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THE
PEINCIPLES
OF
ENGLISH GEAMMAE,
COMPRISING
THE SUBSTANCE OP ALL THE MOST APPROVED ENGLISH GRAMMARS
EXTANT, BRIEFLY DEFINED, AND NEATLY ARRANGED;
COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PASSING AND SYNTAX.
i
BY WILLIAM LENNIE,
LATE TEACHER OF ENGLISH, EDINBURGH.
Seventy-First Edition,
WITH THE AUTHOR'S LATEST IMPROVEMENTS, AND AN APPENDIX
OF SENTENCES
EDINBURGH :
OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT..
LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.
1872.
Price Is. 6d.— Analysis of Sentences sold separately, price 3d,
PRINTED BY OLIVEU AND BOYD. EDINBURGH.
PREFACE.
..
IT is probable, that the original design and principal motive of
every teacher, in publishing a School-Book, is the improvement
of his own pupils. Such, at least, was the immediate object of the
present compilation ; which, for brevity of expression, neatness of
arrangement, and comprehensiveness of plan, is, perhaps, superior
to any other book of the kind. " My chief end has been to ex-
plain the general principles of Grammar as clearly and intelligibly
as possible. In the definitions, therefore, easiness and perspicuity
have been sometimes preferred to logical exactness."
Orthography is mentioned rather for the sake of order than
with a view to instruction : for the pupil may be supposed to
have mastered its practical details before he commences the
study of Grammar.
On Etymology I hare left much to be remarked by the teacher,
in the time of teaching. My reason for doing this is, that
children, when by themselves, labour more to have the words of
their book imprinted on their memories, than to have the mean-
ing fixed in their minds ; but, on the contrary, when the teacher
addresses them viva voce, they naturally strive rather to compre-
hend his meaning, than to remember his exact expressions. In
pursuance of this idea, the first part of this little volume has been
thrown into a form more resembling Heads of Lectures on
Grammar than a complete elucidation of the subject. That the
teacher, however, may not be always under the necessity of hav-
ing recourse to his memory to supply the deficiencies, the most
remarkable Observations have been subjoined at the bottom of the
page, to which the pupils themselves may occasionally be referred.
The desire of being concise has frequently induced me to use
very elliptical expressions ; but I trust they are all sufficiently
perspicuous. I may also add, that many additional and critical
remarks which might have, with propriety, been inserted in the
Grammar, have been inserted rather in the Key; for I have
studiously withheld everything from the Grammar that could be
spared, to keep it low-priced for the general good.
The Questions on Etymology, at pages 174 and 175 will speak
for themselves : they unite the advantages of both the usual
methods, viz. that of plain narration, and that of question and
answer, without the inconvenience of either.
Syntax is commonly divided into two parts, Concord and Gov-
ernment ; and the rules respecting the former, grammarians
in general have placed before those which relate to the latter.
4
I have not, however, attended to this division, because I deem it
of little importance ; but have placed those rules first which are
either more easily understood, or which occur more frequently.
In arranging a number of rules, it is difficult to please every
reader. I have frequently been unable to satisfy myself ; and
therefore cannot expect that the arrangement which I have at last
adopted will give universal satisfaction. Whatever order be pre-
ferred, the one rule must necessarily precede the other ; and since
they are all to be learned, it signifies little whether the rules of con-
cord precede those of government, or whether they be mixed, pro-
vided no anticipations be made which may embarrass the learner.
In connexion with the Rules of Syntax, I have introduced
" Exercises to be corrected " as well as " Exercises to be parsed
and construed ; " and in the case of the former I have generally
compressed into a single page as many faulty expressions as some
of my predecessors have done into two pages of a larger size.
Hence, though the book seems to contain but few exercises on
bad grammar, it really contains so many that a separate volume
of exercises is quite unnecessary.
Whatever defects were found in the former editions in the time
of teaching have been carefully supplied.
On Etymology, Syntax, Punctuation, and Prosody, there is
scarcely a Rule or Observation in the largest grammar in print
that is not to be found in this ; besides, the Rules and Defini-
tions, in general, are so very short and pointed, that, compared
with those in most other grammars, they may be said to be hit off
rather than made. Every page is independent, and though
quite full, not crowded, but wears an air of neatness and ease
invitingly sweet, — a circumstance not unimportant. But, not-
withstanding these properties, and others that might be men-
tioned, I am far from being so vain as to suppose that this com-
pilation is altogether free from inaccuracies or defects ; much less
do I presume that it will obtain the approbation of every one
who may choose to peruse it ; for, to use the words of Dr. John-
son, " He that has much to do will do something wrong, and of
that wrong must suffer the consequences ; and if it were possible
that he should always act rightly, yet when such numbers are to
iudge of his conduct, the bad will censure and obstruct him by
malevolence, and the good sometimes by mistake."
fS*ir Tliose pupils that are capable, of writing, should "be requested to
write the plural of nouns, <&c., either at home or at school. The Exercises
on Syntax should be written in their corrected state with a stroke drawn
under the word corrected.
£. means Key ; the figures refer to the No. of the Key, not the page.
•-O ' Qtf
OP
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and
writing the English Language with propriety.
It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthog-
raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY treats of Letters, Syllables, and
the spelling of Words.
THERE are twenty-six letters in English.
Letters are either Vowels or Consonants.
A Vowel is a letter, the name of which makes
a full open sound.
A Consonant is a letter that has a sound less
distinct than that of a vowel.
The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes
w and y.
The Consonants are I, c, d, f, g, li, j, Jc, I, m,
n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z.
W and y are consonants when they begin a
word or syllable ; in every other situation they
are vowels.
A Diphthong is the union of two vowels ; as,
ou in out.
A proper Diphthong is one in which loth the
Vowels are sounded ; as, oy in loy.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
An improper Diphthong is one in which only
one of the two vowels is sounded ; as, o in boat
A Triphthong is the union of three vowels ; as,
eau in beauty.
A Syllable is as much of a word as can be
sounded at once ; as, gram in grammar.
A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as,
house.
A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as,
household.
A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables ; as,
householder.
A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables.
Spelling is the art of expressing words by
their proper letters.
EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
Tell the Vowels in
Ball, cellar,. dine, folly, home, James, kitchen,
lambkin, mulberry, popgun.
Tell whether w and y are Vowels or Consonants in
Awry, beware, blowy, downy, fowl, grayling,
hay, Jewry, lawfully, wayward, witty, yearly.
Tell which are proper and ivhich improper Diphthongs in
Boil, cook, death, faith, gown, hawk, loud,
mean, pour, queen, roar, toy.
Tell how many Syllables are in the following words : —
Aaron, barbarian, circular, diamond, extra-
ordinary, firefly, goatherd, heavenward, Lao-
dicea, latitudinarian, noteworthy, Utopia.
OBSERVATIONS.
In every syllable there must be at least one vowel.
Any vowel except w can make a syllable by itself.
ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of Words,
their various modifications , and their derivation.
THERE are nine parts of Speech ; — Article,
Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Pre-
position, Conjunction, and Interjection.
Of the ARTICLES.
An Article is a word put before a noun, to
show the extent of its meaning ; as, a man.
There are two articles, a or an and the. A is
used before a consonant; as, a day. — An is
used before a vowel, or silent h / as, an age, an
hour.
A is called the indefinite, and the the definite
article.
EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES.
Prefix the indefinite article to the following words: —
Army, ass, boot, coat, door, elm, eye, river,
garden, hair, heir, honour, house, island, nation,
orange, serpent, umpire, union, upstart, valley,
week, yard.
Correct the following errors: —
A error, an hen, an hill, a hour, a inkstand,
an handful, an ewe, an useful book, an history,
an yewtree, an hedge, a honest man.
OBSERVATIONS.
A is used before the long sound of u, and before w and y ; as, A unit,
a ewe, a week, a year.
A noun without aii article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense ; as,
Man is mortal ; namely, all mankind.
A is used before nouns in the singular number only. It is used
before the plural in nouns preceded by such phrases as A few ; a great
many ; as, a few books ; a great many apples.
The is used before nouns in both numbers : and sometimes before
adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree ; as., The more I study
grammar the better I like it.
ETYMOLOGY.
Of NOUNS.
A Noun is the name of any person; place, or
thing • as, John, London, book.
There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and
Common.
Proper Nouns denote the names of individuals
only ; as, James, Edinburgh, Ben Lomond.
Common Nouns denote a whole kind or class ;
as, boy, city, mountain.
EXERCISES ON NOUNS.
Tell which of the following words are Nouns, and whether
the nouns are Proper or Common : —
The boys are at school. John has been sent
by his father to London. Stirling is a town on
the river Forth. The Alps are the highest
mountains in Europe. My cousin has a ship
called the Rover ; it carries passengers and goods
between Liverpool and New York. The sun
never sets on the empire of Queen Victoria.
Waverley is the name of a novel written by
Sir Walter Scott. My brother Tom has a ter-
rier called Snap. My sister has a fine pansy
which she calls Victoria. The ship of Nelson
at the battle of Trafalgar was the Victory.
The shortest day is in the month of December.
Nouns are varied by Number, Gender, and Case.
OBSERVATIONS.
Collective nouns are nouns that signify many ; as, Multitude, crowd.
Abstract nouns are the names of qualities abstracted from their sub-
stances ; as, Wisdom, wickedness.
Verbal or participial nouns are nouns derived from verbs, as, Reading.
Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race QT family;
as, The Campbells ; or to several persons of the same name ; as, The
eight Henrys ; the two Mr Bells ; the two Miss Browns ; (or -without the
numeral) the Miss Roys ; but, in addressing letters in which both or all
are equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we plu-
ralize the title (Mr or Miss), and write Misses Brown; Misses Roy;
Messrs (for -»i jssieurs, Fr.) Oliver and Boyd.
NOUNS.
Of NUMBER.
Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular and
the Plural. The singular denotes one, the plu-
ral more than one.
The plural is generally formed by adding s to
the singular ; as, Book, books.
To this general rule there are many exceptions : —
1. Nouns in ss, sh, ch soft, x, and in i and o preceded by a
consonant, form the plural by adding es; as, Miss, misses;
brush, brushes; church, churches; fox, foxes; alkali, al-
kalies ; hero, heroes.
Ch hard, and o preceded by a vowel, take s only ; as,
Stomach, stomachs ; folio, folios.
2. Nouns in y preceded by a consonant change y into ies
in the plural ; as, Lady, ladies ; but y preceded by a vowel
follows the general rule ; as, Day, days.
3. Nouns in/ or/e, change/ or/e into ves in the plural ; as,
Loaf, loaves ; life, lives.
The following words follow the general rule, viz. — Brief,
chief, fief, grief, handkerchief; hoof, proof, reproof, roof;
dwarf, scarf, wharf; gulf; turf; cliff, sheriff, skiff, whiff;
cuff, muff, puff, ruff, snuff', stuff; fife, strife; safe.
4. Some nouns, including all that end in man, take the
Saxon en in the plural ; as,
Ox oxen Footman footmen
Child children Seaman, seamen
Man men Statesman statesmen
Alderman aldermen Woman women
Englishman Englishmen Workman workmen
5. Nouns which have two meanings have sometimes two
forms of the plural. Thus : —
Brother has brothers in the plural to denote sons of the
same parent, and brethren to denote members of the same-
society ; Die, a stamp for coming, has dies ; die, a little cube
used in games, dice ; Genius has geniuses when signifying
persons of genius, genii when denoting aerial beings ; Index
has indexes when it means a table of contents, and indices
when it denotes the exponent of an algebraic quantity ; Pea
has peas for single seeds, and pease for seeds in the mass ;•
Penny has pennies when penny-pieces are intended, but pence
when mere value is denoted.
A2
10 ETYMOLOGY.
6. A few nouns are entirely anomalous in the formation
of the plural. Thus :—
Foot feet Louse lice Cow kine Tooth teeth
Goose geese Mouse mice Sow swine
7. A few nouns are used alike in both numbers ; as, Deer,
sheep, swine; the singular being distinguished from the
plural by the article a; as, A deer, a sheep, a swine.
EXERCISES ON NUMBER.
Write, — or tell, — or spell, the Plural of
Fox,* book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish,
sex, kiss, coach, inch, sky, army, duty, knife,
echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, table, glass,
study, calf, branch, street, potato, peach, sheaf,
booby, rock, stone, house, hope, flower, city,
difficulty, distress.
Day, boy, relay, chimney, journey, valley,
needle, enemy, an army, a vale, an ant, a sheep,
the hills, a valley, the sea, key, toy.
Monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, ruff,
muff, reproof, portico, handkerchief, gulf, hoof,
fife, multitude, people, meeting, John, Lucy.
OBSERVATIONS.
Nouns which have been adopted without change from foreign
languages generally retain ttyeir original plurals. Thus : —
From the Greek.
Antithesis
Automaton
Basis
Crisis
Criterion
Ellipsis
antitheses
automata
bases
crises
criteria
ellipses
Hypothesis
Metamorphosis
Miasma
Phasis
Phenomenon
Thesis
hypotheses
metamorphoses
miasmafta
phases
phenomena
theses
* What is the plural of fox? Foxes. Why? Because nouns in ss, sh, ch
soft, x, i, or o, form the plural, by adding es. What is the plural of
book f Books. Why ? Because the plural is generally formed by adding
3 to the singular. What is the plural of leaf 9 Leaves. Why? Be-
cause nouns inforfe change /or fe into ves in the plural. What is
the plural of army 1 Armies. Why ? Because nouns in y, preceded by
a consonant, change y into ies in the plural. What is the plural of
day f Days. Spell it; d, a, y, s. Why not d, a, i, e, sf Because y with
a vowel before it is not changed into ies : it takes s only. What is the
difference between adding and changing? — K. No. 37, 40, 41.
NOUNS.
11
Addendum •
Animalculum
Apex
Appendix
Arcanum
Axis
Calx
Datum
Desideratum
Dictum
Effluvium
Erratum
Focus
Fungus
Genus
Cherub
Beau
Bandit
Banditto
Cognoscente
From the Latin.
Ignis-fatuus
Lamina
Larva
Magus
Medium
Memorandum
Momentum
Nebula
Oasis
Radius
Stimulus
Stratum
Terminus
Vertex
Vortex
ignes-fatui
laminae
larvae
magi
media
memoranda
momenta
nebula?
oases
radii
stimuli
strata
termini
vertices
vortices
addenda
animalcula
apices
appendices
arcana
axes
calces
data
desiderata
dicta
effluvia
errata
foci
fungi
genera
From the Hebrew.
cherubim Seraph seraphim
From the French.
beaux Monsieur messieurs
From the Italian.
Conversazione conversazioni
Dilletante dilletanti
cognoscenti Virtuoso virtuosi
Proper names have necessarily no plural. But there are also com-
mon nouns which want the plural ; among which the chief are —
Names of metals ; as, /row, gold: Names of grains ; as, Rye,
wheat : Names of liquids ; as, Beer, wine : Names of arts and
sciences ; as, Music, astronomy : and names of abstract and moral
qualities ; as, Warmth, meekness.
It is only when the names of metals, grains, liquids, &c., ex-
press varieties of the substances denoted by them that they take
a plural.
There are some common nouns, on the other hand, which have
no singular ; such as nouns descriptive of objects which have a
plurality of parts, or which nature or art has made double. The
following are examples : —
j
>• banditti
Annals
Archives
Ashes
Bellows
Billiards
Bowels
Breeches
Compasses
Drawers
Entrails
Folk
Lungs
Measles
Morals
Nuptials
Oats
Pincers
Riches
Scissors
Snuffers
Thanks
Tidings'
Tongs
Trousers
Vespers
Victuals
Vitals
Wages
Alms, news, odds, pains, are generally used in the singular number.
The names of sciences ending in ics, as, Etliics, mathematics,
politics, &c., admit of being used in either number, according as
they are conceived to express unity or plurality.
Horse suiAfoot, meaning cavalry and infantry, are used in the
singular form with a plural verb.
12
ETYMOLOGY.
Of GENDER.
There are three genders ; the Masculine,
Feminine, and Neuter.
The Masculine denotes the male sex ; as, A
man, a ~boy.
The Feminine denotes the female sex ; as, A
woman, a girl.
The Neuter denotes whatever is without sex ;
as, Milk.
Tliere are three ways of distinguishing the sex.
1. By different words ; as,
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Bachelor
maid, spinster
Hart
roe
Beau
belle
Horse
mare
Boar
sow
Husband
wife
Boy
Bridegroom
girl
bride
King
Lord
queen
lady
Brother
sister
Man
woman
Buck
doe
Master
mistress
Bull
cow
Milter
spawner
Bullock
> , ._ , w
Monk
nun
Ox or steer
j- neiter, hej-er
Nephew
niece
Cock
hen
Ram
ewe
Colt
Dog
bitch
Singer
f songstress
( or singer
Drake
duck
Sir
madam
Earl
countess
Sloven
slut
Father
mother
Son
daughter
Gaffer
gammer
Stag
hind
Gander
goose
Uncle
aunt
Gentleman
lady
Wizard
witch
OBSERVATIONS.
NEUTER means neither, and therefore intimates that the nouns so called
are neither masculine nor feminine.
Some nouns are either masculine or feminine : such as, Parent, child,
cousin, infant, servant, neighbour, &c.
Some nouns, naturally neuter, become, when personified, either mas-
culine or feminine ; as, when we say of the sun, He is setting ; and of
the moon, She is eclipsed.
NOUNS.
13
2. By
a difference
of termination ; as,
Male.
Female.
Male.
female.
Author
authoress
Mayor
mayoress
Baron
baroness
Patron
patroness
Count
countess
Peer
peeress
Dauphin
dauphiness
Poet
poetess
. Deacon
deaconess
Priest
priestess
Giant
giantess
Prince
princess
Heir
heiress
Prior
prioress
Host
hostess
Prophet
prophetess
Jew
Jewess
Shepherd
shepherdess
Lion
lioness
Viscount
viscountess
Abbot
abbess
Marquis
marchioness
Actor
actress
Master
mistress
Adulterer
adulteress
Protector
protectress
Benefactor
benefactress
Seamster
seamstress
Duke
duchess
Songster
songstress
Emperor
empress
Sorcerer
sorceress
Hunter
huntress
Tiger
tigress
Lad
lass
Traitor
traitress
Administrator
administratrix
Heritor
heretrix
Executor
executrix
Testator
testatrix
Czar
czarina
Landgrave
landgravine
Hero ,
her-o-me
Margrave
margravine
Infant
infanta
Sultan
sultana
Widower widow
3. By prefixing another word ; as,
Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow Male-child female-child
He-goat she-goat Man-servant maid-servant
EXERCISES ON GENDER.
Tell the Gender of
Child, egg, father, garden, girl, horse, house-
maid, inkbottle, kinsfolk, lamb, mankind, navy,
Peter, Eussia, ship, sovereign, star.
Name and spell the words opposite in Gender to
Abbot, bride, duke, earl, empress, goose, hero,
lady, landgrave, madam, milkmaid, moorcock,
peahen, ram, roe, steer; widow.
14 ETYMOLOGY.
Of CASE. ,
Nouns have three cases; the Nominative,
Possessive, and Objective.
The Nominative and Objective are always alike.
The possessive is formed by adding an apos-
trophe and s to the Nominative ; as, JoVs.
When the plural ends in s, the possessive is
formed by adding only an apostrophe : thus,
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Nom. Man Men Lady Ladies
Poss. Man's Men's Lady's Ladies'
Obj. Man Men | Lady Ladies
EXERCISES ON CASE.
Tell the Cases (and also the number and gender} of the
following Nouns : —
* Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf,
wife, sisters' bride's, the horse's hoof, John's
boots, eagles' wings, a girls' school.
Tell the possessive of
Charles, child, children, duchess, father,
fathers, footman, leaf, leaves, life, mistress,
negro, negroes, owner, owners, postchaise, prince,
princess, princesses.
OBSERVATIONS.
Case denotes the relation which a noun bears to any other word with
which it is connected.
The Nominative merely denotes the name of a thing.
The Possessive denotes possession ; as, Ann's book. Possession is
often expressed by of as well as by 's. K. 57 to 63, also 194 and 195.
The Objective denotes the object upon which an active verb or a pre-
position terminates.
* One method of using the above exercises is as follows :
Father, a noun, singular (number), masculine (gender), the nominative
(case), plural, fathers. Brothers, a noun, plural, masculine, the nomina-
tive. Mother's, a noun, singular, feminine, the possessive. Spell it. K. 44.
By parsing in this manner, the pupil gives a correct answer to the
questions. What part of speech is father t What number f Wh&t gender 7
What case 1 without obliging the teacher to lose time to no purpose in
asking them. The pupil, however, should be made to understand that he
is giving answers to questions which are always supposed to be asked.
As the Nominative and Objective are alike, no inaccuracy can result
from the pupil's being allowed to call it always the nominative, till he
come to the verb. Case may be altogether omitted till that time, tho
cases of pronouns excepted. — See Notes, page 37.
ADJECTIVES. 15
Of ADJECTIVES.
An Adjective is a word which expresses the
quality of a noun ; as, A good boy.
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ;
the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
The comparative is formed by adding r or er
to the positive ; as, Wise, wiser ; sweet, sweeter ;
and the superlative, by adding st or est ; as,
Wise, wisest; sweet, sweetest.* — K. 67.
When the positive ends in a single consonant,
preceded by a < single vowel, the consonant is
doubled before er and est; as? Sad, sadder,
saddest.
When the positive ends in y preceded by a
consonant, the y is changed into i before er and
est; as, Happy, happier, happiest.
OBSERVATIONS.
* The Positive expresses the simple quality; the Comparative a higher
or lower degree of the quality ; and the Superlative the highest or lowest
degree.— K. 68, 72.
Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by adding er and
est ; and those of more than one by prefixing more and most ; as, More
numerous, most numerous ; or by less and least ; as, Less merry, least
merry.
Some adjectives are compared by adding most to the comparative; as,
Upper, uppermost ; lower, lowermost ; nether, nethermost.
Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, a gold ring, a silver cup.
Adjectives often become nouns ; as, Much good.
Some adjectives do not properly admit of comparison ; such as, True,
perfect, universal chief, extreme.
Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; Many to those that
are numbered. — Elder and eldest to persons; older and oldest to things.
16 ETYMOLOGY.
The following Adjectives are compared irregularly : —
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
Bad, evil, or ill
worse
worst
Far
farther
farthest
Fore
former
foremost or first
Good
better
best
In
inner
inmost or innermost
Late
late or latter
latest or last
Little
less
least
Many or much
more
most
Near
nearer
nearest or next
Nigh
nigher
nighest or next
Old
older or elder
oldest or eldest
Out '
outer or utter
uttermost or utmost
Up
upper
upmost or uppermost
EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES.
Point out the Nouns and Adjectives in the following
phrases : —
A good scholar, a bright sky, deeds unjust
and cruel, a sharp knife, an old hat and a new
coat, wintry weather, dreary winter.
Prefix appropriate Adjectives to the following Nouns: —
Boy, castle, desk, fig, ghost, grapes, highway,
island, lily, memory, navy, passenger, rose,
thunder, voice.
Compare the following Adjectives, and give the
spelling : —
.Able, beautiful, crafty, gay, glad, hardy, little,
manly, many, precious, red, severe, testy, worthy,
zealous.
Point out the Adjectives which cannot be compared: —
Eternal, external, extreme, holy, human, ill,
large, matchless, perpendicular, right, square,
supreme, unchangeable, wooden, yearly.
PRONOUNS.
17
'Of PRONOUNS.
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ;
*$, John is a good boy ; he obeys the master.
There are three kinds of pronouns ; Personal,
Relative^ and Adjective.
Of PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
The Personal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it.
They have number, gender, and case, and are thus declined :—
Person.
Ge,nder. Case.
^Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
I
We
First,
Mas. or Fern.
Poss.
Mine
Ours
Obj.
Me
Us
Nom.
Thou
Ye or ]
Second,
Mas. or Fern.
Poss.
Thine
Yours
Obj.
Thee
You
Nom.
He
They
Third,
Mas.
Poss.
His
Theirs
Obj.
Him
Them
Nom.
She
They
Third,
Fern. ^
Poss.
Hers
Theirs
Obj.
Her
Them
Nom.
It
They
Third,
Neut.
Poss.
Its
Theirs
Obj.
It
Them
Exercises on Personal Pronouns.
I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he him, she, hers,
they, thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, ours,
yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us, it, we.
OBSEKVATIONS.
Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written, her's, it's, our's,
your' s, their' s ; but hers, its, ours, &c.
The compound personal pronouns, Myself, thyself, himself, &c. are
commonly joined either to the simple pronoun or to any ordinary noun
to make it more remarkable. See K. 80, 96.
These pronouns are generally in the same case with the noun or pro-
noun to which they are joined; as, " She herself said so;" " They them-
selves acknowledged it to me myself." " The master himself got it."
Self, when used alone, is a noun; as, " Our fondness for self is hurtful
to others." K. 96.
In some respectable grammars the possessive case of the different
personal pronouns stands thus : 1st, my or mine, our or ours — 2d, thy or
thine, your or yours — 3d, her or hers, their or theirs. I see no impropriety
in this method; the one I have preferred, however, is perhaps less
liable to objection.
18 ETYMOLOGY.
Of RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
A Relative Pronoun is a word that relates
to a noun or pronoun before it, called the an-
tecedent ; as, The master who taught us, &c.
The simple relatives are who, which, and that.
Who and which are thus declined : —
Singular and Plural. Sin< ular and Plural.
Nom. Who which
Poss. Whose whose
Olj. Whom which
Who is applied to persons ; as, The boy who.
Which is applied to inferior animals, and
things without life ; as, The dog which barks ;
the book which was lost.
That is often used instead of who or which,
and is applied to persons, animals, or things ;
as, The boy that reads ; the book that was lost.
What is a compound relative, including both
the relative and the antecedent; as, This is
what I wanted ; that is, the thing which I
wanted.
OBSERVATIONS.
In asking questions, Who, which, and what, are called interrogatives ;
as, Who said that? What did he do? K. p. 84. Note.
The Relative, is always of the same gender, number, and person, as its
antecedent, but not always in the same case. K.p. 43. &.|
The Relative sometimes refers to a whole clause as its antecedent;
as, The Bill was rejected by the Lords, which excited no small degree
of jealousy and discontent ; that is, which thing, or circumstance, ex-
cited, &c.
Who is applied to inferior animals, when they are represented as
speaking and acting like rational beings. K. p. 43.* I.
What and which are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, " I know not
by what fatality the adversaries of the motion are impelled;" which
things are an allegory. Which here is equal to these. Page 69, b.
Whoever, whosoever, and whoso, are compound relatives equal to He
who; or, The person that. K. 88, 89.
PRONOUNS. 19
Of ADJECTIVE PEONOUNS.
There are four sorts of Adjective Pronouns.
1. The Possessive Pronouns, My, thy, his,
herj our, your, their, its, own.
2. The Distributive, Each, every, either,
neither.
3. The Demonstrative, This, that, with their
plurals, these, those.
4. The Indefinite, None, any, all, such, whole,
some, loth, one, other, another ; the last three are
declined like nouns.
OBSEEVATIONS.
Mine and thine are sometimes used before a vowel or a silent h ; as,
"Blot out mine iniquities." "If thine eye offend thee." "Mine hour is
not yet come."
His and her are possessive pronouns, when placed immediately before
nouns ; but when they stand by themselves, his is accounted the posses-
sive case of the personal pronoun he, and her the objective of she.
Yon, with former and latter, may be called demonstrative pronouns, as
well as this and that. See Syntax, R. 28, b.
That is sometimes a Relative, sometimes a Demonstrative pronoun, and
sometimes a Conjunction. K. 90.
That is a Relative when it can be turned into who or which, without
destroying the sense ; as, " The days that (or which) are past are gone
for ever."
That is a Demonstrative pronoun when it is placed immediately before
a noun, expressed or understood; as, "That book is new." " That is
not the one I want."
That is a Conjunction when it cannot be turned into who or which;
but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end ; as, " He was so
proud, that he was universally despised." " He answered, that he never
was so happy as he is now." " Live well, that you may die well."
All the indefinite pronouns (except none), and even the demonstrative,
distributive, and possessive, are adjectives belonging to nouns either ex-
pressed or understood ; and in parsing I think they ought to be called
adjectives. None is used in both numbers ; but it cannot be joined to a
noun.
The phrase none other should be no other. Another has no plural.
20 ETYMOLOGY.
EXERCISES ON PRONOUNS.
Point out the Pronouns, and tell for what Nouns
they are used : —
You are hungry, and I am thirsty. Mary
lost her cap, but the maid found it and brought
it to her. The soldiers told their officers that
they had done as they had ordered them.
What kind of a Pronoun is
Mine, that, what, whosoever, her, every, both,
these, another, whose, either, any, all, them-
selves, myself? *
Tell the per son, number, gender, and case of
She, its, ours, them, us, hers, they, thine, thou,
me, ye, you, thee, yours, theirs, it, him, her.
Point out the Relatives and their antecedents : —
The rain which fell last night. A man whose
name is Smith. The book that you sent me was
lost by the boy who carried it. The person with
the white hat, whom you met yesterday, was the
master of the ship that went down in the bay.
Put the Relative who, or which, instead of that : —
The dog that you bought is dead. The maid
that he hired is from Wales. The horse .that I
bought at the fair was much admired by all that
saw it there.
Is that a Eelative or a Demonstrative in the following
sentences : —
I abhor the tongue that flatters. Give me
that rose. Tell that boy not to touch the flower
that grows on the wall.
* The personal pronouns, Himself, herself, themselves, &c., are used in
the nominative case as well as in the objective; as, Himself shall come.
Mr. Blair, in his Grammar, says, they have only one case, viz., the nom-
inative; but this is a mistake, for they have the objective, too. K. 80.
VERBS. 21
Of VERBS.
A Verb is a word which expresses being, doing,
or suffering • as, I am, I love, I am loved.
Verbs are of three kinds. Active, Passive, and
Neuter.
A verb Active expresses action passing from
an actor to an object; as, James strikes the
table.
A verb Passive expresses the suffering of an
action, or the enduring of what another does;
as, The table is struck.
A verb Neuter expresses being, or a state of
being, or action confined to the actor • as, I am,
he sleeps, you
Verbs are inflected, to express Number, Per-
son, Mood, and Tense or Time.
Verbs have two Numbers, the Singular and
the Plural ; as, He is, they are.
Verbs have three Persons ; as, / love, thou
lovest, he loves.
OBSERVATIONS.
Active verbs are called transitive verbs, because the action passed
from the actor to the object. K. p. 58. NOTE.
Neuter verbs are called intransitive, because their action is confined
to the actor, and does not pass over to an object. Children should not
be troubled too soon with the distinction between Active and Neuter verbs.
Neuter, when applied to verbs, intimates that they are neither active
nor passive.
22 ETYMOLOGY.
Of the MOODS of VERBS.
Verbs have five moods ; the Indicative, the
Potential, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and
the Infinitive.
The Indicative mood simply declares a thing ;
as, He loves ; he is loved / or it asks a question ;
as, Lovest thou me ?
The Potential mood implies possibility, lib-
erty, power, will, or obligation ; as, The wind
may blow ; we may walk or ride ; I can swim ;
he would not stay ; you should obey your parents.
The Subjunctive mood represents a thing
under a condition or supposition, and is pre-
ceded by a conjunction, expressed or under-
stood, and followed by another verb ; as, If you
wish prosperity, deserve it.
The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, or
entreats ; as, Do this ; deal honestly ; deliver
my soul.
The Infinitive mood expresses the meaning of
the verb in a general manner, without distinc-
tion of number or person, and commonly has
the word to before it ; as, To love.
Of TENSES, or TIME.
Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Past,
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the
Future Perfect.
Explanations of the moods and tenses of verbs are inserted here for
the sake of order ; but it would be highly improper to detain the learner
so long as to commit them to memory ; he ought, therefore, after get-
ting the definition of a verb, to proceed to the inflection of it without
delay ; and when he comes to the exercises on the verbs, he can look
back to the definition of a verb active, &c., as occasion may require.
VERBS. 23
The Present tense expresses what is going on
just now ; as, I love you ; I strike the table.
The Past tense represents the action or event
either as past or finished ; as, He broke the
bottle, and the brandy was spilt.
The Perfect tense implies that the action or
event has just now been finished ; as, John has
cut his finger ; my horse has run off.
The Pluperfect tense represents a thing as
past before another event happened ; as, All
the judges had taken their places before Sir
Roger came.
The Future represents the action as yet to
come ; as, He will return next week, and you
shall see him.
The Future Perfect intimates that the action
will be fully accomplished at or before the time
of another future action or event ; as, I shall
have learned my lesson before ten o'clock.
The Participle is a verbal adjective, which
partakes of the nature of both a Verb and an
Adjective, and expresses the meaning of the Verb
after the manner of an Adjective ; as, Loving all
men while he lived, he died, loved by all men.
OBSERVATIONS.
The Participle in ing represents a thing going on, but not finished ;
as, The boy is learning his lesson. It is not confined exclusively to the
Active voice, but is often legitimately used by the bsst authors in a Pas-
sive sense; asr Silks are selling fast; Houses are letting -well. Some,
however, prefer using the past participle with the auxiliary being; as,
Silks are being sold fast ; Houses are being let well. The first mode is
perhaps the more simple and elegant, — the second is sometimes ren-
dered necessary in order to prevent ambiguity or circumlocution.
The Participle in ed denotes that a thing is done and completed ; as I
have mended my pen.
The Perfect Participle "having loved, is common both to Active and Pas--
sive verbs, and states the completion of what took place before something
else ; as, Having shot the hare, he went to lift it. ,
24 ETYMOLOGY.
Remarks on some of the Tenses.
ON THE PRESENT.
1. The Present tense is used to express a habit or custom;
as, lie snujfs; She goes to church. It is sometimes applied to
persons long since dead, when the narration of their actions
excites our passions; as, "Nero is abhorred for his cruelty."
" Milton 18 admired for his sublimity."
2. In historical narration, it is beautifully used for the Past
tense; as, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters
Italy with five thousand men." — It is sometimes .used with fine
effect for the Perfect; as, " In the book of Genesis, Moses tells
us who were the descendants of Abraham," — for has told us.
3. When preceded by such words as when, before, as soon as,
after, it expresses the relative time of a, future action ; as, W^ien
he comes, he will be welcome — As soon as the post arrives, the
letters will be delivered.
4. In the continuate, progressive, or compound form, it ex-
presses an action begun and going on just now, but not complete ;
as, I am studying my lesson. He is writing a letter.
ON THE PAST.
The Past tense is used when the action or state is limited
Jby the circumstance of time or place; as, "We saw him yes-
terday." " We were in bed when he arrived." Here the words
yesterday and when limit the action and state to a particular
time. — After death all agents are spoken of in the Past tense,
because time is limited or defined by the life of the person ; as,
" Mary Queen of Scots was remarkable for her beauty."
This tense is peculiarly appropriated to the narrative style;
because all narration implies some circumstance; as, " Socrates
refused to adore false gods." Here the period of Socrates's
life, being a limited part of past time, circumscribes the narra-
tion.— It is improper then to say of one already dead, " He
has been much admired: he has done much good:" but, "He
was much admired ; he did much good."
Although the Past tense is used when the action is circum-
stantially expressed by a word or sentiment that limits the time
of the action to some definite portion of past time, yet such
words as often, sometimes, many a time, frequently, and similar
vague intimations of time, except in narrations, require the
perfect, because they admit a certain latitude, and do not limif
VERBS. 25
the action to any definite portion of past time ; thus, " How
often have we seen the proud despised."
ON THE PERFECT.
The Perfect tense chiefly denotes the accomplishment of
mere facts without any necessary relation to time or place, or
any other circumstance of their existence; as, Philosophers
leave endeavoured to investigate the origin of evil. In general,
however, it denotes,
1. An action newly finished; as, I have heard great news.
The post has arrived, but he has brought no letters for you.
2. An action done in a definite space of time (such as a
day, a week, a year), a part of which has yet to elaspse ; as, I
have spent this day well.
3. An action perfected some time ago, but whose consequences
extend to the present time ; as, We have neglected our duty, and
are therefore unhappy. „
Duration or existence requires the perfect ; as, He has been
dead four days. We say, Cicero has written orations, because
the orations are still in existence; but we cannot say, Cicero
has vjritten poems, because the poems do not exist ; they are
lost; therefore, we must say, " Cicero wrote poems."
The following are a few instances in which the Perfect is im-
properly used for the Past. u I have somewhere met with the
epitaph of a charitable man, which has very much pleased me."
Spect. No. 177. The latter part of this sentence is rather war-
rative than assertive; and therefore it should be — which very
much pleased me, that is, when I read it. — u When that the
poor hath cried, Caesar hath wept." Shaksp. The style is here
narrative; Csesar was dead. It should therefore be, " When
the poor cried, Csesar wept." — " Though in old age, the circle
of our pleasure is more contracted than it lias formerly been ;
yet, &c." Blair, Serm. 12. It should be, " than it formerly
was ;" because in old age, the former stages of life, contrasted
with the present, convey an idea, not of completion, but of li-
mitation, and thus become a subject of narration, rather than
of assertion. " I have known him, Eugenius, when he has
been going to a play, or an opera, divert the money which was
designed for that purpose, upon an object of charity whom he
has met with in the street." Spect. No. 177. It should be
" When he was going," and " whom he met with in the
street ;" because the actions are circumstantially related by
the phrases, when going to a play and in the street.
13
ETYMOLOGY.
ON THE FUTURE PERFECT.
Upon more careful reflection, it appears to me, that the Se-
cond Future should have will or shall in all the persons, as in
the first. Mr. Murray has excluded will from the first per-
son, and shall from the second and third, because they appear
to him to be incorrectly applied; and in the examples which
he has adduced, they are incorrectly applied; but this is not
a sufficient reason for excluding them altogether from every sen-
tence. The fault is in the writer ; he has applied them wrong,
a thing that is often done with will and shall in the first future,
as well as in the second.
If I am at liberty to use will in the first future, to intimate
my resolution to perform a future action, as, "I will go to
church, for I am resolved to go," why should I not employ will
in the second future, to intimate my resolution or determination
to have an action finished before a specified future time? Thus,
" I will have written my letters before supper :" that is, I am
determined to have my letters finished before supper. Were
the truth of this affirmation, respecting the time of finishing
the letters, called in question, the propriety of using will in the
first person would be unquestionable. Thus, You will not have
finished your letters before supper, I am sure. Yes, I will.
Will what ? " Will have finished my letters."
Shall, in like manner, may with propriety be applied to the
second and third persons. In the third person, for instance, if I
say, " He will have paid me his bill before June," I merely
foretell what he will have done ; but that is not what I in-
tended to say. I meant to convey the idea, that since I have
found him so dilatory, I will compel him to pay it before June ; and
as this was my meaning, I should have employed shall, as in the
first future, and said, "He shall have paid me his bill before June."
It is true that we seldom use this future ; we rather express
the idea as nearly as we can, by the first future, and say, " He
shall pay his bill before June ;" but when we do use the second
future, it is evident, I tsust, from the examples just given, that
shall and will should -be applied in it, exactly as they are in the
first.— See I Cor. xv. 24.— Luke xvii. 10.
ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
The auxiliary verbs, as they are called, such as, Do, shall
will, may, can, and must, are in reality separate verbs, and
were originally used as such, having after them, either the Past
Participle, or the Infinitive Mood, with the to suppressed, for
VERBS. 27
the sake of sound, as it is after bid, dare, &e. (see Syntax,
Rule VI.) Thus, I have loved. We may to love. We will to
speak. I do to write. I may to have loved. We might to
have got a prize. I would to have given him the book. All
must to die. I shall to stop. I can to go.
These verbs are always joined in this manner either to the
Infinitive or participle ; and although this would be a simpler
way of parsing the verb than the common, yet, in compliment
perhaps to the Greek and Latin, grammarians in general con-
sider the auxiliary and the following verb in the infinitive or
participle as one verb, and parse and construe it accordingly. .
Several of the auxiliaries in the Potential mood refer to pre-
sent, past, and. future time. This needs not excite surprise; for
even the present Indicative can be made to express future
time, as well as the future itself. Thus, " He leaves town
to-morrow.11
Present time is expressed in the following sentence, " I
\vish he could or would come just now."
Past time is expressed with the similar ,i- ixiliaries ; as, "It
w as my desire that he should, or would come yesterday."
" Though he was ill he might recover."
Future. — I am anxious that he should, < r would come to-
morrow. If he come I may speak to him. If he would delay
his journey a few days, I might, could, wouli/, or should accom-
pany him.
