were, of making with her pupils her own textbook
through reference work.
The Topical Method. — Much that has been said
about the type method applies to what is called the Topi-
cal Method. Type study is topical study, but the types
248 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
are selected primarily with the idea that they are repre-
sentatives and stand for a class.
But that is not necessarily a consideration in the
topical method. Any worthy feature of geography,
several of the same class, even, may be used in the topical
study. The main consideration here is to secure an
interesting and intensive treatment, broader relations,
more rational and less memoriter study. It was one of
the first attempts to get the pupils and teachers more
free from the order of the textbook. It is particularly
good for reviews. The lessons are usually assigned and
developed according to a topical analysis or outline.
The textbook and supplementary references are used as
the basis for the preparation of the lesson.
The type study method as a principle. — The type
method is one step in advance of the topical method,
a more careful discrimination in the selection of topics
so as to have them representative. It demands a
reduction in the number of topics. The type method is
more of a working principle in geography, in the light of
which, or by means of which, further studies are inter-
preted.
Regional Geography. — Another method of thorough
or intensive study, in the upper grades especially, is
the method of Regional Geography. This means the
intimate study of the interrelation of man and nature
in some well-defined geographical unit.
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 249
The first regional study is home geography. — The
home community and vicinity, both civic and natural,
are studied here. The relation of man to nature is
brought out, and the whole constitutes a well-rounded
geographical unit.
A geographical unit is a region that presents a general
uniformity of topography, climate, vegetation, natural
resources, occupations, or industries. If the human as-
pects are left out of consideration, it is a physiographic
unit or region; but if the life and works of man are
emphasized, it is an economic or industrial unit. In the
same way we may have racial or ethnographic units
and political units (states).
In regional geography the political boundaries are nec-
essarily often crossed, and parts of different political units
included, which in this method is of minor consequence.
Thus the commercial and industrial center or unit of
New York City includes the Jersey towns across the
Bay — Jersey City, Bayonne, Hoboken, Newark, etc.,
and the towns of Yonkers, New Rochelle, etc. in New
York State. All these towns have the same community
interest as Greater New York. Their growth and
business depend directly on New York City, and to a
very large extent their inhabitants work in the Greater
City by day and only sleep in these suburbs by night.
It is -therefore fitting to study this large population center
together as one.
250 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Again Pittsburg stands for an industrial center of a
different type. This city is surrounded by a cluster of
towns, all, like Pittsburg, handling coal and iron, smelting
ore, rolling steel, and casting machinery. Their location
was largely determined by nature, as was certainly
their business growth. To work out this relation to
the topography and mineral resources of the immediate
vicinity, and to the farther ore fields of the Superior
region, and to the various markets, makes an interesting,
instructive study.
An international industrial unit. — Similarly the Euro-
pean Pittsburg, the region of Lille, Nancy, Liege, and
Essen, where the three countries of France, Belgium, and
Germany fit together, is another industrial unit which
disregards political boundaries.
The Alps lie in five different countries, but to get the
best idea of this interesting system of mountains, -
their formation, character, scenery, and influence on
the industries of man, — they should be studied as a
unit, not cut up and studied in parts in the different
countries to which they belong. The Alps are a physio-
graphic unit.
Our own Appalachian System may be studied in a
similar fashion. The Mississippi Valley, the Great
Basin, the Great Western Plains, the Prairies, the Russian
Steppes, the Desert of Sahara, and the Tropical Forests
of Brazil are other physiographic regions.
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 251
The advantages in regional study are, first, that of
handling a whole unit and treating it with satisfying com-
prehensiveness ; second, that of being able to apply the
causal method in working out the twofold aspect of
Earth and Man ; third, that it is time-saving and concen-
trating, as there are fewer great geographical units than
political; fourth, that it is an excellent method for
review and organization ; fifth, that many of these geo-
graphical units are at the same tune types.
Adapted for upper grades. — With the exception of
home geography, regional geography is not adapted to
the lower grades. It requires a fair knowledge of the
world as a whole and of the map of the nations. For
upper grades the regional treatment would be very good
for a review. It would present a new and pleasing point
of view, and a new method of approach. Many new
and significant relations would be discovered which
escaped notice in the usual systematic study of country
by country, according to the political map. The study of
the Great Plains, page 75, is a regional study.
Comparative Geography. — The term was introduced
by Ritter, but was applied by him more to a categoric
comparison of similar features in different lands, as the
rivers of Europe with those of Asia, their mountains,
etc., for the purpose of deriving general principles.
Intensive comparison. — A later meaning of the ex-
252 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
pression sometimes called Intensive Comparison is
closely related to the Causal Method. It requires a
reflective comparison of different parts of the world to
form certain generalizations and principles. Thus, Of
what importance is the ocean? What is the relation
of rivers to man? What is the climatic effect of eleva-
tion ? are questions requiring mature, comparative con-
sideration.
Review by comparison. — But there is another sense
in which the expression, the Comparative Method, or
Comparative Geography, is used. It means the frequent
reference to previously studied types or lessons, such as
home geography, physiographic and industrial types,
even type continents, during the study of new lessons.
It is virtually making use of the apperceptive basis
wherever a new study is made. The purpose of such
comparison is first to give a better understanding of the
new topic ; to bring out interesting similarities or differ-
ences that help, through association, to fix the fact ;
to weave together or organize widely separated lessons,
and ultimately the whole subject, into a whole ; and inci-
dentally, though of no slight importance, to review the
old facts to refresh the memory. Therefore it is some-
times called the method of Review by Comparison.
Illustration. — The study of Europe presupposes a
study of the North American Continent. The general
features of topography, climate, industry, etc., should be
INTENSIVE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 253
recalled to aid in the understanding of the new conti-
nent : Compare the two continents as to area ; as to
irregularity of coasts. What is the chief coastal industry
of New England? Why? Would the same be true
of Europe? Why? In what latitude are the British
Isles? Compare with that of Labrador. What do the
isotherms of England indicate? Let us look for the
cause of this climate. In what wind belt is Labrador?
Do the winds blow from the sea there? What kind of
winds blow over England? When sea breezes blow on
the land on the Pacific Coast how do they affect the tem-
perature? Are these winds moist or dry? How is the
moisture of these winds condensed in western United
States? Now, what should be the effect of the Atlan-
tic winds on England? Etc. In this way the study
requires thought, and becomes much more interesting
and effective than the ordinary memoriter process of
learning the text.
CHAPTER XX
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY
Correlation in geography. — Repeated reference has
been made in the foregoing pages to the unpedagogical
and wasteful method of learning geographical facts in
isolation or without reference to their relations to each
other. Various ways have been suggested to bring
about the desirable association of fact and fact. Among
them are the causal relation series, group classification,
types, and the comparative method. These are all
systematic organizing processes to reduce the hetero-
geneous mass of geographical matter to order and unity,
not merely for the sake of the science, but rather for the
sake of the learner, as a help to the understanding and to
assist the memory.
Generalizations of geography. — There is still another
way of organizing the facts of geography, and that is by
reducing them to definitions and abstract principles. In
arithmetic there are a thousand and one problems, yet
these fall under relatively few rules for solving, and under
few captions. It is so in geography. The definitions
and principles may, also, as in arithmetic, be used in
solving further geographical problems.
254
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 255
These definitions and principles were, in the geography
of our grandfathers, usually stated dogmatically at the
beginning of the book, and applied deductively to the
rest. The fault of this plan was that the pupils had
no real concept of these fundamentals, and therefore
the deductions were vague, unreal, or entirely impossible.
This naturally brought a revolt, and there came into
vogue a series of texts that developed these abstractions
from the pupil's own experience in home geography.
These were called the Inductive Geographies, or Natural
Method of Geography.
The geographies of to-day, in general, follow this plan.
The facts of physical geography, including climate and
human occupations, are treated inductively, and then
applied to the following descriptive geography.
Concepts vs. words. — Care must be exercised that
these definitions and laws of geography have a meaning
to the pupil, or they may be simply parroted after rote
study. By drawing these concepts from the pupil's own
environment and experience, requiring him to express
his generalizations in his own language, by assisting him
with field studies, experiments, pictures, and other con-
crete demonstration, by rendering them interesting and
clearer by oral description and supplementary reading,
these basic definitions and principles may be given a
real meaning. If the pupil can in his mind's eye see a
mountain, a river, a spring, a quarry, a grain field, the
256 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
lumber woods, the prairie, the factory, the bustle of a
big city, — he has the concept, whether he can give the
definition or not. And if we could be sure that he had
this concept, it would not matter very much about the
formal definition. In a similar manner larger concepts
of physiographical regions, climatic relations, or even
whole continents may be developed. Good concepts
of definitions serve to tie together a multitude of geo-
graphical facts into bundles of sorted knowledge.
Principles of geography are the natural laws according
to which physical and human agencies in geography
act. Rivers illustrate a great, though simple, principle ;
namely, that water flows downhill. From numberless
outdoor observations, perhaps repeated in classroom
experiments, the pupil generalizes that water flows down
a slope. Simple as it is, this is an important principle
in geography. From several experiments and other
observations he learns the principle that cold air dis-
places warm air and that this is the primary cause of
winds. He learns from observation and reading that
mines are chiefly located in mountain regions, because
of the fracture, faulting, and erosion of the strata, thus
exposing the mineral resources. In the same way he
learns the principle that we export our surplus, and
import what we need when we do not produce enough.
From concrete cases, then, the abstract law or principle
is generalized. Unfortunately teachers often, and many
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 257
texts, do not push the pupils beyond the premise on
to the conclusion. That is, all the necessary facts for
the generalization are presented, but the matter is not
clinched by the derivation of the principle embodied.
Even in the primary grades, and increasingly more so
in the upper grades, numerous simpler principles may
be developed. This practice would stimulate the pupils
to think, and would do much to raise the subject in
intellectual merit.
Of course, these abstract concepts cannot be grasped
all at once by the pupils. It may be necessary to wait
till the second, third, or even later occurrence of the
principle ; but a time will come when the principle has
been sufficiently illustrated to be inferred. In this way,
often, past lessons are reviewed and associated. These
definitions and principles, like the facts of the map, cli-
mate, industry, and the like, are a part of the subject
matter of geography, and should not be neglected. Like
the facts referred to, they require drill and review to
fix them.
But these generalizations are not an end in themselves,
interesting as they may be ; they rather serve as working
rules, or a means for the interpretation of further studies
and the harmonizing of previous lessons.
The principles of geography are the philosophy of
the science. — They are often to be found only between
the lines. The teacher, certainly, should know some-
258 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
i
thing of this philosophy, and should teach according to
and toward it; so that ultimately the pupils will see
something of it. The principles that thus underlie
geography knit the whole subject together, and serve to
organize it into a science.
Below are the chief concepts and principles of geog-
raphy, aside from simple definitions of the ordinary
geographical features, that pupils of the eighth grade
should possess as a result of their course.1
Important Facts and Principles of Geography
MATHEMATICAL
The Sun holds the earth in its orbit, gives light and
heat, and makes life possible on the earth. Affects
the tides.
Rotation causes day and night, rising and setting of
sun, moon, and stars, causes difference of time between
places of different longitudes — 15 degrees of longitude
makes a difference of one hour.
Revolution (with inclination and parallelism of axis)
determines seasons, the year, zones of light.
Latitude and Longitude are used to locate places. Lati-
tude and longitude are used in surveys (boundaries, etc.).
Longitude is based upon the prime meridian (Greenwich).
1 The student should find illustrations of each of these principles as
he reads them.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 259
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Topography. — i. Coasts. — Depressed part of surface
is sea bottom ; the elevated, continents. These rela-
tions are unstable, coasts rising or being submerged
(drowned), affecting the form of seacoast. Rising
coasts are straight or smooth in outline ; sinking coasts
are irregular. The former afford poor harborage; the
latter, good harbors, and stimulate sea commerce and
fisheries.
2. Plains. — Two types, coastal and interior. The
strata of plains are usually not much folded or uplifted.
Plains have the largest rivers. Plains are not deeply
eroded by rivers, hence good communication, stimu-
lating settlement and commerce, also encouraging in-
vasion. Agriculture and herding, and, where forests,
lumbering, are the chief industries. Plains have the
densest population. Many and large cities are found
here. Manufacturing and commerce thrive.
3. Plateaus. — Are broad, uplifted (high), yet not
greatly folded strata. They determine the drainage of
the continents. Are much dissected by rivers, hence
communication is bad. Temperature is lowered by
plateaus. Plateau industries — farming, grazing, lum-
bering, manufacturing (water power). Population is
sparse, owing to difficulty of travel and commerce.
Plateau peoples are apt to become isolated, and back-
ward in civilization.
260 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
4. Mountains. — Are folded, often broken, highly
lifted strata, generally much eroded (therefore contents
exposed, and hence quarries and mines). Temperature
decreases gradually from base to summit. Mountains
running north and south affect especially the distribu-
tion of rainfall. Cause condensation and rainfall on
their windward side ; cut off rain from their lee. Their
perennial snow, glaciers, and rain supply the many
rivers that rise here. Mountain regions have sparse
population. Mountains are difficult to travel over.
They act as barriers to animal and plant life, to migra-
tion of nations, to trade and customs, are often political
boundaries. Mountain industries — herding, lumber-
ing, manufacturing (water power), mining, quarrying.
Mountains are used for recreation largely on account
of their scenic aspect.
Ocean (Seas, Lakes). — In depressions on the earth.
Divide the lands. Compel navigation. Stimulate
marine commerce. Water, the cheapest means of trans-
portation. Modify extremes of temperature. Source of
rain (evaporation) . Tides caused by attraction of moon
and sun. Ocean currents (chiefly drift by prevailing
winds) equalize temperature of the ocean water ; slightly
affect navigation. Waves both erode and make coasts
and islands. Impede navigation. The conquest of
the ocean is coordinate with history and civilization.
Many great ports and commercial centers on coasts.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 261
Fisheries (including sealing, whaling, etc.) an ocean in-
dustry.
Weathering. — Solvent water and chemically acting
elements in the air, expanding ice in pores of rock, acids
of plants and animals, and gravity are the agents.
Result — sculpturing of land forms (scenery), decayed
rock, soil. The kind and character of the soil depend
upon the kind of rock from which it was formed (sand-
stone forms sand; granite forms sand, clay, etc.).
Soil is the basis for agriculture, the greatest human
industry, the basis for human life. Other industries —
glass making (sand), brick making (clay) — depend on
products of weathering.
Streams. — Rain, the source of streams. Their
course determined by the slope of the land. Running
water erodes. Streams carry sediment. This is de-
posited in part (largest particles first) or all when the
velocity of the water is partially or completely checked.
Result — bars, deltas, flood plain. Streams undercut
on the outer curve (swiftest current) and deposit on
the inner curve of a bend (slow current), resulting in
meandering. Deltas form in quiet lakes, bays, or seas ;
estuaries where the sediment is removed by the waves
and currents (tidal).
Navigable rivers occur more in plains than in plateaus
(slower). Such rivers stimulate exploration, settle-
ment, commerce. Water power and manufacturing are
262 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
found at falls, rapids, and on swift streams, chiefly
in highlands. Here manufacturing cities may develop.
By modern transmission of water power by electricity
such power may be utilized hundreds of miles from its
source, in places more accessible and convenient for
commerce. Great river plains are the seat of greatest
populations and highest civilizations. Here agriculture
and related commerce flourish. Rivers are used for
commercial navigation, and their valleys for wagon
roads and railroads, and canals (easy grades). Rivers
are difficult to cross, requiring ferries, bridges, tunnels.
Rivers are often natural boundaries.
Glaciers. — Result from the perennial accumulation
of snow on mountains. This snow changes to ice by
pressure, thawing, and freezing. The mass of ice moves
down the slopes like a plastic body, " flows," but does
not slide. A glacier advances lower to a point where it
melts as fast as it advances. Here is the " foot." The
melting glaciers feed streams and rivers. Glaciers
erode and grind the strata over which they move,
making glacial debris or glacial soil. This they carry
to the foot and deposit there as a moraine. Glacial
soils are generally deep and fertile, but sometimes too
thin, sandy, or rocky for agriculture (New England).
Glaciers dam up rivers, causing lakes and waterfalls.
Glacial scenery — falls, lakes, hilly topography. Eco-
nomic consequences — generally beneficial to agriculture
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 263
and water power (manufacturing), but the hills interfere
with travel.
Climate. — i. Heat belts. — The spherical earth re-
ceives the parallel rays of the sun at varying angles,
most vertically near the equator, more slantingly near
the poles. The heating effect of the rays decreases as
they fall more slantingly. Therefore cold at the poles,
hot at the equator. The earth is traversed east and
west by isotherms. Certain isotherms, e.g. 70 and 30
degrees, mark off irregular bands called heat belts, usually
five, though by subdivision more. Land absorbs and
radiates heat more quickly than does water. On ac-
count of this the isotherms and heat belts are deflected
over the land toward the equator in the winter, toward
the poles in summer. All isotherms and heat belts migrate
north and south with the apparent shifting of the sun,
according to the season. Animal and plant life is
distributed in east and west zones, adapted to the tem-
perature. Man must adapt his life to the heat belts —
clothing, habits, industry (agriculture). The highest
civilizations are found in the temperate regions where the
spur of climate is not so great as in the frigid, and where
the climate is not so enervating, nor so generous with
subsistence as in the tropics.
2. Winds. — Cause — convection and unequal baro-
metric pressure. The convection is usually due to un-
equal heating of the sun's-rays (varying angle) as in case
264 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
of trades and antitrades; or to unequal absorption
and radiation of heat by land and water in different
seasons (monsoons), or night and day (land and sea
breezes, local) . Air moves from the colder to the warmer
region. Cold air is heavier, and displaces, pushes up,
the warm air. Trade winds blow toward the equator
at the surface of earth, and are deflected toward the west
by the earth's rotation. These currents rise at the
heat equator (belt of calms) . Cooling in the higher alti-
tude, they turn north and south, gradually descending as
the antitrades. The antitrades are turned toward the
east by rotation of the earth. The antitrades settle to
the ground in about 30 degrees north and south latitude,
here forming another calm belt (horse latitudes), and,
because warming up are drying currents, form deserts.