Although such examples as these are commonly adduced as
proofs that these auxiliaries refer to present, past, and future
time, yet I think it is pretty evident that mi<jkt, could, would, and
should, with may and can, merely express liberty, ability, will,
and duty, without any reference to time at all, and that the pre-
cise time is generally determined by the drift or scope of the sen-
tence, or rather by the adverb or participlb that is subjoined or
understood, and not by these auxiliaries.
Must and ought, for instance, merely imply necessity and
obligation, without any necessary relation to time ; for when I
say, " I must do it," must merely denotes the necessity 1 am
under, and do the present time, which might easily be made
future, by saying, " I must do it next week :" Here future time
is expressed by next week, and not by must. If I say, " I must
have done it:" Here must merely expresses necessity as be-
fore, and I have done the past time. " These ought ye to do."
Here ought merely denotes obligation, and do the present time.
28 ETYMOLOGY.
*' These ought ye to have done :" Here ought merely expresses
duty or obligation, as before ; but the 'time of its existence is de-
noted as past, by to have done, and not by ought, as Mr. Murray
and many others say.
As must will not admit of the objective after it, nor is even
preceded or succeeded by the sign of the infinitive, it has been
considered as an absolute auxiliary, like may or can, belonging
to the Potential Mood.
Ought, on the contrary, is an independent verb, though de-
fective, and always governs another verb in the infinitive.
Of WILL and SHALL.
W til, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and
promising ; as, I will not let you that house unless you give me a higher
rent. We will go. I will give you a handsome watch.
Will, in the second and third persons, commonly foretells; as, He will
reward the righteous. You, or they, will be very happy there.
Shall, in ihe first person, only foretells ; as, I, or we, shall go to-mor-
row. In the second and third persons, Shall, promises, commands, or
threatens; as, They, or you, shall he rewarded. Thou shalt not be
dishonest. He that steals shall be disgraced.
But this must he understood of affirmative sentences only; for when
the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse commonly takes place ;
as, Shall I send you a little of the pie? i. e. will you permit me to send
it ? Will James return to-morrow ? i. e. do you expect him ?
When the second and third persons are represented as the subjects of
their own expressions, or their own thoughts, SHALL foretells, as in
the first person ; as, " He says he shall he a loser hy this bargain." " Do
you suppose you shall gol" and WILL promises, as in the first person;
as, " He says he will bring Pope's Homer to-morrow." You say you
will certainly come.
Of Shall it may he remarked, that it never expresses the will or resolu-
tion of its Nominative : Thus, 7 shall fall ; Thou shalt love thy neighbour ;
He shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of /, thou, he.
Did Will, on the contrary, always intimate the resolution of its Nom.
the difficulty of applying will and shall would be at an end ; but this can-
not be said; for though will in the first person always expresses the re-
solution of its Nom., yet in the second and third person it does not al-
ways foretell, but often intimates the resolution of its Nom. as strongly
as it does in ihe first person; thus, Ye will not do your duty, that you
may prosper. He will not shoot his dog though he sees he is mad.
Deut. xxv. 7. see also verse 9. Accordingly would, the past time of
will, is used in the same manner ; as, He would not listen to his father's
advice.
Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and will; they
are generally attended with a supposition ; as, Were I to run, I should
soon be fatigued, &c.
Should is often used instead of ought to express duty or obligation ; as,
We should remember the poor. We ought to obey the laws.
YE11BS. 29
The verbs Be, do, have, sliall^ will, may, can,
are called Auxiliary or helping verbs, because
they are usually combined with other verbs in
order to indicate number, person, mood, or tense.
The auxiliary verbs are thus inflected : —
TO BE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. lam 1. We are
2. Thou art or you are 2. Ye or you are
3. He, she, or it is 3. They are
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was 1. We were
2. Thou wast or you were 2. Ye or you were
3. He, she, or it was 3. They were
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been 1. We have been
2. Thou hast been 2. You have been
3. He has been 3. They have been
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had been 1. We had been
2. Thou hadst been 2. You had been
3. He had been 3. They had been
Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be
2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. You shall or will be
3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be
B2
30 ETYMOLOGY.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . I shall or will have been 1 . We shall or will have been
2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will
been have been
3. He, she, or it * shall or 3. They shall or will have
will have been been
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may* or can be 1. We may or can be
2. Thou mayst or canst be 2. Ye or you may or can be
3. He, she, or it may or can be 3. They may or can be
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, &c. be 1. We might be
2. Thou mightst be 2. Ye or you might be
3. He, she, or it might be 3. They might be
Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may* or can have been 1. We may or can have been
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have
been been
3. He, she, or it may or can 3. They may or can have
have been been
Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might have been 1 . We might have been
2. Thou mightst have been 2. Ye or you might have been
3. He, she, orit might have been 3. They might have been
* See Note, p. 35.
VERBS. 31
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. if I be* 1. If we be
2. If thou or you be 2. If ye or you be
3. If he, she, or it be 3. If they be
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were 1. If we were
2. If thou wert or you were 2. If ye or you were
3. If he, she, or it were 3. If they were
Imperative Mood.
Singular. , Plural.
Be, or be thou Be, or be ye or you
Infinitive Mood.
To be.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Being Past, Been
TO DO.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I do 1. We do
2. Thou doest or dost, or you do 2. Ye or you do
3. He, she, or it does, doeth, or doth 3. They do
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I did 1. We did
2. Thou didst or you did 2. Ye or you did
3. He, she, or it did 3. They did
Imperative Mood.^>f
Singular. Plura]& V
Do, or do thou Do, or do ye or you
Though, unless, excevt. whether, &c., may be here used as well as if.
32 ETYMOLOGY.
Infinitive Mood.
To do.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Doing Past, Done
TO HAVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have 1. We have
2. Thou hast or you have 2. Ye or you have
3. He, she, or it has or hath 3. They have
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had 1. We had
2. Thou hadst or you had 2. Ye or you had
3. He, she, or it had 3. They had
Infinitive Mood.
To have.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Having Past, had
SHALL.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall 1. We shall
2. Thou shalt or you shall 2. Ye or you shall
3. He, she, or it shall 3. They shall
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I should ' 1. We should
2. Thou shouldst or you should 2. Ye or you should
3. He, she, or it should 3. They should
VERBS 33
WILL.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I will 1. We will
2. Thou wilt or you will 2. Ye or you will
3. He, she, or it will 3. They will
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I would 1. We would
2. Thou wouldst or you would 2. Ye or you would
3. He, she, or it would 3. They would
MAY.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may 1. We may
2. Thou mayst or you may 2. Ye or you may
3. He, she, or it may 3. They may
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might 1. We might
2. Thou mightst or you might 2. Ye or you might
3. He, she, or it might 3. They might
CAN.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I can 1. We can
2. Thou canst or you can 2. Ye or you can
3. He, she, or it can 3. They can
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I could 1. We could
2. Thou couldst or you could 2. Ye or you could
3. He, she, or it could 3. They could
Be, do, have, and will, are uot always auxiliary but often principal verbs.
Must, which is held by many to be an auxiliary verb, is not inflected.
Be is often used in the Scriptures for the Present Indicative ; as, We be
true men.
34 ETYMOLOGY.
CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VERB
TO LOVE.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . person I love 1 . We love
2. Thou lovest 2. You* love
3. He loves or loveth 3. They love
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I loved 1. We loved
2. Thou lovedst 2. You loved
3. He loved 3. They loved
Perfect Tense.
Its signs are have, Tiast, has, or hath.
Singular. Plural.
1. I have loved 1. We have loved
2. Thou hast loved 2. You have loved
3. He has or hath loved 3. They have loved
Pluperfect Tense.
Signs, had, hadst.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had loved 1. We had loved
2. Thou hadst loved 2. You had loved
3. He had loved 3. They had loved
Future Tense.
Signs, shall or will.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will love 1. We shall or will love
2. Thou shalt or wilt love 2. You shall or will love
3. He shall or will love 3. They shall or will love
* You has always a plural verb, even when applied to a single individual.
VERBS. 35
Future Perfect.
[See page 26.]
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will have loved 1. We shall or will have loved
2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. You shall or will have
loved loved
3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have
loved loved
Potential Mood.
Present.
Signs, may, can, or must.
Singular. Plural.
1 I may or can* love 1. We may or can love
2. Thou mayst or canst love 2. You may or can love
3. He may or can love 3. They may or can love
Past.
Signs, might, could, would, or should.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should love should love
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would,
wouldst, or shouldst love or should love
3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, wouldt
or should love or should love
Perfect.
Signs, may, can, or must have.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may or can* have loved 1. We may or can have loved
2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. You may or can have
loved loved
3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have
loved loved
* Must, although it belongs as properly to the present and perfect
potential as may or can, has heen omitted for want of room; but in
going over these tenses with the auxiliaries, one by one, it is easy to
take it in thus : I must love thou must love, &c. See 2d note, p. 40.
36 ETYMOLOGY.
Pluperfect.
Signs, might, could, would, or should have.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, -would, or
should have loved should have loved
2. Thou mightst, &c., have 2. You might have loved
loved
3. He might have loved 3. They might have loved
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I love 1. If we love
2. Ifthoulove 2. If you love
3. If he love 3. If they love*
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
2. Love, or love thou, or 2. Love, or love ye or you,
do thou lovef or do ye love
Infinitive Mood.
Present, To love Perfect, To have loved
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Loving Past, Loved Perfect, Having lovedj
* The remaining tenses in the Subjunctive mood are, in every respect,
similar to the corresponding tenses of the Indicative and Potential,
with the addition to the verb of a conjunction expressed or implied, de-
noting a condition or supposition.
t The Imperative Mood is not entitled to three persons. In strict pro-
priety it has only the second person in both numbers. For when I say,
Let me love, I mean, Permit thou me to love. Hence, let me love is con-
strued thus : let thou me (to) love, or do thou let me (to) love. To, the sign
of the infinitive, is not used after let. See Syntax, R. VI. No one will
pay that permit (me to love) is the first person singular, imperative
mood : then, why should let, (me to love), which is exactly similar, be
called the first person ? The Latin verb wants the first person, and if it
has the third, it has also a different termination for it, which is not
*he case in the English verb. K. 118. J See Key, No. 208-211.
VERBS. 37
Exercises on the Verb Active.
* We love him ; James loves me ; it amuses
him ; we shall conduct them ; they will divide
the spoil ; soldiers should defend their country ;
friends invite friends ; she can read her lesson ;
she may play a tune ; you might please her ;
thou mayst ask him ; he may have betrayed us ;
we might have diverted the children ; John can
deliver the message.
I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has
loved ; we tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou
love ; they could have commanded armies ; to
love ; to baptize ; to have loved ; loved ; loving ;
to survey ; having surveyed ; write a letter ;
read your lesson ; thou hast obeyed my voice ;
honour thy father.
The TAacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner with the
difference between the Nominative and the Objective.
The Nominative acts ; the Objective is acted upon ; as, He eats apptes.
The Nominative commonly comes before the verb, the Objective after it.
Concerning pronouns, it may be observed, that the first speaks; the
second is spoken to ; and the third (or any noun) is spoken of.
* We may parse the first sentence, for example. We love him; We.
the first personal pronoun, plural, masculine, or fern, the Nominative;
love, a verb active, the first person, plural, present, Indicative; him,
the third personal pronoun, singular, masculine, the Objective.
QUESTIONS which should be put to the pupils.
How do you know that love is plural? Ans. Because we its nom. in
plural. How do you know that love is the first person ? Ans. Because
we is the first personal pronoun, and the verb is always of the same
number and person with the noun or pronoun before it. K. 102, li>4.
Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of
a different kind : thus, the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may
be expressed by the passive voice ; as, He is loved by us.
It may also be turned into a question, or made a negative ; as, Do we
love him? &c. We do not love him.
These are a few of the ways of using the exercises on a single page ,
but there is no limit to the variety of methods that every ingenious
and diligent Teacher may invent and adopt to engage the attention
aud improve the understanding of his pupils.
C
38 ETYMOLOGY.
CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB
TO BE LOVED.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Am loved 1. Are loved
2. Art loved 2. Are loved
3. Is loved 3. Are loved
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Was loved 1. Were loved
2. Wast loved 2, Were loved
3. Was loved 3. Were loved
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Have been loved 1. Have been loved
2. Hast been loved 2. Have been loved
3. Has been loved 3. Have been loved
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Had been loved 1. Had been loved
2. Hadst been loved 2. Had been loved
3. Had been loved 3. Had been loved
Future Tense.
Singular.
Plural.
1.
Shall or will be loved
1.
Shall or will be loved
2.
Shalt or wilt be loved
2.
Shall or will be loved
3.
Shall or will be loved
3.
Shall or will be loved
$«??• A Passive Verb is formed by putting the Past Participle of any
Active verb after the verb to be through all its Moods and Tenses.
K. 126, 127.
VERBS. 39
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . Shall or will have been loved 1. Shall or will have been loved
2. Shalt or wilt have been loved 2. Shall or will have been loved
3. Shall or will have been loved 3. Shall or will have been loved
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. May or can be loved 1. May or can be loved
2U Mayst or canst be loved 2. May or can be loved
3. May or can be loved 3. May or can be loved
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. Might, &c. be loved 1. Might be loved
2. Mightst be loved 2. Might be loved
3. Might be loved 3. Might be loved
Perfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. May, &c. have been loved 1. May have been loved
2. Mayst have been loved 2. May have been loved
3. May have been loved 3. May have been loved
Pluperfect.
Singular. Plural.
1. Might, &c. have been loved 1. Might have been loved
2. Mightst have been loved 2. Might have been loved
3. Might have been loved 3. Might have been loved
40 ETYMOLOGY.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 . If* I be loved 1. If we be loved
2. If thou be loved 2. If you be loved
3. If he be loved 3. If they be loved
Past.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were loved 1. If we were loved
2. If thou wert loved 2. If you were loved
3. If he were loved 3. If they were loved
Imperative Mood.
Singular. Plural.
2. Be thou loved 2. Be ye or you loved
Infinitive Mood.
Present, To be loved Perfect, To have been loved
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Being loved Past. Been loved Perf. Having been loved
* The Pupil may at times be requested to throw out if and put unless,
though, whether, or lest, in its place.
4§f After the pupil is expert in going over the tenses of the verb as
they are, he may be taught to omit all the auxiliaries but one, and go
over the verb thus : Present Potential, I may love; thou mayst love; he
may love, &c. ; and then with the next auxiliary, thus : I can love ; thou
canst love ; he can love, &c. ; and then with must, thus : I must love ;
thou must love ; he must love, &c. \, and then with the auxiliaries of the
Past Potential, thus: 1 might love; thou mightst love, &c. — Sec also
Key, No. 112, p. 55, and Nos. 113, 114, p. 56.
VERBS.
Exercises on the Verb Passive.
They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art
loved ; it is loved ; she was loved ; he has been
loved ; you have been loved ; I have been
loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall be
loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be loved ;
I shall have been loved ; you will have been
loved.
He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she
must be loved ; they might be loved ; ye would
be loved ; they should be loved ; I could be
loved ; thou canst have been loved ; it may
have been loved ; you might have been loved ;
if I be loved ;* thou wert loved ; we be loved ;
they be loved. — Be thou loved ; be ye loved ;
you be loved. — To be loved ; loved ; having
been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved.
Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs and Cases
of Nouns and Pronouns.
Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ;
ask mamma ; he has learned his lesson ; she
invited him ; your father may commend you ;
he was baptized ; the minister baptized him ;
we should have delivered our message ; papa
will reprove us ; divide the apples ; the cap-
tain had commanded his soldiers to pursue the
enemy ; Eliza diverted her brother ; a hunter
killed a hare ; were* I loved ; were we good, we
should be happy, f
* A conjunction is frequently to be understood here,
•j See Exercises of a different sort, page 54.
42 ETYMOLOGY.
An Active or a Neuter Verb may be conjugated through all
its moods and tenses, by adding its Present Participle to the
verb To be. This is called the Progressive form ; * because it
expresses the continuation of action or state : Thus,
Present.
I am loving
Thou art loving
He is loving, &c.
Past.
I was loving
Thou wast loving
He was loving, &c.
The Present and Past Indicative may also be conjugated by
the assistance of Do. This is called the Emphatic/orm : Thus,
Present.
I do love
Thou dost love
He does love, &c.
Past.
I did love
Thou didst love
He did love, &c.
RULE I.
Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, or o, form the third person sin-
gular of the Present Indicative, by adding ES: Thus,
He dress-es, march-es, brush-es, fix-es, go-es.
RULE II.
Verbs in y, change y into i before the terminations est, es, eth,
and ed ; but not before ing ; — Y, with a vowel before it, is not
changed into i : Thus,
Pres. Try, triest, tries or trieth. Past, tried. Part, trying.
Pres. Pray, pray est, prays or pray eth. Past, prayed. Part, praying.
RULE III.
Verbs accented on the last syllable, and verbs of one syllable,
ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double
the jinal consonant before the terminations est, eth, ed, ing ;
but never before s : Thus,
Allot, allottest, allots, allotteth, allotted, allotting.
Blot, blottest, blots, blotteth, blotted, blotting.
* A Passive verb has NO Progressive Form ; such as, I am being loved
— / was being loved — / have been being loved — / had been being loved — /
shall be being loved — I shall have been being loved. — Potential — / can be
being loved, &c. through the whole verb.
VERBS. 43
IRREGULAR VERBS.
A regular verb is one that forms its past
tense »and past participle by adding d or ed to
the present ; as; Love, loved, loved.
An irregular verb is one that does not form
both its past tense and past participle by add-
ing d or ed to the present ; as,
Present. Past. Past Participle.
Abide abode abode
Am was been
Arise arose arisen
Awake awoke R* awaked
Bear, to bring forth bore,f bare born
Bear, to carry bore, bare borne
Beat beat beaten or beat
Begin began begun
Behold . beheld beheld or beholden
Bend bent R bent R
Bereave bereft R bereft R (K- 136->
Beseech besought besought
Bid?>/e>r- bad, bade bidden
Bind, un- bound bound
Bite bit bitten, bit
Bleed bled bled
Blow blew blown
Break ' broke broken
Breed bred bred
Bring brought brought
Build, re- builtf built
* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly,
are marked with an R. \ Bore is now more used than bare.
J Build, dwell, and several other verbs, have the regular form, b
dwelled, &c. See K. No. 135.
ETYMOLOGY
Present. Past.
Past Participle.
Burst burst
burst
Buy bought
bought
Cast . cast
. cast
Catch caught R
caught R
Chide chid
chidden, orchid
Choose chose
chosen
Cleave, to adhere, clave R
cleaved
Cleave, to split clove, or cleft cloven, or cleft
Cling clung
clung
Clothe clothed
clad R
Come, be- came
come
Cost cost
cost
Creep crept
crept
Crow crew R
crowed
Cut cut
cut
Dare, to venture durst
dared
Dare, to challenge is R dared
dared
Deal dealt R
dealt R
Dig dug, or digged dug, or digged
Do, un-* did
done
Draw, with- drew
drawn
Drink drank
drunk
Drive drove
driven
Dwell dwelt R
dwelt R — 2?.43 b
Eat atef
eatenf
Fall, Be- fell
fallen
Feed fed
fed
Feel felt
felt
Fight fought
fought
* The compound verbs are conjugated like the simple, by prefixing
the syllables appended to them ; thus, Undo, undid, undone.
t I have excluded eat as the Past and Past Participle of this verb, foi
though sometimes used by Milton and a few others, the use of it does not
rest on good authority, and this verb is sufficiently irregular already.
VERBS.
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
Find
found
found
Flee,yrow a foe
fled
fled
Fling
flung
flung
Fly, as a bird
flew
flown
Forbear
forbore
forborne
Forget
forgot
forgotten, forgot
Forsake
forsook
forsaken
Freeze
froze
frozen
Get, be- for-
got*
got, gottenf
Gild
giltR
giltR
Gird, be- en-
girt R
girt R
GivQjfor- mis-
gave
given
Go '
went
gone
Grave, en- R
graved
graven
Grind
ground
ground
Grow
grew
grown
Hang
hung
hungt
Have
had
had
Hear
heard
heard
Help
helped
holpen R
Hew, rouqh-
hewed
hewn R
Hide
hid
hidden, or hid
Hit
hit
hit
Hold, be- with-
held
held
Hurt
hurt
hurt
Keep
kept
kept
Kneel
knelt R
knelt
Knit
knit R
knit, or knitted
Know
knew
known
* Gat and begat are often used in the Scriptures for got and begot.
t Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good use.
J Bang, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, The robber was
hanged, but the gown was hung up.
C 2
4G
ETYMOLOGY.
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
Lade
laded
laden
Lay, in-
Lead, mis-
laid
led
laid
led
Leave
left
left
Lend
lent
lent
Let
let
let
Lie, to lie down
lay
lain, or lien
Light
lit R
lit R
Load
loaded
loaden R
Lose
lost
lost
Make
made
made
Mean
meant
meant
Meet
met
met
Mow
mowed
mown R
Pay, re-
paid
paid
Pen, to shut up
pent
pent
Put
put
put
Quit
quit, or
quitted quit R
Bead
read
read
Rend
rent
rent
Eid
rid
rid
Eide
rode
ridden
King
rang, or
rung* rung
Eise, a-
rose
risen
Eive
rived
riven
Eun
ran
run
Saw
sawed
sawn R
Say
said
said
See
saw
seen
Seek
sought
sought
* Where the Past might be either ang or ung, &c., I have given
ang the preference, which it certainly ought to have.
VERBS.
47
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
Seethe
seethed, or sod
sodden
Sell .
sold
sold
Send
sent
sent
Set, be-
set
set
Shake
shook
shaken
Shape, mis-
shaped
shapen R
Shave
shaved
shaven R
Shear
shore R
shorn
Shed
shed
shed
Shine
shone R
shone R
Shoe
shod
shod
Shoot
shot
shot
Show*
showed
shown
Shred
shred
shred
Shrink
shrank, or shrunk
shrunk
Shut
shut
shut
Sing
sang, or sung
sung
Sink
sank, or sunk
sunk
Sit
satf
sitten, or sat$
Slay
slew
slain
Sleep
Slide
slept
slid
slept
slidden
Sling
slang, or slung
slung
Slink
slank, or slunk
slunk
Slit
slit, or slitted
slit, or slitted
Smite
smote
smitten
Sow
sowed
sown R
Speak, 'be-
spoke, spake
spoken
* Or Shew, shewed, shewn— pronounced show, &c. See Note, next page.
t Many authors, both here and in America, use sate as the Past time
of sit ; but this is improper ; for it is apt to be confounded with sate, to
glut.
J Sitten is preferable, though obsolescent.
ETYMOLOGY.
Present.
Speed
Spend, mils-
Spill
Spin
Spit, be-
Split
Spread, be-
Spring
Past.
sped
spent
spilt R
span, or spun
spat, or spit
split R
spread
Past Participle.
sped
spent
spilt R
spun
spitten,or spit*
split R
spread
sprang, or sprung sprung
Stand,W^-&c.stood stood
Steal stole stolen
Stick stuck stuck
Sting stung stung
Stink stank, or stunk stunk
Stride, be- strode, or strid stridden
Strike struck
String strung
Strive strove
Strew, f be- strewed
Strow strowed
Swear swore, or sware
Sweat sweat
Sweep swept
Swell swelled
Swim swam, or swum
Swing swang, or swung swung
Take, be- &c. took taken
Teach, mis- re-taught taught
Tear tore or tare torn
Tell told told
struck,or stricken
strung
striven
strewed, or
strown, strowed
sworn
sweat
swept
swollen R
swum
* Spitten is preferable, though obsolescent.
t Strew and shew are now giving way to straw and show, as they are
pronounced.
VERBS.
49
Present.
Past.
Past Participle.
Think, be-
thought
thought
Thrive
throve R
thriven
Throw
threw
thrown
Thrust
thrust
thrust
Tread
trod
trodden
Wax
waxed
waxen R
•Wear
wore
worn
Weave
wove
woven
Weep
wept
wept
Win
won
won
Wind
wound R
wound
Work
wrought R
wrought, worked
Wring
wrung R
wrung
Write
wrote
written
Defective verbs are those which want some of their moods and
tenses.
Present.
Can,
May,
Must,
Ought,
Past. Past Participle.
Present. Past. Past Participle.
Shall should
J?:~iJ
Will would
Wis wist
ought,
Witorl
nuoth.
wot, rwot>
EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS.
Name the Past Tense and Past Participle of
Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring,
arise, catch, bereave, am, burst, draw, drink,
fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, feel, forsake, grow,
have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, ride,
ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide.
50 ETYMOLOGY.
Of AD VERBS.
An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an
adjective , or another adverb, to express some
quality or circumstance respecting it ; as, Ann "
speaks well; John is remarkably diligent.
Adverbs may be divided into classes, viz. :
1. Adverbs of Time; as, Ago, already, always, daily, early,
hourly, immediately, never, now, presently, sometimes, soon,
then, to-day, to-morrow, yesterday, when, while.
2. Adverbs of Place; as, Above, apart, asunder, back-
ward, below, downward, elsewhere, far, forth, forward, hence,
here, hither, near, off, thence, there, thither, up, upward,
whence, where, whither, within, without, yonder.
3. Adverbs of Number ; as, Once, twice, thrice, first,
secondly, again, often.
4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, Almost, enough, exceedingly,
fully, more, much, most, nearly, too, very.
5. Adverbs of Quality ; as, Badly, cleverly, correctly, how,
ill, poorly, quickly, slowly, softly, sweetly, well, wisely.
6. Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation, and Doubt; as, Ay,
certainly, doubtless, haply, nay, not, nowise, peradventure,
perhaps, surely, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes.
OBSERVATIONS.
Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, as adjectives
qualify nouns.
In many instances, adverbs admit of degrees of comparison like adjec-
tives. Some are compared by adding er and est ; as, often, oftener, oftenest ;
some by prefixing more and most ; as. wisely, more wisely, most wisely ;
some are compared irregularly; as, ill, worse, worst; much, more, most ;
well, better, lest.
Most of the adverbs which end in ly are formed from adjectives by
adding ly ; as, foolish, foolishly ; and they are usually compared by pre-
fixing more and most.
Some adverbs are formed from nouns or adjectives by prefixing
a, as a-shore, a-far.
When more and most qualify nouns they are adjectives; but in every
other situation thev are adverbs.
ADVERBS. 51
EXERCISES ON ADVERBS.
He went off immediately. I then wept bit-
terly. He is here now. She went away yes-
terday.* They came to-day. They will per-
haps depart to-morrow. He will soon go away.
She sung sweetly. Cats soon know how tof
catch mice. Maria rose up hastily. They that
have enough J may soundly sleep. Cain wick-
edly slew his brother. I saw him long ago.
He is a very good man. Sooner or later all
must die. You read too little. They talk too
much. Always act wisely. How many lines
can you repeat ? You ran hastily. He speaks
fluently. Then were they happy. He fell fast
asleep. She should not hold her head awry.
The ship was driven ashore. No, indeed. They
are all alike. Those that were thirsty drank
freely. The oftener you read attentively, the
better you will remember.
OBSERVATIONS.
* To-day, yesterday, and to-morrow, are also nouns, for they are
parts of time ; as, Yesterday is past, to-day is passing, and we may never
see to-morrow. — When these words answer to the question when, they
are governed by a preposition understood; as, When will John come
home? (on) to-morrow, for he went away (on) yesterday.
Much is used, 1. as an adverb; as, It is much better to live well than not.
2. as an adjective ; as, In much wealth is much care.
3. as a noun; as, When much is promised, much is expected.
In strict propriety, however, much can never be a noun, but an adjec-
tive ; for were the question to be asked, Much what is given ? it would
be necessary to add a noun, and say, Where much grace is given, much
gratitude is required.
t To, before flie infinitive of verbs, is an adverb, according to Johnson ,
and according to Murray, a preposition. The two together may be called
the infinitive.
I Enough (a sufficiency) is here a noun. Its plural, — enow, is applied
like many, to things that are numbered. Enough, an adj. like much,
should perhaps be applied only to things that are weighed or measured.
62 ETYMOLOGY.
Of PREPOSITIONS.
A Preposition is a word put before nouns and
pronouns, to show the relation between them ;
as, He sailed from Leith to London in two days.
A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.
To be got accurately by heart.
About, above, across, after, against, along,
amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at,
athwart. Before, behind, below, beneath, be-
side, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, by.
Down, during. Except. For, p- 53> b- from. In,
into. Near, nigh. Of, off, on, over. Round.
Save, since. Through, throughout, till, to, to-
wards.* Under, underneath, unto, up, upon,
With, within, without.
OBSERVATIONS.
Every preposition requires an objective case after it. When a
preposition does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb;
as, He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold out, fall on, the
words up, out, and on, must be considered as a part of the verb, rather
than as prepositions or adverbs.
Some words are used as prepositions in one place, and as adverbs in
another, thus, before is a preposition when it refers to place ; as, He
stood before the door ; and an adverb when it refers to time ; as. Before
that the boy called thee, I saw thee. The word before, however, and
others in similar situations, may still be considered as prepositions, if
we supply an appropriate noun ; as, Before the time that the boy, &c.
* Towards is a preposition, but toward is an adjective, and means
" Ready to do or learn ; compliant with duty ; not fro ward." Toward
is sometimes improperly used for towards.
The inseparable prepositions are omitted, because an explanation of
them can impart no informatiou without a previous knowledge of the
radical word. Suppose the pupil told that con means together, will this
explain convene to him? No: he must first be told that vene signifies
to come, and then con, together. Would it not be better to tell him at
•nee that convene means to come or call together f
CONJUNCTIONS. 53
Of CONJUNCTIONS.
A Conjunction is a word which joins words
and sentences together; as. You and I must
go to Leith ; but Peter may stay at home. ~
Conjunctions are of two kinds — Copulative,
which join words and connect their meanings ;
and Disjunctive, which join words, but disjoin
their meanings.
The Copulative Conjunctions are — Also, and,
as, because, both, for,* if, since, that, then,
therefore, too, wherefore.
The Disjunctive Conjunctions are — Although,
but, either, except, however, lest, neither, nor,
notwithstanding, or, than, though, unless, whe-
ther, yet.
EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS.
Love your master : for it is your duty. Some
children have neither father nor mother alive :
notwithstanding this, they are as happy and
healthy as many that have both : because the
Divine Being has put it into the hearts of others
to take care of them. If you study diligently,
then you may expect to acquire much knowledge:
but unless you study, you cannot know much.
OBSERVATIONS.
* When for can be turned into because, it is a conjunction.
Several words which are marked as adverbs in Johnson's Dictionary
are in many Grammars marked as conjunctions ; such as, Albeit, else,
•moreover, likewise, otherwise, nevertheless, then, therefore, wnerefore.
But in some cases is an adverb ; as, " We are but (only} of yesterday
and know nothing."
Sometimes the same words are used as conjunctions in one place, and
as prepositions or adverbs in another place; as, Since (conj.) we must
part, let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since (prep.) that time.
Our friendship commenced long since (adv.)f
f As many distinctions, however proper in themselves, may prove
more hurtful than useful, they should not be made till the learner b«
perfectly acquainted with the more obvious facts.
54
ETYMOLOGY.
Of INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is a word which expresses
some emotion of the speaker ; as, Ok, what a
sight is here ! Well done !
A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.
Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away! aha ! begone !
hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo ! hum ! hush !
huzza! hist! hey-day! lo! 0! oh! strange!
0 brave ! ^shaw ! see T well-a-day ! &c.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
1 saw a boy which is blind.*
I saw a flock of gooses.
This is the horse who was lost.
This is the hat whom I wear.
John is here, she is a good boy.
The hen lays his eggs.
Jane is here, he reads well.
I saw two mouses.
The dog follows her master.
This two horses eat hay.
John met three mans.
We saw two childs.
He has but one teeth.
The well is ten foot deep.
Look at the oxes.
We was not there.f
I loves him.
He love me.
Thou have been busy.
He dare not speak.
She need not do it.
Was you there ?
You was not there.
We was sorry for it.
Thou might not go.
He dost not learn.
If I does that.
Thou may do it.
You was never there.
The book were lost.
This horse will let me ride on her. Thou will better stop.
I can stay this two hours. The horses was sold.
I have two pen-knifes. The boys was reading.
My lady has got his fan. I teaches him grammar.
Two pair of ladies's gloves. He are not attentive to it.
Henry the Eighth had six wifes. Thou shall not go out.
I saw the man which sings. If I bees not at home.
We saw an ass who brayed at us. Thou can do nothing for me.
They will stay this two days. There is only two of us, John and you.
* These exercises will at once amuse and improve the pupil. See
Syntax, Rules 14 and 15. \ Syntax, Rule 1.
PARSING.
ON PAESING.
HAVING the exercises on Parsing* and Syntax in one volume
\vith the •Grammar, is a convenience so exceedingly great, that
it must be obvious. The following set of exercises on Parsing
are arranged on a plan new and important.
All the most material points, and those that are apt to puzzle
the pupil, have been selected, and made the subject of a whole
page of exercises, and where very important, of two. By this
means, the same point must come so often under his eye, and be
so often repeated, that it cannot fail to make a deep impression
on his mind ; and even should he forget it, it will be easy to re-
fresh his memory by turning to it again.
To give full scope to the pupil's discriminating powers, the
exercises contain all the parts of speech, promiscuously arranged,
to l»e used thus :
1. After the pupil has got the definition of a noun, exercise
him in going over any part of the exercises in parsing, and point-
ing out the NOUNS only. This will oblige him to exercise his
powers of discrimination in distinguishing the nouns from the
other words.f
2. After getting the definition of an adjectives exercise him in
selecting all the adjectives from the other words, and telling why
they are adjectives.
3. After getting all the pronouns very accurately by heart, let
him point out them, in addition to the nouns arid adjectives.
4. Then the verb, without telling what sort, or what number,
or person, or tense, for several weeks, or longer, till he can dis-
tinguish it with great readiness.
5. Then the definition of an adverb, after which exercise him
orally with many short sentences containing adverbs, and then on
those in the book.
6. Get all the prepositions by heart, for it is impossible to
give such a definition of a preposition as will lead a child to dis-
tinguish it with certainty, from every other sort of word.
a need besides an article and a noun, no exercise is given to the pupil s
judgement at all; for in every sentence he finds only an article and a
noun; and in the next se.t only an article, an adjective, and a noun, and
so on. There is no room for discrimination here, and yet discrimina-
tion is the very thing he should be taught.
66 PARSING.
7. Get all the conjunctions by heart. They have been alpha-
betically arranged, like the prepositions, to facilitate the com-
mitting of them to memory.
8. After this, the pupil, if very young, may go over all the
exercises by parsing every word in the most simple manner;
viz. by saying such a word — a noun, singular, without telling
its gender and case such a word, a verb, without telling its
nature, number, person, tense, and mood.
9. In the next and last course, he should go over the exer-
cises, and tell every thing about nouns and verbs, &c., as shown
in the example below.
JST In the Exercises on Parsing, every sentence is numbered in the
Grammar; but in the Key, many sentences are not noticed at all,
because they are easy. Under No. a, for instance, the 2d sentence is
noticed in the Key, p. 75, but not the 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, because
there is nothing difficult in any of them.
The small letters refer to the Nos. For example, p, in the first sen
tence of No. a, directs the learner to turn to No. p, page 7ft, and remark
that it says, " The verb to be or to have is often understood;" intimating
to him by this reference that to be is understood after man in the first
sentence of No. a, and teaches us in the second.
A Specimen of Parsing.
0 how stupendous was the power,
That raised me with a word ;
And every day and every hour,
I lean upon the Lord.
0, an. interjection — how, an adverb — stupendous, an adjective, in the
positive degree, compared by more and most, as, stupendous, more stu-
pendous, most stupendous — was, a verb, neuter, third pers. singular,
past, indicative (^agreeing with its nominative power, here put after
it) — the, an article, the definite— power, a noun, singular, neuter, the
nominative — That, a relative pronoun, singular, neuter, the nomina-
tive, here used for which; its antecedent is power — raised, a verb, active,
third person, singular, past, indicative (agreeing with its nominative
that) — -me, the first personal pronoun, singular, masculine, or feminine,
the objective (governed by raised) — with, a preposition — a, an article
the indefinte — word, a noun, singular, neuter, the objective (governed
by with) — And, a conjunction — every, a distributive* pronoun — day, a
noun, singular, neuter, the objective (because the preposition through
or during is understood)— and, and every, as before, — hour, a noun, sin-
gular, neuter, the objective (because day was in it, and conjunctions
couple the same cases of nouns, &c.) — I, the first personal pronoun,
singular, masculine, or feminine, the nominative — lean, a verb, neuter,
first person, singular, present, indicative — upon, a preposition — the, an
article, the definite — Lord, a noun, singular, masc. the obj. (governed
by upon). For Construction, see p. 120.
* Omit the words within the ( ) till the pupil get the rules of Syntax.
EXERCISES. 57
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
A few easy sentences intended as an Exercise chiefly on the
Active Verb; but to be previously used as an Exercise on
Nouns and Adjectives.
No. a.
A good conscience and a contented mind will
make a man^ happy1. Philosophy teaches us
to endure afflictions, but Christianity^* to en-
joy them, by turning them into blessings2f.
Virtue ennobles the mind, but vice debases
it3. Application in the early period of life
renders labour and study easy in succeeding
years4. True courage fears nothing but sin5.
Devotion strengthens virtue ; calms the temper;
and fills the heart with gratitude and praise6
An irreligious man dislikes prayer, neglects tht,
Bible, profanes the Sabbath, and prefers his
own wicked desires and devices to the will and
service of God7.
If we give the reins to our appetites and
passions, and lay no restraint upon them, they
will hurry us into guilt and misery8. Good
sense stamps a value upon all our other quali-
ties ; it teaches us to make a proper use of our
acquirements, and to turn our opportunities to
advantage : it shows itself in all our words and
actions, and in every occurrence of life9. Shame
and disappointment follow sloth and idleness10.
The darkness, which follows sunset, hides the
earth, but reveals the heavens11.
* Supply teaches us. as a reference to No. p intimates.
t See the O" on the preceding page. See also Key, p. 75 &c.
58 PARSING.
EXERCISES,
Chiefly on the Active Verb, — continued from last page.
No. a.
Example exerts greater influence than pre^-
cept12. Gentleness Ought to mark our temper,
colour our manners, regulate our speech, and
diffuse itself over our whole behaviour13. Know-
ledge makes our being? pleasant to us, fills the
mind with entertaining views, and provides us
with sources of perpetual gratification14. Meek-
ness controls our angry passions ; candour? our
severe judgments15. Perseverance in labour
will surmount every difficulty16. He that* takes
pleasure in the prosperity of others, enjoys part
of their good fortune17. Eestlessness of mind
disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace,
and for the performance of duty18. Sadness
contracts the mind ; mirth dilates it19.
We should subject our fancies to the govern-
ment of reason20. Self-conceit, presumption,
and obstinacy, blast the prospects of many a
youth21. Mere affluence may giver2 us import-
ance in the eyes of the vulgar • but it will not
recommend us to the wise and good22. A man
of cheerful temper brings sunshine with him
wherever he comes ; a querulous man creates
discontent, and makes others as cross as him-
self23. Many lose their labour, because they do
not prosecute to the end the good work which
they have begun24. Envy and wrath shorten
life ; and anxiety bringeth age before its time25.
Men do not gather grapes of thorns, nor figs of
thistles26.
EXERCISES.
Chiefly on the Neuter Verb, including t
No. I.
It is better to live on a little712 than to out-
live'1 a great deal1. A good education is a better
inheritance than a great estate^2. It would be
well for some men, if they were penniless3.
Friendship can scarcely exist where virtue is
not the foundation4. He that* swells in pros-
perity, will shrink in adversity6. He who
despairs of good is sure to fall into evil6. From
idleness arises6 neither pleasure nor advantage :
we must flee therefore from idleness^, the cer-
tain parent of guilt and ruin7.
You must not always rely on promises8.
The peace of society dependeth on the due ad-
ministration of law and justice9. He that
walketh with wise men shall be wise10. He
that* sitteth with the profane is foolish11. The
coach arrives daily12. The mail travels fast13.
Rain falls in great abundance here14. He sleeps
soundly15. She dances gracefully16. I went to
York17. He lives soberly18. He huried to his
house in the country19. They smiled20. She
laughed21. He that* liveth in pleasure is dead
while he liveth22. To a lover of truth nothing
appears to be™ so low and mean as lying and
dissimulation23. Vice is its own punishment,
and virtue is its own reward24. Industry is the
road to wealth, and virtue^ to happiness25. A
message flies with the speed of lightning along
the telegraphic wires26.
60 PARSING.
Chiefly on the Passive Verb. — See Page 38, bottom.
No. C.
An accomplished man is admired ; an amiable
man is loved1. You may be deprived of rank
and riches against your will ; but** not of virtue
without your consent2. Bad habits should be
amended, and good ones acquired3. Many are
brought to ruin by extravagance and dissipa-
tion4. The best designs are often ruined by
unnecessary delay5. Only such recreations
should be pursued as are innocent and health-
ful6. Almost all difficulties may be overcome
by diligence7. Old friends are preserved and
new ones are procured by a grateful disposi-
tion8. Words are like arrows, and should not
be shot at random9.
A desire to be thought learned* is charac-
teristic of the smatterer rather than of the true
scholar10. Great merit is sometimes concealed
under the most unpromising appearances11.
Some talents are buried in the earth, and others
are properly employed12. Much mischief has
often been prevented by timely consideration13.
True pleasure cannot be tasted by the wicked.;
it is only to be found in the paths of virtue14.
Thatf friend is highly to be valued at all times,
whose friendship is shown in the time of our
adversity15.
* Learned here, is an adjective ; and should be pronounced learn-ed in
two syllables; but when a verb, in one.
t Concerning that, see Notes p. 19 and Key, No. 90 ,p. 46.
EXERCISES. 61
EXERCISES,
Chiefly on the Passive Verb,— continued.
No. C.
Beneficence is accompanied with such an
inward satisfaction, that the duty is sufficiently
rewarded by the performance16. The mind
should be stored with knowledge, and^ culti-
vated with care17. A pardon was obtained for
him from the king18. Sanguine prospects have
often been blasted19. Too sanguine hopes of
any earthly thing should never be entertained20.
The table of Dionysius the tyrant was loaded
with delicacies of every kind, yet he could not
eata21. We are taught in the Scriptures that
the afflictions of this life will be overpaid by
that eternal weight of glory which awaits the
righteous71222.
Greater courage is displayed in ruling one's
own spirit than in taking a city23. Riches and
honour have not always been reserved for the
good24. King Alfred is said to have divided
the day and night into three parts • eight hours
were allotted for meals and sleep, — eight were
allotted for business and recreation, and eighth
for study and devotion25. All our actions should
be regulated by religion and reason26. The
ship would have been swamped, and the whole
crew lost, if the leak had not been discovered
in time27. These two things cannot be dis-
joined ; a holy life and a happy death28. As
the thermometer cannot indicate temperature,
when the mercury is frozen ; so conscience can-
not show us our duty, when hardened by sin'*'.
D
82 PARSING.
EXERCISES
On different sorts of Verb in the Imperative.
No. d.
Forget the faults of others, and remember
your own1. Study universal rectitude, and
cherish religious hope2. Suit your desires to
things, and not things to your desires3. Never
lie, nor steal, nor covet, but always follow the
law of truth, of integrity, and of contentment4.
Practise humility, and avoid everything in
dress, carriage, or conversation, which has any
appearance of pride5. Allow nothing to inter-
rupt your public or private devotions , except
the performance of some humane action6.
Learn to contemn all praise betimes,
For* flattery is the nurse of crimes7.
Recollect that you are a member of the human
family ; and deem nothing which7* regards hu-
manity unworthy of your notice8. Presume6
not in prosperity, and despair6 not in adversity9.
Be kind and courteous to all, and never either
give or take offence without just reason10. Be-
ware* of the beginnings of evil habits ; they
creep6 upon us insidiously, and often become
our masters before we are aware11.
Oh man, degenerate man, offend no more !
Gof learn of brutes, thy Maker to adore12 !
Let no one persuade you that the work of pre-
paration for heaven is inconsistent with an hon-
ourable discharge of the duties of active life13.
Let your words { agree with your thoughts,
and let both be ruled by the law of the Lord14.
* See Note First, p. 53.
Go and learn are both iii the imperative. J See Note, next page.
EXERCISES. 63
EXERCISES
On different sorts of Verb in the Imperative, — continued.*
No. d.
Let the favour of God be preferred to the
friendship of men, and the testimony of a good
conscience to the applause of the world.15 Let
your first waking thoughts be given to God ;
and let no evening close without a devout obla-
tion of prayer and thanksgiving16.
Let no opposition or obloquy from men make
you* swerve from your duty to God ; the frowns
of the world are nothing to the smiles of
heaven17. Let reason go before enterprise, and
counsel before every action18. Hear Ann read
her lesson19. Bid her get it better20. You
needf not hear her again21. I see her weep22.
I feel it pain me23. T dare not go24. You be-
hold him run25. We observed him walk off
hastily26.
And that tongue of his, that bade the Romans
Mark* him, and write his speeches in their bosks,
Alas ! it cried — give7"2 me some drink, Titinius27.
Deal with another as you'd have
Another* deal with you ;
What'' you're unwilling to receive,
Be sure you never do28.
Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with
good.29. Be angry and sin not ; let not the
sun go down upon your wrath30.
* The next verb after bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, behold,
observe, have, and known, is in the Infinitive, having to understood : as,
"The tempest-loving raven scarce dares (t:>) wing the dubious dusk.'
— I have known him (to) divert the money, &c. To is often used after
the compound tenses of these verbs ; as, Who will dare to advance, if I
say — stop? Them did he make to pay tribute.
t Sent. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, have no Imperative in them.
64 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
The Nominative, though generally placed 'before the verb, is often
placed after it; especially when the sentence begins with
Here, there, &c., when if or though is understood, and when a
question is asked.
No. e.
Of all burdens the heaviest is a guilty con-
science1. Among the best and most healthful
sports, may be reckoned bowls, curling, golf,
and cricket • among the most dangerous, foot-
ball and boating2. Then were they in great
fear3. Here stands the oak4. On the heels of
folly treadeth shame, and at the back of anger
standeth remorse5. Then shall thy light break
forth as the morning6. Then shalt thou see
clearly7. Where is thy brother8? Is he at
home9 ?
There are in most of our great towns hun-
dreds who can neither read nor write10. Were
he at leisure, I would wait upon him11. Had
he been more prudent, he would have been
more fortunate12. Were they wise, they would
read the Scriptures daily13. I would give more"
to the poor were I able14. Could we survey
the chambers of sickness and distress, we should
find them** peopled, in very many instances,
with the victims of intemperance, sensuality,
and self indulgence15. Were he to assert it, I
would not believe it, because he told a lie be-
fore16. Gaming is a vice*7 pregnant with the
greatest evils ; to it are often sacrificed wealth,
reputation, and everything virtuous and valu-
able17. Is not industry the road to wealth,
virtue^ to wellbeing18 ?
EXERCISES. 65
EXERCISES.
The Nominative is often at a great distance from the verb.
No./ _
James Watt, who, by his invention of the
steam-engine, conferred such inestimable bene-
fits on his country and the world, was a man as
remarkable for his modesty as for his genius1.
That fortitude* which has encountered no dangers,
that energy which has surmounted no difficulties,
that integrity which has never been exposed to
temptation, — can at best be considered but as
gold not yet0 brought to the test, of which,
therefore, the true value cannot be assigned2.
It is quite possible that that little boy, so
mean in his attire, and so peasant-like in his
look and manners, whom his richer and gayer
schoolmates despise for his humble birth and
homely aspect; seldom inviting him to share
in their sports, and often treating him with dis-
dain, and even with rudeness, as if he were the
dust beneath their feet, may, by his superior
talents and diligence, outstrip all of them in the
race of learning, and ultimately rise to a posi-
tion in society, which they, with all their ad-
vantages of birth, and wealth, and patronage,
shall be unable to reach3. He whose constant
employment is detraction and censure ; who
looks only to find faults, and speaks only to puo-
lish them ; will be dreaded, hated, and avoided4.
He', who through vast immensity can pierce,
See worlds on worlds**2* compose one universe,
Observe how system into system runs,
WhaU* other planets circle other suns,
What varied being peoples every star,
May tell why Heaven has made us as we are8.
D2
66 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
The infinitive, or part of a sentence, being equal to a noun, is
often the nominative to a verb.
No. g.
To be ashamed of a course of life which^ con-
science approves from a fear of the censure of
the world,* is the mark of a feeble and imper-
fect character1. To bear ill usage with meek-
ness, and misfortune with equanimity, bespeaks
true nobility of soul2. To rejoice in the welfare
of our fellow-creatures, is, in a degree, to partake
of their good fortune ; but to repine at their pros-
perity, is only to punish ourselves, and prove how
unworthy we are of the success which we envy3.
To eat bread in the sweat of his face, till he
return unto the ground out of which he was
taken, is part of the doom entailed on man by
the fall4. To satisfy all his wishes, is the way
to make your child^ truly miserable5. To prac-
tise virtue is the sure way to love it6. To be
at once merry and malicious, is the sign of a
corrupt heart and a weak understanding7. To
love them who love us is commendable ; but to
love our enemies, and do good to them that hate
us, is the height of wisdom8. To instruct the igno-
rant, relieve the needy, and comfort the afflicted f,
are duties which it is at once a privilege and a
pleasure tq perform9. To dread no eye, and sus-
pect no tongue, is18f the prerogative of innocence10.
* When nothing hut an infinitive precedes the verb, then it is the in-
finitive that is the nominative to it: as, To play is pleasant. ..But when
the infinitive has any adjuncts, as in the sentence, To drink poison is
death, it is the whole clause that forms the nominative ; for it is not to
drink that is death ; but to drink poison.
. f Two or more infinitives usually require a verb in the plural. See
also R. 18. M
EXERCISES. 67
EXERCISES.
Usually the relative which or that is the nominative to the verb,
when it stands immediately before the verb. When not
close to the verb, it is usually in the objective, and governed
either by the verb that comes after it, or by a preposition.*
No. Ji.
The lesson which you get with difficulty is
longer remembered than that which you learn
with ease1. The veil which covers from our
sight the sorrows of future years, is a veil0 which
the hand of mercy has woven2. Most of the
misfortunes that "befall us in life may be traced
to vices or follies which we have committed3.
Bewared of those sins in youth which cause
self-reproach in riper years4. True charity is
not a meteor which occasionally glances, but a
luminary which,* in its orderly and regular
course, dispenses a benignant influence5.
We usually find that to be the sweetest fruit,
which the birds have pecked6. Nothing can
make that ^great, which the decree of nature
has ordained to be little7. The force that raises
the lid of the tea-kettle, when the water is boil-
ing, is the same which propels the mightiest
steamship8, True religion will show its in-
fluence in every part of our conduct ; it is like
the sapf of a living tree? which pervades the
most distant boughs9.
There is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune™.
* An adverb or a clause between two commas, frequently comes be-
tween the relative and the verb. The rule at the top is but a general
rule ; for in Poetry, in particular, the Relative, though not close to the
verb, is sometimes in the nominative. — See first line of Poetry, page 65.
t Sap, the olj. governed by to understood after like, and antecedent to
which.
68 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
When the antecedent and relative are loth in the nominative, the
relative is generally the nominative to the verb next it, and
the antecedent is generally the nominative to the second verb.
No. t .
He who performs every part of his business
in its due place and season, suffers no part of
time to escape without profit1. He that does
good for its own sake, seeks neither praise nor
reward, though he is sure of both at the last2.
He that commends a wicked action, is equally
guilty with him that commits it3. He that
overcomes his passions, conquers his greatest
enemies4. The consolation which is derived
from a reliance upon Providence, enables us to
support the most severe misfortunes5.
In our climate, fruit-trees which blossom late
are surer to repay the gardener's care than those
which blossom early6. The same sun which
shone on your cradle, shall shine on your grave7.
A wrong which is inflicted on us unintentionally,
leaves no room for resentment8. The objects
which we most value, are not always those
which are most valuable9. The impressions
which we receive in youth are always deeper
and more lasting than those of after-life10. Per-
sons who are ingenuous and kind hearted in
youth, but become selfish, morose, and miserly
in old age, may be not unfitly likened to those
mountains which have a carpet of verdure and
flowers at their base, while their summit is
covered with ice and snow11.
EXERCISES. 69
EXERCISES.
WJiat is equal to — that which — or the tiling which — and repre-
sents two cases ; — sometimes two nominatives ; — sometimes
two objectives ; — sometimes a nominative and an objective ; —
and sometimes an objective and a nominative. — Sometimes it
is an adjective.
No./
Regard the quality, rather than the quantity
of what you read1. If we delay till to-morrow
what ought to be done to-day ,p> 51> b- we over-
charge the to-inorrow with a burden which
belongs not to it2. Choose what is most fit :
custom will make it the most agreeable3. Fool-
ish men are more apt to consider what they have
lost, than what they possess, and to turn their
eyes on those who are richer than themselves,
rather than on those who are under greater
difficulties4.
What cannot be cured, must be endured5.
Attend to what you are about, and take pains
to do it well6. *What a dolt not to know what
part of speech what is7 ! Mark Antony, when
under adverse circumstances, made this interest-
ing remark, " I have lost all, except what I
gave away8." Mark what it is his mind aims
at in the question, and not merely what* words1*
he utters9.
By what* means shall I obtain wisdom ?
See what* a grace was seated on his brow10 !
* What here, and generally in questions, is an adjective, like many in
" many a flower." Sometimes it is an Interjection, as, What I
What is sometimes used as an adverb for partly: thus, What with
thinking, what with writing, and what with reading, I am weary.
70 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
The compound relatives, — whoever and whosoever — are equal to
— he who. — See also page 18, last note.
Whatever and whatsoever are equal to — the thing which, — arid,
like what on the preceding page, represent two cases.
Whatever gives pain to your neighbour, ought
to cause pain to yourself*1. Whoever tells you
your faults from a desire for your amendment,
is your true friend and benefactor2. Whatso-
ever is good, that you should do3. Wherever
you are, and in ^whatever circumstances you
are placed, remember that the eye of God is
upon you4. Whosoever committeth sin, trans-
gresseth also the law ; for sin is the transgres-
sion of the law5. Whatever is worth doing, is
worth doing well6.
* By whatever arts you may at first attract
the attention, you can hold the esteem, and
secure the hearts of others, only by amiable
dispositions, and the accomplishments of the
mind7.
Whatever brawls disturb the street,
There should be peace at home8.
Good advice, by whomsoever given, should be
thankfully followed ; and enticements to evil
should be strenuously resisted, whatever the at-
tractions of the enticer9. ^Whatever insult
you receive, try to bear it meekly : revenge it
in no circumstances whatever10.
* Whatever is an adjective here, for it qualifies arts, &c. ; and where
no noun is after it, it agrees with thing understood. Thus, Whatever
may be the motive, &c., that is, Whatever thing may be.
EXERCISES. 71
EXEECISES.
Do, did, have, had, are auxiliary verbs when joined to another
verb; when not joined to another verb, they are principal
verbs, and, like the verb to love, have auxiliaries.
No. I
He who does not perform what he has prom-
ised, is a traitor to his friend1. Earthly happi-
ness does not flow from riches ; but from content
of mind, health of body, and a life of piety and
virtue2. Fine clothes do not make a gentleman3.
Though you have not yet succeeded in taking
the prize, do not be discouraged from trying
again4. If you have not done all you could, why
do you wonder at your failure5? John did not
tell me that he had gained the gold medal6.
Did you see my book7 ? Do you go to-morrow8 ?
I do not think \ip proper to play too long9. What
is this that thou hast done10 ? Had they studied
the map, they might have saved themselves a
long journey11. Do not lightly throw away
what you have gained with difficulty12. Wis-
dom does not make a man^ proud13.
Principal. — He who does the most good,* has
the most pleasure14. Instead of adding to the
afflictions of others, do whatever* you can to
alleviate them15. To him that hath shall be
given16. If thou canst do anything, haved com-
passion on us, and helpd us17. He did his work
well18. Silver and gold have I none ; but such as
I have give I thee19. Did you do what7' I re-
quested you to do20 ?
* Have, hast, has, hath, had, and hadst, are auxiliaries only wnen they
have the Past Participle of another verb after them.
72 PAESING.
EXERCISES.
The verb to be has very often an adjective after it ; and some
adjectives seem so closely combined with it, as to lead young
people to suppose that they have got a passive verb.
No. m.
Piety and rectitude are productive of true
peace and comfort1. If the powers of the mind
were duly cultivated,* mankind would at all
times be able to derive pleasure from their own
breasts, as rational as it is exalted2. Learning
is preferable to riches ; but virtue is preferable
to both3. Men who are severe in judging them-
selves are usually charitable to the faults of
others4. We were all afraid of the lions5 : for
we heard them2^* roar6. A man may be well
instructed without being also instructive7.
Although ten were eligible, only one was
chosen8. To study without intermission is im-
possible : relaxation is necessary ; but it should
be moderate9. The Athenians were conceited
on account of their own wit, science, and polite-
ness10. We are indebted to our ancestors for
our civil and religious liberty11. Gold would
be less valued, if it were more abundant12. An
idle person is a kind of monster in the creation,
because all nature is busy about him13. Be
careful to speak with reverence of all that is
sacred14. He was unfortunate, because he was
inconsiderate15. He who is self-confident is less
likely to excel than he who is conscious of his
deficiencies16. I am ashamed of you17. She is
quite forlorn18.
* Were cultivated, a verb passive.
EXERCISES. 73
EXERCISES.
1. Active and neuter verbs are often conjugated with their
Present Participle, joined to the verb to be.*
2. A noun is always understood, when not expressed, after
Adjectives, and Adjective Pronouns: such as,/ew, many, this,
that, all, each, every, either.— See p. 147, under They, those.
No. n.
1. While I am reading, you should be listen-
ing to what I read1. He was delivering his
speech when I left the house2. They have been
hearing a lecture on botany3. He might have
been preparing his lesson4. I have been writing
a letter, and I am just going to send it away5.
She was walking by herself when I met her6.
We are perishing with hunger; I am willing
therefore to surrender7. We should always be
learning8. A good man is always studying to
be better9. We were playing at cricket yester-
day10.
2. Those only are truly great who are really
good11. Few set a proper value on their time12.
Those who* despise the admonitions of their
friends, deserve the mischiefs which^ their own
obstinacy brings upon them13. Of the many
who contended for the prize, most were quite
undeserving of it, and only a few made a toler-
able appearance, though each expected to be
the successful competitor14. Love no interests
but those of truth and virtue15. Such as are
diligent will be rewarded16. I saw a thousand17.
Of all prodigality, that of time is the worst18.
Some are naturally timid ; and some bold and
active ; for all are not alike19.
* Many words both in ing and ed are mere adjectives.
£
74 PAESING.
EXERCISES.
The Past Participle has uniformly either a relative or personal
pronoun, with some part of the verb to be, understood before
it.*
No. o.
Make the study of the sacred Scriptures? your
daily practice and concern; and embrace the
doctrines contained in them, as the real oracles
of Heaven, and the dictates of that Spirit that
cannot lie1. Knowledge softened with modesty
and good "breeding, will make a man beloved
and admired2. Gratitude and thanks are the
least returns which children can make to their
parents for the numberless obligations conferred
on them3. Precepts have little influence when
not enforced by example4. He is of all human
beings the happiest, who has a conscience
untaintedf by guilt, and a mind so well regu-
latedf as to be able to accommodate itself to
whatever the wisdom of Heaven shall think fit
to ordain5. Mere external beauty is of little
estimation ; and deformity, when associated
with amiable dispositions and useful qualities,
does* not preclude our respect and approbation6.
True honour, as defined by Cicero, is the con-
current approbation of good men7. Modesty
seldom resides in a breast not enriched with
nobler virtues8.
* It is often difficult to supply the right part of the verb to be. An
adverb is often understood. The scope of the passage must determine
what part of to be, and what adverb, when an adv. is necessary, should
be supplied : for no general rule for this can be given.
^" The Past Tense has always a nom. either expressed or easily un-
derstood : but the Past Part, has no Nom.— See Key, p. 81. No. 163.
t Untainted and regulated are adjectives here.
EXERCISES. 75
EXERCISES.
On the Past Participle, — continued from last page.
No. o.
An elevated genius, employed in little things,
appears like the sun in his evening declination ;
he remits his splendour, but retains his mag-
nitude ; and pleases more, though he dazzles
less9. Economy, prudently and temperately
conducted, is the safeguard of many virtues ;
and is, in a particular manner, favourable to
the exercise of benevolence10.
The lovely young Lavinia once had friends,
And fortune smiled deceitful52 on her birth ;
For, in her helpless years, deprived of all,
Of every stay, save* innocence and Heaven,
She, with her widow'd mother, feeble, old,
And poor, lived in a cottage, far retired
Among the windings of a woody vale ;
By solitude and deep surrounding shades,
But more by bashful modesty concealed11.
We find man^ placed f in a world where he
has by no means the disposal of the events
that happen12. Protected by its wooden walls,
Britain is safer from invasion than many a
country which has its whole frontier barricaded
by impregnable fortresses13. Children often
labour more to have the words in their booksf
imprinted on their memories, than to have the
meaningt fixed in their minds14.
* Save may be considered a preposition here. — See Key, No. 140.
t In many cases, the infinitive to be, is understood before the Past
Participle. Though the verb that follows have, dare, &c., is in the In-
finitive, to is inadmissible, and where to is inadmissible, the be that
follows A is inadmissible also. — Man to be placed — Means to be left, &G.
See Syn. R. 6.
76 PAUSING.
EXEECISES.
Supply all the words that are understood. The infinitive to be
or to have, is often understood. — Not supplying what is under-
stood after than and as, is frequently the cause of error.
No. jtf.
Disdain** every form of falsehood, nor allow
even the image of deceit a place in your mind1.
Some who seem Iborn only to serve others rise
by their integrity and fidelity to places of com-
mand ; and some who commence life with all
the advantages of birth and fortune, forfeit their
position by their vices, and find themselves re-
duced in after-life to servitude or beggary2.
They lost their mother when very young3.
For contemplation he, and valour form'd ;
For softness she, and sweet attractive grace4.
Is not her husband elder than she5? Thy
brother is a more diligent student than thou6.
We were earlier at church than they7. I have
more to do than he8. He is as diligent as his
brother9. I love you as well as him10. How
opposite in their worldly circumstances were
these two — Dives and Lazarus — the one rich,
the other poor ; the one clothed in purple and
fine linen, the other in rags; the one faring
sumptuously every day, the other desiring to
be fed with the crumbs which fell from the rich
man's table ; yet, though Dives in his lifetime
received his good things, and Lazarus evil
things, the latter had really the better portion,
and the former the worse; for in the world
beyond the grave the beggar was to be com-
forted, and the rich man tormented11.
EXERCISES. 77
EXERCISES.
1. The objective after an active verb, especially when a relative,
is often understood.
2. Sometimes the antecedent is omitted, and must in parsing
be supplied.
No. q.
1. He that moderates his desires, enjoys the
best happiness this world can afford1. Few
reflections are more distressing than those we
make on our own ingratitude2. The modest
flower we overlook is often more fragrant than
the flaunting one we admire3. It is not easy
to love those we do not esteem4. Our good or
bad fortune depends on the choice we make of
our friends5. Over-anxiety to avoid the evils
we dread only makes us a broader mark for
their sharp arrows ; and not a few of our mis-
fortunes are brought on, or at least accelerated, by
the very means we use to avert them6. He eats
regularly, drinks moderately, and reads often7.
She sees and hears distinctly, but she cannot
write8. Lay up a part of what you daily acquire,
that you may have to give to him that is poor9.
2. There are in this loud stunning tide
Of human care and crime,
With whom the melodies abide
Of the everlasting chime10.
There have been that have delivered themselves
from their misfortunes by their good conduct
or virtue11.
Who live to nature rarely can be poor ;
Who live to fancy rarely can be rich12.
Who steals my purse steals trash13.
I expect you to make progress in your educa-
tion in proportion to the advantages you have,
and not according to those you have
78 PARSING.
EXERCISES.
1. The objective generally comes after the verb that governs
it : but always when it is a relative, and often in other instances,
it comes before it.
2. When two objectives follow a verb, the thing is governed
by the verb, and the person by a preposition understood.
No. r.
1. jVle ye have bereaved of my children1.
Them that serve me faithfully I will reward2.
Mine* offence I trust you will forgive3. Him
whom ye recommend I shall prefer4. Those
that kindly reproved you, ye basely insulted5.
Those who have laboured to make us wise and
good, are the persons whom we ought particu-
larly to love and respect6. Whom having not
seen ye love7. Those curiosities we have im-
ported from China; these from Japan8. The
two letters I now give you are letters of intro-
duction: — this you may send by post; that
you must deliver in person9.
2. Give him bread10. Give her her due11.
Who gave you that book12? My father has
sent me a valuable present13. Friend,f lend me
thy horse14. Give her assistance15. Buy me a
pair of globes16. Teach thy sister the alpha-
bet17. Sell me meat for money18. I will send
you corn19. Tell me thy name20. He taught
me grammar21. If any of thy friends offend
thee, tell him his fault, and try to convince him
of it22. Bring me a candle23. Get him a pen24.
Write him a letter25. Tell me nothing but the
truth26.
* Mine, a possessive pronoun, used here for my, as thine is for thy.
t Friend is the nominative, for he is named. Supply the ellipsis thus,
0 thou who art my friend, lend me, &c.
EXERCISES. 79
EXERCISES.
1. The poets often use an adjective as a noun; and sometimes
join an adjective to their new-made noun.
2. They sometimes improperly use an adjective for an adverb.
3. Though the adjective generally comes before the noun, it is
sometimes placed after it.
No. s.
1. And where He vital breathes there must be joy1.
Who shall attempt with wandering feet
The dark, unbottom'd, infinite abyss,
And through the palpable OBSCURE find out
His uncouth way, or spread his aery flight,
Upborne with indefatigable wings,
Over the vast ABRUPT, ere he arrive*
The happy isle2 ? Paradise Lost, b. ii. 404.
2. Thus Adam his illustrious guest besought :
And thus the god-like angel answer 7d mild?>.
The lovely young Lavinia once had friends,
And fortune smiled deceitful on her birth4.
When even at last the solemn hour shall come
To wing my mystic flight to future worlds,
I cheerful will obey ; there, with new powers,
Will rising wonders sing5.
The rapid radiance instantaneous strikes
The illumined mountain6. Gradual sinks the
Into a perfect calm7. [breeze
Each animal, conscious of some danger, fled
Precipitate the loath' d abode of man8.
3. But I lose myself in Him, in light ineffable^.
• Pure serenity apace
Induces thought and contemplation still10.
* The poets often very improperly omit the preposition. It should
be, " Ere he arrive at the happy isle." And again, " Here he had need
all circumspection," for, need of all circumspection.
&- After this, the Preface, the Exercises on Punctuation, p. 159,
and the Figures of Speech, p. 172, with many other parts of the Gram-
mar, may be used as additional exercises on Parsing.
80
GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
A short Explanation of some of the Terms used
in the Grammar.
Abbreviation, shortening.
Affirmative, yes, asserting.
Ambiguity, double meaning.
Annexed, joined to.
Antecedent, the word going before.
Auxiliary, helping.
Cardinal* principal, or fundamental
Comparative, a higher or lower de-
gree of a quality.
Comparison, a comparing of qualities.
Conjugate, to give all the principal
parts of a verb.
Contingency, what may or may not
happen ; casualty, accident.
Copulative, joining.
Defective, wanting some of its parts.
Demonstrative, pointing out.
Disjunctive, disjoining.
Distributive, dividing into portions.
Ellipsis, a leaving out of something.
Euphony, an agreeable sound.
F^re\ Umetocome.
Futurity, }
Governs, rules or acts upon.
Imperative, commanding.
Indefinite, undefined, not limited.
Indicative, declaring, indicating.
Infinitive, without limits.
Interrogative, asking.
Intervene, to come between.
Intransitive (action), confined to the
actor ; passing within.
Irregular, not according to rule.
Miscellaneous, mixed, of various
kinds.
Mood, form or manner of a verb.
Negative, no, denying.
Nominative, naming.
Objective, applied to the case which
follows an active verb or a pre-
position.
Obsolete, gone out of use.
Obsolescent, growing out of use.
Omit, to leave out, not to do.
Ordinal,] numbered in their order,
. Paradigm, example.
Participle, partaking of other parts.
Past, the time past.
Perfect, completed, finished, past.
Personal, belonging to persons.
Pluperfect, more than perfect, quite
finished some time ago.
Plurality, more than one.
Possessive, possessing, belonging to.
Positive, the quality without excess.
Potential, having power, or will.
Preceding, going before.
Prefixing, placing before.
Present, the time that now is.
Promiscuous, mixed.
Query, question.
Regular, according to rule.
Relative, relating to another.
Subjunctive, joined to another under
a condition.
Superlative, the highest or lowest
degree of a quality.
Tense, time of being, acting, or suf-
fering.
Transitive, passing to an object.
Unity, one — several acting as one.
Universal, extending to all.
* The Cardinal numbers are, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven,
&c. ; from the first three are formed the adverbs once, twice, thrice.
t The Ordinal numbers are, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth,
fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth,
twenty-first, twenty-second, &c.
From thpse come adverbs of order ; as, Firstly, secondly, thirdly,
fourthly,fifthly,sixthly,seventhly,eighthly,ninthly,tenthly, eleventhly,
twelfthly, thirteenthly, fourteenthly, fifteenthty, sixteenthly, seven-
teenthly, eighteenthly, nineteenthly, twentiethly, twenty - firstly,
twenty-second ly, &c.
SYNTAX. 81
SYNTAX.
SYNTAX treats of the proper arrangement and
construction of words in sentences*
A sentence is an assemblage of words making
complete sense ; as, God made the world.
Sentences are either simple or compound.
A simple sentence contains but one subject
and one finitef verb ; as, Life is short.
A compound sentence contains two or more
simple sentences connected by one or more
conjunctions ; as; Time is short } BUT eternity
is long.
A. phrase is two or more words used to ex-
press a certain relation between ideas, without
affirming any thing ; as, In truth / to le plain
with you.
The principal parts of a simple sentence^ are,
the subject (or nominative), the predicate (or
verb), and the object.
The subject is the thing spoken of 5 the predi-
cate is the thing affirmed or denied ; and the
object is the thing acted upon by the subject.
* Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government.
Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in num-
ber, gender, case, or person.
Government is that power which one part of speech has over another
in determining its mood, tense, or case.
t Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. The
Infinitive mood has no respect to number or person.
% The subject of "Analysis of Sentences" is treated fully in the
APPENDIX, p. 181,
82 SYNTAX.
RULE I. A verb must agree with its nomi-
native in number and person / as; Thou readest ;
lie reads ; we read.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The birds sing sweetly.* Thou art the man.
Of the metals platinum is the heaviest, gold the
most prized, iron the most useful. The train of
my ideas was interrupted. Almost thou per-
suadest me to be a Christian. In spring the ice
melts and the fields become green. The number
of pupils that attend our school has greatly in-
creased since last vacation.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I loves reading. I is going to London. A
clearf and approving conscience make an easy
mind. There remains three things more to be
considered. His conduct in public and private
life entitle him to the esteem of his friends. By
good conduct thou might engage fortune on thy
side. Frequent commission of crimes harden the
heart. The Pyramids of Egypt has stood more
than three thousand years. A judicious arrange-
ment of studies facilitate improvement. A variety
of pleasing objects charm the eye. Nothing but
vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons.
J Him and her were of the same age.
* Example of Construction :— The birds sing, a verb agrees with its
nominative. Thou art, a verb agrees with its nominative. — See first
note, next page ; also full example of Construction, p. 120.
I Rule. An adjective agrees with a noun in gender, number, and case ;
as, A good man. As the adjective, in English, is not varied on account
of gender, number, and case, this rule is of little importance.
j Rule. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative: Thus,
Him and her were married ; should be, He and she were married.
3^° All those Notes at the bottom that have Exercises in the text are
to be committed to memory and applied like the rules at the top.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 83
RULE II. An active verb governs the objective
case ; as, We love him • he loves us.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
* He enjoined me to tell the whole truth, and
I obeyed him. If thou bringest her to school, I
will teach her and reward thee. Whom do you
think I found in the garden? Me thou hast
deceived by breaking the promise which thou
madest.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He loves we. He and they we know, but
who art thou ? Let thou and I the battle try.
Esteemingf theirselves wise, they become
fools. Upon seeing I he turned pale.
Who did you bring with you ? They are the
persons whoj we ought to respect.
§ Repenting him of his design he hastened
him back. It will be very difficult to agree his
conduct with the principles he professes.
I shall premise with two or three general
observations. He ingratiates with some by
traducing others.
* The pupil may construe thus : — He enjoined, a verb agrees with its
nominative — enjoined me, an active verb governs the objective case —
I obeyed, a verb agrees with its nominative — obeyed Mm, an active verb
governs the objective case — and so on in going through the Rules of
Syntax, the pupil applying such of them as he may have learned which
bear upon the Exercises, or only the individual Rule under which the
lesson stands.
t The participle being a part of the verb, governs the same case with
the verb.
\ Note. When the objective is a relative, it comes before the verb that
governs it. (Mr Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary. — See No. h, p. 67.)
Sometimes the objective after an active verb is a clause ; as, I know
—what that is. (See last Note, p. 101.)
% Rule I. Neuter verbs do not admit of an objective after them : Thus,
Repenting him of his design, should be, Repenting of his design.
(1 Rule II. Active verbs do not admit of a preposition after them: Thus,
I must premise with three circumstances, should be, I must premise
three circumstances.
For Neuter verbs in the Passive form, see Note, p. 128,
84 SYNTAX.
RULE III. Prepositions govern the objective
case ; as, To whom much is given, of him much
shall "be required.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
To whom did you send the money ? On me,
not on her, let the blame fall. John and I
went to sea on the same day ; "but he outstripped
me in seamancraft, and got the command of a
ship before me. Water rises in vapour from
the sea, forms clouds in the air, and then falls
in showers on the earth.
Earth's highest station ends in " Here he lies."
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Will you go with I ? Withhold not good
from they to who it is due. Who do you live with ?
Great friendship subsists between he and I.
They willingly, and of theirselves, endeavoured
to make up the difference. He laid the blame
upon somebody, I know not who, in the company.
* Who do you speak to? Who dost thou
serve under? Flattery can hurt none, but
those who it is agreeable to. It is not I who
thou are engaged with. Who didst thou re-
ceive that intelligence from ?
f He is quite unacquainted with, and conse-
quently cannot speak upon, that subject.
* Rule I. The preposition should be placed immediately before the rela-
tive which it governs ; as, To whom do you speak ?
The preposition is often separated from the relative; but though
this is perhaps allowable in familiar conversation, yet, in solemn com-
position, the placing of the preposition immediately before the relative
is more perspicuous and elegant.
t Rule II. It is inelegant to connect two prepositions, or one and an
active verb, with the same noun ; for example, They were refused entrance
into, and forcibly driven from, the house; should be, They were refused
entrance into the house, and forcibly driven from it. 1 wrote to, and
warned him ; should be, I wrote to him and warned him.
f§£" Prepositions sometimes govern a sentence or clause ; as, For want
of attending to his duty he lost his place. ,
RULES AND EXERCISES. 85
RULE IV. Two or more singular nominatives,
coupled with AND, require a verb and pronoun
in the plural • asr James and John are good
boys ; for they are busy.*
Two or more singular nominatives separated
by OR or NOR, require a verb and pronoun in
the singular • as? J ames or John is aux.f
EXEKCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Demosthenes and Cicero were the greatest
orators of antiquity. Faith, hope, and charity,
are the three chief graces of the gospel. Town
or country is equally agreeable to me. Neither
the captain nor the pilot has yet come on board.
The king as well as the beggar is mortal. It
is either my uncle or my aunt that has sent me
this gift. Intemperance slays more men in a
week, than the sword or the musket does in a
month. Is the lark or the thrush the better singer?
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He and I meets often. Life and death is in
the power of the tongue. The time and place
for the conference was agreed on. Out of the
same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing.
Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible
as example. Either the boy or the girl were
present. It must be confessed that a lampoon
or a satire do not carry in them robbery or mur-
der. Man is not such a machine as a clock or
a watch, which move merely as they are moved.
* And is the only conjunction that binds the agency of two or more
into one; for, as well as, never does that; but merely states a sort of
comparison ; thus, " Caesar, as well as Cicero, was eloquent." With is
sometimes used for and. — See Miscellaneous Obs. p. 143 and 144.
] Or and nor are the only conjunctions applicable to this rule.
86 SYNTAX.
RULE V. Conjunctions couple the same moods
and tenses of verbs ; as, Do good and seek peace.
Conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns
and pronouns : as, He and / are happy.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The prisoner was tried, but acquitted. He
will neither go himself nor allow me to go.
Scripture commands us to fear God and honour
the king. Strike, but hear me. The master
called up you, Harry, and me : he punished you
and him, but not me. The man who reads
God's word and obeys it, is a godly man.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He reads and wrote well. He or me must
go. My brother and him are tolerable gram-
marians. If he understands the subject, and
attend to it, he can scarcely fail of success. Did
he not tell thee his fault, and entreated* thee to
forgive him ? And dost thou, a pious man, live
in extravagance, and bringest* me who am one
of thy creditors to ruin ? Professing regard, and
to act differently, mark abase mind. If a mam pro-
fesses a regard for the duties of religion, and ne-
glect those of morality, that man's religion is vain.
j* Rank may confer influence, but will not nec-
essarily produce virtue. He is not rich, but} is
respectable. Our season of improvement i s short ;
and, whether used or not,f will soon pass away.
The same/orm of the verb must be continued.
t Conjunctions frequently couple different moods and tenses of verbs;
but in these instances the nominative is generally repeated ; as, He may
return, but he will not continue.
| The nominative is generally repeated, even to the same mood and
tense, when a contrast is stated with but, not, or though, &c., as in this
sentence.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 87
»_, ;
RULE VI. One verb governs another in the
infinitive mood ; as, Forget not to do good.*
To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after
the verbs bid^ dare, need, make, see, hear, feel,
let, perceive, behold, observe, have, and know.f
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The tenant was ordered to leave the farm. It
is more blessed to give than to receive. I have
no wish to travel. Make the multitude sit
down. I dare not tell a lie. Bid him sheathe
the sword and spare his country. I beheld
Satan as lightning fall from heaven. I saw
him fire the gun. He was seen to fire the gun.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They obliged him do it. We ought forgive
injuries. It is better live on a little, than out-
live a great deal.
They need not to call upon her. I dare not
to proceed so hastily. I have seen some young
persons to conduct themselves very discreetly.
We heard the thunder to roll. The thunder was
heard roll over our heads. I bid my steward to
do his duty, and he doeth it. The sound made
him to tremble. He was made tremble by
the sound.
* The infinitive mood is frequently governed by nouns and adjectives ;
as, They have a desire to learn ; worthy to be Itfved. For, before the
Infinitive, is unnecessary.
Let governs the objective case ; as, Let him beware.
I To is generally used after the Passive of these verbs, except let ;
as, He was made to believe it ; he was let go ; and sometimes after the
active, in the past tense, especially of have, a principal verb ; as, I had
to walk all the way.— See p. 63, b.
The infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence ; as
To proceed; to confess the truth, I was in fault.
SYNTAX.
RULE VII. When two nouns come together
signifying different things, the first is put in the
possessive case ; as, John's book; on eagles' wings.
When two nouns come together signifying the
same thing, they agree in case ; as, Cicero the
orator ; the city Edinburgh.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
I have a copy of Shakspeare's plays. In-
valids are sometimes ordered to drink asses'
milk. Lennie's Grammar was printed in Oliver
and Boyd's printing-office.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Pompeys pillar. A mothers tenderness and
a fathers care, are natures gifts for mans ad-
vantage. For Jesus Christ his sake.
* Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation
was that of fishermen. He asked his father,
as well as his mother's advice.
Mosesf rod. For conscience's sake.
* Rule. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, the
apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as,
Jane and Lucy's books.
When any words intervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed
to each ; as, This gained the king's, as well as the people's approbation.
t To prevent too much of the hissing sound, the s after the apostrophe
is generally omitted when the first noun has an s in each of its two last
syllables, and the second noun begins with s ; as, Righteousness' sake,
For conscience' sake, Francis' sake : but we say, The witness's sake.
It has lately become common, when the nominative singular ends
in s or 55, to form the possessive by omitting the s after the apostrophe ;
as, James' book, Miss' shoes, instead of James's book, Miss's shoes. This
is improper. Put these phrases into questions, and then they will
appear ridiculous. Is this book James' f Are these shoes Miss' f Nor
are they less ridiculous without the interrogatory form ; as, This book
is James', &c.— K. 195-6-7.