The westerlies may be considered as the antitrades
continuing in the same general direction but on the
surface of the earth. • Most of the great nations
of the world lie in this belt. Unequal atmospheric
pressures tend to equalize, the air flowing from a region
of higher to one of lower pressure. Air blowing from a
"high" toward a "low" from north and south is de-
flected by the earth's rotation, just as the trades and
antitrades, tending to set up an eddying motion —
cyclone.
3. Rain. — Source — the sea, by evaporation. Air ab-
sorbs vapor to the saturation point. The saturation
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 265
point increases with the temperature. The warmer the
air, the more water vapor it can hold. Air at the satura-
tion point, when chilled, has some of its vapor con-
densed in proportion to the amount of chilling. The vapor
in air is condensed as the air rises to colder altitudes by
convection, or is forced up cold mountain sides. Clouds
are the result of the condensation of vapor. They consist
of minute drops of water (mist). The wind carries the
clouds. The distribution and amount of rain varies with
the prevailing winds, altitude, latitude, distance from
sea. Rainfall is abundant in the belt of calms, owing to
great evaporation, and the ascent of the vapor till
condensed by the cold. Rainfall is greatest on the wind-
ward side of mountains. Mountains running north and
south seriously affect the distribution of the rainfall.
It is greatest on the eastern side of mountains in the
trade wind belt ; on the western side, in the westerlies.
Rainfall conditions change at the borders of wind belts,
since a place (e.g. southern California) may first be in
the trade wind belt (summer), then in the westerlies
(winter) , as the heat belts shift with the seasons ; thus
wet and dry seasons result. When winds descend they
warm up, their moisture capacity or saturation point is
raised, and they become drying winds ; hence in such
regions are deserts or semideserts. The same is true of
the trades as they blow from colder to warmer regions,
and where they have been blowing over the land instead
266 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
of the sea deserts may result (Arabia, Sahara) . The rain-
fall conditions in the western half of the United States
are determined by the westerlies and the trend, loca-
tion, and height of the western mountains. The eastern
half of the United States gets its rain from the Gulf
and the Atlantic through the agency of the cyclones.
The south and east winds of a cyclone bring vapor. This
is condensed because the winds go from the south to the
north, because they meet the cold winds from the north,
and because they rise to cooler heights at the low
pressure center, and rain follows. This precipitation
takes place chiefly in the eastern half of the cyclone.
Cyclones drift with the westerlies toward the east.
Hence storms migrate eastward. Places over which a
cyclone passes experience a regular sequence of weather
changes. These facts are the basis for weather predic-
tions. Rain is an important factor in determining the
amount and kinds of vegetation. Forests require the
most rainfall, over twenty inches; grasses next, then
desert plants. Agriculture must be adapted to rainfall
conditions. Cereals, especially wheat, do not thrive
in too moist a climate (over fifty inches), but may be
grown with fifteen inches. Agriculture is possible in semi-
arid and desert regions by means of irrigation. Unequal
distribution of rain determines the north and south belts
of vegetation types, especially marked in North and
South America. Jungles, forests, llanos, pampas, prairies,
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 267
steppes, deserts, are types of vegetation resulting from
varying rainfall. Forests do not cause rain, but
conserve and retard the run-off. Therefore forest
reserves. Rainfall supplies streams, springs, wells.
Rainfall affects navigation, water power.
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Commerce. — Man's industry depends upon his needs.
These depend upon climate, topography, natural re-
sources. His needs increase with his civilization.
Savages have few needs beyond bare necessaries for
existence, and these are supplied generally by nature
direct, or without much effort. Civilized man needs
food, clothing, shelter; but also conveniences and
luxuries beyond what is needed for bare existence.
Civilized man is provident, specializes in industry, has
division of labor, — this resulting in exchange, trade.
Diversity of climate, topography, natural resources, and
racial characteristics stimulate trade. The law of sup-
ply and demand governs exchange. Countries sell their
surplus as exports, and buy imports which they cannot
produce at all or not as cheaply as other regions. Nature
furnishes raw materials for man to convert into finished
goods or products. Commerce is the exchange of raw
and finished materials, and is carried on by the industry
of transportation. Industry and commerce both require
labor and capital, and are stimulated by peace and
268 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
stable government. Great commercial nations main-
tain great navies on the theory that they guarantee
peace and are a protection to commerce. Colonial
possessions foster trade with the mother country.
Trend of commerce is affected by government regula-
tions, tariffs, etc.
Animal industries. — i. Hunting and fishing, the
earliest human industries. They require the wil-
derness for hunting grounds. Supply a precarious ex-
istence.
2. Fur Trade. — This is closely connected with the
last. Flourishes in cold temperate, and sub-polar coun-
tries. With advance of settlement game and fur animals
vanish.
3. Herding. — Requires extensive lands for pasturage.
Hence practiced in open plains, prairies, steppes, but also
on nonagricultural lands on mountain slopes. The
herding of cattle, horses, sheep, etc., began far back in
the history of civilization, the pastoral period, and was
a great step in advance. Represents a provident method
of food and clothing supply. Generally herding peoples
are nomadic. Connected with herding is the meat
industry (ranching, killing, packing, shipping, selling —
done with much division of labor in widely different re-
gions). The wool and leather industries also are con-
nected with the last. In general, poultry, swine, cattle,
sheep, horses, are raised in small numbers everywhere
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 269
on small farms, but herding of great herds is done on the
frontier, — the foothills, the semiarid plains, etc.
Agriculture. — More people are occupied in this
than in any other industry. Culturally, agriculture cor-
responds to the stage of the domestication of animals,
it shows forethought, provision for the future. Wild
stocks of plants are improved by cultivation, and by
selective breeding. Agriculture is strictly limited by
topography, soil conditions, and climate. By irrigation,
unfavorable rainfall conditions are modified, making
agriculture possible. Crops must be adapted to natural
conditions. Crops are chiefly distributed in east and
west belts according to temperature ; in north and south
belts (North and South America) according to rainfall.
The chemical nature (fertility) of the soil affects vegeta-
tion. Quartz sand (New England) has too little ; alkali
land (West) too much soluble matter. Rocky or very
hilly land is unsuitable for farming. The great level
plains of the world are the chief seat of agriculture.
Forests must first be felled to permit farming. The
treeless prairies are especially suited for agriculture.
Agriculture is vastly facilitated by the use of improved
machinery (invention). Modern science has greatly
improved the methods of fanning, and the productivity
of the crops. By importation (United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture) new plants, adapted to various
soil and climatic conditions, are introduced, and the
270 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
possibilities of farming increased. In newer lands farm-
ing is generally on a large scale, with few crops. In
older settled regions there are smaller farms and more
diversified farming. Near cities there is truck farming.
In new countries agriculture is usually the first industry,
later manufacturing develops, and may even displace the
former (New England).
Lumbering. — At first always based upon natural
forests; later upon planted forests (forestry). Forests
grow where there is twenty inches of rain a year and it is
not too cold. The tree-line on cold mountains and in
polar countries marks temperature limit of trees. Coni-
fers thrive in colder regions ; hardwoods, in warmer.
Lumbering is usually carried on at the frontier and on
mountains. Methods vary with climate and topography.
In the north lumbering is usually conducted in winter.
Logs are floated down streams with spring floods.
Destruction of forests reduces lumber supply, also per-
mits top great erosion and floods. Forest reserves are
for purpose of checking these evils. Forests regulate
the supply of water in streams. Architecture and
making of furniture are affected by forests.
Mineral industry. — Depends upon mineral content
of the earth. Methods vary with the mineral and its
mode of occurrence. Many mines are in mountains
because the folded strata are eroded and the contents
exposed. But mining can be conducted on plains
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY 271
(coal fields of Ohio, etc.). Mining is often the only ob-
ject of settlement of a country; may be transient.
More permanent ore deposits develop manufacturing
towns. Coal and iron the most important mineral
resources. No nation can aspire to commercial su-
premacy without these. Close connection exists be-
tween the coal and iron industries — smelting requires
coal ; coal is necessary to run machinery. Where coal
and iron are found together great manufacturing centers
arise. Stone and clay are important as building mate-
rials. Architecture is affected by the materials of con-
struction, — iron, stone, brick, etc.
Manufacturing. — Depends upon the stage of civiliza-
tion, the needs, inventiveness, and industry of the
people, and upon the nature and abundance of the raw
materials, and the availability of power (wind, water,
coal, electricity). May be conducted in nonagricultural
lands, as mountains and seashore, but also thrives in
agricultural regions of later development. Must have
means of transportation, — sea, rivers, railroads. Must
have markets, domestic and foreign. Agricultural raw
materials : grain, corn, cotton, sugar, meat, wool, hides,
etc. Raw materials from forests : lumber, bark, pulp,
sap. Raw materials from mines : stone, clay, cement,
phosphate, coal, metals, minerals. The cost of finished
product depends upon price of raw material, labor,
capital invested, taxes, duties, power, transportation,
and middlemen.
272 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Transportation. — Kinds : man, beast of burden, wagon,
rail, boat; these in the order of expense, the cheapest
last. Routes: overland, tunnels, rivers, sea, canal.
Perishable goods shipped by fastest means and shortest
routes. Heavy commodities by water, or slow freight.
Topography and water ways determine routes. Com-
merce seeks the shortest and cheapest routes. Valley
grades of rivers, mountain passes and valleys, level
plains, are easiest for overland commerce.
Location of cities. — Generally in the beginning some
physical feature or physical condition determined the
choice, though it was often affected by historic or eco-
nomic conditions, or even mere whim and chance.
Favorable locations : on good harbors, in center of
region rich in resources, near productive country that is
accessible by good routes of commerce, at railroad centers,
at the mouths or confluences of rivers, at the natural
breaks in navigation (falls, rapids, shoal water), at water
power (falls and rapids) , at coal fields (power) , favorable
climatic region.
CHAPTER XXI
CORRELATION
The principle of correlation applied in geography. —
There was a period, the first part of the nineteenth
century, when geography first reached its standing as a
distinct science, when it was limited strictly to geograph-
ical facts in the narrower sense, and consisted chiefly
of definitions, locations of places, mathematical geog-
raphy, and a few facts about the topography, climate,
and industries of the various countries.
The product was a categorical statement of the geo-
graphic features from the static standpoint. There was
very little, if any, reference to their significance, their
causes, or consequences, or their other relationships;
or of the bearing of geography on other subjects ; or of
these on geography. Naturally such geographies were
uninteresting.
They were merely lists of geographical facts, arranged
in a more or less systematic and logical order. The easi-
est way to learn such books was by committing them
to memory, which was then avowedly the most " peda-
gogical " method, and various devices were used to
aid the memory in accomplishing the task.
T 273
274 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Unfortunately this method is not quite extinct. It
is a very common practice in the classroom, and some
textbooks do not suggest or permit a better way.
But the Herbart-Ziller principle of correlation, that
neither facts, lessons, nor whole subjects should be
treated as separate entities, but should rather be studied
in connection with other facts, lessons, or subjects, and
woven into a larger, richer fabric, a larger truth —
has been applied also to geography.
By correlation is not meant an arbitrary, forced, un-
natural association of facts or subjects, but bringing
together that which is naturally, logically, and even
necessarily related, for the purpose of presenting the
facts thus correlated in a new aspect, to approach the
subject from a new point of view ; to explain a fact by
means of that which is correlated ; or to get a new light
or a new truth by reflecting on the correlation pre-
sented.
If the study of geography is to be truly rational, not
memoriter merely, previous, related lessons or facts
should be used as stepping-stones in the study of any
new lesson. It is unpedagogical not to consider, to
correlate, this fundamental knowledge.
Examples. — The study of the climate of a land, for
instance, should be worked out by applying principles
of topography, wind, and temperature learned in previous
lessons. The shifting of the heat belts is explained by
CORRELATION 275
the lesson on the seasons. The industrial (mining)
section around Lake Superior should be brought into
relation with the previous study of the Great Lakes
Waterway, and the Pittsburg (coal and iron) region.
This last example of correlation would teach such
commercial principles as the dependence of section on
section, the great advantage of natural routes of traffic,
the cheapness of water transportation, and other general
truths. The commercial supremacy of New York City
in the New World must be based on its harbor, central
location, rich interior, the construction of the Erie
Canal along a route prepared by nature, and the mod-
ern railroad facilities. This case of correlation shows
the additional facts of historic development, the value
of the work of previous generations, and the controlling
influence of nature.
Correlations of geography. — - An almost constant
correlation of the experiences and knowledge of home
geography should be practiced throughout the course as
a measure of the foreign geography, or a means for
understanding it. This is using home geography as a
principle of study.
In a similar way geography should be correlated with
natural science, mathematics, history, and literature.
These are brought in only " to lend a hand " in explain-
ing purely geographical facts; to make them more
interesting by showing that they have a wider applica-
276 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
tion than just in geography; or to bring out general
ideas not possible by the solitary study of geography.
.Geography is the study of the Earth and Man as
related to each other. There are two view-points hi
this subject, the one looking toward the phenomena
of nature, the other at the lives of men. The Earth is
the inanimate sphere with its modifying natural forces,
its vegetation and animal life. The Man element deals
with man not only as a creature with animal needs,
but with intelligence in adapting himself to natural
conditions, even to the extent of modifying some of
them; with his economic, social, governmental, and
even spiritual problems. In this sense, geography is
an all-inclusive, complex science, dealing, in a measure,
and in its specific way, with the facts of astronomy,
geology, meteorology, botany, zoology, ethnology, an-
thropology, economics, sociology, history, civics, and
even art, literature, and religion.
Geography a unity. — Geography is far from being
a jumble or .patchwork of all these subjects. " Geog-
raphy is not the dumping ground for all subjects or
sciences for which there is no other place." (Kiepert.)
" Geography should be a closed unity." (F. Lampe.)
" Geography is a unity, with a well-defined essence of
its own. Complexity is' no reproach. The same is
true of history, language, economics, and biology."
(William Davis.) Botany deals with the geographic
CORRELATION 277
distribution of plants, yet does not presume to teach
geography as such. Likewise when geography includes
historical references or sketches, laws of physics, or
descriptions of plants of different climates, it is not
attempting to teach history, physics, or botany. The
object is to give, perhaps, an historical perspective, to
trace the historical development of a geographical
topic ; to use the facts of geography to explain the con-
ditions of an historic fact. By such correlation geog-
raphy is enlivened and enriched. But geography is not
the only subject benefited, for the benefits from correla-
tion are mutual.
The first correlation of geography is with nature-study.
— In fact, in the beginning, in the primary grades,
geography is not separated from nature-study, but is
taught under that name. Such topics as weathering,
soil, rocks, minerals, brook, erosion, forms of water,
rain, snow, clouds, wind, sky, sun, hills, valley, and
other familiar topics appear in nature courses, yet are
strictly geographical in their nature. The principles
of plant and animal life, and the facts about specific
plants and animals, e.g. cultivated plants, trees, and
domesticated animals, are likewise available in geog-
raphy.
It is not, usually, till the fourth year of school that
nature-study and geography come to the parting of
the ways. Even then they should not entirely lose
278 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
sight of each other, but whenever it is to their mutual
advantage should bridge the gap by correlation. In
many well-organized school courses these two subjects
are so planned as to permit this correlation. In fact,
nature-study should be the handmaid of geography
throughout the elementary school course, as natural
science is the auxiliary of the science of geography
in higher institutions.
The lesson on corn, wheat, or the cotton plant in
nature-study cannot but help the geographical study of
the industry based on the plant. The pupil who has
followed the cycle of the trees and herbs through the
seasons is better able to understand the references in
geography to the climatic effects on vegetation. If he
has cultivated a garden, or raised a potted plant in
nature-study, he is better able to appreciate in geog-
raphy the great industry of agriculture.
Nature-study can do much to supplement geography,
or to take from geography the more biological features
less germane to the latter subject. Some geographers do
not believe in including the biological description of the
animals and plants of geography, nor even the industrial
processes of production and manufacture. It is all the
more necessary, therefore, to have nature-study cooperat-
ing with geography, so that in the latter subject it may
be assumed that the natural science phase of things
geographical has been taught, or that the barest ref-
CORRELATION 279
erence to this suffices. This assumption is by no
means well founded, so many authors of geography
boldly include considerable nature-study, necessary for
the proper development of the subject.
Physics and geography. — This is, for example, well
shown by the correlation of physics. It is perfectly
legitimate to begin the beautiful causal series of climate
study with simple experiments in evaporation, condensa-
tion, convection of air, and the principle of the barometer.
For it is an utter impossibility to give a real conception
of rain, clouds, and winds without these explanatory
principles from physics. But it would not be proper,
in the geography lesson, to discuss the application of
physical laws to other than purely geographical matters.
It would have been better, of course, if the necessary
physics lessons had been taught in nature-study or
elementary science beforehand, and then simply applied
in geography.
Arithmetic, also, is correlated with geography in
drawing to scale, comparison of areas, estimating dis-
tances, statistics, latitude and longitude, difference of
time, and circular measure. Not enough consideration
is given to the proper correlation of these two subjects,
since we try to teach children the use of the scale before
they have had the necessary fractions, and refer to de-
grees of latitude and longitude, and to linear measure-
280 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
ments before they have had denominate numbers. This
leads to confusion and parroting. But when pupils have
the basic arithmetical knowledge, they should be re-
quired to apply it in appropriate places in geography.