We sometimes use of instead of the apostrophe and s ; thus we say, Thr>
wisdom of Socrates, rather than Socrates' s wisdom. In some instances
we use the of and the possessive termination too ; as, It is a discovery of
Sir Isaac Newton's, that is, one of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries. A pic-
ture o/my friend, means a portrait of him : But a picture of my friend's,
means a portrait of some other person, and that it belongs to my friend.
As precise rules for the formation of the possessive case, in all situa-
KULES AND EXERCISES.
RULE VIII. When a noun of multitude con-
veys unity of idea, the verb and pronoun should
be singular / as, The class was large.*
When a noun of multitude conveys plurality
of idea) the verb and pronoun should be plural /
as, The people of Great Britain enjoy privileges
of which they ought to be proud.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The meeting was well attended. The con-
gregation met, but were soon dismissed. When
the nation complains, the rulers should listen to
its voice. His family is neglected, and his
friends are disgusted. What an immense fleet
— it fills the whole bay : no harbour in the
world could contain it.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The court of Spain have often done very fool-
ish things. The flock, and not the fleece, are,
or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care.
The regiment consist of a thousand men. The
Parliament are dissolved. The fleet were seen
sailing up the channel. This generation are far
more intelligent than the last. The shoal of
herrings were immense. The remnant of the
people were persecuted. The army are march-
ing to Cadiz. Some said the navy were suffi-
ciently strong, others said they were not.
tions can scarcely be given, I shall merely subjoin a few correct ex-
amples for the pupil's imitation ; thus, I left the parcel at Smith's the
bookseller ; The Lord Mayor of London's authority : For David thy fa-
ther's sake ; He took refuge at the governor's the king's representative ;
Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Ccesar's, the greatest gen-
eral of antiquity.— See last note under Rule XII., also Rule XXX.
* Which, and not who, is applied to collective nouns.— See p. 153, mid.
90 SYNTAX.
KULE IX. The verb TO BE should have the
same case after it that it has before it ; as; I am
he; I understood it to be him.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
It is I. Whom did your tutor take me to be ?
Were I he, I would act a very different part.
His fellow-soldiers declared him to be a coward.
Thou shalt be governor over my house, and thy
word shall be law to my servants. Their motto
was, " No surrender." When they saw him
walking upon the sea, they supposed him a
spirit. Simon was sumamed Peter.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
It was me who wrote the letter. It was him
who got the first prize. I am sure it was not
us that did it. It was them who gave us all
this trouble. I would not act the same part
again, if I were him. Though he was suspected
of forging a letter, yet it could not be him, for
he never could write his own name.
Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of
him. Who do you think him to be ? Whom
think ye that she is ? Was it me that said so ?
I am certain it was not him. It was either him
or his brother that got the first prize.
* When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case after it that
it has before it ; as, He seems the leader of a party. I supposed him a
man of learning : that is, to be the leader, &c., to be a man, &c.
Part of a sentence is sometimes the nominative both before and after
the verb to be ; as, His maxim was, " Be master of thy anger."
The verb to be is often followed by an adjective. — See No. in.
Passive verbs which signify naming, and some neuter verbs, have a nom-
inative after them ; as, He shall be called John. He became the slave of
irregular passions. Stephen died a martyr for the Christian religion.
Some passive verbs admit an objective after them ; as, John was first
denied apples, then he was promised them, then he was offered them.
RULES AND EXEECISES. 91
RULE X. Sentences that imply contingency
and futurity require the Subjunctive Mood; as,
If he be alone, give him the letter.
When contingency and futurity are not BOTH
implied, the Indicative ought to be used ; as; If
he speaks as he thinks, he may safely be trusted.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
If he acquire riches, he may find that he is
no happier than before. Though he fall from
his horse, I trust he will not be hurt. Let him
that standeth take heed lest he fall. If he fol-
lows the course he has promised to take, he is
sure to succeed.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
If children are neglected, till vice has become
habitual to them, they are hardly ever reformed
afterwards. Though he be in an elevated sta-
tion, yet he is never proud. If thou be a Chris-
tian, act like one. If he does promise, he will
certainly perform. Oh ! that his heart was tender.
* Despise not any condition, lest it happens
to be thy own. Take care that thou breakest
not any of the established rules.
f If he does but intimate his desire, it will
produce obedience. If he be but in health, I
am content. If he but asks to be forgiven, his
father will pardon him.
* Rule I. Lest and that annexed to a command require the Subjunc-
tive Mood; as, Shun bad company, lest you be ensnared and ruined.
Avoid suretyship, that you may not lose your money and your friend.
t Rule II. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires
the Subjunctive Mood; as; If a boy but try to leam, he will succeed.
But when future time is not expressed, the Indicative ought to be used.
In the subjunctive, the auxiliaries shall, should, &c., are generally un-
derstood ; as, Though lie fall, i. e. though he should fall. Until reflection
compose his mind, i.e. until reflection shall compose. See K. 256.
92 SYNTAX.
RULE XI. Some conjunctions have their cor-
respondent conjunctions / thus,
Neither requires Nor after it ; as, Neither he nor his brother was in.
Though Yet; as, Though he is poor, yet he is respectable.
Whether Or Whether he will do it or not, I cannot tell.
Either Or* Either she or her sister must go.
As As Mine is as good as yours.
As So As thy diligence, so shall thy success be.
/Sbf ..As He is not so wise as his brother.
So That I am so weak that I cannot walk.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
Teach us so to number our days, as to apply
our hearts unto wisdom. Is he as good a reader
as you ? You can go to London either by land
or by sea. As the tides obey the moon, so
should our passions bend to our judgment.
Whether we live or die, we are the Lord's.
Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents.
He ran so fast, that I could not overtake him.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
It is neither cold or hot. The one is equally
deserving as the other. I must be so candid to
own, that I have been mistaken. He was so
angry as he could not speak. He is not as faith-
ful and trustworthy as I could wish him to be.
Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich. As
far as I am able to judge, the book is well written.
Though she was poor, she was not discontented.
* The poets frequently use Or— or, for Either— or ; and Nor— nor for
Neither — nor. In prose not — nor is often used for neither — nor.
The yet after though is frequently and properly suppressed.
Or does not require either before it when the one word is a mere
explanation of the otter; as, 20s., or £1 sterling, is enough.
t See K. No. 204.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 93
RULE XII. When the present participle is
used as a noun, it requires an Article before it,
and Of after it ; as, The sum of the moral law
consists in the obeying of God; and the loving of
our neighbour as ourselves.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
By the exercising of our faculties we improve
them. The preparing of the necessary materials
requires time. Your voice is drowned by the
rushing of the waters. The sea rose with the
rising of the wind.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
By observing of these rules, you may avoid
mistakes. This was a betraying the trust re-
posed in him. The not attending to this rule
is the cause of a very common error.
t Our approving their bad conduct may en-
courage them to become worse. Your sending
of an answer will oblige .$ What is the reason of
this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?
* These phrases would be right, were the article and o/both omitted ;
as, The sum of the moral law consists in obeying God and loving our
neighbour, &c. This manner of expression is, in many instances, pref-
erable to the other. In some cases, however, these two modes express
very different ideas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary ; as,
He confessed the whole in the hearing of three witnesses, and the court
spent an hour in hearing their deposition. — Key, No. 208, &c.
t The present participle with a possessive before it sometimes admits
of Of after it, and sometimes not ; as, Their observing of the rules pre-
vented errors. By his studying the Scriptures he became wise.
When a preposition follows the participle, of is inadmissible ; as, His
depending on promises proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when
young rendered him ignorant all his life.
t Rule. A noun before the present participle is put in the possessive
case ; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently.
Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the possessive
case ; thus, What do you think of my horse running to-day ? means, Do
you think I should let him run ? but, What do you think of my horse's
running f means, He has run, do you think he ran well ?
94 SYNTAX.
RULE XIII. The past participle is used after
the verbs have and be ; as, I have written a let-
ter ; he was chosen.*
$g" The Present participle of an Active verb, and not the Perfect,
is generally used after the verb to be, to express the continued suf-
fering of an action ; as, The house is building, — not is being built.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The British flag is respected in every land.
If they had not left the ship, they might have
been saved. I saw you before I was seen
by you. The wind has ceased, but the sea is
still tossing. Though the ball was extracted a
week ago, yet he is still suffering severely from
the wound.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He has wrote his copy. He had mistook his
true interest. All the gloves that were stole
last night were wove ones. His resolution was
too strong to be shook by slight opposition. The
horse was stole. The Rhine was froze over.
She was showed into the drawing-room. The
grass was trode down. The work was very
well execute. His vices have weakened his
mind, and broke his health.
* He soon begun to be weary of having noth-
ing to do. He was greatly heated, and he
drunk with avidity.
The bending hermit here a prayer begun.
A second deluge learning thus o'errun ;
And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun.
* The past participle must not be used instead of the past tense : It is
Improper to say, he begun, for he began ; he run, for he ran.
KULES AND EXERCISES. 95
RULE XIV. Pronouns agree in gender , num-
ber, and person, with the nouns for which they
stand ; as, John has lost his boo'k. Every tree
is known by its fruit.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
James accompanied his mother in her journey
to London. The man who loves his country
will risk his life for its defence.
Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne
In rayless majesty now stretches forth
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They which are diligent in learning will im-
prove. She which is most diligent should be
rewarded. A horse is a useful animal, and well
is she worthy of her food. Manure the garden
with ashes, for it is an excellent manure for it.
Can any one, on their entrance into life, be fully
secure that they shall not be deceived ?
* I have not seen him this ten days. Those
sort of people fear nothing. The chasm made
bv the earthquake was twenty foot broad.
There is six foot water in the hold. I have no
interests but that of truth and virtue. What
a dense crowd ! we shall not be able to force our
way through them.
* Rule. Nouns and numeral adjectives must agrqp in number accord-
ing to the sense ; thus, This boys, should be these boys, because boys is
plural; aud six/oo«, should be six feet, because six is plural.
Whole should never be joined to distributive nouns in the plural ; thus,
Almost the whole inhabitants were present ; should be, Almost all the
inhabitants; but it may be joined to collective nouns in the plural; thus,
Whole cities were swallowed up by the earthquake.
SYNTAX.
RULE XV. The relative agrees with its ante-
cedent in gender j number , and person ; as, Thou
who readest ; the book which was lost.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
The money which the miser hoards in his cof-
fers might feed and clothe hundreds of his "breth-
ren who are in need. Tell, thou who art a father,
how poignant is the anguish which the miscon-
duct of a child produces in the parental bosom.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Those which seek Wisdom will certainly find
her. Blessed is the man which walketh in wis-
dom's ways. The child which* was lost is found,
f The tiger is a beast who destroys without
pity. Who of those men came to his assistance ?
J It is the best which can be got. Solomon
was the wisest man whom ever the world saw.
It is the same picture which you saw before.
All which I have is thine. The lady and lap-
dog which we saw at the window.
* It does not appear to me that it is harsh or improper, as Mr. Murray
says, to apply who to children, because they have little reason and reflec-
tion ; but if it is, at what age, should we lay aside which and apply who
to them? That seems preferable to either. In our translation of the
Bible, who and that are 'both applied to children, but never which. See
2 Sam. xii. 14, 15. Matt. ii. 16. Rev. xii. 5.
t Which is applied to inferior animals, and also to persons in asking
questions.
+ Rule. THAT is used instead of WHO or WHICH.
1. After adjectives in the superlative degree,— after the words Same
and All, and often after Some and Any.
2. When the antecedent consists of two nouns, the one requiring Who and
the other Which ; as, — The man and the horse that we saw yesterday.
3. After the interrogative Who; as, — Who that has any sense of re-
ligion would have argued thus ?
There seems to be no satisfactory reason for preferring that to who
after same and all, except usage. There is indeed as good authority
for using who after all, as for using that. Addison, for instance, uses
all who several times in one paper.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 97
RULE XVI. When the relative is preceded ~by
two antecedents of different persons, it and the
verb generally agree in person with the last ; as,
Thou art the boy that was dux yesterday.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
I am the man who commands you. Your
unknown benefactor was I, who am still ready
to help you. Thou art the friend who has so
often assisted me. I am the Lord thy God, who
have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out
of the house of bondage.f
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Thou art a pupil who possesses bright parts,
but who hast cultivated them but little. I am a
man who speak but seldom. Thou James, art he
that taughtest me that industry is a good estate,
$ The king dismissed his minister without any
warning or inquiry, who had never before been
known to treat his advisers with other than the
utmost consideration and kindness.
* Sometimes the relative agrees with the former antecedent ; as, I am
verily a man who am a Jew. Acts xxii. 3.
The propriety of this rule has heen called in question, because the
relative should agree with the subject of the verb, whether the subject
be next the relative or not. This is true, but it is also true that the
subject is generally next the relative, and the rule is calculated to pre-
vent the impropriety of changing from one person of the verb to another,
as in the 3d example of errors to be corrected.
t When we address the Divine Being, it is, in my opinion, more point-
ed and solemn to make the relative agree with the second person. In
the Scriptures this is generally done. See Neh. ix. 7, &c. In the third
person singular of verbs, the solemn eth seems to become the dignity of
the Almighty better than the familiar es ; thus, I am the Lord thy God
who teacheth thee to profit; who leadeth thee by the way that thou
shouldst go : is more dignified than, I am the Lord thy God who teaches
thee to profit ; who leads thee.
| Rule. The relative ought to "be placed, next its antecedent to prevent
ambiguity : thus, The boy beat his companion, whom everybody believed
incapable of doing mischief; should be, The boy, whom everybody be-
lieved incapable of doing mischief, beat his companion.
F
98 SYNTAX.
RULE XVII. When singular nominatives of
different persons are separated by OR or NOR,
the verb agrees with the person next it; as,
Either thou or I am in fault ; I, or thou, or
he, is the author of it.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Neither my sister nor I have been taught to
dance. James and you were always attentive
to your studies. Either my brother or I am to
go. Either thy cousin or thou hast betrayed
my secret. I, or you, or the boy who sits be-
side us, is sure to be blamed for overturning
the inkbottle.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Either I or thou am greatly mistaken. He
or I is sure of this week's prize. John or I has
done it. He or thou is the person who must
go to London on that business. Either he or
I has done it. Neither my tutor nor I has
been able to solve the problem. John and I
am to sleep together. Neither you nor he are
so fond of books as you ought to be. Either
you or George were present when Robert and I
was invited to the concert. Why didst thou
and thy brother both remain silent when either
thou or he shouldst have spoken in my defence?
* The verb, though expressed only to the last person, is understood
in its proper person to each of the rest, and the sentence, when the
ellipsis is supplied, stands thus, " Either thou art in fault, or I am in
fault;" and the next sentence, Either I am the author of it, or thou art
the author of it, or he is the author of it.
Supplying the ellipsis thus would render the sentences correct ; but
so strong is our natural love of brevity, that such a tedious and formal
attention to correctness would justly be reckoned stiff and pedantic.
It is better to avoid both these forms of expression when it can be con-
veniently done.
RULES AND EXERCISES.
RULE XVIII. A singular and aplural nomi-
native, separated by Oil or NOR, require a verb in
the plural; as, Neither the captain nor the
sailors were saved.*
The plural nominative should be placed neoct the verb.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Neither poverty nor riches are injurious to a
man whose heart is right with God. Whether
one or more were concerned in the business,
does not yet appear. Neither this man nor his
parents have sinned. The hardships of the
campaign, or the shame of defeat, have brought
him to a premature grave.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He or they was offended at it. The cares of
this life, or the deceitfulness of riches, has
choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising
mind. Neither the king nor his ministers de-
serves to be praised.
f His meat were locusts and wild honey.
His chief occupation and enjoyment were con-
troversy.
J Thou and he shared it between them.
You and he are diligent in reading their books,
therefore they are good boys.
* The same observation may be made respecting the manner of sup-
plying the ellipsis under this rule, that was made respecting the last.
A pardonable love of brevity is the cause of the ellipsis in both, and in
a thousand other instances.
t Rule I. When the verb TO BE stands between a singular and a plural
nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or with the one ivhich is more
naturally the subject ofit; as, "The wages of sin is death."
% Rule II. When a pronoun refers to two words of different persons,
coupled with and, it becomes phtral, and agrees with the First person when
I or We is mentioned ; and with the Second, when 1 or We is not men-
tioned; as "John and I will lend yon our books." "James and you
have learned your lessons "
100 SYNTAX.
RULE XIX. It is improper to use loth a noun
and its pronoun as a nominative to the same verb ;
as, John he is come home ; — *omit he.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The king he is just. The night it was dark,
and the wind it was high. My banks they are
furnished with bees. The mate having per-
suaded the crew to mutiny, he was put in irons.
That the soul be without knowledge, it is not
good.
The golden rule,f if itf had been observed,
the bankrupt who lost his means without any
fault of his own, he would not have been so
harshly treated by his creditors. J Health,
thougli it is a blessing of such worth, that
money, and rank, and fame, are mere baubles
in comparison, yet its true value is never known
till it is impaired or lost. Whoever forms his
opinion of religion from the bad conduct of
many of its professors, he will form a very
erroneous opinion of it indeed.
§ The modest man thoushouldst patronize him.
The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried,
Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel.
* In some cases where the noun is highly emphatical, the repetition
of it in the pronoun is not only allowable but even elegant; as in 1
Kings xviii. 39; see also Deut. xxi. 6.
t Eule and it are the two nominatives; but, contrary to the remark
made at page 152, " That every noni. should belong to some verb, ex-
pressed or implied," the word r^le stands by itself without having any
verb with which it might agree. The same remark applies to health in
the next sentence.
t It ought to be, If the golden rule had "been observed, &c.
J It ought to be, Thougli health is a blessing of such worth, &c.
% Rule, It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as an objectivt
after the same verb ; thus, I saw her the Queen at Windsor ; omit her.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 101
RULE XX. Where the infinitive mood or a part
of a sentence is the nominative to a verb, the verb
should be in the third person singular / as, To
err — is human, to forgive is divine.* His being
idle was the cause of his ruin.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
To be temperate in eating and drinking is
the best preservative of health. To take ill
usage meekly marks a noble spirit. That you
should be content to stand at the foot of the
class surprises me.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
To be wickedly intent on doing mischief are
death, but to be devoutly intent on doing good
are life. To live soberly, righteously, and
piously, are required of all men. That warm
climates should accelerate the growth of the
human body, and shorten its duration, are very
reasonable to believe. That it is our duty to
submit to reproach, insult, and all manner of
suffering, rather than do the slightest thing we
know to be wrong, admit not of any doubt.
His hearing no evil of a friend, nor speaking
any of an enemy, were an evidence of his
charity.
* The infinitive is equal to a noun ; thus, To play is pleasant, and boys
love to play ; are equal to, Play is pleasant, and boys love play, p. 66, b.
The infinitive is sometimes used instead of the present participle :
as, To advise ; to attempt ; or advising, attempting ; this substitution can
be made only in the beginning of a sentence.
Note. Part of a sentence 'is often used as the objective after a verb:
as, " You will soon find that the world does not perform what it pro-
mises." What will you findl Ans. That, the world does not perform
what it promises. Therefore the clause, that the world does not perform,
&c., must be the objective after find. Did I not tell (to) thee, that thou
wouldst bring me to ruin? Here the clause, that thou wouldst bring me
to ruin, is the objective after tell.
F2
102 SYNTAX.
RULE XXL Double comparatives and super-
latives are improper / thus. Mine is a more better
book, but John's is the most best ; should be,
Mine is a better book, but John's is the best.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
That was the most unkindest cut of all. A
more happier day I never spent. All men are,
in a greater or lesser degree, foolish. I am
more inferior — you are more superior. He is
the chiefest* among ten thousand.
His assertion was most untrue. His work
is perfect ; his brother's more perfect ; and his
father's the most perfect of all.
Promiscuous Exercises.
I have not heard whether he has accepted
the invitation. This is certainly an useful in-
vention. The time will come when no op-
pressor will be able to screen themselves from
punishment. The cavalry and infantry was
mingled together in the utmost confusion. If
thou be sure that the ice shall not break, you
may slide upon it. A taste for music is more
universal in Italy and Germany than in this
country. A great crowd was assembled in the
street, but they dispersed on the appearance of
the military. The forty-second regiment suf-
fered much at Waterloo, and vast numbers
assembled in Edinburgh to witness their return.
* Chief, universal, perfect, true, &c., imply the superlative degree
without esf, or most. In language sublime or passionate, however, the
word perfect requires the superlative form to give it effect. A bride-
groom enraptured with his bride would naturally call her the most
perfect of her sex. Superior and inferior always imply compari-
son, and require to after them.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 103
RULE XXII. Two negatives in the same sen-
tence are improper /* thus, I cannot by no means
allow it ; should be, I can by no means allow it,
or I cannot by any means allow it.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I cannot drink no more. He 'cannot do no-
thing. I never did no harm to you. He will
never be no taller. They could not travel
no farther. Covet neither riches nor honours,
nor no such perishing things. Nothing never
affected her so much. Do not interrupt me
thyself, nor let no one disturb me. I am re-
solved not to comply with the proposal, neither
at present, nor at any other time.
Promiscuous Exercises.
The barracks for the troops are now being
built. If the applicants for relief are only ten
in number, I shall be able to supply their wants.
She was gayer than the gayest of the ladies
which adorn the Queen's court. James and I
am cousins. Thy father's merits sets thee forth
to view. Extravagance, as well as parsimony,
are to be avoided. Prayer does not consist in
mere bowing of the knee and uttering of solemn
words. His shoes were quite wore out. The
whole pupils of the school were present at the
examination. Neither the engine-driver nor
the stokers was to blame for the accident.
* Sometimes the two negatives are intended to be an affirmative ; as,
Nor did they not perceive him ; That is, they did perceive him. In this
case they are proper.
When one of the negatives (such as dis, in, un, im, &c.), is joined to
another word, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of
expression: as, His language, though simple, is not inelegant; that is,
It is elegant.
104 SYNTAX.
RULE XXIII. Adverbs are, for the most part,
placed before adjectives, after verbs active or
neuter, and between the auxiliary and the verb ;
as, He is very attentive : She behaves icell, and
is much esteemed.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Mary is remarkably tall. Ann reads cor-
rectly, and writes elegantly. The prince seldom
sleeps as soundly as the peasant. Our blessed
Lord, after being cruelly scourged, was igno-
miniously crucified.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke., and was
heard attentively by the whole assembly. In the
proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully
requires to be consulted as well as the sense.
f The women contributed all their rings and
jewels voluntarily to assist the government.
Having! not known, or having not considered,
the measures proposed, he failed of success. It
was on his own account solely that I went ; and
to see him chiefly. I state merely the facts.
I have no horses ; I only have a mule. He not
only was wise, but good.
|| Ask me never so much money for it.
* This is but a general rule. For it is impossible to give an exact
and determinate one for the placing of adverbs on all occasions. The
easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase ought to be chiefly regarded.
t The adverb is sometimes placed with propriety before the verb, or
Rt some distance after it : as, The women voluntarily contributed all their
rings and jewels, &c. They carried their proposition farther.
Adverbs of inference, affirmation, and contingency are generally placed
at the beginning of a sentence ; as, Therefore I conclude. Doubtless he
will come : Perhaps he will not.
t Not, when it qualifies the present participle, comes before it.
| Never is often improperly used for ever; thus, "If 1'walk nevtr so
fast," should be " ever so fast."
EULES AND EXERCISES. 105
RULE XXIV, Adjectives should not be used as
adverbs j nor adverbs as adjectives y as, Remarkable
well, for remarkably well ; Thy often indisposi-
tion? for thy freauent indisposition; or,
Adverbs qualify adjectives and verbs. — Adjectives qualify nouns.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They are miserable poor. They behaved the
noblest. He fought bolder than his brother.
He lived in a manner agreeably to the dic-
tates of reason and religion. He was extreme
prodigal, and his property is now near ex-
hausted. They lived conformable to the rules
of prudence. He speaks very fluent, reads
excellent, but does not think very coherent.
They came agreeable to their promise, and
conducted themselves suitable to the occasion.
They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to
the war.
* From hence it follows. From whence
come ye? We went from thence to Oxford.
Where f are you going ? Bid him come here
immediately. We walked there in an hour.
He drew up a petition wherej he too frequently
represented his own merit. He went to London
last year, since when I have not seen him. The
situation where I found him.
* Rule I. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence,
because it is implied. — In many cases, however, the omission of from
would render the language stiff and disagreeable.
t Rule II. After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, should
be used, and not here, there, and where.
J Rule III. When should not be used as a noun, nor where, for in
which, &c. For while, see Key, 235.
Some adjectives are occasionally used to modify the action of verbs,
and to express the quality of things connected with the action where
adverbs would not do : as, Plow deep. Put him right. — Pronounce that
vowel short. — Cut close. Such phrases are deemed good English.
106 SYNTAX.
RULE XXV. The comparative degree, and
the pronoun other, require than after them, and
such requires as ; as, Greater than I ; — No
other than he ; — Such as do well.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Gold is softer than silver, but harder than
tin. No other than a fool would make such a
rash promise. Such a studious boy as Charles
is sure to take a higher place than Henry,
though the latter is the cleverer of the two.t
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
He has little more of the scholar besides the
name. Be ready to succour such persons who
need thy assistance. They had no sooner risen
but they applied themselves to their studies.
This is none other but the gate of paradise.
To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge
his power.
f James is the wisest of the two. He is the
likeliest of any other to succeed. Jane is the
wittier of the three, not the wiser. Of two evils
choose the least. Which of these two roads
is the shortest? Which is the greater poet,
Homer, Virgil, or Milton ?
Of two such lessons why forget
The noblest and the manliest one ?
* Such, meaning either a consequence, or so great, requires that ;
as, His behaviour was such, that I ordered him to leave the room.
Such is the influence of money, that few can resist it.
t Rule. When two objects are compared, the comparative is generally
used; but when more than two, the superlative: as, This is the younger
of the two ; Mary is the wisest of them all.
When the two objects form a group, or are not so much opposed to
each other as to require than before the last, some respectable writers
use the superlative, and say, " James is the wisest of the two." " He is
the weakest of the two." The superlative is often more agreeable to the
ear; nor is the sense injured. In many cases a strict adherence to the
comparative form renders the language too stiff and formal.
RULES AND EXEECISES. 107
RULE XXVI.. A pronoun after than, or as,
either agrees with a verb, or is governed by a verb
or preposition understood ; as. He is wiser than
I (am) ; she loved him more than (she loved)
me.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
You praise my cousin more than me, but he
is not more deserving than I. They have bet-
ter abilities than we ; and the prize would have
been gained by them, not us, if they had been
as diligent as we.'
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
John can write better than me. He is as
good as her. Thou art a much greater Joser
than me by his death. She suffers hourly
more than me. They know how to write as
well as him ; but he is a better grammarian
than them. They are greater gainers than us.
She is not so learned as him. If the king give
us leave, we may perform the office as well as
them that do.
t Who betrayed her companion ? Not me.
Whom did you meet ? He. Who bought that
book ? Him. Whom did you see there ?
He and his sister. Whose pen is this ? Mine's.
* When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the
objective case ; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned ;"
— than whom is not grammatical. It ought to be, than who; because
who is the nom. to was understood — Than whom is as bad a phrase
as, "He is taller than him.1' It is true that some of our bes£ writers
have used than whom; but it is also true, that they have used other
phrases which we have rejected as un grammatical ; then why not re-
ject this too ?
f Rule. — The word containing the answer to a question must:le in the
same case with the word which asks it: as, Who said that?- I (said it).
Whose books are these? John's (books).
108 SYNTAX.
RULE XXVII. The distributive pronouns,
each, every, either, neither, agree with nouns
and verbs in the singular number only ; as, Each
of his brothers is in a favourable situation ;
Every man is accountable for himself ; Either
of them is good enough.*
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CONSTRUED.
Every face has its own peculiar expression.
Either of the two is at your disposal. Neither
of the combatants was prepared for so hard an
encounter.
Each look'd to sun, and stream, and plain,
As what he ne'er might see again.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Let each esteem others better than them-
selves. Every one of the letters bear date after
his banishment. Each of them, in their turn,
receive the benefits to which they are entitled.
Neither of them seem to have any idea that
their opinions may be ill-founded. Are either
of these men your friend ?
f The giant had on every hand six fingers,
and on every foot six toes.
J The king of Israel and the king of Judah
sat either of them on his throne.
* Each relates to two or more objects, and signifies loth of the two, or
every one of any number taken singly.
t Every relates to more than two objects, and signifies each of them
taken individually. — It may be followed by a plural noun when the objects
are taken collectively. Thus, it is quite correct to say, Every six months.
Either signifies the one or the other, but not loth. Neither imports
not either.
\ Either is sometimes improperly used instead of each ; as, The city
London stands partly on either side of the river Thames ; instead of,
on each side of the river.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 109
RULE XXVIII. When two persons or things
are contrasted, that refers to the first mentioned,
and this to the last; as, Virtue and vice are
as opposite to each other as light and darkness ;
that ennobles the mind, this debases it.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Wealth and poverty are both temptations ;
this tends to excite pride, that discontentment.
Religion raises men above themselves, irreli-
gion sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds
them down to a poor pitiable speck of per-
ishable earth, this exalts them to the skies.
Honesty and dishonesty are opposite qualities ;
this enhances a man's character, that degrades
it. Black and white are opposite colours, and
produce opposite effects ; the latter absorbs
heat, and is therefore cold : the former reflects
it, and is therefore warm : — hence we use shirts
and sheets of white, because they keep the
heat better.
* Moses and Solomon were men of the
highest renown ; the latter was remarkable
for his meekness, the former was renowned
for his wisdom. I have always preferred
cheerfulness to mirth ; the former I consider
as an act, the latter as a habit of the mind.
Body and soul must part ; the former wings
its way to its almighty source, the latter drops
into the dark and noisome grave.
* Former and latter are often used instead of that, and this. They are
alike in both numbers.
That and this are seldom applied to persons ; but former and latter are
applied to persons and things indiscriminately. In most cases, however,
the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them.
G
110 SYNTAX.
RULE XXIX. In the use of verbs and words,
that in point of time relate to each other, the
order of time must be observed ; for example, I
remember him these many years, should be,
I have remembered him, &c.*
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
I know that worthy family more than twenty
years, and they continue to honour me with
their friendship all that time. The next new-
year's day I shall be at school three years. The
court laid hold on all the opportunities which
the weakness or necessities of princes afford
it, to extend its authority. He studies hard
that he might have a well informed mind. His
sickness was so great, that I often feared he
would have died before our arrival. It has long
been known that the ford could be safely taken
only in summer.
f I always intended to have rewarded my son
according to his merit. We have done no more
than it was our duty to have done. From the
little conversation I had with him, he appeared
to have been a man of letters. It was a pleasure
to have received his approbation of my labours.
I intended to have written you last week.
J I have been at London last year. He has been
told three months ago not to tell lies. He has
done it before. He has lately lost an only son.
* The best general rule that can be given, is To observe what the sense
necessarily requires.
t Rule. After the Past Tense, the present infinitive (and not the per-
fect) should be used; as, I intended to write to my father, and not, I in-
tended to have written: — for however long it now is since I thought
of writing, to write was then present to me, and must still be considered
as present when I bring back that time, and the thoughts of it.
J See page 25, Middle.— Key, p. 121.
RULES AND EXERCISES. Ill
UULE XXX. It is improper to place a clause
of a sentence between a possessive case and the
word which usually follows it ; thus, He slept
at the Duke's, as it is called, Arms ; should le,
He slept at the Duke's Arms, as it is called.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They very justly condemned the prodigal's,
as he was called, senseless and extravagant
conduct. They implicitly obeyed the protec-
tor's, as they called him, imperious mandates.
Beyond this, the arts cannot be traced of civil
society. These are David's, the king, priest,
and prophet of the Jewish people's psalms.
This is Paul's, the Christian hero, and great
apostle of the Gentiles' advice. The last month,
as you know, of the year is December.
* Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have
no real merit. In whatsoever light we view
him, his conduct will bear inspection. On
whatsoever side they are contemplated, they
appear to advantage. Howsoever much he
might despise the maxims of the king's ad-
ministration, he kept a total silence on that
subject. No man should voluntarily go in the
way of temptation, howsoever high his previous
attainments in virtue.
t Whoso is habitually idle will at last feel
sorrow and regret.
* Rule. Whichsoever and whatsoever are often divided by the inter-
position of the corresponding word ; thus, On whichsoever side the king
cast his eyes : Should be, On which side soever the king, &c.
I think this rule unnecessary, if not improper. — It would be better to
say, However beautiful, &c. See my reasons, Key, p. 123, Nos. 247-8-9.
f Whoso is an old word used instead of he that ; as, Whoso is indolent
will never be happy ; it should be, He that, &c.
112 SYNTAX.
RULE XXXI. Before names of places.
To— is used after a verb of motion ; as, We went to Spain.
At — is used after the verb to be ; as, I was at Leith.
In — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live
in England, in London.
At — is used before villages, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He
resided at Gretna Green ; at Leeds ; at Home.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
They have just arrived in Leith, and are
going to Dublin. They will reside two months
at England. I have been to London, after
having resided at France ; and I now live in
Bath. I was in the place appointed long be-
fore any of the rest. We touched in Liver-
pool on our way for New York. He resides in
M avisbank in Scotland. She has lodgings at
George Square.*
t Ah ! unhappy thee, who are deaf to the
calls of duty and of honour. O happy t us,
surrounded with so many blessings. Woe's he,
for he is a confirmed drunkard.
* One inhabitant of a city, speaking of another's residence, says, He
stays in Bank Street; or if the word number be used, at No. — Princes
Street.— K. 195-6.
f Rule. The interjections Oh f and Ah I &c. generally require the
objective case of the first personal pronoun, and the nominative of the
second; as, Ah me! O thou fool! O ye hypocrites! Woe's thou, would
be improper; it should be, Woe's thee; that is, Woe is to thee.
J Interjections sometimes require the objective case after them, but
they never govern it. In the first edition of this Grammar, I followed
Mr Murray and others in leaving we, in the exercises, to be turned
into us • but that it would be we, and not us, is obvious ; because it is
the Norn, to are understood; Thus, Oh happy are we, or Oh we are
happy (being) surrounded with so many blessings.
As interjections, owing to quick feelings, express only the emotion of
the mind, without stopping to mention the circumstances that produced
them ; many of the phrases in which they occur are very elliptical, and
therefore a verb or preposition must be understood. Me, for instance,
in 'Ah me, is governed by befallen or upon understood; Thus, Ah* what
mischief has befallen me, or come upon me.
Oh is used to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise.
0 is used to express wishing, exclamation, or a direct address to a person.
RULES AND EXERCISES.
113
RULE XXXII. Certain words andphrases must
be followed with appropriate prepositions ; such as,
Accuse of
Abhorrence of
Acquit of
Adapt to
Agreeable to
Averse to — see P- 115> 6-
Bestow upon
Boast or brag of*
Call on or for — P- 114» b-
Change for
Confide mf
Conformable to
Compliance with
Exception from
Expert at or in
Fall under
Free /row
Glad o/or at — P- 115' b-
Independent of or on
Insist upon
Made of
Marry to
Martyr for
Need of
Observance of
Prejudice against
Profit by
Consonant to
ConversantwzYA, in— P-115»J- Provide with
Dependent upon — P-114>&- Reconcile to
Derogation from Reduce under or to — P- 115-
Die o/or by Regard to,
Differ from Replete with
Difficulty in Resemblance to
Diminution of Resolve on
Disappointed in or of— P- 151- Swerve from
Disapprove of \
Discouragement to
Dissent from
Eager in
Engage in
Taste for or o/— P- 152-
Think of or on — P- 114»
True to
Wait on
Worthy o/§
* Boast is often used without of; as, For if I have boasted anything.
t The same preposition that follows the verb or adverb generally fol-
lows the noun which is derived from it: as, Confide in, confidence in;
disposed to tyrannize, a disposition to tyranny; independently of.
t Disapprove and approve are frequently used without of.
$ Of IB sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted after worthy.
Many of these words take other prepositions after them to express
other meanings ; thus, for example, Fall in, to concur, to comply. Fall
off, to forsake. Fall out, to happen. Fall upon, to attack. Fall to, to
begin eagerly to eat ; to apply himself to. Fall /row, to revolt from.
114 SYNTAX.
EXERCISES ON EULE xxxn.
He was totally* dependent of the papal
crown. He accused the minister for betraying
the Dutch. You have bestowed your favours
to the most deserving persons. His abhorrence
to gaming was extreme. I differ with you.
The English were very different then, to what
they are now. In compliance to his father's
advice. I dissent with the judgment of the
court. It is no discouragement for the authors.
The wisest princes need not think it any dimi-
nution to their greatness, or derogation to their
sufficiency, to rely upon counsel. Is it con-
sonant with our nature? Conformable with
this plan. Agreeable with the sacred text.
Call for your uncle.f
The river abounds with trout. He had no
regard for his father's commands. Thy pre-
judice to my cause. It is more than they
thought for.J There is no need for it. Re-
conciling himself with the king. No resem-
blance with each other. Upon such occasions
as fell into their cognizance. I am engaged
with writing. We profit from experience. He
swerved out of the path. He is resolved in
going to the Persian court. Expert of his work.
* Dependent, dependence, &c. are spelled indifferently with a or e in the
last syllable.
t Call for — is to demand, to require. Call on, is to pay a short visit;
to request ; as, While you call on him — I shall call for a bottle of wine.
£ The authorities for think of and think on are nearly equal. The
latter, however, abounds more in the Scriptures than the former; as,
Think on me when it shall be well with thee : Think upon me for good:
Whatsoever things are true, &c. think on these things. But think o/ia
perhaps more common in modern publications.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 115
EXERCISES ON KULE xxxn.
Expert on deceiving. The Eomans reduced
the world* to their own power. He provided
them of every thing. We insist in it. He
seems to have a taste in such studies.
He died for thirst. He found none on whom
he could safely confide. He was accused for
it. It was very well adapted for the purpose.
He acquitted me from any imputation. You
are conversant f with that science. They boast
in their great riches. Call of James to walk
with you. When we have had a true taste for
the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish
for those of vice. I rejoic in your success.
He is glad of accidents.:): She is glad at his
company. A strict observance after times and
fashions. This book is replete in errors. These
are exceptions to the general rule. He died a
martyr to Christianity. This change is to the
better. His productions were scrupulously
exact, and conformable with all the rules of
correct writing. He died of the sword. She
finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. This prince
was naturally averse § from war. A freeholder
is bred with an aversion from subjection.
* Reduce under is to subdue. In other cases to follows it; as, To
reduce to practice, to fractions, &c.
t We say conversant with men in things. Addison has conversant
among the writings of the most polite authors, and conversant about
worldly affairs. Conversant with is preferable.
| Glad of is perhaps more proper, when the cause of joy is something
gained or possessed; and glad at, when something befalls another; as,
Jonah was exceedingly glad o/the gourd; He that is glad at the misfor-
tunes of others rarely escapes misfortune himself.
% Averse and aversion require to after them rather than from ; but
both are used, and sometimes even by the same author.
116 SYNTAX.
RULE XXXIII. All the parts of a sentence should corres-
pond to each other, and a regular and dependent construction
throughout be carefully preserved.* For example, the sen-
tence, " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as
Cinthio," is inaccurate ; because more requires than after it,
which is nowhere found in the sentence. It should be, He was
more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired.
A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement,
should be carefully attended to.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
The reward is his due, and it has29 already,
or will hereafter, be given to him. He was
guided by interests always different32, some-
times contrary to those of the community. The
intentions of some of these philosophers, nay
of many, might29 and probably were good. No
person was ever so perplexed11, or sustained25
mortifications as he has done to-day. He was
more bold and active25, but not so wise and
studious as his companion. Ye will not study
your lessons diligently, that ye might29 be
esteemed, commended, and rewarded. Sincerity
is as valuable11, and even more valuable26, than
knowledge. The greatest masters of critical
learning differ32 among one another.
But from this dreary period the recovery of
the empire was become desperate ; no wisdom
could obviate its decadence. He was at one
time thought to be a supposititious child.
* This rule is scarcely of any value as a rule ; for every sentence on
this page, except the last two, may be corrected by the preceding rules,
as the reference by small figures will show ; but it has been retained,
because, where two words require a different construction, it will tend
to correct the common error of forgetting the construction of the former
word, and adhering to that of the latter.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 117
RULE XXXIV. Of tlie ARTICLES. A or an is used before
nouns in the singular number only. The* is used before nouns
in both numbers.