History and geography are inseparable, just as
geography and science are inseparable. History, per-
haps, has more need of geography than this subject has
of history. Without a geographical arena, it would
be vague, unreal, unsatisfying, and abstract. History
is mundane, happening in definite localities, and is to a
large extent actually determined by the geographical
factors of these regions. The battle of Thermopylae,
Hannibal's invasion of Italy, Columbus' discovery, the
history of the " Tight Little Isle," the history of aboli-
tion in New England and of slave-holding in the South,
the settlement of the Mississippi Valley, would all have
been different, or would, perhaps, not have occurred at
all if the geographical stage of these events had been
different. A knowledge of the topographic, climatic,
racial, industrial, and other geographic conditions of
history enable one to appreciate it all the more.
On the other hand, in the study of geography, the
allusion to famous incidents or historic progress in the
regions studied make them more real and interesting,
and serve to emphasize the human element, without
which geography would be only geology or physical
CORRELATION 281
geography. Geographical features should be studied in
the light of history in order to give perspective, to trace
origin, or development, in which step by step the com-
bined effects of man and nature may be seen shaping
their progress. The very names on the map are foolish
or meaningless unless we know their origin. Many of
them enshrine the memory of great events; Babylon,
Jerusalem, Rome, Constantinople, Orleans, Waterloo,
Sedan, Plymouth, are names that wrap in themselves
much history, and to pass over them in geography with-
out a reference to this history is like Hamlet with Ham-
let left out.
American geography must be studied in the light of
European history, especially English, if we wish to un-
derstand it fully. The events of early settlement, the
nature of the colonists, the various nationalities develop-
ing the continent, the languages, civic institutions, and
spiritual ideals can only be appreciated fully by consider-
ing the historic factors determining them. One of the
aims of geography is to develop patriotism. This cannot
be done by simply bragging about the vastness of our
country, its limitless natural resources, and the majesty
and beauty of its scenery, but requires some knowledge
of the trend of history, the way in which the weal and
the woe of the inhabitants have been affected by their
physical environment, and how they labored to adjust
themselves to this environment, or heroically made
282 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
for themselves a new one by strength of arm and
intellect.
In Europe, particularly in Germany, history and geog-
raphy are taught in much more intimate union than in
this country. In fact, there geography is commonly
taught by the history teacher. In America, if the
departmental system prevails, it is more frequently
taught by the science teacher. There geography -has
not quite reached the status of a major subject, but is
still treated as a secondary one, bearing especially upon
history. This is no doubt due to the intense na-
tional spirit pervading the whole system of education.
History and geography are made to bring out the great-
ness of the Fatherland, and to teach an intelligent
patriotism.
There is room for this ideal in the United States.
The children of to-day will be the leaders of the nation
thirty years hence. The future citizen should know
the geography and history of his country. Pliny said
long ago, " It is a shameful thing to live in one's native
land and know it not." Geography teaches the present
environment, natural and human; history teaches the
past. We must adapt ourselves to our present environ-
ment by the light of the experience of the past.
Before the nineteenth century, geographies, outside
of the astronomical portion, were chiefly histories. Not
much was known about the real geographical facts, and
CORRELATION 283
so to make the books full and interesting a great deal of
historical matter, though for the most part unrelated to
geography, was brought in. Then came the revolt of
geography and the establishment of its independence as
a science. Then followed the period of dull geographies,
consisting chiefly of gazetteer-like lists of bald facts.
Ritter (died 1859), primarily a historian, brought back
history into geography, but this time to show the true
interaction and interrelation of the subjects.
In the higher science of general geography to-day,
there is much of world history, and of the philosophy of
history. The elementary geographies, however, have
not kept up with this movement, and only in late years
do we find refreshing signs of this humanizing tendency.
Correlation with Literature. — There is another way of
putting life and interest into geography, and that is by
correlation with literature. There is no good reason
why the language of school geography should be dull and
pedantic. But whatever the reason, few textbooks in
geography " read like a story."
The teacher can correct this fault hi part by supple-
menting with outside reading from standard authors.
Good descriptions of scenery and places and narratives of
geographic or historic incidents are as necessary as maps,
pictures, and specimens to bring the real subject, the
earth and its inhabitants, before the eye, and to create a
284 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
liking for the study. Some of this literature may be used
by the teacher as inspiration and suggestion for oral de-
scriptions. Some of it may be read in class, and some
may be given to the children to read at home. In
Chapter XXV will be found suggestions for suitable
reading.
More correlation with literature would help to correct
the neglect of the aesthetic element in geography. The
teacher, so taken up with the necessary drill on the
" dry bones " of geography, is apt to forget or to
slight the brighter side of the subject. This is short-
sighted, since interest and pleasure in study reduce the
effort of both pupil and teacher. By pointing out the
beauties of the local landscape, by showing pictures of
scenery of other places, and by oral description or by
reading good descriptions, this aesthetic appreciation
of the earth could be cultivated.
The desire to enjoy scenery is a chief reason for travel,
and this travel instinct may be aroused and utilized
in the pupils by presenting the picturesque and the
majestic in geography. What a pity to give a child
no further notion of the grandeur of a mountain than
he gets from a definition like, " Mountains are much
higher than hills," or, " Mountains are folds in the earth's
crust." Contrast the effect of the following account from
Bayard Taylor's description of The Austrian Alps,
in Views Afoot:
CORRELATION 285
We started next morning to ascend the Schafberg, which is
called the Righi of the Austrian Switzerland. It is somewhat
higher than its Swiss namesake, and commands a prospect scarcely
less extensive or grand. We followed a footpath through the
thick forest by the side of a roaring torrent. The morning mist
still covered the lake, but the white summits of the Salzburg
and the Noric Alps, opposite us, rose above it and stood pure and
bright in the upper air. We passed a little mill and one or two
cottages, and then wound round one of the lesser heights into a
deep ravine, down in whose dark shadow we sometimes heard the
axe and saw of the mountain woodmen. Finally the path dis-
appeared altogether under a mass of logs and rocks, which appeared
to have been whirled together by a sudden flood. We deliberated
what to do. The summit rose several thousand feet above us,
almost precipitously steep, but we did not like to turn back, and
there was still a hope of meeting with the path again. Clambering
over the ruins and rubbish, we pulled ourselves by the limbs of
trees up a steep ascent and descended again to the stream. . . .
The side was very steep, the trees all leaned downward, and 'we
slipped at every step on the dry leaves and grass. After making a
short distance this way with the greatest labor we came to the
track of an avalanche which had swept away the trees and earth.
Here the rock had been worn rough by torrents, but by using both
hands and feet we clomb directly up the side of the mountain,
sometimes dragging ourselves up by the branches of trees where the
rocks were smooth. After half an hour of such work we came above
the forests, on the bare side of the mountain. The summit was
far above us, and so steep that our limbs shrank involuntarily
from the task of climbing. The side ran up at an angle of nearly
sixty degrees, and the least slip threw us flat on our faces. We had
to use both hand and foot, and were obliged to rest every few
minutes to recover breath. Crimson-flowered moss and blue
gentians covered the rocks, and I filled my books with blossoms
for my friends at home.
286 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Up and up for what seemed an age we clambered. ... I let
stones roll sometimes, which went down, down, almost like a
cannon-ball, till I could see them no more. At length we reached
the region of dwarf pines. . . . This forest, centuries old, reached
no higher than our breasts. . . . Here and there lay patches of
snow; we sat down in the glowing June sun, and bathed our
hands and faces in it. Finally the sky became bluer and broader,
the clouds seemed nearer, and a few more steps through the bushes
brought us to the summit of the mountain, on the edge of a preci-
pice a thousand feet deep whose bottom stood in a vast field of
snow.
We lay down on the heather, exhausted by five hours' incessant
toil, and we drank in like a refreshing draught the sublimity of the
scene. The green lakes of the Salzburg Alps lay far below us, and
the whole southern horizon was filled with the mighty range of
the Styrian and Noric Alps, their summits of never-melting snow
mingling and blending with the clouds. On the other side the
mountains of Salzburg lifted their ridgy backs from the plains of
Bavaria, and Chiem Lake lay spread out in the blue distance. A
line of mist far to the north betrayed the path of the Danube, and
beyond it we could barely trace the outlines of the Bohemian
mountains. With a glass the spires of Munich, one hundred and
twenty miles distant, can be seen. It was a view whose grandeur I
can never forget. In that dome of the cloud we seemed to breathe
a purer air than that of the earth.
Accompanied with appropriate pictures a description
like this is vastly more effective in arousing interest and
developing a proper concept of what a mountain is
than the usual stupid definition. Judgment must be
used in not giving the children scenic descriptions or
accounts of places which they cannot appreciate. Many
CORRELATION 287
such were intended for adults only. Still, in general, de-
scriptions of places and scenery, with a touch of human
nature thrown in in the form of adventure or travel
experiences, are acceptable, and have the advantage of
emphasizing the feelings aroused by the beauty of the
country, or by other characteristics. It is important
that this descriptive literature have this emotional
effect. It should carry the pupils away, — away from
the printed page or the map to the real scenes portrayed.
The usual supplementary readers are not referred to
in this discussion of literature for correlation. They
are not real literature, as their purpose is too didactic
and their style too plain. The purpose of literature is
never solely to impart information, but largely, if not
chiefly, to give pleasure by an artistic, harmonious, and
aesthetic use of language and ideas.
Sources of literature for correlation. — Current periodi-
cals contain a wealth of travel lore. Many books of
travel are well written. Even the " travelogues " of the
lecturers with the stereopticon are well worth reading
in this connection. These lecturers certainly know
how to appeal to their audiences and make their talks
attractive, and teachers would do well to leani their
secret.
Geographical fiction. — Fiction, also, may be used
as geographical matter. Many stories use a back-
ground of fact, a natural setting, or definite regions or
288 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
places for the scene. Very beautiful and realistic de-
scriptions in geography may thus be found in the tales
of Cooper, Scott, Ebers, Kipling, Ralph Connor, etc.,
selections from which may be read in class.
There is another class of stories with less of a geo-
graphical basis, but which are excellent to arouse the
imagination and the travel feeling. Such are Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe, Wyss' Swiss Family Robinson, Verne's
Mysterious Island, Stevenson's Treasure Island, and
many other deservedly popular " boy stories," which
are full of adventure with natural conditions and at
least suggest the adaptation of man to his environment,
and the part played therein by invention. Many chil-
dren, not otherwise interested in geography, may be
aroused in this way. While portions of these books
might be read in class, it is better to give them for
home use.
Biographical geography. — Connected with this are
the lives and adventures of real explorers. The stories
of the heroic men who braved the terrors of the Polar
Sea, or the lives of the intrepid missionaries in America
during the French settlement, or the fascinating accounts
of Livingstone and of Stanley in Africa, not only present
geographical information in an attractive and effective
way, but teach something of the meaning of discovery,
exploration, and the science of geography as well. The
record of the men who thus ventured their lives appeals
CORRELATION 289
to the hero worship of the children, and may have an
uplifting effect on their character.
Poetry in geography. — Finally, there is a place for
poetry in geography ; not the foolish doggerel intended
as mnemonic aid for learning the names of places, but
real poetry that expresses the elevated emotions and
thoughts aroused by the beauty of scenery, or 'the awe
of reflection on the majesty of the forces of nature,
or the spiritual interpretation of earthly phenomena,
or the lesson that may be drawn from them and applied
to human life. The poets of all lands and all ages have
felt the charm and grandeur of the earth, and have
helped others also so to feel. There are many aesthetic
subjects in geography whose effect would be heightened
by reading in class an appropriate poetical selection.
In Europe this is done, — even singing is thus correlated.
CHAPTER XXII
THE EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL
KNOWLEDGE
The beginnings of geography are unrecorded, for
geography is older than history. No doubt primitive
tribes were familiar with their own locality, but with
none far beyond that. Geography, however, includes,
as a science, knowledge of distant, foreign regions. In
this sense, the evolution of geography is coordinate
with the spread of civilization.
Ancient geography. — The geographical wisdom of the
earliest civilizations, that of the Chaldeans, Hebrews, and
Egyptians, was limited to the region between the Persian
Gulf and the desert of Egypt. These people were not
inclined to travel, or to international trade. Their
geography is recorded in their sacred books, for example
in Genesis. They made a beginning in astronomical
geography; the pyramids had, in part, at least, an
astronomical function, and tablets with maps have
been found in the ruins of Babylon.
The Phoenicians, a Semitic race, driven by the Jews
to the Mediterranean Coast, took refuge on islands and
promontories (Tyre and Sidon), and learned the art of
290
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 291
navigation. These restless people were great wanderers
and merchants. They were the middlemen between the
Western barbarians and the Asiatic civilization. They
crept along the Mediterranean coast beyond the Pillars
of Hercules (Gibraltar) and even, says tradition, to the
Tin Islands (Britain). Yet extensive as was their
journeying, we have it recorded only in tradition.
The Homeric poems are an illustration of such tradi-
tion. Aside from a rather limited amount of true
FIG. 29. — The world as known in time of Homer, 900 B.C.
geography, Homer's epic contains much of fancy and of
myth with which the less known parts of the earth were
pictured. This geographical fiction of Homer probably
had more weight in after times than the true geography.
292
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Homer imagined, as did also the Babylonians, that the
earth was flat, round like a shield, and with a river, the
Oceanus, flowing all around it. These notions prevailed
for many centuries.
The Greeks, in their expansion of empire, added
to the known lands, especially in the east, as far as the
Fio. 30. — The world as known by Hecataeus, 500 B.C.
Indus. Authentic writers of this period, such as He-
rodotus, 450 B.C., gave good descriptions of the world
as then known. The Greek map included all the Euro-
pean Mediterranean countries, the Black Sea region,
Asia Minor and western India, and northern Africa.
Grecian astronomers held advanced ideas. They believed
the earth spherical, and Eratosthenes of Alexandria,
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 293
240 B. c., by means of a shadow-stick, the gnomen, cal-
culated the circumference of the earth as 245,000 stadia.
The exact modern equivalent of a stadium is in dispute,
and we do not know how accurate this estimate was,
but the error was not great, as one stadium was ap-
proximately equivalent to ten miles.
The Greeks followed the steps of the Phoenicians in
the Mediterranean and Asiatic commerce. For the
benefit of the merchants peripli, or guidebooks of the
coasts, were prepared. The oldest Greek map known
is that of Hecataeus, 500 B.C.
Roman geography. — Next followed the rise and
expansion of the Roman Empire. While the Romans
FIG. 31. — Map showing Ptolemy's knowledge and theory of the world,
about 150 A.D.
did not increase the bounds of the Greek geography,
except toward the north and west, they developed the
294 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
knowledge of the interiors. Hitherto explorations had
been littoral, except in Asia Minor. But the Romans
explored the. Hinterland, built splendid highways for
military and commercial purposes, subdued and policed
the semisavage tribes of western Europe, and by
their stable government did much to foster trade and
the growth of towns. Trade between the West and the
East was extensive. In fact, commerce was the main
impulse of the Roman expansion. Excellent road maps
and coast peripli were prepared.
The geographical knowledge of the Ancients is summed
up in the works of two great writers, Strabo, 20 B.C., and
Ptolemy, 150 A.D. (See next chapter.)
The Middle Ages were, for geography, as for most learn-
ing, the " Dark Ages," all the more so for the repeated
destruction of the map of Europe by the almost constant
warfare between the various tribes that were destined
later to crystallize into nations. The population of
Europe was in a state of flux for centuries. The Ger-
manic barbarians overran the south of Europe. The
fierce vikings of the North were invading and colonizing
western Europe. The nations of France and England
were being welded together from various tribes. A new
force in the Western world were the invaders from Asia.
The Moors took possession of Asia Minor, northern
Africa, and Spain. The savage Mongols from the plains
and plateaus of northern and central Asia pushed their
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 295
empire through Russia to the banks of the Danube.
All this incursion and ravaging must have utterly con-
fused the geography of Europe, at least so far as the
political map is concerned.
Monastic geography. — This was preeminently a
period of religious zeal, both for the Christian and the
Saracen peoples. The learning of the former was at
this time strictly ecclesiastic, and the wisdom of the
Ancients was despised and forgotten. Geography was
colored and modified to suit religious views. The
Homeric flat, circular earth and surrounding ocean were
revived. Distant lands and the " Sea of Darkness," the
Atlantic, and the torrid zone were invested with frightful
monsters and natural terrors that for many centuries
deterred the most adventurous explorers.
The Saracens, on the other hand, had absorbed much
of the classical learning of Byzantium and Alexandria,
and strove in the universities in Spain to maintain it.
These schools were the chief centers of thought in the
Dark Ages. Their geography was essentially that of
Strabo and Ptolemy. The Arabs were the chief navi-
gators of the Mediterranean and Indian seas at this
period, and there were among them great travelers and
geographers, but owing to the Saracen language in which
they wrote their geographical descriptions, these had not
great weight in Europe.
The crusades spread geographical knowledge. — In
296 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
another way, though indirectly, the Saracens aided geo-
graphical knowledge. The Holy Land was hi their
possession. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
especially, a religious fervor seized Europe, and many
crusades went to Palestine, sometimes to be met with
resistance by the Saracens, and again to be met on more
friendly terms. At any rate, these crusades did much to
revive an interest in foreign lands, and to promote
commercial intercourse between the West and the East.
Marco Polo. — In connection with the pilgrimages and
crusades there was considerable travel by monks, curious
travelers, and merchants. The most romantic of these
medieval travels was that of Marco Polo toward the
end of the thirteenth century. As above stated, the
Mongols or Tartars had overrun eastern Europe. West-
ern rulers sought to form alliances with the powerful
Mongol Khans or kings, and sent embassies to their
semibarbaric court in far-off Cathay (China). On one
of these embassies went Marco Polo, then a young man
under twenty, a native of Venice. To the impressionable
youth the journey overland through Central Asia, and
his long years of favor and honor at the Chinese court,
must have been exceedingly novel and interesting. After
long years he returned to his native city to relate and
publish a remarkable story of travel and adventure
which fired the imagination of all Europe.