The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole
species ; and before the names of minerals, metals, arts, &c.
The last of two nouns after a comparative should have no
article when they both refer to one person ; as, He is a better
reader than writer.
To use the Articles properly, is of the greatest importance :
but it is impossible to give a rule applicable to every case.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Reason was given to a man to control his
passions. The gold is corrupting. A man is
the noblest work of the creation. Wisest and
best men are sometimes betrayed into errors.
We must act our part with a constancy, though
reward of our constancy be distant. The odour
or the smell of a body is part of the body itself.
Purity has its seat in the heart : but extends
its influence over so much of outward conduct,
as to form the great and material part of a cha-
racter. At worst, I could but incur a gentle
reprimand. The profligate man is seldom or
never found to be the good husband, the good
father, or the beneficent neighbour.
f He has been much censured for paying a
little attention to his business. So bold a breach
of order called for little severity in punishing
the offender.
* The is used before an individual representing the whole of its species,
when compared with another individual representing another species ;
thus, The dog is a more grateful animal than the cat; i. e. All dogs are
more grateful than cats.
t A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis-
sion of the article a. If I say, he behaved with a little reverence; I praise
hira a little. If I say, he behaved with little reverence ; I blame him.
G2
118 SYNTAX.
RULE XXXV. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is fre-
quently admitted. Thus, instead of saying, He was a learned
man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man ; we say, He
was a learned, wise, and good man.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
A house and a garden. The laws of God,
and the laws of man. Avarice and cunning
may acquire an estate; but avarice and cun-
ning cannot gain friends. His crimes had
brought him into extreme distress, and ex-
treme perplexity. He has an affectionate
brother and an affectionate sister. By pre-
sumption, and by vanity, we provoke enmity,
and we incur contempt. Our duties require to
be impressed on us by admonition, and to be
recommended by example. He is temperate,
he is disinterested, he is benevolent. Per-
severance in laudable pursuits will reward all
our toils, and will produce effects beyond our
calculation. He went, not by the road, but
through the fields, in the hope of thereby
shortening his journey. Destitute of principle,
he regarded neither his family, nor his friends,
nor his reputation. He insulted every man and
every woman in the company. The temper of
him who is always in the bustle of the world,
will be often ruffled and will be often disturbed.
* He regards his word, but thou dost not
regard it. They must be punished, and they
shall be punished. We succeeded, but they
did not succeed.
* The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used svlone : as,
We have done it, but thou hast not ; i. e. thou hast not done it.
RULES AND EXERCISES. 119
RULE XXXVI. An ellipsis is not allowable when it would
obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an im-
propriety; for example, " We speak that we do know, and testify
that we have seen," should be, We speak that which we do know,
and testify that which we have seen.
EXERCISES.
* A noble spirit disdaineth the malice of
fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast
down. A house andf orchard. A horse and ass.
A learned and amiable young man. I gladly
shunned who gladly fled from me. A taste
for useful knowledge will provide for us a great
and noble entertainment when others leave us.
They enjoy also a free constitution and laws.
The captain had several men died in his ship
of the scurvy. I must, however, be so candid
to own I have been mistaken. The sacrifices
of virtue will not only be rewarded hereafter,
but recompensed even in this life. Oh, piety !
Virtue ! how insensible have I been to thy
charms ! That is a property most men have,
or at least may attain. There is nothing men
are more deficient in, than knowing their own
characters. Why do some men injure their
own reputation by doing that which is not law-
ful to do? Neither has he, nor any other per-
sons, suspected so much dissimulation.
* A noble spirit disdaineth, &c. should be, A man of a noble spirit
disdaineth, &c. This will render the sentence consistent with the rules
of grammar and with common sense ; to talk of the soul of a spirit is
ridiculous.
t The article being once expressed, the repeiition of it becomes un-
necessary, except when a different form of it is requisite ; as, A house
and an orchard ; and when some peculiar emphasis requires a repeti-
tion ; as, Not only the year, hut t?te day and the hour, were appointed.
120 SYNTAX.
CONSTRUCTION.
The four folio-wing lines are construed by way of example. They
were parsed at page 66. They are construed here, because the pupil
should now be able to apply the Rules of Syntax.
Oh how stupendous was the power
That raised me with a word ;
And* every day and every hour,
I lean upon the Lord.
How stupendous, adverbs are for the most part placed before adjec-
tives, &c. A power ia understood thus ; stupendous a powerj an
adjective agrees with a noun. A power, the article a is used before
nouns in the singular number only — the power, the is used before
nouns in both numbers — the power was, a verb agrees with its no-
roinative — the power that, the relative agrees with its antecedent, &c.
That raised, a verb agrees with its nom. liaised me, an active verb
governs the objective case — With a word, prepositions govern the
objective — A word — A is used before nouns in the singular, &c.
(During is understood) during every day, prepositions govern the
objective case — Every day, an adjective agrees with a noun — Day
and hour, conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns and pronouns;
for hour is governed by during understood again — Every hour, an
adjective agrees, &c. I lean, a verb agrees with its nominative —
Upon the Lord, prepositions govern the objective case.
The possessive pronouns, My, Thy, His, Her, Our, Tour, Their,
and Its, must be construed exactly like nouns in the possessive case,
for a pronoun is an exact resemblanca of a noun in every thing but
one; namely, it will not admit of an adjective before it like a noun.
His is equal to Johris, and her to Ann's, and their to the men's, in
the following sentences.
John lost his gloves, t. e. John lost John's gloves. Ann found her
book, t. e. Ann found Ann's book. The men took off their hats, i. e.
the men took off the men's hats. The garden is productive, and its
fruit is good, i. e. the garden's fruit. In all these cases, and in such
phrases as, my house, thy field — our lands — your estates — their pro-
perty— whose horse — the rule is, " When two nouns come together,
signifying different things, the first is put in the possessive case."
* It is impossible to construe bad grammar. And here is so very
vaguely used, that the rule, " Conjunctions couple the same moods and
tenses of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pronouns," will not
apply in this passage.
f Or, how stupendous the power was ; but it is certainly better to sup-
ply a power, thus ; 0 how stupendous a power was the power that raised
me with a word.
EXERCISES. 121
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE
RULES OF SYNTAX.
John writes pretty. Come here, James.
Where are you going, Thomas ? I shall
never do so no more. The structure of plants
are highly curious. Was you present at last
meeting ? He need not be in so much haste.
He dare not act otherwise than he does. Him
whom they seek is in the house. George or I
is the person. They or he is much to be
blamed. The troop consist of fifty men. She
has been ill this two months. A pillar sixty
foot high. His conduct evinced the most ex-
treme vanity. These trees are remarkable tall.
He acted bolder than was expected. This is
he who I gave the book to. Eliza always ap-
pears amiably. She goes there to-morrow.
From whence came they ? Who do you lodge
with now? He was born at London, but he
died in Bath. If he be sincere I am satisfied.
Her father and her were at church. The mas-
ter requested him and I to read more distinctly.
It is no more but his due. Flatterers flatter as
long and no longer than they have expectations
of gain. John told the same story as you
told. This is the largest tree which I have
ever seen.
122 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Let he and I read the next chapter. She
is free of pain. Those sort of dealings are
unjust. David the son of Jesse was the
youngest of his brothers. You was very
kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what
does you think of him now? James is one
of those boys that was kept in at school, for
bad behaviour. Thou, James, did deny the
deed. Neither good nor evil come of them-
selves. We need not to be afraid. He ex-
pected to have gained more by the bargain.
You should drink plenty of goat milk. It
was him who spoke first. Do you like ass
milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who
did you buy your grammar from ? If one
takes a wrong method at first setting out, it
will lead them astray. Neither man nor
woman were present. I am more taller than
you. She is the same lady who sang so
sweetly. He was a member of the most strictest
society of Christians I ever saw. Is not thy
wickedness great? and thine iniquities infi-
nite ? There was more sophists than one. If
a person have lived twenty or thirty years, he
should have some experience. If this were his
meaning, the prediction has failed. Fidelity
and truth is the foundation of all justice. His
associates in wickedness will not fail to mark
the alteration of his conduct. My father and
my mother they set me a good example.
EXERCISES. 123
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
The crowd were so great that the Lord
Mayor and Aldermen with difficulty made their
way through them. Why find fault with a man
if he have done thee no harm ? I wrote to, and
cautioned the captain against it. Every mem-
ber of the body, every bone, joint, and muscle,
lie exposed to many disorders. He acted in-
dependent in the transaction. It is not me who
he is in love with. He which commands him-
self, commands the whole world. Nothing is
more lovelier than virtue.
The peoples happiness is the statesmans
honour. Changed to a worser shape thou
canst not be. I have drunk no spirituous li-
quors this six years. He is taller than me,
but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and
contentment consists neither in beauty or
riches, but in the favour of Heaven. After who
did you run in so much haste? I met your
father, than who a worthier man is not to be
found. Abuse of mercies ripen us for judge-
ment. Peter and John is not at school to-day.
Three of them was taken into custody. To
study diligently, and behave genteelly, is com-
mendable. The enemies who we have most to
fear are those of our own hearts. Eegulus was
reckoned the most consummate warrior that
Rome could then produce. Suppose life never
so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may
still be made.
124 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Surely thou who reads so much in the
Bible, can tell me what became of Elijah.
Neither the master nor the scholars is read-
ing. Trust not him, whom, you know, is
dishonest. I love no interests but that of
truth and virtue. Every one of the rebels were
banished from his native country. No one can
be blamed for taking due care of their health.
If I had known the distress of my friend, it
would be a pleasure to me to relieve him.
I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens
Virgil. He that is diligent you should com-
mend. There was an earthquake which made
the earth to tremble. A simile and a metaphor
is figures of speech which nearly resembles each
other. I cannot commend him for justi-
fying hisself when he knows that his conduct
was so very improper. He was very much
made on at school. Wisdom and virtue is
undoubtedly a better inheritance than gold and
silver. If he is alone, tell him the news ; but
if there is anybody with him, do not tell him.
They ride faster than us. Though the news
be strange, it is not unworthy of credit. If
he does but approve my endeavours, it will be
an ample reward. Was it him who came last ?
Yes, it was him.
For ever in this humble cell,
Let thee and I, ray fair one, dwell.
Before the discovery was made of America30.
EXERCISES. 125
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Every man should act suitable to his char-
acter and station in life. His speech was de-
livered very distinct. I only spoke three
words on that subject. The ant and the bee
sets a good example before dronish boys.
Neither borrow, neither lend, lest thou lose thy
loan and friend. I expected to have found
him better. Hannibal was one of the greatest
generals whom the world ever saw. The
middle station of life seems to be the most ad-
vantageously situated for gaining of wisdom.
These are the rules of grammar, by the ob-
serving which you may avoid mistakes. The
king conferred on him the title of a duke.
My exercises are not well wrote, I do not hold
my pen well. Grammar teaches us to speak
proper. She accused her companion for hav-
ing betrayed her. I will not dissent with her.
Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path
of duty and honour. Who shall I give it to ?
Who are you looking for ? It is a diminution
from, or a derogation of his dignity. It fell
into their notice or cognizance. He writes as
well as me, but I read better than him. That
is a book which I am much pleased with. I
have been to see the coronation, and a fine
sight it was. That picture of the emperor's is
a very exact resemblance of him. Every
thing that we here enjoy, change, decay, and
come to an end. It is not him they blame
so much.
126 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
No people has more faults than they that
pretend to have none. The laws of Draco is
said to have been wrote with blood. It is so
clear, or so obvious, as I need not explain it.
She taught him and I to read. The more
greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the
more dangerous he is to society, and the more
less fit for a companion. All have their faults,
and each should endeavour to correct their own.
Let your promises be few, and such that you
can perform.
His being at enmity with Caesar and An-
tony were the cause of perpetual discord.
Their being forced to their books when out
of school and tired with study, have been
the reason why many have hated books all
their lives. There was a coffee-house at
that end of the town, in which several gen-
tlemen used to meet of an evening. Do
not despise the state of the poor, lest it be-
comes your own condition. It was his duty
to have interposed his authority in an affair
of so much importance. He spent his whole
life in the doing good. Art thou the traveller
who discoveredst these interesting remains?
The winter has not been so severe as we
expected it to have been. When sickness,
infirmity, or reverse of fortune overtake us,
the character and kindness of our friends is put
to the test. Whoever said so, he has told a
falsehood.
EXERCISES. 127
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in
them robbery or murder. Neither you nor she
were mistaken in her conjectures. My sister
and I, as well as my brother, are employed in
their respective occupations. He repents him
of that indiscreet action. It was me, and not
him, that wrote it. A clock cannot go without
a weight or spring. I shall take care that no
one shall suffer no injury. Both Luther and
Melancthon were sincere and zealous Re-
formers ; but Luther was the most intrepid.
This jackanapes has hit me in a right place
enough. Two times two is four. Ten times
ten is one hundred. It is her riches, not her
beauty, that attracts so many suitors. To do
to others as we would that they should do to
us, it is our duty. This grammar was pur-
chased at Ogle's the bookseller's. The council
was not unanimous.
Who spilt the ink upon the table? Him.
Who lost this book ? Me. Whose pen is
this ? Johns. There is in fact no impersonal
verbs in any language. He differs very much
in opinion with his brother. Had I never seen
ye, I had never known ye. The ship Mary
and Ann were restored to their owners.
If we consult the improvement of mind? or
the health of body, it is well known exercise
is the great instrument for promoting both. A
man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a
picture, as well as read them in a poem.
128 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
I had no sooner placed her at my right
hand, by the fire, but she opened to me the
reason of her visit. A prudent wife, she shall
be blessed. The house you speak of, it cost
me five hundred pounds. Steady application,
as well as genius, are necessary to eminence in
the fine arts. Not only the counsel's and
attorney's, but the judge's opinion also fa-
voured his cause. It was the men's, women's,
and children's lot, to suffer great calamities.
Leaves serve the same purpose in the vegetable
world, which lungs do amongst animals. This
palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet,
This clock is seldom or ever right. Though
he behave never so well.
* I am purposed. He is arrived. They
are deserted from their regiment. Whose
works are these ? They are Cicero, the
most eloquent of men's. The mighty rivals
are now at length agreed. The time of Wil-
liam making the experiment at length arrived.
Let them be whom they may, we will boldly
confront them. The group of islands were
soon in sight. This picture of the king's does
not much resemble him. These pictures of
the king were sent to him from Italy. He who
committed the offence, thou shouldst correct,
not I, who am innocent.
* Rule. It is improper to use a neuter verb in the passive form. Thus,
I am purposed — He is arrived : should be, I have purposed — He has
arrived. From this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it
ie allowable to say, He is coine. She is gone, &c.
EXERCISES. 129
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
But Thomas, one of the twelve, called Di-
dymus, was not with the disciples at that
time. These are observations, that a long and
chequered pilgrimage have enabled me to
make on man. After I visited Europe, I
returned to America. To us is now ad-
dressed in the gospels our blessed Saviour's
words. In his conduct was treachery, and
in his words faithless professions. The ora-
tors did not forget to enlarge themselves on
so popular a subject. He acted conform-
able with his instructions, and cannot be
censured justly.
No person could speak stronger on this
subject, nor behave nobler, than our young
advocate, for the cause of toleration. They
were studious to ingratiate with those who
they believed to be the chief men of the tribe.
The house framed a remonstrance, where they
spoke with great freedom of the king's pre-
rogative. Neither flatter or contemn the rich
or the great. Many would exchange gladly
their grandeur and riches, for that more quiet
and humbler station, which thou art now dis-
satisfied with. He esteemed it a high honour
to have been allowed to converse with the
princes. Many persons will not believe but
what they are free from prejudices. It is very
masterly done. This word I have only found
in Spenser. The king being apprized of the
conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem.
130 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
A too great variety of studies dissipate
and confuse the mind. James was resolved
to not indulge himself in such a cruel amuse-
ment. They admired the rustic's, as they
called him, candour and uprightness. The
pleasure or pain of one passion differ from
those of another. The court of Spain, who*
gave the order, were not aware of the con-
sequences. There was much spoke and wrote
on either side of the question, but I know
not which of the contending parties were in
the right.
Religion raises men above themselves; ir-
religion sinks them beneath the brutes ; that
binds them down to a speck of perishable
earth ; this gives them wings to soar to the
skies. Every element seemed to conspire
towards the destruction of the ship. There
were rugged precipices on either side of the
river. This task was the easier performed,
from the cheerfulness with which he em-
barked on it. It is easier to build two
chimneys than maintain one. As his mis-
fortunes were the fru,it of his own obstinacy,
a few persons pitied him. To these terms he
had no objections to comply. Riches is the
bane of many, and a blessing only to a
few. I wrote to my brother before I received
his letter.
* Which is applied to collective nouns composed of men. — See p. 153, mid.
EXERCISES. 131
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
When Garrick appeared, Peter was for
some time in doubt whether it could be him
or not. Are you living contented in spiritual
darkness ? The company was very numerous.
Every office of authority should be intrusted
to persons on whom the public can confide.
The shepherd was observed ascend the hill.
You did not acquaint me with what you in-
tended to have done. There remains but two
obstacles to be surmounted. Nor let no com-
forter delight my ear. She was six years elder
than him. They were obliged to contribute
more than us. The Barons had little more to
rely on, besides the power of their families.
The sewers (shores) must be kept so clear, as
the water may run away. Such among us
who follow that profession. Nobody is so
sanguine to hope for it. She behaved un-
kinder than I expected. Agreeable to your
request I send this letter. Thomas is not
as docile as his sister. There was no other
book but this. He died by a fever. Every
man's heart and temper is productive of much
joy or bitterness. What avails professions of
sanctity without a holy life ? The army were
drawn up in haste. The public is respectfully
informed, that, &c. His uneasiness, not to say
his apprehensions, were shared by his follow-
ers. Who art thou who would oppose the king ?
Henry, though at first he showed an unwil-
lingness, yet afterwards he granted his request.
132 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Him and her live very happily together.
She invited Jane and I to see her new dress.
She uttered such cries that pierced the heart
of every one who heard them. Maria is
not as clever as her sister Ann. Though
he promises ever so solemnly, I will not be-
lieve him. The full moon was no sooner up
in its brightness, but she turned the dark
waters of the lake into a mirror of silver. It
rendered the progress very slow of the new
invention. This book is Thomas', that is
James'. Socrates's wisdom has been the
subject of many a conversation. Fare thee well,
James. Who, who has the judgement of a
man, would have drawn such an inference ?
George was the most diligent scholar whom I
ever knew. I have observed some children to
use deceit. He durst not to displease his
master. I trust I shall profit from your advice
and by your example. Several of our English
words, some centuries ago, had different mean-
ings to those they have now. Take not away
the life36 you cannot give. With this booty
he made off to a distant part of the country,
where he had reason to believe that neither he
nor his master were known. You should be
happy ; for yours is health, wealth, and wisdom
too. I have been at London. Which is likely
to tell the true time — the railway clock or your
watch? Thompson, the watchmaker and the
jeweller, from London were of the party.
EXERCISES. 133
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Which of the two masters shall we most
esteem ? He who commends his scholars when
they are diligent, and strives to inspire them
with a generous emulation, or another who will
lash them severely for every mistake or blunder,
however slight, into which they have fallen?
The doctor, in his last lecture, said that fever
always produced thirst. Every person who
was consulted were of this opinion. Mankind is
more united by the bonds of friendship at pres-
ent than it was formerly. The most perfect
pleasures in this world are always mingled with
some bitterness. The excellence of many dis-
courses consist in their brevity. If you are
reproved for your faults, be not angry with him
that reproves you ; but thank him for it. Your
peace will be more unbroken.
She always behaved with great severity to
her maids ; and if any of them were negligent
of their duty, or made a slip in their conduct,
nothing would serve her but burying the poor
girls alive. He had no master to instruct him ;
he had read nothing but the writings of Moses
and the prophets, and had received no lessons
from the Socrates's,* the Plato's, and the Con-
fucius's of the age. There is no disease as
dangerous as the want of common sense.
* The Possessive cote must not be used for the plural number. In thia
quotation from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names
should have been pluralized like common nouns ; thus, From the Sn-
crateses, the Platoes, and the Confuciuses of the age.
H
134 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
If it were not for the Bible and the pulpit,
most of us would be still as ignorant of the true
God and eternal life, if not more ignorant, than
the idolaters of ancient Greece and Rome.
Every man that counts his minutes, and lets
no part of time pass, without making a right
use of it, him shalt thou imitate.
The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty
as was expected.
Milton seems to have been well acquainted
with his own genius, and known what it was
that nature had bestowed upon him more boun-
tifully than upon others.
John did not meet us at the hour he himself
had appointed. We were shocked at his want
of punctuality, and would afterwards have asked
the cause.
He sought delights of a much more inferior
and unprofitable nature. I saw nobody there
which I knew, though, agreeable to your in-
structions, I have been constantly observant of
all around me.
Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear,
Here storm'd contention, and here fury frown'd.
The Cretan javelin reach'd him from afar,
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car.
He only* promised me a loan of the book
for two days. I was once thinking to have
written a poem.
* This sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made
to express other four by placing only after me, or loan, or book, or days.
EXERCISES. 135
PEOMISCUOUS EXEECISES.
A slow but attentive child will often be found
to get lessons by heart as soon as, nay some-
times sooner, than one who, though ten times
as clever, is less industrious.
In his writings there are not only beauty of
style, but originality of thought.
No man is likely to prove either an instruc-
tive or an agreeable companion, if he be re-
served and taciturn ; if he be fretful and
peevish ; if he be positive and dogmatical in
his opinions ; if he be given to self-display ;
if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks,
or quibbles.
Though he has neither books or the means
of buying them, still, as far as I can judge, he
is equal to most of us in general information.
Then finish, dear Chloe, this pastoral war,
And let us. like Horace and Lydia, agree ;
For thou art a girl as much brighter than her,
As he was a poet sublimer than me.
There are many more shining qualities in
the mind of man, but there is none so useful as
discretion.
We need not to leave home and to traverse
distant lands, to find marvels. Mr. Locke
having been introduced by Lord Shaftesbury
to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halifax,
these three noblemen, instead of conversing
with the philosopher on literary subjects, in a
very short time sat down to cards.
136 SYNTAX.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Bad Arrangement.
They proposed to divide equally the spoil.
To man has been given the power of speech
only.
It is your light fantastic fools, who have nei-
ther heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by
dressing their bodies out of all shape, render
themselves ridiculous and contemptible.
And how can brethren hope to partake
of their parent's blessing that curse each
other?
The superiority of others over us, though in
trivial concerns, never fails to mortify our van-
ity, and give us vexation, as Nicole admirably
observes.
Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were
the only persons preserved from the Flood.
What hinge could the most skilful workman
contrive that might be used as often and for so
long a term of years without being disordered
or worn out, as our elbow-joint.
The sun is larger greatly than this whole
earth, though seemingly smaller than the dial
it illuminates.
A great stone that I happened to find, after
a long search, by the seashore, served me for
an anchor.
It is true what he says, but it is not appli-
cable to the point.
On going to bed, we feel the blankets warm,
on a winter night, and the sheets cold.
EXEECISES. 137
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.
Bad Arrangement.*
Tlie senate of Rome ordered that no part of
it should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the
ground, so that travellers are unable to say
where Carthage stood at this day.
Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve
years after the second Punic war, and two
after it had been begun.
Upon the death of Claudius, the young
Emperor, Nero, pronounced his funeral ora-
tion, and he was canonized among the gods,
who scarcely deserved the name of a man.
Galerius abated much of his severities
against the Christians on his death-bed, and
revoked those edicts which he had formerly
published, tending to their persecution, a little
before his death.
The first care of Aurelius was to marry
his daughter Lucilla once more to Claudius
Pompeianus, a man of moderate fortune, &c.
But at length, having made his guards ac-
complices in their designs, they set upon Maxi-
min while he slept at noon in his tent, and slew
both him and his son, whom he had made his
partner in the empire, without any opposition.
Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce
and terrible nation of Germany, that had in-
vaded Italy, in three several engagements.
* The exercises on this page are all extracted from the octavo edition
of Goldsmith's Roman History, from which many more might be got.
It is amazing how mauy mistakes even our most popular authors have
made.
H2
138 SYNTAX.
AMBIGUITY.
You suppose him younger than I.
This may mean, either that you suppose him younger than
I am, or that you suppose him to be younger than I suppose
him to be.
Parmenio had served with great fidelity
Philip, the father of Alexander, as well as
himself, for whom he first opened the way
into Asia.
Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to
Parmenio, and means that he had not only served Philip,
but he had served himself at the same time. This however
is not the meaning of the passage. If we arrange it thus,
the meaning will appear. " Parmenio had not only served
Philip the father of Alexander with great fidelity, but he
had served Alexander himself, and was the first that opened
the way for him into Asia.
Belisarius was general of all the forces under
the emperor Justinian the First, a man of rare
valour.
Who was a man of rare valour? The emperor Justinian,
we should suppose, from the arrangement of the words ; but
this is not the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence
should have stood thus, u Belisarius, a man of rare valour,
was general of all the forces under the emperor Justinian the
First."
Lisias promised to his father never to aban-
don his friends.
Whether were they his own friends or his father's whom
Lisias promised never to abandon? If his own, it should
be, "Lisias promised and said to his father, I will never
abandon my friends. If his father's, it should be, Lisias
promised and said to his father, I will never abandon your
friends."
EXERCISES. 139
TAUTOLOGY.
Tautology, or the repetition of a thought or word, already
fully expressed, is improper.
EXAMPLES.
The f latter end of that man shall be peace.
Whenever I try to improve, I f always find I can do it.
I saw it in here — I saw it here.
He was *f in here yesterday when I spoke to him.
Give me both of them hooks — Give me both those hooks.*
They both met— They met.
I never fail to read, whenever I can get a hook — When.
You must return f back immediately.
First of all I shall say my lesson — First I shall say, &c.
Before I do that, I must -j- first finish this.
He plunged "f down into the water.
Read from here to there — From this place to that.
Lift f up your hook. He mentioned it f over again.
This was the luckiest accident of all •}• others.
1 ran after him a little way ; hut soon returned f back f again.
I cannot tell f/or why he did it.
Learn f/rora hence to study the Scriptures diligently.
Where shall I begin -ffrom when I read.
We must do this last f o/f all. Hence f therefore, I say.
I found nobody f else but him there.
Smoke ascends f up into the clouds.
We hastily descended f down from the mountain.
He raised *f up his arm to strike me.
We were f mutually friendly to each other.
It should f ever be your constant study to do good.
As soon as I awoke I rose •}• up and dressed myself.
I leave town in the f latter end of July.
<£g* Avoid the following vulgar phrases. — Behoof, behest,
fell to work, wherewithal, quoth he, do away with, long winded,
chalked out, pop out, must needs, got rid of, handed down,
self same, pell mell, that's your sort, tip him the wink, pitched
upon. Subject matter is a tautological phrase. /Subject is
enough ; as, The subject of this discourse : and not the subject
matter — which is harsh and vulgar.
t The word immediately after the dagger is to be omitted, because
it is superfluous. * These) if the person has them in his hand.
140
SYNTAX.
IMPROPER
EXPRESSIONS.
My every hope, — should be,
All my hopes.
Frequent opportunity.
Frequent opportunities.
Who finds him in money ?
Who finds him money ?
He put it in his pocket.
He put it into his pocket.
No less than fifty persons.
Nofeiver than fifty persons.
The two first steps are new.
The first two steps are new.
The three last verses.
The last three verses.
Be that as it will.
Be that as it may.
About two years back.
About two years ago.
He was to come as this day.
He was to come this day.
They retreated back.
They retreated.
It lays on the table.
It lies on the table.
I turned them topsy turvy.
I overset them.
I catch'd it.
I caught it.
How does thee do ?
How dost thou do ?
Overseer over his house.
Overseer of his house.
Opposite the church.
Opposite to the church.
Provisions were plenty.
Provisions were plentiful.
A new pair of gloves.
A pair of new gloves.
A young beautiful woman.
A beautiful young woman.
Where do you come from ?
Whence do you come ?
Where are you going ?
WhitJter are you going ?
For such another fault.
For another such fault.
Of consequence.
Consequently.
Having not considered it.
Not having considered it.
I had rather not.
I would rather not.
For good and all.
Totally and completely.
This here house, says I.
This house, said I.
Where is it? says I to him.
Where is it ? said I to him.
I propose to visit them.
I purpose to visit them.
He spoke contemptibly of me.
He spoke contemptuously of me.
It is apparent.
It is obvious.
In its primary sense.
In its primitive sense.
I heard them pro and con.
I heard both sides.
I an't hungry.
I am not hungry.
I want a scissors.
I want a pair of scissors.
A new pair of shoes.
A pair of new shoes.
I saw him some ten years ago.
I saw him ten years ago.
I met in with him.
I met with him.
The subject matter.
The subject. (Seep. 139 near lot.)
I add one more reason.
I add one reason more.
He was in eminent danger.
In imminent.
EXERCISES. 141
IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS.
Do you mind how many chapters are in Job ? — remember.
His public character is undeniable — unexceptionable.
The wool is cheaper ; — but the cloth is as dear as ever — omit the
in both places.
They gained five shillings the piece by it — a-piece.
It is not worth a sixpence — sixpence.
A letter conceived in the following words — expressed.
He is much difficulted — at a loss; puzzled.
He behaved in a very gentlemany manner— gentleman-like.
The poor boy was ill-guided — ill-used.
There was a great many company — much company.
He has been misfortunate — unfortunate.
A momentuous circumstance — momentous.
You will some day repent it — one day repent of it.
Severals were of that opinion — several, i. e. several persons.
He did it in an overly manner — in a careless.
He does everything pointedly — exactly.
An honestlike man — A tall good-looking man.
At the expiry of his lease — expiration,
If I had ever so much in my offer — choice.
Have you any word to your brother ? — message.
The cock is a noisy beast— -fowl.
Are you acquaint with him ? — acquainted.
Were you crying on me ? — calling.
Direct your letters to me at Mr. B.'s, Edinburgh — address.
He and I never cast out — never quarrel.
He took a fever — was seized with a fever.
He was lost in the river — drowned (if the body was got).
That militates against your doctrine — operates.
If I arn not mistaken — if I mistake not.
You may lay your account with opposition — you may expect.
He proposes to buy an estate— purposes.
He pled his own cause— pleaded.
Have ye plenished your house ?— furnished.
I shall notice a few particulars — mention.
I think much shame — / am much ashamed.
Will I help you to a bit of beef ?— shall.
They wared then* money to advantage— laid out.
Will we see you next week ? — shall.
She thinks long to see him — She longs to see him.
It is not much worth — it is not worth much.
They are all at issue — at variance.
142
SYNTAX.
IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS.
Is he going to the school ? — to school.
He has got the cold — a cold.
Say the grace — say grace.
I cannot go the day — to-day.
A four square table — a square table.
He is cripple — lame.
Get my big coat — great coat.
Hard fish— dried fish.
A novel fashion — new fashion.
He is too precipitant — hasty.
Roasted cheese — toasted.
Go over the bridge — across.
Sweet butter— fresh.
I have a sore head — headache.
A stupenduous work — stupendous.
A tremenduous work — tremendous.
I got timous notice — timely.
A summer's day — summer day.
An oldish lady — elderly.
A few broth — some.*
I have nothing ado — to do.
Ass milk— ass's.
Take a drink — draught.
A pair of partridges — a brace.
Six horse — horses.
A milk cow — milch.
Send me a swatch — pattern.
He lays in bed till nine— lies.
I mind none of them things — those.
Give me them books — these.
Close the door — shut.
Let him be — alone.
Call for James— on— p. 114 t b.
Chap louder — knock.
I find no pain— feel.
I mean to summons — summon.
Will I help you?— shall.
Shall James come again ? — will.
He has a timber leg — a wooden.
I an't angry—/ am not.
That there house— that house.
1 differ with you— from.
I have ate enough — eaten.
Call for your uncle — upon.
He has risen the price — raised.
That is not mine's — mine.
Go and pull berries— gather.
Pull roses— pluck or gather.
To harry a nest — rob.
He begins to make rich — grow.
Mask the tea — infuse.
I was maltreated— ill used.
He mants much — stammers.
I see'd him yesterday — saw.
A house to set— to be let—K. p. 86. &
Did you tell upon him — inform.
Come here — hither.
A house to sell— to be sold—K . p. 86
I knowed that— knew.
That dress sets her — becomes.
She turned sick — grew.
He is turned tall — grown.
This here boy — this boy.
It is equally the same — it is the same.
It is split new — quite.
That there man — that man.
What pretty it is I— how.
His is far neater — much.
That's no possible — not.
I shall go the morn — to-morrow.
I asked at him — asked him.
Is your papa in ? — within.
He was married on — to.
Come in to the fire — nearer.
Take out your glass — off.
I find no fault to him — in.
Cheese and bread — bread and cheese.
Milk and bread — bread and milk.
Don't sit on the door — near.
Come, say away — comet proceed.
Do bidding — be obedient.
He is a widow — widower.
He stops there — stays, dwells,lodgea.
Shall they return soon ? — will.
Will we go home now ? — shall.
He misguides his book — abuses.
He don't do it well — does not.
That stone lays well — lies.
I dissent with you— from.
I will stay at home — shall.
See that he does it— do it.
Where did you lay all night — lie.
* Broth is always singular — Powdered beef is beef sprinkled with salt to
preserve it for a few days. Salt beef is beef properly seasoned with salt.
OBSERVATIONS. 143
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
Additional Remarks under the Ath Rule of Syntax.
1. When and is understood, the verb must be
plural; as wisdom, happiness, (and) virtue, dwell
with the golden mediocrity.
Some think, that when two singular nouns,
coupled with and, are nearly the same in meaning,
the verb may be singular ; as, Tranquillity and peace
dwells there. Ignorance and negligence has pro-
duced this effect. This, however, is improper ; for
tranquillity and peace are two nouns or names, and
two make a plural ; therefore the verb should be
plural.
2. Two or more singular nouns coupled with and,
require a verb in the singular number, when they
denote only one person or thing; as, That able
scholar and critic has been eminently useful.
3. Many writers use a plural noun after the 2d
of two numeral adjectives ; thus, the first and se-
cond pages are torn. This I think improper; it
should rather be, The first and second page, i. e. the
first page and the second page are torn : — are, per-
haps ; because independently of and, they are both
in a torn state. Generation, hour, and ward are
singular in Exodus xx. 5. Matt. xx. 5. Acts xii. 10.
And and Not.
4. When not is joined to and, the negative clause
forms a parenthesis, and does not affect the con-
struction of the other clause or clauses ; therefore,
the verb in the following and similar sentences
should be singular. Genuine piety, and not great
riches, makes a death-bed easy ; *, e. Genuine piety
144 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
makes a death-bed easy, and great riches do not
make it easy. Her prudence, not her possessions,
renders her an object of desire.
Every, And.
5. When the nouns coupled with and are qua-
lified by the distributive Every, the verb should be
singular ; as, Every man and woman was astonished
at her fortitude. Every boy and girl was taught to
read. — See Rule xxvn.
With and And.
6. When a singular noun has a clause joined to
it by with, it is often difficult to determine whether
the verb should be singular or plural, especially as
our most reputable authors use sometimes the one
and sometimes the other : for example, some would
say, My uncle, with his son, was in town yesterday.
Others would say, My uncle, with his son, were in
town yesterday.
If we take the sense for our guide, and nothing
else can guide us in a case of this kind, it is evident
that the verb should be plural ; for both uncle and
son are the joint subjects of our affirmation, and de-
clared to be both in the same state.
When we perceive from the sense that the noun
before With is exclusively the real subject, then the
verb should be singular ; thus, Christ, with his three
chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount.
Here the verb is singular, because we know that
none but Christ was transfigured ; the disciples were
not joint associates with him ; they were mere spec-
tators. There seems to be an ellipsis in such sen-
tences as this, which, if supplied in the present,
OBSERVATIONS. 145
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
would run thus : Christ (who was attended) with his
three chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount.
Mr. Murray, however, thinks that the verb should
be singular in the following and similar sentences.
" Prosperity, with humility, renders its possessor
truly amiable." " The side A, with the sides B and
C composes the triangle." In my opinion, on the
contrary, the verb should be plural. For, in the
first sentence, it is not asserted that prosperity alone
renders its possessor truly amiable, but prosperity
and humility united, and co-operating to produce an
effect in their joint state, which they were incapable
of achieving in their individual capacity.
If true, as Mr. Murray says, that " the side A"
in the second sentence, is the true nominative to
the verb, then it follows, of course, that the two
sides, B and C, have no agency or no share in form-
ing the triangle, and consequently that the side A
alone composes the triangle. It is obvious, how-
ever, that one side cannot form a triangle or three-
sided figure, and that the sides B and C are as
much concerned in forming the triangle as the side
A, and therefore the verb should be plural
Upon the whole, we may venture to give the two
following general rules.
1. That wherever the noun or pronoun after With
exists, acts, or suffers jointly with the singular no-
minative before it, the verb should be plural ; as,
" She with her sisters are well." " His purse
with its contents were abstracted from his pocket."
" The general with his men were taken prisoners."
In these sentences the verb is plural, because the
words after With are as much the subject of dis-
i
146 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
course as the words before it — her sisters were iv ell,
as well as she ; the contents, as well as the purse,
were abstracted ; and the men, as well as the gene-
ral, were taken prisoners. If, in the first example,
we say — is well, then the meaning will be, she is
well when in company with her sisters ; and the idea
that her sisters are well will be entirely excluded.
2. When the noun after with is a mere involun-
tary or inanimate instrument, the verb should be
singular • as, The captain with his men catches poor
Africans and sells them for slaves. The squire
with his hounds kills a fox. Here the verb is sin-
gular, because the men and hounds are not joint
agents with the captain and squire ; they are as
much the mere instruments in their hands as the
gun and pen in the hands of He and She in the fol-
lowing sentences. He with his gun shoots a hare.
She with her pen writes a letter.
Of the Articles, with several Adjectives.
A or the is prefixed only to the first of several
adjectives qualifying one noun ; as, A meek and holy
man: but the article should be repeated, before
each adjective, when each adjective relates to a ge-
neric word applicable to every one of the adjectives.
For example, "The black and white cows were
sold yesterday ; the red will be sold to-morrow."
Here cows is the generic word, applicable to
each of the adjectives, black, white, and red, but
for want of the before white, we are led to sup-
pose that the black and white cows mean only
one sort, which are speckled with spots of black
and white; and if this is our meaning, the sen-
OBSERVATIONS. 147
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
tence is right ; but if we mean two different sorts,
the one all black and the other all white, we should
insert the article before both; and say, The black
and the white cows, i. e. The black cows and the
white cows were sold.
Some think this distinction of little importance ;
and it is really seldom attended to even by good
writers ; but in some cases it is necessary, although
in others there cannot, from the nature of the thing,
be any mistake. In the following sentence, for in-
stance, the repetition of the before horned is not
necessary, although it would be proper. " The
bald and horned cows were sold last week." Here
there can be no mistake, two sorts were sold ; for a
cow cannot be bald and horned too.
The same remark may be made respecting the
Demonstrative pronouns that has been made re-
specting the articles; as, " That great and good
man," means only one man : but that great and that
good man would mean two men ; the one a great
man, the other a good.
They—Those.
They stands for a noun already introduced, and
should never be used till the noun be mentioned.
Those, on the contrary, points out a noun not pre-
viously introduced, but generally understood. It is
improper therefore to say, They who tell lies are
never esteemed. They that are truly good must
be happy. We should say, Those who tell lies, and
those that are truly good ; because we are pointing
out a particular class of persons, and not referring
to nouns previously introduced. A noun when not
148 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
expressed after this, that, these, and those, is always
understood.
Another — One — Every.
Another corresponds to one ; but not to some nor
to every. Thus, " Handed down from every writer
of verses to another,11 should be, From one writer
of verses to another. " At some hour or another,1'
should be, At some hour or other.
One is often used in familiar phrases (like on in
French) for we or any one of us indiscriminately ;
Thus, One is often more influenced by example than
by precept. The verb and pronoun with which one
agrees should be singular. Thus, If one take a wrong
method at first, it will lead them astray : should be,
It will lead one astray, or it will lead him astray.
That and those.
It is improper to apply that and those to things
present or just mentioned. Thus, " They cannot
be separated from the subject which follows; and
for that reason/7 &c., should be, And for this reason,
&c. " Those sentences which we have at present
before us : " should be, These, or the sentences which
we have, &c.
As Follows^; as Appears.