The Isles of Spices. — The East had always held men
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 297
in thrall. They knew that Asia was of vast extent, and
stories of Cathay and Cipango (Japan), and the Spice
Islands (the East Indies) had long floated about. More
tangible were the luxuries that indirectly and through
many lands, overland and by sea, came from the Orient.
Silks and cotton, gems and gold, from India ; perfumes
and spices from the Islands of the East ; medicines and
dye-stuffs from Arabia, were eagerly sought by Western
traders. The spices, alone, at this time made the nations
strive for a monopoly in the trade. Salt is so highly
esteemed that races risk their lives to secure it. Almost
equally great was the demand for the spices of the East.
We who have the modern variety of palatable, mixed
dietary can hardly imagine how important was the need
of spices for the people of those days when salt meat
and salt fish were the staple articles of food and needed
something to render them appetizing. The popular
spices of this period were nutmeg, cloves, pepper, cin-
namon, and ginger. Camphor, spikenard, myrrh, and
musk were the aromatics most in demand.
Oriental trade routes. — The Chinese had long been
in communication with the tropical Archipelagoes, and
the cargoes they brought from there, together with their
own silks, etc., they sold to the Arab traders who made
regular sailings, according to the monsoons, to Singapore.
These Arabs controlled the marine trade of the Indian
Ocean, Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. Tropical prod-
298
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 299
ucts also came from Ethiopia (Nubia) and the oases of
the desert, via Alexandria and the Phoenician and
Syrian ports (Tyre, Beirut). The Phoenicians, and then,
in turn, the Greeks, Genoese, and Venetians, had the
monopoly of the Mediterranean commerce, distributing
the Oriental goods from the eastern ports all along the
coast. The further distribution then proceeded up the
chief rivers and overland into the interior.
There was an extensive overland trade from Asia.
From China caravans used to travel through Mongolia
and Turkestan, around both ends of the Caspian Sea
to the Black Sea, where the goods were then shipped
by water for the south of Europe. A land route from
India ran through Mesopotamia, and then divided at
Damascus, one branch leading to the Mediterranean
ports, and the other to Constantinople. From the
latter city one route of commerce ran across the Balkan
Peninsula to the Danube, Germany, and the North Sea.
Another route from Constantinople crossed Macedonia,
and followed the Adriatic up to Venice. Italy was
traversed by a trade route along its western side, which
connected Rome and Genoa, and then led around to
Marseilles, up the Rhone, across France to Britain.
Venice was also connected with this last route, and
also with the route from Constantinople to the Hanseatic
towns of the northwest.
Italian trade monopolies. — The Italian cities, espe-
300 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
" cut- throat " competition,
poly of the Oriental trade
teenth centuries. Genoa
rtherly routes to the Black
Venice, the southern routes
hdria. Both cities became very
fe westward route to the Indies. — Italy and the
Levant having the monopoly of the eastern trade over
the direct routes, the western nations began to seek
another route to this field of riches. This became all
the more necessary after the Turks captured Constan-
tinople (1453) and Alexandria, thus closing the eastern
route of commerce.
Portuguese discoveries. — About the beginning of the
fifteenth century Portugal, under the scientific and pious
Prince Henry, called The Navigator, was the first thus
to seek a new way to the Indies. It was natural that
Henry should think that the way might lead through
the Atlantic. He saw the possibility of rounding Africa.
The old maps always showed a river (the ancient
Oceanus), or an ocean south of that continent, and the
medieval maps represented it much smaller than it
really is. Thus encouraged, Henry proceeded to do
what no one else had done before, namely, to develop the
art of oceanic navigation. True, the Norsemen had
crossed the North Atlantic in their long ships from island
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 301
to island ; and Greek and Arab sailors had learned to
sail boldly across the Indian Ocean, taking advantage
of the periodic monsoons. But the open sea, especially
the Atlantic, had always had its real or imaginary terrors
for western sailors, and men did not trust themselves to
sail beyond the horizon. The old legends and old maps
told of human and animal monsters. The torrid zone, it
was believed, could not be crossed on account of the
fiery heat, while far out beyond the horizon one would
come to the edge of the earth. Henry taught Europe
the groundlessness of these fears. He built larger sea-
going vessels, perfected the mariner's compass, which
not long before had been introduced, probably from
China, by pivoting it in a box ; he improved the astro-
labe, for determining latitude ; he built an astronomical
observatory; founded a school of navigators; and em-
ployed the best cartographers of Europe.
Circumnavigation of Africa. — Under the urging of
Henry, Portuguese sailors pushed, year after year,
farther down the coast of Africa. Excellent pilot
charts, portolanos, were made of the newly discovered
coasts, and in the end, 1497, the circumnavigation of
Africa was accomplished by Vasco da Gama, and the
new route to the Spice Islands established, but not until
after the death of the Sailor Prince and Columbus' bold
venture. The African coasts were exploited by the
Portuguese ; gold, ivory, and slaves were brought thence.
302 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Portuguese colonies were planted in Africa, Ceylon,
India, and the East Indies, and soon this western nation
had taken away from the Italian and Egyptian cities
the Oriental trade they so long enjoyed.
The Norsemen. — In the tenth and eleventh centuries
the Norsemen scoured the northern seas in their stanch
viking ships, pillaging, conquering, and colonizing
at various points on the coasts of western Europe.
Some ventured out, into the colder waters of the North
Atlantic and discovered Iceland, Greenland, and
even North America. Colonies were established in
these regions. But nothing came of these achievements
at the time. No other nations seem to have heard of
the discoveries of the Norsemen. Even their own
people forgot them, except as they are recorded in the
legendary sagas.
Columbus. — The story of the discovery of America
is familiar. Columbus evidently did not fear the mythi-
cal monsters believed hi by so many of his day, and he
accepted the theory of the sphericity of the earth, a
knowledge of which had been revived by the Moors,
and by the Greeks who fled from the Turks at the sack-
ing of Constantinople and Alexandria. Columbus held
the Ptolemaic idea of thesmallness of the earth, especially
as to the shortness of the distance to the Indies by way
of the Atlantic westward. The maps of Toscanelli and
Behaim showed China only four thousand miles west of
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 303
Europe. He was therefore all the more ready to try to
sail east by going west. His object was not to discover
a new continent, but to find a new route to the East
Indies, India, and China. He was never disillusioned of
the notion that he had really discovered these regions,
30
FIQ. 33. — Map showing the geographical ideas of Behaim, Toscanelli,
Columbus, and others about 1492. Note the nearness of Asia to
Europe. Japan is placed in the longitude of North America. The
dotted lines indicate the actual positions of China, Japan, Aus-
tralia, and America.
and the names, American Indians and the West Indies,
stand to-day as a monument of this error. Columbus,
however, set an example which was soon emulated by
others. The fifteenth century gave the Old World a
New World, and vastly enlarged its geographial concep-
tion.
Magellan. — The first circumnavigation of the earth
304 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
was accomplished by the great voyage of Magellan's
ships, 1519-1522. This gave a practical proof of the
earth's sphericity, also of the fact that Eurasia was
smaller and the earth larger than had been believed.
Incidentally the voyage also clinched the fact that
America was a distinct continent.
The Discoveries Period. — The century and a
quarter beginning with the year 1400 is known as the
Discoveries Period. The broadening of geographical
knowledge, and the stimulus to the imagination must
have done much toward bringing on the Renaissance.
By 1550 practically all the continental shores of the world
were known, with the exception of those of Australia and
the polar lands.
Motives of exploration. — It is interesting to pause to
consider the motives that have led men to brave the
dangers of unknown regions. For the most part they
were commercial — for gain. The Phoenician peddlers
traveled the Mediterranean countries for gain, and
earned an unenviable reputation for sharp bargaining.
The Greeks and Romans conquered empires in order to
exploit them commercially. Semibarbarian Teutons,
Norsemen, Vandals, and Huns erupted from their native
countries for plunder. Migration and colonization
are usually the result of necessity, the need of more
productive fields than the home country affords, or per-
haps overpopulation.
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 305
The trader sometimes preceded the discoverer, at least
soon followed in his track. The quest for the East was
mainly for commerce. The item of spice alone was
responsible for great overland journeys through Asia,
for the exploration of the Indian Ocean, for the circum-
navigation of Africa, and the discovery of America.
That there were other motives cannot be denied.
Alexander and the Caesars, no doubt, loved power and
conquest. The Saracens were imbued with a fiery re-
ligious frenzy when they swept through Asia and Africa,
giving their vanquished foes the choice of Islam or the
sword. The Christians of Europe, during the Middle
Ages, pressed as pilgrims and crusaders through the
troubled and dangerous chaos of countries, actuated by
religious zeal. And some, like Herodotus, Strabo, and
Marco Polo, traveled because they were curious, and
liked to travel.
With the seventeenth century, however, a new motive
for exploration developed, which does not mean, though,
that other motives did not continue as in the past. The
new motive was that of scientific research, the desire to
discover for the sake of the discovery. For this purpose
the great nations have maintained geographical societies,
which encouraged such exploration, and governments
have frequently sent out scientific expeditions.
Captain James Cook. Australia. — Prince Henry is
credited with such uncommercial motives, though his
306 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
merchant sailors did not share them. With Captain
James Cook's voyages, 1770-1776, scientific exploration
really began. In 1542 the Spanish, in search for the
Spice Islands, discovered Australia, but its insular
character was not known for two hundred years. For a
long time it was thought to be the fabled Southern Con-
tinent around the South Pole, hence the name Australia
(auster, south). The Dutch, who in the sixteenth
century displaced the Portuguese in the Indian waters,
had explored the south and west coast. It was left for
Captain Cook to complete the coastal survey. He
also discovered New Zealand, and many other islands
of the Pacific. He was slain by the Hawaiians, 1776.
Africa. — The opening up of the Dark Continent was
the work of the nineteenth century. The explorations
of Mungo Park, Livingstone, and Stanley in Africa were
also scientific. The tropical heat, the dense forests,
and tropical diseases called for a heroism and per-
severance of the highest order in these pioneers.
The polar regions have always had a peculiar fascina-
tion for mankind. The hardy Norsemen were the first
to discover the Arctic lands of Iceland, Greenland, and
Labrador. After the successful exploits of the Portuguese
and Spaniards during the Discoveries Period, France,
England, and Holland emulated their example, trying to
find new routes to India. The Northwest Passage to
India was attempted by each of these nations, resulting
EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 307
only in defeat, so far as their primary purpose was
concerned, yet adding to the geography of the Arctic
seas.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the
scientific motive prevailed in the exploration of polar
regions. Some of the saddest and finest stories of heroic
endeavor have been written hi these frozen seas.
The destiny of the Russian Empire led to the east,
through the frozen tundras, and the fertile plains of
Siberia to the Pacific. It was the Russian commander
Behring, 1728, who proved the separation of Asia
from North America, by sailing through the strait that
now bears his name. In 1879 Nordenskiold successfully
sailed the Northeast Passage, around Europe and Asia ;
while Collinson, in 1850-1855, and Amundsen, in 1903-
1906, worked their ships through the tortuous shoals
of the Northwest Passage, long sought for, and long
abandoned as a possible commercial route.
The early years of the twentieth century saw the settle-
ment of the question of the Poles. Peary, 1909, found
the North Pole in the midst of the Arctic Ocean ; and
Amundsen, 1911, the South Pole on a glacier-covered
plateau of the Antarctic Continent.
" The final achievement of the Pole will not give us
another pound of whalebone, nor will it open up any new
route of navigation ; it will simply add to useless knowl-
edge. . . . Most knowledge is at first profitless for food
308 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
and shelter, but it is exhilarating to the soul just the
same." (The Independent.}
Further exploration. — The general map of the globe
is complete. Yet there still remains work for the
geographer. Much of the interior of continents still
requires exploration. Vast areas need careful survey-
ing. Problems of geology, climate, plant and animal
life, and ethnographical questions are still to be solved.
And man and his ways, and the beauty of the natural
scenery, will always appeal to the geo-historian.
CHAPTER XXIII
Geography as a science. — We have seen how the
knowledge of the extent and appearance of the world
increased with the migration of races, with conquest,
commercial expansion, and religious crusades, and
through scientific exploration. The new facts thus
acquired by the world were recorded from time to tune
in the books as geography.
The orderly, logical account of the knowledge of the
extent, appearance, and life conditions of the earth ; and
of the habits of its forms of life, particularly its peoples,
is the science of geography. It attempts to bring out
the relations that exist between the various geographical
factors or features, and, as far as possible, tries to find
out underlying principles. Geography as a science has
necessarily lagged behind discovery.
The data of geography. — It is the duty of the scientific
geographer to scrutinize, weigh, and harmonize the ac-
counts of travelers, the data of commerce, and the more
scientific records of explorers, surveyors, and scientists.
It is not an easy matter to thus compile a science correct
309
310 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
in all respects. Insufficient data, inaccurate obser-
vations, accounts colored by partisanship or bias,
pure fiction and superstition, have always entered into
the science of geography, and these errors of the human
judgment have not yet been all eradicated.
Mathematical geography is the oldest branch of the
science of geography. The Chaldeans, Chinese, Hindoos,
Jews, and Egyptians made the first contributions, giv-
ing us geometry, the idea of a spherical earth, circular
measure, the calendar, knowledge of the eclipses, and the
first measurements of the earth.
Herodotus. — The Greeks were the first to write scien-
tific descriptions of the earth in general. Herodotus,
450 B.C., summarized the existing knowledge of his own
and foreign lands, and the earth in general. Eratos-
thenes, 240 B.C., wrote a comprehensive geography, and
made the first mathematical measurement of the earth.
Strabo. — The Romans were too busy developing their
conquered territories commercially to allow the writing
of geography. They had maps and accounts of their
newly acquired possessions which were set up at the
time of the celebration of their victories. But they
did not write any systematic geography. This was left
for two Greeks of the Empire to do.
Strabo, 20 B.C., wrote a great work on the geography
of his tune. It was a philosophical, scientific, systematic
treatise, divided into mathematical, physical, and po-
HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 311
litical branches, thus setting a standard that has been
followed to this day. He appreciated the effect of the
environment on the people, but used geography as an
aid to history. He has been called the Father of
Geography.
Ptolemy. — But the most influential figure in ancient
geography was Claudius Ptolomaeus (Ptolemy) , a Greek,
of Alexandria, 150 A.D. He believed in a spherical
earth, but made it the center of . the universe, an idea
that was destined to prevail for 1500 years. He wrote
a great work on mathematical geography, and in the
famous library at Alexandria he made a critical study of
the geographical data acquired up to that time, and pre-
pared his great map of the world. He used meridians
and parallels, fixing the prime meridian at the Canary
Islands, then the farthest west, where it was kept till
the eighteenth century. He estimated, but with error,
the latitude and longitude of places, and placed them
upon the map. He overestimated the extent of Eurasia,
assuming it to be from west to east larger by more than
75 degrees than it really is, thus leaving the distance
west from Europe to China too small.
Ancient school geography. — As far as school instruc-
tion in geography is concerned, the ancients have but
little to show. Geography hardly existed as a separate
science, but was blended with history, astronomy, and
geometry, in which there was probably some reference
312 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
to descriptive and mathematical geography. Socrates
is said to have used a map in teaching his disciples, and
the Romans set up in public places tablets of maps
descriptive of their conquests.
During the Middle Ages geography as a science
followed the general decline of learning. The best
geography of the ancients, Strabo's and Ptolemy's,
was neglected, and inferior data were accepted, even
the mythology of Homer being revived. The errors of
Ptolemy were preserved because they fitted well with
the Christian cosmography. The monks copied and
made excerpts from inferior works. Their maps, mappe-
mundi, were marvels of inaccuracy, legendary lore,
and superstition, representing a strictly ecclesiastical
interpretation of the world. Jerusalem was generally
placed at the center of the map. The road maps were
somewhat better, but chiefly intended for pilgrims,
and comprised mainly a list of "holy places."
The Renaissance saw the voyages of the Portuguese
and the Spaniards. A new spirit came into all science,
including geography. Pretentious, systematic " Cos-
mographies " were written. One of these, 1507, by
the German Waldseemiiller, fixed upon the New World
the name " America." The German geographers were
especially active. Cartography was developed to a
high degree by Gerhard Kramer (Latin, Mercator),
1512-1594, who invented various projections, the so-
HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 313
called Merca tor's Projection being the most famous.
Behaim, also, constructed his first globe in 1492. This
does not show the new world, to be discovered that
same year.
Copernicus. — In this period physics and astronomy
were greatly advanced. Copernicus, 1543, revolution-
ized previous astronomical notions (Ptolemaic system)
of a geocentric universe, by substituting the present
heliocentric theory. This, with the new Discoveries
of Lands, caused the loosening of the grip of the classic
geography on the minds of men.
Pedagogy of geography in the Middle Ages. — During
the Middle Ages geography was still largely a part of
astronomy, history, geometry, or even religion, and was
taught in connection with them. The chief pedagogical
improvement was in the use of maps and globes, though
none were yet used in elementary schools.
Philosophic geography. — With the modern period
came a number of geniuses who dealt with the philosophy
of the earth and its place in the universe. Varenius, of
Amsterdam, 1622-1650, wrote the first general physical
geography, in a very modern way, using the causal
relation and the comparative method. It was for a
century the standard of general geography, and was
translated by the great Newton for students in English
universities. Varenius was the founder of physical
geography. Newton (d. 1727) himself contributed to
314 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the science of geography the law of gravity and or-
bital motion. Kant (d. 1804) and Laplace (d. 1827)
proposed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the earth.
Anthropogeography, the place of man on the earth, his
relation to his environment, was first considered fully
by Herder, in his Philosophy of History, 1785.
Beginnings of modern methods of instruction. —
During this period of discovery and commercial ex-
pansion there was more need for geography, and a
beginning was made with instruction in this subject in
the elementary schools. By 1600 some textbooks of
geography had been written for German schools. Co-
menius (d. 1671) urged this study upon the schools,
emphasizing home geography as the beginning, geog-
raphy of one's native country, and the use of pictures
(Orbis Pictus).