As is often used as a Personal or Relative pro-
noun, and in both numbers, and in these cases it
should be construed as a pronoun ; as, " His words
were as follow," that is, His words were those
which follow. Here as is plural, because words,
its antecedent, is plural. His description was as
follows. Here as is singular, because description,
its antecedent, is singular; that is, His description
was this which follows.
OBSERVATIONS. 149
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
This account of as, though in unison with Dr.
Crombie's, is at variance with that of Dr. Campbell
and Mr. Murray. They explain the following sen-
tences thus : " The arguments advanced were nearly
as follows ;" " The positions were, as appears, in-
controvertible." That is, say they, " as it follows,"
"as it appears." What it? The thing. What
thing? — It, or thing, cannot relate to arguments,
for arguments is plural and must have a plural pro-
noun and verb. Take the ordinary method of find-
ing out the nominative to a verb, by asking a ques-
tion with the verb, and the true nominative will be
the answer : Thus, What follows ? and the answer
is, The arguments follow. It must be obvious,
then, that it cannot be substituted for arguments,
and that as is equal to those which, and that the
verb is not impersonal but the third person plural,
agreeing with its nominative which, the last half of
as. In the second example, as appears, is a mere
parenthesis, and does not relate to positions at all ;
but still the as is a pronoun. Thus, the positions,
it appears, were incontrovertible.
They say, however, if we use such before as, the
verb is no longer impersonal, but agrees with its
nominative in the plural number ; as, " The argu-
ments advanced were nearly such &$ follow." " The
positions were such as appear incontrovertible."
This is, if possible, a greater mistake than the for-
mer: for what has such to do with the following
verb ? Such means of that kind, and expresses the
quality of the noun repeated, but it has nothing to
do with the verb at all. Therefore the construction
must be the same with such that it is with as, with
SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
this difference in meaning, that when such as is
used, we mean of that kind which follows.
When we say " His arguments are as follow"
we mean those arguments which follow are verbatim
the very same that he used. But when we say,
" His arguments were such as follow/' we convey
the idea, that the arguments which follow are not
the very same that he used ; but that they are only
of the same nature or kind.
Their position, however, that the verb should be
plural, can be made out by a circumlocution, thus :
" His arguments were nearly such arguments as
those which follow are:" but this very solution
would show the error into which they have fallen
in such phrases as, as follows, as appears, for they
will not admit of similar solutions. We cannot
say, " His arguments are nearly as the arguments
which follows is."*
This means, $c.
The word means in the singular number, and the
phrases, By this means, By that means, are used by
our best and most correct writers when they de-
note instrumentality; as, By means of death, &c. By
that means he preserves his superiority. — Addison.
Good writers use the noun mean in the singular
number only to denote mediocrity, middle state, &c.
as, This is a mean between the two extremes.
This means and that means should be used only
* Addison and Steele have used a plural verb where the antecedent
to as is plural. See Taller, No. 62, 104.— Spec. No. 513. Dr. Campbell,
in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii. p. 7, has mistaken the construc-
tion of these phrases.
OBSERVATIONS. 151
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
when they refer to what is singular; these means
and those means, when they respect plurals; as,
He lived temperately, and by this means preserved
his health. The scholars were attentive, indus-
trious, and obedient to their tutors; and by these
means acquired knowledge.
Amends.
Amends is used in the same manner as means ;
as, Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the
sacrifices of interest. In return, he received the
thanks of his employers, and the present of a large
estate : these were ample amends for all his labours.
Into, in.
Into is used after a verb of motion: and in,
when motion or rest in a place is signified; as,
They cast him into a pit ; I walk in the park.
So and such.
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing,
the word such is properly applied ; as, Such a tem-
per is seldom found ; but when degree is signified,
we use the word so ; as, So bad a temper is sel-
dom found.
Disappointed of, disappointed in.
We are disappointed of a thing when we do not
get it, and disappointed in it when we have it, and
find that it does not answer our expectations ; as,
We are often disappointed in things, which, before
possession, promised much enjoyment. I have fre-
quently desired their company, but have hitherto
been disappointed o/that pleasure.
152 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
Taste of, and Taste for.
A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of
it ; but a taste for it implies only a capacity for
enjoyment ; as, When we have had a true taste of
the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for
those of vice. He had a taste for such studies, and
pursued them earnestly.
The Nominative and the Verb.
When the nominative case has no personal tense
of a verb, but is put before a participle, indepen-
dent of the rest of the sentence, it is called the case
absolute; as, Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;
him destroyed ; him descending ; him only excepted;
— him, in all these places, should be he.
Every Verb, except in the infinitive mood or the
participle, ought to have a nominative case, either
expressed or implied; as, Arise, let us go home;
that is, Arise ye.
Every Nominative case should belong to some
verb, either expressed or implied; as, "To whom thus
Adam," i. e. spoke. In the following sentence, the
word virtue is left by itself, without any verb with
which it might agree. " Virtue, however it may be
neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ulti-
mately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit : "
it should be, However much virtue may be neglected,
&c. The sentence may be made more elegant by
altering the arrangement of the words : thus, Such
is the constitution of men, that virtue, however much
it may be neglected for a time, will ultimately be
acknowledged and respected. — See Rule XIX.
The nominative is commonly placed before the
OBSERVATIONS. 153
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
verb ; but it is sometimes put after it, or between
the auxiliary and the verb. — See Parsing, No. e.
Them is sometimes improperly used instead of
these or those; as, Give me them books, for those
books, or these books.
What is sometimes improperly used for that ; as,
They will never believe but what I have been to
blame ; it should be, But that I have been, &c.
Which is often improperly used for that; thus,
After which time ; should be, After that time.
Which is applied to collective nouns composed of
men ; as, The court of Spain which ; the company
which, &c.
Which, and not who, should be used after the
name of a person used merely as a word ; as, The
court of Queen Elizabeth, who was but another
name for prudence and economy; it should be, which
was but another, or, whose name was, &c.
It is and it was are often used in plural construc-
tion; as, It is they that are the real authors. It
was the heretics that first began to rail, &c. — They
are the real authors. The heretics first began, &c.
would perhaps be more elegant.
The neuter pronoun it, is frequently joined to a
noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gen-
der ; as, It was I; It was the man.
Adjectives, in many cases, should not be separated
from their nouns, even by words which modify their
meaning; thus, A large enough number; a dis-
tinct enough manner ; should be, A number large
enough ; a manner distinct enough. The adjective
is frequently placed after the noun which it quali-
fies ; as, Goodness divine ; Alexander the Great.
i2
154 SYNTAX.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
All is sometimes emphatically put after a num-
ber of particulars comprehended under it ; as, Am-
bition, interest, honour, all these concurred.
Never generally precedes the verb ; as, I never saw
him : but when an auxiliary is used, never may be
placed either between it and the verb, or before both ;
as, He was never seen ; or, he never was seen.
The present participle is frequently introduced
without any obvious reference to any noun or pro-
noun ; as, Generally speaking, he behaves well.
Granting his story to be true, &c. A pronoun is per-
haps understood ; as, We speaking ; We granting.
Sometimes a neuter verb governs an objective,
when the noun is of the same import with the verb ;
thus, to dream a dream; to run a race. Some-
times the noun after a neuter verb is governed by
a preposition understood ; as, He lay six hours in
bed, i. e. during six hours.
The same verbs are sometimes used as active,
and sometimes as neuter, according to the sense ;
thus, Think, in the phrase, " Think on me/' is a
neuter verb ; but it is active in the phrase " Charity
thinketh no evil."
It is improper to change the form of the second
or third person singular of the auxiliaries in the
compound tenses of the subjunctive mood ; thus, If
thou have done thy duty. Unless he have brought
money. If thou had studied more diligently. Un-
less thou shall go to-day. If thou will grant my
request, &c. ; should be, If thou hast done thy duty.
Unless he has brought. If thou hadst studied.
Unless thou shalt go, &c.
CAPITALS. 155
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.
It is improper to vary the second person singular
in the past subjunctive (except the verb to be}.
Thus, If thou came not in time, &c. ; If thou did not
submit, &c. ; should be. If thou earnest not in time ;
If thou didst not submit.
The following phrases are strictly grammatical.
If thou Jcnewest the gift. If thou didst receive
it. If thou hadst known. If thou wilt save her.
Though he hath escaped the sea. That thou mayst
be loved. We also properly say, If thou mayst ,
mightstj couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love.
Of Capitals.
1. The first word of every book, or any other
piece of writing, must begin with a capital letter.
2. The first word after a period, and the answer
to a question, must begin, &c.
3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places,
ships, &c.
4. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, are
written in capitals.
5. The first word of every line in poetry.
6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most
High, &c.
7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of
places; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c.
8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after
a colon ; as, Always remember this ancient maxim :
" Know thyself."
9. Common nouns when personified; as, Come,
gentle Spring.
156 SYNTAX.
Directions for Superscriptions, and Forms of
Address to Persons of every Rank*
To the King's Most Excellent Majesty, — Sire, or May it please
your Majesty — Conclude a petition with, Your Majesty's most
Loyal and Dutiful Subject.
To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, — Madam, or May it
please your Majesty.
To his Royal Highness the Prince Consort, — May it please your
Royal Highness.
To his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, — May it please
your Royal Highness.
In the same manner address every other member of the Royal
Family, male or female.
To his Grace the Duke of ,f My Lord Duke, Your Grace,
or, May it please your Grace.
To the Most Honourable the Marquis of , My Lord Mar-
quis, Your Lordship.
To the Right Honourable the Earl of , My Lord, Your
Lordship.
To the Right Honourable the Lord Viscount , My Lord,
May it please your Lordship.
To the Right Honourable Lord , My Lord, May it please
your Lordship.
The wives of Noblemen have the same titles (but in the feminine
gender) with their husbands, thus :
To her Grace the Duchess of , May it please your Grace.
To the Right Honourable Lady , My Lady, May it
please your Ladyship.
The titles of Lord and Right Honourable are given to all the
sons of Dukes and Marquises* and to the eldest sons of Earls j
and the title of Lady and Right Honourable to all their
daughters. The younger sons of Earls and all the sons of
Viscounts and Barons are styled Honourable.
Right Honourable is due to Earls, Viscounts, and Barons, and
to all the members of her Majesty's MostJ Honourable Privy
* The Superscription or what is put on the outside of a letter is printed
in Roman characters, and begins with To. The terms of address used
in beginning either a letter, a petition, or a verbal address, are printed in
Italic letters immediately after the Superscription.
t The blanks are to he filled up with the real Name and Title.
j The Privy Councillors taken collectively are styled Her Majesty's
Most Honourable Privy Council.
FORMS OF ADDEESS. 157
FORMS OP ADDRESS.
Council — To the Lord Mayors of London, York, and Dublin,
and to the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, during the time they
are in office — To the Speaker of the House of Commons — To
the Lord Advocate of Scotland — To the Lords Commissioners
of the Treasury, Admiralty, Trade and Plantations, &c.
The House of Peers is addressed thus, To the Right Honourable
the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland in Parliament assembled, — My
Lords, May it please your Lordships.
The House of Commons is addressed thus : To the Honourable
the Knights, Citizens, and Burgesses of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland in Parliament assembled — Gen-
tlemen, May it please your Honourable House.
The sons of Viscounts and Barons are styled Honourable ; and
their daughters have their letters addressed thus : To the Hon-
ourable Miss or Mrs .
Noblemen, or men of title in the army or navy, use their
title by rank, such as General, before their title by birth,
such as Lord, Honourable, Sir, &c., thus, General Lord ,
Admiral the Honourable , Colonel Sir .
The Commissioners of Customs — the Commissioners of Inland
Revenue — the Governor and Deputy Governor of the Bank
of England, &c., are addressed collectively as Honourable.
Her Majesty's Commissioner to the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland is styled His Grace the Lord High Com-
missioner. The General Assembly itself is styled The Vener-
able. The Provincial Synods of the Church are styled Very
Reverend; and Presbyteries, Reverend.
Judges of the Court of Session in Scotland are addressed, The
Honourable Lord .
The title Excellency is given to Ambassadors, Plenipotentiaries,
Field-Marshals, Commanders-in-Chief, Governors- General, to
the Lord Lieutenant, and to the Lords Justices of Ireland.
— Address such thus :
To his Excellency Sir — , Bart., Her Britannic Majesty's
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court
of Tuscany, — Your Excellency, May it please your Excellency.
The title Right Worshipful is given to the Sheriffs, Aldermen,
and Recorder of London ; and Worshipful to the Aldermen
and Recorders of other Corporations, and to Justices of the
Peace in England,— Sir, Your Worship.
Clergymen are styled Reverend, and when written to are ad-
158 SYNTAX.
FORMS OF ADDRESS.
dressed thus : To the Reverend Mr. r, or, To the Reverend
Archbishops and Bishops, Deans, and Archdeacons, are addressed
thus:
To his Grace the Lord Archbishop of , or, To the Most
Reverend Father in God, , Lord Archbishop of ,
My Lord, Your Grace.
To the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of , or, To the
Right Reverend Father in God, , Lord Bishop of
My Lord, Your Lordship.
To the Very Reverend the Dean of ; or to the Very Rev-
erend Dr. , Dean of .
To the Venerable the Archdeacon of , or, To the Vener-
able , Archdeacon of .
Principals of Colleges in Scotland (being Clergymen) are styled
Very Reverend; and the same title is given to the Moderator
of the General Assembly.
The general address to Clergymen is, Sir, and when written to,
Reverend Sir.— Deans and Archdeacons are usually called Mr.
Dean, Mr. Archdeacon.
When the Principal ofa University is a layman, he is to be addressed
according to his title of Knight, Doctor, &c., thus : To Sir D. B.,
Knight, &c. &c., Principal of the University of E. ; To Dr.
J. D. F., &c. &c., Principal of the University of St. A. ; when
written to, Sir. The other Professors thus : To Dr. D. R., Pro-
fessor of Logic in the University of E. —Doctor. If a Clergyman,
say, To the Rev. Dr. J. R., Professor of, &c.— Reverend Doctor.
Those who are not Drs. are styled Esquire, but not Mr. too ;
thus, To J. P. Esq., Professor of Humanity in the University
&f Edinburgh, — Sir. If he has a literary title it may be added ;
thus, To J. P., Esq., A. M., Professor of, &c.
Magistrates, Barristers at Law or Advocates, and Members of
Parliament, viz. of the House of Commons (these last have
M. P. after Esq.), and all gentlemen in independent circum
stances, are styled Esquire, and their wives Mrs.
* It seems to be unsettled whether Mr. should be used after Reverend
or not. In my opinion it should ; because it gives a clergyman his own
honorary title over and above the common one. May we not use the Rev.
Mr. as well as the Rev. Dr. ? Besides, we do not always recollect whether
his name is James or John, &c. Mr., in such a case, would look better
on the back of a letter than a long ill-drawn dash, thus, The Rev.
. In short, Mr. is used by our best writers after Reverend, but
not uniformly.
The words To the, not being necessary on the lack of a letter, are sel-
dom used. In addressing Bills they are necessary.
PUNCTUATIOK. 159
Of PUNCTUATION.
PUNCTUATION is the art of pointing written com-
position in such a manner as may naturally lead to
its proper meaning, construction, and delivery.
Of the Comma. [ , ]
RULE I.
A simple sentence in general requires only a
full stop at the end; as, True politeness has its
seat in the heart.
RULE II.
The simple members of a compound sentence
are separated by a comma; as, Crafty men con-
temn studies, simple men admire them, and wise
men use them. He studies diligently, and makes
great progress.
RULE III.
The persons in a direct address are separated
from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as,
My Son, give me thine heart. Colonel, Your
most obedient. I thank you, sir. I am obliged
to you, my friends, for your kindness.
RULE IV.
Two words of the same part of speech, whether
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs,
do not admit of a comma between them, when
coupled with a conjunction; as, James and John
are good. She is wise and virtuous. Religion
expands and elevates the mind. By being admired
and flattered, she became vain. Cicero spoke
forcibly and fluently. When the conjunction is
suppressed, a comma is inserted in its place; as,
He was a plain, honest man.
160 SYNTAX.
Of the Comma.
RULE V.
Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, par-
ticiples, or adverbs, are separated by commas ;
as, The sun, the moon, and the stars, are the glory
of nature.
When words follow in pairs, there is a comma
between each pair; as, Truth is fair and artless,
simple and sincere, uniform and constant.
RULE VI.
All phrases or explanatory sentences, whether
in the beginning, middle, or end of a simple
sentence, are separated from it by commas ; as,
To confess the truth, I was in fault. His father
dying, he succeeded to the estate. The king,
approving the plan, put it in execution. Paul,
the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his
zeal and knowledge. Victoria, queen of Great
Britain. I have seen the emperor, as he was called.
In short, he was a great man. — See p. 162.
RULE VII.
The verb to be, followed by an adjective, or an
infinitive with adjuncts, is generally preceded
by a comma ; as, To be diligently employed in
the performance of real duty, is honourable.
One of the noblest of the Christian virtues, is to
love our enemies.*
RULE VIII.
A comma is used between the two parts of a
sentence that has its natural order inverted ; as,
Him that is upright in his dealings, honour ye.
* Some insert a comma both before and after the verb to be when it is
near the middle of a long sentence, because the pronunciation requires
it ; but that is a bad reason ; for pauses and points are often at variance.
PUNCTUATION. 1611
Of the Comma.
RULE IX.
Any remarkable expression resembling a quota-
tion or a command, is preceded by a comma ; as,
There is much truth in the proverb, Without pains
no gains. I beseech you, be honest.
RULE X.
Relative pronouns admit of a comma before them
in some cases, and in some not.
When several words come between the relative
and its antecedent,* a comma is inserted ; but
not in other cases; as, There is no charm in the
female sex which can supply the place of virtue.
It is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure.
The first beauty of style is propriety, without which
all ornament is puerile and superfluous. It is
barbarous to injure those from whom we have
received a kindness.
RULE XI.
A comma is often inserted where a verb is
understood, and particularly before not, butj and
though, in such cases as the following : John
has acquired much knowledge; his brother, (has
acquired) little. A man ought to obey reason, not
appetite. He was a great poet, but a bad man.
The sun is up, though he is not visible.
A comma is sometimes inserted between the
two members of a long sentence connected by
comparatives ; as, Better is a little with a contented
mind, than great wealth and much trouble with it.
As thy diligence, so shall thy success be.
* That is, when the relative clause is merely explanatory, the rela-
tive is preceded by a comma.
162 SYNTAX.
Of the Comma.
RULE XII.
It has been stated in Eule VI. that explanatory
words and phrases, such as perfectly, indeed, doubt-
less, formerly, in fine, &c., should be separated from
the context by a comma.
Many adverbs, however, and even phrases,
when they are considered of little importance,
should not be separated from the rest of the sen-
tence by commas; as, Be ye therefore upright.
Peradventure I shall be at home. All things
indeed decay. Doubtless thou art our friend.
They were formerly very studious. He was at
last convinced of his error. Be not on that account
displeased with your son. Nevertheless I am no
judge of such matters. Anger is in a manner like
madness. At length some pity warmed the master's
breast.
These twelve rules respecting the position of the comma, in-
clude everything, it is presumed, to be found in the more numer-
ous rules of larger volumes. But it is impossible to make them
perfect. For, u In many instances, the employment, or omis-
sion of a comma, depends upon the length or the shortness of
a clause ; the presence or absence of adjuncts ; the importance
or non-importance of the sentiment. Indeed, with respect to
punctuation, the practice of the best writers is extremely arbi-
trary ; many omitting some of the usual commas when no error
in sense or in construction is likely to arise from the omission.
Good sense and attentive observation are more likely to regulate
this subject than any mechanical directions."
The best 'general rule is, to point in such a manner as to make
the sense evident.
$P" No exercises have been subjoined to the Rules on punctuation;
because none can be given equal to those the pupil can prescribe for
himself. After he has learned the rules let him transcribe a piece
from any good author, emitting the points and capitals; and then
having pointed his manuscript, and restored the capitals, let him com-
pare his own punctuation with the author's.
PUNCTUATION. 163
Of the Semicolon. [ ; ]
TJ'he semicolon is used to separate two mem-
bers of a sentence less dependent on each other
than those separated by the comma.
Sometimes the two members have a mutual
dependence on one another, both in sense and
syntax; sometimes the preceding member makes
complete sense of itself, and only the following
one is dependent; and sometimes both seem to
be independent.
EXAMPLES.
Hasty and inconsiderate connections are generally
attended with great disadvantages; and much of
every man's good or ill fortune depends upon the
choice he makes of his friends.
Trust not to fortune, nor to titled name,
To lead thee to the avenues of fame ;
But let some nobler aim thy mind engage,
And sow in youth what thou wouldst reap in age.
Philosophy asserts, that Nature is unlimited in
her operations ; that she has inexhaustible stores
in reserve ; that knowledge will always be pro-
gressive ; and that all future generations will con-
tinue to make discoveries, of which we have not the
least idea.
The semicolon is sometimes employed to sep-
arate simple members in which even no commas
occur : thus, The pride of wealth is contemptible ;
the pride of learning is pitiable ; the pride of
dignity is ridiculous ; and the pride of bigotry is
insupportable.
In every one of these members the construction and sense are
complete ; and a period might have been used instead of the
semicolon ; which is preferred merely because the sentences are
short and form a climax.
164 SYNTAX.
Of the Colon. [:]
The colon is used when the preceding part of
the sentence is complete in sense and construc-
tion ; and the following part is some remark
naturally arising from it, and depending on it in
sense, though not in construction; as, Study to
acquire the habit of thinking: no study is more
important.
A colon is generally used before an example
or a quotation; as, The Scriptures give us an
amiable representation of the Deity in these
words : God is love. He was often heard to say :
/ have done with the world, and I am willing to
leave it
A colon is generally used where the sense is
complete in the first clause, and the next begins
with a conjunction understood; as, Do not flat-
ter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi-
ness: there is no such thing in the world. Had
the conjunction for been expressed, a semicolon
would have been used ; thus, Do not flatter your-
selves with the hope of perfect happiness ; for
there is no such thing in the world.
The colon is generally used when the conjunc-
tion is understood; and the semicolon when the
conjunction is expressed.
Note. — This observation has not always been attended to in
pointing the Psalms and some parts of the Liturgy. In them,
a colon is often used merely to divide the verse, it would seem,
into two parts, to suit a particular species of church music called
chanting ; as, u My tongue is the pen : of a ready writer." In
reading, a caesural pause, in such a place as this, is enough. In
the Psalms, and often in the Proverbs, the colon must be read
like a semicolon, or even like a comma, according to the sense.
PUNCTUATION. 165
Of the Period. [.]
When a sentence is complete in construction
and sense, it is marked with a period; as, The
loss of wealth may be regained ; of health, recovered ;
but that of time can never be recalled.
A period is sometimes admitted between sen-
tences connected by such words as butj and,
for, therefore, hence, &c. Example : Good- will
contributes to health of body. But envy tends to its
destruction.
All abbreviations end with a period ; as, A.D.
Of other Characters used in Composition.
Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked.
Admiration or Exclamation (!) is used to express any sudden emotion of
the mind.
Parentheses ( ) are used to enclose some necessary remark in the body of
another sentence ; commas are now used instead of Parentheses.
Apostrophe ( ' ) is used in place of a letter left out ; as, earn'd for earned,
Caret ( A ) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined.
Hyphen ( - ) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word
is at the beginning of the next line. It also connects compound
words; as, Tea-pot.
Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions.
Paragraph ( ^ ) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject.
Crotchets or Brackets [ ] are used to enclose a word or sentence which
is to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or to cor-
rect a mistake, or supply some deficiency.
Quotation (" ") is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's
words.
Index (O") is used to point out anything remarkable.
„ f is used to connect words which have one common term, or
M I three lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet.
Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, K — g for King.
Acute accent ( ' ) is used to denote a short syllable ; the grave (") a long.
Breve ("* ) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the dash ( - ) a long.
Diaeresis ( " ) is used to divide a diphthong into two syllables ; as, aerial.
Asterisk (*) Obelisk (t ) Double dagger (J) and Parallels ( | ) i with small
letters and figures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the
bottom of the page.
(***) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in
some bold or indelicate expression.
Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness— a significant pause— an un-
expected turn in the sentiment — or that the first clause is
common to all the rest, as in this definition of a dash.
166
SYNTAX.
Latin.
Ante Christum*
Artiura Baccalaureus
A nno Domini
Artium Magister
Anno Mundi
Ante Merediem
Anno Urbis Conditse
Baccalaureus Diviniti
Gustos Privati Sigilli
Gustos Sigilli
Doctor Divinitatis
Et Ctetera
Exempli gratia
Tdest
A.C.
A.B.
A.D.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.U.C.
itis B.D.
C.P.S.
C.S.
D.D.
&c.
e.g.
i.e.
Jesus Hominum Salvator J.H.S.
Legum Doctor
Messieurs (French)
Medicinse Doctor
Memorise Sacrum
Nota Bene
Post Meridiem
Post Scriptum
Regise Societatis Socius
M.S.
N.B.
P.M.
P.S.
F.R.S.
Societatis Antiquariorium
Socius F.S.A.
Ultimo Ult.
Victoria Regina VJl.
ABBREVIATIONS.
English,
Before Christ
Bachelor of Arts (often B.A.)
In the year of our Lord
Master of Arts
In the year of the world
In the forenoon
In the year after the building of the
Bachelor of Divinity [city — Rome
Keeper of the Privy Seal
Keeper of the Seal
Doctor of Divinity
And the rest ; and so forth
For example
That is
Jesus the Saviour of Men
Doctor of Laws
Messrs. Gentlemen
M.D. Doctor of Medicine
Sacred to the Memory (or S.M.)
Note well ; Take notice
In the afternoon
Postscript ; something written ai'ter
Fellow of the Royal Society
LL.D.
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
Last (month)
Victoria the Queen
A. Answer. Alexander J.P.
Acct. Account L.C.J.
Bart. Baronet Knt.
Bp. Bishop K.G.
Capt. Captain G.C.B.
Col. Colonel K.C.B.
Cr. Creditor C.B.
Dr. Debtor, Doctor K.P.
Do. or Ditto. The same. K.T.
Viz.f Namely MS.
Q. Question, Queen M.P.
R.N. Royal Navy S.S.C.
Esq. Esquire W.S.
N.S. New Style
O.S. Old Style
H.E.I.C.S.
Justice of the Peace
Lord Chief Justice
Knight
Knight of the Garter.
Knight Grand Cross of the Bath
Knight Commander of the Bath
Companion of the Bath
Knight of St. Patrick
Knight of the Thistle
Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts
Member of Parliament
Solicitor before the Supreme Courts
Writer to Her Majesty's Signet
The Honourable East India Com-
pany's Service
* The Latin of these abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart,
but to show the etymology of the English ; or explain for instance, how
P.M. cemes to mean afternoon, &c. 1 Contraction 'of videlicet.
PROSODY. 167
PROSODY.
PROSODY treats of the true sound or pronunciation
of words and sentences ; comprising Accent, Quan-
tity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone, and the measure
of Verses.
Accent is the laying of a greater force on one syllable of a
word than on another ; as, Surmount.
The Quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied
in pronouncing it. Quantity is either short or long ; as, Con-
sume.
Emphasis is a remarkable stress laid upon certain words in
a sentence, to distinguish them from the rest, by making the
meaning more apparent; as, Apply yourself more to acquire
knowledge than to show it.*
A Pause is either a total cessation or a short suspension of the
voice, during a perceptible space of time ; as, Reading — makes a
full-man ; conference — a ready-man ; and writing — an exact-
man.
Tone is a particular modulation or inflection of the voice,
suited to the sense ; as, How bright these glorious spirits
shine I f Have pity upon me, have pity upon me, 0 my friends.
Versification.
Prose is language not restrained to harmonic sounds, or to a
set number of syllables.
Verse or Poetry is language restrained to a certain number of
long and short syllables in every line.
Verse is of two Tcinds; namely, Rhyme and Blank verse.
When the last syllable of every two lines has the same sound,
* Emphasis should be made rather by suspending the voice a little
after the emphatic word, than by striking it very forcibly, which is
disagreeable to a good ear. A very short pause before it would render
it still more emphatical ; as, Reading — makes a— /wZZ — man.
t Accent and quantity respect the pronunciation of words ; emphasis
and pause the meaning of the sentence ; while tone refers to the feel-
ings of the speaker.
108 PROSODY.
it is called rhyme; but when this is not the case, it is called
blank verse.
Feet* are the parts into which a verse is divided, to see
whether it has its just number of syllables or not.
Scanning is the measuring or dividing of a verse f into the
several feet of which it is composed.
All feet consist either of two or three syllables, and are re-
ducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three,
as follow :
Dissyllables.
A trochee ; as, lovely. $
An Iambus ; became.
A spondee ; vain man.
A pyrrMc ; on a (bank).
Trisyllables.
A dactyle ; as, probably.
An amphibrach ; domestic.
An anapaest ; misimprove.
A tribrach; (com)fortably.
The feet in most common use are, Iambic, Trochaic, and
Anapaestic.
Iambic Measure.
Iambic measure is adapted to serious subjects, and comprises
verses of several kinds ; such as,
1. Of four syllables, or two feet; as,
With rav-ish'd ears
The M6n-arch hears.
It sometimes has an additional short syllable, making what is
called a double ending; as,
Upon-a moun-tam,
Beside-a foUn-tam.
* So called from the resemblance which the movement of the tongue
in reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in walking.
t A single line is called a verse. In rhyme, two lines are called a
couplet ; and three ending with the same sound, a triplet.
% The marks over the vowels show that a Trochee consists of a long
and a short syllable, and the Iambic of a short and a long, &c.
flST In scanning verses, every accented syllable is called a long syl-
lable ; even although the sound of the vowel in pronunciation be short.
Thus the first syllable in rav-ish'd is in scanning called a long syllable,
although the vowel a is short. By long then is meant an accented syl-
lable ; and by short, an unaccented syllable.
PROSODY. 169
2. Of three iambics, or six syllables; as,
Aloft - in aw-ful state,
The god-like he-r5 sat,
Our hearts - no long-er Ian — guish. An additional
syllable.
3. Of eight syllables, or four iambic feet; as,
And may - at last - my wea-ry age,
Find out - the peace-ful her-mltage.
4. Of ten syllables, or five feet ; called pentameter, heroic, or
tragic verses ; as,
The stars - shall fade - away, - the sun - himself
Grow dim - with age, - and na-ture sink - in years.
Sometimes the last line of a couplet is stretched out to twelve
syllables, or six feet, and then it is called an Alexandrine
verse; as,
For thee - the land - in fra-grant flow'rs - is drest';
For thee - the 6-cean smiles, - and smooths - her wa-vy
breast.
5. Of verses containing alternately four and three feet : this is
the measure commonly used in psalms and hymns ; as,
Let saints - below, - with sweet - accord,
Unite - with those - abSve,
In so - lemn lays, to praise - their king,
And sing - his dy-ing love.
Verses of this kind were anciently written in two lines, each
containing fourteen syllables.
Trochaic Measure.
This measure is quick and lively, and comprises verses,
1. Some of one trochee and a long syllable, and some of tico
trochees; as,
Tumult - cease, j On the - mountain,
Sink to - peace. By a - fountain.
K
170 PKOSODY.
2. Of two feet, or two trochees , with an additional long syl-
lable; as, *
In the -days of --old,
Stories - plainly - - told.
3. Of three trochees, or three and an additional long syllable ; as.
When our - hearts are - mourning,
L5vely - lasting - peace of - - mind,
Sweet de - light of - human - - kind.
4. Of four trochees, or eight syllables ; as,
Now the - dreadful - thunder's - roaring !
5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables; as,
On a - mountain, - stretch 'd be - neath a - hoary - willow,
Lay a - shepherd - swam, and - view'd the - roaring-billow,
Those trochaic measures that are very uncommon have been
omitted.
Anapaestic Measure.
1. Of two anapaests, or two and an unaccented syllable; as,
But his cour-age 'gan fail,
For no arts - could avail.
Or, Then his cour-age 'gan fail - - him,
For no arts - could avail - - him.
2. Of three anapaests, or nine syllables ; as,
0 ye woods - spread your branch-es apace,
To your deep-est recess-es I fly ;
1 would hide - with the beasts - of the chase,
I would van-ish from ev-ery eye.
Sometimes a syllable is retrenched from the first foot ; as
Ye shep-herds so cheer-ful and gay,
Whose flocks - never care-lessly roam.
PROSODY. 171
3. Of four anapaests, or twelve syllables; as,
'Tis the voice - of the slug-gard ; I hear - Mm complain.
You have wak'd - me too soon, - 1 must slum-ber again.
Sometimes an additional short syllable is found at the end; as,
On the warm - cheek of youth, - smiles and ros-es are blend-^.
The preceding are the different Idnds of the Principal* feet,
in their more simple forms ; but they are susceptible of numerous
variations, by mixing them with one another, and with the
Secondary feet . The following lines may serve as an example :—
Spon. Amph. &c. apply only to the first line.
Amph. Dact. lam.
Time shakes - the stable - tyranny - of thrones, &c.
Where is - to-morrow ? - in anoth-er world.
She all - night long - her am-orous des-cant sung.
Innu-merable - before - th' Almigh-ty's throne.
That on - weak wings - from far - pursues - your flight.
FIGUEES OF SPEECH.
A Figure of Speech is a mode of speaking, in which a
word or sentence is to be understood in a sense dif-
ferent from its most common and literal meaning.
The principal Figures of &peech are,
Personification,
Simile,
Metaphor,
Allegory,
Hy-per'bo-le,
Irony,
Metonymy,
Sy-nec'do-che,
Antithesis,
Climax,
Exclamation,
Interrogation,
Paralepsis,
Apostrophe.
* Iambus, trochee, and anapaest, may be denominated principal feet ;
because pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of ary of
them. The others may be termed secondary feet, because their chief
use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse.
17? FIGUEES OF SPEECH.
Prosopopoeia or Personification is that figure of
speech by which we attribute life and action to in-
animate objects ; as, The conscious Water saw its
Lord and blushed.
A Simile expresses the resemblance that one ob-
ject bears to another ; as, The sovereign like a pil-
lar supports the state.
A Metaphor is a simile without the sign (like or
as, &c.) of comparison; as, The sovereign is the
pillar of the state.
An Allegory is a continuation of several meta-
phors, so connected in sense as to form a kind of
parable or fable ; thus, the people of Israel are re-
presented under the image of a vine ; Thou hast
brought a vine out of Egypt, &c. Ps. Ixxx. 8 to 17.
An Hy-per-lo-le is a figure that represents things
as greater or less, better or worse, than they really
are ; as, thus we say of Saul and Jonathan, They were
swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions.
Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the
contrary of what we say ; as when we say, in a par-
ticular tone of voice, to a dishonest man, Yes, you
are a very honest man.
A Metonymy is a figure by which we put the
cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause ; as,
when we say, He reads Milton ; we mean Milton's
Works. Grey hairs should be respected, i. e. old
age.
Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole
or the whole for a part, a definite number for an
indefinite, &c., as, The waves for the sea, the head
for the person, and ten thousand for any great num-
ber. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy.
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 173
Antithesis or Contrast is a figure by which dif-
ferent or contrary objects are contrasted, to make
them show one another to advantage : thus, Some
go down to the grave with the workers of iniquity';
while others rise to heaven with the virtuous and the
good.
* Climax is the heightening of all the circum-
stances of an object or action, which we wish to
place in a strong light : as, To profess religion is
good, to feel the sentiment is better, but to practise it
in obedience to the divine command is the best of all.
Exclamation is a figure that is used to express
some strong emotion of the mind ; as, Oh the
tenderness of a virtuous mother's heart towards her
dying child ! — its father far away I
Interrogation is a figure by which we express
the emotion of our mind, and enliven our discourse
by proposing questions : thus, If you teach your son
submission, will he not yield you obedience? If you
teach him religion, will he not be pious f and if he be
truly pious, will he not be happy f
Paralepsis or omission is a figure by which the
speaker pretends to conceal what he is really de-
claring and strongly enforcing : as, Horatius was
once a very promising young gentleman ; but, in
process of time, he became so addicted to gaming,
not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery,
that he soon exhausted his estate and ruined his
constitution.
Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to
address some other person or thing : as, True Re-
ligion has fled the land, and Thou, Hypocrisy, usurp' st
her place.
* Climax, Amplification, Enumeration, or Gradation.
K 2
174
QUESTIONS.
Questions on the Text and Observations.
What is English Grammar?
Into how many parts is it divided ?
Pronouns.
What does Orthography teach ?
What is a pronoun ?
What is a letter, &c.?
Which is the pronoun in the sen-
Of what does Etymology treat?
How many parts of speech are
tence, He is a good boy ?
How many kinds of pronouns are
there?
there ?
Article.
Decline the personal pronoun /.
Decline thou backwards, &c.
What is an article ?
How many articles are there?
Relative Pronouns.
Where is an used ?
What is a relative pronoun ?
Which is the rel. in the example ?
Noun — Number.
Which is the antecedent?
Repeat the relative pronouns.
What is a noun ?
Decline who.
How are nouns varied ?
How is who applied ?
What is number?
To what is which applied ?
How many numbers have nouns ?
How is the plural generally formed?
How is that used ?
What sort of a relative is what f
How do nouns ending in s, sh, ch,
x, or o, form the plural ?
Adjective Pronouns.
How do nouns in y form the plural ?
How do nouns in / or fe form the
How many sorts of adjective pro-
nouns are there ?
plural ?
Repeat the possessive pronouns.
What is the plural of man, &c.
Repeat the distributive pronouns.
Repeat the demonstrative.
Gender.
Repeat the indefinite.
What is meant by gender?
How many genders are there ?
ON THE OBSERVATIONS.
What does the masculine denote ?
What does the feminine denote ?
Before which of the vowels is a used?
What is a called ?
What does the neuter denote ?
What is the feminine of bachelor,
What is Me called?
In what sense is a noun taken with-
&c.?
out an article to limit it ?
Case.
Is a used before nouns in both
W^hat is case ?
numbers?
How many cases have nouns ?
How is the used ?
Which two are alike?
vr
How i s the possessive sing, formed ?
How is the possessive plur. formed?
4.1 OUI1S.
How do nouns ending in ch, sound-
Decline the word lady.
ing k, form the plural ?
How do nouns in io, &c., form the
Adjective.
plural ?
How do nouns ending in ff form
What is an adjective?
the plural?
Uow many degrees of comparison
Repeat those nouns that do not
have adjectives?
change / or /e into ves in the plu.
How is the comparative formed ?
What do you mean by proper
How is the superlative formed?
nouns?
How are dissyllables in y com-
What are common nouns ?
pared.
What are collective nouns ?
Compare the adjective quod.
What do you call abstract nouns?
QUESTIONS.
175
Questions on the Text and Observations.
OBS. Continued.
What do you call verbal nouns ?
What nouns are generally singular?
Repeat some of those nouns that
are used only in the plural.
Repeat some of those nouns that
are alike in both numbers.
What is the singular of sheep ?
What gender is parent, &c. ?
Adjectives.
What does the positive express, &c. ?
How are adjectives of one syllable
generally compared ?
How are adjectives of more than
one syllable compared ?
How are dissyllables ending with
e final often compared ?
Is y always changed into i before
er and est 9
How are some adj ectives compared ?
Do all adjectives admit of compar-
ison?
How are much and many applied ?
When is the final consonant doubled
before adding er and est f
Relative Pronouns.
When are who, which, and what
called interrogativesf
Of what number and person is the
relative ?
Adjective Pronouns.
When are his and her possessive
pronouns ?
What may former and latter be
called ?
When is that a relative pronoun ?
When is that a demonstrative?
When is that a conjunction ?
How many cases have himself, her-
self; &c.?
Verb.
What is a verlf
How many kinds of verbs are there ?
What does a verb active express?
What does a verb passive express ?
What does a verb neuter express ?
Repeat the auxiliary verbs.
How is a verb declined f
How many moods have verbs ?
Adverb.
What is an adverb ?
Name the adverbs in the example.
What part of speech is the general-
ity of those words that end in ly.
What part of speech are the com-
pounds of where, there, &e. ?
Are adverbs ever compared?
When are more and most adjectives,
and when are they adverbs 9
Preposition.
What is a preposition f
How many begin with a f
Repeat them.
How many begin with b f
Repeat them, &c.
What case does a preposition re-
quire after it ?
When is before a preposition, and
when is it an adverb ?
Conjunction.
What is a conjunction ?
How many kinds of conjunctions
are there?
Repeat the copulative.
Repeat the disjunctive.
Interjection.
What is an interjection ?