Rousseau. — It was in the next century, however, that
the pedagogy of geography received serious considera-
tion. This was a period of revolt against formalism
and bookishness in education. The school of educators
represented by Rousseau (d. 1778) demanded naturalness
in education, and emphasized the humanities. Rousseau
spoke against the emphasis usually placed on mathe-
matical geography. He said the children of his day could
glibly locate foreign places, but could not find the way
from their home city to the next town. " Why begin
with celestial and terrestrial globes, and maps? Why
HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 315
these symbols? Why not begin with the earth itself,
the home locality, so that pupils may know what they
are studying about? " said Rousseau. He gave a great
impetus to the learning of home geography by observa-
tion, and helped to adapt the study to beginners.
Francke. — Under the direction of Francke (d. 1727)
in Germany, geography assumed a firm place in the
curriculum of the higher school as a distinct subject.
The textbooks then in use were of the question and
answer form, and atlases were separate.
Basedow (d. 1790) wrote the first illustrated textbook
of geography, beginning with home geography. He
also used current events, imaginary journeys, and
supplementary reading, and correlated with nature-
study, — all decidedly modern.
Herder, above mentioned, as superintendent of
schools, lent his influence in establishing the young sub-
ject, in promoting home geography, and giving it a
human tendency.
The eighteenth century must be considered as most
revolutionary and progressive in the matter of the
pedagogy of geography.
Pestalozzi (d. 1827) did not carry his theories of child
psychology and concrete instruction into practice in
geography. He did not use maps, and his method of
instruction in geography was very formal. He taught,
for example, alphabetic lists of place names before
316 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
anything was learned about them. Geography is, how-
ever, indebted to him for his insistence on adapting
instruction to the child, the observational method,
and the synthetic order of study, which he applied to
education in general, and especially for the inspiration
of his disciples, who carried out his ideas in geography
better than he himself could or did.
Correlation of geography with natural science. — The
eighteenth century had been rich in discovery and ex-
ploration. The geographers of the nineteenth century
had to collect and sift the new material and to correlate
the new geography with the new sciences of botany,
zoology, meteorology, and geology, which were rapidly
developing. Hugh Murray (d. 1846) in England, and
Conrad Malte-Brun (d. 1826) in France, were leaders
in this new movement in scientific geography.
Modern geography, as a science, was founded by Karl
Ritter (d. 1859). He was a scientific geographer and
historian, and a great teacher. He, more than any one
else before, realized the intimate relation between man
and nature, and made this the means of uniting into an
organic unity what had up to this time been largely a
mass of unrelated facts. This idea he expressed in
numerous works, particularly in his Geography in Re-
lation to the Nature and History of Man.
He emphasized the necessity of using physical geog-
raphy as the basis of political geography and history.
HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 317
He coined the expression " comparative geography,"
meaning a comparison of the physical features of one
country with similar features in another, therefrom de-
riving some common principles. He not only wrote
works on the science of geography, but labored with his
contemporaries to adopt his ideas and to make of geog-
raphy a cultural and disciplinary study, which to this
time it had scarcely been. He taught the Pestalozzian
doctrine of beginning the subject with the child's natural
environment. He urged home geography. He insisted
on map drawing. No other man has had such an in-
fluence in shaping geographical science and geographical
instruction. His ideals still hold good to-day.
Humboldt. — Another great influence in geography
at this period was that of Humboldt (d. 1859), a
great naturalist and explorer, and author of Cosmos.
While Ritter was led to geography through history,
Humboldt came to it through natural science, and his
works naturally reflect this interest. He emphasized
the physical side of geography. He made altitude
studies, and invented profiles and isotherms, and
developed the subject of plant geography.
Ratzel. — Among the Ritter school, Ratzel (d. 1904),
author of Anthropo geography, was (after Ritter) the
greatest. He emphasized the human, the historic, and
also the aesthetic side of geography. Through his
vivid, interesting, and appealing description of the
318 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
earth he raised the subject of geography to the aesthetic
plane.
The " New Geography." - With the new development
of the sciences in the nineteenth century, particularly
in geology and biology, since the days of Darwin and
Huxley, 1870, there has been a tendency to swing away
from the humanistic treatment of geography as repre-
sented by Ritter, Peschel, Ratzel, and Guyot, toward
the physical side. The Ritter school treated the subject
of physical geography scenically and statically, as if
the earth's topography did not change, and mountains
were everlasting. The " new geography," however,
treats geography dynamically. The forces of the earth
receive more attention, and their effects are noted.
The new geography looks backward for explanations
of the present features, and forward to ultimate condi-
tions. The causal treatment marks the subject to-day.
In short, it is evolutionary in character. The Ritter
school considered the earth adapted to man, the teleo-
logical view; the modern school considers man's life,
like that of other creatures, plants, and animals, as a
response to, or determined by, physical nature. The
tendency is thus to magnify physical nature, and to
minimize man. This tendency is shown, perhaps, more
in the United States than elsewhere. William M.
Davis is the chief representative.
Regional geography. — One consequence, a good one,
HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 319
of viewing more fully the physical side of the earth,
is the present-day tendency to drop the old systematic
treatment of geography by countries and states, or at
least -to supplement it by studying the earth by physio-
graphic regions, or industrial units, which is really
an application of the comparative method in the higher
sense.
Modern specialization. — Geography has become so
broad a science that one mind is scarcely able to treat it
adequately in all departments. Hence there is a growing
tendency to specialize in one branch or another. One
of the newer branches is commercial geography, em-
phasized especially in this country and in England.
The rise of this subject has been brought about by the
tremendous material development of the world in the
last fifty years. Its introduction in the schools is in.
response to a demand from the business world.
Two tendencies in geography. — Ever since geography
began to be written two tendencies or two schools existed,
usually side by side, sometimes one predominating,
sometimes the other. They are the humanistic and
physical interpretations of geography. The character
of the instruction in the elementary schools usually
reflected the two tendencies, though always lagging
behind.
Geography in the curriculum. — Geography is to-day
a highly accredited subject, with a large allowance of
320 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
time in the curriculum in all enlightened countries.
In England and America it stands on its own footing
and should really be correlated far more than it is with
history and nature-study. In Germany and France
geography is still in the shadow of history, being very
closely woven together with that subject, especially in
the study of the Fatherland.
Home and general geography are taught in the ele-
mentary grades; physical and commercial geography,
in the higher school and university.
In Europe there are chairs of political geography in the
universities, and it is taught in secondary schools. This
branch, most unfortunately, is below par in this country,
receiving scarcely any attention above the elementary
school.
CHAPTER XXIV
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS OF GEOGRAPHY
The first geographies used in this country were " made
in England." The character of these early textbooks
may be judged from Geography Made Familiar and Easy,
by J. Newberry, 1748, London. This or a similar title
was a favorite form at the tune. Geography was still
pleading for a place among the studies. Hence these
early books generally contained in their preface " argu-
ments to recommend the study of a science so useful
and entertaining." Newberry's geography, like many
others up to 1850, was of the question and answer
type, a method followed first by the German Hiibner
in his geographies, and probably borrowed from church
pedagogy. In fact, some of these textbooks were entitled
" Geographical Catechism." As the main object of
the textbooks of this period was to teach names and lo-
cations — " sailor's geography," the catechism method
was an orderly and expeditious, if not interesting,
method of memorizing. Says the author of another
primer of geography, J. Johnston, London, 1787, " Chil-
dren have better memories than judgment: the latter
should be improved by the former," and he claims
Y 321
GEOGRAPHY
MADE EASY.
BEING A SHORT, BUT COMPREHENSIVE
System
Op THAT VERY USEFUL AND AGREEABLE SCIENCE.
EXHIBITING
In an easy and concise View, the Figures, Motions, Distances, and
Magnitudes of the heavenly Bodies: — A general description of the
Earth considered as a Planet; with its grand Divisions into Land and
Water, Continents, Oceans, Islands, &c. — The Situation, Bound-
aries and Extent of the several Empires, Kingdoms, and States,
together with an Account of their Climate, Soil, Productions and
commerce : — The Number, Genius, and general Character of the
Inhabitants : — Their Religion, Government and History : — The
Latitude, Longitude, Distances, and Bearings of the principal Places
from Philadelphia and London, and a Number of useful Geograph-
ical Tables.
Illustrated with two correct and elegant MAPS, one of the World,
and the other of the United States, together with a Number of newly
constructed Maps, adapted to the Capacities and Understanding of
Children.
Calculated particularly for the Use and Improvement of
SCHOOLS in the United States.
By JEDIDIAH MORSE, A. B.
" There is not a SON or a DAUGHTER of Adam, but has some
" concern in both GEOGRAPHY and ASTRONOMY." — DR. WATTS.
" Among those Studies which are usually recommended to young
" People, there can be few that might be improved to better Uses
"than Geography." —Essays on various Subjects.
NEW HAVEN:
Printed by MEIGS, BOWEN and DANA, in Chapel-Street.
PLATE 1. — Reprint of title page of Morse's Geography Made Easy, 1774.
With permission, from the G. A. Plimpton collection.
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 323
that his Geography for Children is an easy method.
" Even young ladies, in two months' time may be in-
AH
ASTRONOMICAL
AND
GEOGRAPHICAL
CATECHISM.
FOR THE USE OF CHILDREN.
By CALEB BINGHAM, A. M.
THE SECOND F.D1TJON.
I'UBLI&HEO ACCCKDING-TO AC T OF CoNGRESJ.
«« The Earth, the Heavens are fraught
with Inftrutfion."
BOSTON-
Printed and fold by S. HALL^ No, 53, Cornhill)
Sold alfo by the Author, No. 44 , Cornhill.
x 796.
PLATE 2. — Title page of a small geographical pamphlet. With per-
mission, from the G. A. Plimpton collection.
structed in the rudiments of geography, and be able
to give pertinent answers to a question."
324 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Unpedagogical treatment. — Aside from names and lo-
cations, Newberry's book consisted of general definitions,
some mathematical geography (largely globe exercises),
and a very slender description of countries. The book
started out with general definitions and mathematical
geography, and then followed with a deductive applica-
tion, a method wholly unsuited to beginners.
The book, like many others of its time, was of the
" vest pocket " size, an interesting commentary on the
amount of geography required in those days. The book
had no pictures and no maps, except a frontispiece of
the world in hemispheres. It was the custom then to
use a separate atlas with the textbooks.
Morse, the Father of American Geography. — The
first really American geography was written by the
Rev. Jedidiah Morse, New Haven, 1774. It was called
Geography Made Easy. Morse is called the Father of
American Geography, and it is to his credit that he
emphasized the value of geography as a patriotic study
for Americans, and a preparation for good citizenship.
Morse's book does not differ from the previous English
texts, except in a better application to American geog-
raphy. It has no pictures, only one map of the world,
and one of North America. These are plain, copper
plate cuts. The political part is better than the rest,
containing some history, and descriptions of customs to
enliven its dull monotony. In spite of its limitations this
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 325
Aries, the rum, in
I IS ]
, ,
2. V Taurus, the bull, April
'*•' ** Gemini, the twins, May
4. °9 Cancer, the crab, Juiir
•r>. & Leo, the lion, July
(5. H? Virgo, virgin, August
7 •"• Libra, balance, Sept.
S. Wl Scorpio, scorpion, Oct.
5). J*1 Sagit.tnus, archer, Nov.
1U ^> Capricorn, goat, ' Dec.
11 8S! Ai|Uuruu<>\vati>rU>iuvr,.luii
12 H Pisces, fishes, Feb.
Q. 41. Why are these constellations callt*! by such ani-
mals' names?
A Those who divided the starry heavens into constella-
tions, must call them by some name, to know and distinguish
them by; and the several clusters thus laid off, probably
bear some resemblance to the animals on Earth whose names
they wear.
Q. 42. What do you mean by the Sun entering the 12
signs?
A. When the Sun is said, for instance, to enter Anes,
the meaning is that he then comes between the Earth, and
the first degree of that sign
The names and order of the twelve signs, may be easily
remembered by the following verses of Dr Watts
The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins,
And next the Crab the Lion shines.
The Virgin and the Scales
The Scorpion, Archer, and He Goat;
The Man that bears the water pot,
And fish with glittering tails.
Q. 43. What is the Ecliptic?
A The Ecliptic, so called from eclipses happening under
it, is that circle, supposed in the middle of the Zodiac,
which crosses the Equator at an angle of 23° 30* , anil is the
path the Sun describes, and never quits, while he passes
through the twelve signs, as above described.
Q. 44. What causes an eclipse of the Sun?
A. Ah eclipse of the Sun can never happen, but at the
change of the Moon ; and as the Moon continually wheels
round the Earth left about, and completes her revolution in
her month; so it will sometimes happen, that in passing
from the east to the west of the Sun, she must come betwixt
him and the Earth, and hide a part, and sometimes, though
vi:ry seldom, the whole of his disk from us.
Q. 45 How can the Moon come between ns ,-ind the
Sun7 Are they not lx>th itt un equal distant* from as'/
A The distance of the Moon from the Earth, is 210,000
miles;
PLATE 3. — Sample page of Patillo's A Geographical Catechism, 1796,
Halifax, N. C.
326 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Si) A NEW SYSTEM OF
itants, but by numerous emigrations from New-England.
The people of the northern counties are mostly from
New-England. Though the English language is gener-
ally spoken through the state ; yet in some parts it is
greatly corrupted by the Dutch. In some instances they
yet have schools and. public worship conducted in the
Dutch language, but the custom is going out of use, and
soon no language will be spoken, but the English. The
emigrants from New-England, it may be supposed, retain
the customs and manners of those states. Long island
was also settled from England or New-England ; but the
other parts of the state differ considerably in character
from New-England. Beside the Dutch, many Germans
arc settled on the Mohawk ; on the Hudson arc Scotch
settlers. In the city of New-York are found many Ger-
mans and Scotch. In New-Rochelle, and on Staten's isl-
and, many French emigrants are settled. All those peo-
ple in some degree retain the customs, manners, and
opinions of the countries, whence they came. The in-
habitants in 1800 were 586,050, of whom 20,613 were
slaves. The militia, in 1808, were 92,564.
Climate. — The northern part of the state resembles
Vermont ; but is more mild, owing to the great lakes in
the vicinity. West of Jhe Alleghany mountains the sea-
sons are temperate. On the lower part of the Hudson
•and the sound, the weather is veiy changeable.
Towns — New-York is the capital of the state, situated
on the southwest point of Manhattan island, and contains
82,000 inhabitants. The houses in general are of brick,
with tiled roofs. Federal hall is the most superb build-
ing in the city ; it is occupied by the legislature, and ju-
dicial courts. The state prison is a noble pile of build-
ings, which does honour to the humanity and wisdom of
the government, by whom it was erected. It is 307 feet
in length, 3 stories high ; the lower story is 10 feet highf
the other two 1 3 and a half each. The walls are thick,
and of hard stone ; the grates are of iron bars, steeled,
and hardened. There are in the city 26 houses for pub-
lic worship, 3 Dutch churches, 4 presbyterian,2 associated)
reformed Scotch churches, 1 associated Scotch church, 5
episcopal churches, 2 German Lutherans, and Calvinists,
3 methodists, > baptists, and for Moravians, Roman cath-
olics, French protestams, and Jews, one each. The hos-
pital of New-York i< a spacious building ; beside Us oth-
PLATE 4. — Sample page from Parrish's A New System of Geography,
1810, Newburyport, Mass.
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 327
book enjoyed a tremendous popularity, passed through
twenty-five editions, and was still in use in 1865.
Revolt. — The gazetteers and catechisms finally
brought on a revolt among teachers. They were criti-
cized as too uninteresting, unpedagogical, unconnected,
and too great a burden on the memory.
In 1822 William Woodbridge published at Hartford
his Rudiments of Geography " on the new plan of com-
paring facts and arranging them in classes and reduc-
ing them to general principles." These principles were
first stated, and next applied in a description of continents
as wholes, and finally in a description of the states. This
avoided repetition : " The countries of the torrid zone
produced fruits and vegetables. Therefore from the
map the child can see what is raised in Hindoostan or
Guinea." The treatment is thus analytic-deductive.
At the end of the book is a fair " general view " of
physical features, manufacturing, commerce, and peoples.
Evidently the author wished the pupil to exercise judg-
ment as well as memory, and saw the value of comparison.
He believed in pictures, though the woodcuts of the text
are very crude and few.
In many respects Woodbridge, who had a keen interest
in geography, and belonged to several European geo-
graphical societies, was ahead of his times, at least in
America. And yet his book is, for the most part, dull.
It is based chiefly on map study (atlas) and the descrip-
328 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
tive text is very meager. From this time on map study
became very prominent.
Primary geography. — Thus far no attempt had been
made to adapt the subject to child psychology. But
by 1830 the influence of Pestalozzi and his school began
to influence American education. The influence of Ritter
in emphasizing the human element was also noticeable.
One of the earliest books to attempt an adapta-
tion to the beginner was Goodrich's System of School
Geography , 1836, Hartford, inspired by the monumental
work of Malte-Brun in France. This little book begins
with home geography, and then proceeds synthetically
— inductively. The language, too, is simplified, and
adapted to young readers, and there are numerous pic-
tures. The mathematical geography is made very simple.
The descriptive part makes historical connections, and
leans towards the aesthetic treatment. In these respects
the book is pedagogically planned. But the map work
is still chiefly locational, and at this period pupils were
required to learn not only the states and their capitals,
but the counties of each state and their shire towns.
The book shows an advance in map study, in that, after
a study of the separate states of a section, the section
is reviewed as a group — a slight recognition of physio-
graphic regions. Home geography, however, had not
come to stay, because teachers were not prepared for it
and did not understand its value.
GEOGRAPHY.
ou,
A DESCRIPTION' OF TH1
WORLD.
JN THREE PARTS.
TART I. GEOGRAPHICAL ORTHOGRAPHY,
DIVIDED AND ACCENTED.
PART II. A GRAMMAR OF GEOGRAPHY,
TO BE COMMITTED TO MEMORY
PART III. A DESCRIPTION OP THE EARTH,
Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants, Manufactures,
Commerce, Government, Natural and Artificial
Curiosities, &c.— To be read in Classes.
ACCOMPANIED WITH AN ATLAS.
To which is added,
An Easy Method of constructing Map*, illustrated hy Plates.
BY DANIEL ADAMS, A. M.
Author of the Scholar's Arithmetic, &c.
Fourth Edition.
BOSTON :
FftttftED AND PUBLISHED B¥ LINCOLN & EDIUNM}
No, 53 Cornhill.
1819.
PLATE 5.
330 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
About this time geography became graded into two,
or sometimes three, books. Maps were now placed in
the textbooks, instead of in a separate atlas. In general,
the primary books were a blessed relief, when compared
to the dull stuff that preceded.
It is not to be expected that protests against these
new-fangled methods, " this puerile language," were not
heard. In Jacob Willett's New and Improved School
Geography, 1826, we read : " It has not been deemed
expedient to sprinkle this book with pictures, from a
conviction that they serve to divert the attention of
the pupil rather than to inform his mind or improve his
taste." And so he goes back to the catechism style,
without illustrations.
Geographies of the mid-nineteenth century. — In
1844, in New York, Sidney Morse, son of Jedidiah,
Father of American Geography, published A System of
Geography of the conventional formal sort. The chief
merit of the book is the more logical and sensible map
study.
Morse advises teachers to drill first on the introductory
pages of definitions and principles ; next to go through
the whole book, drilling on the maps; and then to
go back and take up the descriptive text, — a German
custom, and certainly systematic and orderly, whatever
might be said of its interest and connectedness.
The maps in this book were large, hence the book had
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 331
the usual atlas form. These maps were "the first made
by the lithographic process " in colors, but this was
XU PREFACE.
which die compiler introduces here as equally
Applicable to the use of his own :—
" The proper mode of using this lit^e book to
advantage, will, itisapprehended.be, to let the
pupil commit the whole of the facts to memory,
at the rate, perhaps of one, two or three a day,
according to his age and capacity; taking care at
the end of each section, to make him repeat the
whole of what he has before learnt"
"In connexion with this labor, he may be use-
fully employed in examing the maps ; and in
answering, in writing, the questions that are for*
toed from them. If he read over also a part of the
vocabulary each day, comparing the words with
the places on some maps of a larger scale than
could be bound up with this grammar, it may be
affirmed, that half an hour only spent in this man-
ner every day, will render any youth familiar
with geography in the course of a few months.
" He may then be called on to answer, without
hesitation, the questions which are framed from
and correspond with the facts stated in the gram-
mar ; and if he be required to do this in writing-,
it will be the means of improving him in the art
of composition, while it grounds him in all the
fundamental principles of Geography.
" That part which relates to the use of the
globes, aud which contains every fundamental
problem, may be learnt at any time that the pre-
ceptor shall see fit The questions founded on
thi part will be lound a us«.tal and agreeable ex-
ercise."
PLATE 6. — From the preface of Jacob Willett's New and Improved
School Geography, Poughkeepsie, 1826, showing approval of the me-
moriter method of studying.
nothing much as far as artistic appearance was concerned,
for they were poorly printed, and the colors were not
332 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
well selected. Some of the earlier books had used
different colors for the boundaries, but in this book the
states were colored throughout.
At this period spherical, orthographic, and conic maps
were employed, but Mercator's projection was not in
general use. The illustrations of this period were very
much improved. There were more numerous, more
artistic woodcuts. They were also better related to
the text than formerly. In some, as in Cornell's geog-
raphy, they were truly beautiful.
The middle decades of the nineteenth century were* a
period of very formal geography. There was much
drilling on maps, on unnecessary and unimportant de-
tails, chiefly as to mere location, without much logical
sequence. Map drawing was much insisted on, in fact,
became a fetish. The pupils at any rate must have
had the map well impressed on their memory. In
Morse's book and others, such as Monteith's, Cornell's,
Smith's, Colton's, there was much classifying and sys-
tematizing of the descriptive matter, so much so that
it was chopped up into paragraphs without apparent
connection or continuity. This made it easy to memo-
rize, which seems still to have been considered the chief
pedagogical principle in geography; but the vital and
interesting relations between the facts of geography
were lost. Reflection and judgment were discouraged,
and memorizing was at a premium.
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 333
The books of the period differed among themselves
mainly as to scope and emphasis on one topic or
another. One made a hobby of mathematical geog-
raphy, another of historical correlation, another of
home geography, another of map study.
Ritter's influence in recognizing physical geography
as related to human life was felt now in this country,
and all texts were admitting that physical geography
should be the basis of political, and therefore devoted
space to it, but in a way so unconnected that it showed
the real significance of this branch of geography had
not yet been appreciated. None of them really apply
the causal principle.
Guyot. — In 1849 there began a rejuvenation of geog-
raphy teaching when Guyot came from Switzerland to
this country to lecture to teachers on the teaching of
geography. He was a disciple of Ritter, and had adopted
the new primary methods of Pestalozzi. He broke away
from the choppy, systematic, categoric treatment, and
put life and unity into the subject. In collaboration
with Mrs. Mary Howe Smith, of the then famous Oswego
Normal School, he wrote a series of three graded geog-
raphies, from 1866-1874, each of a distinct scope and
order of treatment and designed for particular grades.
The primary geography was not merely an abridgment
of the higher, as had been so generally the case with the
older " series."
334
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
14
MAINE.
The sea breezes render the air moist along' the coast. The soil is
generally fertile. The climate is favorable to the growth of grass.
• The northern portions are yet covered with forests j the southern
parts, toward the sea shore, present many flourishing towns and
villages. The state abounds in lakes and streams, but they are not
well suited to navigation. It has an extensive sea coast, and many
fine harbors, favorable to commercial pursuits. The people have
therefore, generally, neglected agriculture and .manufactures, and
devoted themselves to commerce.
Many of the inhabitants of Maine are engaged in cutting down
the forest trees, and converting them into lumber, which is shipped
to the West Indies, and various parts of the. United States, and
exchanged for flour, sugar, cash, and other articles which the peo-
ple have need of. This business, which is called the lumber trade,
constitutes one of the leading occupations of the inhabitants. The
following ct't represents mea cutting down the trees in the back-
ground; if the foreground ia a saw-mill, sawing the logs into boards;
a'so a vessel, loading with lumber to carry it away.
The people of Maine occasionally ship cargoes of ice to New
Orleans and the West Indies. During the winter, the extreme
cold in this state creates large masses of ice in the rivers; a ship is
easily supplied with a cargo of it, and in the sultry climate of the
West Indies, nothing can be more grateful.
The ice is exchanged for sugar, molasses, spirits, and other pro-
What render* the air moist along [be coast? What of the soil? What is (he-climate favor-
able tat
What it the lituation of the northern portions of the state? What do the southern portion*
|»e»«nt? In what does Maine abound? De»criHe i(» sea coast and harbors. What have the
people neglected? To what have they devoted themselves principally? ' What are manv of
them engaged in? What constitutes one of the leailin 5 occupation «f the inhabitants of Mauie*
Whal doe* the picture rcpre«<-f:t?
What has (lie miernii** of (he jieople led them nrcaiiuixlly to Jo/ Whit can ;ou ttU Qia
Ofllmr Itujioj cumuli o* ice to ibc We* 4fldle>.' iVMt b tOWAOrtic/
PLATE 7. — Sample page of S. G. Goodrich's A System of School Geog-
raphy, Hartford, 1836.
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 335
Guyot's Introduction to Geography is a beautiful, in-
teresting reader in geography. It takes the child
about his home locality first, then on journeys farther
and farther from home. Physical, scenic, commercial,
and historic units or types are chosen for these journeys.
These travels are finally unified and summarized so as
to present a picture of the whole country. A marked
feature is that maps are not used before, but after, a
region has been thus traveled over with picture and text.
The map work also is definite, and limited to essentials.
Before the Guyot books came out only political maps
had been used in textbooks. He introduced a color-
physical map by combining it with the political.
In Guyot's Intermediate and Grammar School Geog-
raphies the arrangement was analytical-deductive. Here
physical geography was really brought to bear on the
political. The map study was cut down to reasonable
limits by a better selection, and was more than simply
locative, being used for the development of topog-
raphy, climate, etc., as well. Mercator's projection was
used in some of the physical maps. For the first time
separate color-physical maps were used in addition to
the political.
Guyot and Smith were firm believers in map drawing,
as were practically all authors and teachers of the tune.
They, however, made the mistake of recommending com-
plicated construction diagrams, the formulae for which
336
TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
the pupils had to memorize, for the drawing of the con-
tinents, etc. Map drawing at this period became very
elaborate and time-wasting. With the seventies came a
reduction in memoriter work, both in text and in map
study; a better balance of the different branches; the
At its efflux from lake Erie, Niagara River, three quar-
Ura of a mile wide, and from 40 to CO feet deep, flowa
with a current of 7 miles an hour As it proceeds, the riv-
er widens, and unbosoms Grand and Navy islands, which
terminate in beautiful points a mile and a half above the
falls Below the islands are rapids, which extend a mile,
lu the precipice, in which space the rfver descends 57 feet.
.M the precipice it is three fourths of a mile wide Here
Goal Island divides the nver into two channels . and the
channel between Goat Island and the eastern or American
shore is also divided by a small island Over the precipice
the rucr falla perpendicularly about 160 feet. Much the
ercatfr pan of the water passes in the channel between
u.idi Island and the Canada shore, and this fall is called,
ii »in it» sli.ii*. the Horse-shoe fall Between Goat Island
ami the small island in the eastern channel, the stream is
imly 8 or 10 yards wide, forming a beautiful cascade
Uriwern this small Island and the Amencan shore the
slitn of water is broad, and the descent greater by a few
i. ' i than at the Horse-shoe fall, but the stream is compar-
atively shallow The best single view of the falls is from
Table Hock, on the Canada shore, and the best view of
the rapids is from Goat Island, which is ingeniously con-
nected by a bridge with the eastern shore.
CHUT TOWXS.
New Toai, the first commercial city in America, la ad-
frnralily situated fur trade, at the mouth of the Hudson, on
a' spacious bav which forms one of the finest harbours in
(he world Alxnit two thirds of the foreign goods consu-
med in the L bMies are imported here, and the revenue to
ihr I.' S (nun duties nn them has been m some years
S20.000.00tt UeguUr lines of packets connect New- York
moll Hie principal ports in the Southern Slates, West Indies,
and S America, and with London, Liverpool, and Havre
Bufato, the commercial rmponum of the vast country on the
iDDer lakes— on E— -e lake, near its outlet ,
Qn*g<:. the principal commercial port of lake Onuno-«t the
"mSLbJr''P^toI?the naval station of the United Stato on
lake Ontario dunng the last war with Great Bnuin-oeaj the
"p^ut^TnurnKs' for Ibe naval battle of September lllh.
1814 in whkb the American Heel, under M'Donoagh, cmptrjr«4
. British fleet of superior force-on lake C-n. at the mouth at
of the S— c.
PLATE 8. — Sample page of Sydney Morse's A System of Geography,
New York, 1844. Note the very meager treatment.
The city haf suffered much from iiYcs . and at the great
Ere in 1835, more than 600 stores, wnh thrir ronimla, val-
ued at $20,000,000, and covering 30 acres of ground, were
consumed to a single night.
The city is supplied with water from Cmton Kivcr, in
the northern part of Westetirster county, by an aquc4iKl4l
miles long, completed in 1842, at an expeose of 12,000,000
dollars.
ALSINT, the capital, on the west bank of the Hudson, a
few miles below the mouth of the Mohawk, at thfi termi-
nating point of the Erie aad Champlam Canals, and of sev-
eral railroad*, is an old, wealthy, trading town.
Among the other towns are,
WniPani, the seat of the Military Academy of the L'riital
States— on H— n nver, in the Highlands ,
Pfnektrg, the depot of a fine grazing country — on the H — n, a
little above West Pout ,
PaufUiftfut, the depot of s rich agricultural and manufactu-
ring district — in D-^s county, on H— n nver ;
Hub™, a trading town, with several ahips in the whale nah
ery — on H — n nver, in C — a county ,
Troy, the seat of a* Active trade, and numerous factories— on
the H— n, at the head of sloop navigation ,
Sdir*taody, an ancient Dutch town, the seat of Union Coi
lege — on M — k nver ,
I'ttci, the great central thoroughfare of the state— in O— «
county, on M — k nver ,
Syraoae **d So/iu, noted for extensive salt-works — on Onoa-
daga lake and E— e canal .
Aftnm, the seat of one of the stale-prison*- on O— o lake, at
its outlet ,
Rxknitr, famous for the largest flour-milla u. the world— on
G — e nver, near its mouth ;
iocioort, where the Ene Canal descends by five double lock*
from the level of lake Ene, and furnishes an immense waier
power — 70 miles west of R — r :
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 337
relegation of mathematical geography until after the
home geography; finer cartography; a better applica-
tion of physical geography ; the recognition of commer-
cial geography ; and the addition of state supplements.
Representative texts of this period are those of Colton,
Swinton, and Harpers. The latter made a special effort
to emphasize the commercial side.
The " new " geography emphasizes the physical. — In
the nineties a number of textbooks appeared, such as
Frye's, Redway and Hinman's, and Morton's, which
began to show the effect of instruction in physical geog-
raphy and geology in the high schools, normal schools,
and colleges. Maury, Hinman, Redway, Davis, Shaler,
and others had been teaching the teachers of elementary
and high schools the modern, dynamic, and evolutionary
physiography which had made great strides during
the two previous decades. Physical geography had also
been introduced into the normal schools. Therefore the
time was ripe for the new books above mentioned. Their
chief merit is in the adaptation of physical geography
to the elementary school, and in a better application of
the causal relation principle. Topographic forms and
the forces that made them, the waters of the earth,
meteorology, and the adaptation of animal and vegetable
life to the physical environment are the chief points in
which advance is shown. The commercial phase con-
tinues to show progress.
338 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Woodcuts give way to photographic processes, in-
creasing the veracity of the illustrations. The maps
are more perfect. A new kind of map now added is the
photo-relief map.
But in the descriptive or political part these books
are not much better than their predecessors, consisting
of the usual laconic, statistical, enumerative paragraphs
in the usual unconnected order. That which should be
the most fascinating part of geography is dull and
uninteresting. The lack in this respect was partially
made up by supplementary readers, some excellent ones
now appearing, as the famous F. G. Carpenter's Series,
and the Readers by King.
The recent geography returns to the human side. —
Since 1900 the other element in geography is again
emphasized as it should be. The human side had been
neglected in the enthusiasm for the new physical geog-
raphy, but was now again recognized. In the text-
books of King, Dodge, and of Tarr and McMurry we find
this juster balance between man and nature, and, what
is more important, the interrelation is worked out much
better. The interests of the child are again considered.
The human element in geography will always hold the
first place in the interests of children. We find therefore
in the primary geographies of the present day a greater
emphasis on human life and human occupations, and
through them an approach to the physical environment.
SOME AMERICAN TEXTBOOKS 339
LESSON XLII.
Important Places in New York. — What is the chief city in New York?
Ascending the Hudson from New York, what place do we find on the west
bank, near the Jersey line ? What place is next above it on the same bank ?
For what is West Point noted ? For being the site of the United States Military
Academy. What places lie on the west bank of the Hudson between West
Point and Albany ? What places on the east bank between Poughkeepsie and
Albany ? What places on the Hudson above Troy ?
How is Lewiston situated ? Lockport ? Keeseville ? Amsterdam ? Kings-
ton ? Owego ? O'vid ? Havana ? Flushing ? What place at the northern
extremity of Seneca Lake ? At its southern extremity ? In what direction is
Corning from Jamestown ? What place on the Delaware, near the junction of
New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ? How is Saratoga situated ? For
what is it noted ? For its mineral springs, which have made it a favorite sum-
mer resort.
Important Places in New Jersey. — What is the chief city of New Jersey ?
N . . . . k . In what direction is Newark from New York ? What place on
Raritan Bay is a railroad terminus ? What other place on this bay ? What is
the most northerly place in New Jersey situated on the ocean ? For what is
Long Branch noted ? It is a favorite watering-place.
How is Dover situated ? Elizabeth ? Atlantic City ? Millville ? Salem ?
Princeton ? Morristown ? Name the places on the Delaware below Trenton.
In what direction is Rahway from Newark ? Paterson from Newark ? Pater-
son from Trenton ?
Important Places in Pennsylvania. — What is the chief city in Pennsyl-
vania ? P. What place about six miles north of Philadelphia ? G. What
place on the Delaware below Philadelphia ? What places on the Delaware
above it ? Name the places on the Monongahela. What place west of Phila-
delphia, and connected with it by railroad ?
How is Carbondale situated ? Scranton ? Pottsville ? Allentown ? Great
Bend? Mauch Chunk (mawk-chunk')J Columbia? Gettysburg? Beaver?
In what direction is Doylestown from Philadelphia ? What place on the
Delaware, opposite Burlington, N.J. ? What place on the Susquehanna, oppo-
site Wilkesbarre ? For what is Wyo'ming memorable ? For the massacre of
its people during the Revolution by a party of British and Indians.
PLATE 9. — From S. S. Cornell's Grammar School Geography, illustrating
the detailed and nonessential character of map study about 1850.
340 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
In the advanced geographies the causal order is used
more directly, and still the industrial and social life of
man is made prominent, as it should be.
Another excellent feature of these recent books is the
application of such pedagogical principles as correlation
with science and history; the method of comparative
review ; and the use of topical or type study, permitting
a more connected and unified presentation.