Note.— As these are only the leading questions on the different parts of
speech, many more may be asked viva voce. Their distance from the
answers will oblige the pupil to attend to the connexion between every
question and its respective answer. The observations that have a
corresponding question are to be read, but not committed to memory.
176 FKKNCH PHRASES.
As the following loords and phrases, from the French and
Latin, frequently occur in English authors, an explanation of
them has been inserted here, for the convenience of those who are
unacquainted with these languages. Let none, however, imagine,
that by doing this I intend to encourage the use of them in Eng-
lish composition. On the contrary, I disapprove of it, and
aver, that to express an idea in a foreign language, which can
be expressed with equal perspicuity in our own, is not only
pedantic, but highly improper. Suck words and phrases, by
being frequently used, may, notwithstanding the uncouthness of
their sound and appearance, gradually incorporate with our
language, and ultimately diminish its original excellence, and
impair its native beauty.
A la bonne heure, a la bon oorv, lucMly ; in good time,
A la mode, a la modv, according to the fashion.
A propos, ap-pro-pov, to the purpose; opportunely.
Affaire de cceur, af-far' de koor', a love affair ; an amour.
Afin, a feng, to the end.
Aide-de-camp, *ad-de-kangv, an assistant to a general.
Au fond, o fongv, to the bottom, or main point.
Auto da fe, &-td da fa [Portuguese], burning of heretics.
Bagatelle, bag-a-tel', a trifle.
Beau monde, bo mongdv, the gay world, people of fashion.
Beaux esprits, boz es-pree, men of wit.
Billet-doux, bil-le-duv, a love-letter.
Bivouac, be-voo-akv, to watch, to continue all night under arms
without shelter.
Bon gre, mal gr£, bong gra, &c., with a good or ill grace;
whether the party will or not.
Bon jour, bong zhur, good-day ; good-morning.
Bon-mot, bong mo, apiece of wit, a jest.
Bon ton, bong tong, high fashion.
Boudoir, bu-dwarv, a small private apartment.
Carte blanche, kart blangshv, a blank ; unconditional terms.
Chateau, sha-tov, a country seat.
Short vowels are left unmarked; — ft is equal to u in rule; — a to a
in art ; oo, as used here, has no correspondent sound in English ; it is
equal to u, as pronounced by the common people in many counties of
Scotland, in the word gude ; a is equal to a in all.
* A is not exactly a long here; it is perhaps as near e in met as a in
make, but a will not be so readily mistaken. It is impossible to convey
the pronunciation accurately without the tongue.
FRENCH PHRASES. 177
Chef d'oeuvre, she dooVr, a masterpiece.
Ci-devant, se-de-vangv, formerly.
Comme il faut, com-il fo, as it should be. [of affection.
Con amore, con-a-movre (Italian], with love; with the partiality
Conge" d'e"lire, kong-zha de-leerv, leave to elect or choose.
Cortege, kor-tazhx, a train of attendants.
Coup de grace, ku-de grassv, a st roke of mercy ; the finishing stroke.
Coup d'ceil, ku-da-e, a peep ; a glance of the eye.
Coup de main, ku-de-mangv, a sudden or bold enterprise.
Debut, de-boov, first appearance in public.
De*pot, de-pox, a storehouse or magazine. .
Dernier ressort, dernx-ya-res-sorx, the last shift or resource.
Double entendre, dCibl ang-tang'dr, double meaning, one in an
Douceur, du-soorx, a present or bribe. [immodest sense.
Dieu et mon droit, dyooxe-mong-drwa, God and my right.
Eclat, e-kla^ splendour ; applause.
Eleve, e-laV, pupil.
En bon point, ang-bong-pwangx, in good condition ; jolly.
En masse, ang massx, in a body or mass.
En passant, ang-pas-sangx, by the way ; in passing ; by the by.
Ennui, eng-nuee, wearisomeness ; lassitude; tediousness.
Faux pas, fo-pa, a slip ; misconduct.
F6te, fat, a feast or entertainment.
Fracas, fra-caN, bustle ; a slight quarrel ; more ado about the
thing than it is worth.
Hauteur, ho-toorv, haughtiness. [him that evil thinks,
Honi soit qui mal y pense, ho-ne-swa'ke-mal e pangsv, evil be to
Je ne sais quoi, zhe ne sa kwa, / know not what.
Jeu de mots, zhoo de mov, a play upon words.
Jeu d'esprit, zhoo de-spree, a display of wit ; a witticism.
Mal-a-propos, mal ap-ro-p5\ unfit ; out of time or place.
Mauvaise honte, mo-vaz-hontv,/aZse modesty.
Mot du gue*t, m5 doo gas, a watchword.
Naivete*, na-iv-tav, ingenuousness, simplicity, innocence.
Outre", u-trav, eccentric; blustering ; wild; not gentle.
Petit maltre, pe-te mastr, a beau ; a fop.
Protege", pro-ta-zha\ a person patronized and protected.
Rouge, r^zh, red, or a kind of red paint for the face.
Sang froid, sang frwa, cold blood; indifference.
Sans, sang, without.
Savant, sa-vang, a wise or learned man.
Soi-disant, swa-de-zangv, self-styled; pretended.
Surveillance, sur-ve-iangsv, superintendence, keeping an eye upon.
178
LATIN PHRASES.
Tapis, ta-pee, the carpet.
Tete-a-tete, tat a tat, face to face, a private conversation.
Tout ensemble, tu-tang-sangbl, the whole together.
Trait, tra, feature, touch, arrow, shaft.
Un bel esprit, oong bel e-spree, a fine wit, a virtuoso.
Unique, oo-neek, singular, the only one of his Hand.
Valet-de-chambre, va-la de shangvbr, a valet or footman.
Vis-a-vis, ve-za-veex, over the way, opposite.
Vive le roi, veev le rwa, long live the king.
LATIN PHRASES.
The pronunciation has not been added to the Latin, because
every letter is sounded.
1. A long or short over a vowel denotes both the accented
syllable and the quantity of the vowel in English.
2. Ti, ci, or si, before a vowel sounds she.
3. Words of two syllables have the accent on ihe first.
A fortiori, with stronger reason,
much more.
A posteriori, from the effect, from
the latter, from behind.
A priori, from the former, from "be-
fore, from the nature or cause.
Ab inltio, from the beginning.
Ab urbe ctfndita, from the building
of the city; abridged thus, A.U.C.
Ad captandum vulgus, to ensnare
the vulgar.
Ad infimtum, to infinity, without end.
Ad libitum, at pleasure,
Ad referendum, for consideration.
Ad valorem, according to value.
Alias (a-le-as), otherwise.
Alibi (al-i-bi), elsewhere.
Alma mater, the university.
Anglice (ang-gli-cy), in English.
Anno DQmini, in the year of our
Lord.— A. D.
Anno Mundi, in the year of the
world. — A.M.
Arcanum, a secret.
Arcana imperii, state secrets.
Argumentum ad fidem, an appeal
to our faith.
Argumentum ad homlnem, an ap-
peal to the professed principles or
practices of the adversary.
Argumentum ad judicium, an ap-
peal to the common sense of mankind.
Argumentum ad passiones, an ap-
peal to the passions.
Argumentum ad populum, an ap-
peal to the people.
Audi aiteram partem, hear the other
party ; hear both sides.
Bona fide, in reality, in good faith.
Cacoethes scribendi, an itch for
writing.
Caput mSrtuum, the worthless re-
mains ; dead head.
Ceteris (se) paribus, other circum-
stances being equal.
Compos mentis, in one's senses.
Contra, against.
Cum privilegio, with privilege.
Data, things granted.
De facto, in fact, in reality.
De jure, in right, in law. \_God.
Dei Gratia, by the grace or favour of
Deo volente (D. V.), God willing.
Desideratum, something desirable,
or much wanted.
Desunt caetera, the rest is wanting.
DQmine dirige nos, 0 Lord direct us.
Dramatis personae, characters rep-
resented.
Durante placlto, during pleasure.
Durante vita, during life.
Ergo, therefore.
Errata, errors. — Erratum, an error.
Esto perpgtua, let it be perpetual.
Et caetera, and the rest; contr., &c.
Ex offlcio, officially, by virtue of
office.
Ex parte, on one side.
Ex tempore, without premeditation.
Excerpta, extracts.
Exempli gratia, as for example;
contracted, e. g.
LATIN PHRASES.
179
Fac simile, exactcopy or resemblance.
Fiat, let it be done or made.
Flagrante bello, during hostilities.
Gratis, for nothing.
Hora fugit, the hour or time flies.
Humanum est errare, to err is human.
Ibidem, in the same place; contr.,i&.
Id est, that is ; contracted, i. e.
Idem, the same. [tender.
Ignoramus, a vain uninformed pre-
Imprimis, in the first place.
In loco, tTi this place.
In propria persona,in his own person.
In statu quo, in the former state.
In terrorem, as a warning.
Ipse dixit, his sole ass&rtion.
Ipso facto, by the act itself.
Ipso jure, by the law itself.
Item, also or article.
Jure divino, by divine right.
Jure humano, by human law.
Jus gentium, the law of nations.
Labor Smnia vincit, labour over-
comes everything.
Lapsus linguae, a slip of the tongue.
LicSntia vatum, a poetical license.
Locum tenens, deputy, substitute.
Magna charta, the great charter; the
basis of our laws and liberties.
Memento mori, remember death.
Memorabilia, matters deserving of
record.
Meum et tuum, mine and thine.
Multum in parvo, much in little, a
great deal in few words.
Ne plus ultra, no farther, nothing
beyond.
Ne quid nimis, too much of one thing
is good for nothing.
Nem. con. (for nemine contradicen-
te\ none opposing.
Nem. dis. (for nemine dissentiente,}
none disagreeing.
Nemo me impune lacesset, no one
shall provoke me with impunity.
NisiDSminusfrustra, unless the Lord
be with us, all efforts are in vain.
Nolens volens, willing or unwilling.
Non compos mentis, not of a sound
mind. [of speaking.
Norma loqaendi, the rule or pattern
O tempora, O mores, 0 the times,
O the manners.
Omnes, all. [anything.
Onus probandi, the burden of proving
Ore tenus, from the mouth only.
Passim, everywhere.
Per diem, by the da.y.
Per se, by itself, alone.
Posse comitatus, the civil power of
the county.
Prima facia, at first view, or at first
sight.
Primum mSbile, the main spring.
Pro bono pilblico, for the good of the
public.
Pro et con, for and against.
Pro forma, for form's sake.
Pro loco et tempore, for the place
and time.
Pro re nata, as occasion serves.
Pro rege, lege, et grege, for the
king, the constitution, and the people.
Probatum est, it is tried or proved.
Quo Snimo, with what mind.
Quo jure, by what right
Quoad, as far as.
Quondam, formerly.
Regina, a queen.
Res pflblica, the commonwealth.
Resurgam, / shall rise again.
Rex, a king.
Senatus consul turn, a decree of the
Seriatim, in regular order, [senate.
Sine die, without specifying any par-
ticular day.
Sine qua non, an indispensable pre-
requisite or condition.
Statu quo, in the state in which it was.
Sub poena, under a penalty.
Sui generis, the only one of his kind,
singular.
Summum bonum, the chief good.
Supra, above.
Toties quoties, as often as.
Triajunctainuno, three joined in one.
Ultimus, the last (contracted ult.)
Una voce,with one voice,unanimously.
Uti possidetis, as ye possess, or pre-
sent possession. [ant.
Utile dulci, the useful with thepleas-
Vade mecum, go with me ; a book fit
for being a constant companion.
Vale, farewell.
Verbatim, word for word.
Versus, against.
Veto, I forbid.
Via, by the way of.
Vice, in the room of.
Vice versa, the reverse.
Vide, see (contracted into u.).
Vide ut supra, see as above.
Vis poetica, poetic genius.
Vivavoce,ora%; by wordof mouth.
Vivant rex et regina, long live the
king and the queen.
Vox p5puli, the voice of the people.
Vulgo, commonly.
INDEX TO THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
Nouns. page
Two or more nouns in the sing., 85
Two nouns disjoined, &c., ib.
Noun of multitude, - 89
One noun governs another, 88
Of a clause between them, 111
Several nouns in the possessive,*88
Singular nouns of diff. persons, 98
A singular and a plural noun, 99
A noun and its pron. improper, 100
Pronouns.
Pronouns agree in gender, &c., 95
Each, every, either, agree, &c., 108
That and this, former, latter* 109
Relative agrees with its antec., 96
Relative that and which* ib.
Relative preceded by two ante-
cedents of different persons, 97
Rel. should be placed next ant.,J ib.
Who after than* - - 107
When a pronoun refers to two
words of different persons^ 99
Of whichsoever, &c.,* - - 111
Verb.
A verb agrees with its nom., 82
An active verb governs, - 83
Neuter verbs do not gov. anob.,g ib.
Active verbs admit of no prep.,|j ib.
One verb governs another, 87
The infinitive is used as a nom., 101
Verbs related in point of time, 110
The verb to be has the same case, 90
Participle.
Participle used as a noun, 93
A possessive pronoun before the
present participle,! - ib.
A noun before the present par.,} ib.
Past Par. is used after have & be, 94
Adverbs. pag6
Of the position of adverbs, 104
Adjectives not used as adverbs, 105
Of hence, thence, there, &c.* ib.
Double comparatives improper, 102
Two negatives improper, - 103
The com. degree requires than, 106
Prepositions.
Prepositions govern objective, 84
sometimes a clause, IsS™ ib.
should be placed before
the relative,* ib.
Diff. preps, with the same noun,f ib.
To, at fin, before names of places, 112
Words requiring appropriate
prepositions, - - 113
Conjunctions.
Conjunctions couple like moods, 86
require subjunctive mood, 91
Lest and that* ib.
If, with but following,! - ib.
Conjunctions in pairs, - 92
than and as, - 107
Various Things.
Interjections,^ - - 112
General'Rule, 116
Use of the articles, - - 117
Ellipsis is frequently admitted, 118
improper, - - 119
Construction, ... 120
Promiscuous exer. on Syntax, 121
Miscellaneous observations, 143
When to use capitals, - 155
Prosody, - - - 167
Of Versification, - - ib.
Figures of Speech, - - 171
Questions on Etymology, 174
French and Latin Phrases. 176
APPENDIX.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
ANALYSIS treats of the division of SENTENCES
into their MEMBERS, and of the KELATIONS which
these members bear to one another.
A Sentence is a combination of words making
at least one complete assertion.
A sentence which makes only one complete
assertion is called a Simple* sentence; as, All
flesh is grass. Nothing COULD STOP that astonish-
ing infantry.
A sentence which makes two or more com-
plete assertions is called a Compound sentence ;
as, He CHID their wanderings, but he EELIEV.ED
their pain.
A Member of a sentence is a word, or a group •{•
of words, expressing a single idea ; as, The
* It has already been observed (p. 81) that a simple sentence contains
only one finite verb— that is, only one verb having number and person.
t Herein lies the difference between analysis and parsing. Parsing
deals with each word in a sentence separately, specifying its number,
person, gender, tense, mood, -voice, &c. Analysis regards a group of
words as a separate member when they express a single idea,
L
182 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES.
end | of the pole
the head. \ He
his words. I
struck | George \ smartly \ on
that hath knowledge \ spareth
Each member of a sentence may be a word, a
phrase, or a clause.
A Phrase is a group of words expressing a
single idea, but not containing a finite verb; as,
On the return \ of spring. The ice having been *
weak. To have been published.
A Clause is a member of a sentence which
contains a finite verb within itself; as, When
spring RETURNS. As the ice WAS weak. That it
HAS BEEN PUBLISHED.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Every Simple sentence may be divided into
two parts, — the Subject and the Predicate.
The Predicate is that part of the sentence
which asserts something ; the Subject names the
person or thing about which the assertion is
made.
The part of speech which asserts is the verb;
therefore every predicate must contain a verb.
The part of speech which names things is the
noun; therefore every subject must contain a
noun, or some word equivalent to a noun.
In proceeding to analyze a sentence, first find
the verb: the verb and its adjuncts, or depen-
* Participles and infinitives are not finite verbs, as they have not
pensou or number. They cannot therefore make assertions.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 183
dent words, form the predicate: secondly, turn
the predicate into a question beginning with
who? or what? The answer will be the subject :
e.g., Lord William sat at his castle gate. Here,
sat is the verb ; therefore the predicate is sat at
his castle gate. This, in the form of a question,
is, Who sat at his castle gate? The answer is,
Lord William; and that is the subject. The
following examples show this general kind of
analysis : —
Subject. Predicate.
Kings
British soldiers
The Duke of Wellington
[You]*
There f
reign.
are very hardy.
gained many victories.
return quickly.
is a tide in the affairs of men.
EXERCISES.
Divide into Subject and Predicate. J
Boats sail. The wind blows. The mother
was very tired. The good doctor has visited
him frequently. 'The wife of our clergyman is
dead. Walking is a healthy exercise. Never
despair. To err is human. For many an hour
the anxious mother watched her child. Hope
deferred maketh the heart sick. Never was
* When the verb is in the imperative mood, the subject is usually
omitted. In analyzing such sentences, the subject must be supplied.
+ The true subject in this sentence is " a tide in the affairs of men."
There is a pronoun standing in place of the true subject. Nevertheless
such sentences had better be analyzed as above.
J Observe that the subject does not always stand first in the sentence,
and that the words of the predicate do not always stand together
184 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
assistance more necessary. A wounded spirit
who can bear ? Down came the blow. The
steed along the drawbridge flies. Miserable
comforters are ye all. How forcible are right
words! The aged minstrel audience gained.
Absence of occupation is not rest. Superfluous
lags the veteran on the stage. To be of no
church is dangerous. Necessity is the argument
of tyrants. The trappings of a monarchy would
set up an ordinary coirgnonwealth. The poorest
man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the
force of the crown. Judge not according to the
appearance. A borrower is servant to the lender.
Drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags.
THE PARTS OF THE SUBJECT.
The Subject may be subdivided into the
Nominative to the verb, and qualifying or de-
pendent w^ords called Attributes.
THE NOMINATIVE.
The Nominative is generally a Noun or Pro-
noun; but it may be any word or phrase equi- .
valent to a noun. The following are examples
of the different forms of the Nominative : —
A Noun ; as, The new master has arrived.
A Pronoun ; as, He is a very pleasant man.
An Adjective used as a Noun ; as, The rich
should care for the poor.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 185
A Participle ;* as, The preparing of the neces-
sary materials requires time.
An Infinitive Phrase;-^ as, To drink poison
is death.
THE ATTRIBUTE.
The Attribute, when it consists of a single
word, is generally an Adjective; but it may
consist of any qualifying word or phrase. The
following are its different forms : —
An Adjective; as, TheJ humble boon was
soon obtained.
A Participle; as, Rolling stones gather no
moss.
A Noun in Apposition ;§ as, "William the
Conqueror died in France.
A Possessive Case ; as, Henry's promises were
always kept. Her tears flowed fast.
A Prepositional Phrase; as, The quality of
mercy is not strained. The spots on the sun are
said to vary from year to year.
Several attributes || may qualify the same
noun ; as, The valiant Edward, the Black Prince,
son of Edward III., died a year before his
father.
* See p. 93, Rule XII.
t See p. 66, and p. 101, Rule XX.
\ As the article is inseparable from the noun to which it is attached,,
it is not considered an attribute.
% Nouns or pronouns signifying the same thing, and agreeing in
case, are said to be in apposition. See p. 88, Rule VII. part 2.
|| In analyzing, the different attributes to the same noun should be
numbered separately ; 1, 2, 3, &c.
186 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
EXERCISES.
Divide into Nominative, Attribute, and
Predicate*
Honest men make many friends. The pic-
tures in this book are very beautiful. His
brother deceived him. Cowper the poet died in
1800. Heaps of wounded and slain dotted the
side of the hill. King Charles the First was an
unfortunate monarch. The arrival of the doctor
put an end to our suspense. The shepherd's
dog caught a hare. The best reward of the
virtuous man is the approval of his conscience.
A forgiving spirit is better than riches. Eichard
Crookback was a cruel king. The parting gleam
of sunshine kissed that haughty scroll of gold.
A foreign nation is a contemporaneous posterity.
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.
The sentinel on Whitehall gate looked forth
into the night. Burned Marmion's swarthy
cheek like fire. The paths of glory lead but to
the grave.
Many a shaft, at random sent,
Finds mark the archer never meant.
Affliction's sons are brothers in distress. This
goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile
promontory.
THE PARTS OF THE PREDICATE.
The Predicate may be subdivided into the
finite Verb, its Complements, and its Adverb ials.
* Example: A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. Nominative, a thing;
attribute, of beauty; predicate, is a joy for ever.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 18?
THE VERB.
A Finite Verb is a verb which has person,
number, and tense ; or which has a nominative.
It is therefore any part of the verb (pp. 34-40)
except the Infinitive and the Participles.
THE COMPLEMENT.
The Complement is any word or phrase de-
pending upon a verb that does not of itself
make complete sense : e.g.,
The Objective * case after an active verb ; as,
The keeper shot a hare.
The Infinitive -f* mood governed by another
verb ; as, He promised to forgive me.
The Word or Phrase J following the verbs to
be and to become; as, Milton was a poet. Philip
became haughty. His drawings were amongst
the lest.
The Nominative Case after a passive verb of
naming ; § as, The new scholar is called David.
Some verbs are followed by more than one
complement of different kinds; as, His father
taught (1) him (2) reading. The emperor made
(1) his son (2) a general. The judge ordered
(1) him (2) to ~be imprisoned.
In the passive voice of these verbs, the first
complement is made the nominative, and the
second remains as the complement ; as, He was
taught reading by his father. The emperor's
* See p. 83, Rule II. t See p. 87, Rule VI.
J See p. 72, and p. 90, Rule IX. % See p. 90, foot-note, par. 4.
188 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
son was made a general. He was ordered to le
imprisoned.
The Complement, like the Nominative, may
be accompanied by attributive words or phrases;*
as, The midnight brought the signal sound of
strife.
EXERCISES.
On the Complement.^
Shakespeare is our greatest dramatist. The
tenant was ordered to leave the farm. William
conquered Harold. The hawk pursued a spar-
row. Gentleness overcomes many foes. The
Home Secretary made his friend a bishop.
Procrastination is the thief of time. The Irish
guns continued to roar all night. I make the
netted sunbeams dance. The prisoner was de-
clared to be guilty. Pope wrote the Essay on
Man. Elizabeth was resolute and self-willed.
George, the Elector of Hanover, became King
of England. Young men think old men fools.
Virtue is its own reward. The meeting was
thought ominous by the people. Henry was
violent in temper. Beauty soon grows familiar
to the lover. Care keeps his watch in every
old man's eye. She never told her love. Such
joy ambition finds. Let this great maxim be
* In analyzing, each attribute of the Complement should be enclosed
In brackets.
t Examples: Milton was a great poet; Complement, a (great) poet.
The general commanded the infantry to advance ; Complements, (1) the
infantry, (2) to advance.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 189
my virtue's guide. One touch of nature makes
the whole world kin. Her form had yet not
lost all its original brightness. His third son
was named Edmund Burke, after the great
orator. He is often asked his name. He was
condemned to die. We were taught history by
the clergyman. The blow blunted the keen
edge of his sword. Marlborough was next
created a Duke. The father has given his son
a handsome volume. He has never sent me
his address. The general immediately gave
the signal to advance.
THE ADVERBIAL.
The Adverbial is any word or phrase added
to the verb in order to modify its meaning, or
specify some circumstance about it.
Adverbials are classified as follows, according
to the ideas they express, viz. : —
Adverbials of Time; soon, thrice, im-
mediately, in a few minutes, for a month, the
signal being given; &s,Tlie signal leing given*
we began the attack ; i.e., we began the attack
when the signal was given.
Adverbials of Place; here, hence, thither,
on the ground, to Egypt ; as, The expedition
has gone to Egypt.
* This is called an Absolute Phrase, corresponding with the Ablative
Absolute in Latin Syntax. The noun signal is said to be in the Nomi-
native Caee Absolute. The Absolute Phrase also expresses cause, con-
dition, &c.
L2
190 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Adverbials of Manner; thus, well, by acci-
dent, with his face to the foe; as, He was
found with his face to the foe.
Adverbials of Degree; much, not, so, as,
but (only), in a great measure, not at all ; as,
I blame him in a great measure for the acci-
dent.
Adverbials of Cause;* therefore, for that
reason, to read the newspapers, of the plague ;
as, Hundreds died of the plague every day.
Adverbials of Effect; to distraction, in ruin,
to prove him innocent ; as, All this goes to
prove him innocent. This will end in ruin.
Adverbials of Condition;"^ with persever-
ance, time permitting ; as, Time permitting, \
I shall explain the matter ; i.e., ^/tirne permits.
Adverbials of Concession ; § nevertheless,
notwithstanding his failure ; as, he persevered,
notwithstanding his failure; i.e., though he had
failed.
An Adverbial may be attached to an adjec-
tive or to an adverb, as well as to a vert ; as, He
returned much more quickly than he went. A
* Purpose is included in this class. When I say, " He goes there to
read the newspapers" the purpose of his going is the cause why he goes.
f In an Adverbial of Condition, something is supposed as the reason
of something else following; as, With perseverance he will succeed; i.e.,
if he perseveres, he will succeed.
J An Absolute Phrase. See p. 189, note.
g In an Adverbial of Concession, something is granted as the reason
why something else should not follow ; as, In spite of his efforts he
failed, i.e., it is granted that he made efforts, but, contrary to our expecta-
tions, he failed.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 191
general victorious ~by accident deserves little
credit. But the Adverbial of the sentence in
analysis belongs only to the verb of the predi-
cate.
EXERCISES.
On the Adverbial*
The captain has gone to Eome. The doctor
has called thrice at the hotel. Both brothers
died of fever. She loved him to distraction.
He will undoubtedly succeed. The explanation
in no respect satisfies us. With care he may
recover his position. He nevertheless behaved
like a coward. Ships of war are made of iron,
to resist cannon-balls. The answer being un-
favourable, the attack on the forts was recom-
menced. The station was decorated with ban-
ners and evergreens. Slowly and sadly we laid
him down. The bonfires shone bright along the
whole circuit of the ramparts. Notwithstanding
the efforts of the crew, the cargo was entirely
lost, I have often left my childish sports to
ramble in this place. Weather permitting, we
shall go to the country on Thursday. The
captain altogether misunderstood the orders of
his superior. In spite of repeated warnings, he
persisted in incurring the danger. I come to
bury Caesar, not to praise him. Cowards die
many times before their deaths.
. -
A'.<: ?""' a* Tir •
* Example: He arrived in London at four o'clock. Adverbials, (1) in
London (place), (2) at four o'clock (time).
192
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
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PREDICA
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Noun (with
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Pronoun.
Adjective.
Infinitive.
Phrase.
o
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THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 193
KINDS OF PHRASES.
A phrase in the Attribute is called an Adjec-
tive or Attributive Phrase; a phrase in the Nom-
inative or Complement is called a Noun Phrase;
a phrase in the Adverbial is called an Adverbial
Phrase.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. Old men often make mistakes.
2. The thundering roar of the lion only increased
the confusion.
3. I therefore asked him the circumstances of his
deception.
4. Let me no longer waste the night on the page
of antiquity.
5. Meantime Nelson received a severe wound in
the head.
6. The service past, around the pious man,
With ready zeal each honest rustic ran.
FIRST STEP.
Subject.
1. Old men
2. The thundering roar
of the lion
3. I
4. [Thou]
5. Nelson
6. Each honest rustic
Predicate.
oflen make mistakes,
only increased the confusion.
therefore asked him the circum-
stances of his deception.
let me no longer waste the night
on the page of antiquity.
meantime received a severe wound
in the head.
ran around the pious man, with
ready zeal, the service past.
194
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
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THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 195
EXERCISES.
Simple Sentences for Analysis.
It is a splendid picture. You are certainly
mistaken. Now, every considerable town has
its daily newspaper. Many years have passed
since his death. Nothing can exceed his kind-
ness. There were several literary men there.
Observe the moon to-night. We shall proceed
no further in this business. At length the
caliph approached him reverently. On my
birthday, my brother sent me a delightful book.
You wronged yourself to write in such a case.
I was touched with a secret joy at the sight of
the good old man. Their ammunition being
exhausted, the garrison surrendered. My friend
Sir Koger, being a good churchman, has beauti-
fied the inside of his church with several texts
of his own choosing. The French admiral had
moored his fleet in Aboukir Bay. Put the
Word of God into the hands of my son. His
noble conduct well deserved honourable reward.
A man's first care should be to avoid the re-
proaches of his own heart. Things remaining
thus, the secretary's character will suffer greatly.
The first two ships of the French line were dis-
masted in a quarter of an hour.
With taper light
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish,
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.
Notwithstanding the most heroic efforts, the
hopes of the French visibly declined from day
to day. Now for the first time, I observed,
196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
walking close to the feet of his horse, a little
boy about ten years of age.
Meanwhile, our primitive great sire to meet,
His godlike guest walks forth.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
When any member of a simple sentence —
that is, of a sentence containing only one inde-
pendent assertion — is in the form of a clause,
the sentence is called Complex; as, A man who
is learned * is respected.
In a Complex Sentence, there are at least two
finite verbs, and therefore at least two clauses.
The clause containing the leading assertion is
called the Principal Clause; as, A (certain)
m-an is respected. The clauses containing ex-
planatory assertions are called Subordinate
Clauses; as, Who is learned, &c.
A Principal clause may stand by itself and
•make complete sense ; as, A man is respected :
a Subordinate clause cannot make complete
sense by itself; as, Who is learned.
A Subordinate clause may further be known
by this, — that it is always introduced by a
relative pronoun, or by a conjunction, which
marks its dependence on some part of the prin-
cipal clause ; as, He is ill because he is unhappy.
We started as the clock struck. The book
* A man who is learned, is the same as a man of learning or a learned
man. The sentence is therefore simple and not compound, inasmuch as
it contains only one complete assertion ; but since it contains an Attri-
bute in the form of a clause, it is called complex.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 197
which you gave me is lost. The mother cried
tiiat her child was drowning.
In Analysis, the words used to introduce
clauses, or to join them together, are called
Connectives.
Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds, corre-
sponding with the three kinds of phrases men-
tioned above (p. 193), viz.: — Adjective Clauses,
which qualify nouns or describe things ; Noun
Clauses, which stand for nouns or name things ;
and Adverbial Clauses, which modify verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs.
THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
Any clause which describes a thing, or which
is attached to a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec-
tive Clause; as, The house that Jack built. The
place where I was born. He whom ye seek.
The Adjective clause is generally introduced
by a relative pronoun, the antecedent of which
is the word qualified by the clause. Even when
such words as when, where, why, &c., are used
to introduce clauses, each of them may be re-
solved into a preposition and a relative — in
which, at which, for which, &c.; as, The place
where (in which) I was born.
A Compound Relative * introducing an adjec-
tive clause, must be resolved into a demonstra-
tive and a relative ; as, Show me what you have
found, i.e., show me that, which you have found.
* See p. 18 ; also pp. 69, 70 ; and K. p. 43.
198 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Whoever said so spoke falsely, i.e., Any one
spoke falsely, who said so.
When this separation is made, the demon-
strative forms part of the principal clause, and
the relative belongs to the subordinate clause.
When the antecedent is omitted,* it must be
supplied before the sentence is analyzed; as,
Who steals my purse steals tretsh, i.e., He steals
trash, who steals my purse.
When the relative is in the objective case, it
is often omitted ; * as/ It is not easy to love
those (whom) we do not esteem.
Sometimes a relative in the nominative case
is omitted, when its antecedent immediately
precedes the subordinate verb ; as, I have a
brother (who) is condemned to die.
After negatives, the adjective clause is fre-
quently introduced by but, meaning which not or
that not ; as, There is not one of his works but
shows marks of care and study ; i.e., which does
not show marks of care and study.
The Adjective clause may be attached to a
noun or pronoun in any part of the sentence ;
e.g. :—
In the Nominative; as, He whom ye seek is
not here.
In the Attribute; as, The spire of the church
which we attend was struck by lightning.
* See p. 77 ; and K. p. 83, q.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 199
In the Complement; as, I have twice read the
book ivhich you lent me.
In the Adverbial ; as, He died in the house
which was given him by the queen.
EXERCISES.
On Adjective Clauses.*
The man who painted that picture is dead.
I often think of the night which I spent with
you. What you report may be quite true. He
who tells a lie knows not what a task he under-
takes. I have lately visited the place where I
spent the happy years of my boyhood. I am
monarch of all I survey. Who was the thane
lives yet. The treaty of Westphalia, which
terminated the Thirty Years' War, was con-
cluded in 1648. I saw two gentlemen by me,
who were in the same ridiculous circumstances.
A shower then overtook us, which compelled
us to seek shelter.
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero we buried.
I may do that I shall be sorry for. Strive to
do only that is right. It seemed as if the Eng-
lish people had, in this brief period, utterly
forgotten the mighty princess whose reign had
been so glorious, and over whose bier they had
so lately mourned.
The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch the sick,
Whom snoring she disturbs.
* Example: I have just seen the lady who wrote that letter. Adjec-
tive clause, who wrote that letter, describing lady.
200 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
I have often wandered in fields which are now
covered with houses. The frame of the picture
that you gave me is beautif ally carved. There
is no one but believes in his honesty. Nothing
which I could do would repay you for the
kindness with which you have treated me, ever
since the day when we first became friends.
There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended,
But has one vacant chair.
THE NOUN CLAUSE.
Any clause which names a thing, or which
occupies the place of a noun in any part of the
sentence, is a Noun Clause; as, I believe that
he has deceived me. That you have wronged me
is quite evident.*
The Noun clause is generally introduced by
the conjunction that ;-(• but the conjunction is
often omitted ; as, It is said (that} he has failed.
When two or more Noun clauses are stated
alternatively, the first is introduced by whether,
the others by or ; as, I cannot discover whether
the letter was composed by himself, or was
written by him to his father's dictation.
Sometimes only one alternative is stated, the
other being implied. In this case the Noun
clause is introduced by the conjunctions whether
* The test of the noun clause is that the word "something" may
always be put in its place ; e.g., I believe something— namely, that he has
deceived me. Something is quite evident — namely, that you have
wronged me.
t This conjunction is really the demonstrative pronoun, used to point
out the clause following it.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 201
and if; as, It is uncertain whether he is ready
(or not). Ask him if he will help you.
A quotation is generally a Noun clause,
governed by such words as he said, the author
thinks, it is a well-known saying; as, Burke
says, that " early and provident fear is the
mother of safety."
When the Noun clause expresses an opinion,
or states a fact, the principal clause may be
in the form of a parenthesis ; as, Every one
(I think) will acknowledge the importance of
classical learning; i.e., I think that every one
will acknowledge the importance of classical
learning.
The Noun clause is frequently in apposition
to the pronoun it ; as, Elizabeth, it is true, often
spoke curtly to her parliaments ; i.e., It (namely,
that Elizabeth often spoke curtly to her parlia-
ments) is true.
EXERCISES.
On Noun Clauses*
We believe that he is honest. That he is
brave is unquestionable. I have been told
he is a great gambler. I doubt whether he
speaks the truth. That thou art happy owe to
God. I'll warrant we'll never see him sell his
hen on a rainy day. He could not be brought
to believe that his sister was dead. They say
there is divinity in odd numbers. I would that
* Example: They say that he has lost his manuscript. Noun clause,
that he has lost his manuscript, objective case, governed by say.
202 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
I were low laid in my grave. Ask him whether
he is ready.
Yet some maintain that to this day
She is a living child.
I would the gods had made thee poetical. I
have often thought, says Sir Roger, it happens
very well that Christmas should fall out in the
middle of winter. No observation is more com-
mon, and at the same time more true, than that
one half of the world are ignorant how the
other half lives. These, I found, were all of
them politicians. Milton says beautifully that
truth is as impossible to be soiled by any out-
ward touch as the sunbeam. Ask him if he is
aware of your success.
Whether he was combined
With those of Norway, or did line the rebel
With hidden help and vantage, or that with both
He laboured in his country's wrack, — T know not.
Every one, I think, will acknowledge the justice
ef the verdict. Reading, says Bacon, maketh
a full man, conference a ready man, and writing
an exact man.
But, that thou shouldst my firmness therefore doubt
To God or thee, because we have a foe
May tempt it, I expected not to hear.
THE ADVEKBIAL CLAUSE.
Any clause which occupies the place of an
adverb, or which modifies a verb, an adjective,
or an adverb, is an Adverbial Clause; as, He
came when he was called. He goes as often as
he can. I shall do it if I am asked.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 203
The nature of Adverbial clauses is indicated
by the conjunctions which introduce them.
Their classification corresponds exactly with
that of adverbial words and phrases given
above (p. 189). It is as follows: —
Clauses of Time, introduced by the con-
nectives when, while, whenever, since, before,
after, until, &c.; as, The letter arrived while
he was there.
Clauses of Place, introduced by the con-
nectives where, whither, whence, wherein, wher-
ever, &c. ; as, He goes wherever he pleases. He
remained until I arrived.
Clauses of Manner, introduced by the con-
nectives as, as if; as, He speaks as he thinks.
He acts as if he were innocent*
Clauses of Degree, introduced by the con-
nectives (so) as, (more) than, &c. ; as, William
is not so clever as his brother [is clever]. Wil-
liam is cleverer than his brother [is clever}.^
Clauses of Cause, introduced by the con-
nectives because, for, since, as> why, (in order)
that, $ but ; as, He went because he was tol$.
Strive, that you may succeed. Take heed lest
ye fall.
* As if is elliptical. The full sentence would be, He acts as he zoauld
act, 7/he were innocent. The true clause of manner is as he would act.
The subsequent clause, if he were innocent, is a clause of condition depen-
dent on " as he would act."
| In each of these examples, the connective is preceded by a corre-
lative or corresponding word : in the one case the adverb so ; in the
other, the comparative cleverer. In both examples the degree of William's
cleverness is measured by comparison with that of his brother. In the
first case the degree is that of equality, in the second of inequality.
J (In order) that and lest express purpose, which in the case of clauses,
as of phrases, is included under cause. See p. 190. note *.
204 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Glauses of Effect, introduced by the con-
nective (so) that; as, He speaks so low that
we cannot hear him.
Clauses of Condition, introduced by the
connectives if, unless; as, If I were invited, I
should go. Unless I am invited, I shall not go.
Clauses of Concession, introduced by the
connectives though, although; as, Though he
slay me, yet will I trust in him.
EXERCISES.
On Adverbial Clauses.*
He acted as he was told. He started when
he heard the news. Let it lie where it has
fallen. If you persevere, you are sure to suc-
ceed. We are often so tempted that resistance
seems impossible. He will remain where he is
until he is sent for. Since you are wrong, you
must have made some mistake. Although he
was poor, he was always contented. Unless
you are quiet you will hear nothing. He did
not go, as he was told to remain at home. The
noise pursues me wheresoe'er I go. When I
am in a serious humour, I very often walk by
myself in Westminster Abbey. You have more
circumspection than is wanted. Although we
seldom followed advice, we were all ready
enough to ask it. He speaks to me as if he
were my master. The climate of England is
,- / , —
* Example: I cannot write to my cousin, as I have lost his address
Adverbial clause, as I have lost his address, expressing cause.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 205
not so mild as that of France. He passed me
so quickly that I did not recognise him. If
you have tears, prepare to shed them now. As
my heart was entirely subdued by the captivat-
ing strains I had heard, I fell down at his feet.
Eternal smiles his emptiness betray,
As shallow streams run dimpling all the way.
I will roar that I will do any man's heart good
to hear me.
Had I your tongues and eyes, I'd use them so
That heaven's vault should crack.
Wherever they marched, their route was marked
with blood. If there be anything that makes
human nature appear ridiculous to men of
superior faculties, it must be pride. The rest
were long to tell, though far renowned. As soon
as the sun arose, all their boats were manned
and armed.
When here, but three days since, I came,
Bewildered in pursuit of game,
All seemed as peaceful and as still
As the mist slumbering on yon hill.
There are three methods of analyzing complex
sentences: — (1.) They may simply be divided
into clauses, the nature of each clause being
specified ; (2.) They may be analyzed in exactly
the same way as simple sentences, only the
principal clause being divided into its members ;
(3.) All the clauses, subordinate as well as prin-
cipal, may be divided into their members.
206 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
Before analyzing any complex sentence, con-
tractions must be expanded, and ellipses supplied ;
as, A man who is mean, or cowardly, or indolent,
will not do for the post; i.e., A man who is
mean, or [who is] cowardly, or [who is] indolent,
&c. What cannot be cured, must be endured ;
i.e.. That (which cannot be cured) must be en-
dured. "Who live to nature rarely can be
poor ; i.e., Those (who live to nature) rarely can
be poor.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. He is well paid that is well satisfied.