Supplementary literature. — There are now a great
many excellent supplementary readers, — some of them
little monographs, from the child's standpoint, of various
countries ; general descriptive readers ; readers of scenic
description; information readers on the industries;
nature readers; and readers in physical geography.
They all help to enrich the subject, to weave it together,
or to bring out its aesthetic aspect.
Beauty of present texts. — Modern books possess, in
addition, the advantage of the improvements possible
by the high perfection of present-day typography,
photography, including the color-processes, and car-
tography, which gives them an artistic finish never
dreamed of by the Father of American Geography.
As textbooks, both from the pedagogical standpoint,
and that of the art of book-making, the American text-
book in geography stands at the head.
CHAPTER XXV
METHOD
Davis, Geographical Essays, Ginn & Co.
Frye, Child and Nature, Ginn & Co.
Frye, Manual of Geography, Ginn & Co.
Geike, The Teaching of Geography, Macmillan Co.
King, Methods and Aids in Teaching Geography, Lee &
Shepard.
McMurry, Special Method in Geography, Macmillan Co.
Redway, Teachers' Manual of Geography, D. C. Heath & Co.
Redway, The New Basis of Geography, Macmillan Co.
Trotter, Lessons in the New Geography, D. C. Heath & Co.
Archer, Lewis, and Chapman, The Teaching of Geography,
Black.
The Journal of Geography.
Mill, Guide to Geographical Books and Appliances, Phillips &
Son.
PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY
Home geography.
Tarr & McMurry, Home Geography, Macmillan Co.
McMurry, Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography,
Macmillan Co.
Long, Home Geography, American Book Co.
King, Home and School, Lee & Shepard.
Straubenmiiller, Home Geography, Ginn & Co.
341
342 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Fairbanks, Home Geography for Primary Grades, Whitaker &
Ray.
Dunton, First Lessons in Geography, Silver, Burdett & Co.
Longman's Pictorial Reader in Geography, Longmans, Green,
&Co.
Earth and sky.
Payne, Geographical Nature-Study, American Book Co.
Nichols, Underfoot, Lothrop.
Nichols, Overhead, Lothrop.
Pratt, Storyland of Stars, Educational Publishing Co.
Boyle, Calendar Stories, Flanagan Co.
Races.
Deming, Indian Child Life, Stokes.
Holbrook, Hiawatha Primer, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Peary (Mrs.), The Snow Baby, Stokes.
Smith, Eskimo Stories, Rand, McNally & Co.
Andrews, Ten Boys of Long Ago, Ginn & Co.
Andrews, Seven Little Sisters, Ginn & Co.
Industries.
Dopp, The Tree-Dwellers, Rand, McNally & Co.
Dopp, The Early Cave-Men, Rand, McNally & Co.
Dopp, The Later Cave-Men, Rand, McNally & Co.
Dopp, The Tent-Dwellers, Rand, McNally & Co.
Dutton, Hunting and Fishing, American Book Co.
Dutton, In Field and Pasture, American Book Co.
Descriptive Geography — Travel.
King, This Country of Ours, Lee & Shepard.
King, The Land We Live In, Lee & Shepard.
Chance, Little Folks in Many Lands, Ginn & Co.
Riggs, Stories of Lands of Sunshine, University Publishing Co.
Carroll, Around the World, Ginn & Co.
LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 343
Winslow, The Earth and Its People, D. C. Heath & Co.
Our Little Cousins Series, 30 vols., by different authors,
Page & Co.
Little Journeys Series, a number of volumes, by different
authors, Flanagan Co.
Textbooks, General Geography.
Tarr & McMurry, New Geography, Book I, Macmillan Co.
Frye, Elements of Geography, Ginn & Co.
King, Elementary Geography, Scribners.
Dodge, Elementary Geography, Rand, McNally & Co.
Rabenort, Geography, American Book Co.
ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY
Textbooks, General Geography.
Tarr & McMurry, New Geography, Book II, Macmillan
Co.
King, Advanced Geography, Scribners.
Dodge, Advanced Geography, Rand, McNally & Co.
Redway & Hinman, Natural Advanced Geography, American
Book Co.
Rabenort, Geography, American Book Co.
Frye, Grammar School Geography, Ginn & Co.
Descriptive Geography.
Monroe & Buckbee, Our Country and Its People, Harper &
Bros.
McMurry, Type Studies from United States Geography,
Macmillan Co.
McMurry, Larger Types from American Geography, Mac-
millan Co.
Fairbanks, The Western United States, D. C. Heath & Co.
Our Country Series, Mason & Co.
344 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Carpenter, Geographical Readers, one volume on each conti-
nent, American Book Co.
Chamberlain, The Continents and Their People, Macmillan
Co.
Herbertson, Descriptive Geography, Black. North America,
South America, Europe, British Empire, Asia, Africa.
Winslow, Geography Readers, D. C. Heath & Co. Distant
Countries, Europe, Our American Neighbors, The
United States.
Peeps at Many Lands (with color plates, by various authors),
Black. The World, Belgium, Corsica, England, France,
Scotland, Germany, Greece, Holland, Ireland, Italy,
Norway, Switzerland, Wales, Turkey, Canada, West
Indies, Burma, Siam, India, Palestine, China, Korea,
Japan, Egypt, Morocco, S. Africa, Iceland, New Zealand,
South Seas.
Lyde, Man in Many Lands (illustrated with color plates),
Black.
Tomlinson, The British Isles, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Commercial Geography.
Keller & Bishop, Commercial and Industrial Geography,
Ginn & Co.
Rocheleau, Geography of Commerce and Industry, Educa-
tional Publishing Co.
Herbertson, Man and his Work, Black.
Protheroe, The Dominion of Man, Methuen & Co.
Allen, Stories of Industry, Ginn & Co.
Carpenter, F. G., Geographical Readers, American Book Co.
How the World is Fed.
How the World is Housed.
Chamberlain, Home and the World Series, Macmillan Co.
How we are Clothed.
How we are Fed.
LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 345
How we are Sheltered.
How we Travel.
Carpenter, F. O., Foods and Their Uses, Scribners.
Rocheleau, Great American Industries, Flanagan Co.
Mowry, American Inventions and Inventors, Silver, Burdett
&Co.
Warman, The Story of the Railroad, Appleton.
Shinn, The Story of the Mine, Appleton.
Laut, The Story of the Trapper, Appleton.
Physical Geography.
Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography, Longmans, Green, &
Co.
Barnard, Talks About the Weather, Funk and Wagnalls Co.
Harrington, About the Weather, Appleton.
Giberne, Ocean of Air, Carter Bros.
Holden, Earth and Sky (Young Folks' Library), Hall & Locke.
Rogers, Earth and Sky, Doubleday, Page & Co.
Shaler, The Story of Our Continent, Ginn & Co.
Shaler, First Book in Geology, D. C. Heath & Co.
Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals, Educational Publishing Co.
Ball, Starland, Ginn & Co.
Miscellaneous.
Dorling, All About Ships, Cassell.
Ingersoll, The Book of the Ocean, The Century Co.
Oles, The Life Savers, Button & Co.
Scott, Romance of Exploration, Seely & Co.
Williams, The Romance of Exploration, Lippincott.
Jenks, Boy's Book of Exploration, Doubleday, Page & Co.
Towle, Marco Polo, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard.
Starr, Strange Peoples, D. C. Heath & Co.
346 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
BOOKS ON SUBJECT MATTER FOR THE TEACHER
Many of these books may also be used for reference work by
pupils in the upper grades.
Atlases.
Century Atlas of the World, Vol. 1 2, of the Century Dictionary
. and Cyclopedia, The Century Co.
Citizens' Atlas of the World, Bartholomew Co., Edinburgh.
Philip's Systematic Atlas, Philip & Son, London.
Longman's School Atlas, Longmans, Green, & Co.
General Geography.
Mill, International Geography, Appleton.
Russell, North America, Appleton.
Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas.
Stanford, Compendium of Geography, 12 vols., Stanford.
The National Geographic Magazine.
Physical Geography.
Tarr, Physical Geography, Macmillan Co.
Redway, Elementary Physical Geography, Scribners.
Fairbanks, Practical Physiography, Allyn & Bacon.
Davis, Physical Geography, Ginn & Co.
Gilbert & Brigham, Introduction to Physical Geography,
Appleton.
Dryer, Lessons in Physical Geography, American Book Co.
Dryer, High School Geography, American Book Co.
Salisbury, Barrows, and Tower, Elements of Geography, Holt
&Co.
Mill, Realm of Nature, Scribners.
Salisbury, Physiography, Holt & Co.
Huxley, Physiography, Appleton.
Ritter, Comparative Geography, American Book Co.
Reclus, The Earth, Harper & Bros.
LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 347
Guyot, The Earth and Man, Scribners.
Shaler, Aspects of the Earth, Scribners.
Shaler, Land and Sea, Scribners.
Shaler, Man and the Earth, Fox, Duffield, & Co.
Bullen, Our Heritage, The Sea, Smith, Eldert, & Co.
Tarr, Physical Geography of New York State, Macmillan Co.
Powell, etc., Physiography of the United States, American
Book Co.
Russell, The Glaciers of North America, Ginn & Co.
Russell, The Rivers of North America, Putnam.
Bowman, Forest Physiography, Wiley & Sons.
Norton, Elements of Geology, Ginn & Co.
Geology.
Tarr, Elementary Geology, Macmillan Co.
Brigham, First Book in Geology, Appleton.
Chamberlain & Salisbury, Geology, 3 vols., Holt & Co.
Heilprin, The Earth and its Story, Silver, Burdett & Co.
Ball, The Cause of the Ice Age, Appleton.
Gee, Short Stories in Nature Knowledge, Macmillan Co.
Crosby, Common Minerals. D. C. Heath & Co.
Miscellaneous.
Johnson, Mathematical Geography, American Book Co.
Ball, Story of the Heavens, Cassell.
Young, Elementary Astronomy, Ginn & Co.
Keane, Ethnology, Cambridge University Press.
Ratzel, History of Mankind, 3 vols., Macmillan Co.
Taylor, Names and their History, Rivington, Percival, & Co.
Jacobs, Story of Geographical Discovery, Appleton.
Keane, Evolution of Geography, Stanford.
Geographical Influence.
Brigham, Geographical Influence in American History, Ginn
&Co.
348 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Sample, American History and its Geographic Conditions,
Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Semple, Influence of the Geographical Environment, Holt &
Co.
Brigham, From Trail to Railroad, Ginn & Co.
Marsh, The Earth as Modified by Human Action, Scribners.
Freeman, The Geographic History of Europe, Longmans,
Green, & Co.
Commercial Geography.
Gregory, Keller, & Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geog-
raphy, Ginn & Co.
Red way, Commercial Geography, Scribners.
Brigham, Commercial Geography, Ginn & Co.
Robinson, Commercial Geography, Rand, McNally & Co.
Gannett, Garrison & Houston, Commercial Geography,
American Book Co.
Trotter, Geography of Commerce, Macmillan Co.
Lyde, Man and His Markets, Macmillan Co.
Patton, Natural Resources of the United States.
Freeman and Chandler, Commercial Products of the United
States, Ginn & Co.
Willets, Workers of the Nation, 2 vols., Dodd, Mead &
Co.
Martin, The Story of a Piece of Coal, Appleton.
Nicolls, The Story of American Coals, Lippincott.
Greene, Coal and Coal Mines, Houghton, Mifflin Co.
Channing & Lansing, The Story of the Great Lakes, Macmillan
Co.
Curwood, The Great Lakes, Putnam.
Van Hise, The Conservation of the Natural Resources of the
United States, Macmillan Co.
Price, The Land We Live In, Small, Maynard & Co.
Johnson, Elements of Transportation. Appleton.
LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 349
Descriptive Geography — Travel.
Stoddard Illustrated Lectures, 10 vols., Balch Bros. Grand
Canon, Yellowstone, Mexico, California, Norway,
Switzerland, Greece, Austria, Italy, Turkey, France,
Germany, Spain, Holland, Belgium, England, Russia,
India, Palestine, China, Japan, Egypt.
Holmes, Illustrated Lectures, McClure & Co. England,
France, Germany, Greece, Spain, Italy, Switzerland,
Russia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Morocco, Egypt,
China, Corea, Japan, Philippines, Hawaii.
Singleton, Series ; Dodd, Mead, & Co. Historic Landmarks
of America, Paris, Russia, Venice, Switzerland, Great
Rivers of the World, Japan.
Johnson, Travel Series, Macmillan. Among English Hedge-
rows, The Land of the Heather, The Isle of the Shamrock,
Along French Byways, Highways and Byways of the
Mississippi Valley, Highways and Byways of the Great
Lakes, Highways and Byways of the South, Highways
and Byways of the Rocky Mountains, Highways and
Byways of the Pacific Coast, New England and Its
Neighbors, Picturesque St. Lawrence, Picturesque Hud-
son.
Our European Neighbors (illustrated, by various authors),
Putnam. France, Denmark, Germany, Holland, Russia,
Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Turkey.
Our Asiatic Neighbors (illustrated, by various authors), Put-
nam. India, Japan, China.
Travel Series, beautiful color plates, Black.
Ball, Sussex, England.
McCormick, The Alps.
Mempes, Paris.
Baedeker, Guide Books of nearly all Countries of the World,
Scribners.
350 TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
Wey, Rome, Winston Co.
Norman, All the Russias, Scribners.
Great Streets of the World (by various authors), Scribners.
Taylor, Views Afoot, McKay.
Singleton, Guide to Great Cities, Northwestern Europe,
Baker, Taylor & Co.
Mackinder, The Rhine, Dodd, Mead & Co.
Peixotto, By Italian Seas, Scribners.
Marshall, Cathedral Cities of France, Dodd, Mead & Co.
Wilson, In Scripture Lands, Scribners.
Elmendorf, A Camera Crusade (Palestine), Scribners.
Goodrich, Africa To-day, McClurg & Co.
Penfield, Present Day Egypt, The Century Co.
Johnston, The Nile Quest, Stokes Co.
Stanley, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols., Scribners.
Carpenter, South America, Wilson.
Bingham, Across South America, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Domville-Fife, The Great States of South America, Bell &
Sons.
Ober, Camps in the Caribbees, Lee & Shepard.
Ober, Our West Indian Neighbors, Potter & Co.
Carson, Mexico, Macmillan Co.
Shaler, The United States, 3 vols., Appleton.
Austin, The Land of Little Rain, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Lummis, Strange Corners of our Country, The Century Co.
Peixotto, Romantic California, Scribners.
Bacon, The Hudson River, Putnam.
Ckambers, The Mississippi River and Its Wonderful Valley,
Putnam.
Parrish, The Great Plains, McClurg & Co.
Muir, Our National Parks, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Smythe, The Conquest of Arid America, Macmillan Co.
Ralph, Our Great Southwest, Harper & Bros.
Van Dyke, The New New York, Macmillan Co.
LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS 351
Smith, Charcoals of Old and New New York, Doubleday.
Abbott, Old Paths and Legends of New England, Putnam.
Bacon, Historical Pilgrimages in New England, Silver, Bur-
dett & Co.
Cook, Picturesque America, 3 vols., Coates & Co.
Fraser, Canada As It Is, Cassell & Co.
Finck, The Pacific Coast, Scenic Route, Scribners.
Taylor, Alaska and the Yellowstone, Jacobs & Co.
Wright, Greenland's Ice-Field, and Life in the North Atlantic,
Appleton.
Peary, The North Pole, Stokes.
Van Dyke, Nature for Its Own Sake, Scribners.
Van Dyke, The Desert, Scribners.
Van Dyke, The Opal Sea, Scribners.
White, The Mountains, Doubleday, Page & Co. .
INDEX
Adams, textbook, 329.
Advanced geography, 147-155.
Africa, discovery and exploration, 300-
302, 306.
Agriculture, 76, 77, 123-124, 129, 133,
138, 269-270.
Aim of lesson, 40.
Aims of geography, practical, 1-4;
cultural, 4-5 ; esthetic, 4.
Alaska, 131, 169.
Alps, 132, 146-147, 250, 284.
Altitude, effects of, 125, 127-131.
Amundsen, polar discoveries, 307.
Ancients, geography of, 290-294, 310-
312.
Andorra, 126.
Andrews, Jane, readers, 10.
Animals, distribution of, 129-130.
Anthropogeography, 314.
Apperceptive basis, 13, 18, 30-31, 32-33.
Arabs, geographical knowledge, 294-
297.
Arctic Ocean, 160, 168; discoveries,
306-307.
Argentina, steppes, 134.
Arithmetic in geography, 279.
Asia, trade with, in time of Ancients
and in Middle Ages, 296-300.
Assignment of lessons, 26-29.
Association in map study, 171.
Australia, steppes, 134; discovery, 306.
Axis, 100, 113-114.
Babylon, 135, 202, 281, 290, 292.
Basedow, home geography, textbook,
3i-
Behaim, globe, mediaeval ideas of
world, 302-303. .
Behring, discoveries, 307.
Bermuda, 131.
Bingham, catechism textbook, 323.
Biography in geography, 288.
Bird's-eye view, value in map study, 45.
Blackboard drawing, 64, 182.
Blacksmith, 48.
British Isles, causal study of, 147-155.
Brodeur, children's interests, 9.
Brook, study of, in home geography,
53-57-
Buckbee, children's interests, 9.
California, 129, 131, 135; name of, 213.
Canada, 131.
Carpenter, F. G., readers, 158, 338.
Cartography, 183-203.
Cascade Mountains, 128.
Catechism textbooks, 321-325.
Cathay, 296-297.
Cattle industry, 76, 134, 224, 268.
Causal principle, 80, 121-137, 172.
Causal relation, 80, 131-137, 172.
Celtic names in Europe, 206-208.
Central-cylindrical projection, 189.
Chaldeans, geographical knowledge,
290.
China, knowledge of, by Europeans in
Middle Ages, 296-297.
Cipango, 297.
Circumnavigation, 99-100, 303-304.
Cities, location, 272.
Civics in home geography, 50.
Classic names in America, 216.
Climate, factors, 126-128; Western
United States, 128; effects, 128-136;
general, 263-267.
Coal, 151, 271.
Coast, Pacific, 128, 169.
Coast and Geodetic Survey of the
United States, 198.
Coast Range, 128.
Collecting instinct, utilization, 67.
Collinson, Northwest Passage, 307.
Colonies, English, 154.
Color-physical maps, oo.
353
354 INDEX
Colton, textbook, 332, 337. Dry farming, 77.
Columbus, gg, 212, 218, 302-303. Dutch, exploration, 306; names in the
Comenius, influence on geography, 314. United States, 215.
Commerce, 1-2, 222-237, 249, 267-268;
ancient, 290, 294 ; mediaeval oriental, Earth, rotundity, 99, 292, 302 ; size,
297-300. 99, 293.
Commercial geography, 70, 154-155, Egypt, geographical knowledge in
222-237, 267-272 ; home geography, ancient times, 290.
40-50. Elementary geography, 143-157.
Comparative geography, 251-253. Eliciting, 16, 106.
Compass, points, 44, 165 ; introduction England, 134, 135 ; causal study of,
to Europe, 301. 140-155; geographical names, 207-
Concentric method of study, 34. 210.
Concepts, 32, 60, 71, 97, 99, 255. English names in America, 214-215.
Concreteness in teaching, 60, 79. Environment, effects, 80, 121-137.
Conic projection, 193-194. Equal-area projection, 192-193.
Contour map, 92-93. Eratosthenes, measurement of earth,
Conwentz, on use of textbook, 22. 292, 310.
Copernicus, heliocentric theory, 313. Eskimos, 62-63.
Cornell, textbook, 332, 339. Essen, coal and iron, 250.
Correction line, 199. Esthetic aim in geography, 4, 81, 158,
Correlation, 47, 273-287. 284-286.
Crusades, effect on geographical knowl- Euphrates, 124.
edge, 295-296. Europe, comparison with North
Cumberland plateau, geographical in- America, 252-253.
fluence, 125. Evolution, principle of, in geography,
Current events, use in teaching, 3, 150- 121.
161, 236-237. Evolution of geographical knowledge,
290-308.
Da Gama, circumnavigation of Africa, Excursions, 34, 40-43, 83.
301. Experiments, 60-71.
Danish names in England, 209. Exploration, progress, 290-308 ; mo-
Dark Ages, state of geographical knowl- tives, 304-305.
edge, 294-300.
Davis, William, influence in the New Farming, 76, 77, 123-124, 129, 133,
Geography, 276, 318, 337. 138,269-270; dry farming, 77.
Day and night, 101. Fiction in geography, 158, 287.
De la Hire, globular projection, 187. Field lessons, 34, 40-43, 83.
Descriptive geography, 143-155. Fiords, Alaskan, 169.
Deserts, 129, 135. Florida, 131, 168.
Development lesson, method, 16, 106. Foods, sources, home geography, 48.
Diagrams, 64, 105, 106; seasons, 116- Forests, 129, 133, 229.
119; statistical, 235; construction, Francke, aid to geography teaching, 3 15.
for maps, 177. French names in America, 213-214.
Discovery, progress of, 290-308. Fruit, 50, 129.
Distribution, of animals, 129; of plants, Frye, textbook, 177, 337.
127-129.
Dodge, textbook, 223, 226-227, 338 Gannett, geographical nomenclature in
Drawings, blackboard, 64, 105-106 United States, 205.
Drill, in map study, 170. Geike, map study, 163.
INDEX
355
Genoa, mediaeval oriental trade, 300.
Geography, advanced, 147-155; aim,
1-5; ancient, 290-294, 310-312;
comparative, 251-253; commercial,
45-50, 222-237; descriptive, 142-
147; elementary, 143-147; home,
31-60, 250, 314-317, 328; mathe-
matical, 97-119, 310; mediaeval, 294-
300, 312-313; modern, 120, 318,
320; new, 318-320; pedagogy,
history of, 300-320; physical, 73-
82, 83-95, 250-267; political, 142-
155; primary, 143-147; principles,
255-272 ; science, history of, 300-
320; regional, 248, 257, 318; spe-
cialization, 319; textbooks, 321-340.
Geographical consequence, control, in-
fluence, 120-123.
Geographical names, origin, 205-221.
Geographical sequence, 120-123, 172.
Geographical units, 249.
Geological Survey, United States, 199-
Gibb, children's interests in geography,
9-10.
Glacier, 262.
Globe, 104, 105, 174, 183-184.
Globular projection, 187-188.
Goodrich, textbook, 336.
Grazing, 76, 134, 224, 268.
Great Basin, climate, 129.
Great Plains, causal study, 75-78, 128,
224.
Greek, ancient geography, 292-293.
Gulf Coast, coastal features, 168.
Gutter, stream study, 54.
Guyot, influence on American geog-
raphy, 242, 318, 333-335-
Habit formation in geography, 5.
Hall, G. Stanley, on geography teach-
ing, 8.
Harpers, textbook, 337.
Harris, W. T., on value of geography,
12.
Hassler, poly conic projection, 195.
Heat belts, 102, 263.
Heat of earth, no, 126, 263.
Hebrew, ancient, geographical knowl-
edge, 290.
Hecataeus, ancient map, 293.
Hedin, Sven, explorer, 198.
Henry, The Navigator, 300.
Herbart, correlation of studies, 274.
Herder, influence on teaching of geog-
raphy, 314, 315.
Herodotus, knowledge of geography,
292, 310.
Hills, in home geography, 51-53.
Himalayas, 131.
Hinman, textbook, 226, 337.
Hinterland, 198.
Hipparchus, orthographic projection,
187.
History, correlated with geography, 3,
51, 205-221, 280-283.
Holland, 81, 134.
Home geography, 31-60, 250, 314-317,
328.
Homeric geography, 291.
Homolographic projection, 192-193.
Human equation in geography, 136-
137-
Humboldt, physical geography, 317.
Illustrative material, 39, 60-71.
Imagination, 7, 168, 283-285.
India, 131.
Indian names in America, 210-212.
Indian Ocean, navigation, trade, medi-
aeval, 301.
Indies, East, quest for, 296-300.
Inductive method, 34, 106.
Industry, 222-237, 240-250.
Intensive study, 226, 238.
Interests of children in geography, 8,
10, 78-79, 96-97-
Iron, importance of, 151, 271.
Irrigation, 77, 133, 242-245.
Italy, mediaeval commerce with Orient
and Europe, 299-300.
Kant, philosophic aid to geography,
314-
Kiepert, on correlation, 276.
King, textbook, 226, 242, 338.
Kramer, cartography, Mercator pro-
jection, 1 88, 312.
Labrador, climate, 168.
Lampe, on correlation, 276.
356 INDEX
Land Survey, United States, 199- Method, apperceptive basis in teach-
202. ing, 13, 1 8, 30, 32 ; causal study, 80,
Lantern slides, 65-66. 121-137, I72; concentric, 34; corn-
Laplace, nebular hypothesis, 314. parative, 251-253; correlation, 47,
Latitude, 100, 106-100, 258. 273-287; development, 16, 106;
Liege, iron and coal, 250. drill, 170; field lessons, 34, 40-43,
Literature in geography, 82, 283-289. 83 ; inductive, 34, 100 ; intensive,
Livingstone, exploration in Africa, 288, 226, 238; map study, 93, 164-174;
306. observational, 7, 13, 31, 38, 83, 98,
Lodge, Oliver, on geography teaching, 8. 102, 104, 233; oral, 14, 16, 18, 106;
Longitude, 100, 106-109, 258. radial, 33; regional, 248, 257, 318;
Lumbering, type study, 228, 270. review by comparison, 252 ; syn-
thetic, 30, 34; textbook, 6, 16, 20-
Mackinder, on maps, 162. 29; topical, 247-248; type study,
McMurry, F., textbook, 224, 226, 338. 226, 228-230, 241, 248.
McMurry, C., type study, 242. Mexico, 125, 168.
Magellan, circumnavigation, 99, 303- Middle Ages, geography of, 294-300,
304- 312, 313-
Malte-Brun, scientific geographer, 316. Migration of man, 131, 294.
Man, as affected by environment, 123, Mill, on geography, i, 142.
130-139, 276; his effect on the en- Mineral industries, 270-271.
vironment, 136-137. Mississippi River, 124.
Manufacturing, 135 ; English, 152 ; Model lessons, descriptive geography,
controlling factors, 134-135, 271. 146-147, 224-225, 242-245, 147-155 ;
Map diagrams for construction, 177. home geography, 44-59 ; latitude and
Map drawing, 175-182. longitude, 107-109; seasons, 109-
Mappe-mundi, 312. 112, 112-115.
Maps, 162-174; ancient, 293, 310; Modeling, 86-89.
blank, 170; cartography, 183-203; Models, plastic, 40, 84-87; solar sys-
color-physical, 90 ; commercial, 234; tern, 105, 119.
contour, 92; data for, 197-203; Mollweide, equal-area projection, 192-
outline, 181 ; political, 163; photo- 193.
relief, 90-93 ; physical, 80-94 ; print- Monastic geography in Middle Ages,
ing of, 202-204; progressive, 129; 295.
projections, 185-197 ; sketch maps, Mongols in Europe, 294, 296-297.
181-182 ; special, 93, 161-163. Monopolies, Italian oriental trade,
Map study, 93, 164-174. Middle Ages, 299-300.
Marco Polo, 295. Monroe, W. S., children's interests in
Material, illustrative, 39, 60-71. geography, 9.
Mathematical geography, 97-119, 310. Monteith, textbook, 339.
Maury, textbook, 337. Moors, influence in geography, 294-296.
Mediterranean commerce in ancient Morrison, on maps, 183.
and mediaeval times, 290-310. Morse, Jedidiah, textbook, 322-324.
Memorizing, 5, 7, 64, 145, 171. Morse, S., textbook, 330.
Memory, visual, 64. Morton, textbook, 337.
Mental stages of children, 7. Mountains, effects of, 125, 260 ; scenery,
Mercator, cartographer, 189, 312. 285-286.
Mercator's projection, 188-192, 313. Moving pictures as aid to teaching, 65.
Meridian net method of map drawing, Murray, H., scientific geographer, 316.
176. Museum, 38.
INDEX
357
Names, geographical, origin, 171, 205-
221.
Nancy, coal and iron, 250.
Native geographical names in America,
216-220.
Nature-study, relation to geography,
47, 277-279.
Navigation, rise and progress, 124, 291,
293, 297-304-
Newberry, textbook, 321-324.
New England, 134, 229, 240.
New Geography, causal, 318-320.
Newton, I., contribution to geography,
313, 3i4-
New York City, water supply, 132 ;
commercial, 249, 275.
Nile, 124.
Nomenclature, 205-221.
Nordenskiold, Northeast Passage, 307.
Norsemen, explorations, 300, 302.
Norse names in England, 209.
North America, coasts, 168-169;
names, origin, 210-221.
Northeast Passage, 307.
Northwest Passage, 306-307.
Norway, 131.
Observation, basis of geography, 7, 13,
31, 38, 83, 98, 102, 104, 233-234.
Occupations, home geography, 45, 48-
49; general, 222-237, 240-250.
Ocean, geographical effects, 260.
Oceanus, myth, 294.
Oral method of instruction, 14, 16, 18,
106.
Oregon, rainfall, 129.
Orientation, 44, 165.
Orthographic projection, 185-186.
Outline maps, 181.
Outlines, for study, 25.
Pacific Coast, rainfall, 128 ; irregularity,
169.
Park, Mungo, African explorer, 306.
Parker, Col. F. W., on map study,
169.
Parrish, textbook, 326.
Patillo, textbook, 325.
Patriotism, an aim hi geography, 3,
281.
Peary, polar discoveries, 160, 198, 307.
Pedagogy of geography, history of, 309-
320.
Penck, on the name, America, 219.
Peripli, ancient guide books for sailors,
293-
Pestalozzi, influence on teaching of
geography, 315.
Phoenician traders, 200.
Photo-relief map, 90.
Physical geography, 73-95 ; in home
geography, 34-37, 51-59.
Physical maps, 80-94.
Physics in geography, 279.
Physiography, 73-95; in home geog-
raphy, 34-37, 51-59-
Physiographic region, 240.
Pictures, use in teaching, 62-63, 82.
Pittsburg, iron and coal center, 249,
275-
Plains, effects, 123, 259.
Plateaus, effects, 125, 259.
Plastic materials for modeling, 88.
Pliny, on home geography, 282.
Poetry in geography, 289.
Poles, 100, 1 60; north, 306-308; south,
307.
Political geography, 142-155.
Polo, Marco, 295.
Polyconic projection, 195-196.
Population, density, 125.
Portolanos, 300.
Portuguese discoveries, 300-302.
Prairies, cause, 133.
Primary geography, 143-147.
Primitive processes of industry, 47.
Principles of geography, 255-272.
Profiles, value, 94.
Progressive maps, 179.
Projections, map, 185-197; central-
cylindrical, 189; conic, 192; equal-
area, 192; globular, 187; homo-
lographic, 192; Mercator, 188;
Mollweide, 192; othographic, 185;
poly conic, 195.
Ptolemy, ancient geographical knowl-
edge, 294, 302, 311-312.
Public Domain, survey, tog-
Putnam, Rufus, United States Land
Survey, 199.
358
INDEX
Radial method of study, 33.
Rain, distribution, 127; in Western
United States, 128, 264-267; geo-
graphical influence, 132-133.
Ranching, 76, 224-225.
Ratzel, influence on geography, 317.
Raw materials, 134.
Reading, geography as an aid to, 3;
supplementary, 236; literature in
geography, 82, 283, 289.
Reasoning in geography, 5, 8, 80, 121-
137, 169, 172.
Records of discovery and exploration,
198.
Redway, textbook, 226, 337.
Region, physiographic, 240.
Regional geography, 248, 257, 318-
319-
Renaissance, status of geography, 312.
Review by comparison, 252.
Revolution of earth, 101, 100-118,
258.
Ritter, 30, 251, 283, 316-317, 333.
Rivers, home geography, 53-57 ; geo-
graphical influence, 123, 261-262.
Riviera, 131.
Rocky Mountains, 128.
Roman names in England, 208.
Romans, geographical knowledge, 293-
294.
Rotation, 101, 258.
Rotundity of the earth, 99, 292-293.
Rousseau, 169, 314.
Russia, expansion, 307.
Sands, selections, 205.
Saracens, geographical knowledge, 295-
296, 305.
Saxon names in England, 209.
Scale, map, 165, 204; model, 89.
Scenery, 81-82, 158, 284-286.
Science of geography, history of, 300-
320.
Scotland, 125, 149.
Seasons, 101, 100-118.
Section, survey, 200-202.
Shadow-stick, 102, 109.
Shaler, 237.
Shelter, 130.
Sierra Nevada Mountains, 128.
Sketch, maps, 181-182; drawings, 64;
models, 88.
Smith, Mary H., textbook, 333.
Smith, R., textbook, 332.
Soil, 261.
Spain, 125.
Spanish names in America, 212, 213.
Specimens, 67.
Spice Islands, 296-300.
Spices, 297.
Squares, map drawing by, 176.
Stanley, H. M., exploration of Africa,
198, 288, 306.
Statistics, 232-235.
Steppes, 133-134-
Stereopticon, 65-66.
Stereoscope, 66.
Strabo, ancient geographer, 294, 310.
Streams, action, 53-57; influence, 123,
261-262.
Study, how to, 24-25.
Sun, 126, 258; orientation, 44, 165;
heat of, 1 10-1 1 2, 263 ; day and night,
101 ; seasons, 100-118.
Supplementary reading, 156-161, 236.
Survey, United States Coast and Geo-
detic, 198 ; United States Geological,
199; United States Land, 199-202.
Swinton, textbook, 337.
Switzerland, 126, 146-147, 284.
Synthetic method of study, 30, 34.
Tabulation, 235.
Tarr, textbook, 224, 226, 338.
Taylor, B., on the Alps, 284-286.
Taylor, I., on geographical names, 205.
Teacher, part in the recitation, 17.
Textbook, use, 6, 16, 20-29, 155, 226-
227, 239, 247; history of textbooks,
314-340; history of American text-
books, 321-340.
Thibet, 125.
Topical method of study, 247-248.
Topography, home geography, 5i~53;
geographical influence, 123, 125, 127,
259, 260.
Toscanelli, mediaeval notions of geog-
raphy of world, 302, 303.
Trade routes, ancient and mediaeval,
297-300.
INDEX
359
Transportation, 272 ; home geography,
49 ; ancient routes, 207-300.
Trottner, on maps, 175.
Trunk, on reading maps, 169.
Turks, closing trade route through
Constantinople, 300.
Type study, 226, 228-230, 241-248.
Unit, geographical, 240, 240-250.
United States, profile, 94; rainfall in
West, 128-129; vegetation, 128-
129; crops, 129.
Valleys, home geography, 52-53 ; effect,
123-124.
Varenius, founder of physical geog-
raphy, 313.
Vegetation and climate, 127, 133, 266-
267. '
Venice, mediaeval trade with Orient,
300.
Vespucci, naming of America, 218.
Vikings, exploration, 294, 302.
Waldseemuller, mediaeval geographer,
219, 312.
Wasatch Mountains, 128-129.
Washington, State, climate, 129.
Water supply, 132.
Weather, 132.
Weather Bureau, 59.
Weathering, 261.
Weather study, 57.
Willett, textbook, 330-331.
Wind, 126, 131, 263-264.
Woodbridge, textbook, 327.
Yangste Kiang, 124.
Young, S., children's interests, 9.
Ziller. home geography, 32 ; correlation,
274.
Zones, light, 98, 102, 120; heat, 102.
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