2. That thou art happy, owe to God.
3. At about half a mile's distance from our cabin,
we heard the groanings of a bear, which at first
startled us.
4. When Henry the Fifth came within sight of
that prodigious army which offered him battle at
Agincourt, he ordered all his cavalry to dismount.
5. In truth there is no sadder spot on the earth
than that little cemetery.
6. You have done that you should be sorry for.
FIRST, OR SIMPLEST, METHOD.
1. A.* He is well paid
a. That is well satisfied. (Adjective to " He.")
* An easy and convenient method of indicating the relations of the
clauses to one another, is to mark each principal clause by a capital
letter, as A, and each subordinate clause by a corresponding small
letter, as a. This simple notation is borrowed from Mr Dalgloieh's
" Grammatical Analysis."
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 207
2. A. Owe [thou] to God
a. That thou art happy. (Noun, comp. to
" owe.")
3. A. At about half a mile's distance from our
cabin, we heard the groanings of a bear,
a. Which at first startled us. (Adj. to " groan-
ings.")
4. A. He ordered all his cavalry to dismount,
a. When Henry the Fifth came within sight of
that prodigious army, (Adverbial of time
to " ordered.")
a. Which offered him battle at Agincourt. (Adj.
to "army.")
5. A. In truth there is no sadder spot on the earth
a. Than that little cemetery [is sad]. (Adv. of
degree to " sadder.")
6. A. You have done that
a. For [whicK] you should be sorry. (Adj. to
"that.")
Note.— The Second and Third Methods of Ana-
lysis are given in the following pages. It will be
observed in these tables that every principal verb is
printed in SMALL CAPITALS, and every subordinate
verb in italics.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
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THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
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210 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
EXERCISES.
Complex Sentences for Analysis.
The prisoner declared that he was innocent.
He that runs may read them. When the prin-
cess arrived, she received a splendid bouquet.
Though he is above seventy, he is an active
man of business. Unless he perseveres he will
never succeed. He sat for several hours motion-
less where the rivers meet. The citadel where
he shut himself up after his defeat was stormed
in the following week. Their diadems were
crowns of glory which should never fade away.
Those had little reason to laugh who encoun-
tered them in the field of battle. Such was the
dust with which the dust of Monmouth mingled.
Nothing is so dangerous as pride. One of the
company told me that it would play there
above a week longer if the thaw continued.
Mercy becomes the throned monarch better
than his crown. Whatever is, is right. Fools
rush in where angels fear to tread. Such treat-
ment I did not expect, for I never had a patron
before. Those who are rich are not always so
happy as their poorer neighbours. If it had not
been that I had tested his fidelity before, I could
not have believed him. My valet, who was an
Irishman, fell into so great a rage at what he
had heard, that he drew his sword. When I
compare the figure which the Dutch make in
Europe with that they assume in Asia, I am
struck with surprise.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 211
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
A Compound Sentence is a sentence that eon-
tains two or more complete assertions, or prin-
cipal clauses ; as, The father makes money, and
the son spends it. I hate innovation, but I love
improvement.
The several principal clauses in a compound
sentence are said to be co-ordinate with one
another, because they are independent of one
another, and each of them makes complete
sense by itself.
Any principal clause in a compound sen-
tence may have subordinate clauses attached to
it; as, The father, who is industrious, makes
money ; and the son, who is extravagant, spends
it as fast as he can.
CONTRACTED SENTENCES.
When a member common to two or more
clauses is expressed only once, the sentence is
said to be contracted: as, Its motion is circular,
not progressive ; i.e., Its motion is circular, [its
notion is] not progressive. Death had lost its
terrors, and pleasure its charms; i.e., Death had
lost its terrors, and pleasure [had lost] its
charms.
The principal members of compound sen-
tences are connected by the conjunctions and,
either — or, neither — nor, and but. Sometimes
the conjunction is omitted ; as, The wind roared,
the rain came down in torrents; it was a ter-
rible night.
212 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
There are three methods of analyzing com-
pound sentences. — (1.) They may simply be
divided into clauses ; (2.) Each leading member
may be analyzed in the same way as simple
sentences, only the principal clauses being di-
vided into their members ; (3.) All the clauses,
subordinate as well as principal, may be divided
into their members.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. We said that the history of England is the
history of progress ; and when we take a comprehen-
sive view of it, it is so.
2. At church, with meek and unaffected grace,
His looks adorned the venerable place ;
Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway,
And fools who came to scoff, remained to pray.
FIRST, OR SIMPLEST, METHOD.
1. A. We said
a. That the history of England is the history of
progress ;
B.* And it is so,
b. When we take a comprehensive view of it.
2. A. At church, with meek and unaffected grace,
his looks adorned the venerable place ;
B. Truth from his lips prevailed with double
sway,
C. And fools remained to pray
c. Who came to scoff.
* Applying the notation already explained (p. 206, note) to com-
pound sentences, we mark each principal clause with a different capital
letter, A, B, C, &c.; the clauses subordinate to clause A are marked
a; those subordinate to clause B are marked b, and so on.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
213
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ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
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THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 215
EXERCISES.
Compound Sentences for Analysis.
The general had three daughters, and he left
each of them a fortune. He had many relatives,
but he died without a friend. I could make
nothing of it, and therefore asked in what
language it was written. When Sir Roger sees
any one sleeping in church, he either wakes
them himself, or sends his servant to them.
Charles had two brothers; the one became a
bishop, and the other, who had entered the
navy, was drowned in the Mediterranean. Henry
the Fifth manifestly derived his courage from
his piety, and was scrupulously careful not to
ascribe the success of it to himself. Impudence
is a vice, and absurdity a folly. The impudent
are pressing, though they know they are dis-
agreeable ; the absurd are importunate, because
they think they are acceptable. A long series
of ancestors shows the native, with great ad-
vantage at the first ; but, if he any way degen-
erate from that, the least spot is visible on
ermine. Almost every man's thoughts, while
they are general, are right ; and most hearts are
pure while temptation is away. It is one thing
to write because there is something which the
mind wishes to discharge ; and another thing to
solicit the imagination, because ceremony or
vanity requires something to be written.
Full well the busy whisper, circling round,
Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned ;
Yet was he kind, or, if severe in aught,
The love he bore to learning was in fault.
216 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
The French have long been acknowledged to
have much bravery: a great part of Europe has
owned their superiority in this respect ; and I
know scarcely any country but that which has
beaten them that dares assert the contrary.
Slaves cannot breathe in England : if their lungs
Receive our air, that moment they are free ;
They touch our country, and their shackles fall.
The alms of the settlement in this dreadful
exigency were certainly liberal, and all was
done by charity that private charity could do :
but it was a people in beggary ; it was a nation
which stretched out its hands for food.
Who steals my purse steals trash: 'tis something, nothing;
Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands j
But he that filches from me my good name,
Robs me of that which not enriches him,
And makes me poor indeed.
FINIS.
PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH.
EDUCATIONAL WOEKS
PUBLISHED BY
OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH;
SOLD ALSO BY
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO., LONDON.
A Specimen Copy of any work will be sent to Principals of Schools^
post free, on receipt of one lialftlie retail price in postage stamps.
OLIVER AND BOYD'S NEW CODE CLASS-BOOKS, page 4.
English Beading, Grammar, etc.
Armstrong's Eng. Composition.P. 7
Eng. Etymology 7
Col ville's NewCode Reading-Books 4
Connon's English Grammar 6
First Spelling-Book 6
Dalgleish's English Grammars... 6
Gram. Analysis 6
Eng. Composition 6
Demaus's Paradise Lost 8
Analysis of Sentences.. 8
Douglas's English Grammars 5
Progressive Eng. Reader 5
Selections for Recitation 5
Spelling and Dictation. 5
English Etymology 5
Ewing's Elocution 8
Fisher's Assembly's Catechism... 8
Lennie's English Grammar 6
M'Culloch's Reading-Books 3
English Grammar.... 3
M'Dowall's Rhetorical Readings.. 8
Milieu's English Grammar 8
Morell's Poetical Reading-Book... 7
Pryde's Studies in Composition... 7
Reid's English Grammar 7
English Composition 7
English Dictionary 7
Sess. School Etymological Guide.. 8
Old & New Test. Biographies 8
Shakspeare's Richard II 5
Spalding's English Literature 7
White's English Grammar 8
Wordsworth's Excursion 5
Object-Lessons.
On the Vegetable Kingdom 8
Ross's How to Train Eyes and Ears 8
Geography and Astronomy.
Clyde's School Geography P. 9
Elementary Geography .. 9
Douglas's Introductory Geogy 10
Progressive Geogy 10
Text-Book of Geogy 10
Edin. Acad. Modern Geography ..11
Ancient Geography. .11
Ewing's Geography 11
Atlas 11
Lawson'a Geog. of British Empire 10
New Code Geographies 4
Physical Geography.... 4
Murphy's Bible Atlas 11
Reid's First Book of Geography.. 10
Modern Geography ."...10
Sacred Geography 10
Atlases 11
Reid's (Hugo) Elements of Astro-
nomy 11
Phys. Geography.. 11
Stewart's Modern Geography 9
White's Abstract of Geography... 9
System of Geography.... 9
Atlas 11
School Songs.
Hunter's Books on Vocal Music... 17
School Psalmody 17
Household Economy.
Gordon's Household Economy 8
History.
Corkran's History of England 12
Simpson's Scotland 13
Goldsmith's England..l3
Greece ....13
Rome 13
INDEX.
Ty tier's General History P. 13
Watt's Scripture History 13
White's Universal History 12, 13
England for Jun. Classes 12
History of France 12
Great Britain and Ireland 12
Sacred History 13
Histories of Scotland 12
History of Rome 13
Writing, Arithmetic, eto.
Cray's Arithmetic 15
Hutton's Arithmetic, etc 15
Ingrain's Principles of Arithmetic 15
Maclaren's Arithmetic 16
Book-keeping 16
Melrose's Arithmetic 15
Scott's Arithmetical Works 16
..« Copy Books & Copy Lines..l6
Smith's Arithmetical Works 14
Stewart's Arithmetical Works 15
Tsotter's Arithmetical Works..l4, 15
New Code Arithmetic... 4
Hutton's Book-keeping. 15
Gaelic.
Forbes' s Gaelic Grammar 16
Mathematics, eto.
Ingrain's System of Mathematics..l6
Mensuration, by Trotter 16
Trotter's Key to Ingram's Mathe-
matics 16
Manual of Logarithms.. .16
Ingram's Euclid 16
Algebra 16
Nicol's Sciences 17
French.
Beljame's French Grammar, etc. ..20
Caron's First French Class-Book ..20
First French Reading- Book.. 20
French Grammar 20
Chambaud's Fables Choisies IS
Christison's French Grammar 20
Fables et Contes Choisis 20
Fleury's History of France. .20
French New Testament 18
Gibson's Le Petit Fablier 18
Hallard's French Grammar 20
Schneider's First French Course. ..18
Conversation- Grammar.18
French Reader 18
French Manual 18
ficrin Litte*raire 18
Surenne's Dictionaries P. 19
New French Manual, etc... 19
New French Dialogues 19
French Classics 19,20
French Reading Instructor 20
Wolski's French Extracts tt>
French Grammar 20
Latin and Greek.
Ainsworth's Latin Dictionary 23
Cicero's Orationes Selectee 24
Cato Major, De Officiis....24
Clyde's Greek Syntax 21
Dymock's Csesar and Sallus.t 22
Edin. Academy Class-Books : —
Rudiments of Latin Language... 21
Latin Delectus 21
Rudiments of Greek Language. ..21
Greek Extracts 21
Cicer6nis Opera Selecta 21
Selecta e Poetis 21
Ferguson's(Prof.)Gram. Exercises 24
.....?. Latin Delectus 24
Ovid's Metamorphoses 24
Fergusson's (Dr) Xenophon's Ana-
basis 23
Greek Gram. Exercises 23
r.. Homer's Iliad, with Vocab. 23
Geddes' (Prof.) Greek Grammar... 21
Greek Testament, by Duncan 23
Hunter's Ruddiman's Rudiments .22
Sallust, Virgil, & Horace 22
Livy, Books 21 to 25 22
Latin Testament, by Beza 23
Macgowan's Latin Lessons 22
Mair's Introduction, by Stewart... 23
Massie's Latin Prose Composition 22
M'Dowall's Csesar and Virgil 22
Melville's Lectiones Selectae 22
Neilson's Eutropius 22
Stewart's Cornelius Nepos 23
Veitch's Homer's Iliad 23
German.
Fischart's New German Reader... 24
Logic.
Port-Royal Logic (Prof. Baynes')24
School Eegisters. /
Pupil's Daily Register of Marks. 17
School Register of Attendance,
Absence, and Fees 17
Geometrical Drawing.
Kennedy's Grade Geometry 17
Messrs Oliver and Boyd were awarded Medals for their Educa-
tional Works by Her Majesty's Commissioners of the London
International Exhibition, and by the Jurors of the Paris Uni-
versal Exhibition.
EDUCATIONAL WOBKS.
ENGLISH BEADING, GEAMMAE, ETO.
IN the initiatory department of instruction a valuable series of works has
been prepared by DR M'CULLOCH, formerly Head Master of the Circus-
Place School, Edinburgh, now Minister of the West Church, Greenock.
DR M'CULLOCH'S SERIES OF CLASS-BOOKS.
These Books are intended for the use of Schools where the general
raental culture of the pupil, as well as his proficiency in the art of reading-,
is studiously and systematically aimed at.
They form, collectively, a progressional Series, so constructed and
graduated as to conduct the pupil, by regular stages, from the elementary
sounds of the language to its highest and most complex forms of speech ;
and each separate Book is also progressively arranged, — the lessons which
are more easily read and understood always taking the lead, and preparing
the way for those of greater difficulty.
The subject-matter of the Books is purposely miscellaneous. Yet it is
always of a character to excite the interest and enlarge the knowledge of
the reader. And with the design of more effectually promoting his mental
growth and nurture, the various topics are introduced in an order con-
formable to that in which the chief faculties of the juvenile mind are
usually developed.
That the moral feelings of the pupil may not be without their proper
stimulus and nutriment, the lessons are pervaded throughout by the
religious and Christian element.
DR M'CULLOCH'S READING-BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS.
FIRST READING-BOOK, Ijd.
Do. Large Type Edition, in two parts, price 2d. each.
Do. In a Series of Sheets for Hanging on the Wall, Is. ;
or on Roller, Is. 8d.
SECOND HEADING-BOOK, 3cl.
THIRD READING-BOOK, containing simple Pieces in
Prose and Verse, with Exercises. Now Printed in Larger Type, 1 Od.
FOURTH READING-BOOK, containing only Lessons
likely to interest. With SYNOPSIS OF SPELLING, ... Is. 6d.
SERIES OF LESSONS in Prose and Verse, .... 2s.
COURSE OF ELEMENTARY READING in SCIENCE
and LITERATURE, compiled from popular Writers, 39 Woodcuts, 3s.
MANUAL OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Philosophical
and Practical ; with Exercises ; adapted to the Analytical mode
of Tuition, Is 6d.
Oliver & BoycTs New Code Class-Books.
STANDARD READING-BOOKS,
r.y JAMKS COLVILLE, M. A., English Master, Glasgow Accademy ; late Eng-
lish Master, George Watson's College-Schools, Lauriston, Edinburgh,
one of the Educational Institutions of the Merchant Company.
PRIMER: Being Spelling and Reading Lessons Introductory
to Standard I. (Illustrated.) 36 pages. l£d.
FIRST STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Easy Lessons
in Script. (Illustrated.) 95 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 6d. cloth.
SECOND STANDARD READING-BOOK ; with Dictation Exer-
cises, partly in Script. (Illustrated.) 108 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper,
or 6d. cloth.
THIRD STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Dictation Exer-
cises, partly in Script. 144 pages, strongly bound. 8d.
*#* The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Standard Reading-Books,
completing the Series, will shortly be published.
2.
ARITHMETIC,
By ALEX. TROTTER, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh ;
Author of "Arithmetic for Advanced Classes," etc.
PART I., embracing Standards 1 and 2. 36 pages. 2d.— Answers, 3d.
„ II., embracing Standards 3 and 4. 36 pages. 2d. — Answers, 3d.
„ III., embracing Standards 5 and 6.
3.
STANDARD GEOGRAPHIES,
By W. LAWSON, F.R.G.S., St Mark's College, Chelsea; Author of
" Geography of the British Empire," etc.
GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER, embracing an Outline of the Chief
Divisions of the World. Adapted to Standard IV. 36 pages. 2d.
GEOGRAPHY of ENGLAND and WALES ; with a Chapter on
Railways. Adapted to Standard V. 36 pages. 2d.
GEOGRAPHY of SCOTLAND and IRELAND; with Notes
on Railways. 36 pages. 2d.
GEOGRAPHY of EUROPE. Adapted to Standard VI. 48 pp. 3d.
4.
LAWSON' S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Adapted to the Requirements of the New Code. 90 pages. 6d.
ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC. 5
The following Works, included in the present Catalogue, will also "be found
adapted to the Requirements of the New Code : —
REID'S RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, with 36
pages of information on Counties and Railways, . Catalogue, p. 10
DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY, a New Work, . . 10
LENNIE'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, ... 6
DOUGLAS'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, ... 5
REID'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, .... 7
HUNTER'S SCHOOL SONGS, with Music, 17
THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR; with a
Series of Progressive Exercises, and a Supplementary Treatise on
Analysis of Sentences. By Dr JAMES DOUGLAS, lately Teacher of
English, Great King Street, Edinburgh. Is. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S INITIATORY GRAMMAR, for JUNIOR
CLASSES. Printed in larger type, and containing a Supplementary
Treatise on Analysis of Sentences. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH READER.
A New Series of English Reading-Books. The Earlier Books are illus-
trated with numerous Engravings.
FIRST BOOK. 2d. I THIRD BOOK. Is. I FIFTH BOOK. 2s.
SECOND BOOK. 4d. | FOURTH BOOK. Is. 6d. | SIXTH BOOK. 2s. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S SELECTIONS FOR RECITATION, with
Introductory and Explanatory Notes; for Schools. Is. 6d.
DOUGLAS'S SPELLING AND DICTATION EXERCISES.
144 pages, price Is.
Athenceum. — "A good practical book, from which correct spelling and
pronunciation may be acquired."
DOUGLAS'S ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY: A Text-Book of
Derivatives, with numerous Exercises. 168 pages, price 2s.
Scotsman. — " An especially excellent book of derivatives."
SHAKESPEARE'S KING RICHARD II, With Historical
and Critical Introductions; Grammatical, Philological, and other Notes,
etc. Adapted for Training Colleges. By Rev. Canon ROBINSON, M.A.,
late Principal of the Diocesan Training College, York. 2s.
WORDSWORTH'S EXCURSION. THE WANDERER.
With Notes to aid in Analysis and Paraphrasing. By Canon ROBINSON.
8d.
6 ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC.
LENNIE'S PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Comprising the Substance of all the most approved English Grammars,
briefly defined, and neatly arranged ; with Copious Exercises in Parsing
and Syntax. New Edition ; with the author's latest improvements, and
an Appendix in which Analysis of Sentences is fully treated. Is. 6d.
THE AUTHOR'S KEY, containing, besides Additional Exer-
cises in Parsing and Syntax, many useful Critical Remarks, Hints, and
Observations, and explicit and detailed instructions as to the best method
of teaching Grammar. 3s. 6d.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES: Being the Appendix to
Lennie's Grammar adapted for General Use. Price 3d.— KEY, 6d.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND ANALYSIS,
for ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, with EXERCISES. By WALTER SCOTT DAL-
GLEISH, M.A. Edin., lately one of the Masters in the London Interna-
tional College. 8d. KEY, Is.
DALGLEISH'S PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
with EXERCISES. 2s. KEY, 2s. 6d.
From Dr JOSEPH Bos WORTH, Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University
of Oxford; Author of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, etc., etc.
" Quite a practical work, and contains a vast quantity of important in-
formation, well arranged, and brought up to the present improved state of
philology. 1 have never seen so much matter brought together in so short
a space."
DALGLEISH'S GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS, with PRO-
GRESSIVE EXERCISES. 9d. KEY, 2s.
DALGLEISH'S OUTLINES OF ENGLISH COMPOSI-
TION, for ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, with EXERCISES. 6d. KEY, 4d.
DALGLEISH'S INTRODUCTORY TEXT-BOOK OF
ENGLISH COMPOSITION, based on GRAMMATICAL SYNTHESIS; con-
taining Sentences, Paragraphs, and Short Essays. Is.
DALGLEISH'S ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH
COMPOSITION, treating of Style, Prose Themes, and Versification.
2s. Both Books bound together, 2s. 6d. KEY, 2s. 6d.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, founded on the Philosophy of
Language and the Practice of the best Authors. With Copious Exer-
cises, Constructive and Analytical. By C. W. CONNON, LL.D. 2s. 6d.
Spectator— " It exhibits great ability, combining practical skill with
philosophical views."
CONNON'S FIRST SPELLING-BOOK. 64
ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC. 7
A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, con-
taining the Pronunciation, Etymology, and Explanation of all Words
authorized by Eminent Writers. By ALEXANDER REID, LL.D., late
Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution. Reduced to 5s.
DR REID'S RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Greatly improved. Copious Exercises have been introduced throughout ;
together with a new Chapter on the Analysis of Sentences ; while the
whole work has been revised and printed in a larger type. 6d.
DR REID'S RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION,
with Copious Exercises. 2s. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged.
The work has been entirely remodelled. It now includes Systematic
Exercises in Sentence-making. A distinct division has been devoted to
the Structure of Paragraphs. The sections on Descriptive and Narrative
Essays have been entirely rewritten.
KEY TO THE IMPROVED EDITION, including Directions for
teaching the Work. 2s. 6d.
HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE; with an
OUTLINE of the ORIGIN and GROWTH of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Illus-
trated by EXTRACTS. For Schools and Private STUDENTS. By WILLIAM
SPALDING, A.M., Professor of Logic, Rhetoric, and Metaphysics, in the
University of St Andrews. Continued to 1870. 3s. 6d.
Spectator. — " A compilation and text-book of a very superior kind. . .
The volume is the best introduction to the subject we have met with."
POETICAL READING-BOOK; with Aids for Grammatical
Analysis, Paraphrase, and Criticism ; and an Appendix on English
Versification. By J. D. Morell, A.M., LL.D., Author of Grammar of
the English Language, etc.; and W. IHNE, Ph.D. 2s. 6d.
STUDIES IN COMPOSITION : A Text-Book for Advanced
Classes. By DAVID PRYDE, M.A., Head-Master of the Edinburgh
Merchant Company's Educational Institution for Young Ladies. 2s-
Eecently published.
ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.
By ROBERT ARMSTRONG, Madras College, St Andrews; and THOMAS
ARMSTRONG, Heriot Foundation School, Edinburgh. Part I., Is. 6d.
Part II., 2s. Both Parts bound together, 3s. KEY, 2s.
ARMSTRONG'S ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 2s.
ARMSTRONG'S ETYMOLOGY for JUNIOR CLASSES. 4d.
ENGLISH READING, GRAMMAR, ETC.
SELECTIONS FROM PARADISE LOST; with NOTFS
adapted for Elementary Schools, by Rev. ROBERT DEMAUS, M.A., late of
the West End Academy, Aberdeen. Is. 6d.
DEMAUS'S ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 3d.
SWING'S PRINCIPLES OF ELOCUTION, improved by
F. B. CALVERT, A.M. 3s. 6d.
Consists of numerous rules, observations, and exercises on pronuncia-
tion, pauses, inflections, accent, and emphasis, accompanied with copious
extracts in prose and poetry.
RHETORICAL READINGS FOR SCHOOLS. By WM.
M'DOWALL, late Inspector of the Heriot Schools, Edinburgh. 2s. 6d.
SYSTEM OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR,, and the Principles
of Composition. With Exercises. By JOHN WHITE, F.E.I.S. Is. 6d.
MILLEN'S INITIATORY ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Is.
OBJECT-LESSON CARDS ON THE VEGETABLE
KINGDOM. Set of Twenty in a Box. £1, Is.
HOW TO TRAIN YOUNG EYES AND EARS : Being a
MANUAL of OBJECT-LESSONS for PARENTS and TEACHERS. By MARY
AXNE Ross, Mistress of the Church of Scotland Normal Infant School,
Edinburgh. Is. 6d.
HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY: A MANUAL intended for Female
Training Colleges, and the Senior Class of Girls' Schools. By MAR-
GARET MARIA GORDON (Miss Brewster), Author of "Work, or Plenty to
do and how to do it," etc. 2s.
Athenceum. — "Written in a plain, genial, attractive manner, and consti-
tuting, in the best sense of the word, a practical domestic manual."
SESSIONAL SCHOOL BOOKS.
ETYMOLOGICAL GUIDE. 2s. 6d.
This is a collection, alphabetically arranged, of the principal roots>
affixes, and prefixes, with their derivatives and compounds.
OLD TESTAMENT BIOGRAPHY, containing notices of
the chief persons in Holy Scripture, in the form of Questions, with
references to Scripture for the Answers. 6d.
NEW TESTAMENT BIOGRAPHY, on the same Plan, 6d.
FISHER'S ASSEMBLY'S SHORTER CATECHISM EX-
PLAINED. 2s.
PART I. Of what Man is to believe concerning God.
II. Of what duty God requires of Man.
GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.
GEOGRAPHY AND ASTKQNOMY,
IN compiling the works on these subjects, the utmost possible care has
been taken to ensure clearness and accuracy of statement. Each edition
is scrupulously revised as it passes through the press, so that the works
may be confidently relied on as containing the latest information accessible
at the time of publication.
A COMPENDIUM OP MODERN GEOGRAPHY, POLITICAL,
PHYSICAL, and MATHEMATICAL : With a Chapter on the Ancient Geog-
raphy of Palestine, Outlines of Astronomy and of Geology, a Glossary
of Geographical Names, Descriptive and Pronouncing Tables, Questions
for Examination, etc. By the Rev. ALEX. STEWART, LL.D. Carefully
Revised. With 11 Maps. 3s. 6d.
SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. By JAMES CLYDE M.A., LL.D.,
one of the Classical Masters of the Edinburgh Academy. With special
Chapters on Mathematical and Physical Geography, and Technological
Appendix. Corrected throughout. 4s.
Athenaum. — " We have been struck with the ability and value of this
work, which is a great advance upon previous Geographic Manuals. . . .
Almost for the first time, we have here met with a School Geography
that is quite a readable book, — one that, being intended for advanced
pupils, is well adapted to make them study the subject with a degree of
interest they have never yet felt in it. ... Students preparing for
the recently instituted University and Civil Service Examinations will
find this their best guide."
DR CLYDE'S ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. Corrected
throughout. Is. 6d.
An Appendix on Sacred Geography has now been added, which will be
found amply sufficient for ordinary uses. Fresh interest has been given
to many old names by the mention of quite modern facts connected with
the corresponding places.
AN ABSTRACT OF GENERAL GEOGRAPHY, compre-
hending a more minute Description of the British Empire, and of Pales-
tine or the Holy Land, etc. With numerous Exercises. For Junior
Classes. By JOHN WHITE, F.E.I.S., late Teacher, Edinburgh. Carefully
Revised. Is. ; or with Four Maps, Is. 3d.
WHITE'S SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY; with
Outlines of ASTRONOMY and PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ; comprehending an
Account of the Principal Towns, Climate, Soil, Productions, Religion,
Education, Government, and Population of the various Countries. With
a Compendium of Sacred Geography, Problems on the Globes, Exercises,
etc. Carefully Revised. 2s. 6d. ; or with Four Maps, 2s. 9d.
10 GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.
RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. By ALEX.
REID, LL.D., late Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution. With
Plates and Map of the World. Carefully Revised. Is.; or with Five
Maps, Is. 3d. Enlarged by 36 pages of extra information regarding the
Counties and principal Railways of the United Kingdom.
The names of places are accented, and accompanied with short descrip-
tions, and occasionally with the mention of some remarkable event. To
the several countries are appended notices of their physical geography,
productions, government, and religion ; concluding with an outline of
sacred geography, problems on the use of the globes, and directions for
the construction of maps.
FIRST BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY: Being an Abridgment
of Dr Reid's Rudiments of Modern Geography. With an Outline of the
Geography of Palestine. Carefully Revised. 6d.
This work has been prepai'ed for the use of young pupils. It is a suit-
able and useful companion to Dr Reid's Introductory Atlas.
DR REID'S OUTLINES OF SACRED GEOGRAPHY. 6d.
This little work is a manual of Scripture Geography for young persons.
It is designed to communicate such a knowledge of the places mentioned
in holy writ as will enable children more clearly to understand the sacred
narrative. It contains references to the passages of Scripture in which
the most remarkable places are mentioned, notes chiefly historical and
descriptive, and a Map of the Holy Land in provinces and tribes.
AN INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY, for Junior Pupils.
By Dr JAMES DOUGLAS, lately Teacher of English, Great King Street,
Edinburgh. Carefully Revised. 6d.
DR DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. An
entirely new work, showing the recent changes on the Continent and
elsewhere, and embracing much Historical and other Information. 160
pages, Is. Carefully Revised.
DR DOUGLAS'S TEXT-BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY, con-
taining the PHYSICAL and POLITICAL GEOGBAPHY or all the Countries of
the Globe. Systematically arranged. 2s. 6cl. ; or with ten Coloured
Maps, 3s. Carefully Revised.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. By WILLIAM
LAWSON, St Mark's College, Chelsea. Carefully Revised. 3s.
PART I. Outlines of Mathematical and Physical Geography. II. Phy-
sical, Political, and Commercial Geography of the British Islands.
III. Physical, Political, and Commercial Geography of the British
Colonies.
LAWSON'S STANDARD AND PHYSICAL GEOG-
RAPHIES, adapted to the requirements of the New Code. See Catalogue,
page 4.
GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY. 11
EDINBURGH ACADEMY MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
Carefully Revised. 2s. 6d.
EDINBURGH ACADEMY ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 3s.
SWING'S SYSTEM OF GEOGRAPHY. Carefully Revised.
4s. 6d. ; with 14 Maps, 6s.
Besides a complete treatise on the science of geography, this work
contains the elements of astronomy and of physical geography, and a
variety of problems to be solved by the terrestrial and celestial globes.
At the end is a pronouncing Vocabulary, in the form of a gazetteer, con-
taining the names of all the places in the work.
ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY; adapted for Private
Instruction and Use of Schools. By Hugo Reid, Member of the College
of Preceptors. With 65 Wood Engravings. 3s.
REID'S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY;
with Outlines of GEOLOGY, MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY, and ASTRON-
OMY, and Questions for Examination. With numerous Illustrations,
and a large coloured Physical Chart of the Globe, is.
SCHOOL ATLASES.
A GENERAL ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY ; 29
Maps, Coloured. By THOMAS EWIKG. 7s. 6d.
WHITE'S ELEMENTARY ATLAS OF MODERN GEO-
GRAPHY. 4to, 10 Maps, Coloured. 2s. 6d.
CONTENTS.— 1. The World; 2. Europe; 3. Asia; 4. Africa; 5. North
America; 6. South America; 7. England; 8. Scotland; 9. Ireland; 10.
Palestine.
A SCHOOL ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 4to,
16 Maps, Coloured. By ALEXANDER REID, LL.D., late Head Master of
the Edinburgh Institution, etc. 5s.
REID'S INTRODUCTORY ATLAS OF MODERN GEO-
GRAPHY. 4to, 10 Maps, Coloured. 2s. 6d.
CONTENTS.— 1. The World; 2. Europe; 3. Asia; 4. Africa; 5. North
America ; 6. South America ; 7. England ; 8. Scotland ; 9. Ireland ; 10.
Palestine.
MURPHY'S BIBLE ATLAS of 24 MAPS, with Historical
Descriptions. Is. 6d. coloured.
Witness. — " We recommend this Atlas to teachers, parents, and indi-
vidual Christians, as a comprehensive and cheap auxiliary to the intelli-
gent reading of the Scriptures."
1 2 HISTORY.
HISTORY,
THE works in this department have been prepared with the greatest care.
They \vill be found to include Class-books for Junior and Senior Classes in
all the branches of History generally taught in the best schools. While
the utmost attention has been paid to accuracy, the narratives have in
every case been rendered as instructive and pleasing as possible, so as to
relieve the study from the tediousiiess of a mere dry detail of facts.
A CONCISE HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN EPOCHS.
By J. F. CORKRAN. With Maps and Genealogical and Chronological
Tables, and comprehensive Questions to each Chapter. New Edition,
with the History continued. 2s. 6d.
The writer has endeavoured to convey a broad and full impression of
the great Epochs, arid to develop with care, but in subordination to the
rest of the narrative, the growth of Law and of the Constitution.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND FOR JUNIOR CLASSES; with
Questions for Examination. Edited by HENRY WHITE, B.A. Trinity
College, Cambridge, M.A. and Ph.D. Heidelberg. Is. 6d.
Athenaeum. — " A cheap and excellent history of England, admirably
adapted for the use of junior classes. The various changes that have
taken place in our constitution are briefly but clearly described. It is
surprising how successfully the editor has not merely avoided the obscurity
which generally accompanies brevity, but invested his narrative with an
interest too often wanting in larger historical works. The information
conveyed is thoroughly sound; and the utility of the book is much
increased by the* addition of examination questions at the end of each
chapter."
HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND; with
an Account of the pi-esent State and Resources of the United Kingdom
and its Colonies. With Questions and a Map. By Dr WHITE. 3s.
Athenaeum. — " A carefully compiled history for the use of schools. The
writer has consulted the more recent authorities: his opinions are liberal,
and on the whole just arid impartial : the succession of events is developed
with clearness, and with more of that picturesque effect which so delights
the young than is common in historical abstracts."
HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FOR JUNIOR CLASSES;
with Questions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. Is. 6d.
HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FOR SENIOR CLASSES;
with Questions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. 3s. 6d.
HISTORY OF FRANCE; with Questions for Examination.
and a Map. Edited by Dr WHITE. 3s. 6d.
Athenceum. — "Dr White is remarkably happy in combining convenient
brevity with sufficiency of information, clearness of exposition, and interest
of detail. He shows great judgment in apportioning to each subject its
due amount of consideration."
OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Edited by Dr
WHITE. 2s.
Spectator.— "Distinct in its arrangement, skilful in its selection of
leading features, close and clear in its narrative."
HISTORY. 13
DR WHITE'S ELEMENTS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY,
On a New and Systematic Plan. In THREE PARTS. Part I. Ancient
History; Part II. History of the Middle Ages; Part III. Modern
History. With a Map of the World. 7s. ; or in Parts, 2s. 6d. each.
This work contains numerous synoptical and other tables, to guide the
researches of the student, with sketches of literature, antiquities, and
manners during each of the great chronological epochs.
OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF ROME; with Ques-
tions for Examination. Edited by Dr WHITE. Is. 6d.
London Review. — "This abridgment is admirably adapted for the use of
schools/— the best book that a teacher could place in the hand of a youthful
student."
SACRED HISTORY, from the Creation of the World to the
Destruction of Jerusalem. With Questions for Examination. Edited by
Dr WHITE. Is. 6d.
ELEMENTS OF GENERAL HISTORY, Ancient and
Modern. To which are added, a Comparative View of Ancient and
Modern Geography, and a Table of Chronology. By ALEX. FRASEB
TYTLER, Lord Woodhouselee, formerly Professor of History in the
University of Edinburgh. New Edition, with the History continued.
With two large Maps, etc. 3s. 6d.
WATTS' CATECHISM OF SCRIPTURE HISTORY, and
of the Condition of the Jews from the Close of the Old Testament to the
Time of Christ. With INTRODUCTION by W. K. TWEEDIE, D.D. 2s.
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14
WRITING, ARITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING.
WHITING, ARITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING.
THIS section will be found to contain works in extensive use in many of the
best schools in the United Kingdom. The successive editions have been
carefully revised and amended.
ARITHMETIC ADAPTED TO THE NEW CODE, in
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PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC FOR JUNIOR CLASSES.
By HENRY G. C. SMITH, Teacher of Arithmetic and Mathematics ia
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From the Rev. PHILIP KELLAND, A.M., F.R.SS. L. & E., late Fettow oj
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" I am glad to learn that Mr Smith's Manual for Junior Classes, the MS.
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the Illustrative Processes which he has exhibited may prove as efficient in
other hands as they have proved in his own, I have great pleasure in
recommending the work, being satisfied that a better Arithmetician and a
more judicious Teacher than Mr Smith is not to be found."
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LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC FOR ADVANCED CLASSES;
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Containing Vulgar and Decimal Fractions; Simple and Compound
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Involution and Evolution, etc. By ALEXANDER TROTTER. New Edition,
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WRITING, ARITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING. 15
A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF ARITHMETIC, Theoretical
and Practical ; containing the Fundamental Rules, and their Application
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and Evolution; Series; Annuities, Certain and Contingent. By Mr
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ifiGRAM'S PRINCIPLES OF ARITHMETIC, and their
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MUSIC, DRAWING, SCHOOL REGISTERS. 17
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CLASS-BOOKS BY CHAS. HENRI SCHNEIDER, F.E.I.S., M.C.P.,
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LATIN AND GREEK. 21
EDINBURGH ACADEMY CLASS-BOOKS.
THE acknowledged merit of these school-books, and the high reputation of
the seminary from vr hich they emanate, almost supersede the necessity
of any recommendation. The "Latin" and "Greek Rudiments" form an
introduction to these languages at once simple, perspicuous, and compre-
hensive. The "Latin Rudiments" contain an ^Appendix, which renders
the use of a separate work on Grammar quite unnecessary; and the list of
anomalous verbs in the " Greek Rudiments " is believed to be more extensive
and complete than any that has yet appeared in School Grammars of the
language. In the " Latin Delectus " and " Greek Extracts " the sentences
have been arranged strictly on the progressive principle, increasing in
difficulty with the advancement of the Pupil's knowledge; while the
Vocabularies contain an explanation not only of every word, but also of
every difficult expression which is found in the works, — thus rendering the
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GREEK SYNTAX ; with a Rationale of the Constructions, by
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GREEK GRAMMAR for the Use of Colleges and' Schools.
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22 LATIN AND GREEK.
DR HUNTER'S CLASSICS,
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LATIN AND GREEK. 23
MAIR'S INTRODUCTION TO LATIN SYNTAX: with
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24 LATIN AND GREEK,
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G E E M A N,
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OCT 34 1946
APR 15 '64 -12
YA 00308
Published by Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh,
15.
RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, with an
Outline of Sacred Geography, and Directions for the Construction of
Maps. By ALEX. REID, LL.D. Enlarged Edition, 180 pages, Is. ; or
with 5 Maps, Is. 3d.
The Names of Places are accented, and accompanied wtyh short
descriptions, and occasionally with the mention of some remarkable
event. To the several Countries are appended notices of their Phy-
sical Geography, Productions, Government, and Religion.
This Edition has been thoroughly revised and enlarged by 36 pages oj
extra information regarding the Counties and Principal Railways of the
United Kingdom.
16.
RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION;
signed as a Practical Introduction to Correctness and Perspicj
Writing, and to the Study of Criticism: with copious :
For the use of Schools. By ALEX. REID, LL.D., late I
of the Edinburgh Institution. 18th Edition, thoro/
and Enlarged. Price 2s.
The work has been entirely remodelled. It now
Exercises in Sentence-making. A distinct division 1
Structure of Paragraphs. The sections on De
Essays have been entirely rewritten.
KEY TO THE IMPROVED EDITI£
tions for teaching the Work. Price 2s. 6d. .
REID'S RUDIMENTS
72 pages, price 6d. Eemodellei
Copious Exercises have bee
treating of the Analysis of ~
while the whole work^ h^
grammatical knowte
HISTORY//
r
a tax ;
tate of
Period to
. For Schools and
-*t B.A., Author of a
,"etc. 3s. 6d.
%.* . „/ je has been carefully revised
and brought dotvn : wliiie ine cewci m«»< </ chapter on the Intellectual
Progress of France has been entirely rewritten, with the view of making
it a more practical guide to the young student through the extensive fields
of French literature.
%* A Specimen Copy of any one or more of the above will
be sent to Principals of Schools, post-free, by Oliver and
Boyd, on receiving half the retail price in stamps.
4
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